text: E iszeita Iter und Gegenwart Quaternary Science Journal *w\! m Vol. 61 No 2 2012 RIVERS, LAKES AND PEATLANDS [NE Germany] YOUNGER MIDDLE TERRACE, HOXTER/WESER [Germany] LAVRADO REGION, RORAIMA [Brazil] TERNA RIVER BASIN [India] KEMEL HEATH, SOUTHERN RHENISH MASSIF [Germany] Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart Quaternary Science Journal Volume 61 / Number 2 / 2012 / DQI: 10.3285/eg.61.2 / ISSN 0424-7116 / www.quaternary-science.net / Founded in 1951 EDITOR DEUQUA Deutsche Quartarvereinigung e.V. Office Stilleweg 2 D-30655 Hannover Germany Tel; +49 (0)511-643 3B 13 E-Mail: info (at) deuqua.de www.deuqua.org PRODUCTION EDITOR SABINE HELMS Geozon Science Media Postfach 3245 D-17462 Greifswald Germany Tel. +49 [0)3834-80 14 60 E-Mail: helms [at] geozon.net www.geozon.net EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HOLGERFREUND ICBM - Geoecology Carl-von-Ossietzky Universitat Oldenburg Schleusenstr. 1 D-26382 Wilhelmshaven Germany Tel.: +49 [0)4421-94 42 00 Fax: +49 [0)4421-94 42 99 E-Mail: holger.freund [at] uni-oldenburg.de ASSOCIATE EDITORS PIERRE ANTOINE, Laboratoire de Geographic Physique, Universite Paris i Pantheon- Sorbonne, France MARKUS FUCHS, Department of Geography, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Germany RALF-DIETRICH KAHLKE, Senckenberg Research Institute, Research Station of Quaternary Palaeontology Weimar, Germany THOMAS LITT, Steinmann-lnstitute of Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology, University of Bonn, Germany LESZEK MARKS, Institute of Geology, University of Warsaw, Poland HENK J. T. WEERTS, Physical Geography Group, Cultural Heritage Agency Amersfoort, The Netherlands FORMER EDITORS-IN-CHIEF PAUL WOLDSTEDT [1951-1966] MARTIN SCHWARZBACH [1963-1966] ERNST SCHONHALS [1968-1978] REINHOLD HUCKRIEDE [1968-1978] HANS DIETRICH LANG [1980-1990] JOSEF KLOSTERMANN [1991-1999] WOLFGANG SCHIRMER [2000] ERNST BRUNOTTE [2001-2005] ADVISORY EDITORIAL BOARD FLAVIO ANSELMETTI, Department of Surface Waters, Eawag [Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science & Technology], Dubendorf, Switzerland KARL-ERNST BEHRE, Lower Saxonian Institute of Historical Coastal Research, Wilhelmshaven, Germany PHILIP GIBBARD, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Great Britain VOLLI E. KALM, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Estonia CESARE RAVAZZI, Institute for the Dynamics of Environmental Processes, National Research Council of Italy, Italy JAMES ROSE, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway University of London, Great Britain CHRISTIAN SCHLUCHTER, Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland DIRK VAN HUSEN, Altmunster, Austria JEF VANDENBERGHE, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands ANDREAS VOTT Institute of Geography, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat Mainz, Germany AIMS 6 SCOPE The Quaternary Science Journal publishes original articles of quaternary geology, geography, palaeontology, soil science, archaeology, climatology etc.; special issues with main topics and articles of lectures of several scientific events. MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION Please upload your manuscript at the on- line submission system at ourjournal site www.quaternary-science.net. Please note the instructions for authors before FREQUENCY 2 numbers per year SUBSCRIPTION Free for DEUQUA-Members! Prices for stand- ing order: single number 27,- Euro; double number 54,- Euro; plus shipping costs. We offer discounts for libraries and bookstores. Please subscribe to the journal at the pub- lisher Geozon Science Media. JOURNAL EXCHANGE If you are interested in exchange your journa with the Quaternary Science Journal, please contact: Universitatsbibliothek Halle Tauschstelle, Frau Winther August-Bebel-Strafie 13 D-0B108 Halle [Saale], Germany Tel. +19(0)315-55 22 183 E-Mail: tausch [at] bibliothek.uni-halle.de REORDER Reorders are possible at the publishing house. See full list and special prices of available numbers on next to last page. PUBLISHING HOUSE Geozon Science Media UG [haftungsbeschra nkt] Postfach 3215 D-17162 Greifswald Germany Tel. +49[D]3834-B0 14 8D E-Mail: info [at] geozon.net www.geozon.net PRINT Printed in Germany on 100% recycled paper climate neutral produced COVER FIGURE Jochen Lepper "Temporary outcrop of Nachtigall 1 Interglacial" RIGHTS Copyright for articles by the authors LICENSE Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 http://creativecommons.Org/licenses/by/3.0/ E&G Quaternary Science Journal Volume 61 / Number 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / DOI lG.3285/eg.61.2.Dl www.quaternary-science.net GEOZON SCIENCE MEDIA ISSN 0424-7116 Late Quaternary evolution of rivers, lakes and peatlands in northeast Germany reflecting past climatic and human impact - an overview Knut Kaiser, Sebastian Lorenz, Sonja Germer, Olaf Juschus, Mathias Kuster, Judy Libra, Oliver Bens, Reinhard F. Huttl How to cite: Abstract: Kurzfassung: Keywords: Kaiser, K., Lorenz, S., Germer, S., Juschus, O., Kuster, M., Libra, J., Bens, O. it Huttl, R. F. (2012): Late Quaternary evolution of rivers, lakes and peatlands in northeast Germany reflecting past climatic and human impact - an overview. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 61 (2): 103-132. DOI: 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 Knowledge of regional palaeohydrology is essential for understanding current environmental issues, such as the causes of recent hydrologic changes, impacts of land use strategies and effectiveness of wetland restoration measures. Even the interpretation of model results on future impacts of climatic and land-cover changes may be improved using (pre-)historic analogies. An overview of palaeohydrologic findings of the last c. 20,000 years is given for northeast Germany with its glacial landscapes of different age. River development is examined with a focus on valley(-floor) formation and depositional changes, river course and channel changes, and palaeodischarge/-floods. Major genetic differences exist among 'old morainic' (Elsterian, Saalian) and 'young mo- rainic' (Weichselian) areas, and among topographically high- and low-lying valleys, the latter of which are strongly influenced by water-level changes in the North and Baltic Seas. Lake development was analysed with respect to lake formation, which was pre- dominantly driven by late Pleistocene to early Holocene dead-ice dynamics, and with respect to depositional changes. Furthermore, lake-level changes have been in the focus, showing highly variable local records with some conformity. The overview on peatland development concentrated on phases of mire formation and on long-term groundwater dynamics. Close relationships between the development of rivers, lakes and peatlands existed particularly during the late Holocene by complex paludification processes in large river valleys. Until the late Holocene, regional hydrology was predominantly driven by climatic, geomorphic and non- anthropogenic biotic factors. Since the late Medieval times, human activities have strongly influenced the drainage pattern and the water cycle, for instance, by damming of rivers and lakes, construction of channels and dikes, and peatland cultivation. Indeed, the natural changes caused by long-term climatic and geomorphic processes have been exceeded by impacts resulting from short-term human actions in the last c. 50 years as discharge regulation, hydromelioration and formation of artificial lakes. Die spatquartare Entwicklung von Flussen, Seen und Mooren in Nordostdeutschland als Spiegel klimatischer und anthro- pogener Einflusse - eine Ubersicht Die Kenntnis der regionalen Palaohydrologie ist eine wesentliche Grundlage fur das Verstandnis aktueller Umweltfragen, wie zum Beispiel nach den Griinden von hydrologischen Veranderungen, dem Einfluss von Landnutzungsstrategien und der Wirksamkeit von Renaturierungsvorhaben in Feuchtgebieten. Auch die Interpretation von Modellierungsergebnissen zu den kunftigen Einfliis- sen des Klima- und Landnutzungswandels auf das Gewassersystem kann durch die Einbeziehung (pra-) historischer Analogien verbessert werden. Fur das glazial gepragte nordostdeutsche Tiefland wurde eine Ubersicht der vorliegenden palaohydrologischen Befunde fur den Zeitraum der letzten etwa 20.000 Jahre erarbeitet. Die Entwicklung der Fliisse wurde mit Blick auf die Tal-/Auen- genese und das Ablagerungsmilieu, die Veranderung des Tal- und Gerinneverlaufs sowie den Palaoabfluss bzw. das Palaohochwass- er betrachtet. Wesentliche genetische Unterschiede bestehen zwischen Alt- (Elster- und Saalekaltzeit) und Jungmoranengebieten (Weichselkaltzeit) sowie zwischen hoch und tief gelegenen Talern. Letztere sind stark durch Wasserspiegelveranderungen in der Nord- und Ostsee beeinflusst worden. Die Entwicklung der Seen wurde hinsichtlich der Seebildung, die iiberwiegend eine Folge der spatpleistozanen bis friihholozanen Toteistieftau-Dynamik ist, und der Veranderungen im Ablagerungsmilieu analysiert. Weiterhin standen Seespiegelveranderungen im Fokus, wobei sich hoch variable lokale Befunde mit einigen Obereinstimmungen zeigten. Der Uberblick zur Moorentwicklung konzentrierte sich auf hydrogenetische Moorentwicklungsphasen und auf die langfristige Entwick- lung des Grundwasserspiegels. Enge Beziehungen zwischen der Entwicklung der Fliisse, Seen und Moore bestanden insbesondere im Spatholozan durch komplexe Vermoorungsprozesse in den groflen Flusstalern. Bis in das Spatholozan wurde die regionale Hydrologie iiberwiegend durch klimatische, geomorphologische und nicht-anthropogene biologische Faktoren gesteuert. Seit dem Spatmittelalter wurde in der Region das Gewassernetz und der Wasserkreislauf im starken Mali durch anthropogene Interventionen beeinflusst (z.B. Aufstau von Flussen und Seen, Bau von Kanalen und Deichen, Moorkultivierung). In den letzten etwa 50 Jahren haben dann sogar die kurzfristigen anthropogenen Eingriffe, z.B. in Form von Abflussregulierung, Hydromelioration und kiinstli- cher Seebildung, die Wirksamkeit langfristiger klimatischer und geomorphologischer Prozesse iibertroffen. palaeohydrology, valley formation, depositional change, lake- and groundwater-level fluctuation, mire, late Pleistocene, Holocene Addresses of authors: K. Kaiser', O. Bens, R. F. Huttl, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, D-14473 Potsdam, E-Mail: firstname.lastname@example.com; S. Lorenz, M. Kuster, University of Greifswald, Institute of Geography and Geology, Friedrich-Ludwig- Jahn-Strafie 16, D-17487 Greifswald; S. Germer, J. Libra, Leibniz-Institute for Agricultural Engineering Potsdam-Bornim, Max- Eyth-Allee 100, D-14469 Potsdam; O. Juschus, University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde, Faculty of Landscape Management and Nature Conservation, Alfred-Moller-Strafie 1, D-16225 Eberswalde;' corresponding author E&G /Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012/ 103-132/ DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 103 Contents 104 1 Introduction 107 2 Regional settings 108 3 Principle research questions, concepts and methods used in regional studies 110 4 Results and discussion 110 4.1 Rivers 110 4.1.1 River valley formation and depositional changes 111 4.1.2 Changes in river courses and channels 113 4.1.3 Palaeodischarge and palaeoflood characteristics 114 4.2 Lakes 115 4.2.1 Lake basin development 115 184.108.40.206 Dead-ice dynamics 116 126.96.36.199 Depositional changes 117 4.2.2 Palaeohydrology 117 18.104.22.168 Lake-level changes 119 220.127.116.11 Lake-area and lake-contour changes 119 4.3 Peatlands 119 4.3.1 Peatland formation and groundwater-level changes 119 22.214.171.124 General development 119 22.214.171.124 Peatlands in large river valleys 122 4.3.2 Human impact on peatlands and lakes by mill stowage 123 5 Synopsis 123 5.1 Impact of neotectonic processes 123 5.2 Climate impact 124 5.3 Pre-modern and modern human impact 125 5.4 Final remarks and research perspectives 125 6 Conclusions 125 Acknowledgements 126 References 1 Introduction Global climate change causes regional and local variations in the terrestrial water balance (e.g. Tao et al. 2003, IPCC 2007, Bates et al. 2008, Gerten et al. 2008, Kundzewicz et al. 2008, Huang et al. 2010), influencing the hydrologic, geomorphic and ecologic properties of the regional drain- age system comprised of flowing (rivers, streams) and stag- nant waters (lakes, ponds) as well as peatlands of varying di- mension. An aridification trend, for example, will inevitably cause a reduction (l) in the discharge of rivers by diminish- ing supply, (2) in the size of lakes by level lowering and (3) in the extension of peatlands by groundwater lowering. As hydrologic and climatic research in Europe shows, there are currently distinct changes in water balances with regionally differing trends (e.g. Lehner et al. 2006, BACC Author Team 2008, EEA 2009, Merz et al. 2012). In north- east Germany widely a 'drying' trend prevails, resulting in decreasing groundwater and lake levels as well as river dis- charges (e.g. Gerstengarbe et al. 2003, Kaiser et al. 2010, 2012a, Germer et al. 2011). If this trend continues, a negative influence on ecosystem services, such as the provision of wa- ter for human use and wetland conservation, is to be feared. Undoubtedly, the knowledge of both historic hydrologic (last c. 1000 years) and palaeohydrologic developments can help us to understand the hydrologic system dynamics at present and even in the future (e.g. Branson et al. 1996, Gregory & Benito 2003, Brazdil et al, 2006, Gregory et al. 2006, Czymzik et al. 2010). In particular, the frequency and magnitude of short-term events, such as river floods and droughts, as well as long-term processes, such as lake-level fluctuations, changes in the river's mean annual discharge and its hydromorphologic status can be detected retrospec- tively (e.g. Petts et al. 1989, Berglund et al. 1996a, Har- rison et al. 1998, Brown 2002, Starkel 2005, Baker 2008, Battarbee 2010). Insights gained through such historic analogies can be used to improve the interpretation of mod- elled future impacts of climatic and land-cover changes and, hence, to develop and optimise adaptation strategies. Fur- thermore, information on the pre-modern ecologic status of aquatic landscapes is a precondition for developing restora- tion measures in accordance with the European Union Wa- ter Framework Directive (CEC 2000, Bennion & Battarbee 2007, Zerbe ir Wiegleb 2009). In theory, palaeohydrology is concerned with all compo- nents of the hydrologic cycle. But in practice most research focuses on specific compartments, such as river channels and discharge, lake- and groundwater-level fluctuations, isotope chemistry, or on proxy indicators of past precipitation char- acteristics (Anthony & Wohl 1998, Gregory & Benito 2003). Such knowledge on the palaeohydrology of temperate regions in the world is well-established. Particularly west- ern and central Europe have a long-standing research tra- dition (e.g. Starkel et al. 1991, Gregory 1995, Hagedorn 1995, Vandenberghe 1995a, Starkel 2003, Macklin et al. 2006, Hoffmann et al. 2008). However, stronger integration between the regional findings as well as with related disci- plines is necessary. In northeast Germany, there are well-structured scientific communities dealing with both present-day and future hy- drologic changes (investigated by hydrologists and climate impact researchers) as well as with palaeohydrology (inves- tigated by geoscientists and palaeoecologists). Unfortunate- ly joint investigations by both communities are lacking. In addition, existing palaeohydrologic knowledge is not suffi- ciently being considered in the interpretation of (pre-)recent hydrologic trends and prospective (modelling) purposes. Ob- stacles to the exploitation of hydrologic palaeo-data are the multitude of local case studies, and their prevailing publica- tion in German periodicals and monographs with a regional or national focus. Publications synthesising regional paleo- hydrologic results are rare. This overview offers access on the results of regional palaeohydrologic research over the last c. two decades. The consolidation of findings into one paper will hopefully foster the consideration of (pre-)historic hydrologic changes into the respective discussions, increasing the interpretational power for modelling results. This paper primarily focuses on the evolution of drainage systems during the last c. 20,000 years, spanning the late Pleistocene and the Holocene ep- ochs. The long-term and partly interdependent development of the region's main aquatic inland environments - rivers, lakes and peatlands - will be outlined. For several specific issues (e.g. river valley formation, palaeodischarge charac- teristics, dead-ice dynamics, lake- and groundwater-level changes, peatland formation), the state-of-the-art will be re- ported. 101 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 20 40 60 80 100 km Fig. 1: Hydrography, main glacial structures and study areas/sites with palaeohydrologic findings in northeast Germany (map after BMUNR 2003, adapt- ed). The numbers refer to the study areas/sites presented (see Tab. 1). Abb. 1: Hydrografie, glaziale Hauptstrukturen (Marginalzonen) und Arbeitsgebiete/-orte mit palaohydrologischen Befunden in Nordostdeutschland (Karte nach BMUNR 2003, verdndert). Die Zahlen beziehen sich auf die vorgestellten Arbeitsgebiete/-orte (siehe Tab. 1). EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 105 Tab. 1: Study areas and sites with palaeohydrologic findings in northeast Germany (see Fig. 1). Tab. 1: Arbeitsgebiete und -orte mit paldohydrologischen Befunden in Nordostdeutschland (siehe Abb. 1). No. Study area /site Research field 1 References 1 Lake Pliiner See LB, LL, NT, GA, PL, PE Sirdcko et al. 2002, Dorfler 2009 2 Lower Spree River FM, PD, PE Schulz & Strahl 1997, Schulz 2000, Schonfelder & Steinberg 2004, Hilt etal. 2008 3 Leipzig-Halle area LB, LL, GA, PL, FM, PE, GG, HI Hiller et al. 1991, Mania et al. 1993, Wolf et al. 1994, Mdl 1995, Bottger et al. 1998, Fuhrmann 1999, Tinapp et al. 2000, 2008, Eissmann 2002, Wennrich et al. 2005, Czegka et al. 2008 4 Lower Spree River, lower Spreewald area and Dahme River FM, LB, PE, GG Bottner 1999, Juschus 2002, 2003 5 Darss peninsula, Barthe River and Endinger Bruch basin LB, LL, GA, PL, FM, PT, CE, PE Kaiser 2001, 2004a, de Klerk 2002, Kaiser et al. 2000, 2006, 2007, Lampe2002, Lane etal. 2012 6 Elbe River N of Magdeburg FM, HI Rommel 1998 7 Lower Havel River, Elb-Havel-Winkel and Rhinluch/Havellandisches Luch areas PT, GG, PE, GA, LL, GW, PL, HI Mondel et al. 1983, Kloss 1987a, 1987b, Mundel 1995, 1996, 2002, Schelski 1997, Kuster & Potsch 1998, Rowinsky & Rotter 1999, Godermann 2000, Mathews 2000, Zeitz 2001, Gramsch 2000, Kaffke 2002, Weisse 2003, Schonfelder & Steinberg 2004 8 Berlin area LB, LL, GW, GA, PL, FM, PE, GG, PT, HI Bose & Brande 1986, 2009, Pachor & Roper 1987, Brande 1986, 1988, 1996, Gartner 1993, Schich 1994, Uhlemann 1994, Varlemann 2002, Grunert 2003, Kossler 2010, Neugebaoer et al. 2012 9 Lake Muritz LL, PL, PE, HI Kaiser 1998, Kaiser et al. 2002, Ruchhoft 2002, Lampe et al. 2009 10 Lake Plauer See LL, GA, HI Ruchhoft 2002, Bleile et al. 2006, Bleile 2008 11 Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide area LB, LL, PE, PL, FM, HI Schmidtchen et al. 2003, Lorenz 2003, Rother 2003, Hiibener & Dorfler 2004, Lorenz & Schult 2004, Kaiser et al. 2007, Lorenz 2007, 2008, Lorenz etal. 2010 12 Low-lying river valleys of Vorpommern [e.g. Recknitz, Peene and Uecker River] FM, LB, LL, GW, PE, GG, CE, PT, GA, HI Kaiser & Janke 1998, Helbig 1999, Kaiser et al. 2000, 2003, Michaelis 2000, Schatz 2000, Helbig & de Klerk 2002, Janke 2002, 2004, de Klerk 2004, Kaiser 2004b, Berg 2005, Krienke et al. 2006, Michaelis & Joosten 2010, Jantzen et al. 2011, Kuster et al. 2011 13 Upper Spreewald and Cottbus areas FM, GA, GG, PE, PT, HI Kuhner et al. 1999, Neubauer-Saurer 1999, Rolland & Arnold 2002, Woithe 2003, Poppschotz & Strahl 2004, Brande et al. 2007 14 Headwaters of Havel River LB, LL, PE, PL, FM, HI Kaiser & Zimmermann 1994, Kuster 2009, Kuster & Kaiser 2010, Kuster et al. 2012 15 Lower Elbe River at Lenzen FM, HI, GA Schwartz 1999, Schatz 2011 16 Lower Oder River, Oderbruch area, Stettiner Haff [Szczecin Lagoon], Eberswalder Urstromtal [spillway] FM, GG, PL, PE, CE, PT, PD, HI Dobracka 1983, Brose 1994, 1998, Schlaak et al. 2003, Borowka et al. 2005, Carls 2005, Dalchow & Kiesel 2005, Schlaak 2005, Lotze et al. 2006, BOrner2007 17 Potsdam area, Havel and Nuthe Rivers LB, GW, PL, FM, PE, GG, PT, HI Rowinsky 1995, Weisse et al. 2001, Wolters 2002, 2005, Hickisch 2004, Hickisch & Pazolt 2005, Luder et al. 2006, Kirilova et al. 2009, Enters et al. 2010 18 Biesenthal Basin, upper Finow Stream LB, PE, GG Chrdbok & Nitz 1987, 1995, Nitz et al. 1995 19 Schlaube Stream PL, LB, PE Schonfelder et al. 1999, Brose 2000, Giesecke 2000 20 Kersdorfer Rinne [tunnel valley] LB, GG, PE Schulz & Brose 2000, Schulz & Strahl 2001 21 Wische area [lower Elbe River] FM Caspers 2000 22 Lake Arendsee PL, PE, HI Scharf 1998, Scharf et al. 2009 23 Lake Stechlinsee, Upper Rhin River LB, FM, PL, PE Gartner 2007, Brande 2003, Kaiser et al. 2007 24 Rugen Island and adjacent coastal and land areas LB, GW, NT, GA, PL, PE, GG, PE, GG, CE, PT Kliewe 1989, Strahl & Keding 1996, Helbig 1999, de Klerk et al. 2001, Krienke 2003, Verse 2003, Hoffmann & Barnasch 2005, Hoffmann et al. 2005, de Klerk et al. 2008a, 2008b, Kossler & Strahl 2011 25 Weisser Schops River [Reichwalde area] FM, PT, GW, GA, PE Friedrich et al. 2001, van der Kroft et al. 2002 26 Upper Spree River [Nochten/Scheibe area] FM, GG Mol 1997, Mol et al. 2000, Hiller et al. 2004 27 Usedom Island LB, NT, PL, PE, GG, CE Helbig 1999, Hoffmann et al. 2005 28 Poel Island and adjacent coastal and land areas CE, NT, PE, GA, CE Lampe etal. 2005, 2010 29 Jeetzel River FM, PE, GA Turner 2012 30 Schorfheide area LB, PE, PT Schlaak 1997, Stegmann 2005, van der Linden et al. 2008 1 LB = Lake-basin formation, LL = Lake level, GW = Groundwater level, NT = Neotectonic, GA = Geoarchaeology, PL = Palaeolimnology, FM = Fluvial geomorphology / valley formation, PD = Palaeodischarge, PE = Palaeoecology, GG = Glacial geomorphology / geology, CE = Coastal evolution, PT = Peatland evolution, HI = Human impact on inland waters 106 E&G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Aulhors / Creative Commons Attribution License Chronology Phases of river valley genesis [Marcinek 8- Brose 1972] Phases of (lake-) basin genesis [Nitz1984] Late Holocene [0-4 kyrs BP] Holocene phase influenced by man ['Anthropogen beeinflusste, ho/ozone Phase 'J • strong human influence on the drainage system by channels, weirs, hydro amelioration and agriculture Colluvial phase f'Ko//uviumsphase'J • man-induced filling up of smaller depressions by colluvial sediments [hillwash] Mid-Holocene [4-8 kyrs BP] Natural Holocene phase ['Naturlich ho/ozone Phose'J • weak fluvial erosion and accumulation Aggradation phase f'Verlandungsphose'J • filling up of lake basins gyttja and peat by sedimentation of Early Holocene, Lateglacial [8-13 kyrs BP] Lateglacial Early Holocene transitional phase ['Spatglazial-altholozane Ubergangsphase'J • reversals of flow direction • partly formation of interior drainage • melting of stagnant ice / lake formation • decay of permafrost Deep melting phase f'Ti'eftauphase'J • melting of stagnant ice, formation of [lake] basins • decay of permafrost Late Pleniglacial [20-13 kyrs BP] Fluvial periglacial phase [Tluvioperiglaziare Phase'] • formation of a hierarchic river system on permafrost Conservation phase f'Konserv/erungsphose'J • conservation of stagnant ice by permafrost • sedimentation of periglacial lacustrine, fluvial and aeolian deposits Late Pleniglacial [>20-14kyrsBP] Fluvioglacial Phase [Tluvioglaziare Phase'] • initial ice-marginal drainage, later ice- radial drainage • outwash plain formation Ice-melting phase ['Niedertauphase'] • inclusion / burial of stagnant ice by sediments Formation phase f'Anlogephose'J • formation of depressions by ice exaration and glaciofluvial erosion Tab. 2: Conceptual models of late Quater- nary river valley and lake basin development in northeast Germany. Adapted and modi- fied from Marcinek & Brose (1972) and Nitz (1984). Tab. 2: Konzeptionelle Modelle der spdtquar- tdren Flusstal- und Seebeckenentwicklung in Nordostdeutschland (nach Marcinek & Brose 1972 und Brose 1984, verandert). 2 Regional settings The region northeast Germany is part of the North European Plain, which is bounded by the coasts of the North Sea and Baltic Sea to the north and the German Central Uplands to the south. The surface relief (<200 m a.s.l.) varies from flat to undulating. Several Quaternary glaciations of Scandinavian ice sheets, subsequent periglacial shaping and interglacial processes have formed this area. A multitude of ice termi- nal zones of the Saalian and Weichselian glaciations traverse the region and reflect the glaciation/deglaciation (Fig. 1). The complex glacial and interglacial processes produced a mosa- ic of glacial, fluvial, lacustrine, colluvial, marine and aeolian landforms and sediments. The Weichselian glacial belt ('young morainic area') cov- ers the northern area and comprises landscapes with an im- mature river system that developed following the last degla- ciation (c. 24,000-17,000 cal yrs BP; Bose 2005, Luthgens if Bose 2011). River valleys in that belt are characterised by frequently alternating degradational (erosion) and aggra- dational (accumulation) river stretches, by frequent shifts in direction, by the common presence of lake basins (partly within the valley floors) and by frequent areas with inte- rior drainage. By contrast, the river system of the Elsterian (c. >330 kyrs) and Saalian belts (c. >125 kyrs; 'old morainic areas') is maturated. Major rivers in the region are the Elbe and Oder which drain northeast Germany into the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, respectively. These rivers are character- EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 107 X J Large peatland I — I Large river flood plain J (Elbe and Oder River) National border 100 km t, Ml ><PW -Fig. 2: Distribution of large peatlands and large river floodplains (A) as well of thermoclimatic zones (B) in northeast Germany (after BGR 2007, IfL 2008, adapted). Abb. 2: Verbreitung grofier Moorgebiete und grofier Flussauen (A) sowie thermoklimatischer Zonen (B) in Nordostdeutschland (nach BGR 2007, IfL 2008, verdndert). ised by present-day mean annual discharges in a range of 500-700 m 3 s~\ Several tributaries exist; the most important are the Saale, Havel, Mulde, Spree and Peene (20-120 m 3 s" 1 ; BMUNR 2003). A mainly east-west-oriented network of ca- nals used for inland navigation connects the rivers. The Weichselian belt is characterised by the occurrence of numerous lakes of different size and of different genetic, hydrologic and ecologic type. According to estimations from the adjacent Polish young morainic area, only one-third to half of the former lakes from the late Pleistocene to early Holocene have remained due to aggradation caused by natu- ral and anthropogenic processes (Starkel 2003). By contrast, only a few natural lakes in the Saalian belt occur, but several artificial lakes originating from river damming and lignite opencast mining exist. In northeast Germany the total area of natural lakes amounts to c. 1300 km 2 (Korczynski et al. 2005). In general, the region's natural lakes largely repre- sent 'hollows' located in the first unconfined aquifer. Thus groundwater and lake hydrology are closely connected. In addition, a large area of the region (c. 5800 km 2 ) is cov- ered by peatlands. This term refers to all kinds of drained or undrained areas with a minimal thickness of peat of at least several decimetres (Joosten 2008). Peatlands primarily occur in river valleys and large basins in the Federal States of Meck- lenburg-Vorpommern (2930 km 2 ) and Brandenburg/Berlin (2220 km 2 ; Fig. 2A). Smaller areas are distributed in the low- land parts of Sachsen-Anhalt (580 km 2 ) and Sachsen (70 km 2 ). Groundwater-fed peatlands dominate with c. 99 % versus only 1 % rain-fed peatlands (Couwenberg &r Joosten 2001). The present-day climate of the region (Hendl 1994) is classified as temperate humid with mean annual air temper- atures around 8-9 °C and mean annual precipitation rang- ing from 773 mm a " J (Hamburg) to 565 mm a" 1 (Cottbus). A distinct thermoclimatic gradient exists from northwest to southeast, dividing the region into maritime, sub-maritime and sub-continental parts with decreasing precipitation (Fig. 2B). The driest sites are located at the Saale (Halle/S.) and Oder Rivers (Frankfurt/O.) with a mean annual precipitation of about 450 mm a" 1 . 3 Principle research questions, concepts and methods used in regional studies The main disciplines providing regional palaeohydrologic knowledge (Fig. 1, Tab. 1) are geomorphology, Quaternary geology, palaeobotany and historical sciences. The prin- 108 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Tab. 3: Fades areas of Holocene river valley development in northeast Germany considering geographic location, river valley dimension and valley history (Brose & Prager 1983, adapted). Tab. 3: Faziesgebiete der holozanen Flusstalentwicklung in Nordostdeutschland unter Beriicksichtigung der Lage, der Flusstaldimension und der Talge- schichte (nach Brose & Prager 1983, verdndert). Zone Facies area Example [river] Selected genetic properties Comparing conclusions [cross-zonal] 1 periglacial valley Saale, Mulde ■ state of equilibrium between erosion ■ as most river valleys bottoms in the German [middle and aggradation in the early Holocene [facies zones] are only Uplands reaches] ■ deposition of gravel during Atlantic frequently burying oak stems ■ late Holocene deposition of flood loams and/or erosion initially investigated, comparing conclu- sions are partly of preliminary status ■ after the retreat of II valley bottoms in the Elster, Unstrut ■ erosional phase in the early Holocene loess belt with subsequent deposition of gravel, sand and topping overbankfines ■ mid-Holocene hiatus [soil formation] ■ late Holocene deposition mainly of flood loams the Weichselian ice sheet an erosional phase took place [Lateglacial] affecting the large river valleys up to the uplands ■ erosion / aggradation in northern valleys is mainly controlled by water-level changes in the Baltic Sea and Ilia valley bottoms in the old morainic area between Weichselian maximum and loess belt Spree, Neitee [middle reaches] ■ similar depositional history as in zone II lib valley bottoms in the Havel, Dosse, ■ frequent occurrence of fluvial young morainic area Spree [lower connections of basins [river-lake- North Sea basins. between Weichselian maximum and Pomeranian stage reaches] structures] ■ erosion / aggradation depending from river bed changes of Elbe and Oder [zone IVa] whereas southern valleys are controlled by climatic and [in the late Holocene] by human impact IVa valley bottoms of Elbe, Oder ■ erosional phases during [Pre-?]B0iling large transzonal rivers [lower Oder] and early Holocene [Elbe] ■ widespread deposition occupying several facies ■ early to mid-Holocene deposition of of organic sediments areas gravels and sands [Elbe] and mainly of peat [lower Oder] ■ late Holocene deposition of overbank fines [peat, gyttja] and soil formation characte- rises the Atlantic and Subboreal ■ areal deposition of IVb valley bottoms of Peene, Warnow ■ erosional phases during [Pre-?]B0l- tributaries of the ling, Preboreal and late Boreal human-induced Baltic Sea north of the ■ flattening of the river bed gradient by flood loams is a Weichselian Pomeranian organic sedimentation in the Atlantic/ characteristic of the stage Subboreal caused by marine influence [Littorina transgression] ■ dominating deposition of peat and gyttja instead of overbank fines in the late Holocene late Holocene except in low-lying valleys of zone IVb ciple research questions - some of which have been posed periodically for more than 100 years (e.g. Woldstedt 1956, Marcinek 1987, Kaiser 2002) - concern (l) the structure and formation of the natural drainage system, (2) its anthropo- genic use and historic reshaping, and (3) the (palaeo-) eco- logic status and change. More specific research questions in relation to the single aquatic environments investigated - rivers, lakes and peatlands - are given in chapters 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3. Corresponding to different thematic approaches, the re- search concepts used come from different disciplines. Both geosciences and palaeoecology use climatologic- and bio- stratigraphic concepts and units. They are defined for divid- ing and explaining stages of deposition, relief formation and biotic changes, respectively. More specifically, the general model for the regional late Quaternary relief formation with emphasis on fluvial geomorphology, proposed by Marcinek if Brose (1972) and extended to incorporate the develop- ment of lake basins (Nitz 1984), has been adapted for use in this overview (Tab. 2). Additionally, the conceptualised re- gional facies areas of Holocene river development by Brose <}? Prager (1983) will be outlined (Tab. 3). These models and schemes provided the thematic framework for most of the later geomorphic and palaeohydrologic research. However, they base on relatively few local field studies only and gen- erally lack sufficient numeric age control. Archaeology, as a discipline of the historic sciences, has concentrated on the settlement and human use of aquat- ic landscapes in pre-Medieval (i.e. 'pre-German') times, thought to be a period with little human impact on the aquatic environment (e.g. Bleile 2012). History and historic geography have dealt with strong human impact on the re- gional drainage system since Medieval times (e.g. Schich 1994, Driescher 2003, Blackbourn 2006). Corresponding to the disciplines involved, the results pre- sented are based upon a broad range of geoscientific (includ- ing geochronology), biological (palaeoecology) and historic methods. The basic geoscientific methods used include the analysis of thousands of sedimentary profiles from corings as well as open sections, geomorphic mapping of fluvial and lacustrine structures, sedimentologic analyses and geophys- ics. Geochronology provides absolute chronologic control EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 109 30 20 Ta 10 -10 -20 -30 -40 Age ( 14 C kyrs BP) 10 8 B- 2 Recent V Late Pleisto- cene Preboreal- Atlantic- Subboreal- •'Allerad Boreal (expanded in B) H o I o c e n e u B0lling Floodplain level of Oder River after Brose (1994) --*-- after Bo rner (2007) Age ("C kyrs BP) B 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Subboreal Subatlantic VIM IX | Xa | Xb Bronze Age | pre-Roman | Roman | Migration- Mediaeval Iron Age Period Period " I** ' ' ****** X / ■ i .* » / ,* — Floodplain level — Water level at floodplain (after Brose 1994) Chronozone Pollenzone Culture period Fig. 3: Changes in the floodplain level of the lower Oder River. A: General development during the late Pleis- tocene and Holocene (after Brose 1994, Borner 2007, adapted). B: Detailed development during the late Holocene (after Brose 1994, adapted). Abb. 3: Veranderungen des Auen- niveaus der unteren Oder. A: Ge- nerelle Entwicklung wahrend des Spatpleistozans und Holozdns (nach Brose 1994, Borner 2007, verandert). B: Detaillierte Entwicklung wahrend des Spdtholozdns (nach Brose 1994, verandert). comprising radiocarbon dating and, at a progressive rate, lu- minescence dating (mostly OSL). Normally, the chronology in this overview is based on calibrated radiocarbon ages (cal yrs BP). But, depending on the context, some other chrono- logic systems were also used (e.g. yrs BC, yrs AD, 14 C yrs BP, varve yrs BP). The most important biological method applied is pollen analysis providing both stratigraphic (thus to a cer- tain degree even chronologic) information and palaeoecolog- ic data (e.g. on vegetation structure, groundwater situation, human impact). Regional knowledge of the historic sciences is mainly based on archaeological excavations including find matter analysis, and interpretation of historic public records (documents) and maps. The latter are not available earlier than the 16 th century AD. 4 Results and discussion 4.1 Rivers In general, subjects of research on regional river evolution have been mainly (glacio-) fluvial geology and geomorpho- logy (e.g. change of river course, river bottom incision/aggra- dation, valley mire formation), and palaeoecology, particu- larly analysing sedimentary archives in river valleys for veg- etation and water trophic level reconstruction. It is only in recent years that quantitative estimations of palaeodischarge were attempted for some rivers (Elbe, Oder and Spree), us- ing palaeoecologic, climatic and hydraulic data. The follow- ing overview on river and valley development concentrates on the aspects (1) river valley formation and depositional changes, (2) changes in the river courses and channels, and (3) palaeodischarge and palaeofloods. 4.1.1 River valley formation and depositional changes The backbone of the regional river network has been a sys- tem of glacial spillways (ice-marginal valleys). These spill- ways worked as southeast-northwest oriented drainage fol- lowing the retreat of the Weichselian ice sheet, except for the southernmost spillways, which originated from the previous Saalian glaciation. The valleys were operating from c. 26,000 to 17,000 cal yrs BP, partly initiated by the glacier blocking of northwards, i.e. to the North Sea and Baltic Sea basins, flowing rivers (Marcinek if Seifert 1995). The general sub- glacial and subaerial drainage of the ice sheet to the south led to connections of these spillways via lower-scale valleys. After glaciers decay, unblocking of the terrain often has initi- ated flow reversals (e.g. Kaiser et al. 2007, Lorenz 2008). In parallel, several short-lived ice-dammed (proglacial) lakes of different dimension developed; some of them of vast extent (see chapter 126.96.36.199) A striking geomorphic property of the young morainic ar- ea is the existence of numerous so-called (open) 'tunnel val- 110 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License leys' (glacial channels), containing rivers and streams as well as lakes and peatlands. Additionally, buried tunnel valleys of similar dimension occur both in the young and old morainic area (Eissmann 2002). The valleys were mainly eroded by meltwater supposed to have drained from subglacial lakes. Their water was most likely released in repeated outburst floods (so-called 'jokulhlaups') and flowed in relatively small channels on the floors of the tunnel valleys (Piotrowski 1997, J0RGENSEN & Sandersen 2006). Knowledge on late Quaternary river development is very irregularly available in the region (Fig. 1, Tab. l). The re- gion's main river, the Elbe, has been recently only margin- ally in the (geo-) historic focus (e.g. Rommel 1998, Caspers 2000, Thieke, 2002, Turner 2012), in further contrast to oth- er large central European rivers, such as Vistula and Rhine (Schirmer et al. 2005, Starkel et al. 2006). A characteristic of low-lying valleys in the northern part of the study area, comprising the lower sections of the Elbe and Oder Rivers as well as the Vorpommern rivers (e.g. Ueck- er, Peene, Trebel, Recknitz; Fig. 1), is the hydraulic depend- ency of valley bottom processes from water-level changes in the North Sea and Baltic Sea basins and from isostatic move- ments. In general, a rise in the water level in the sea basins causes a lower hydraulic river bed gradient, whereas a water level fall leads to the opposite. This strongly influences sev- eral processes in the river and its floodplain (e.g. transport, flooding, sedimentation/erosion, vegetation). The Oder River and some Vorpommern rivers were extensively investigated in this respect. In the Lateglacial and early Holocene marked valley bottom changes were caused by lake-level changes of ice-dammed lakes in the Baltic Sea basin (Fig. 3). The mid- to late Holocene sea-level rise (Lampe 2005, Behre 2007, Lampe et al. 2010) triggered a large-scale formation of peatlands (mostly of percolation mires), temporally even the drown- ing of lower valley sections (e.g. Brose 1994, Janke 2002, Borner 2007, Michaelis if Joosten 2010). Thus, in contrast to river valleys of the higher-lying glacial landscape and the German Uplands, which are mainly filled by minerogenic deposits (gravels, sands, flood loams), peat widely fills the present valleys (Fig. 4). Most regional studies have noticed that Holocene river bottom development up to the late Atlantic/early Subbore- al is exclusively controlled by climatic and (natural-) geo- morphic as well as biotic processes, such as fluvial erosion/ aggradation and beaver damming. By contrast, Neolithic and subsequent economies, regionally starting in the south c. 7300 cal yrs BP (Tinapp et al. 2008) and in the north c. 6100 cal yrs BP (Latalowa 1992), considerably changed the vegetation structure, water budget and geomorphic process- es of the catchments. Erosional processes, following forest clearing and accompanying agricultural use, increased the suspended load of rivers causing deposition of flood loams (overbank fines, Auelehm' in German) during flood events. Accordingly, a larger number of flood loams date from the late Atlantic (e.g. Hiller et al. 1991, Mundel 1996, Caspers 2000). Moreover, there is a multitude of flood loam records dating from the Subboreal and Subatlantic (e.g. Fuhrmann 1999, Borner 2007, Brande et al. 2007, Kaiser et al. 2007, Tinapp et al. 2008). As shown by palaeo-flood indicators, human-induced changes in the catchment hydrology led to an increase in the frequency and magnitude of floods in the late Holocene (see chapter 4.1.3). The river valley bottoms shifted from quasi- stable to unstable conditions (Schirmer 1995, Kalicki 1996, Starkel et al. 2006, Hoffmann et al. 2008). More frequent and heavy floods caused both an intensification of river bed erosion and an aggradation of the valley bottom and level- ling of its relief differences. 1.1.2 Changes in river courses and channels In general, rivers can change their course by leaving their old valley or by formation of a new channel within their hith- erto existing valley. Rivers can be forced to leave old valleys through tectonics, retrograde erosion or glacier damming. The accordant timescale mostly is a few to hundreds thou- sands of years (in phase with climatic evolution). Smaller changes in the channel pattern ('fluvial style') lead to new river beds within existing valleys, which are predominantly initiated by climate-driven changes of drainage (frequency, magnitude), erosion and bedload. This spans a timescale of tens to hundreds of years (in phase with climatic changes; Vandenberghe 1995b). Of the regional rivers, only the Elbe has been investigated for changes in its course. In the Tertiary to mid-Pleistocene, large-scale river course changes (lateral river bed deviation of max. c. 150 km) occurred due to tectonic processes and to river damming triggered by glaciations. It was not until the end of the Saalian that its present course was substantially formed (e.g. Thieke 2002). Small-scale river course chang- es (max. c. 25 km) occurred in the Elbe-Havel River region ('Elb-Havel-WinkeP in German) still in historic times (early 18 th century AD), when the river, caused by strong floods, was following older courses in the deeper lying Havel Riv- er valley (Schmidt 2000). Finally, evidence for river chan- nel changes (max. c. 5 km) is available for the river section between Magdeburg and Wittenberge, showing that the present-day single channel river was a Holocene anastomo- sing system in this section up to the mid-18 lh century AD (Rommel 1998, Caspers 2000). A few records are available on channel pattern changes in the region (Fig. 5). The mean present-day annual discharge of accordant rivers, however, varies extremely (0.3 to 550 m 3 s' 1 ). Six types of channel patterns were identified (braiding, meandering with large and small meanders, anastomosing, V-shape valleys/straight course, and inundation/valley mire formation). The type formed depends on several hydrau- lic parameters (bed gradient, load, flow velocity, discharge volume and temporal distribution; Miall 1996). In the late Pleniglacial and early Lateglacial all rivers investigated were braided systems caused by high load and strongly epi- sodic discharge after heavy snow melting under periglacial conditions (e.g. Mol 1997). An incision phase took place in the early Lateglacial, when the regional erosion base in the Baltic Sea and North Sea basins was low or when the local erosion base was lowered by dead-ice melting. The (early) Lateglacial is characterised by the formation of so-called large meanders, which are attributed to short-term high dis- charges following extreme snow melting (Vandenberghe 1995a). For the Spree River, a distinct radius downsizing of sequenced meander generations was postulated (large me- anders: 900-1000 m, small meanders: 600-900 m, recent me- EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 111 N\\\\\\\\^ _* *. T ^ er ^^ • Strong erosion and incision ffXTo • Discharge direction -±> NW 7sf phase = glaciofluvial spillway (pre-W3) \\\w\\\\\\w\\\\* p \\\\\\\w\\\\\v 1 8,000-17,000 calyrsBP "" v \ \ \ \ \ >^ \ \ \ \ \ \> \ \ \ \ f \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ •. \ \ \ \ \ mm m_: 2nd phase = glaciation (W3) 17,000-16,500 calyrsBP Strong erosion und solifluction • Discharge dir. NW • Terrace formation • Erosion of till 3rd phase = glaciofluvial spillway (post-W3) Strong incision Discharge dir. NE (up to present) 4th phase = Lateglacial incision • Increasing water levels • Dead-ice melting and lake formation • Deposition of fluvial and lacustr. deposits 5th phase = Lateglacial aggradation Valley bottom rise by peat deposition Frequent changes of the river course, floods, formation of oxbow lakes 7th phase = groundwater rise (paludification) • Incision and later on deposition of fluvial sands • Dep. of calcareous gyttjas in lakes 6th phase = early Holocene incision Reduced peat formation, partly stratigraphic hiatus 8th phase = groundwater lowering Increasing water input by deforest- ation of catchments Deposition of hillwash Extensive grass- land agriculture 9th phase = moderate human impact • Complex hydro- melioration Intensive agriculture Degradation of peat 10th phase = strong human impact | | Older sediments Q Glacier ice, QTTJ Till dead ice pTH] Fluviolacustrine sand || Peat Q Calcareous and silt, silikate gyttja gyttja fcv] Glaciofluvial and f^5 Coarse glaciofluvial and colluvial -lacustrine sediments sediments UlTTl Fine colluvial sediments Fig. 4: Model of the geomorphic development of low-lying river valleys in Vorpommern (after Kaiser 2001, Janke 2002, adapted); a schematic geologic cross-section through a river valley is depicted. The term 'W3' used for phases 1-3 refers to the late Pleniglacial inland-ice advance of the Mecklenburgian Phase (Weichselian3/W3)', which is approximately dated by radiocarbon data from the Pomeranian Bay, southern Baltic Sea (Gorsdorf & Kaiser 2001). Abb. 4: Modell der geologisch-geomorphologischen Entwicklung tiefliegender Flusstaler in Vorpommern (nach Kaiser 2001, Janke 2002, verandert). Dar- gestellt ist ein schematischer geologischer Schnitt durch ein Flusstal. Der Begriff "W3", genutzt fur die Talentwicklungsphasen 1-3, bezieht sich aufden spdtpleniglazialen Inlandeisvorstofi der Mecklenburger Phase (Weichsel3/W3). Dieser Eisvorstofi ist naherungsweise durch Radiokohlenstoffdaten aus der Pommerschen Bucht/siidliche Ostsee datiert (Gorsdorf & Kaiser 2001). 112 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Late Pleistocene Early t Mid- Holo- ; Holo- cene • cene ' Late Holocene Elbe (Wische area) Vorpommern rivers Lower Oder (Niederes Oder- bruch area) Spree (Drahendorf area) Spree (Unterspreewald area) WeiRer Schops Caspers (2000) V^MTW WWM ^ E <2002) -gLn/WtA V V ? NJ/ V BORNER(2007) J^JfV^W^^ SCHULZ(2000) ^%m/ > L4W v/ VK^ z ^yg JUSCHUS (2003) VAN DER KROFT et al. (2002) Jeetzel River ^S\ ? UA^\/A|V V/ V^/ V 0/ V/ lA0/^ TuRNER < 2012 Chronozone Age (cal yrs BP) PL ME D1 B0 D2 AL D3 PB BO AT1 AT2 SB SA1 SA2 14500 13730 13350 11560 9220 5660 1150 13860 13480 12700 10640 7500 2400 Braiding Anastomosing B Meandering - large meanders Straight course (incision) V Meandering - small meanders Inundation, peatland formation Fig. 5: Late Pleistocene and Holocene channel pattern changes in river valleys in northeast Germany (after various authors, adapted). Note missing data or questionable records are indicated by question marks. Abb. 5: Spdtpleistozdne und holo- zane Veranderungen der Gerinne- bettmuster in Flusstalern Nordost- deutschlands (nach verschiedenen Autoren, verandert). Fehlende Daten oder fragliche Befunde sind mit Fragezeichen gekennzeichnet. anders: 150-300 m; Schulz 2000), which generally indicates decreasing (seasonal) discharge volumes. Beginning in the late mid-Holocene but strengthened in the late Holocene, some low-lying river sections were temporarily inundated and were generally transformed into peatlands (e.g. lower Oder River and some Vorpommern rivers). In the last c. 800 years, human impact has considerably changed both the fioodplain structures and courses of re- gional rivers by deforestation, artificial river-bed remov- ing and strengthening as well as dyking, settlement and in- frastructure construction (e.g. Schich 1994, Schmidt 2000, Driescher 2003). For example, a dense network of canals for inland navigation has been built, beginning in the 16 th century AD and culminating in the late 19 lh to early 20 th cen- tury AD (Uhlemann 1994, Eckoldt 1998), in addition to the construction of innumerable drainage ditches. 1.1.3 Palaeodischarge and palaeoflood characteristics Quantitative estimations of palaeohydrologic parameters for rivers usually aim at describing palaeodischarge (mean an- nual discharge, bankfull discharge) and palaeoflood charac- teristics (magnitude, frequency, risk; e.g. Gregory & Benito 2003, Benito & Thorndycraft 2005). Whereas in the adja- cent Polish territory, palaeodischarge and palaeoflood stud- ies were performed quite early (e.g. Rotnicki 1991, Starkel 2003), corresponding studies for northeast Germany are gen- erally rare and of more recent status. One recent study of the Elbe River mouth (German Bight, North Sea) produced a high resolution 800-year-long proxy record of palaeodischarge, based on a 8 18 0-salinity-discharge relationship (Scheurle et al. 2005; Tab. 4). The reconstructed variance of mean annual discharge (MAD), revealing a min- imum-maximum span of 100-1375 m 3 s ', is linked to long- term changes in precipitation. Four main periods of palaeo- discharge/palaeoprecipitation become apparent, with higher and lower values than at present. For the lower Oder River, a coupled climatic-hydrolog- ic model estimated MADs for the early and mid-Holocene similar to those of today (Ward et al. 2007; Tab. 4). These modelling results coincide with local palaeohydrologic data from the Prosna River (a tributary of the Oder via the Warta in Poland; Rotnicki 1991), which show that discharges there in the early and mid-Holocene were broadly similar to those in the period 1750-2000 AD. For the Spree River, late Holocene palaeomeanders were investigated (Hilt et al. 2008). Reconstructions show nar- rower and shallower channels for the undisturbed lower Spree as compared to recent conditions, which are strongly influenced by mining drainage water input (Grunewald 2008). Flow velocities and discharge at bankfull stage (Tab. 4) were smaller in palaeochannels and flow variability was higher. Furthermore, the increase in bankfull discharge was attributed to deforestation and drainage of the catchment as well as channelisation, bank protection and river regulation measures. For the joint area of Vorpommern and northeast Branden- burg, Bork et al. (1998) estimated a regional water balance EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 113 Tab. 4: Holocene palaeodischarge estimations for Elbe, Oder and Spree Rivers after Scheurle et al. (2005), Ward et ah (2007) and Hilt et ah (2008), respectively. Tab. 4: Abschatzungen der holozanen Paldoabftiisse fur die Elbe (Scheurle et ah 2005), die Oder (Ward et ah 2007) and die Spree (Hilt et ah 2008). River Elbe Oder Spree Gauging site Neu Darchau [upstream of Hamburg] Gozdowice [downstream of Frankfurt/Oder] Neubruck [downstream of Cottbus] Recent discharge [m 3 s 1 ] 720 [100 %f 527 [100 %Y 52 [100 %) 2 Gauging period 1900-1995 1901-1986 present Approach used proxy record of palaeodischarge using a 6 1B 0-salinity-discharge relationship coupled climatic-hydrologic model proxy record of bankfull palaeo-dis- charge using hydraulic properties of palaeomeanders Palaeodischarge [m 3 s 1 ] 1300 AD: 800 [111 %f 1400 AD: 900 [125 7c] 1 1500 AD: 700 [97 %f 1800 AD: 500 [69 %f 1700 AD: 1000 [139 %f 1800 AD: 900 [125 7c] 1 1900 AD: 500 [69 %f Max. c. 1580 AD: 1375 [191 %f Min. c. 1260 AD: 100 [14 7c] 1 early Holocene [9000-8650 cal yrs BP]: 522 [99 7c] 1 mid-Holocene [6200-5850 cal yrs BP]: 538 [102 7c] 1 late Subboreal-early Subatlantic [3200- 2500 cal yrs BP]: 8 [15 %] 2 Reference Scheurle etal. [2005] Ward et al. [2007] Hilt etal. [2008] x mean annual discharge ? bankfull discharge for the time steps 650 AD, 1310 AD and today, which shows a maximum discharge value for the late Medieval period. This was caused by the lowest amount of forested areas (thus relatively low amounts of evapotranspiration and intercep- tion) during the late Holocene (Tab. 5). Data on palaeoflood characteristics in the region are pri- marily available for the Elbe (BrAzdil et al. 1999, Glaser 2001, Mudelsee et al. 2003), Oder (Glaser 2001, Mudelsee et al. 2003) and Spree Rivers (Rolland & Arnold 2002). Spo- radic historical records start in the 11 th century AD, while more continuous records are not available until the 16 th cen- tury AD. As an example, for the Elbe River Mudelsee et al. (2003) detected significant long-term changes in flood oc- currence rates from the 16 th to the 19 th century AD. A first maximum in the flooding rate was reached in the mid- 16 th century AD. At this time, rivers in central and southwest Eu- rope experienced a similar increase in floods, which has been attributed to higher precipitation (Brazdil et al. 1999). Lat- er on winter floods reached an absolute maximum (around 1850 AD) and then finally decreased. Mudelsee et al. (2003) concluded by means of statistical correlations for the Elbe and Oder Rivers that reductions in river length, construction of reservoirs and deforestation have had only minor effects on flood frequency. Furthermore, they arrived at the conclu- sion that there is no evidence from both historic data and modern gauging for a recent upward trend in the flood oc- currence rate (in this context see Petrow & Merz 2009). This represents an important regional finding with respect to the current debate on regional hydrologic changes initiated by global climate change, emphasising the importance of tem- porally long hydrologic data series. 4.2 Lakes In general, lake basins ubiquitously provide sedimentary ar- chives from which both the local and to a certain extent even the regional landscape development can be reconstructed. The lake basins in the northern part of the region (Meck- lenburg-Vorpommern) were formerly classified by size as 'large glaciolacustrine basins' (former proglacial lakes, >100 km 2 ), 'medium-sized lakes' (0.03-100 km 2 ), and 'kettle holes' (<0.03 km 2 ; Kaiser 2001, Terberger et al. 2004). Although designed for a specific area, this classification by size can also be applied for the whole morainic area, additionally taking into account some local characteristics. Regional re- search on lake genesis performed so far mainly concentrated on (l) lake basin development (e.g. dead-ice dynamics and depositional changes) and on (2) palaeohydrology (lake-level and lake-area changes). Both aspects will be presented in the following. 4.2.1 Lake basin development 184.108.40.206 Dead-ice dynamics Most of the medium- and small-sized lake basins in the Weichselian glacial belt originated from melting of buried stagnant ice, usually called 'dead ice' (e.g. Nitz et al. 1995, Bose 1995, Juschus 2003, Niewiarowski 2003, Kaiser 2004a, Lorenz 2007, Blaszkiewicz 2010, 2011). This term refers to the temporary local conservation/incorporation of ice in de- pressions and/or in sedimentary sequences; either coming from the freezing of pre-existing water bodies (e.g. shallow lakes) before being overridden by glacier ice or as a direct remnant from the glacier. Glacially- and melt water-driven 111 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Tab. 5: Estimation of the water balance for the northern part of northeast Germany considering the Vorpommern and Uckermark areas (after Bork et al. 1998, adapted). Tab. 5: Abschdtzung der Wasserbilanz fur den nordlichen Ted von Nordostdeutschland (Vorpommern und Uckermark; nach Bork et al. 1998, verandert). Time step 650 AD 1310 AD Present Land cover parameter km 2 % km ? % km 2 % Total area 10000 100 10000 100 10000 100 Arable land and grassland 100 1 7900 79 6800 68 Forest [including uncultivated land] 9400 94 1500 15 2400 24 Surface waters 500 5 500 5 500 5 Other areas <100 <1 100 1 300 3 Hydrological parameter mm a" 1 % mm a^ 1 % mm a" 1 % Mean annual precipitation 595 1 100 595 1 100 595 100 Total runoff 40 7 140 24 120 20 Surface runoff <1 10 2 3 <1 Subterraneous runoff 2 <1 5 1 4 <1 Mean evapotranspiration and interception 555 93 455 76 475 80 Assumed as today erosive processes produced variously formed depressions (wide basins, channels, kettle holes), which were filled by dead ice during the glacier's decay. After the melting of these ice 'plombs', water-filled basins of varying size could ap- pear, depending on the local hydrologic situation. Between dead-ice formation/burial and dead-ice melting, thousands of years, occasionally tens of thousands of years passed by. In contrast, the rare present-day natural lakes in the Saalian belt owe their existence mainly to local endogenic processes triggered by the dynamics of Zechstein salt deposits in the deep underground. Dead-ice dynamics can be sedimentologically detected either by dislocation of sediment layers or by unusual suc- cession of certain sediments. In the region, the first was re- peatedly demonstrated by the record of heavily tilted peats and gyttjas (e.g. Kopczynska-Lamparska et al. 1984, Nitz et al. 1995, Strahl if Keding 1996, Kaiser 2001). The lat- ter is normally attributed to the occurrence of basal peats below gyttjas, partly below a present-day water body of sev- eral decametres thickness (e.g. Kaiser 2001, Blaszkiewicz 2010, 2011). Subsequent to the melting of dead ice in the basins and valleys, swamps/mires and lakes began to occupy the de- pressions. For parts of the study area, overviews on this on- set of lacustrine sedimentation in medium-sized lakes and kettle holes are available (Kaiser 2001, 2004b, Brande 2003, de Klerk 2008). According to Kaiser (2001), in about 90 % of the lake basins compiled for Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and northern Brandenburg (total profile number analysed = 99) the process of sedimentation began in the Lateglacial, 38 % alone in the Allered (Fig. 6). In general, basin-forming dead-ice melting processes occurred from the Pleniglacial up to the early Holocene, with a concentration in the Allered. Final dead-ice melt- ing was assumed or reported for the Preboreal (e.g. Bose 1995, Niewiarowski 2003, Blaszkiewicz 2010, 2011). Over a third of the profiles analysed for Figure 6 include basal peats mainly from the Allered, which ended regularly in a secondary position due to settling as the result of dead-ice melting. 22.214.171.124 Depositional changes The deposition of fine silicate clastic gyttjas is characteristic for the cold Lateglacial stages. Peats and gyttja deposits rich in carbonates and organic matter mainly originate from the relatively warm Allered. The dominant minerogenous input during the Lateglacial is caused by a very thin vegetation cover and an unstable overall relief (ablation, deflation, gul- ly erosion, dead-ice melting, braiding). Besides basal peats from the Allered, higher-lying peats of the same age buried by lacustrine and fluvial sands occur. They indicate a signifi- cant intensification of lacustrine and fluvial deposition dur- ing the subsequent Younger Dryas, which has been recog- nised throughout northeast Germany, triggered by renewed cold-climate conditions (e.g. Helbig if de Klerk 2002, Kai- ser 2004b, de Klerk 2008). Although the increase in fluvial and erosional dynamics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition constitutes a more general trend throughout the region, on an individual basis, some sedimentary records show that changes occurred rapidly and were often triggered by local relief instabilities and small scale catastrophic drain- age events (e.g. Kaiser 2004a). Sedimentation of organic and calcareous gyttja as well as peat generally characterises the Holocene. This is mainly due to a reduction in clastic input following a dense veg- EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 115 40- U3 Start of sedimentation 30 - Start of peat formation O c CD CT 30- CD P Late ] Late Pleisto- c CD -. — H o 1 o c e n e §■ PI e i s to - ► ] c e n e j - — H o 1 o c e n e CD cene CD CO CD 20 - Number of lacustri D o O B I ii N lakes = 60 1 M =33 ° IN kettle holes TO M— O 1— CD -Q Ib. I 10 - ^ I . I N |ak es = 57 N kettle holes ~~ ll.ll.l Chronozones: D1 B0 D2 AL D3 PB BO AT1 AT2 SB SA1 SA2SA3 D1 B0 D2 AL D3 PB BO AT1 AT2 SB SA1 SA2 SA3 Palynozones: la lb Ic II III IV V VI VII VIM IX Xa Xb la Ib Ic II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Xa Xb ■ Medium-sized lake basins, 0.3-100 km 2 I I Small-sized lake basins (kettle holes), <0.3 km 2 Fig. 6: Onset of lacustrine sedimentation (left) and peat formation (right) in lake basins of northeast Germany (areas of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and northern Brandenburg; after Kaiser 2001, adapted). Abb. 6: Beginn der limnischen Sedimentation (links) und der Torfbildung (rechts) in Seebecken in Nordostdeutschland (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern und nordliches Brandenburg; nach Kaiser 2001, verandert). etation cover and a reduced geomorphic activity. In parallel the lake bioproduction increased. Deposition of gyttjas and, to a lesser degree, of fluvio-deltaic sequences filled shallow lacustrine basins. The common occurrence of fluvio-deltaic sequences, called (palaeo-) fan-deltas or Gilbert-type deltas (Postma 1990), in dead-ice depressions represents a previ- ously undescribed geomorphic feature in the Weichselian glacial belt of northeast Germany (Kaiser et al. 2007), which corresponds to fan-deltas described from northwest Poland (Blaszkiewicz 2010). Peat accumulation causing (natural) aggradation of lakes became a widespread regional phenomenon during the mid- to late Holocene. Commencing in the Subboreal and increasingly during the Subatlantic, human impact led to noticeable effects on the lake development. Increases in la- custrine sedimentation rates and clastic matter influxes since c. 1250 AD are evidence of erosion following forest clear- ing and systematic land use including anthropogenic lake- level changes and lake drainages (e.g. Brande 2003, Lorenz 2007, Selig et al. 2007, Enters et al. 2010). In the late 19 th century AD, but enormously strengthened in the mid-20 th century, human induced eutrophication by nutrient loading through agriculture, industry, sewage release, and soil ero- sion became a major threat to regional lakes (e.g. Scharf 1998, Mathes et al. 2003, Luder et al. 2006). This eutrophica- tion, partly in conjunction with human- and climate-driven hydrologic processes (e.g. Germer et al. 2011, Kaiser et al. 2012b), caused both depositional and hydrographic changes (increasing deposition rates, formation of anoxic sediments, partly shrinkage of lakes by aggradation). The former vast ice-dammed (proglacial) lakes at the Bal- tic Sea coast underwent, in comparison to the medium- and small-sized inland lakes described above, a different devel- opment during the late Pleistocene and Holocene (Fig. l). These late Pleniglacial lakes received water both from the melting inland-ice in the north and the stagnant (non-bur- ied) ice in the immediate lake surroundings as well as from the ice-free area in the south. The largest lakes reconstructed are the 'Haffstausee' (c. 1200 km 2 ; Janke 2002, Borowka et al. 2005) in the vicinity of Szczecin and the 'Rostocker Heide- Altdarss-Barther Heide-Becken' (>700 km 2 ; Kaiser 2001) in the vicinity of Rostock. During deglaciation around 17,000 cal yrs BP, up to 25 m-thick glaciolacustrine sediments (clays, silts, sands) were accumulated. Local littoral gyttjas and aeolian sands dated to the Lateglacial have been found, indicating the end of the large-lake phase still within the Pleniglacial due to the decay of the basin margins consisting of ice (Kaiser 2001). For the Allerod and the early Young- er Dryas, soils, peats, littoral gyttjas and Final Palaeolithic archaeological sites indicate widely dry conditions in these basins, in which only local lakes and ponds existed. In the late Younger Dryas, over large areas the basin sands were re-deposited by wind. The Holocene, on the one hand, is ter- restrial, or locally also lacustrine, fluvial and boggy in form (e.g. Bogen et al. 2003, Terberger et al. 2004, Borowka et al. 2005, Kaiser et al. 2006, Borner et al. 2011). On the other hand, the lower parts of the glaciolacustrine basins came un- der marine influence, thereby becoming integrated into the Baltic Sea or the coastal lagoons (Lampe 2005, Borowka et al. 2005, Lampe et al. 2010) 4.2.2 Palaeohydrology 18.104.22.168 Lake-level changes In general, lake-level records offer an important palaeohy- drologic proxy as they can document past changes in the local to regional water budget in relation to climatic oscil- lations. Lake levels are influenced by climatic parameters affecting both evaporation and precipitation. But they can also be influenced by a variety of local, non-climatic factors such as local damming of the outflow by geomorphic pro- cesses and vegetation, animals (beaver) and man, or by land- 116 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Age ("C kyrs BP) 12.6 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 4- i I III I I I 1 I -4 I I I I I I I I 1 I 1 3 " > Z 2- » + \ + \\+ 1 + / \ \PI6 \ + + -+ + " + / - Dre + ! + + + + + + + + Rhi ,.-• i-**"' + -3 -2 m T3 § 1 " O en i o C -1- E o I " 2 " "> a -3- End wvl +y/l \ r--A I Lat 4} / ..-"" F "^'\"~^N X \ + /' + + ,--H , <M - 1 -0 --1 - -2 --3 _- 1 ?' *■' + \ \s + Vl- + + \ + + + \ ! A + + / //+ \ + ! + + L-"\j " "V- — ■ — T + + + + + *'— -£•'' /+ + + + Mur \ .--''"' /Kra -4- + + + Hr- *+ y + + + + + + + + --4 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Age (cal kyrs BP) PL ME B0 AL D3 PB BO AT SB SA D1 D2 Chronozone Open / drained lakes Closed / not drained lakes Groundwater Miiritz (Mur) Krummer See (Km) Rhinluch (Rhi) Krakower See (Kra) Drewitzer See (Dre) Ploner See (PI6) Endinger Bruch (End) Latzigsee (Lat) Fig. 7: Reconstruction of late Quaternary lake levels from northeast Germany (Lake Miiritz: Kaiser et al. 2002, Lampe et al. 2009; Lake Endinger Bruch: Kaiser 2004a; Lake Latzigsee: Kaiser et al. 2003, Kaiser 2004b; Lake Krakower See: Lorenz 2007; Lake Grofier Ploner See: Dorfler 2009; Lake Krummer See: Kuster 2009). Additionally the reconstruction of the groundwater level in the Rhinluch peatland is shown (Gramsch 2002). All curves are adapted. Abb. 7: Rekonstruktion spdtquartarer Seespiegel in Nordostdeutschland (Miiritz: Kaiser et al. 2002, Lampe et al. 2009; Endinger Bruch: Kaiser 2004a; Latzigsee: Kaiser et al. 2003, Kaiser 2004b; Krakower See: Lorenz 2007; Grofier Ploner See: Dorfler 2009; Krummer See: Kuster 2009). Ergdnzend wird die Rekonstruktion des Grundwasserspiegels fur das Rhinluch abgebildet (Gramsch 2002). Alle Kurven sind verandert. cover changes in the catchment area influencing runoff and groundwater recharge (e.g. Gaillard & Digerfeldt 1990, Digerfeldt 1998, Duck et al. 1998, Harrison et al. 1998, Magny 2004). Long-term ('continuous') records on the regional lake- level dynamics are available almost exclusively for the young morainic area north of Berlin. These records have been synthesised and are shown in Figure 7. Some further lake-level records that exist for the region have several con- straints (e.g. coarse resolution, comparative only, temporally very fragmented, very synthetic/tentative; e.g. Brande 1996, Bottger et al. 1998, van der Kroft et al. 2002, Wennrich et al. 2005). The records shown in Figure 7 span different time seg- ments (i.e. chronozones) over the last 15,000 years. The man- ner of reconstructing past lake levels varied in the investi- gations (e.g. using subaquatic peats, lacustrine terraces and beach ridges, subaquatic wood remains and archaeological sites, historic documents), so the levels are based on data with different precision. The original records are referenced to absolute topographic levels (m a.s.L), whereas the synop- tic presentation in Figure 7 uses the (relative) deviation from the recent lake level for better comparison. Generally, the records available have a relatively low resolution, compris- ing often only one data point per chronozone. Thus the lake- level curves actually represent links of discrete data points, not continuous records. Consequently, far more (short-term) lake-level fluctuations can be expected than suggested by these curves. Despite these constraints, however, some gen- eral trends can be derived: In the Pleniglacial and in parts of the Lateglacial, all lakes investigated had distinctly higher levels than at present. This was initially caused by deglaciation processes occurring at higher terrain levels, and later on caused by several geomor- phic processes specific to the Pleistocene-Holocene transi- tion, such as dead-ice melting, phased initiation of fluvial runoff and permafrost dynamics. After a distinct lowering in the early Holocene, lake-levels in one portion of lakes re- mained below present levels until the late Holocene, accom- panied by fluctuations. Another portion of lakes shows tem- porally higher Holocene lake levels than at present. Com- mon to all lakes, however, are the sudden and large changes in levels, initially positive, later on negative, that occurred in the late Holocene, after c. 1250 AD. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 117 Lake Miiritz (Kaiser et al. 2002) 1 1 Pre boreal V//A Late Atlantic, late Subatlantic \ : ' : '\ After 1300 AD s Around 1786 AD s 1 1 Present lake kH River, channel, stream > \aw.\ Town J) Lake Arendsee (Scharf et al. 2009) Profundal Littoral Present D A. \ Town 2 km i 1 c. 11,000 BC c. 5000 BC c. 2500 BC before 822 AD after 822 AD after 1685 AD Fig. 8: Reconstruction of late Pleistocene and Holocene lake contours from northeast Germany. A: Lake Krakower See (Lorenz 2007). B: Lake Miiritz (Kaiser et al. 2002). C: Lake Arendsee (Scharf et al. 2009). All subfigures are adapted. Abb. 8: Rekonstruktion spatpleistozaner und holozdner Seeflachen in Nordostdeutschland. A: Krakower See (Lorenz 2007). B: Miiritz (Kaiser et al. 2002). C: Arendsee (Scharf et al. 2009). More specific, distinct phases of relatively low and rela- tively high lake levels can be deduced for the young morain- ic area (Fig. 7). Low lake levels in the Allerad and high lake levels in parts of the Younger Dryas were repeatedly detected (e.g. Helbig if de Klerk 2002, Kaiser 2004a, Lorenz 2007), which can be explained by climatic and geomorphic changes in that time. During the Allerod a moderate warm climate, forest vegetation and dominant dead-ice melting prevailed. The Younger Dryas, in contrast, was characterised by a cold climate with regional reestablishment of permafrost condi- tions, tundra vegetation and enhancement of surficial drain- age. Similar observations have been made for the Baltic Sea near-coastal regions of Poland and Sweden (Berglund et al. 1996b, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa if Latalowa 1996). The early Holocene (Preboreal, Boreal) is widely characterised by low lake levels that can be ascribed to climatic warming and a fully forested landscape, as well as final dead-ice melting and intensification of erosive fluvial processes. In that time all lakes presented reached their Holocene minimum, partly lying 5-7 m below the present lake level (e.g. Lorenz 2007). In the mid-Holocene warm-wet Atlantic period the lakes ini- tially rose, despite the fact that forests had their Holocene maximum extent and vigour (Lang 1994), potentially lead- ing to high evapotranspiration rates in the lake catchments. This is in contrast to north Polish findings where predomi- nantly low lake levels during the Atlantic have been detect- ed (Starkel 2003). After the decreases in levels during the late Atlantic and Subboreal, some, partly strong, undulations took place in the Subatlantic (e.g. Kaiser et al. 2002, Lampe et al. 2009). The last c. 800 years saw almost identical dynam- ics, with increases in lake levels in the 13 th - 14 th century AD (partly up to the 17 th -18 ,h century AD) and decreases in the 118 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 18 th - 19 th century AD. These changes are primarily caused by man, who became a major factor in lake hydrology due to the construction of mill and fish weirs, drainage improve- ment, canal construction and forest clearing (e.g. Jeschke 1990, Schich 1994, Kaiser 1996, Bork et al. 1998, Driescher 2003, Lorenz 2007, Kuster if Kaiser 2010). 4. 2.2.2 Lake-area and lake-contour changes The late Quaternary lake-level changes caused to some ex- tent drastic changes in the lake topography (volume, area, contour). However, only a few areal calculations and topo- graphic (map) reconstructions exists for the region so far, showing that the lake areas and contours varied substantial- ly (Fig. 8). For example, Lake Miiritz, with a current area of 117 km 2 (100 %), varied from a minimum area of c. 74 km 2 (63 %) in the Preboreal to a maximum area of c. 188 km 2 (161 %) in the beginning of the 14 th century AD (Kaiser et al. 2002). 4.3 Peatlands Analogously to rivers and lakes, peatlands can also act as late Quaternary palaeohydrologic archives primarily indicating groundwater dynamics (e.g. Chambers 1996). Knowledge on their contribution, function, stratigraphy and development in northeast Germany is well-developed with an increasing number of studies and publications in the last c. 20 years (Succow if Joosten 2001). The following overview offers (l) a presentation of generalised phases of regional peatland for- mation and information on long-term groundwater dynam- ics, (2) the identification of genetic relationships between rivers, lakes and peatlands, and (3) an outline of the impact of historic mill stowage on peatlands and lakes. 4.3.1 Peatland formation and groundwater- level changes 188.8.131.52 General development In central Europe, eight hydrogenetic mire types - mires are undrained virgin peatlands (Koster if Favier 2005, Joos- ten 2008) - can be distinguished (Succow if Joosten 2001). They are defined by the topographic situation, the hydrolog- ic conditions (water input) and the processes by which the peat is formed. This hydrogenetic setting is of great impor- tance in deciphering (palaeo-) hydrologic information. A statistical analysis of 168 palynostratigraphically in- vestigated profiles from peatlands in northeast Germany re- veals distinct periods of specific hydrogenetic mire forma- tion (Couwenberg et al. 2001; Fig. 9). With a maximum age of c. 12,400 14 C yrs BP (c. 14,600 cal yrs BP), swamp mires are the oldest peat-forming systems in the region. The first lake mires developed still in the Lateglacial at c. 11,500 14 C yrs BP (c. 13,400 cal yrs BP), whereas first kettle-hole and percola- tion mires did not develop until the early Holocene. The first rain-fed mire development started as recently as in the mid- Holocene at c. 7500 14 C yrs BP (c. 8300 cal yrs BP). Partly, this temporal sequence reflects a stratigraphic succession of different mire types at the same location. The comparatively late increase and onset of percolation mire and rain-fed mire formation could reflect the mid- to late Holocene increase of regional humidity. Furthermore, there is a conspicuous peaking for the formation of some mire types in Figure 9, partly followed by a rapid decline. Between c. 1000-500 yrs BP, swamp mires show a maximum formation period, which was attributed to strong anthropogenic deforestation (e.g. Brande 1986, Jeschke 1990, Bork et al. 1998, Wolters 2005). The declining number of kettle-hole, percolation and rain-fed mires in the last 1000 to 2000 yrs, on the other hand, reflects direct human impact in the form of hydro-meliora- tion measures and peat cutting. This caused the cessation of peat formation and the disappearance of older peat layers. In contrast to the numerous pollen diagrams from peat- lands and accordant estimations of the local relative ground- water dynamics, only two curves of absolute groundwater levels exist so far for northeast Germany. For the Reichwal- de lignite open cast mine (Niederlausitz area), a short-term curve covers the Lateglacial B0lling to Allered chronozones, i.e. a total of c. 1400 years, showing the development from a relatively stable low to an instable high groundwater level (van der Kroft et al. 2002). The Holocene groundwater dy- namics derived from the c. 11,500 years-long synthetic Rhin- luch peatland record (west of Berlin) reveal a low level at the end of the early Holocene, an increasing level accompa- nied by fluctuations during the mid-Holocene and a maxi- mum level in the late Subatlantic (Gramsch 2002; Fig. 7). A marked decrease of the groundwater level of c. 3 m occurred in the very late Subatlantic (18 th -19 lh century AD), which was caused by local hydro-melioration measures (e.g. Zeitz 2001). 188.8.131.52 Peatlands in large river valleys Close relationships between the development of rivers, lakes and peatlands existed particularly during the late Holocene complex paludification processes in large river valleys of the region. They are caused, on the one hand, by natural climatic and hydraulic changes and, on the other hand, by direct an- thropogenic impact in the form of mill stowage (for the sec- ond see chapter 4.3.2). The largest peatlands in the region are located in former ice marginal spillways of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg- Vorpommern. Beside local lake mires and widely-stretched (but typically small) floodplain mires accompanying the abundant rivers, vast swamp (paludification) mires occur. The Havellandisches Luch (c. 300 km 2 ) and Rhinluch (c. 230 km 2 ) peatlands, for instance, form wide elongated de- pressions which were formed by glaciofluvial and glacial erosional processes during the Weichselian glaciation and by (glacio-) fluvial processes during deglaciation and afterwards (Weisse 2003). After a Pleniglacial fluvio-lacustrine phase leading to the deposition of vast amounts of sands ('Beck- ensand' in German), a number of small shallow lakes devel- oped following dead-ice melting in the Lateglacial. During the early Holocene most lakes aggraded by both sedimen- tary infill and groundwater lowering (Fig. 7), forming local lake mires (Succow 2001a). Dated palaeosols in peat, fluvial and lacustrine sequences (8770 ± 160 to 4170 ± 150 cal yrs BP; Mundel 1996, Kaffke 2002) form a stratigraphic hiatus, which indicates regional groundwater lowering and reduced fluvial activity in the mid-Holocene to the early phase of the late Holocene. The former vegetation of the Havellandisches Luch peatland with dominating sedges and reed was largely EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 119 Swamp mires ' -\j 10000 5000 Age ("C yrs BP) Lake mires 10000 5000 Age ("C yrs BP) Rain-fed mires 30 20 10 Kettle-hole mires E S 10000 5000 Age ( 14 C yrs BP) 60 Percolation mires 10000 5000 Age ("C yrs BP) 20 10000 5000 Age ("C yrs BP) 40 12 10 S T3 o 4 ES Fig. 9: Temporal distribution of palynologically dated peat and gyttja deposits of selected hydrogenetic mire types in northeast Germany (Couwenberg et al 2001, adapted). Abb. 9: Zeitliche Verteilung palynologisch datierter Torf- und Seeablagerungen ausgewahlter hydrogenetischer Moortypen in Nordostdeutschland (Couwenberg et al. 2001, verandert). replaced by wet forests consisting of oaks and alders (Kxoss 1987a). In general, although local mire development in north- east Germany varies considerably, many peat sequences are characterised by this mid- to early late Holocene stratigraph- ic hiatus (e.g. Brande 1996, Succow 2001a, Wolters 2002, Janke 2004, Brande et al. 2007) reflecting the regional dry climatic conditions in that time. Looking at this from a wider perspective, this northeast German peatland-palaeosol (and hiatus) is apparently comparable with the so-called 'Black Floodplain Soil', a polygenetic buried humic soil horizon (Bo- real-Atlantic) found in river valleys and basins of central and southern Germany (Rittweger 2000). Between c. 3800 cal yrs BP (Mundel 1996) and c. 2600 cal yrs BP (Kaffke 2002) an increase in groundwater occurred, causing regional paludifi- cation and local lake levels to rise. The vegetation shifted back from wet forests to reeds. Basically in that time vast swamp mires were formed transgrading onto former areas without peats. Two possibly superimposing reasons have been iden- tified for this, namely a supra-regional late Holocene cli- matic shift to relatively wet-cool conditions (Mundel 1996; see more general: e.g. Zolitschka et al. 2003) and a region- al damming-effect of the rising Elbe River bed, which was driven by the eustatic rise of the North Sea (Mundel 1996, Kuster if Potsch 1998; see more general: e.g. Behre 2007). This damming effect was linked to relatively high aggrada- tion rates in the Elbe valley versus low rates in the Havel val- ley. The abundant lake basins in the Havel course serve even now as effective traps for river load (Weisse 2003). Thus the drainage of the Havel and its tributaries was impeded, caus- ing a rise in the regional groundwater. No later than the mid- 18* to early 19 th century AD, regional peat growth stopped again, this time caused by hydro-melioration measures for agricultural use and peat cutting. Close relationships between fluvial-lacustrine processes and mire development are also a characteristic of several low-lying river valleys of Vorpommern close to the Baltic Sea coast, which were strongly forced by marine influence (Janke 2002, Michaelis if Joosten 2010; see chapter 4.1.1). 1.3.2 Human impact on peatlands and lakes by mill stowage In general, until the late 12 th to early 13 th century AD land- scape hydrology in northeast Germany was dominantly driven by climatic (e.g. wet and dry phases), geomorphic (e.g. fluvial aggradation and incision) and non-anthropo- genic biotic (e.g. beaver activity) factors. However, since the Neolithic, localised and phased hydrologic changes in catch- ments due to land-cover changes can be assumed. During the German Medieval colonisation, the water mill technology was introduced by the west German and Flem- ing/Dutch settlers in eastern central Europe. For water mill 120 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Age (cal kyrs BP) 7 6 5 A) Chronozone B) River-channel pattern C) River-floodplain deposition D) Lake-basin development E) Lake-level status F) Mire formation * (Couwenberg et al., 2001 ) ^ G) Temperature W Germany {Litt et al., 2009) H) Precipitation W Germany (Litt etaL, 2009) I) Fluvial activity / stability Activit V < + ) W and S Germany Stability (-) (Hoffmann etaL, 2008) J) Fluvial activity W and central Poland (Starkel etal., 2006) K) Lake-level status S central Europe (Magny, 2004) L) Population density central Europe (Zimmermann, 1996) PL D1D2 A , II l |AL me|b0| D3 PB BO AT1 AT2 SB SA1 SA2 Braid- M Meandering and anastomosing c mg River peatland formation (at low-lying rivers) F Gravels and sands Overbank fines and peat (3 z Lake basin formation Artificial drainage and E by dead-ice melting damming of lakes -4 — ► o High Low,, Peat-stratigraphic hiatus (low groundwater level) 7 6 5 4 Age (cal kyrs BP) n i l i y ii "* , i W« il V'H* ■ * ! * : January 6 5 4 Age (varve kyrs BP) ■nH^i»W^*A* " u— ^ * * t^*6r^ ^-M^t^m^^ ****&< nM* -700 =• -600 | "500 1 12 11 10 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 6 5 4 3 2 10 Age (cal kyrs BP) Fig. 10: Late Quaternary hydrologic changes in northeast Germany (B-F) plotted alongside further palaeoclimatic and palaeohydrologic proxy records (G- K) as well as population data (L) from central Europe. G-H: January and July temperatures and annual precipitation reconstructed from pollen data from annually laminated (varved) sediments of Lake Meerfelder Maar (Eifel region, west Germany), using pollen-transfer functions (Litt et al., 2009; adapted). I: Geomorphic activity (positive probability values) and stability (negative probability vales) based on CDPF analysis of west and south German fluvial deposits (Hoffmann et al. 2008, adapted). J: Geomorphic activity based on CDPF analysis of west and central Polish fluvial deposits (Starkel et al. 2006, adapted). K: Lake-level status reconstructed from lakes of southern central Europe (Jura, French Pre-Alps and Swiss Plateau; Magny 2004, adapted). L: population density of central Europe reconstructed from archaeological evidence (Zimmermann 1996, adapted). Abb. 10: Spatquartare hydrologische Verdnderungen in Nordostdeutschland (B-F) dargestellt mit weiteren palaoklimatischen und palaohydrologischen Proxydaten (G-K) sowie paldodemografschen Daten (L) aus Mitteleuropa. G-H: Januar- und Juli-Temperaturen sowie Jahresniederschlag rekonstruiert anhand von Pollendaten (mittels Pollen-Transferfunktionen) aus den jahreszeitlich geschichteten (warvierten) Sedimenten des Meerfelder Maars (Eifel, Westdeutschland; Litt et al, 2009, verandert). I: Geomorphodynamische Aktivitdt (positive Wahrscheinlichkeitswerte) und Stabilitat (negative Wahrschein- lichkeitswerte) basierend aufder CDPF-Analyse west- und suddeutscher fluvialer Ablagerungen (Hoffmann et al. 2008, verandert). J: Geomorphodyna- mische Aktivitdt basierend aufder CDPF-Analyse west- und mittelpolnischer fluvialer Ablagerungen (Starkel et al. 2006, verandert). K: Seespiegelstatus rekonstruiert fiir das siidliche Mitteleuropa (Jura, franzdsische Voralpen, Schweizer Mittelland; Magny 2004, verandert). L: Bevblkerungsdichte in Mitte- leuropa rekonstruiert anhand archaologischer Befunde (Zimmermann 1996, verandert). EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 121 Groundwater and lake levels of low-lying river valleys in Vorpommern, NE Germany (Janke 2004) High Low U ) Lake levels in N Poland (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1989 in Zurek et al. 2002) High Low TJ ¥ Wet and dry phases in mires of E Poland (Zurek etal. 2002) Wet Dry r* Lake levels in the Swiss Jura and French subalpine mountains (Magny 1998) High Low Age ( 14 C yrs BP) Age (cal yrs BP) Sub epoch Hi 11000 12900 10000 11500 9000 10100 8000 8900 7000 7800 6000 6800 5000 5800 4000 4500 3000 3200 2000 2000 1000 1000 Lategl. Early Holocene Mid-Holocene Late Holocene Fig. 11: Lateglacial and Holocene lake- and groundwater-level data from northern and southern central Europe (after various authors, adapted). Vertical bars mark synchronicity of wet (in blue) or dry (in red) phases. Abb. 11: Spdtglaziale und holozdne Seespiegel- und Grundwasserspiegeldynamik im nbrdlichen und sudlichen Mitteleuropa (nach verschiedenen Autoren; verandert). Die vertikalen Linien markieren Synchronitdt feuchter (in blau) oder trockener (in rot) Phasen. operation, a local water level difference of c. 1 m at mini- mum is required. This led to the construction of a multitude of mill dams and, accordingly, of dammed (mostly original- ly natural) lakes and of rising groundwater levels upstream (e.g. Schich 1994, Kaiser 1996, Driescher 2003, Bleile 2004, Nutzmann et al. 2011). The operation of hundreds of water mills (together with fish weirs) drastically changed the Me- dieval hydrology in the region. The phenomenon of 'mill stowage' ('Muhlenstau' in Ger- man) and its implications for settlement, economy and land- scape was first systematically investigated by Beschoren (1935) and Herrmann (1959) particularly for the Spree and Havel Rivers, and later on extended by Driescher (2003) in the form of a multitude of local case studies in the wider region. The impacts of mill stowage on groundwater and lake levels, mire development and sedimentary processes are particularly well-investigated in the Berlin region. For the time-span 12 th -14 th century AD dated sequences from peatlands typically show a sudden change from highly to weakly decomposed peats or an inversion of the aggrada- tion sequence (lake deposits overlying peats). These records were interpreted in terms of an intensification of mire for- mation and rising lake levels, respectively, by mill stowage (Brande 1986, 1996, Bose & Brande 1986, 2009, Kuster & Kaiser 2010). Medium-scale rivers and their riparian zones, such as the Havel and Spree, were in part drastically influ- enced by these processes, whereas the large-scale Elbe River had no damming constructions but boat mills (Graf 2006). Along the low-gradient middle Havel course, mill weirs in the cities of (Berlin-) Spandau and Brandenburg/Havel, which were constructed in the late 12 th /early 13 th century AD (Schich 1994), caused large-scale lake enlargements and paludifications (Kaiser et al. 2012b). Some smaller riv- ers and streams had a multitude of water mills ('mill stair- cases'). For instance, along a 20 km section of the upper Dahme River (Brandenburg) 14 mills were operated, some since the 13 th /14 th century AD (Juschus 2002), strongly changing the river gradient, the discharge process and the local groundwater level. 5 Synopsis The temporal focus of this overview is the Late Quaternary comprising here the last c. 20,000 years and using a millen- nial scale. Accordingly, this synopsis will concentrate on this time span, comparing the regional results with those from other parts in central Europe and adding information (e.g. on climatic evolution), which is important for the understand- 122 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License ing of the results presented. However, as the regional drain- age system is influenced, on the one hand, by very long-term endogenic processes, and, on the other hand, has experienced a historically unprecedented strong change during the last c. 300 years (e.g. Blackbourn 2006, Kaiser et al. 2012b), these both time perspectives shall be touched at least by a glimpse. 5.1 Impact of neotectonic processes As outlined in chapter 2, successive Pleistocene glaciations have formed the main relief and sedimentary settings in the North European Plain. However, the river system shows several conspicuous patterns - e.g. the asymmetric (right- skewed) catchments of the Elbe and Oder Rivers, a west ori- ented turn of the Havel and Spree Rivers, the nearly orthogo- nal valley grid of Vorpommern (Fig. l) - which suggests the impact of neotectonic processes. Accordingly, several authors (e.g. Schirrmeister 1998, Reicherter et al. 2005, Sirocko et al. 2008) have asked to what extent does the present-day to- pography of the so-called 'North German Basin' mirror the heterogeneous structure of the basement? They stated that several river valleys (including spillways) and terminal mo- raines in northern Germany apparently run parallel to the major tectonic lineaments and block boundaries. Moreover, the drainage pattern and the distribution of lakes in north Germany exactly follow block boundaries and, hence, mark zones of present-day subsidence. The Tertiary morphology in that area was apparently draped by Quaternary glacial deposits, but rivers and lakes that dominate the topography of the modern landscape still reflect the geodynamic centres of Tertiary tectonism and halokinesis (Sirocko et al. 2002). 5.2 Climate impact The synoptic Figure 10A-F shows a selection of results on Late Quaternary river, lake and peatland formation, which represent the regionally typical processes discussed in the previous sections. The temporal resolution of those results is quite coarse mostly covering a chronozone or represent- ing, in general, a millennial scale. By contrast, comparing climatic, hydrologic, geomorphic and historic data from cen- tral Europe partly represent centennial- up to decadal-scale records (Fig. 10G-L). It should be borne in mind that the statistical basis for certain evidence in northeast Germany partly is still small (e.g. on the lake-level status). In this region, climate was the dominant driver for geo- morphic and hydrologic changes up to the late Holocene in- tensification of land use by man. With the exception of neo- tectonic processes of yet inadequately known impact even the partly considerably effective sea level rise of the North and Baltic Seas is ultimately climate-driven. Within this cli- mate-controlled setting local geomorphic and biotic process- es operated (e.g. dead-ice melting, fluvial aggradation/inci- sion, mire formation). However, there is no specific (high-resolution) Late Qua- ternary climate record from northeast Germany available so far except those that cover relatively short periods (e.g. Buntgen et al. 2011). Hence the pollen-based high-resolu- tion record from Lake Maarfelder Maar (Eifel region, west Germany; Litt et al. 2009) can be used to characterise some climatic trends at least for the Holocene, which, in general, can be assumed even for northeast Germany. In particular for the relatively dry-warm early Holocene and the wet-warm mid-Holocene ('Holocene optimum' between c. 8000-5000 varve yrs BP; Wanner et al. 2009) some simultaneous hydro- logic phenomena of northeast Germany (e.g. early Holocene lake-level lowstands, mid-Holocene groundwater lowering in peatlands) can be presumably ascribed to direct climat- ic impact. Geochronological data from river catchments of west and south Germany as well as west and central Poland allow some general assumptions on palaeodischarge and pa- laeoflood dynamics, which can be hypothesised even for the region under study. Large datasets of 14 C ages obtained from late Quaternary fluvial units were analysed using cumula- tive probability density functions (CPDFs) in order to iden- tify phases of fluvial activity (floods) and stability (Starkel et al. 2006, Koslacz et al. 2007, Hoffmann et al. 2008; Fig. 101, J). In the west and south German record (Fig. 101), sev- eral periods of fluvial activity were identified and compared to climatic, palaeohydrologic and human impact proxy data. Until c. 4250 cal yrs BP, events of fluvial activity are main- ly coupled to wetter and/or cooler climatic phases. Due to growing population and intensive agricultural activities dur- ing the Bronze Age the increased fluvial activity between c. 3300 and 2820 cal yrs BP cannot unequivocally be related to climate. Since 875 AD the growing population density (Fig. 10L) is via landcover changes in the catchments (increasing arable land and pastures, decreasing forests) considered as the major external forcing (Hoffmann et al. 2008). Similar curve characteristics of CPDFs from "C data on fluvial units show records from west and central Poland (Starkel et al. 2006; Fig. 10J), allowing corresponding conclusions. From southern central Europe a data set of 180 radiocar- bon, tree-ring and archaeological dates obtained from sedi- ment sequences of 26 lakes was used by Magny (2004) to construct a regional Holocene lake-level record (Fig. 10K). The dates form clusters suggesting an alternation of lower and higher, climatically driven lake-level phases. The com- parison of relative Holocene lake- and groundwater-level data from north and south central Europe reveals some dis- tinct synchronicities of wet and dry phases, but also some distinct disparities (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1989, Kaiser 1996, Magny 1998, Wojciechowski 1999, Kleinmann et al. 2000, Zurek et al. 2002, Janke 2004; Fig. 11). In general, synchronic correlation of identical phases works far better within nearby German and Polish sites of northern cen- tral Europe. In comparison to the southern central Euro- pean record, however, these records appear to be somewhat 'monolithic', which probably is caused by a low temporal resolution. For the early Holocene, the lake-level record in northeast Germany and north Poland shows a clear ten- dency towards low levels. This is not reflected in the mire record of east Poland that widely indicates a wet phase. The late Boreal and partly the early Atlantic is characterised by increasing lake and groundwater levels followed by a decrease in the late Atlantic. The beginning and mid-late Holocene (c. 2500 cal yrs BP) reveals wet phases, whereas a dry phase lies in between. The general wet-dry pattern inferred correlates well with major Holocene climatic epi- sodes (e.g. Harrison et al. 1993, Magny 2004, Litt et al. 2009, Wanner et al. 2009). A synoptic view on the northeast German results (Fig. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 123 Tab. 6: Examples of new and promising palaeohydrologic research topics for northeast Germany. Tab. 6: Beispiele fiir neue, vielversprechende Forschungsthemen zur Palaohydrologie/Historischen Hydrologie in Nordostdeutschland. Research field Remarks Exploration and combination of proxies Using new proxies and new combinations of proxies for deciphering and validating of palaeohydrologic information [e.g. tree ring data, near-shore and shoreline sediments of lakes, palaeosols of wetlands] Human induced lake drainage Exploring the occurrence and the rewetting potential of lake basins drained by historic anthropogenic hydromelioration Human induced lake formation Exploring the properties and genesis of lakes and ponds formed in Medieval times and afterwards; deciphering historic hydrologie information from young deposits / geoarchives Long hydrologie time series Linking instrumental records of specific hydrologie parameters [observations e.g. by gauging] with proxy records from geoarchives Quantitative palaeohydrology Combining palaeohydrologic field records with hydrologie modelling at different areal and temporal scales Reference status of wetlands Reconstructing the [near-] natural status of wetlands; i.e. before human impact has sustainably changed the aquatic environments 10B-F) and on evidence from other central European regions (Fig. 10G-L) reveals some concordances. But even discrepan- cies become apparent, partly within a type of proxy. Reasons for this might be, on the one hand, real differences in the regional hydrologie evolution, which are partly caused by different (pre-)historic human impact. On the other hand, a partly drastically different statistical base for the parameters presented is to consider. For example, a few data on the lake- level status in northeast Germany contrast a large database in southern central Europe. Thus future research possibly will modify the regional information available. 5.3 Pre-modern and modern human impact First intended changes of the regional hydrography date from late Medieval times (since the late 12 th century AD). In parallel the regional forests were widely cleared (Bork et al. 1998; Tab. 5), causing several unintended hydrologie changes such as rising groundwater and lakes followed by increasing fluvial discharge. In the period 18 th to first half of the 20 th cen- tury AD most of the peatlands were transformed by hydro- melioration into extensive grasslands (Schultz-Sternberg et al. 2000). In parallel a dense network of channels for in- land navigation was formed and most channels of large riv- ers were modified by hydraulic engineering. The most intensive changes, however, did not occur un- til the last c. 50-60 years. The peatlands were nearly total- ly transformed into intensive grassland and arable land by complex melioration measures (e.g. Succow 2001b); only 2 % of the original mires remained in a near-natural status (Couwenberg if Joosten 2001). In Mecklenburg-Vorpom- mern, for instance, for the period 1965-1995 a total loss of c. 290 km 2 peatlands by peat decomposition was calculated, which accounts for c. 13 % of the state's pre-modern peat- land area (Lenschow 2001). Even as a consequence of hy- dro-melioration measures in parallel with climatic and land- cover changes, the groundwater level of the first aquifer significantly dropped (1-2 m) at a regional scale, particular in Brandenburg, causing in many cases lake-level lowerings (e.g. Germer et al. 2011, Kaiser et al. 2012b). Furthermore, lignite open cast mining has drastically changed vast areas in some regions. In the Niederlausitz re- gion a total of c. 800 km 2 was required for mining activity so far. A large number of artificial lakes and connective canals were formed by flooding of disused open-cast mines, form- ing the 'Lausitzer Seenland' (Grunewald 2008). In the near future the lake area here amounts to a total of c. 250 km 2 . In the Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld area the total area of anthropo- genic lakes in the mid-2 1 st century AD will result in c. 70 km 2 , forming the 'Neue Mitteldeutsche Seenlandschaft' (Czegka et al. 2008). If the total area of natural lakes in northeast Germany is considered (c. 1300 km 2 ; Korczynski et al. 2005), artificially dug 'new lakes' (c. 320 km 2 ) will form a portion of c. 20 % of the total lake area soon of c. 1620 km 2 . Thus in modern times, man became by several impacts a very important geomorphic and hydrologie factor in the re- gion. With respect on the pace and magnitude his influence exceeds natural changes by climate and natural geomorphic processes. 5.4 Final remarks and research perspectives The results presented here on the partly interdependent de- velopment of the main aquatic (inland) environments in northeast Germany hold treasures for those seeking to un- derstand the long-term hydrologie dynamics of these eco- systems. Many modern day issues, such as understanding the causes of present hydrologie changes, re-evaluation of land use strategies and implementation of restoration meas- ures, can profit from being looked at from a longer tempo- ral perspective. Periodic hydrologie change is the 'normal status' of the environments discussed. But even if the cur- iae E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License rent regional hydrologic change, probably strongly triggered by man-made global climate change, should be exceptional with respect to its pace and magnitude, historic analogies may help to understand or even foresee complex future land- scape dynamics. As shown above, a number of principle questions on regional palaeohydrology have been posed periodically - gaining in significance each time they resurface. Research over the last c. 20 years has generally made progress in terms of expanding the regional thematic knowledge base. What is new for the region is the growth in well-documented local field findings with a broad range of accompanying lab anal- yses, particularly of geochronological and palaeoecological data. These have been complemented with (semi-) quantita- tive data on the development of specific hydrologic param- eters (e.g. on river-channel patterns or lake-level status) as well as summaries of certain processes (e.g. on peatland for- mation) in several studies. Even some specific geomorphic and sedimentary-pedologic features were newly discovered for the region (e.g. fluvio-deltaic sequences / fan-deltas in lake basins, palaeosols / hiatuses in peatlands). New research is needed to refine knowledge on the long- term development of the regional drainage system and its specific aquatic environments. This includes the establish- ment of hydrologic records with high temporal resolution, which are widely missing in the region so far. In addition, new and particularly promising regional research aspects still abound; some examples are listed in Table 6. 6 Conclusions (l) Regional research performed on late Quaternary palaeo- hydrology has largely concentrated on single aquatic envi- ronments and single hydrologic parameters so far. But the drainage pattern evolution as a system was rarely in focus. This first comprehensive overview on drainage system evo- lution in northeast Germany has shown in detail how rivers, lakes and peatlands developed partly interdependently dur- ing the last c. 20,000 years. (2) Until the late Holocene (c. 12 th /13 th century AD), land- scape hydrology in northeast Germany was predominantly driven by climate, including geomorphic and non-anthro- pogenic biotic factors. Furthermore, initial structural geo- logic findings suggest that tectonic and halokinetic influence played a more pronounced role on late Quaternary hydro- graphic evolution than previously assumed. The first indent- ed anthropogenic changes of the regional hydrography date from the late Medieval. Strong human impacts on a regional scale occurred from the 18 th century AD onwards. In modern times, man's impact exceeds the natural changes caused by natural climatic and geomorphic processes. (3) Although certain aspects of regional drainage network evolution have attracted considerable interest, the general state of thematic knowledge can be characterised as 'moder- ate' at best. For example, (a) the late Quaternary develop- ment of the large rivers (Elbe, Oder) and most of the medi- um-scale rivers (e.g. Havel, Spree) is only initially known; (b) high-resolution lake-level records are not yet available; (c) estimations of palaeodischarge and palaeoflood charac- teristics are widely lacking; (d) the aspect of climatic versus human forcing of past hydrologic processes has rarely been pursued so far; and (e) the role of beavers as effective 'engi- neers' forming Holocene aquatic landscapes has not yet been approached in the region. (4) To overcome these deficiencies new research is neces- sary. Several current and planned projects on river valley and peatland restoration in the region open promising op- portunities for the regular integration of palaeohydrologic work into present issues. Future research, more than previ- ously, should aim at developing and integrating multiproxy records from a variety of scientific perspectives. Close links to high resolution records of climate and human impact, which regionally are still to be established, must be encour- aged and fostered. Acknowledgements We are grateful to K. Billwitz (Hude), A. Brande (Berlin), F. Brose (Frankfurt/Oder), L. Eifimann (Leipzig), K.-D. Jager (Berlin), W. Janke (Greifswald), H. Kliewe ("J", Greifswald), H. Liedtke (Bochum), J. Marcinek and B. Nitz (both Berlin) as well as M. Succow (Greifswald) for initiating, stimulat- ing and supporting regional palaeohydrologic research from different viewpoints and in the course of various projects. All these colleagues, some of whom started their investiga- tions more than 50 years ago, form the founder generation for modern thematic research in the region. Basic research for the results presented in this overview was made possi- ble particularly by projects funded by the German Research Council in the 1990s and 2000s (grants Bi-560, Ma- 1425 and Ni-343). We would like to thank P. Wiese (Greifswald) for preparation of some figures. The German Academy of Sci- ence and Engineering (acatech) and the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) are kindly acknowledged, for providing the framework for this overview within the projects 'Geo Resource Water - the Challenge of Global Change', 'Terrestrial Environmental Observatories (TER- ENO)', and 'Virtual Institute of Integrated Climate and Land- scape Evolution Analyses (ICLEA)'. Finally, we are grateful to M. Bose (Berlin) and an anony- mous reviewer who gave us inspiring comments, improving significantly our manuscript. References Anthony, D. & Wohl, E. (1998): Palaeohydrology. - In: Herschy, R.W. if Fairbridge, R.W. (eds.): Encyclopedia of hydrology and water resourc- es: 508-511; Dordrecht (Kluwer). BACC Author Team (2008): Assessment of climate change for the Baltic Sea basin. - 474 pp.; Berlin (Springer). Baker, V.R. (2008): Paleoflood hydrology: Origin, progress, prospects. - Ge- omorphology, 101: 1-13. Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. & Palutikof, J.P. (eds.) (2008): Cli- mate change and water. - Technical paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change VI, 200 pp.; Geneva (IPCC Secretariat). Battarbee, R.W. (2010): Aquatic ecosystem variability and climate change - a palaeoecological perspective. - In: Kernan, M., Battarbee, R.W. & Moss, B. (eds.): Climate change impacts on freshwater ecosystems: 15-37; Chichester (Wiley-Blackwell). Behre, K.-E. (2007): A new Holocene sea-level curve for the southern North Sea. - Boreas, 36: 82-102. Benito, G. if Thorndycraft, V.R. (2005): Palaeoflood hydrology and its role in applied hydrological sciences. - Journal of Hydrology, 313: 3-15. Bennion, H. ir Battarbee, R.W. (2007): The European Union Water Frame- work Directive: opportunities for palaeolimnology. - Journal of Pale- olimnology, 38: 285-295. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 125 Berg, J. (2005): Raumlich-zeifliche Entwicklung des Unteren Ueckertal- moores bei Ueckermiinde. - Diploma-Thesis, University of Greifswald, Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology, 85 pp. Berglund, B.E., Birks. H.J.B., Ralska-Jasiewiczowa. M. ir Wright, H.E. (eds.) (1996a): Palaeoecological events during the last 15000 Years: Re- gional syntheses of palaeoecological studies of lakes and mires in Eu- rope. - 764 pp.; Chichester (Wiley). Berglund, B.E., Digerfeldt, G., Engelmark, R., Gaillard, M.-J., Karls- son, S., Miller, U. ir Risberg, J. (1996b): Sweden. - In: Berglund, B.E., Birks, H.J.B., Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. ir Wright, H.E. (eds.): Palaeoecological events during the last 15000 years. Regional synthe- ses of palaeoecological studies of lakes and mires in Europe: 233-280; Chichester (Wiley). BGR - Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (ed.) (2007): Bodenubersichtskarte von Deutschland 1 : 3.000.000. - Hanno- ver. Beschoren, B. (1935): Zur Geschichte des Havellandes und der Havel wahrend des Alluviums. - Jahrbuch der Preuftischen Geologischen Landesanstalt, 1934: 305-311. Blackbourn, D. (2006): The conquest of nature. Water, landscape, and the making of modern Germany. - 466 pp.; London (Random House). Blaszkiewicz, M. (2010): Development of fluvio-lacustrine systems in the young glacial area in Poland based on the research in the valleys of the rivers Wierzyca and Wda. - Questiones Geographicae, 29, 3: 13-19. Blaszkiewicz, M. (2011): Timing of the final disappearance of permafrost in the central European Lowland, as reconstructed from the evolution of lakes in N Poland. - Geological Quarterly, 55: 361-374. Bleile, R. (2004): Die Auswirkungen des spatmittelalterlichen Wassermiih- lenbaus auf die norddeutsche Gewasserlandschaft. - In: Biermann, F. ir Mangelsdorf, G. (eds.): Die bauerliche Ostsiedlung des Mittelalters in Nordostdeutschland. Untersuchungen zum Landesausbau des 12. bis 14. Jahrhunderts im landlichen Raum. Greifswalder Mitteilungen - Beitrage zur Ur- und Fruhgeschichte und Mittelalterarchaologie, 7: 175-192; Frankfurt (Peter Lang). Bleile, R. (2008): Quetzin - Eine spatslawische Burg auf der Kohlinsel im Plauer See. Befunde und Funde zur Problematik slawischer Inselnut- zungen in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. - Beitrage zur Ur- und Fruhges- chichte Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns, 48: 1-216. Bleile, R. (2012): Die Nutzung und Veranderung der Binnengewasser Nor- dostdeutschlands in prahistorischer und historischer Zeit - ein Uber- blick. - In: Kaiser, K., Merz, B., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (eds.): His- torische Perspektiven auf Wasserhaushalt und Wassernutzung in Mit- teleuropa. Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte von Technik, Arbeit und Umwelt, 38: 29-72; Minister (Waxmann). Bleile, R., Alsleben, A., Kaiser, K, Lehmkuhl, U, Meyer, C, Schoknecht, T. ir Ullrich, B. (2006): Archaologisch-naturwissenschaftliche Untersu- chung der spatslawenzeiflichen Burg Cuscin auf der Kohlinsel im Plau- er See (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). - Archaologisches Korresponden- zblatt, 36: 299-318. BMUNR - Bundesministerium fur Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reak- torsicherheit (ed.) (2003): Hydrologischer Atlas von Deutschland. - Bonn/Berlin. Borner, A. (2007): Das Eberswalder Urstromtal - Untersuchungen zur pleistozanen Landschaftsgenese zwischen Niederem Oderbruch und Werbellinseerinne (Nordost-Brandenburg). - Schriftenreihe fur Geow- issenschaften, 17: 1-164; Usedom. Borner, A., Janke, W., Lampe, R., Lorenz, S., Obst, K. ir Schutze, K. (2011): Geowissenschaftliche Untersuchungen an der OPAL-Trasse in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern - Gelandearbeiten und erste Ergebnisse. - Brandenburgische Geowissenschaftliche Beitrage, 18: 9-28. Bose, M. (1995): Problems of dead ice and ground ice in the central part of the North European Plain. - Quaternary International, 28: 123-125. Bose, M. (2005): The last glaciation and geomorphology. - In: Koster, E.A. (ed.): The physical geography of western Europe: 61-74; Oxford (Ox- ford University Press). Bose, M. ir Brande, A. (1986): Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Moores .Al- ter Hof" am Havelufer (Berliner Forst Diippel). - In: Ribbe, W. (ed.): Berlin-Forschungen I, Einzelveroffentlichungen der Historischen Kom- mission zu Berlin: 11-42; Berlin (Spitz). Bose, M. ir Brande, A. (2009): Landscape history and man-induced land- scape changes in the young morainic area of the North European Plain - a case study from the Bake Valley, Berlin. - Geomorphology, 122: 274-282. B6TTGER, T, HlLLER, A., JUNGE, F.W., LlTT, T, MANIA, D. eV SCHEELE, N. (1998): Late Glacial stable isotope record, radiocarbon stratigraphy, pollen and mollusc analyses from Geiseltal area, Central Germany. - Boreas, 27: 88-100. Bottner, L. (1999): Die jungquartare Landschaftsentwicklung im Bereich der Talsandflache von Markisch Buchholz. - Arbeitsberichte des Ge- ographischen Institutes der Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin, 73: 1-88. Bogen, C, Hilgers, A., Kaiser, K, Kuhn, P. ir Lidke, G. (2003): Archaolo- gie, Pedologie und Geochronologie spatpalaolifhischer Fundplatze in der Ueckermiinder Heide (Kr. Uecker-Randow, Mecklenburg-Vorpom- mern). - Archaologisches Korrespondenzblatt, 33: 1-20. Bork, H.-R., Bork, H, Dalchow, C, Faust, B., Piorr, H.-P. ir Schatz, T. (1998): Landschaftsentwicklung in Mitteleuropa. - 328 pp.; Gotha (Klett-Perfhes). Borowka, R.K., Osadczuk, A., Witkowski, A., Wawrzyniak-Wydrows- KA, B. ir Duda, T. (2005): Late Glacial and Holocene depositional his- tory in the eastern part of the Szczecin Lagoon (Great Lagoon) basin - NW Poland. - Quaternary International, 130: 87-96. Brande, A. (1986): Stratigraphie und Genese Berliner Kesselmoore. - Telma, 16: 319-321. Brande, A. (1988): Das Bollenfenn in Berlin-Tegel. - Telma, 18: 95-135. Brande, A. (1996): Type region D-s, Berlin. - In: Berglund, B.E., Birks, H.J.B., Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. *■ Wright, H.E. (eds.): Palaeoeco- logical events during the last 15000 years. Regional syntheses of palae- oecological studies of lakes and mires in Europe: 518-523; Chichester (Wiley). Brande, A. (2003): Late Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphy of Lake Stechlin. - Archive of Hydrobiology, Special Issues in Advanced Lim- nology, 58: 281-311. Brande, A., Klimaschewski, A. ir Poppschotz, R. (2007): Spatpleistozan- holozane Sedimentation und Vegetation im Oberspreewald (Branden- burg). - Beitrage zur Ur- und Fruhgeschichte Mitteleuropas, 48: 52-68. Branson, J., Bron, J. ir Gregory, K.J. (eds.) (1996): Global continental changes: the context of palaeohydrology. - Geological Society Spe- cial Publication, 115: 1-280; Bath (The Geological Society Publishing House). Brazdil, R., Glaser, R., Pfister, C, Dobrovolny, P., Antoine, J.-M., Bar- riendos, M., Camuffo, D., Deutsch, M., Enzi, S., Guidoboni, E., Ko- tyza, O. ir Rodrigo, F.S. (1999): Flood events of selected European riv- ers in the sixteenth century. - Climatic Change, 43: 239-285. Brazdil, R., Kundzewicz, Z.W. ir Benito, G. (2006): Historical hydrology for studying flood risk in Europe. - Hydrological Sciences Journal, 51: 739-764. Brose, F. (1994): Das untere Odertal: Talentwicklung, Nutzung und Wasser- bau. - In: Schroeder, J.H. (ed.): Fiihrer zur Geologie von Berlin und Brandenburg Nr. 2: Bad Freienwalde - Parsteiner See: 152-157; Berlin. Brose, F. (1998): Genese holozaner Flussauen, dargestellt am Beispiel des unteren Odertals. - Brandenburgische Geowissenschaftliche Beitrage, 5, 1: 7-13. Brose, F. (2000): Subglaziale Rinnen - Die Schlaubetalrinne. - In: Schroed- er, J.H. ir Brose, F. (eds.): Fiihrer zur Geologie von Berlin und Branden- burg Nr. 7: Frankfurt (Oder) -Eisenhuttenstadt: 97-101; Berlin. Brose, F. ir Prager, F. (1983): Regionale Zusammenhange und Diiferen- zierungen der holozanen Flussgenese im nordmitteleuropaischen Ver- gletscherungsgebiet. - Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen Ergan- zungsheft, 282: 164-175. Brown, A.G (2002): Learning from the past: palaeohydrology and palae- oecology. - Freshwater Biology, 47: 817-829. Buntgen, U, Tegel, W., Nicolussi, K, McCormick, M., Frank, D., Trou- et, V, Kaplan, J.O., Herzig, F., Heussner, K.U., Wanner, H., Luter- bacher, J. ir Esper, J. (2011): 2500 years of European climate variability and human susceptibility. - Science, 331: 578-582. Carls, R. (2005): Untersuchungen zur Reliefgenese des Oderbruchrandes zwischen Reitweiner Sporn und Platkower Schwemmfacher (Ost- brandenburg). - Berliner Geographische Arbeiten, 101: 1-215. Caspers, G. (2000): Sedimente und Entwicklung des Elbetales im Gebiet der Wische (Sachsen-Anhalt) seit der Weichsel-Kaltzeit. - Untere Havel - Naturkundliche Berichte, 10: 32-42. CEC (2000): Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. - 72 pp.; Brussels. Chambers, F.M. (1996): Peatlands, palaeoclimates and palaeohydrology. In: Branson, J. (ed.): Palaeohydrology: context, components and applica- tion. - British Hydrological Society Occasional Paper, 7: 25-35. Chrobok, S.M. ir Nitz, B. (1987): Die Entwicklung des Gewassernetzes der Oberen Finow vom Blankenberg-Interstadial bis heute. - Wissen- schaftliche Zeitschrift der Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universitat Greifswald, 126 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Reihe, 36, 1/2: 20-25. Chrobok, S.M. ir Nitz, B. (1995): A remarkable series of Late-glacial sedi- ments in the hinterland of the Frankfurt end moraine, north of Berlin. - In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S. ir Gibbard, P. (eds.): Glacial deposits in North-East Europe: 493-500; Rotterdam (Balkema). Couwenberg, J., de Klerk, P., Endtmann, E., Joosten, H. if Michaelis, D. (2001): Hydrogenetische Moortypen in der Zeit - eine Zusammen- schau. - In: Succow, M. ir Joosten, H. (eds.): Landschaftsokologische Moorkunde: 399-403; Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Couwenberg, J. ir Joosten, H. (2001): Bilanzen zum Moorverlust. Das Beispiel Deutschland. In: Succow, M. ir Joosten, H. (eds.): Landschaft- sokologische Moorkunde: 409-411; Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Czegka, W., Junge, F.W., Hausmann, J., Kuchenbuch, V. ir Wennrich, R. (2008): Die anthropogenen Standgewasser der "Neuen Mitteldeutschen Seenlandschaft" (Neuseenland) - Oberblick, hydrochemische Typis- ierung, ausgewahlte Beispiele. - Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Geowissenschaften, 159: 141-154. Czymzik, M., Dulski, P., Plessen, B., von Grafenstein, U., Naumann, R. & Brauer, A. (2010): A 450-year record of spring/summer flood layers in annually laminated sediments from Lake Ammersee (Southern Ger- many). - Water Resources Research, 46: W11528. Dalchow, C. & Kiesel, J. (2005): Die Oder greift ins Elbegebiet - Span- nungsverhaltnisse und Sollbruchstellen zwischen zwei Flussgebieten. - Brandenburgische Geowissenschaftliche Beitrage, 12: 73-86. de Klerk, P. (2002): Changing vegetation patterns in the Endinger Bruch area (Vorpommern, NE Germany) during the Weichselian Lateglacial and Early Holocene. - Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 119: 275-309. de Klerk, P. (2004): Vegetation history and landscape development of the "Friedlander Grofie Wiese" region (Vorpommern, NE Germany) in- ferred from four pollen diagrams of Franz Fukarek. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 54: 71-94. de Klerk, P. (2008): Patterns in vegetation and sedimentation during the Weichselian Late-glacial in north-eastern Germany. - Journal of Bio- geography, 35: 1308-1322. de Klerk, P., Helbig, H., Helms, S., Janke, W., Krugel, K., Kuhn, P., Michaelis, D. ir Stolze, S. (2001): The Reinberg researches: palaeoeco- logical and geomorphological studies of a kettle hole in Vorpommern (NE Germany), with special emphasis on a local vegetation during the Weichselian Pleniglacial/Lateglacial transition. - Greifswalder Geo- graphische Arbeiten, 23: 43-131. de Klerk, P., Helbig, H. ir Janke, W. (2008a): Vegetation and environment in and around the Reinberg basin (Vorpommern, NE Germany) dur- ing the Weichselian late Pleniglacial, Lateglacial, and Early Holocene. - Acta Palaeobotanica, 48: 301-324. de Klerk, P., Janke, W, Kuhn, P. ir Theuerkauf, M. (2008b): Environmen- tal impact of the Laacher See Eruption at a large distance from the Volcano: integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (Ger- many). - Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 270: 196-214. Digerfeldt, G. (1998): Reconstruction of Holocene lake-level changes in southern Sweden: technique and results. - In: Harrison, S., Frenzel, B., Huckriede, U. ir Weiss, M.M. (eds.): Palaeohydrology as reflected in lake level changes as climatic evidence for Holocene times. Palaok- limaforschung-Palaeoclimate Research, 25: 87-98; Stuttgart (Fischer). Dobracka, E. (1983): Development of the lower Odra valley and the Wkra Forest (Ueckermiinder Heide) lowland in the Late-Glacial and the Holocene. - Petermanns Geographische Mifteilungen Erganzungsheft, 282: 108-117. Dorfler, W. (2009): Seespiegelschwankungen des Grofien Ploner Sees im Licht alter und neuer Daten. - Universitatsforschungen zur Prahistor- ischen Archaologie, 165: 143-156. Driescher, E. (2003): Veranderungen an Gewassern Brandenburgs in his- torischer Zeit. - Studien und Tagungsberichte, 47: 1-143. Potsdam. Duck, R.W., Dearing, J.A., Zolitschka, B., Renberg, I., Frenzel, B., Ne- gendank, J.F.W., Merkt, J., Giraudi, C. ir Dahl, S.-O. (1998): Physical records from lakes: the discrimination between signals due to changes in lake water depth and those due to changes in catchment processes. - In: Harrison, S., Frenzel, B., Huckriede, U. ir Weiss, M.M. (eds.): Palaeohydrology as reflected in lake level changes as climatic evidence for Holocene times. Palaoklimaforschung-Palaeoclimate Research, 25: 149-160; Stuttgart (Fischer). Eckoldt, M. (ed.) (1998): Flusse und Kanale - Die Geschichte der deutschen Wasserstrassen. Schiffahrtswege, Wasserbau, Verkehr. - 526 p.; Ham- burg (DSV-Verlag). EEA - European Environment Agency (2009): Water resources across Eu- rope - confronting water scarcity and drought. - EEA Report, 2/2009 55 pp.; Copenhagen. Eissmann, L. (2002): Quaternary geology of eastern Germany (Saxony, Saxon-Anhalt, South Brandenburg, Thuringia), type area of the Elste- rian and Saalian Stages in Europe. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 21: 1275-1346. Enters, D., Kirilova, E., Lotter, A., Lucke, A., Parplies, J., Kuhn, G., Jahns, S. ir Zolitschka, B. (2010): Climate change and human impact at Sacrower See (NE Germany) during the past 13,000 years: a geo- chemical record. -Journal of Palaeolimnology, 43: 719-737. Friedrich, M., Knipping, M., Schmidt, S., van der Kroft, P., Renno, A., Ullrich, O. ir Vollbrecht, J. (2001): Ein Wald am Ende der letzten Eiszeit. Untersuchungen zur Besiedlungs-, Landschafts- und Vegeta- tionsentwicklung an einem verlandeten See im Tagebau Reichwalde, Niederschlesischer Oberlausitzkreis. - Arbeits- und Forschungsberichte zur Sachsischen Bodendenkmalpflege, 43: 21-94. Fuhrmann, R. (1999): Klimaschwankungen im Holozan nach Befunden aus Talsedimenten Mitteldeutschlands. Beitrage zur Klimageschichte und Stratigraphie des jiingeren Quartars. - Altenburger naturwissen- schaftliche Forschungen, 11: 1-63. Gartner P. (1993): Beitrage zur Landschaftsgeschichte des Westlichen Barn- ims. - Berliner Geographische Arbeiten, 77: 1-109. Gartner, P. (2007): Synopsis jungquartarer Landschaftsgeschichte im Ge- biet des Rheinsberger Rhin. - Brandenburgische Geowissenschaftliche Beitrage, 18, 1: 31-36. Gaillard, M.-J. ir Digerfeldt, G. (1990): Palaeohydrological studies and their contribution to palaeoecological and palaeoclimatic reconstruc- tions. - Ecological Bulletins, 41: 275-282. Germer, S., Kaiser, K., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (2011): Water balance chang- es and responses of ecosystems and society in the Berlin-Brandenburg region - a review. - Die Erde, 142: 65-95. Gerstengarbe, F.-W., Badeck, F., Hattermann, F., Krysanova, V, Lah- mer, W, Lasch, P., Stock, M., Suckow, F., Wechsung, F. ir Werner, P.C. (2003): Studie zur klimatischen Entwicklung im Land Brandenburg bis 2055 und deren Auswirkungen auf den Wasserhaushalt, die Forst- und Landwirtschaft sowie die Ableitung erster Perspektiven. - PIK Re- ports, 83: 1-79. Gerten, D., Rost, S., von Bloh, W. ir Lucht, W. (2008): Causes of change in 20 th century global river discharge. - Geophysical Research Letters, 35: L20405. Giesecke, T. (2000): Pollenanalytische und sedimentchemische Unter- suchungen zur Landschaftsgeschichte am Grofien Treppelsee (Ost- Brandenburg, Deutschland). - Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft Natur- forschender Freunde zu Berlin, 39: 89-112. Glaser, R. (2001): Klimageschichte Mitteleuropas - 1000 Jahre Wetter, Kli- ma, Katastrophen. - 227 pp.; Darmstadt (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell- schaft). Gorsdorf, J. ir Kaiser, K. (2001): Radiokohlenstoffdaten aus dem Spatpleis- tozan und Fruhholozan von Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. - Meyniana, 53:91-118. Graf, G. (2006): Boat mills in Europe from early Medieval to Modern Times. - Veroffentlichungen des Sachsischen Landesamtes fur Archaologie mit Landesmuseum fur Vorgeschichte, 51: 1-368. Gramsch, B. (2002): Archaologische Indizien fur natiirliche und kiinstli- che Wasserspiegelveranderungen in nordostdeutschen Urstromtalern wahrend des Holozans. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 26: 189-192. Gregory, K.J., Starkel, L. ir Baker, V.R. (eds.) (1995): Global continental palaeohydrology. - 346 pp.; Chichester (Wiley). Gregory, K J. ir Benito, G (2003): Potential of palaeohydrology in relation to global change. - In: Gregory, K.J. ir Benito, G (eds.): Palaeohydro- logy: understanding global change: 3-15; Chichester (Wiley). Gregory, K.J., Benito, G, Dikau, R., Golosov, V, Jones, A.J.J., Macklin, M.G., Parsons, A.J., Passmore, D.G., Poesen, J., Starkel, L. ir Wall- ing, D.E. (2006): Past hydrological events and global change. - Hydro- logical Processes, 20: 199-204. Grunert, J. (2003): Zur Genese der Niederungen Krumme Lake und Neue Wiesen in Berlin-Kopenick - Ein Beitrag zur Gewassernetzentwicklung im norddeutschen Jungmoranenland. - Brandenburgische Geowissen- schaftliche Beitrage, 14, 1/2: 165-172. Grunewald, U. (2008): Problems of integrated water management in the Spree-Havel region in the context of global change. - In: Wechsung, F., Kaden, S., Behrendt, H. ir Klocking B. (eds.): Integrated analysis of the impacts of global change on environment and society in the Elbe EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 127 river basin: 203-212; Berlin (WeiSensee Verlag). Gudermann, G. (2000): Morastwelt und Paradies. Okonomie und Okologie in der Landwirtschaft am Beispiel der Meliorationen in Westfalen und Brandenburg (1830-1880). - 577 pp.; Paderborn (Schoningh). Hagedorn, J. (ed.) (1995): Late Quaternary and present-day fluvial proc- esses in Central Europe. - Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie Supplement, 100: 1-204. Harrison, S., Prentice, J.C. ir Wick, L. (1993): Climatic controls on Holocene lake-level changes in Europe. - Climate Dynamics, 8: 189- 200. Harrison, S., Frenzel, B., Huckriede, U. ir Weiss, M.M. (eds.) (1998): Pal- aeohydrology as reflected in lake level changes as climatic evidence for Holocene times. - Palaoklimaforschung-Palaeoclimate Research, 25: 1-180; Stuttgart (Fischer). Helbig, H. (1999): Die spatglaziale und holozane Oberpragung der Grund- moranenplatten in Vorpommern. - Greifswalder Geographische Ar- beiten, 17: 1-110. Helbig, H. ir de Klerk, P. (2002): Befunde zur spatglazialen fluvial-lim- nischen Morphodynamik in kleinen Talungen Vorpommerns. - Eiszeit- alter und Gegenwart, 51: 51-66. Hendl, M. (1994): Klima. - In: Liedtke, H. ir Marcinek, J. (eds.): Physische Geographie Deutschlands: 23-119; Gotha (Perthes). Herrmann, J. (1959): Wasserstand und Siedlung im Spree-Havel-Gebiet in fruhgeschichthcher Zeit. - Ausgrabungen und Funde, 4: 90-106. Hickisch, A. (2004): Ableitung flussmorphologischer Parameter aus histor- ischen Karten und stratigraphischen Untersuchungen. Ein Beitrag zur Leitbildentwicklung fur die Nuthe/Brandenburg. - Fachbeitrage des Landesumweltamtes, 89: 1-86; Potsdam. Hickisch, A. ir Pazolt, J. (2005): Die Nuthe - wasserbauliche Veranderun- gen und Nutzung der Aue seit 1770 und deren Auswirkungen auf die Flussmorphologie. Eine Analyse historischer Karten und Quellen. - Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege in Brandenburg, 14, 2: 11-16. Hiller, A., Litt, T. ir Eissmann, L. (1991): Zur Entwicklung der jung- quartaren Tieflandstaler im Saale-Elbe-Raum unter besonderer Beriick- sichtigung von 14 C-Daten. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 41: 26-46. Hiller, A., Junge, F.W., Geyh, M.A., Krebetschek, M. ir Kremenetski, C. (2004): Characterising and dating Weichselian organogenic sediments: a case study from the Lusatian ice marginal valley (Scheibe opencast mine, eastern Germany). - Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Pal- aeoecology, 205: 273-294. Hilt, S., Schonfelder, I., Rudnicka, A., Carls, R., Nikolaevich, N., Su- khodolov, A. ir Engelhardt, C. (2008): Reconstruction of pristine morphology, nutrient conditions and submerged vegetation of lowland River Spree (Germany) from palaeomeanders. - River Research and Applications, 24: 310-324. Hoffmann, G ir Barnasch, J. (2005): Late Glacial to Holocene coastal changes of SE Riigen Island (Baltic Sea, NE Germany). - Aquatic Sci- ences, 67: 132-141. Hoffmann, G, Lampe, R. ir Barnasch, J. (2005): Postglacial evolution of coastal barriers along the West Pomeranian coast, NE Germany. - Qua- ternary International, 133/134: 47-60. Hoffmann, T., Lang, A. ir Dikau, R. (2008): Holocene river activity: analys- ing "C-dated fluvial and colluvial sediments from Germany. - Quater- nary Science Reviews, 27: 2031-2040. Huang, S., Krysanova, V., Osterle, H. ir Hattermann, F.F. (2010): Simu- lation of spatiotemporal dynamics of water fluxes in Germany under climate change. - Hydrological Processes, 24: 3289-3306. Hubener, T. ir Dorfler, W (2004): Reconstruction of the trophic develop- ment of Lake Krakower Obersee (Mecklenburg, Germany) by means of sediment-, diatom- and pollen-analysis. - Studia Quaternaria, 21: 101-108. IfL - Leibniz-Institut fur Landerkunde e. V. (ed.) (2008): Klimatische Gliederung. - Deutschland in Karten (Online Atlas); Leipzig, [http:// www.ifl-leipzig.de/de/publikationen/atlanten/deutschland-in-karten. html] IPPC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (ed.) (2007): Cli- mate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Work- ing Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. - 996 pp.; Cambridge (Cambridge University Press). Janke, W. (2002): The development of the river valleys from the Uecker to the Warnow. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 27: 101-106. Janke, W. (2004): Holozan im Binnenland. - In: Katzung, G (ed.): Geolo- gie von Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: 265-284; Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Jantzen, D., Brinker, U., Orschiedt, J., Heinemeier, J., Piek, J., Hau- ENSTEIN, K, KRUGER, J., LlDKE, G, LtJBKE, H., LAMPE, R., LORENZ, S., Schult, M. ir Terberger, T. (2011): A Bronze Age battlefield? Weapons and trauma in the Tollense Valley, north-eastern Germany. - Antiquity, 85: 417-433 Jeschke, L. (1990): Der Einfluss der Klimaschwankungen und Rodung- sphasen auf die Moorentwicklung im Mittelalter. - Gleditschia, 18: 115-123. Jorgensen, F. ir Sandersen, P.B.E. (2006): Buried and open tunnel valleys in Denmark - erosion beneath multiple ice sheets. - Quaternary Sci- ence Reviews, 25: 1339-1363. Joosten, H. (2008): What are peatlands? - In: Parish, F., Sirin, A., Char- man, D., Joosten, H., Minaeva, T. ir Silvius, M. (eds): Assessment on peatlands, biodiversity and climate change: 8-19; Kuala Lumpur, Wageningen (Global Environment Centre, Wetlands International). Juschus O. (ed.) (2002): Zur Flussgeschichte der Dahme. - Arbeitsberichte des Geographischen Institutes der Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin, 75: 1-95. Juschus O. (2003): Das Jungmoranenland siidlich von Berlin - Untersu- chungen zur jungquartaren Landschaftsentwicklung zwischen Unter- spreewald und Nuthe. - Berliner Geographische Arbeiten, 95: 1-152. Kaffke, A. (2002): Holozaner Seespiegelanstieg und Moorwachstum durch Versumpfung - palynologische und stratigraphische Untersuchungen am Gorner See (Havelland, Brandenburg). - Greifswalder Geogra- phische Arbeiten, 26: 157-160. Kaiser, K. (1996): Zur hydrologischen Entwicklung mecklenburgischer Seen im jiingeren Quartar. - Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 140: 323-342. Kaiser, K. (1998): Die hydrologische Entwicklung der Miiritz im jiingeren Quartar - Befunde und ihre Interpretation. - Zeitschrift fur Geomor- phologie Supplement, 112: 143-176. Kaiser, K. (2001): Die spatpleistozane bis fruhholozane Beckenentwicklung in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern - Untersuchungen zur Stratigraphie, Geomorphologie und Geoarchaologie. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 24: 1-259. Kaiser, K. (ed.) (2002): Die jungquartare Flufi- und Seegenese in Nordost- deutschland. Beitrage zur Tagung in Hohenzieritz (Mecklenburg) vom 26.-28. Februar 2002. -Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 26: 1-243. Kaiser, K. (2004a): Lake basin development in the Endinger Bruch area (Vorpommern, NE Germany) during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. - Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, 48: 461-480. Kaiser, K. (2004b): Geomorphic characterization of the Pleistocene-Holo- cene transition in Northeast Germany. - In: Terberger, T. ir Eriksen, B.V. (eds.): Hunters of a changing world - Environment and archaeol- ogy of the Pleistocene-Holocene transition in northern Central Europe ca. 11,500 years ago: 53-73; Rhaden/Westf. (Leidorf). Kaiser, K. ir Zimmermann, A. (1994): Physisch-geographische Untersu- chungen an Mooren und Seen im Havelquellgebiet (Miiritz-National- park). - Berichte der Akademie fur Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege Laufen/Salzach (Bayern), 22: 147-173. Kaiser, K. ir Janke, W (1998): Bodenkundlich-geomorphologische und palaobotanische Untersuchungen im Ryckbecken bei Greifswald. - Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, 45: 69-102. Kaiser, K, Endtmann, E. ir Janke, W (2000): Befunde zur Relief-, Vege- tations- und Nutzungsgeschichte an Ackersollen bei Barth, Lkr. Nord- vorpommern. - Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, 47: 151-180. Kaiser, K, Schoknecht, T, Prehn, B., Janke, W ir Kloss, K. (2002): Geo- morphologische, palynologische und archaologische Beitrage zur holo- zanen Landschaftsgeschichte im Miiritzgebiet (Mecklenburg-Vorpom- mern). - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 51: 15-32. Kaiser, K, Bogen, C, Czako-Pap, S. ir Janke, W. (2003): Zur Geoarchaolo- gie des mesolithisch-neolithischen Fundplatzes Rothenklempenow am Latzigsee in der Ueckermiinder Heide (Vorpommern). - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 29: 27-68. Kaiser, K, Barthelmes, A., Czako Pap, S., Hilgers, A., Janke, W., Kuhn, P. ir Theuerkauf, M. (2006): A Lateglacial palaeosol cover in the Alt- darss area, southern Baltic Sea coast (Northeast Germany): investiga- tions on pedology, geochronology and botany. - Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 85: 197-220. Kaiser, K, Rother, H., Lorenz, S., Gartner, P. ir Papenroth, R. (2007): Geomorphic evolution of small river-lake-systems in Northeast Ger- many during the Late Quaternary. - Earth Surface Processes and Land- forms, 32: 1516-1532. Kaiser, K, Libra, J., Merz, B., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (eds.) (2010): Ak- tuelle Probleme im Wasserhaushalt von Nordostdeutschland: Trends, Ursachen, Losungen. - Scientific Technical Report STR, 10/10: 1-239; Potsdam (German Research Centre for Geosciences). 128 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Kaiser, K., Friedrich, J., Oldorff, S., Germer, S., Mauersberger, R., Natkhin, M., Hupfer, M., Pingel, P., Schonfelder, J., Spicher, V., Stuve, P., Vedder, F., Bens, O., Mietz, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (2012a): Ak- tuelle hydrologische Veranderungen von Seen in Nordostdeutschland: Wasserspiegeltrends, okologische Konsequenzen, Handlungsmog- lichkeiten. - In: Grunewald, U., Bens, O., Fischer, H., Huttl, R.F., Kaiser, K. & Knierim, A. (eds.): Wasserbezogene Anpassungsmafinah- men an den Landschafts- und Klimawandel in Deutschland: 148-170; Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Kaiser, K, Gunther, K., Lorenz, S., Merz, B., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (2012b): Historische Veranderungen des Wasserhaushalts und der Wassernutzung in Nordostdeutschland. - In: Kaiser, K, Merz, B., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (eds.): Historische Perspektiven auf Wasser- haushalt und Wassernutzung in Mitteleuropa. Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte von Technik, Arbeit und Umwelt, 38: 73-102; Miinster (Waxmann). Kalicki, T. (1996): Climatic or anthropogenic alluviation in Central Europe- an valleys during the Holocene? - In: Branson, J., Bron, J. ir Gregory, K.J. (eds.): Global continental changes: the context of palaeohydrology. Geological Society Special Publication, 115: 205-215; London (The Geo- logical Society). Kirilova, E., Heiri, O., Enters, D., Cremer, H, Lotter, A.F., Zolitschka, B. ir Hubener, T. (2009): Climate-induced changes in the trophic status of a Central European lake. - Journal of Limnology, 68: 71-82. Kleinmann, A., Merkt, J. ir Muller, H. (2000): Climatic lake-level changes in German lakes during the Holocene. In: Negendank, J.F.W. ir Brau- er, A. (eds.): The record of human/climate interactions in lake sedi- ments. 5 th Workshop of the European Lake Drilling Programme ELDP. Terra Nostra, 7: 55-63; Berlin (GeoUnion Alfred-Wegener-Stiftung). Kliewe H. (1989): Zur Entwicklung der Kustenlandschaft im Nordosten der DDR wahrend des Weichsel-Spatglazials. - Acta Geographica Debre- cina, 24/25: 99-113. Kloss, K. (1987a): Pollenanalysen zur Vegetationsgeschichte, Moorentwick- lung und mesolithisch-neolithischen Besiedlung im Unteren Rhinluch bei Friesack, Bezirk Potsdam. - Veroffentlichungen des Museums fur Ur- und Fruhgeschichte Potsdam, 21: 101-120. Kloss, K. (1987b): Zur Genese von Niederungsmooren. - Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universitat Greifswald, Mathema- tisch-naturwissenschaftliche Reihe, 36, 2/3: 52-54. Kopczynska-Lamparska, K, Ciesla, A. ir Skompski, S. (1984): Evolution of fossil lake basin of the Late Glacial and Holocene in the cliff near Niechorze (Pomeranian Lakeland, Poland). - Quaternary Studies in Po- land, 5: 39-58. Korczynski, I., Kabus, T, Kurt, S., Moller, D. ir Muller, J. (2005): Klein- seen in Nordostdeutschland: Trophischer Zustand und FFH-Leben- sraumtypen. - Tagungsband Jahrestreffen 2004, Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Limnologie e.V., Potsdam, 20.-24. September 2004: 146-150; Berlin (Weiflensee Verlag). Koslacz, R., Michczynska, D.J., Michczynski, A., Pazdur, A., Sanetra, A. ir Zastawny, A. (2007): Radiocarbon chronology of the Odra river valley. - 9 th International Conference 'Methods of Absolute Chronol- ogy', 25-27 April 2007, Gliwice/Poland, Poster contribution. Kossler, A. (2010): Faunen und Floren der limnisch-telmatischen Schichten- folge des Paddenluchs (Brandenburg, Riidersdorf) vom ausgehenden Weichselhochglazial bis ins Holozan - Aussagen zu Palaomilieu und Klimabedingungen. Berliner palaobiologische Abhandlungen, 11. Kossler, A. ir Strahl, J. (2011): The Late Weichselian to Holocene succes- sion of the Niedersee (Riigen, Baltic Sea) - new results based on multi- proxy studies. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 60: 434-454. Koster, E.A. ir Favier, T (2005): Peatlands, past and present. - In: Koster, EA. (ed.): The physical geography of western Europe: 161-182; Oxford (Oxford University Press). Krienke, K. (2003): Siidostrugen im Weichsel-Hochglazial - Lifhostratig- raphische, lfthofazielle, strukturgeologische und landschaftsgenetische Studien zur jiingsten Vergletscherung im Kiistenraum Vorpommerns (NE Deutschland). - Greifswalder Geowissenschaftliche Beitrage, 12: 1-147. Krienke, H.-D., Strahl, J., Kossler, A. ^Thieke, H.U. (2006): Stratigraphie und Lagerungsverhaltnisse einer quasi vollstandigen weichselzeitlichen Schichtenfolge im Bereich des Deponiestandorts Grimmen (Mecklen- burg-Vorpommern). - Brandenburgische Geowissenschaftliche Bei- trage, 17, 1/2: 133-154. Kuhner, R., Hiller, A. ir Junge, F.W. (1999): Die spatweichselzeiflichen Ablagerungen der Spree im Tagebau Cottbus-Nord und ihre zeitliche Einordnung unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung von i4 C-Daten an Holz- ern. - Quartar, 49/50: 8-20. Kuster, H. ir Potsch, J. (1998): Okosystemwandel in Flusslandschaften Norddeutschlands. - Berichte der Reinhold-Tuxen-Gesellschaft, 10: 61-71. Kuster, M. (2009): Holozane Bodenerosion und Palaohydrologie im Sander des Pommerschen Stadiums bei Blankenforde (Mecklenburg-Strelitz). - Diploma- Thesis, University of Greifswald, Institute of Geography and Geology, 149 pp. Kuster, M. ir Kaiser, K. (2010): Historische und aktuelle Gewasserentwick- lung im Havel-Quellgebiet (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). - In: Kaiser, K, Libra, J., Merz, B., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (eds.): Aktuelle Probleme im Wasserhaushalt von Nordostdeutschland: Trends, Ursachen, Losun- gen. Scientific Technical Report STR, 10/10: 116-124; Potsdam (German Research Centre for Geosciences). Kuster, M., Ruchhoft, F., Lorenz, S. ir Janke, W. (2011): Geoarchaeologi- cal evidence of Holocene human impact and soil erosion on a till plain in Vorpommern (Kuhlenhagen, NE-Germany). - E&G Quaternary Sci- ence Journal, 60: 455-463. Kuster, M., Janke, W., Hubener, T, Klamt, A.-M., Meyer, H, Lorenz, S. ir Lampe, R. (2012): Zur jungquartaren Landschaftsentwicklung der Meck- lenburgischen Kleinseenplatte: Geomorphologische, bodenkundliche und limnogeologische Untersuchungen am Krummen See bei Blank- enforde (Mecklenburg). - In: Nationalparkamt Miiritz (ed.): Forschung und Monitoring, 3. Kundzewicz, Z.W., Mata, L.J., Arnell, N, Doll, P., Jimenez, B., Miller, K., Oki, T, Sen, Z. ir Shiklomanov, I. (2008): The implications of pro- jected climate change for freshwater resources and their management. - Hydrological Science Journal, 53: 3-10. Lampe, R. (2002): Holocene evolution and coastal dynamics of the Fisch- land-Darss-Zingst peninsula. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 27: 155-163. Lampe, R. (2005): Lateglacial and Holocene water-level variations along the NE-German Baltic Sea coast - review and new results. - Quaternary International, 133/134: 121-136. Lampe, R., Lorenz, S., Janke, W. Meyer, H., Kuster, M., Hubener, T. ir Schwarz, A. (2009): Zur Landschafts- und Gewassergeschichte der Miiritz. Umweltgeschichtlich orientierte Bohrungen 2004-2006 zur Re- konstruktion der nacheiszeitlichen Entwicklung. - In: Nationalparkamt Miiritz (ed.): Forschung und Monitoring, 2: 1-93. Lampe, R., Endtmann, E., Janke, W. ir Meyer, H. (2010): Relative sea-level development and isostasy along the NE German Baltic Sea coast during the past 9 ka. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 59: 3-20. Lane, C.S., de Klerk, P. ir Cullen, V.L. (2012): A tephrochronology for the Lateglacial palynological record of the Endinger Bruch (Vorpommern, north-east Germany). - Journal of Quaternary Science, 27: 141-149. Lang, G. (1994): Quartare Vegetationsgeschichte Europas. Methoden und Ergebnisse. - 462 p.; Heidelberg (Spektrum Akademischer Verlag). Latalowa, M. (1992): Man and vegetation in the pollen diagrams from Wo- lin island (NW Poland). - Acta Palaeobotanica, 32: 123-249. Lehner, B., Doll, P., Alcamo, J., Henrichs, H. ir Kaspar, F. (2006): Es- timating the impact of global change on flood and drought risks in Europe: a continental, integrated assessment. - Climatic Change, 75: 273-299. Lenschow, U. (2001): Bilanzen zum Moorverlust. Das Beispiel Mecklen- burg-Vorpommern. - In: Succow, M. ir Joosten, H. (eds.): Landschaft- sokologische Moorkunde: 411-415; Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Litt, T, Scholzel, C, KiiHL, N. ir Brauer, A. (2009): Vegetation and cli- mate history in the Westeifel Volcanic Field (Germany) during the past 11 000 years based on annually laminated lacustrine maar sediments. - Boreas, 38: 679-690. Lorenz, S. (2003): Geomorphogenese, Sedimente und Boden der Terrassen am Krakower See in Mecklenburg - Untersuchungen zur jungquartaren Palaohydrologie. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 29: 69-104. Lorenz, S. (2007): Die spatpleistozane und holozane Gewassernetzentwick- lung im Bereich der Pommerschen Haupteisrandlage Mecklenburgs. - Ph.D.-Thesis, University of Greifswald, 347 pp. Lorenz, S. (2008): Durchbruchstalgenese im Bereich der Pommerschen Haupteisrandlage Mecklenburgs (NO-Deutschland). - Abhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt, 62: 183-188. Lorenz, S. ir Schult, M. (2004): Das Durchbruchstal der Mildenitz bei Dob- bertin (Mecklenburg) - Untersuchungen zur spatglazialen und holoz- anen Talentwicklung an Terrassen und Schwemmfachern. - Meyniana, 56: 47-68. Lorenz, S., Rowinsky, V ir Koch, R. (2010): Historische und rezenteWasser- standsentwicklung von Seen und Mooren im Naturpark "Nossentinei7 Schwinzer Heide" im Spiegel der Landnutzungsgeschichte. - In: Kaiser, K, Libra, J., Merz, B., Bens, O. ir Huttl, R.F. (eds.): Aktuelle Probleme EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 129 im Wasserhaushalt von Nordostdeutschland: Trends, Ursachen, Losun- gen. Scientific Technical Report STR, 10/10: 133-139; Potsdam (German Research Centre for Geosciences). Luder, B., Kirchner, G, Lucke A. ir Zolitschka, B. (2006): Palaeoenvi- ronmental reconstructions based on geochemical parameters from an- nually laminated sediments of Sacrower See (northeastern Germany) since the 17 lh Century. - Journal of Paleolimnology, 35: 897-912. Luthgens, C. ir Bose, M. (2011): Chronology of Weichselian main ice mar- ginal positions in north-eastern Germany. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 60: 236-247. Lutze, G, Kiesel, J. ir Dalchow, C. (2006): Visualisierung von Landschafts- formen des Eberswalder Urstromtals. - Eberswalder Jahrbuch fur Hei- mat-, Kultur- und Naturgeschichte, 2006/2007: 233-244. Macklin, M.G, Benito, G, Gregory, K.J., Johnstone, E., Lewin, J., Soja, R., Thorndycraft, V.R. ir Starkel, L. (2006): Past hydrological events reflected in the Holocene fluvial record of Europe. - Catena, 66: 145- 154. Magny, M. (1998): Reconstruction of Holocene lake-level changes in the French Jura: methods and results. - In: Harrison, S.P., Frenzel, B., Huckriede, U. ir Weiss, M.M. (eds.): Palaeohydrology as reflected in lake-level changes as climatic evidence for Holocene times. Palaoklima- forschung-Palaeoclimate Research, 25: 67-85; Stuttgart/Jena (Fischer). Magny, M. (2004): Holocene climate variability as reflected by mid-Europe- an lake-level fluctuations and its probable impact on prehistoric human settlements. - Quaternary International, 113: 65-79. Mania, D., Seifert, M. ir Thomae, M. (1993): Spat- und Postglazial im Geiseltal (mittleres Elbe-Saalegebiet). - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 43: 1-22. Marcinek, J. (1987): Zur mehr als lOOjahrigen Geschichte der Ansichten iiber die Seenbildung im mitteleuropaischen Tiefland in der deut- schsprachigen Literatur. - Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Ernst-Mo- ritz-Arndt-Universitat Greifswald, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftli- che Reihe, 36, 2/3: 31-35. Marcinek, J. ir Brose, F. (1972): Das Gewassernetz in der Jungmoranen- landschaft. - Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Uni- versitat Greifswald, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Reihe, 21, 1: 53-56. Marcinek, J. ir Seifert, J. (1995): Zur Anlage des Gewassernetzes in Brandenburg. - Berichte zur deutschen Landeskunde, 69: 205-229. Mathes, J., Korczynski, I. ir Muller, J. (2003): Shallow lakes in north-east Germany: trophic situation and restoration programmes. - Hydrobio- logia, 506: 797-802. Mathews, A. (2000): Palynologische Untersuchungen zur Vegetationsent- wicklung im Mittelelbegebiet. - Telma, 30: 9-42. Merz, B., Kaiser, K., Bens, O., Emmermann, R., Fluhler, H., Grunewald, U. ir Negendank, J.F.W. (2012): Klimawandel und Wasserhaushalt. - In: Huttl, R.F. ir Bens, O. (eds.): Georessource Wasser - Heraus- forderung Globaler Wandel. Beitrage zu einer integrierten Wasserres- sourcenbewirtschaftung in Deutschland. acatech STUDIE: 24-90; Hei- delberg (Springer). Miall, A.D. (1996): The geology of fluvial deposits: sedimentary facies, ba- sin analysis, and petroleum geology. - 582 pp.; Berlin (Springer). Michaelis, D. (2002): Die spat- und nacheiszeitliche Ent-wicklung der naturlichen Vegetation von Durchstromungsmooren in Mecklenburg- Vorpommern am Beispiel der Recknitz. - Dissertationes Botanicae, 365. Michaelis, D. ir Joosten, H. (2010): Mire development, relative sea-level change, and tectonic movement along the Northeast-German Baltic Sea coast. - Bericht der Romisch-Germanischen Kommission, 88: 101-134. Mol, J. (1995): Weichselian and Holocene river dynamics in relation to cli- mate change in the Halle-Leipziger Tieflandsbucht (Germany). - Eis- zeitalter und Gegenwart, 45: 32-41. Mol, J. (1997): Fluvial response to Weichselian climate changes in the Nied- erlausitz (Germany). -Journal of Quaternary Science, 12: 43-60. Mol, J., Vandenberghe, J. ir Kasse, C. (2000): River response to variations of periglacial climate in mid-latitude Europe. - Geomorphology, 33: 131-148. Mudelsee, M., Borngen, M., Tetzlaff, G. ir Grunewald, U. (2003): No upward trends in the occurence of extreme floods in central Europe. - Nature, 425: 166-169. Mundel, G (1995): Das Vorkommen von subfossilen Eichenresten in seiner Beziehung zur Niedermoorgenese. -Telma, 25: 85-96. Mundel, G (1996): Auensedimentation und Niedermoorbildung in der Un- teren Havelaue (Grosse Grabenniederung). - Archiv fur Naturschutz und Landschaftsforschung, 35: 33-59. Mundel, G (2002): Moorgeologisch-moorbodenkundliche Untersuchungen in Brandenburg. - Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 48: 7-18. Mundel, G, Trettin, R. ir Hiller, A. (1983): Zur Moorentwicklung und Landschaftsgeschichte des Havellandischen Luches. - Archiv fur Natur- schutz und Landschaftsforschung, 23: 225-264. Neubauer-Saurer, D. (1999): Holozane Erosion und Akkumulation der al- ten Spree im Gebiet um Cottbus. - Quartar, 49/50: 21-28. Neugebauer, I., Brauer, A., Drager, N., Dulski, P., Wulf, S., Plessen, B., Mingram, J., Herzschuh, U. ir Brande, A. (2012): A Younger Dryas varve chronology from the Rehwiese palaeolake record in NE-Germa- ny. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 36: 91-102. Niewiarowski, W. (2003): Pleni- and Late Vistulian glacial lakes, their sedi- ments and landforms: a case study from the young glacial landscape of Northern Poland. - Prace Geograficzne, 189: 61-85. Nitz, B. (1984): Grundziige der Beckenentwicklung im mitteleuropaischen Tiefland - Modell einer Sediment- und Reliefgenese. - Petermanns Ge- ographische Mitteilungen, 128: 133-142. Nitz, B., Schirrmeister, L. ir Klessen, L. (1995): Spatglazial-altholozane Landschaftsgeschichte auf dem nordlichen Barnim - zur Beckenent- wicklung im nordostdeutschen Tiefland. - Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 139: 143-158. Nutzmann, G, Wolter, C, Venohr, M. ir Pusch, M. (2011): Historical pat- terns of anthropogenic impacts on freshwaters in the Berlin-Branden- burg region. - Die Erde, 142: 41-64. Pachur, H.-J. ir Roper, H.P. (1987): Zur Palaolimnologie Berliner Sedi- mente. - Berliner Geographische Abhandlungen, 44: 1-150. Petts, G.E., Moller, H. ir Roux A.L. (eds.) (1989): Historical change of large alluvial rivers: Western Europe. - 355 pp.; Chichester (Wiley). Petrow, T ir Merz, B. (2009): Trends in flood magnitude, frequency and seasonality in Germany in the period 1951-2002. - Journal of Hydrol- ogy, 371: 129-141. Piotrowski, J.A. (1997): Subglacial hydrology in north-western Germany during the last glaciation: groundwater flow, tunnel valleys and hydro- logical cycles. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 16: 169-185. Poppschotz, R. ir Strahl, J. (2004): Fazies- und Pollenanalyse an einem weichselspatglazialen Flusslauf im "Oberen Spreeschwemmfacher" bei Cottbus. - Berliner Geographische Arbeiten, 96: 69-88. Postma, G (1990): Depositional architecture and facies of river and fan del- tas: a synthesis. - In: Colella, A. ir Prior, D.B. (eds.): Coarse-grained deltas. Special Publication International Association of Sedimentolo- gists, 10: 3-27; Oxford (Blackwell). Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. (1989): Environmental changes recorded in lakes and mires of Poland during the last 13,000 years. - Acta Palaeobotani- ca, 29: 1-120. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. ir Latalowa, M. (1996): Poland. - In: Ber- glund, B.E., Birks, H.J.B., Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. ir Wright, H.E. (eds.): Palaeoecological events during the last 15000 years. Regional syntheses of palaeoecological studies of lakes and mires in Europe, 403-472; Chichester (Wiley). Reicherter, K., Kaiser, A. ir Stackebrandt, W. (2005): The post-glacial landscape evolution of the North German Basin: morphology, neotec- tonics and crustal deformation. - International Journal of Earth Sci- ences, 94: 1083-1093. Rittweger, H. (2000): The "Black Floodplain Soil"' in the Amoneburger Becken, Germany: a lower Holocene marker horizon and indicator of an upper Atlantic to Subboreal dry period in Central Europe? - Catena, 41: 143-164. Rolland, W. ir Arnold, J. (2002): Der Wasserhaushalt im Mittellauf der Spree und seine Beeinflussung durch den Menschen. - In: Bayerl, G ir Maier, D. (eds.): Die Niederlausitz vom 18. Jahrhundert bis heute: Eine gestorte Kulturlandschaft? - Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte von Technik, Arbeit und Umwelt, 19: 199-235; Minister (Waxmann). Rommel, J. (1998): Geologie des Elbetales nordlich von Magdeburg. - Diplo- ma-Thesis, University of Karlsruhe, Geological Institute, 150 pp. Rother, H. (2003): Die jungquartare Landschaftsgenese des Nebeltales im Bereich der Pommerschen Hauptendmorane bei Kuchelmifj (Mecklen- burg). - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 29: 105-141. Rotnicki, K. (1991): Retrodiction of palaeodischarges of meandering and sinuous alluvial rivers and its palaeohydroclimatic implications. - In: Starkel, L., Gregory, K.J. ir Thornes, J.B. (eds.): Temperate palaeohy- drology: 431-471; Chichester (Wiley). Rowinsky, V. (1995): Hydrologische und stratigraphische Studien zur Ent- wicklungsgeschichte von Brandenburger Kesselmooren. - Berliner Ge- ographische Abhandlungen, 60: 1-155. Rowinsky, V. ir Rutter, S. (1999): Zur Hydrogeologie und Entwicklung von Niedermooren in der unteren Havelniederung (Sachsen-Anhalt). - Un- tere Havel - Naturkundliche Berichte, 9: 21-29. Ruchhoft, F. (2002): Wasserstande der "Oberen Seen" (Mecklenburg) in 130 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.Dl / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License historischer Zeit. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 26: 197-200. Scharf, B.W. (1998): Eutrophication history of Lake Arendsee (Germany). - Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 140: 85-96. Scharf, B.W., Rohrig, R., Kanzler, S., Beug, H.-J., Buttner, O., Chris- tiansen, J., FlEKER, J., SCHINDLER, H.-H. & SCHINDLER, H. (2009): Zur Entstehung des Arendsees. Ein Vergleich palaolimnologischer Untersu- chungen mit den Ergebnissen eines Modellversuches. - Nachrichten- blatt Arbeitskreis Unterwasserarchaologie, 15: 37-50. Schatz, T. (2000): Untersuchungen zur holozanen Landschaftsentwicklung Nordostdeutschlands. - ZALF-Bericht, 41: 1-201. Schatz, T. (2011): Bodenkundlich-geoarchaologische Untersuchungen zur historischen Gewasserdynamik an der unteren Mittelelbe. - In: Will- roth, K.H. (Hrsg.): Slawen an der Elbe. Gottinger Forschungen zur Ur- und Friihgeschichte, 1: 5-16; Neumiinster (Wachholtz). Schelski, A. (1997): Untersuchungen zur holozanen Vegetationsgeschichte an der unteren Havel. - Ph.D. -Thesis, University of Potsdam, 172 pp. Scheurle, C, Hebbeln, D. ir Jones, P. (2005): An 800-year reconstruction of Elbe River discharge and German Bight sea-surface salinity. - The Holocene, 15: 429-434. Schich, W. (1994): Die Havel als WasserstrafSe im Mittelalter. Bracken, Damme, Miihlen, Flutrinnen. - Jahrbuch fur brandenburgische Landes- geschichte, 45: 31-55. Schirmer, W. (1995): Valley bottoms in the late Quaternary. - Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie Supplement, 100: 27-51. Schirmer, W., Bos, J.A.A., Dambeck, R., Hinderer, M., Preston, N., Schulte, A., Schwalb, A. ir Wessels, M. (2005): Holocene fluviatile processes and valley history in the river Rhine catchment. Erdkunde, 59: 199-215. Schirrmeister, L. (1998): Die Positionen weichselzeitlicher Eisrandlagen in Norddeutschland und ihr Bezug zu unterlagernden Salzstrukturen. - Zeitschrift fur Geologische Wissenschaften, 27: 111-120. Schlaak, N. (1997): Aolische Dynamik im brandenburgischen Tiefland seit dem Weichsel-Spatglazial. - Arbeitsberichte Geographisches Institut der Humboldt-Universitat Berlin, 24: 1-58. Schlaak, N. (2005): Holozane Sedimentstrukturen im Oderbruch und ihre Erkennbarkeit in flugzeuggestutzten Radaraufnahmen. - Brandenbur- gische Geowissenschaffliche Beitrage, 16, 1/2: 13-24. Schlaak, N., Kahl, J. ir Strahl, J. (2003): Sedimentologische und strati- graphische Befunde aus Uferwall und Aue. Beispiele zwischen Man- schnow und Alt Tucheband. - In: Schroeder, J.H. ir Brose, F. (eds.): Oderbruch-Markische Schweiz-Ostlicher Barnim. Fiihrer zur Geologie von Berlin und Brandenburg Nr. 9: 71-78; Berlin. Schmidt, M. (2000): Hochwasser und Hochwasserschutz in Deutschland vor 1850 - Eine Auswertung alter Quellen und Karten. - 330 p.; Miinchen (Oldenbourg-Industrieverlag). Schmidtchen, G, Liese, C. ir Bork, H.-R. (2003): Boden und Reliefenfwick- lung am Woseriner See in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. - Forschungen zur deutschen Landeskunde, 253: 213-228. Schonfelder, I., Giesecke, T, Gelbrecht, J. ir Steinberg, C.E.W. (1999): Paleolimnological investigations on Late Glacial and Holocene sedi- ments of lake GroBer Treppelsee (Brandenburg). - Annual Report Leib- niz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, 10: 171-184. Schonfelder, I. ir Steinberg, C.E.W. (2004): How did the nutrient concen- trations change in northeastern German lowland rivers during the last four millennia? - A paleolimnological study of floodplain sediments. - Studia Quatemaria, 21: 129-138. Schultz-Sternberg, R., Zeitz, J., Landgraf, L., Hoffmann, E., Le- hrkamp, H, Luthardt, V., Kuhn, D. (2000): Niedermoore in Branden- burg. - Telma, 30: 1-34. Schulz, I. (2000): Spreemaander. - In: Schroeder, J.H. ir Brose, F. (eds.): Fiihrer zur Geologie von Berlin und Brandenburg Nr. 7: Frankfurt (Oder)-Eisenhuttenstadt: 142-147; Berlin. Schulz, I. ir Brose, F. (2000): Subglaziale Rinnen - Die Kersdorfer Rinne. - In: Schroeder, J.H. ir Brose, F. (eds.): Fiihrer zur Geologie von Ber- lin und Brandenburg Nr. 7: Frankfurt (Oder)-Eisenhuttenstadt: 102-108; Berlin. Schulz, I. ir Strahl, J. (1997): Geomorphologische und pollenanalytische Untersuchungen im Raum Drahendorf siidosflich Fiirstenwalde - Ein Beitrag zur Klarung der spat- und postglazialen Entwicklung des Gerinnebettmusters der Spree. - Brandenburgische Geowissenschaffli- che Beitrage, 4, 2: 53-63. Schulz, I. ir Strahl, J. (2001): Die Kersdorfer Rinne als Beispiel subglazial- er Rinnenbildung im Bereich der Frankfurter Eisrandlage - Ergebnisse geomorphologischer und pollenanalytischer Untersuchungen in Ost- brandenburg. - Zeitschrift fur geologische Wissenschaften, 29: 99-107. Schwartz, R. (1999): Geologische und pedologische Aspekte der Entwick- lung des Elbtales bei Lenzen. - Hamburger Bodenkundliche Arbeiten, 44: 52-64. Selig, U, Leipe, T. ir Dorfler, W. (2007): Paleolimnological records of nu- trient and metal profiles in prehistoric, historic and modern sediments of three lakes in north-eastern Germany. - Water, Air, and Soil Pollu- tion, 184: 183-194. Sirocko, F., Szeder, T, Seelos, K., Lehne, R., Diehl, M., Rein, B., Schnei- der, W.M. ir Dimke, M. (2002): Young tectonic and halokinetic move- ments in the North-German-Basin: its effect on formation of modern rivers and surface morphology. - Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 81: 431-441. Sirocko, F., Reicherter, K., Lehne, R., Hubscher, C, Winsemann, J. ir Stackebrandt, W. (2008): Glaciation, salt and the present landscape. - In: Littke, R., Bayer, U, Gajewski, D. ir Nelskamp, S. (eds.): Dy- namics of complex intracontinental basins. The central European basin system: 233-245; Berlin (Springer). Starkel, L. (2003): Palaeohydrology of Central Europe. - In: Gregory, K.J. ir Benito, G (eds.): Paleohydrology, understanding global change: 77- 104; Chichester (Wiley). Starkel, L. (2005): Role of climatic and anthropogenic factors accelerating soil erosion and fluvial activity. - Studia Quatemaria, 22: 27-33. Starkel, L., Gregory, K.J. ir Thornes, J.B. (eds.) (1991): Temperate palaeo- hydrology. - 548 p.; Chichester (Wiley). Starkel, L., Soja, R. ir Michczynska, D.J. (2006): Past hydrological events reflected in Holocene history of Polish rivers. - Catena, 66: 24-33. Stegmann, H. (2005): Die Quellmoore im Sernitztal (NO-Brandenburg) - Genese und anfhropogene Bodenveranderungen. - Ph.D. Thesis, Uni- versity of Greifswald, 221 pp. Strahl, J. ir Keding, E. (1996): Pollenanalytische und karpologische Un- tersuchung des Aufschlusses "H6lle" unterhalb Park Dwasieden (Hal- binsel Jasmund, Insel Riigen), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. - Meyniana, 48: 165-184. Succow, M. (2001a): Versumpfungsmoore. - In: Succow, M. ir Joosten, H. (eds.): Landschaftsokologische Moorkunde: 338-343; Stuttgart (Sch- weizerbart). Succow, M. (2001b): Zusammenfassende Beurteilung der Folgen tief- greifender agrarischer Nutzungsintensivierung der letzten Jahrzehnte auf die Niedermoorstandorte Nordostdeutschlands. - In: Succow, M. ir Joosten, H. (eds.): Landschaftsokologische Moorkunde: 463-470; Stutt- gart (Schweizerbart). Succow, M. ir Joosten, H. (eds.) (2001): Landschaftsokologische Moorkunde. - 622 p.; Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Tao, F., Yokozawa, M., Hayashi, Y. ir Lin, E. (2003): Terrestrial water cycle and the impact of climate change. - Ambio, 32: 295-301. Terberger, T, de Klerk, P., Helbig, H,. Kaiser, K. ir Kuhn, P. (2004): Late Weichselian landscape development and human settlement in Meck- lenburg-Vorpommern (NE Germany). - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 54, 138-175. Thieke, H.U. (2002): Mittelpleistozaner Berliner Elbelauf. - In: Stacke- brandt, W ir Manhenke, V. (eds.): Atlas zur Geologie von Branden- burg im Mafistab 1:1.000.000: 42-43; Kleinmachnow (Landesamt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe Brandenburg). Tinapp, C, Meller, H, Baumhauer, R. ir Oexle, J. (2000): Geoarchaolo- gische Untersuchungen zur holozanen Reliefentwicklung in der siidli- chen Leipziger Tieflandsbucht. - Die Erde, 131: 89-106. Tinapp, C, Meller, H. ir Baumhauer, R. (2008): Holocene accumulation of colluvial and alluvial sediments in the Weffie Elster river valley in Saxony, Germany. - Archaeometry, 50: 696-709. Turner, F. (2012): Biogeowissenschaftlich-palaookologische Untersuchun- gen zur spatglazialen und holozanen Entwicklung von Landschaft und Flusssystem an der Jeetzel im mittleren Elbetal. - Ph.D. Thesis, Univer- sity of Hannover. Uhlemann, H.-J. (1994): Berlin und die markischen Wasserstrafien. - 212 pp.; Hamburg (DSV-Verlag). van der Linden, M., Vickery, E., Charman, D.J., Broekens, P. ir van Geel, B. (2008): Vegetation history and human impact during the last 300 years recorded in a German peat deposit. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 152: 158-175. van der Kroft, P., Renno, A. ir Ullrich, O. (2002): Spatglaziale und holoz- ane Fluss-, Seen- und Niedermoorentwicklung im Oberlausitzer Heide- und Teichgebiet (Sachsen). - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 26: 67-71. Vandenberghe, J. (1995a): Postglacial river activity and climate: state of the art and future prospects. - In: Frenzel, B. (ed.): European river activity and climatic change during the Lateglacial and early Holocene. Palaok- limaforschung/Palaeoclimate Research, 14: 1-9; Stuttgart (Fischer). EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 131 Vandenberghe, J. (1995b): Timescales, climate and river development. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 14: 631-638. Varlemann, R. (2002): Geogene Schwermetallgehalte in Palaolimniten des nordostdeutschen Tieflandes. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten, 26: 127-130. Verse, G. (2003): Sedimentation und palaogeographische Entwicklung des Greifswalder Boddens und des Seegebietes der Greifswalder Oie (siidli- che Ostsee) seit dem Weichsel-Spatglazial. - Schriftenreihe fiir Geowis- senschaften, 12: 1-155. Wanner, H., Beer, J., Butikofer, J., Crowley, T.J., Cubasch, U., Fluck- iger, J., Goosse, H., Grosjean, M., Joos, R, Kaplan, J.O., Kuttel, M., Muller, S.A., Prentice, C, Solomina, O., Stocker, T.F., Tarasov, P., Wagner, M. & Widmann, M. (2008): Mid- to Late Holocene climate change: an overview. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 27: 1791-1828. Ward, P.J., Aerts, J.C.J.H., de Moel, H. & Renssen, H. (2007): Verification of a coupled climate-hydrological model against Holocene palaeohy- drological records. - Global and Planetary Change, 57: 283-300. Wennrich, V, Wagner, B., Melles, M. & Morgenstern, P. (2005): Late Glacial and Holocene history of former Salziger See, Central Germany, and its climatic and environmental implications. - International Jour- nal of Earth Sciences, 94: 275-284. Weisse, R. (2003): Beitrage zur weichselkaltzeitlichen Morphogenese des Elbhavelwinkels (mit Hinweisen zur Havel- und Elbentwicklung). - Brandenburgische Umwelt-Berichte, 14: 1-112; Potsdam. Weisse, R., Brande, A. & Linder, W (2001): Nuthe-Niederung. - In: Schroeder, J.H. (ed.): Fiihrer zur Geologie von Berlin und Branden- burg Nr. 4: Potsdam und Umgebung: 141-150; Berlin. Woithe, F. (2003): Untersuchungen zur postglazialen Landschaftsentwick- lung in der Niederlausitz. - Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kiel, 151 pp. Wojciechowski, A. (1999): Late Glacial and Holocene lake-level fluctua- tions in the Kornik-Zaniemysl lakes area, Great Poland Lowland. - Quaternary Studies in Poland, 16: 81-101. Woldstedt, P. (1956): Die Geschichte des Flussnetzes in Norddeutschland und angrenzenden Gebieten. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 7: 5-12. Wolf, L. Aleksowsky, W., Dietze, W., Hiller, A., Krbetschek, M., Lange, J.-M., Seifert, M.,Troger, K.-A., Voigt, T. A'Walther, H. (1994): Flu- viatile und glaziare Ablagerungen am auftersten Rand der Elster- und Saale-Vereisung; die spattertiare und quartare Geschichte des sach- sischen Elbgebietes. - Altenburger Naturwissenschaftliche Forschun- gen, 7: 190-235. Wolters, S. (2002): Vegetationsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zur spat- glazialen und holozanen Landschaftsentwicklung in der Doberitzer Heide (Brandenburg). - Dissertationes Botanicae, 366: 1-157. Wolters, S. (2005): Ecological effects of land cover change in medieval and modern times in northeastern Germany. - In: ESF-HOLIVAR work- shop: Climate-human society interactions during the Holocene. An- naboda, Sweden, 09-12 May 2005, Abstract Volume: 1-5; Annaboda. Zeitz, J. (2001): Oberes Rhinluch. - In: Succow, M. & Joosten, H. (eds.): Landschaftsokologische Moorkunde: 420-430; Stuttgart (Schweizer- bart). Zerbe, S. & Wiegleb, G. (eds.) (2009): Renaturierung von Okosystemen in Mitteleuropa. - 530 p.; Heidelberg (Spektrum Akademischer Verlag). Zimmermann, A. (1996): Zur Bevblkerungsdichte in der Urgeschichte Mitte- leuropas. - In: Campen, I., Hahn, J. & Uerpmann, M. (eds.): Festschrift Miiller-Beck. Spuren der Jagd - Die Jagd nach Spuren. Tiibinger Mon- ographien zur Urgeschichte: 46-61; Tubingen. Zolitschka, B., Behre, K.-E. ir Schneider, J. (2003): Human and climatic impact on the environment as derived from colluvial, fluvial and lacus- trine archives - examples from the Bronze Age to the Migration period, Germany. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 22: 81-100. Zurek, S., Michczynska, D.J. & Pazdur, A. (2002): Time record of palaeo- hydrologic changes in the development of mires during the Late Glacial and Holocene, north Podlasie Lowland and Holy Cross Mts. - Geo- chronometria, 21: 109-118. 132 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 103-132 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License E&G Quaternary Science Journal Volume 61 / Number 2 / 2012 / 133-145 / DOI lD.3285/eg.61.2.D2 www.quaternary-science.net GEOZDN SCIENCE MEDIA ISSN 0424-7116 Younger Middle Terrace - Saalian pre-Drenthe deposits overlying MIS 7 Nachtigall interglacial strata near Hbxter/ Weser, NW-Germany Peter Rohde, Jochen Lepper, Wolfgang Thiem t How to cite: Abstract: Kurzfassung: Keywords: Rohde, P., Lepper, J., Thiem, W. f (2012): Younger Middle Terrace: Saalian pre-Drenthe deposits overlying MIS 7 Nachtigall inter- glacial strata near Hbxter/Weser, NW-Germany. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 61 (2): 133-145. DOI: 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 Subrosion of Lower Triassic evaporites by subsidence has preserved peat coal and clay as Pleistocene warm and cool stage deposits near Hoxter in the northwest-German uplands. There, in the upper reaches of the River Weser, peat coal and clay are sandwiched by gravel and sand of two river terraces; they were exploited in a small pit called Grube Nachtigall. Exploration drillings from 1997/98 enabled investigating a 13.5 m core with the warm and cool stage deposits in respect of sedimentology, palynostratigraphy and radiometric dating. In 2011 the results concerning this "Nachtigall-Complex" have been published separately by two groups of authors also concerned with the project. Since 1994 also analyzing lithostratigraphy and structure of the Pleistocene framework, that is to say about 25 square kilometers of valley floor and hillside landscape, has been the aim of the methodologically independ- ent study presented here. The subrosion structure turned out to be partly limited by faults. The most important Pleistocene mapping units are the deposits of 4 river terraces; in descending chronological order these are: - youngest Upper Terrace, not dislocated - Older Middle Terrace, subsided - Younger Middle Terrace, not subsided - Lower Terrace, not subsided, its sediments partially lying upon subsided Older Middle Terrace deposits. The layers of Nachtigall-Complex likewise directly overlie subsided Older Middle Terrace deposits and with an angular unconformity are overlain by Younger Middle Terrace deposits; they are subsided and deformed. According to generally accepted traditional mapping outside the study site, the Older Middle Terrace has to be assigned to the MIS 8 equivalent in the lower part of the Saalian Complex, and the Younger Middle Terrace to the deep MIS 6 equivalent in the deepest portion of the upper Saalian Complex, i.e. pre-Drenthe. Hence the palynological as well as the radiometric MIS 7 age of the recently defined Nachtigall 1 Interglacial correspond to the lithostratigraphic model inferred from structural analysis. Die vor-drenthe-zeitliche Jiingere Mittelterrasse Liber dem MIS 7 Nachtigall-lnterglazial struktur Albaxen bei Hbxter/Weser, NW-Deutschland Elemente der Subrosions- In einer Subrosionsstruktur liber Evaporiten des Oberen Buntsandstein sind im Bergland am Oberlauf der Weser zwischen Hox- ter und Holzminden pleistozane warm- und kiihlzeitliche "Tone"- und "Torfe" erhalten geblieben. Sie trennen hier kaltzeitliche Terrassen-Kiese und -Sande der Weser. Als Rohstoff wurden sie in dem kleinen Tagebau Nachtigall abgebaut. Aus Bohrungen, die 1997/98 zur Erkundung der Lagerstatte u.a. als Rammkernbohrungen niedergebracht wurden, standen fur geowissenschaft- liche Untersuchungen 33 m nahezu durchgehende Kernstrecke zur Verfiigung. Daraus konnten 13,5 m fur sedimentologische, palynostratigraphische und radiochronologische Untersuchungen ausgewahlt werden. Diese warm- und kiihlklimatischen Ab- lagerungen wurden als Nachtigall-Complex zusammengefasst und 2011 von zwei Autorengruppen des Projekts in zwei metho- disch unterschiedlichen Artikeln veroffentlicht. Als geologischer Rahmen wurden 25 km z Flussniederungs- und Hanglandschaft seit 1994 lithostratigraphisch und strukturgeologisch mit dem hier vorgelegten Ergebnis analysiert. Die zuvor schon bekannte Subrosionsstruktur erwies sich als z.T. von Storungen begrenzt. Die wichtigsten pleistozanen Kartiereinheiten sind die Sedi- mentkorper von 4 Flussterrassen; nach abnehmendem Alter sind dies: - jiingste der Oberterrassen, nicht abgesunken - Altere Mittelterrasse (AMT), abgesunken - Jiingere Mittelterrasse, nicht abgesunken - Niederterrasse, z.T. auf Schichten der abge- sunkenen AMT. Die Schichten des Nachtigall-Complex liegen direkt liber Schichten der AMT und werden von Schichten der Jiingeren Mittelterrasse diskordant iiberlagert; sie sind abgesunken und verformt. Aufierhalb des Untersuchungsgebietes wird die AMT - ihrer Lage in der Terrassentreppe gemafj - dem Marinen Isotopen-Stadium MIS 8 im unteren Teil des Saale-Komplex zugeordnet, die Jiingere Mittelterrasse dem alteren Abschnitt von MIS 6 im tiefen oberen Teil des Saale-Komplex vor dem Drenthe-Stadium. Damit wird das sowohl palynostratigraphisch als auch radiometrisch ermittelte MIS 7-Alter des zwischen beiden liegenden jiingst defmierten Nachtigall 1 Interglazial lithostratigraphisch gestiitzt. Younger Middle Terrace, Wehrden-Niveau, Nachtigall 1 Interglacial, Older Middle Terrace, Reiherbach-Niveau, Saalian Complex, pre-Drenthe period, MIS 6, MIS 7, MIS 8, mapping, lithostratigraphy, structural analysis, river terrace, staircase-position, stack- position, Weser upper reaches, Albaxen subrosion structure, NW-Germany Addresses of authors: P. Rohde, Miidener Weg 61, 30625 Hannover, Germany; J. Lepper, Ahldener Strafie 10 E, 30625 Hannover, Germany; both formerly state geological survey of Lower Saxony, today's Landesamt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, Hannover EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 /DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution ticense 133 1 Introduction If we look back to the starting point of the present study in 1998, we find: • a pit for exploiting peat coal and clay for manifestly more than a century — • ice age deposits of interglacial character taken note of for at least a hundred years — • questionable assignment of the warm period strata to the Pleistocene stratigraphy — . We also find a drilling project for expanding the area of open cast working to the north. Jochen Lepper located and supervised the drillings, evaluated the drilling project (Lep- per 1998, 2011) and made available core KB 1 for scientif- ic investigation. He also coordinated the studies that are based on structural analysis plus lithostratigraphy, on sedi- mentology, on palynology plus palynostratigraphy, and on radiometric dating. An initially envisaged common publi- cation regrettably has not been realized as it turned out to be too complex and too long. Special mention should be made of the comprehensive palaeobotanic analyses of Hel- mut Miiller, by which he unravelled intricate depositional environments of peat coal and clay. Thus he determined the stratigraphic position of Nachtigall-Complex, got aware of its contemporaneity with the succession of Gottingen / Ot- tostrafie (Gruger 1996), and found out the analogy with the Velay profile, Massif Central, south-central France (Reille et al. 2000, Beaulieu et al. 2001). His death called for finally supporting his palynostratigraphic conclusions. The way in which the authors accounted for the bio- and chronostrati- graphic results has been outlined by Kleinmann, Muller, Lepper i^Waas (2011). Peter Rohde could discuss thoroughly his results of terrace stratigraphy and his ideas concerning the source of certain fine-grained clastic matter with Helmut Muller. His terrace model is supported by results of the deceased field geoscien- tist and highly appreciated colleague Wolfgang Thiem, Han- nover University, Geographic Institute (Thiem 1988; Rohde ir Thiem 1998). Wolfgang Thiem has taken active part in the field work in Nachtigall pit. The present paper has been initi- ated by Jochen Lepper, who above all contributed the geo- logical setting. We would like to point to the end of text where abbrevia- tions are explained. 2 Study site The study area in the Weser Valley in NW-Germany is situ- ated in the Mesozoic uplands, about 60 km south of their northern edge. Here, downstream of the medieval town of Hoxter, about 25 square kilometers of valley floor and hill- side landscape are included (Fig. l). For orienting oneself, a more prominent place may be Corvey Abbey near Hoxter, a world heritage name because of the 1130 years old, well preserved Carolingian westwork. The so called Zeche NACHTIGALL (Nightingale pit) is at a place that since the middle of the 16th century is called "Bergstette" in terms of a prospective site (Michael Koch, Hoxter, personal communication 2010). It has been exploit- ed maybe since 1795 (=> Tonenburg - in Wikipedia [27 Fe- br.2012]), maybe from the 1840s (Schlegel 1997). Documen- tarily mentioned, subsurface peat-coal mining was practiced at least since 1857 (Schlegel 1997: map of mine 1866) up to a date well before 1884/86 (Carthaus 1886), and about 1920 until 1923. Besides, "clay" has been extracted tempo- rarily by open cast work having started some time between 1866 and 1884. In 1895 the Feldbrandziegelei Johann Buch was founded. Recently the brickworks Ziegelwerk Buch at Hoxter-Albaxen, in its small Nachtigall clay pit (Fig. 1, 2, 3) extracted minor quantities of peat coal, but primarily car- bonaceous pelites as before. It is worth noting that at a distance of about 150 km, at Witten-Bommern, Ruhr district, there is another ancient pit with the same name Zeche Nachtigall. 1743-1892, this former colliery produced carboniferous hard coal, and 2003 has been transformed into the identically named Industrial Museum. 3 Previous research The peat and clay deposits of Nachtigall pit have attracted inter- est since the 19th century (Dechen 1884; Carthaus 1886; Ko- ken 1901; Siegert 1913, 1921; Soergel 1927, 1939; Stoller 1928). In 1908/09 and 1927 first thorough studies were conducted to present the geological map 1 : 25 000, sheet Holzminden, today's number 4122 (Grupe 1912, 1929). Much later the site-specific ex- traordinary Pleistocene succession in the south of the mapped area was dealt with again (Brelie et al. 1971, Muller 1986, Rohde 1989, Rohde ir Thiem 1998). Mangelsdorf (1981) studied geologically the Nachtigall site and investigated pal- ynologically the succession of its Middle-Pleistocene organic deposits. The hydrogeological aspect of the area has been investigated by Straaten (1982) and Fischer et al. (1990). The latest information was given by an unpublished report by Lepper (1998) in the context of the company's request to the authorities for extending the hitherto granted exploita- tion of the carbonaceous brick clay. For archived supporting documents see Lepper (2011). 4 Borehole evidence The present structural study and map are based on boreholes of very different informative value (Fig. 2, 3) that may be divided into 5 groups. l) Three percussive core / wash boreholes as explora- tion boreholes for exploring the extension of the clay and peat deposit, additionally used as groundwater observation-wells / Grundwassermefistellen (Lepper 1998, 2011). KB 1 (1998), cored 10-43 m; the core was investigated sedimentologically and palynologically in great detail (Kleinmann et al. 2011), partially also by radiometric dating (Waas, Kleinmann & Lepper 2011); Gauss-Krueger grid reference R 35 27 755 / H 57 41 810, elevation +108.55 m NN; geographic coordinates 51°48'34.8" N / 9°24'04.7" E. KB 2 (1998), cored 10-13 m / 15-16 m / 18.2-32 m, washed for the rest; Gauss-Krueger grid reference R 35 27 855 / H 57 41 805, elevation +105.27 m NN. 131 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License IN Hi //fl //Lo qN q(WE} qpi q(R) q(L) q(W) q//t q//tn k mo mm mu KB 1 49,158,161 anthropogenic landfill Holocene floodplaine loam periglacial solifluction detritus loess and loess derivatives Lower Terrace deposits (Weichselian and uppermost Saalian) deposits of Younger Middle Terrace: Wehrden-Niveau (upper Saalian) Nachtigall-Complex: warm and cool climate with interbedded cold climate deposits deposits of Older Middle Terrace: Reiherbach-Niveau (lower Saalian) Upper Terraces, youngest unit: Lauenforde-Niveau (Elsterian) Upper Terraces, second youngest unit: Wurgassen-Niveau (Elsterian) deposits of Weser terraces older than Weichselian deposits of tributary valleys' terraces Keuper (Upper Triassic) Upper Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic) Middle Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic) Lower Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic) Upper Buntsandstein (Lower Triassic) Solling-Folge, Middle Buntsandstein (Lower Triassic) edge of valley floor (flood plain and Lower Terrace) subsurface fault, inferred, in parts limiting the subsided area border zone, where subsidence is fading away reference borehole cored research borehole 1998 outcrop numbers, without relevance in this map section NW-SE-line of vertical section, northern part of map, without relevance in this map section Fig. 1: Geological Setting. Taken from Lepper & Mengeling (1990), with modifications. As to further details see Fig. 2. Abb. 1: Geologischer Rahmen. Nach Lepper & Mengeling (1990), mit Anderungen. Weitere Signaturen sieheAbb 2. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-145 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 135 KB 3 (1998), partly cored 15-17 m, cored 17-28 m depth, washed for the rest; Gauss-Krueger grid reference R 35 27 888 / H 57 41 665, elevation +102.22 m NN. 2) Three additional wash boreholes as exploratory and groundwater observation wells; these are B 1, B 2, B 4 (1998) of 36 m / 27.5 m / 31 m, having penetrated the clay and peat deposit (Lepper 1998). 3) Eight percussion boreholes S 1 - S 8 (1997), up to 13 m deep, for groundwater observation and for investigating the strata that overlie the clay and peat deposit (Lep- per 1998). 4) Approximately 50 boreholes for gravel-exploration and groundwater survey in the surroundings of the clay and peat deposit (1952 and 1972-1998, data bases of the state geological surveys Landesamt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, Hannover, as well as Geologischer Dienst Nordrhein-Westfalen, Krefeld). 5) According to Grupe (1929) five historical exploration boreholes in the context of coal mining activities, 54 m (about 1905) and 18 m / 20 m / 28 m / 29 m (about 1919). 5 Methods The geological study is principally concerned with the structural analysis of a 25 km 2 area around Nachtigall pit with its deposits of interglacial character (Nachtigall-Suc- cession, Kleinmann et al. 2011). It distinguishes lithostrati- graphic units and decodes the intricate structure of their horizontal and vertical relative positions. Finally it aims at assigning the elements of the structural geological mod- el to Pleistocene stratigraphy (Litt et al. 2007) and to the chronostratigraphically calibrated MIS system of Marine 16 0-Isotope Stages (e.g. Petit et al. 2000). The lithostratigraphic and the structural investigations comprise geological mapping in the pit and applying the de- tailed geological map 1 : 25 000 by Grupe (1929) and also the diploma thesis by Straaten (1982). Moreover it comprises evaluating historical mine plans as well as evaluating, inter- preting and correlating the petrographic borehole data of all sorts of borehole records available (see above). Ground level elevation refers to German Ordnance datum NN (Normal Null) mainly according to Topographic Map 1 : 5 000, partly to Topographic Map 1 : 25 000. Assigning the sedimentary bodies to specific units of the Pleistocene stratigraphy has been carried out on the base of Holz- minden I | valley floor (flood plain and Lower Terrace) —> — subsurface fault, inferred, in parts limiting the subsided area J L border zone, where subsidence is fading away • reference borehole Fig. 2: Albaxen subrosion structure. Central part of Fig. 1, augmented. Mapping 2008 by Peter Rohde. Abb. 2: Subrosionsstruktur von Albaxen. Innerer Tell von Abb. 1, vergro- fiert. Kartierung 2008, Peter Rohde. ocp underground mining 1859/66 \ underground mining < from Hoffmann 1920) 1920 and before J area of expansion of the site to the north, with exploration boreholes KB _, B _, S _ (see chapter 4) W-E vertical section (see Fig. 4) open cast pit Fig. 3: Plan of Nachtigall pit. Topography from Deutsche Grundkarte 1 : 5 000, Nachtigall, 3526 Rechts, 5740 Hoch. Abb. 3: Gelandegrundriss der Grube Nachtigall. Topographie nach Deut- sche Grundkarte 1 : 5 000, Nachtigall, 3526 Rechts, 5740 Hoch. 136 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Tab. 1: Quaternary lithostratigraphic units in Albaxen site near Hoxter, NW-Germany. The site includes the Albaxen subrosion structure with the warm, cool, and cold stage sedimentsts of Nachtigall-Deposit. Data concerne base level, surface level and thickness of lithostratigraphic units (Rohde 2008). Maximum subsidence suggested 62-65 m (? 78 m). Tab. 1: Quartdrzeitliche lithostratigraphische Einheiten im Gebiet Albaxen bei Hoxter in NW-Deutschland. Das Gebiet umfasst die Subrosionsstruktur von Albaxen mit den warm-, kithl- und kaltzeitlichen Nachtigall-Lagerstdttenschichten. Erfasst sind die Einheiten nach Basis- und Oberflachen-Hohen- lage und Mdchtigkeit (Rohde 2008). Die Absenkung durch Subrosion betragt maximal vermutlich 62-65 m (? 78 m). deposits base: mete NN r relative to W0F 1 ! {...}km27^ 117 recent surface meter NN recent thickness: meter mean minimum maximum Upper Terraces, Lauenforde Niveau 116 -> 126 {28^ 37} 132 [?] Older Middle Terrace [Reiherbach Niveau] ditto: subsided -borehole KB 3/ 1998 -borehole KB 2/ 1998 - borehole GRUPE1 [1919?] OMT, subsided and undistinguishably cov- ered by Lower Terrace OMT, subsided, base extremely low-lying 103 -* 110 <74.2 <73.3 <69.9 71.0 -> 75.5 40.8/38.0/725.1 {15 -» 22} <-13.6 <-14.4 <-18 11.4 [n=8] > > 8.0 4 5 7.3 13.6 46.2 Nachtigall-Deposit, subsided ditto: top low-lying due to erosion 72.5^ 82.4 94.2 -> 99.0 87.1^ 89.1 19.2 [n=3] 13.3 6.7 25.0 8.7 Younger Middle Terrace [Wehrden Niveau] -borehole KB 2/ 1998 - borehole B 2 / 1998 -borehole KB 3/ 1998 87.07 87.56 89.12 H-»-i} -0.7 -0.1 + 1.4 94.7 95.3 92.2 l6.0[n=3] { " I 2.8 solifluction matter incl. "loess" "loess": [sandy] loess, partly reworked 92.2 -> 99.0 ground level exceeding that of Lower Terrace 10.4 [n=10] 2.5 [n=12] 9.0 2.0 11.0 3.1 Lower Terrace ditto: top low-lying due to erosion and covered with floodplain loam 76.2 -> 80.3 {-11 --6} ca -9 86.2 ^> 88.5 84.5 -» 87.0 ca9 7.6 [n=33] 5.0 10.2 floodplain loam [Holocene] 84.5 -» 87.0 [88.5?->]86.2[84.8] 2.6[n=40] 0.6 3.5 1] W0F: Water-level of over-bank flooding; corresponding to Mittleres Hochwasser MHW [ Mean annual highest water-level] 1941-1980, Weser-km 73-83 88.5^ 84.8 mapping experience both in the uplands of Lower Saxony with their fluvial terraces (e.g. Rohde 1989) and in the low- lands with their drift sediments and, moreover, in the bor- derland in between. For broad understanding the present ar- ticle refers to the MIS-system (Marine isotope stages) as has been taken into account by Litt et al. (2007). 6 Geological setting: the solid rock The Nachtigall clay pit is situated at the western flank of the anticlinal structure "Solling-Gewolbe" built up by red beds of the Buntsandstein group (Germanic Lower Triassic) that comprises a clastic, pelitic sequence with evaporitic inter- beds in its upper portion (Fig. l). Only 0.7 km west of Nachti- gall pit shallow marine sediments of the Muschelkalk group (Germanic Middle Triassic) that overlays the Buntsandstein group are outcropping. The bottom of the Buntsandstein is built up by an Upper Permian (Zechstein) succession of ma- rine evaporites and carbonates underlain by Lower Permian (Rotliegend) red beds which rest unconformably on the fold- ed Variscan basement. After updoming of the Mesozoic sediment pile in the course of late Cretaceous to Tertiary times, the antecedent River Weser subsequently incised an isoclinal valley from late Tertiary to late Pleistocene in the zone between the western flank of the Buntsandstein-anticline and the out- cropping Lower Muschelkalk to the west of it. In the study area the Weser valley generally follows the strike of the Up- per Buntsandstein beds with pelites and evaporites easily to be eroded. Within the Upper Buntsandstein mudstone and evapor- ites, leaching processes have affected chloride and sulfate layers. The process started in the evaporite outcrop area at the western flank of the "Solling-Gewolbe" and successively prograded from east to west and from surface to subsurface according to the regional dip. The original evaporite thick- ness might have been up to approximately 100 m. Therefore in the western part of the present valley and on the adjacent hillside this general geological setting is compli- cated by a subrosion structure as a sediment-"trap" of Pleis- tocene age which cannot be recognized morphologically at the ground surface but which is reflected by the "trapped" EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 137 m above sea- lqvel projected KB1 ^-^ B2 KB2 S2 S5 5,0 1 oo n //f qN //Lo //fl Recent time River Weser: water (mean water level) Holocene floodplain loam: organic silt Weichselian (and uppermost Saalian) Lower Terrace: gravel and sand of River Weser Weichselian (high-glacial time) loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine and medium sand Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc )/clay with fragments of limestone/mud stone q(WE) qpi q(R) Saalian Complex, upper cold period Younger Middle Terrace (Wehrden-Niveau): gravel and sand of River Weser Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex, warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided: lacustrine silt / clay, paludal organic silt / clay, peat Saalian Complex, lower cold period Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau), subsided: gravel and sand of River Weser Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals (at +130 m NN overlain by Lower Muschelkalk limestone [mu]) Fig. 4: MIS 7 Nachtigall interglacial deposits between Saalian Older Middle Terrace and Younger Middle Terrace of the River Weser in stack-position ('.not staircase-position). Cross section; main focus upon Nachtigall concession near Albaxen, NofHoxter, NW-Germany. Draft: Peter Rohde in 2008. As to the up-to-date stratification of KB 1 borehole profile see Kleinmann et al. (2011) and present paper, section 7.2. Abb. 4: Ablagerungen des MTStadium 7 mit Nachtigall-Interglazial. Vorkommen zwischen der Alteren und derjiingeren Weser-Mittelterrasse aus der Saale-Kaltzeit in Stapel-Lagerung (und nicht Treppen-Lagerung). Vertikaler Querschnitt, im Wesentlichen durch das Geldnde der Konzession Nachtigall bei Albaxen nbrdlich von Hoxter in NW-Deutschland. Entwurf: Peter Rohde i.J. 2008. Zur aktuellen Gliederung der Schichtenfolge in Bohrung KB 1 siehe Kleinmann et al. (2011) sowie Abschnitt 7.2 der vorliegenden Veroffentlichung. sediments ("Albaxen subrosion structure", Fig. 1 and 2) and is dealt with in chapter 7. 7 The Quaternary deposits within and adjacent to the subsided area The fossil subrosion structure is 5 km by 2 or 3 respectively, the long axis following the SSW-NNE trending Weser val- ley (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2; Rohde 2008). The Pleistocene depo- sitional environment comprises two different sedimentary complexes belonging to different morphological units. 7.1 Today's valley floor This flat ground extends as far as the mainly Weichselian Lower Terrace and the Holocene flood plain (Fig. l). The surface level of the Lower Terrace is at +86.2 to +88.5 m NN, whereas that of the flood plain only is at 86.2 m on average (84.8-88.5 m; Table l). The top layers of the Lower Ter- race comprise 2 m, in some parts 3 m of sandy loess-like loam, deposited by a periglacial river in the braided river plain during a period of very low river activity. Yet in the flood plain there have been accumulated 2.5 m (min: 0.5 m, max: 3.5 m) of organic sandy or argillaceous silt, deposited as over-bank sediments during floods of the meandering Weser. Beneath both of them there are periglacial braided river sand and gravel of the Lower Terrace with a supposed base level of +76.2 to +80.3 m NN, that is 9 m below recent Water-level of over-bank flooding (WOF), on average. In a certain area similar sand and gravel are also found below this level (Fig. 2; Fig. 4: q(R)), in eight boreholes down to +71 m NN, and in a few boreholes still deeper, with a minimum value of +40.8 and possibly even +25.1 m NN. The resulting overall thickness of sand and gravel is 11.5 m on average and 46 m as maximum in comparison with 7.5 m concerning the Lower Terrace separately. This difference of thickness is explained by subsidence due to subrosion, the lower part of the sediment stack interpreted as Older Middle Terrace sediments (see below); the actual situation suggests deposition of only that series during subsidence of the bedrock beneath it. 7.2 Today's hillside The subrosion structure is not confined to the valley floor, but westward also comprises the lower part of the hillside downhill the Muschelkalk escarpment and also includes the Nachtigall open cast pit. The surface of the slope is built up by loess and solifluction detritus (gelifluction detritus) of limestone and mudstone with thin slopewash intercalations 138 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Fig. 5: Temporary outcrop of Nachtigall 1 Interglacial with peats A, B, C and D. As to lithostratigraphy see chapter 9. Folding ruler 1 m. Photo Jochen Lep- per, 18 August 1998. Approximate thicknesses are: - peat (D) 1.40 m, upper part not visible, - clay and silt 1.90 m, - peat (C) 0.05 m, - clay and silt 1.00 m, - peat (B) 0.40 m, - clay and silt (lower part dark) 0.85 m, - peat (A) 1.30 m, lower part not visible. Abb. 5: Kurzzeitiger Aufschluss des Nachtigall 1 Interglazial mit den Torfen A, B, C and D. Zur Lithostratigraphie siehe Kapitel 9. Messstab 1 m. Foto Jochen Lepper, 18.8.1998. Die Machtigkeit der Schichten betragt etwa: -Torf(D) 1,40 m, oberer Teil nicht sichtbar, -Ton und Schluff 1,90 m, -Torf(C) 0,05 m, -Ton und Schluff 1,00 m, - Torf(B) 0,40 m, - Ton und Schluff (unterer Teil dunkel) 0,85 m, - Torf(A) 1,30 m, unterer Teil nicht sichtbar. of red, originally eolian sand. These periglacial sediments in the northern pit area are 9-11 m thick (Fig. 4, Tab. 1) and include an Eemian palaeosol of decalcification. They are down-dipping towards the adjacent valley floor in the east. In the open cast pit they overlie their substratum at an an- gular unconformity, as the substratum got trough-shaped by subrosion, and in its eastern part was tilted to the west and eroded at its former surface. Concerning the substratum up to 25 m of lacustrine silt, clay and mud are interbedded with several seams of slight- ly calciferous peat. In the recent quarry all these sediments (Fig. 5) are dipping in westerly directions towards the slope; the bedding would assign the investigated section to the eastern flank of a very shallow syncline if compared with the former subsurface mining area farther in the south. The interglacial, interstadial and included stadial layers, in bore- hole KB 1 core comprising 10 m of sediments, by A. Klein- mann have been termed Nachtigall-Succession (Kleinmann et al. 2011; see Chapter 9). The whole 13.5 m section stud- ied palynologically in KB 1 core by A. Kleinmann has been termed Nachtigall-Complex; it encloses 3.5 m of cold and cool climate lacustrine mud and fen peat in its upper part. - With additional cold climate lacustrine (7.22 m) and am- biguous lacustrine or slope sediments (4.28 m) the KB 1 core section is called Nachtigall-Deposit in the present paper (Tab. 1). In summary the terms used for sections of KB 1 core and in the present paper are Nachtigall-Succession: contains the deposits of intergla- cial / interstadial character (36.00-26.02 m); Nachtigall-Com- plex: strata with arboreal pollen >20%, i.e. at least "tree tun- dra" (36.00-22.50 m); Nachtigall-Deposit: contains peat and clay in terms of natural mineral resource (36.00-11.00 m). Within the Nachtigall-Succession and its lowest section, i.e. Nachtigall 1 Interglacial, the base of Allochthonous Unit I (cf. Chapter 9) includes dropstones of Weser characteristics with- out nordic material (pebbles 2-20 cm, sample K.D. Meyer, August 1998, analysis P. Rohde & J. Lepper, December 1998). Similarly the base of Allochthonous Unit II includes an erratic boulder of Swedish Dala quartzite (Grupe 1929: "Bohrung 4", meaning a shaft, but localisation regrettably not to be veri- fied). It must have been transported primarily by the Elsterian inland ice, then might have been deposited in Thuringia and ice drifted from there on a lake or by the river. Alternatively it might have been drifted directly from the north to Nach- tigall site on an Elsterian ice dammed lake (e.g. Winsemann et al. 2011; see also Chapter 10) and perhaps furthermore slid down at the slope above the pit area from an unknown El- sterian secondary deposit. The extraordinary lateral supply of mineral matter in warm climate periods still is worth discuss- ing (see Chapter 10). Adjacent to the present valley floor, the Nachtigall-Depos- EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 139 w 1 Photo — p " — - — -— . ~~~~£ a ~~~~^~~— — — _. — — ■ — —— -_ ~—^~ qw//fl ~~ —"--.- ~~~ ~ ~- - ~— — — -__ \ // l-pal — — ■ — __ ^--_ --- -__ ' — — __ _\ // l-p a | ~~~~-- qs//fl ""~--~- ~ — — - q(WFl/Gr I \ _— — 771-pal ~ — — _ ~ — — — ----_ V- ~--^ afWEWsT \ \_-~___7~~~ "I-P8I ________ _-^^— ^Ciw_j7_^ _ — — — ■ — — . r. — — — —_ //l-pal ____--— — ' — — — — _ // l-pal 1 WEICHSELIAN //Lo Loess etc. (see Fig.4: //Lo) qw//fl qs//fl q(WE)/Gr q(WE)/S q(WE)/G // l-pal Solifluction detritus (see Fig.4: //fl) SAALIAN COMPLEX UPPER COLD PERIOD Solifluction detritus (see Fig.4: //fl) YOUNGER MIDDLE TERRACE (Wehrden Niveau, cf. Fig.4: q(WE)) Limestone debris (from hillside) and sand (Weser) Sand (Weser), partly cross-bedded Gravel and sand (Weser) MIDDLE PERIOD TO UPPER COLD PERIOD Lacustrine and paludal silt / clay Fig. 6: Younger Middle Terrace deposits interfingering with solifluction detritus. Quarry face, autumn 2011. Drawing: - left margin R 35 27 760, H 57 41 690, elevation +108.7 m NN, height above bottom 16.4 m, - right margin R 35 27 875, H 57 41 685, elevation +103.5 m NN, - width 115 m. Photo: - left margin R 35 27 790, H 57 41 700, elevation +107.3m NN, - width 85 m. Above numerical data approximate only. Folding rule in middle of photo: 1 m; at right margin: 2 m. Photos Jochen Lepper, 7 Oct. and 30 Nov. 2011. Photo interpretation Peter Rohde. For the first time the quarry face exposes the complete overburden stack of the Nachtigall-Deposit in a W-E section, appr. hundred meters south of section AB (Fig. 3, Fig. 4). Abb. 6: Ablagerungen der Jiingeren Mittelterrasse, verzahnt mit Solifluktionsschutt. Grubenwand, Herbst 2011. Zeichnung: - linker Rand R 35 27 760, H57 41 690, Gelande +108,7 m NN, Wandhohe 16,4 m, - rechter Rand R 35 27 875, H 57 41 685, Gelande +103,5 m NN, - Wandlange 1 15 m. Foto: - linker Rand R 35 27 790, H 57 41 700, Gelande +107,3 m NN, - Wandlange 85 m. Alle Lage-Angaben als Circa-Werte. Messstab im Foto, Mitte: 1 m; rechter Rand: 2 m. Fotos Jochen Lepper, 7.10. und 30.11.2011. Foto-Auswertung Peter Rohde. Erstmals erschliefit die Grubenwand die vollstandige Schich- tenfolge uber der Nachtigall-Lagerstdtte in einem W~E-Schnitt etwa 100 m siidlich des Schnitts AB (Abb. 3, Abb. 4). it partially was eroded at the top. Forming an angular uncon- formity, the erosion surface partially has been covered by up to 8 m - or perhaps more - of fluvial gravel and sand at- tributed to the younger Saalian Weser terrace (Younger Middle Terrace or Wehrden-Niveau, Table 1, Fig. 4, Fig. 5; Rohde 1989). The strata have not been dislocated, their base level is at +87 to +89 m NN (Grupe 1929: geol. Map), i.e. mi- nus 0.7 m to plus 1.4 m relative to WOF. These dates are in accordance with results of a reference survey (Rohde 1989). Partially the sediments interfinger with the solifluction de- tritus mentioned above. Later, the fluvial gravel and sand were covered with different periglacial sediments, which also capped the western, less or not eroded part of the Nach- tigall-Deposit. In KB 1 borehole above the Nachtigall-Deposit no flu- vial, but only sediments of the slope were encountered (Fig. 4). In contrast KB 2 core drilling revealed Younger Middle Terrace sediments top-down consisting of: 1.9 m medium-grained sand with silt, fine sand, coarse sand, little fine grit, red brown, fluvial (Weser) 5.7 m gravel, with sand and coarse pebbles, red to grey, fluvial (Weser). This succession is typical for a fluvial sediment series formed during periglacial conditions. The Nachtigall-Deposit is underlain by fluvial gravel and sand assigned to the older Saalian Weser terrace (Older Middle Terrace or Reiherbach-Niveau, Table 1; Roh- de 1989). By the pit-extension drillings its base was not reached, lying deeper than +74 m to +70 m NN. In the valley-floor where this gravel and sand are also found their base might be at about +41 m NN minimum (or even +25 m NN, see above). 7.3 Basin structure and development The two morphological elements, that means valley floor and hillside (section 7.1, section 7.2), are divided by a young scarp at the foot of the hillside (Fig. 4: 10 m east of KB 2 borehole) and close to it by an escarpment visible as steep western river bank and extending down below the river surface (Fig. 4: 80 m east of KB 2). Both faces are due to flu- vial downcutting. The latter, being the older one, originated when the Lower Terrace river formed the deep incision and the wide periglacial braided river plain at the end of the mo E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Saalian period. The former resulted from partial erosion of the Lower Terrace sediment stack near to its former surface at late-glacial time. Yet the overall structure is complex. Information from outcrops, boreholes and from the geological map especially of the pit area suggest that subsidence by subrosion affected only the Older Middle Terrace and the Nachtigall-Deposit. Faults (Fig. 1, Fig. 2) are supposed to have been effective as slides during subsidence. At least partially they may have been caused by subrosion. Only the aforementioned sedi- ments were dislocated. There are neither indications of sub- sidence concerning Elsterian deposits (Tab. 1; Rohde 1989: Lauenforde Niveau; Grupe 1929: geol. Map: Obere Terrasse between +120 m and +132 m NN) nor are there indications concerning the sediments of Younger Middle Terrace and of Lower Terrace and of the periglacial slope deposits. In the valley floor, larger differences of thickness of Pleistocene deposits beneath the Holocene flood plain also must be ex- plained by subsidence. There, this process exclusively has af- fected the Older Middle Terrace sediments underlying the Lower Terrace sediments in great parts. Towards the east, beneath floodplain loam and Lower Terrace gravel and sand, the preservation of Older Middle Terrace deposits by subro- sion is fading away. It is important to note that Older Middle Terrace sediments subsided by subrosion have been identi- fied at several sites of the Weser valley, so near Polle, Boden- werder and maybe also near Hameln (Thiem, Fleig, Kliem partly joint in Rohde ir Thiem 1998: 116, 120, 141; besides orally by W. Thiem). As to maximum subsidence there is no validated evi- dence. From three dates of Older Middle Terrace sediments a subsidence of ca 65 m, perhaps even of ca 78 m, relating to their undisturbed base level in an upper Weser reference survey by Rohde (1989) are worth being considered. Generally the base of the Quaternary deposits seems to be irregular as a result of different degrees of subrosion. There might exist various sinking centers within the ba- sin. Tracing a contour map of the base of the Quaternary sediments in a coherent manner regrettably remains left till additional boreholes provide less scattered and less discon- tinuous data distribution. 7 A Postscript findings in autumn 2011 The advance of the open cast work to the north of the pit area made possible studying the complete overburden stack of the Nachtigall-Deposit in a vertical and straight quarry face for the first time. The study corroborates prin- cipally the borehole data evaluation as presented in the cross section of Fig. 4. Beyond that, explicitly examined it reveals the onlapping superposition of younger units on deformed and hill-ward dipping clay/silt layers of Nachti- gall-Deposit. On an erosive basal face the onlapping units comprise horizontal Younger Middle Terrace gravel and sand in the east as well as the lowest solifluction unit in the west. Most instructive to see how the younger fluvial sedi- ments are directly supplied by limestone debris, that have been transported downslope by periglacial solifluction. The overlying fluvial red sand displays evidently that the periglacial fluvial activity weakened in the final stages as generally is known from the latest phase of terrace build- ing accumulation, e.g. concerning Lower Terrace top layers (Rohde & Becker-Platen 1998: 42; 2002: 106). Fig. 6 sum- marizes our supplementary findings. It displays the quarry face in direction of the hill slope and across the strike of the clay deposits, as exposed in autumn 2011. It refers to section 2 of chapter 7 and supports evidently the suggested synthesis. The drawing is based on reconnaissance exami- nation in the pit, supplemented by a relevant photo evalu- ation. At the time mentioned the brickworks being in liquida- tion, the outcrop is in risk to get lost, unfortunately. 8 Discussion: Younger Middle Terrace The Younger Middle Terrace seems to be a weakly devel- oped geologic and hardly to distinguish morphologic ele- ment. It might be overlooked therefore in most cases. Its base in staircase position is minus 4 m (to minus 1 m) rela- tive to WOF mapped by a reference survey (Rohde 1989). That implies only ca 5 m of difference to the base of the Lower Terrace and a position lower than the Lower Terrace surface. Like the sediment package of the Older Middle Ter- race it is one of the geological units that build up the slope along the side of a recent valley. Consequently its surface lying at the bottom of a slope is hidden by slope deposits and / or loess. Possibly in upland positions Younger Middle Terrace deposits with a rather low surface level escape the geologist's notice at the edge of the Lower Terrace or are visible only in outcrops. Thus field mapping is in risk not to discern the depos- its where both terraces really are existing and then simply defines a mapping unit , Middle Terrace' in the sense of the common Older Middle Terrace, the more so as this is sup- posed to be the main Saalian fluvial formation in Lower Sax- ony (yet Wansa in Litt et al. 2007: 38). If the sediments of different terraces occur as stack, as is the case due to subro- sion (W. Thiem concerning Weser valley: Thiem 1988; Rohde ir Thiem 1998) and generally is the case in lowland regions, they might be complete, but inevitably are difficult to iden- tify in case they lack interbedded interglacial deposits. 9 Conclusion: MIS 8 -, MIS 7 - and prior to Saalian inland glaciation MIS 6 -deposits The fluvial deposits of the two Middle Terraces have to be assigned stratigraphically to pre-Drenthe-stadial pe- riods of the Saalian Complex (Litt ir Turner 1993, Litt et al. 2007). In and around Nachtigall pit the deposits match the stratigraphic units as tabulated below (Tab. 2). The direct contact of the sediments which in Tab. 2 are accentuated by heavy print, contrasts with common ter- race staircases in uplands; this fact must be emphasized sufficiently. In their special position demonstrated in Fig. 4, the two terraces corroborate that the Nachtigall-Succession with its interglacial and stadial layers has been deposited during Marine Isotope Stage 7 (MIS 7) and neither during the Holsteinian (MIS 9e, Geyh ir Muller 2005) nor during the Eemian (MIS 5e) interglacial periods. The correlation of the Holsteinian interglacial alternatively to MIS 11 cannot be discussed here. As has been mentioned the fluvial activity leading to the EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 111 Tab. 2: Deposits of Nachtigall site matched to the stratigraphic scheme for North Germany. Loess and solifluction deposits (Weichselian, Warthe and period of Younger Middle Terrace) omitted. Wehrden Niveau, Reiherbach Niveau: according to Rohde 1989. Bouchet 2, Bouchet 3: according to Beaulieu et al. 2001 and others (see chapter 9). N. Nachtigall 1} deposits subsided by subrosion. Tab. 2: Schichteinheiten im Gebiet der Grube Nachtigall im stratigraphisches Schema fur Nord-Deutschland. Loss und Solifluktionsablagerungen (Weichsel-Kaltzeit und Warthe-Stadium und Zeit der Jiingeren Mittelterrasse) nicht einbezogen. Wehrden-Niveau, Reiherbach-Niveau: nach Rohde (1989). Bouchet 2, Bouchet 3: nach Beaulieu et al. 2001 und weiteren (s. Kap. 9). N Nachtigall jj Ablagerung durch Subrosion abgesenkt. NORTH GERMANY Litt et al. 2007, with regard to ongoing discussion modified according to proposal of Kleinmann et al. 2011 NACHTIGALL SITE Weichselian MIS2-5d cold period with interstadials Lower Terrace Eemian MIS5e Interglacial [decalcification on slope] Saalian Complex MIS 6 Warthe- + Drenthe- Stadium [? Lower Terrace, older part] [glaciation] cold stage [?Delitzsch-Phase] with interstadials Younger Middle Terrace [Wehrden Niveau] Stadial of N. -Deposit [[ Stadials + 5 Interstadials of N. -Complex/ -Deposit \ MIS 7a warm stage [cf. Velay, France: Bouchet 3] Nachtigall Succession (| [i.e. lower part of N. -Complex / lowest part of N. -Deposit] N.2lnter- stadial MIS 7b cool stage Albaxen Stadial MIS 7c Interglacial [cf. Velay, France: Bouchet 2] N.llnter- alacial MIS7d, e [cool stage, warm stage] MIS 8 cold stage Older Middle Terrace [Reiherbach Niveau] \ MIS9a-d [2 warm, 2 cool stages] Holsteinian MIS9e [Interglacial] Elsterian MIS ID cold period [glaciation] youngest Upper Terrace accumulation of the Younger Middle Terrace occurred be- fore the Drenthe-stadial ice had covered northern Germa- ny. For the time in question temperature and dust records from Antarctica suggest a span between ca 190 (200) and 160 ka b.p. (temperature-against-time-graph of Vostok ice core, see Petit et al. 1999, Petit et al. 2000). On the basis of palynological and sedimentological stud- ies in KB 1 core, A. Kleinmann distinguished the following units (Kleinmann et al. 2011): Nachtigall 1 Interglacial, 36.0-28.60 m, corresponding to Bouchet 2 in the Velay sequence (Beaulieu et al. 2001, Reille et al. 2000, Tzedakis et al. 1997) and to MIS 7c. The warm period sediments consist of peat, clay and mud with intercalated layers of allochthonous material: peat A 36.00-34.70 (Grupe 1929: Unterfloz des Haupt- torflagers) Allochthonous Unit (I) 34.70-33.85 peat B and lacustrine clay / mud 33.85-33.25 (Grupe 1929: Oberfloz des Haupttorflagers) Allochthonous Unit (II) 33.25-30.00, with peat C at 32.00-31.97 m peatD 30.00-28.60. 112 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Albaxen Stadial, 28.60-27.05 m, corresponding to Bonne- fond in the Velay sequence and to MIS 7b. Nachtigall 2 Interstadial, 27.05-26.02 m, corresponding to Bouchet 3 in the Velay sequence and to MIS 7a. At 27.00- 26.54 it contains dark clay (organogenic layer E). Stadials 1-5, 26.02-22.50 m, separated by the minor Inter- stadials 1-4, corresponding to Costaros in the Velay se- quence and to the beginning of MIS 6. Dating of core samples from KB 1 borehole by TIMS 230 Th/U method yielded the following isochron corrected ag- es (Waas, Kleinmann & Lepper 2010): 227 +9 / -8 ka for birch fen peat sample 34.87-34.83 m (closed system within peat A) 201 +15 / -13 ka for brown moss peat sample 33.63-33.47 m (closed system within peat B) 206 ±6 ka for fen peat sample 28.90-28.82 m (closed system within peat D). An attempt at dating the clay sample 26.8-26.7 m with ca 15 % organic matter (organogenic layer E) yielded an age 177 ±8 ka which seems to be not consistent with the palyno- logical results, a higher age being expected. As a result of these contemporary research activities by three-way approach, the warm climate deposits of Nachtigall pit, known since a long time, actually have to be assigned to MIS 7 warm stage periods. The present study contributes lithostratigraphic aspects: directly subjacent as well as di- rectly overlying gravel deposits represent Older Middle Ter- race and Younger Middle Terrace respectively and thus also establish the age of the Nachtigall warm climate deposits as mid-Saalian MIS 7. 10 Further tasks Allochthonous Unit I as well as Allochthonous Unit II of Nachtigall-Complex (Chapter 7.2, Chapter 9) have equiva- lents in the succession of Gottingen-Geismar, Ottostrafie, 50 km away from Nachtigall pit (Gruger et al. 1994; Klein- mann et al. 2011, mentioning this correlation as orally communicated by Helmut Miiller in or just before 2007). The respective sections with their striking amounts of min- eral matter from the slope occur at the same palynostrati- graphic positions during warm climate. Catastrophic rain- falls during the periods in question might have torn open the plant cover at slopes and thus made possible the anom- alous mass transport (Kleinmann et al. 2011). Apparently the events on which the contemporaneity is based were not triggered by seismic activities: there is no evidence of earthquakes in sedimentological record, and in fact the palynological record even revealed certain vegetational developments in Allochthonous Unit I and Allochthonous Unit II (A. Kleinmann, orally). A conclusive explanation of the circumstances that determined the contemporaneity of the peculiar sedimentation at both sites seems to be worth further study. By their climatic conditions of accumulation the Nach- tigall warm and cool climate deposits are expected to yield archaeological finds that have not been taken into account so far. As to lithostratigraphy it is an open question, how the inland ice influenced sedimentation at the study site from its margin about 20 km in the north. We have to assume that ice dammed lakes covered the upper valley of the Riv- er Weser (glacial Lake Weserbergland, Wortmann 1998; glacial Lake Weser, Winsemann et al. 2009, 2011). The sur- face of the Drenthe valley floor might have been at a level of about +95 m NN at the least, being formed by the Young- er Middle Terrace. Up to now glaciolacustrine finegrained sediments or delta or subaqueous fan deposits have not been identified in or around Nachtigall pit. - According to Grupe (1929) an erratic boulder of Swedish Dala quartzite was found in the pit area, beneath 0.5 m of Weser gravel and 17.4 m of "clay" with some peat layers at a depth of 23.9 m. Yet it was interbedded in allochthonous deposits of Nachtigall 1 Interglacial and not in glacial sediments (cf. Chapter 7.2). A fundamental stratigraphic detail is concerning the base of the Lower Terrace deposits. This means the ques- tion whether the Weser as a braided river formed the deep incision and the wide periglacial valley plain by downcut- ting really during the deglaciation at the end of the Saalian Complex. Subsequently still prior to the Eemian interglacial the Lower Terrace aggradation started during cold and wet climate and continued after the interglacial. This model ap- plies accordingly to older terraces (Wortmann 1968, Wort- mann & Wortmann 1987, Bridgland 1994, Schreve 2004, McNabb 2007). On closer inspection the very important process of downcutting already may have been initiated as fluvial response to sea level lowering prior to the advance of the inland ice. This model may be inferred from Elsterian fluvial and fluvioglacial deposits ("Flufirinnen-Schichten") in the former Weser valley in and near Hannover (Rohde 1983, 1994, Rohde & Becker-Platen 1998: 38f., 138f, 34f.). In Memoriam This work has been accomplished in reverence for Helmut Miiller (20 July 1924 - 18 June 2008) who opened the palaeo- botanical secrets of the Nachtigall deposits and stratigraphi- cally assigned them to a still incompletely known mid-Saal- ian warm stage. Acknowledgements Mr. Robert Buch generously granted the permission to publish the geoscientific data from exploration boreholes of the Buch brickworks company at Hoxter-Albaxen and from our studies in the pit. Angelika Kleinmann and Deniz Waas agreed to take the sedimentological and radiometric part of the project; Mrs. Kleinmann also agreed to continue the palynological work of Helmut Miiller. From among our Hannoverean colleagues Klaus-Dieter Meyer contrib- uted to some extent to the field work and Mebus A. Geyh, just as Jutta Winsemann, Hannover, visited the pit. Each of them, likewise Eberhard Gruger, Gottingen, and our colleague Josef Merkt were readily critical dialogue part- ners. - Jochen Farrenschon, Krefeld, cooperatively assist- ed us in communicating with the state geological survey EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 113 Geologischer Dienst Nordrhein-Westfalen. - Stephan Dreher and Guntram Herrendorf provided assistance in electronic data processing. - Hansjorg Streif contributed comprehensive and detailed advice to improve the manu- script, and Julia Knowles proofread the English text as a na- tive speaker. Finally two reviewers gave helpfully construc- tive comments. To all of them we express our gratitude. Abbreviations ka b.p. Kilo annos (thousand years) before present (1950) MIS Marine isotope stage (warm or cold stage of Qua- ternary period, established by temperature-de- pendent 18 0/ 16 oxygen isotopes ratio of marine calcareous microfossil shells [foraminifers] or gla- cier ice). Alternative notation: MI stage. In general odd numbers are applied for warmer stages, even numbers for colder stages NN German Ordnance datum (Landkarten-Bezugshohe Normal Null) OMT Older Middle Terrace (older Saalian fluvial terrace) TIMS Thermal ionisation mass spectrometry WOF Water-level of over-bank flooding. Correspond- ingly: level of younger alluvial clay (Jiingerer Aue- lehm). Also correspondingly: 30/40 years mean annual highest water-level (Mittleres Hochwasser MHW 1941-70/80) References Beaulieu, J.-L. de, Andrieu-Ponel, V., Reille, M., Gruger, E., Tzedakis, C. ir Svobodova, H. (2001): An attempt at correlation between the Velay pollen sequence and the Middle Pleistocene stratigraphy from central Europe. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 20: 1593-1602. Brelie, G.v.d., Nowak, H., Preising, E. ir Rohde, P. (1971): Quartar zwischen Holzminden und Hehlen. - Arbeitsgemeinschaft Nordwest- deutscher Geologen, 38. Tagung Holzminden 1971, Fiihrer [guide] Exkurs. 4.6.1971: 19 p., 2 + 1 fig., 4 tab.; Hannover. Bridgland, D.R. (1994): Quaternary of the Thames. - XIII + 441 pp.; Lon- don (Chapman & Hall). Carthaus, E. (1886): Mitteilungen iiber die Triasformation im nordostlichen Westfalen und in einigen angranzenten Gebieten. - Philosophische Dissertation: 69 pp.; Wurzburg (Druck und Verlag der Stahel'sche Uni- versitats-Buch- und Kunsthandlung). Dechen, H. von (1884): Erlauterung zur geologischen Karte der Rhein- provinz und der Provinz Westfalen. - Vol. 2, A: 933 pp.; Bonn (Henry). Fischer, U., Gal, A. ir Michel, G. (1990): Die Subrosionssenke von Albax- en bei Hoxter und ihre Bedeutung fur die Wassergewinnung. - Neu- es Jahrbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie, Abhandlungen, 181/1-3: 531-547. Geyh, M.A. ir Muller, H. (2005): Numerical 230Th/U dating and a palyno- logical review of the Holsteinian/Hoxnian Interglacial. - Quaternary Science Reviews, 24: 1861-1872. Gruger, E. (1996): Palynostratigraphy of the middle Pleistocene sequence from Gottingen, Otto-Strasse. - In: Turner, C. (ed.): The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe: 173-180; Rotterdam (A.A. Balkema). Gruger, E., Jordan, H., Meischner, D., Schlie, P. (1994): Mittelpleistozane Warmzeiten in Gottingen, Bohrungen Ottostrasse und Akazienweg. - Geologisches Jahrbuch A 134, 167-210, 8 fig., 4 tab., 1 pi. Grupe, O. (1912 / 1929): Geologische Karte von Preufien 1 : 25 000, mit Er- lauterungen [explanatory notes], sheet 4122 Holzminden. - 1st / 2nd edit., 71 pp., 1 pi, 1 map ; Berlin. Hoffmann [surveyor of mines] (1920): Braunkohlenrube Nachtigall, Gru- benriss 1 : 1000, Amtliches Grubenbild [map of mine]. - Ziegelwerk Buch, Hoxter-Albaxen. - [unpubl, archives of company]. Hoffmann [surveyor of mines] (1922): Braunkohlenrube Nachtigall, Profil A-B, 1 : 750 and 1 : 750 / 200, Amtliches Grubenbild. - Ziegelwerk Buch, Hoxter-Albaxen. - [unpubl, archives of company]. Kleinmann, A., Muller, H, Lepper, J. ir Waas, D. (2011): Nachtigall: A continental sediment and pollen sequence of the Saalian Complex in N- Germany and its relationship to the MIS-framework. - Quaternary In- ternational 241 (2011): 97-110, 5 fig.. DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2010.10.005. Koken, E. (1901): Beitrage zur Kenntnis des schwabischen Diluviums. - Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaontologie, 14: 120-170. Lepper, J. (1998): Geologisch-lagerstattenkundliches Gutachten zur geplant- en Erweiterung der Tongrube Nachtigall in Hoxter-Albaxen (Reg.-Bez. Detmold). - 5 pp., 9 append.; Hannover. - [unpubl. - Landesamt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, archives: 0119544]. Lepper, J. (2011): Tongrube Nachtigall bei Albaxen (Landkreis Hoxter). Arbeitsunterlagen [documentation] 1996-2011. - Drill and outcrop records, photos, plans, 1 map, 1 lithological gravel analysis, etc.; Han- nover. - [unpubl. - Landesamt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, ar- chives: 0130075]. Lepper, J. ir Mengeling, H. (1990): Geologische Wanderkarte Mittleres Leinebergland mit Naturpark Solling-Vogler, 1 : 100 000, mit Beiheft [map with explanatory notes]. - Beiheft Bericht Naturhistorische Ges- ellschaft Hannover: 58 pp., 1 map; Hannover. Litt, T, Behre, K.-E., Meyer, K.-D., Stephan, H.-J. ir Wansa, S. (2007): Stratigraphische Begriffe fur das Quartar des norddeutschen Vereis- ungsgebietes. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 56 (1-2): 7-65. Litt, T. ir Turner, C. (1993): Arbeitsergebnisse der Subkommission fiir Eu- ropaische Quartarstratigraphie: Die Saalesequenz in der Typusregion (Bericht der SEQS 10). - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 43: 125-128; Deut- sche Quartarvereinigung. McNabb, J. (2007): The British Lower Palaeolithic. - 420 pp.; London (Routledge). Mangelsdorf, P. (1981): Quartargeologische und palaobotanische Untersu- chungen in der Tongrube ..Nachtigall" N Hoxter/Weser. - Dipl.-Arbeit Geo! Inst. Univ. Hannover: 63 pp., 12 fig., 6 tab., 4 pi.; Hannover. - [un- publ. - Landesamt fiir Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, library: 1986 B 404]. Muller, H. (1986): Interglazial der Grube Nachtigall bei Albaxen: cf. "Bilshausen e" und "f" ?. - In: P. Rohde (1986), Geo-Umwelt im Berg- land-Quartar zwischen oberer Weser und Leine. - Deutsche Quartarv- ereinigung DEUQUA, 23. Tagung, Celle, Fiihrer [guide] Exkurs. B: 19 pp.; Hannover. Nowak, H. (1971): Torf und Ton unter Mittelterrassen-Kies, Tongrube (Zeche) Nachtigall, Albaxem siidlich Holzminden. - In: G. v.d. Bre- lie et al. (1971), Quartar zwischen Holzminden und Hehlen. Arbeitsge- meinschaft Nordwestdeutscher Geologen, 38. Tagung Holzminden 1971, Fiihrer [guide] Exkurs. 4.6.1971: 1-3; Hannover. Petit, J.R., Jouzel, J.D., Raynaud, D., Barkov, N. I., Barnola, J.-M., Ba- sile, I., Bender, M., Chappellaz, J., Davis, M., Delaygue, G., Del- motte, M., Kotlyakov.V. M., Legrand, M., Lipenkov, V.Y., Lorius, C, Pepin, L., Ritz, C, Saltzman, E. ir Stievenard, M. (1999): Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. - Nature, 399: 429-436. DOI:10.1038/20859. Petit, J.R., Raynaud, D., Lorius, C, Jouzel, J., Delaygue, G, Barkov, N.I. ir Kotlyakov, V.M. (2000): Historical isotopic temperature record from the Vostok ice core. - In Trends: A compendium of data on glo- bal change. - Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. DOL10.3334/CDIAC/ cli.006; Oak Ridge, TN, USA. Reille, M., Beaulieu, J.-L. de., Svobodova, H, Andrieu-Ponel, V. ir Goeury, C. (2000): Pollen analytical biostratigraphy of the last five cli- matic cycles from a long continental sequence from the Velay region (Massif Central, France). -Journal of Quaternary Science, 15: 665-685. Rohde, P. (1983): Geologische Karte von Niedersachsen 1 : 25 000, mit Er- lauterungen [explanatory notes], sheet 3724 Pattensen. - 192 pp., 43 fig., 31 tab., 2 pi, 8 maps; Hannover. Rohde, P. (1986): Geo-Umwelt im Bergland-Quartar zwischen oberer We- ser und Leine. - Deutsche Quartarvereinigung DEUQUA, 23. Tagung, Celle, Fiihrer [guide] Exkurs. B: 45 pp. + amendments, 19 fig., 1 tab., 1 incl; Hannover. Rohde, P. (1989): Elf pleistozane Sand-Kies-Terrassen der Weser: Erlauter- ung eines Gliederungsschemas fiir das obere Wesertal. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 39: 42-65, 4 fig., 2 tab.. Rohde, P. (1994): Weser und Leine am Berglandrand zur Ober- und Mittel- terrassen-Zeit. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 44: 106-113, 2 fig.. Rohde, P. (2002): Geologische Karte von Niedersachsen 1 : 25 000, mit Er- lauterungen [explanatory notes], sheet 3519 Uchte Slid. - 208 pp., 40 fig., 15 tab., 7 maps; Hannover. XHH E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Rohde, P. (2008): Tongrube Nachtigall am SW-Rand der Subrosionssenke bei Albaxen - Stratigraphie und Schichtlagerung. - 2 maps (bounda- ries, contour lines), 3 vert. Sect.; Hannover. - [unpubl. - Landesamt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, archives: X 00282] Rohde, P. if Becker-Platen, J.D. (coord.) (1998): Geologische Stadtkarte Hannover 1 : 25 000, Erlauterungen [explanatory notes]. - 156 pp., 37 fig., 3 tab.; Niedersachsisches Landesamt fur Bodenforschung, Han- nover. Rohde, P. if Thiem, W. (1998): Die eiszeitliche Weser im heutigen Weser- und Leine-Tal. - Quartar in Niedersachsen. DEUQUA-Exkurs.-Fiihrer [excursion guide ]: 89-153, 20 fig., 7 tab.; Hannover. Schlegel, F. (ed.) (1997): Werner von Heesen und die Albaxen-Chronik. - 184 pp.; Bochum (Verlag Bochumer Antiquariat). Schreve, D.C. (ed.) (2004): The Quaternary mammals in southern and east- ern England. Field guide. -VII + 128 p.; London. Siegert, L. (1913): Ober die Entwicklung des Wesertales. - Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, 64: 233-264. Siegert, L. (1921): Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Pliocans und der diluvialen Terrassen im Flufigebiet der Weser. - Abhandlungen der PreufSischen Geologischen Landesanstalt, Neue Folge, 90: 130 pp. Soergel, W. (1927): Zur Talentwicklung des Weser-Werra- und des Ilm-Sys- tems. - Geologische Rundschau, 18: 103-120. Soergel, W. (1939): Das diluviale System. - Fortschritte der Geologie und Palaontologie,12 (39): 155-292. Stoller, J. (1928): Palaobotanische Untersuchungen von Interglazialtorf- proben aus der Zeche Nachtigall. - 3 p.; Hannover. - [unpubl. - Lande- samt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, archives: 0066220.] Straaten, L. van (1982): Hydrogeologische Untersuchungen im Raum nordlich Hoxter. - Dipl. -Arbeit Geol. Inst. Universitat Hannover: 110 pp., 3 append.; Hannover. - [unpubl. - Landesamt fiir Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, archives: 2007 B 1415] Thiem, W. (1988): Das Oberwesertal im Raume Polle - Bodenwerder - Hehlen. Zu aktuellen Problemen der Talgeschichte der Oberweser im Quartar. - Jahrbuch der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Hannover, spe- cial 14: 273-326, 1 fig., 8 tab.. Thome, K.N. (1998): Einfiihrung in das Quartar. Das Zeitalter der Gletscher. - 287 p., 205 fig., 22 tab., 1 pi.; Berlin (Springer). Tzedakis, P.C., Andrieu, V., Beaulieu, J.-L. de, Crowhurst, S. de, Fol- lieri, M., Hooghiemstra, H., Maori, D., Reille, M., Sadori, L., Shackleton, NJ. ir Wijmstra, T.A. (1997): Comparison of terrestrial and marine records of changing climate of the last 500,000 years. - Earth and Planetary Science Letters 150: 171-176. Waas, D., Kleinmann, A. if Lepper, J. (2011): Uranium-series dating of fen peat horizons from pit Nachtigall in northern Germany. - Quaternary International 241 (2011): 111-124: 14 pp., 10 fig., 1 tab.. DOI: 10.1016/j. quaint.2010.09.010. Winsemann, J., Brandes, C, Polom, U. if Weber, C. (2011): Depositional architecture and palaeogeographic significance of Middle Pleistocene glaciolacustrine ice marginal deposits in northwestern Germany: a synoptic overview. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 60, 2-3: 215- 235, 16 fig.. DOI 10.3285/eg.60.2-3.01. Winsemann, J., Hornung, J.J., Meinsen, J., Asprion, U, Polom, U., Brandes, C, Bussmann, M. if Weber, C. (2009): Anatomy of a sub- aqueous ice-contact fan and delta complex, Middle Pleistocene, NW Germany. - Sedimentology, 56: 1041-1076. Wortmann, H. (1968): Die morphogenetische Gliederung der Quartarba- sis des Wiehengebirgsvorlandes in Nordwestdeutschland. - Eiszeital- ter und Gegenwart, 19: 227-239, 4 fig., 1 tab., 1 pi.. Wortmann, H. if Wortmann, A. (1987): Glaziare Ablagerungen und Ter- rassengliederung der Weser im Raum zwischen Eisbergen und Porta Westfalica (Nordwestdeutschland). - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 37: 93-98. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 133-115 /DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.D2 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution ticense 145 E&G Quaternary Science Journal Volume Gl / Number 2 / 2012 / 146-155 / DOI 10.3285/eg. 61. 2. 03 www.quaternary-science.net GEOZON SCIENCE MEDIA ISSN 0424-7116 Interrelation of geomorphology and fauna of Lavrado region in Roraima, Brazil - suggestions for future studies Thiago Morato de Carvalho, Celso Morato de Carvalho How to cite: Abstract: Kurzfassung: Keywords: Carvalho, T. M., Carvalho, C. M. (2012): Interrelation of geomorphology and fauna of Lavrado region in Roraima, Brazil - sug- gestions for future studies. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 61 (2): 146-158. DOI: 10.3285/eg.61.2.03 The authors discuss the relevance of geomorphology and biology interaction under the concepts of the Brazilian morphoclimatic domains. The discussion is focused on biogeographical and ecological aspects. The open areas of Roraima - the lavrado - localized between Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana, in the Northern portion of the Amazon morphoclimatic domain, is the region where the present case study was carried out. Remote sensing techniques were applied to determine the relief and field biology characteriza- tion. The generated products were useful for describing the habitats and local distribution of the lavrado's fauna. Die Wechselbeziehung von Geomorphologie und Fauna in der Lavrado Region in Roraima, Brasilien: Vorschlage fur zukiinf- tigeStudien In der vorgelegten Arbeit wird die Abhangigkeit von Geomorphologie und biologischen Interaktion unter Verwendung des Kon- zeptes morphoklimatischer Regionen Brasiliens vorgestellt. Die Diskussion fokussiert hierbei auf biogeographische und okologische Aspekte. Die vorgelegte Studie wurde in den offenen Bereichen von Roraima - Lavrado - zwischen Brasilien, Venezuela und Gu- yana durchgefiihrt. Dieses Gebiet liegt im nordlichen Teil der morphoklimatischen Region Amazoniens. Zur Anwendung kamen Techniken der Fernerkundung, um das Relief der Region zu ermitteln und biologische Charakterisierungen durchzufiihren. Die hierdurch erzielten Ergebnisse wurden genutzt, um Lebensraume der Region und die Verteilung der Lavrado Fauna zu beschreiben. Biogeomorphology, Amazon morphoclimatic domain, Roraima, lavrado Addresses of authors: Thiago Morato de Carvalho*, Celso Morato de Carvalho**, National Institute of Amazonian Research (Instituto National de Pesquisas da Amazonia - INPA) Boa Vista, Roraima, Brazil. ZipCode 69301-150. *firstname.lastname@example.com; **cmorato@inpa. gov.br 1 Introduction On a geomorphological viewpoint, the Amazon rainforest can be characterized by its lowland relief and extensive for- ested areas, by the dichotomy between main allochthonous and small autochthonous rivers, as well as combining latosol and podzol low fertility soils. The annual thermal range is relatively homogeneous, 24°C to 26°C; the rainfall is hetero- geneous, 1750 to 2300 mm/year, outside the Andes, which is around 7000 mm/year; and the vegetation is a complex net distributed over periodically flooded forest and upland, vdrzea and terra firme respectively (Victoria et al. 2000; Ab'Saber 2003). These combined geomorphological fea- tures form an area of approximately 7 million km 2 , called the Amazon morphoclimatic domain. What in Brazil we call a morphoclimatic domain is an area of sub-continental di- mensions, with characteristic patterns of relief, drainage, cli- mate, soils and vegetation (Ab'Saber 1967). One important feature of the Amazon morphoclimatic domain is the physiognomy of its vegetation, which can be open (scrubs, herbs and small trees) or closed (tall trees, with some emerging). Taking only this aspect into account, the open areas that occur in the Amazon region can be quite similar to those occurring in other domains, for example, the open vegetation of cerrado in the Central Brazilian ecosys- tem, the Bolivian Chaco or the lhanos in Venezuela. How- ever, there are many ecological and physiological differences between these open formations, such as floristic composi- tion, soil formation, geomorphological genesis, drainage and climate (Vanzolini & Carvalho 1991; Eiten 1992, 1994). We can focus on this physiognomic dichotomous prop- erty of the Amazon vegetation with different lenses, depend- ing of the goal. From the biogeographical viewpoint, for in- stance, these two morphological aspects of vegetation, open and closed areas, are important for understanding the distri- bution of organisms, principally when we consider the pul- sation of the forest over the last 20.000 years - the open areas entering the forest during the Pleistocene glacial dry periods and the expansion of the forest during the interglacial wet periods throughout South American ecosystems (Vanzolini 1988; Ab'Saber 1977; Pessenda et al. 2009). In the Brazilian Amazon there are expressive open veg- 116 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 146-155 / DOI 10.3285/eg. 61. 2. 03 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 2 The case study area Fig. 1: Examples of open areas within the Amazon morphoclimatic domain. 1 - Roraima, Venezuela and Guyana. 2 - Amapa state, Brazil. A - Monte Roraima; B - Branco River; C - Lacustrine Systems; D - Serra da Lua; E - Serra Marari; F - Maracd Island; G - Serra do Tepequem. Abb. 1: Beispiele von Freiflachen innerhalb der morphoklimatischen Region Amazonas. 1 - Roraima, Venezuela und Guyana. 2 - Bundesstaat Amapa, Brasilien. A - Monte Roraima; B - Branco River; C - Lacustrine Systems; D - Serra da Lua; E - Serra Marari; F - Maracd Island; G - Serra do Tepequem. etation areas in the states of Para, Amapa and Roraima, oc- curring as enclaves inside extensive forested areas (MuRgA- Pires 1974; Carvalho 2009; Vanzolini 1992) and along the major rivers, such as the Trombetas (Egler 1960), Negro (Ducke ir Blake 1953), in the mouth of the Tapajos (Rad- ambrasil 1975) and in the Madeira (MuRgA-PiRES 1974). These open areas comprise several landscapes, such as plains, plateaus, hills and mountains. Associated with these geo- morphological features there occur the scrubs, herbs, grasses and cactacean adapted to these physical formations, consti- tuting very particular habitats where can live and reproduce different species of animals. The most relevant fact concerning the distribution of ani- mals and plants is that they are not randomly distributed along their areas of occurrence; on the contrary, there are specific habitats where they can live. In this way, it is our thought that: i) biological aspect concerning the distribution of organisms among the various habitats that form ecosys- tems cannot be understood without the understanding of the physical structure of these habitats, ii) this comprehension can be given by a geomorphological approach. The rational of our thought is tied to the concepts estab- lishing that the distribution of organisms reflects their sets of adaptations to the immediate environment, a concept known as ecological niche (Vanzolini 1970; Pianka 1994). This idea is the soul of classical studies approaching biol- ogy (zoogeography) and geomorphology, which were car- ried out by Vanzolini ir Williams (1970), Vanzolini (1970, 1981) and Ab'Saber (1967), currently incremented by news geoprocessing techniques (Carvalho ir Ramirez 2008; Car- valho 2009a; Metzger 1997). In this context, the aim of the present study is focused on the landscape and habitats that occur in open areas inside the Amazon region. The scenario of this discussion encompass- ing the field of biogeomorphology comprises three ways: i) concepts of morphoclimatic domains and biogeography, ii) the case study of a very interesting open area known as la- vrado, situated in the Northern Amazon region - the Brazil- ian state of Roraima, hi) use of geoprocessing techniques for identifying and describing habitats. The general region described in this report (Fig. l), com- prised in the Guyana Shield (Hammond 2005), is a very pe- culiar open area of some 69.000 km 2 , mostly situated in the northern portion of the Amazon morphoclimatic domain, overlying three countries. We estimate, by remote sensing, that this area covers some 45.000 km 2 in the Brazilian state of Roraima, 10.000 km 2 in Venezuela and 14.000 km 2 in Guyana. In Venezuela this portion of open areas is about 1200-1600 meters above sea level. It is characterized by the presence of ruiniform tabular mountains, individually called tepuy. The tepuyes are part of a geomorphological formation known in Venezuela as Gran Sabana. In the Brazilian territory the best known tepuy is the Roraima Mount (05°ll'S, 60 o 49'W), around 2800 meters high, situated on the triple border of Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana. We do not consider this Ven- ezuelan region to be part of the Amazon morphoclimatic do- main (see Ab'Saber 2003). In the Guyana region this Northern Amazon open area is mostly situated on the basin of the Rupununi River, an afflu- ent of the main Guyanese river, the Essequibo. This open ar- ea, locally known as Rupununi Savanna, is separated by the Tacutu River. This river, that forms the border of Brazil and Guyana, runs in a geological fissure from South to North, where it turns westward to flow into the Uraricoera River in Brazil (approximately at 03°01'N, 60°28'W), both rivers forming the Branco, which flows southward into the Negro River in the Brazilian state of Amazonas. In the Brazilian portion, the state of Roraima, this area is known as lavrado, an old Portuguese term for open veg- etation (Vanzolini ir Carvalho 1991; Carvalho 2009). The lavrado has its own socio-cultural and ecological identity, integrated by complex networks of interactions among the local people with the landscape, and by a characteristic local fauna and flora adapted to the lavrado ecosystem (Nasci- mento 1998). This open area is formed by peculiar geomorphological features, such as boulders, alluvial plains, lakes and gallery forests along the rivers. Isolated patches of forest, scrubs and herbs, are present throughout the area. Gallery forests oc- cur in the banks of the rivers. These features form the lavra- do habitats, harboring many species of plants and animals, whose biological aspects of their distribution along these re- gional habitats are also focused in this study. 3 Material and Methods 3.1 Geomorphology To describe the morphology of the case study relief we used remote sensing techniques (hypsometry, shaded relief, topo- graphic profiles and RGB composition) from elevations mod- el of SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) and Landsat 5 images. The elevation model from SRTM is a radar image, acquired by interferometry method in 2001 for entire globe, used for geomorphometrics analysis of the terrain. The software ENVI 4.3 was used to resize the SRTM data to 30 meters, by interpolation, from original spatial resolu- tion of 90 meters. This digital elevation model was important to identify the different altimetry values, and the morphol- ogy of denudation forms (ranges and hills) using shaded re- EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / M6-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 117 """ p " : 3" «■ ^:.653B: , A . W 18"5I 50 VW To Pos: 3" J 3 "53.1035"* 55' 39' <5.036F , W 1DDD m \ , ffl ^.DOm ^V/- \ .-...-_ >.. — A) Wjj ^-~~~-_^JVjl_ - a 1 -^-1 Horn Hos: 3" 1 C tiZ.MOl" N. M" 1Z 1 Z9.Z9Z!>" W .B 1750 IDI'DH; 1' IB" JZ.IHKiVSI. 13" 10" MdOl'-W ("ram Pas; Z' 44' 55.5510" N. CO* G-D-' 23.5191" W c /'.!l Hi :.:i;i in ir.Il tm J in km 4EQ km «3 km To Pot; Z" 11' 30.1 DJUr" M. GD f 00' S.G377" W C =3 ZJJ km Z 5D ki 3501™ Mllkm 442 ki la Pan: ?• lfl•?4.J■T,WH,T,1l , II' :ir..7ia9TW i-JLL^. r=3 -Fig. 2: Roraima, topographic transects profiles a-a' to c-c'; Venezuela - Roraima, transect D. Abb. 2: Roraima, topographische Transekte a-a' to c-c'; Venezuela -Roraima, Transekt D. lief and topographic profiles techniques. The optical images of Landsat 5 are mostly used for environmental studies, with 30 meters spatial resolution, and were used for identifying agradational morphologies, like fluvial plains, lakes and veg- etation aspects by visual interpretation. The Landsat 5 images RGB composition was applied in ENVI 4.3, using bands 5,4 and 3. The Landsat 5 images were achieved in 2005, from December to April, which cor- responds to dry season (without clouds), patch-rows were 232(56,57,58); 231(57,58). These images were acquired at the National Institute of Spatial Research (INPE) - www.dgi, inpe.br/CDSR/ - and Embrapa Relevo - www.relevobr.cnpm. embrapa.br/. 3.2 Fauna examples Case study of faunal elements, in the present context, were determined through field work conducted by the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia (National Institute of Amazonian Research - INPA) in Roraima throughout the past two decades, mainly on the lavrado area (see Carvalho 2009). We take as examples the vertebrate fauna of the area, mainly aspects of its distribution along the habitats com- prised by geomorphological features determined through geoprocessing techniques (Figures 8, 9, 10). 4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Geomorphological features of the lavrado: remote sensing One can see the position and topographic profile of the la- vrado and adjacent forested areas just looking at the region through transects, for example covering the forests of the West portion of Roraima up to the open areas in the East, or covering part of the Venezuelan Gran Sabana, until the lavrado areas (Fig. 2). At the same way, through transects (Fig. 3) we can see the main features of the relief, like high altitudes (more than 1500 meters high), with tabular relief (tepuys), agradational and denudational processes, moder- ated dissection and low structural control (Fig. 3 "l"); inter- mediary altitude, somewhat of 500-1500 m, with denuda- tional processes, high dissection and strong structural con- 118 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 146-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Fig. 3: 1 - Mount Roraima, moderate relief dissection, border of Venezuela and Brazil (05°11'N, 60°49'W); 2 - Serra Marari, moderate to strong dis- sected relief (04°16'N, 60°46'W); 3 - Uraricoera River, low relief dissec- tion (03°19'N, 60°25'W); 4 - Serra da Lua, low and strong relief dissection (02°27'N, 60°28'W). Abb. 3: 1 - Mount Roraima, moderate Reliefzergliederung an der Grenze zu Venezuela und Brasilien (05°11 'N, 60°49 'W); 2 - Serra Marari, mafiige bis starke Reliefzergliederung (04°16'N, 60°46 , W); 3 - Uraricoera River, niedrige Reliefzergliederung (03°19'N, 60°25"W); 4 - Serra da Lua, niedrige und starke Reliefzergleiderung (02°27'N, 60°28'W). trol (Fig. 3 "2"); low sedimentary plains, around 70-100 m, with agradational processes like fluvial plains and lacustrine systems (Fig. 3 "3"); and isolated hills, inselbergs, with struc- tural control (Fig. 3 "4"). In contrast with the high elevation of the Venezuelan Gran Sabana, the elevation of the lavrado area is relatively low, around 70-200 m a.s.l. This area is drained by the Bran- co River, which is composed by a system of low hills, with low dissected relief, isolated residual peaks (inselbergs), sur- rounded by lakes in the headwaters, the flowing of which creates a interconnected streams (igarapes) separated by small elevations, known as tesos, forms drainage dissection around the lakes and streams (Fig. 4). Also we can see in the area the sugar-loaf formations (pao-de-acucar) and laterite layers exposed on the soil (lajeiro). In all lavrado areas narrow lines of palm trees remind one of the landscapes of the morphoclimatic domain of the Central Brazil cerrados. Of course this resemblance is on- ly apparent, since the cerrado is a very distinct ecosystem, situated a few thousands kilometers from the lavrado. The reconnaissance of the distinctiveness between both ecosys- tems - lavrado and cerrado - has a very important ecologi- cal and biogeographical significance (Eiten 1963; Coutinho 1978; Vanzolini ir Carvalho 1991; Carvalho 2009). The predominant declivity of the lavrado is between 5°-8°, with low energy, forming a region that receives sedi- mentary material, mainly sand coming from the surround- ing crystalline uplands (Guyana Shield). The lavrado central portion's relief low energy favors the formation of a com- plex lacustrine system, composed by more or less circular up to 300 meters long lakes, most of which are temporary (Fig. 5). These lakes are independent, interconnected by nar- row streams, forming dendritic, rectangular and subdendrit- Fig. 4: 1 - Tesos (low hills) convex morphologies; 2 - elevations between the streams. lakes; 3 - small Abb. 4: 1 - Tesos (flaches Hiigelland) konvexe Morphologie; 2 - Seen; 3 - kleine Erhebungen zwischen den Strbmen. ic patterns. These lakes are fed by ground water and resem- ble the lakes of the morphoclimatic domain of the cerrado (Carvalho & Zucchi 2009). Figures 6-7 show some aspects of the fluvial plain and vegetation of the lavrado. The rivers that cross the lavrado are autochthonous, with its headwaters in the elevated serras that make the border of Brazil and Venezuela, the Parima-Pacaraima system. The lavrado drainage, formed by well developed fluvial plains, is directed to the Negro River, which runs from the Andes until its confluence to the Solimoes River, in the Central Amazon Basin. The main rivers that run in the lavrado have banks (dique marginal) and beyond these a formation called vdrzea, a floodplain area formed along the main rivers dur- ing the rainy season. The vegetation of the lavrado is composed by interesting formations (Beigbeder 1959; Ab'Saber 1997). Throughout this open area one can see near 8-10 meters height and less than 0.5 ha, wood patches, surrounded by grouped or more disperse scrubs and small trees. The ground is covered by grasses and grass-like plants (family Cyperaceae). Lines of palm trees (Mauritia flexuosa), known as buritizais, due to the popular name buriti (family Palmae) for the palm tree, is an important element of the lavrado landscape, starting in small lakes and running toward the main riv- ers, for a distance of around 300-800 meters. The lavrado is surrounded by 15-20 meters high forest, soil with shal- low litter, some emerging trees and somewhat unstructured understory. 4.2 Geomorphology and fauna 4.2.1 The approach We can look at this interaction between geomorphology and biology from the point of view of different related areas of knowledge. Whatever the area, the main idea of this interac- tion is focused on species and populations distribution, local or along large areas. On the regional distribution, one may be interested in describing the species richness between hab- itats within an ecosystem, to understand aspects of the local biodiversity. On the other hand, we can focus on the distri- EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 146-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 119 Fig. 5: Lacustrine system (03°37'N, 60°15'W); 1 - Surumu River; 2 - Tacutu River. Abb. 5: Lakustrines System (03°37'N, 60°15"W); 1 - Surumu River; 2 - Tacutu River. bution of species and populations among ecosystem, in order to understand extensive distribution patterns, for example, populations in contact or separated by geomorphic barriers that have occurred in the present or past events. Two emeritus herpetologists together with one geologist were the first to approach geomorphology to biology in 1969- 1970. The zoologists are the Brazilian scientist Paulo Emilio Vanzolini and his North American colleague Ernst Williams. They have formulated a very elegant South American lizard (genus Anolis, family Polychrotidae) speciation model based on forest expansion and retraction, paleoclimatic events that occurred under the influence of the Pleistocene dry and wet periods over the past 20.000-10.000 years. This model of speciation formulated by Vanzolini & Williams (1970) establishes that because of the forest frag- mentation occurring during paleoclimatic dry periods (gla- ciation) animals became isolated in forests patches, which resulted in ecological barriers - forest species do not live in open areas. These barriers, in turn, determined the interrup- tion of gene flow between populations. Dry events of the past can be inferred at present by geomorphologic features, such as the stone-lines (paleosols formed in dry paleoclimat- ic periods and buried in sedimentary deposits), indicating that a forested area today was open in the past (Ab'Saber 2003; Hiruma 2007). Another way to infer past dry events is through palynological records and 14 C dating of sediments (Absy 2000; Salgado-Laboriau 1982). During the humid phase (interglacial) the forest coalesced and what was fragmented forest became continuous forest- ed area; however, many animal species did not change gene again, because their populations were isolated for a period in which several biological and physiological changes occurred in each one. The result of these processes was the formation of distinct species. The model focused mainly on the pulsa- tion of the forest in the Amazon region; however, the idea was applied for other regions and species (Vanzolini 1988, 2002; Wuster et al. 2005). Following another way of the same theme, the German geologist Jiirgen Haffer studying Amazonian birds, in 1969 came to the same conclusion and model of speciation as did Vanzolini and Williams for lizards in early 1970. This model of speciation, taking geomorphological evidences of expan- sion and retraction of the forest, became classic in biogeog- raphy and is well known as Pleistocene Refugia Model and Refugia Theory (Vanzolini 1970; Absy et al. 1991; Haffer it Prance 2001; Haffer 1969; Ab'Saber 1982). The morphoclimatic domains concepts, adopted by Van- zolini and Williams as vegetation criteria for their study of species distribution and refuges, were first formulated by Aziz Nacib Ab'Saber in 1967. Prior to this Brazilian geogra- pher and geomorphologist, the vegetation of the regions in Brazil was identified through fragmented floristic features. The model of Ab'Saber gave the necessary strength in iden- tifying large vegetal formations, instead of patches inside the same ecological and geomorphologic formation. Ab'Saber used the climate, vegetation, soil, Hydrography and relief as features to recognize what he called the area "core" in a do- main, in a sub-continental scale. All kinds of regional geo- morphological fades could, then, be included in one domain or another - cerrado, caatinga, mata atldntica and hileia (the Amazon) - recognizing the transitional zones. The model formulated by Ab'Saber was a great advance to the fields of geography and geomorphology, since regions could then be identified as a continuous unit with related geomorphologic features. To biologists interested in ecolo- gy and biogeography this geomorphologic model integrated formerly scattered data, enabling one to come to a better understanding of species distribution. 1.3 Habitats and faunal distribution: the lavrado All those geomorphological formations comprised in the lavrado, such as hills, rock outcrops, lakes, small patches of forest, scrubs and the gallery forests along the rivers, with the back-swamps (vdrzea) of the major ones, form the habi- tats inhabited by many organisms. Identifying these habitats is the first step to comprehend the biology of any species that live in the lavrado, in terms of adaptations and gene flow among individuals and populations. Some geomorphological features can illustrate this point of view, such as the granite and laterite extrusions, hogbacks, inselbergs and sparse or grouped boulders at various sizes (matacoes) in the plain and low hills present in the lavrado (Ruellan 1957). In addition to the geomorphological interpretation, these formations also have their ecological identity, forming complex micro- habitats inhabited by birds, bats, rats, snakes, frogs, lizards and many species of invertebrates (Vanzolini it Carvalho 1991; Carvalho 2009; Nunes it Bobadilha 1997; Rafael et al. 1997). The rocks are distributed throughout the area and are di- rectly exposed to the sunlight. These features led to many relevant biological questions, such as: How many species of vertebrates and invertebrates are associated with these 150 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 146-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Fig. 6: "A-B" - fluvial plains, lowlands (03°01'N, 60°29'W and 02°36'N, 60°54'W); "C-D" - fluvial plains, highlands (04°17'N, 60°32'W and 04°56'N, 61° WW). 1 - abandoned chanel lakes of flood plain; 2 - Lakes of flat plain. A - Mouth of the Tacutu River in the Branco River; B - Mucajai River; C - Cotingo River with structural control, non flood plain; D - meandriform river developed at structural control, small flood plain with lacustrine systems (oxbows lakes). Abb. 6: "A-B" - Flussniederungen, Tiefland (03°60°N, 29°0l'W und 02°36'N, 60°54'W); "C-D" - Flussniederungen, Hochland (04°17'N, 60°32'W und 04"56'N, 61°14 "W). 1 - aufgegehene Kanalseen der Flussaue; 2 - Seen der Tiefebene. A - Zusammenfluss von Tacutu in den Brancoss; B - Mucajai; C - Cotingo, nicht zur Flussaue entwickelt; D - mdandernder Fluss, kleinflachige Flussaue mit lakustrinen Systemen (Altwasserseen). habitats? How many diet and reproductive adaptations have these species undergone so as to be able to survive in these geomorphological units? How can be genetically charac- terized the populations of the same species inhabiting the lavrado? There are any preferences of some particular spe- cies in residing certain geomorphological features, such as granite and laterite? How these rock outcrops are distributed (grouped or dispersed) and how to interpret the distribution pattern? An interesting case of animal distribution in these granite habitats come from the frog Leptodactylus myersi, a species that seems to be endemic to the lavrado, living on the rocks, at least the main populations (Heyer 1995). Each popula- tion of this frog seems to be separated by several kilometers, which is the distance between the boulders. Questions based on this example may include: How are these frog popula- tions distributed, taking into account they are directly as- sociated with the boulders distribution? How to characterize the adaptations of this frog, in terms of reproduction and di- et? Where they lay their eggs, considering the extreme expo- sure to this habitat to sunlight and dry environments? These are questions being currently studied. Another species very common in the rock formations of the lavrado is the lizard Tropidurus hispidus (family Tropi- duridae). The biological questions that can be applied to the populations of this lizard are associated with the habitats where they live, such as the boulders, small trees, border of the forest and in the small patches of forest. For example: Do all these lizards have the same set of adaptations? Is it pos- sible to determine the populations of this lizard precisely by identifying the habitats through geoprocessing techniques? Among mammals there are some interesting distribution in habitats composed by lacustrine system in general, low hills and dissected relief, vegetation of the margins of riv- ers (mata ciliar) and lines of palm trees (buritizais), laterite layers (lajeiros) and boulders. All these geomorphological EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 146-155 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 151 Fig. 7: A - Venezuela-Roraima border, transition of the forest to lavrado - grassland with tall shrubs and small trees (04°02'N, 61°03'W); B - Venezu- elan open areas, patches of forest with well developed rills and structural control (4°50'N, 60°57"W); C - Serra da Memoria, shrubs and small trees, vegetation slope with tors and blocks (04°10'N, 60°57'W); D - island vegeta- tion with small lakes at flat plain (3°12'N, 60°57"W). Abb. 7: A - Grenze Venezuela - Roraima, Obergang von Wald zu lavrado - Grasland mit hohen Biischen und niedrigen Baumen (4°2'N, 61°3'W); B - Venezuelanische Offenlandschaft mit gut entwickelten Bdchen (4°50'N, 60°57'W); C - Serra da Memoria, Straucher und niedrige Baume, bewach- sene Hange mit Blacken (4°10'N, 60°57'W); D - inselartige Vegetation mit kleinen Seen in einer flachen Ebene (03°12'N, 60°57"W). units comprise the environment where many mammal spe- cies can live, such as Myrmecophaga tridactyla (tamandud) and Tamandua tetradactyla (mambira), two related species of the family Myrmecophagidae (Order Pilosa) that feed on termites and ants. These two mammal species also have the patches of forest as refugia during the night. Another species that have its habitat associated with the geomorphological units of the open areas is the little mam- mal Nasua nasua (quati) of the family Procyonidae (Order Carnivora), an inhabitant of the boulders of the plains and hills. During the day it is common to see this animal in that habitat, looking for food, mainly earthworms, insects and some fruits. The vegetation of this habitat is composed by herbs, grasses, scrubs and isolated trees, where N. nasua can be found climbed at night. Again, geomorphology gives the direction for describing these habitats. Among birds we can also have some representative spe- cies currently endemic to Roraima, such as Aratinga sol- stitialis (jandaia-sol) of the family Psittacidae, that live in habitats comprised by the gallery forests or on the forest edge (approximately 03°52'N, 59°37'W). The precise localiza- tion of these endangered species habitats can be obtained by geoprocessing techniques, like the other endangered spe- cies Synallaxis kollari (joao-de-barba-grisalha) of the fam- ily Furnariidae. This small bird can live in habitats formed by low hills and dissected relief, scrubs and small trees, up to the right bank of the Tacutu River, in Guyana territory. Some populations of this bird can also be found in Roraima, in gallery forest. The same rational can be applied to the botanical species present in the lavrado. For example, there is a small and in- teresting cactus genus Melocactus that occurs on the rocks forming clusters. The distribution of this cactacean can be easily established through the identification of the rock ex- trusions. Another cactacean present in the lavrado, the dis- tribution of which can be ascertained through geoprocess- ing techniques, is the Brazilian popular mandacaru genus Cereus, whose main distribution may be associated with the soil, as well with clusters of termite nests genus Cornitermes (approximately 03°52'N, 59°37'W). It is also very useful and informative to apply the geopro- cessing techniques for understanding the lavrado vegetation. These features of the landscape in this area are made up by a complex net of small more or less rounded forest patches (island forests) some 0.5 ha or less, palms trees (linear or almost rounded), described having the focus on the habitat of animals. But we can also focus the question with another lens. How the forest patches of the lavrado are distributed? Is there any pattern accounting for forest patches distribution and soil? The relevance of these questions is not restricted to the present, but imply in considerations such as how the landscape change and what would be the implications for the fauna and flora. These questions lead us to look at the lavrado vegeta- tion under another focus, which is the pulsation of open and closed vegetal formations under climate changes. It is quite possible that the expansion and retraction of the for- est during the Pleistocene have influenced the gene flow of many species living today in these kinds of vegetation, con- necting or interrupting definitely or temporarily the patches of forest. How the various species of the lavrado terrestrial vertebrates, for example, were locally affected by the events during the dry and wet paleoclimate periods? What to say about the forest pulsation and climate change that might be undergoing at present? Recognizing evidence of pulses in the lavrado vegetation, through geoprocessing data associated with the local distri- bution of species, might certainly elucidate several of these questions. This is the case, for instance, of three sympatric species of lizards of the genus Gymnophthalmus (family Gymnophthalmidae) that occur in the open areas of Rorai- ma and in the forest edge, in contact with the lavrado. The species are G. leucomystax associated with termite nests, G. vanzoi in the contact forest open areas, and G. underwodii in the continuous forest (Vanzolini if Carvalho 1991; Car- valho 1999). In a 1.5 kilometer transect, we can find these three lizard species, each one in its specific habitat. These three species are so tightly taxonomically related, that it is difficult to recognize them at a first look, and we can imagine how many geomorphological events might have occurred for the speciation of these three lizards species. We can map the distribution of these lizards through geoprocessing tech- niques. Looking again to the landscape of the lavrado and its asso- ciated fauna, another example of biogeomorphology applied to the biological distribution of populations comes from the termites. At least two species of these social insects of the family Termitidae build their nests on the ground (epigeous nests): Nasutitermes minimus and the Cornitermes ovatus (Bandeira 1988). Both species of termites construct nests in different parts of the lavrado, maybe due to soil factors, veg- etation cover or both features together. The nest of N. minus is rounded on the top, around 30-40 centimeters high, and the base is 20-30 centimeters in diameter, are constructed mainly over the hills (approximately 03°20'N, 61°24W) . The 152 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 146-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Fig. 8: "A-A"' - Uraricoera River (left photo); B - Grande River; C - Serra do Tabaio. Region of the endemic lizards Gymnophthalmus vanzoi and G. leucomystax (family Gymnophthalmidae). Forest and lavrado contact, with small patches of forest (right photo). Transition of denudational and aggradational relief with isolated hills, drained by a not well development fluvial plain. Abb. 8: "A-A"' - Uraricoera (Foto links); B - Grande River; C - Serra do Tabaio. Region mit den endemischen Eidechsen Gymnophthalmus vanzoi und G. leucomystax (Familie Gymnophthalmidae). Wald und lavrado-Kon- takt mit kleinen Waldinseln (Foto rechts). Ubergang von Abtragungs- zu Aufschiittungsrelief mit isolierten Hiigeln, die Entwdsserung erfolgt iiber eine schlecht entwickelte Flussniederung. Fig. 9: Brazil-Venezuela border. A - Tepequem tepuy (right photo); B - Parima River, hills; C - Surumu River (left photo), type locality of the amphibian Elachistocleis surumu. Not well developed fluvial plains (Su- rumu River), with temporary lakes. Litholic soils with boulders, tors and scrub-herbs vegetation. Abb. 9: Grenze Brasilien-Venezuela. A - Tepequem tepuy (Foto rechts); B - Parima, Hugel; C - Surumu (Foto links), Typuslokalitdt der Amphibie Elachistocleis surumu. Schlecht entwickelte Flussniederungen (Surumu) mit tempordren Seen. Litholic-Boden mit Felsblocken, strauch- und kraut- reiche Vegetation. nest of C.ovatus is pointed on the top; the construction is very hard, around 2.0 meters high, and the base 1.0-1.5 me- ters in diameter, mainly constructed on the plains (approxi- mately 03°52'N, 59°37'W), at the same region of the cacta- cean Cereus. There are many animals associated to the nests of both of these termite species. The rattlesnake Crotalus ruruima, the lizards Tropidurus hispidus (Family Tropiduridae), Cnemi- dophorus lemniscatus (Family Teiidae) and the gekko Hemi- dactyulus mabouia (Family Gekkonidae) are tenants of these nests. Also some species of rats and opossuns, spiders and many invertebrate species live in those nests. There are in- teresting biological questions associated with the distribu- tion of those termite species. With the help of geoprocess- ing techniques so as to identify the areas of occurrence of both, nests and soil, any approach related to these termites becomes more practical. The distribution of rare or endemic species that occur in Roraima can be illustrated on maps using geoprocessing techniques, exemplifying species distributed in the lavrado and surrounding areas of this open vegetation ecosystem (Fig. 8, 9, 10). 5 Conclusions Examples exposed in the present discussion can guide the focus of the biogeomorphology approach in two directions: i) at a regional scale or ii) at a sub-continental level, within or among large vegetal formations. Either way, the questions regarding species and habitats distribution should be made involving geomorphology as a backdrop of the whole scen- ery. At a sub-continental level, considering large vegetal for- mations, the questions leads to problems related to specia- tion and its process. The recognition of the geographic units of the species been studied - the morphoclimatic domains - is fundamental for that approach, because the whole dis- tribution area of a single species or groups of species will be compared through biological aspects, which may vary sig- nificantly or not. The main questions that arise at this level may include: How many vegetal formation can be recog- nized inside the domain (or domains) been studied? How are the soil, topography and hydrography characteristics in each studied region? Are these geomorphic features acting as bar- riers for gene flow among populations? At a regional scale, such as that of the lavrado area, be- fore the formulation of specific biological questions it is also imperative to locate the geographic insertion of the region within the main ecosystem. Once recognized the geographic context of the study site, we turn the eyes to the diversity and composition of the regional geomorphological units, such as the boulders, plains, hills, montains, lacustrine sys- tem, drainage and regional vegetal formations, which can be done applying remote sensing and geoprocessing techniques. The geomorphological features will then characterize the habitats. Taking these features as criteria for categorize the compartments of the region, we can focus on the questions to be worked, which can be directed to analyze species rich- ness, regional distribution of a group of species or distribu- tion of a single species, habitat change and modification of EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 146-155 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 153 6 References Fig. 10: Distribution of endemic species in northern of Roraima, lavrado. A - Lavrado area; B - Forest area. Some species: Lizards: Mabuya carv- alhoi (Sauria: Scincidae), Gymnophthalmus leucomystax (Sauria: Gym- nophthalmidae), Gymnophthalmus vanzoi (Sauria: Gymnophthalmidae); Amphibians: Dendropsophus benitezi; Elachistocleis surumu; Serpents: Micrurus pacaraimae; Birds: Schistocichla saturata ; Herpsilochmus rorai- mae; Syndactyla roraimae; Myiophobus roraimae; Thamnophilus insignis; Megascops guatemalae; Mammals: Nasua nasua vittata. Abb. 10: Verteilung endemischer Arten im Norden von Roraima, lavrado. A - Lavrado Bereich; B - Waldbereich. Einige Arten: Echsen: Mabuya car- valhoi (Sauria: Scincidae), Gymnophthalmus leucomystax (Sauria: Gym- nophthalmidae), Gymnophthalmus vanzoi (Sauria: Gymnophthalmidae); Amphibien: Dendropsophus benitezi; Elachistocleis surumu; Schlangen: Micrurus pacaraimae; Vogel: Schistocichla saturata ; Herpsilochmus rorai- mae; Syndactyla roraimae; Myiophobus roraimae; Thamnophilus insignis; Megascops guatemalae; Sdugetiere: Nasua nasua vittata. the landscape, population ecology and conservation. We get these data mainly through inventories, which should start someplace. If an exhaustive faunal survey is a hard task, because of its high costs and need of experienced personal involvement, a reliable alternative is to select habitat samples by mapping the regional morphoclimatic units. This can be done apply- ing remote sensing and geoprocessing techniques. Where to start will depend on the question. A good set of suggestions can be found in Heyer at al. (1994) and Carvalho (2009) for the lavrado area. Ab'Saber, A.N. (1967): Dominios morfoclimaticos e provincias fitogeografi- cas do Brasil. - Orientacao, 3: 45-48. Ab'Saber, A.N. (1977): Espacos ocupados pela expansao dos climas secos na America do Sul, por ocasiao dos periodos glaciais Quaternaries. - Orientacao, 3: 1-19. Ab'Saber, A.N. (1982): The paleoclimate and paleoecology of Brazilian Amazonia. - In: Prance G.T. (ed.): Biological Diversification in the Tropics: 41-59; New York (Columbia University Press). Ab'Saber, A.N. (1997): A formacao Boa Vista: significado geomorfologico e geoecologico no contexto do relevo de Roraima. - In: Barbosa, R.I., Ferreira E.J.G. & Castellon E.G. (eds.): Homem, ambiente e ecologia no estado de Roraima: 267-293; Manaus (Editora do Inpa). Ab'Saber, A.N. (2003): Os dominios de natureza no Brasil: Potencialidades paisagisticas. - 159 pp.; Sao Paulo (Atelie Editorial). Absy, M.L. (2000): Fisionomia das savanas de Roraima, Brasil. - Acta Ama- zonica, 03: 423-440. Absy, M.L., Cleef, A.M., Fournier, M., Martin, L., Servant, M., Siffe- dine, A., Silva, M.F.F., Soubies, F., Suguio, K., Turcq, B., Hammen, V.D.T. (1991): Mise en evidence de quatre phases d'ouverture de la fo- ret dense dans le sud-est de L'Amazonie au cours des 60,000 dernieres Annees. Premiere Comparaison Avec D'Autres Regions Tropicales. - Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, 882: 673-678. Bandeira, A.G. (1988): Analise da termitofauna (Insecta: Isoptera) de uma floresta primaria e de uma pastagem na Amazonia Oriental, Brazil. - Boletim Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, 5: 225-241. Beigbeder, Y. (1959): La region moyenne du haut rio Branco (Bresil): Etude geomorphologique. - 254 pp.; Universite de Paris, Institut National de Recherches de L'Amazonie. Carvalho, CM. (2009): O lavrado da Serra da Lua em Roraima e per- spectivas de estudos da herpetofauna na regiao. - Revista Geografica Academica, 3: 4-17. Carvalho, T.M. (2009a): Parametros geomorfometricos para descricao do relevo da Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentavel do Tupe, Manaus, Amazonas. - In: Nelson, E. & Scudeller, V. (eds.): Biotupe: Meio Fisi- co, Diversidade Biologica e Sociocultural do Baixo Rio Negro, Amazo- nia Central: 3-17; Manaus (Amazonas). Carvalho, T.M. & Ramirez, R. (2008): Tecnicas de sensoriamento remoto aplicadas a biogeografia: metodologia geografica para espacializacao de moluscos terrestres. - Boletim Goiano de Geografia, 28: 157-166. Carvalho, T.M., Zucchi, M. (2009): Morfometria e caracterizacao do meio fisico de ambientes lacustres no Vao do Parana-Goias, Brasil: uma pri- meira aproximacao. - Terra Nueva Etapa, 38: 111-138. Coutinho, L.M. (1978): O conceito de cerrado. - Revista Brasileira de Botanica, 1: 17-23. Ducke, A & Blake G.A. (1953): Phytogeographical notes on the Brazilian Amazon. - Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias, 19: 1-46. Egler, W. A. (1960): Contribuicao ao conhecimento dos campos da Amazo- nia. I - Os campos do Ariramba. - Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, 4: 1-36. Eiten, G. (1963): Habitat flora of fazenda Campininha, Sao Paulo, Brazil. - In: Ferri, M.G. (ed.): Simposio sobre o cerrado: 179-231; Sao Paulo (Editora da Universidade de Sao Paulo). Eiten, G (1992): How names are used for vegetation. - Journal of Vegeta- tion Science, 3: 419-424. Eiten, G. (1994): Vegetacao do cerrado. - In: Pinto, M.N. (ed.): Cerrado: ca- racterizacao, ocupacao e perspectivas: 17-73; Distrito Federal E(ditora da Universidade de Brasilia). Haffer, J. (1969): Speciation in Amazonian forest birds. - Science, 3889: 131-137. Haffer, J. ir Prance, G.T. (2001): Climatic force of evolution in Amazonia during the Cenozoic: On the refuge theory of biotic differentiation. - Amazoniana, 16: 579-607. Hammond, D.S. (2005): Ancient land in a modern world. In: Hammond, D.S. (ed.): Tropical forest of the Guiana Shield: 1-14; Washington (DC) (CABI Publishing). Heyer, W.R., Donnelly, M.A., McDiamid, R.H., Hayek, L.A.C. if Foster, M.S. (1994): Measuring and monitoring biological diversity. - In: Stan- dards methods for amphibians: 384; Washington (DC) (Smithsonian In- stitution Press). Heyer, W.R. (1995): South American rocky habitat Leptodactylus (Amphib- ia: Anura: Leptodactylidae) with description of two new species. - Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 108: 695-716. Hiruma, ST. (2007). Revisao dos conhecimentos sobre o significado das li- nhas de seixos. - Revista do Instituto Geologico, 2: 53-64. 151 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 146-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution ticense Murca Pires, J. (1974): Tipos de vegetacao da Amazonia. - Brasil Florestal, 17: 48-58. Metzger, J.P. (1997): Relationship between landscape structure and tree species diversity in tropical forests of South-East Brazil. - Landscape Urban Planning, 37: 29-35. Nascimento, S.P. (1998): Ocorrencia de lagartos no lavrado de Roraima (Sauria: Teiidae: Gekkonidae: Iguanidae: Polychrotidae: Tropiduridae: Scincidae e Amphisbaenidae), Brasil. - Boletim do Museu Integrado de Roraima, 4: 39-49. Nunes, A. & Bobadilha, U. (1997): Mamiferos de Roraima: status da diver- sidade e conservacao. - In: Barbosa, R.I., Ferreira, E.J.G., Castellon, E.G. (eds): Homem, ambiente e ecologia no estado de Roraima: 565-579; Manaus (Editora do Inpa). Pessenda, L.C.R., Oliveira, P., Mofatto, M., Garcia, R. Aravena, R., Leite, A.Z. (2009): The evolution of a forest/grassland mosaic since 28,000 C-14 yr BP based on pollen and carbon isotopes. - Quaternary Research, 71: 437-452. Pianka, E. R. (1994): Evolutionary Ecology. 5th: 486; New York (Harper Col- lins). Ruellan, F. (1957): Expedicoes geomorfologicas no Territorio do Rio Bian- co: 170; CNPq - Rio de Janeiro (Inpa). Radambrasil (1975): Levantamento de Recursos Naturais. -Volume 8. Fol- ha NA 20 e parte da Folha NA 21 Tumucumaque - NB 20 Roraima e NB 21: geologia, geomorfologia, pedologia, vegetacao e uso potencial da terra: 428 pp.; Rio de Janeiro (Departamento Nacional de Producao Mineral). Rafael, J.A., Rafael, M.S., Henriques, A.L. (1997): Notas sobre insetos de Roraima. - In: Barbosa, R.I., Ferreira, E.J.G, Castellon, E.G. (eds): Homem, ambiente e ecologia no estado de Roraima: 489-508; Manaus (Editora do Inpa). Salgado-Laboriau, M.L. (1982): Climatic change at the Pleistocene- Holocene boundary. - In: Prance, G.T. (ed.): Biological diversification in the tropics: 74-77; New York (Columbia University Press). Vanzolini, P.E. (1970): Zoologia sistematica, geografia e a origem das espe- cies. - Serie Teses e Monografias, 3: 1-56. Vanzolini, P.E. (1981): A quasi-historical approach to the natural history of the differentiation of reptiles in tropical geographic isolates. - Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia, 34 (19): 189-204. Vanzolini, P.E. (1988): Distributional patterns of South American lizards. - In: Heyer W.R., & Vanzolini, P.E. (eds): Proceedings of a workshop on Neotropical distribution patterns: 317-342; Rio de Janeiro Academia (Brasileira de Ciencias). Vanzolini, P.E. (1992): Paleoclimas e especiacao em animais da America do Sul tropical. - Estudos Avancados, 15: 41-65. Vanzolini, P.E. ir Williams, E.E. (1970): South American anoles: the geo- graphic differentiation and evolution of the Anolis chrisolepis species group (Sauria, Iguanidae). - Arquivos de Zoologia, 19: 1-298. Vanzolini, P.E. & Carvalho, CM. (1991): Two sibling and sympatric spe- cies of Gymnophthalmus in Roraima, Brasil (Sauria-.Teiidae). - Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia, 37: 173-226. Victoria, R.L., Martinelli, LA., Cunha, H.B., Richey, J.E. (2000): The Amazon basin and its natural cycles. - In: Salati, E., Absy, M.A., Vic- toria, R.L. (eds.): Amazonia: Um ecossistema em transformacao: 163- 214; Manaus (Inpa). Wuster, W., Ferguson, J., Quijada-Mascarenas, A., Poor, C, Salomao, M., Thorpe, R. (2005): Tracing an invasion: landbridges, refugia, and the phylogeography of the Neotropical rattlesnake (Serpentes: Viperidae: Crotalus durissus). - Molecular Ecology, 14: 1-14. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 146-155 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D3 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 155 E&G Quaternary Science Journal Volume 61 / Number 2 / 2012 / 156-167 / DQI 10.3285/eg.61.2.04 www.quaternary-science.net GEQZDN SCIENCE MEDIA ISSN 0424-7116 Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of Terna River Basin in West Central India Mohammad Babar, Radhakrishna Chunchekar, Madhusudan G. Yadava, Bhagwan Ghute How to cite: Abstract: Kurzfassung: Keywords: Babar, Md, Chunchekar, R.V., Yadava, M.G., Ghute, B.B. (2012): Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of Terna River Basin in West Central India. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 61 (2): 159-168. DOI: 10.3285/eg.61.2.04 This paper presents the morpho stratigraphy, lithostratigraphy and sedimentary structures of Terna River basin in the Deccan Ba- saltic Province (DBP) of West Central India. These Quaternary deposits have been divided into three informal formations (i) dark grey silt formation - Late Holocene, (ii) Light grey silt formations - Early Holocene, (iii) Dark grayish brown silt formation - Late Pleistocene with the older Quaternary Alluvial deposits of Upper Pleistocene age. The fine clay and silt formations in the lower reaches reflect that the streams are of low gradient and more sinuous. The river shows evidences of channel movement by avulsion, largely controlled by lineaments. Palaeo-levees, in the form 4-5 m high ridges exist along the Terna River floodplain, specifically in theTer, Killari, Sastur, Dhuta and Makni villages. Several lineaments occur along NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W and WNW-ESE directions, which control the basement structure in the study area. The values of the Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI) indicate rejuvenation of the area leading to the dominance of topography on the sinuosity of the river channels. The break in slope in the long profile is also indication of the Quaternary tectonic uplift of the area. Radiocarbon dating of some charcoal fragments collected from folded beddings indicates that paleoseismic activity might have taken place along the basin between AD 120 and AD 1671. Quartargeologie und Geomorphologie des Terna Beckens im westlichen Zentralindien Im vorgelegten Artikel werden die Morphostratigraphie, Lithostratigraphie sowie die Sedimentstrukturen des Terna Beckens in der Deccan Basaltic Province (DBP) im westlichen Zentralindien vorgestellt. Die Quartarablagerungen konnen in drei grofie Einheiten unterteilt werden (i) dunkelgraue Schluffablagerungen - Spates Holozan, (ii) hellgraue Schluffablagerungen - Friihes Holozan, (iii) dunkelgrau-braune Schluffablagerungen - Spatpleistozan mit altquartaren alluvialen Absatzen mit oberpleistozanen Altern. Die feinen tonig-schluffigen Ablagerungen im Unterlauf des Flusses deuten auf ruhige Ablagerungsbedingungen und einen sinusarti- gen Abfluss hin. Der Fluss zeigt Tendenzen zu abschwemmungsbedingten Gerinneverlagerungen, die wiederum durch vorhandene Bruchlinien gesteuert wurden. Entlang des Terna-Flusses konnten weiterhin Palaouferriicken in Form von 4-5 m hohen Riicken nachgewiesen werden, hier vor allem im Bereich der OrtschaftenTer, Killari, Sastur, Dhuta und Makni. Einige nachgewiesene Bruchlinien treten vor allem in NE-SE, NW-SE, E-W und WNW-ESE-Richtung auf und bestimmen die Struktur des Grundgebirges im Untersuchungsgebiet. Die TSI-Werte (Topographic Sinousity Index) verdeutlichen einen Erosionswechsel im Untersuchungs- gebiet mit einer Verstarkung des topographischen Einflusses auf die Ausformung der Abfiussbahnen. Die im Profil sichtbare Ge- landekante zeugt weiterhin von einer tektonischen Hebung des Gebietes im Quartar. Radiokohlenstoffdatierungen, die an einigen Holzkohlefragmenten durchgefiihrt wurden, die aus gefalteten Ablagerungen entnommen wurden, deuten darauf hin, dass eine seismische Aktivitat in der Zeitspanne zwischen 120-1671 n. Chr. stattgefunden haben kann. Quaternary Geology, Lithologs of Quaternary sediments, morphostratigraphy, Geomorphology, Terna River Addresses of authors: Md. Babar 1 , R.V. Chunchekar 1 , M.G. Yadava 2 and B.B. Ghute 1 Department of Geology, Dnyanopasak College, Parbhani-431 401 (M.S.) India, z Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad-380 009, Gujrat India, E-mail: email@example.com 1 Introduction The Peninsular India was considered to be tectonically sta- ble, until the Killari-Latur earthquake in 1993 (Fig. l), which was followed by another event at Jabalpur in 1997 (Fig. l) and continued episodes of reservoir induced earthquakes at Koyna (Maharashtra India) since 1967 (Fig. l). The epicenter of the devastating Killari-Latur earthquake (mb=6.3) of Sep- tember 30, 1993 is located in the Terna drainage basin (Fig. 2). This event is one of the rare occurrences of an earthquake in shield area and brought into focus several unresolved ques- tions regarding the intracratonic earthquakes. The seismicity recorded in this region in the last few decades apparently contradicted the traditional notion of the tectonic stability of the Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP). These earthquakes also demonstrated the catastrophic effects and the risk of anni- hilating earthquakes occurring in the DVP in Peninsular In- dia in response to ongoing neotectonic activity in the region. The observed seismicity has so far remained unexplained within a neotectonic framework in the absence of such stud- ies in the region. No study has been attempted to so far on documentation of neotectonic evidences and its influence on 156 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 159-167 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.04 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License <&.:. \i": -*'€< Kashmir 1555- _ jalahabad. 1 &s 2S^ Kas'n T11M885 (; ,»Chaman, 1892 jfcTfWM.V ',- : 'ii. , ', '^t?-A* m Q' a ,905 nSK«)^» utarkashi, « n« ra™, MachyQueita r3 ar u* fl i ij^^TK£liarnol' • 1931-5(30000) ^ am,lal . 1803 * Delhi, 1720* 9 42mmryr w.Nepal 1966 (60J.1980 (2201 Bihai- Nepal 1934 (l6"70O] ■ "CO) .•. .^.^i omaon 1505 ,~ WV-i Assam 19! cP AllahBund » 1819(2000) w - C^jBhuj 2001 (19.000) *Sk" _*Anjar,1956(113) -tf ^« tr Dwafka.0^ 7? Assam 19500526^4 * JJSpal1833 SWli^^j ' TOhirtan 1713.11,. *, n -^ .awow ^sww free' ^Qe ^ -/.••'. 1897(1542) *• ' -/ .■ f *-> Cachar, 1984 (20),'-' Dhak.a7l885 Jabalpur,_1997 (38) .Calcutta Chiltagong, 1769" Dabul.1524 VM *Koyna, 1967 1881,1941,2004 55 mm-tyr 3- 1 o > o Cochin \) t ji »j Madras • Significant earthquake- " I I Major earthquake \& tsunami Andaman, 1941 PI Blair Caps Csrr&n f.-h Car Nieobar, 1881 Q 2 Geology of the area Fig 1. Schematic views of Indian Tectonics and historic Earthquakes map of India (Modified after Bilham 2004). The values in bracket indicate the number of casualties because of the earthquake. Shading indicates flexure of India: a 4 km deep trough near the Himalaya and an inferred minor (40 m) trough in south central India are separated by a bulge that rises ap- proximately 450 m. the shaping of the landscape in the recent geologic past. The Quaternary deposits occurring in the Terna basin have also remained uninvestigated so far, which are potential archives for delineating past neotectonic and seismic events and Late Quaternary evolutionary history. The earthquake near Killari-Latur along Terna River dem- onstrated the need for detailed neotectonic reappraisal of the DVP, which consists primarily of a thick pile of trap- pean lava flows and narrow fringe of Quaternary sediments. Although, the lava flows have been studied extensively in terms of their petrological characteristics and geochemistry but studies on their structural aspects, geomorphological and neotectonic evolution are virtually sporadic. The alluvial de- posits in western uplands of Maharashtra have been studied with respect to Neogene uplift of Peninsular India and Qua- ternary paleoclimatic changes (Radhakrishna 1993; Rajag- uru et al. 1993; Rajaguru ir Kale 1985). The studies carried out so far (Babar et al. 2000) indicate a control of structure and neotectonics on the geomorphic set up and drainage configuration of the Terna basin. Lineament and fault con- trolled drainage pattern, entrenched meanders, incised cliffs of Quaternary sediments and bedrock and a rejuvenated to- pography points to a dominant control of neotectonic activ- ity on the landscape evolution of the area. The paper represents the Quaternary Geology and geo- morphology of Terna River basin in the DVP of West central India. The location of sites is given in Fig. 2. The Quaternary geological mapping was carried out in the area in order to generate the data on morphostratigraphy and lithostratig- raphy. The lineaments occurs along NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W and WNW-ESE directions (Fig. 3), which has influenced the drainage network of the area and the tributaries of the Terna River. Geologically, the entire study area belongs to DVP of Penin- sular India (Fig. 4). Deccan volcanism is considered to be a manifestation of original tectonic regime developed within the continental lithospheric plate (Chandrasekharam 1985; Cox 1989; Cox 1991; Bose 1996). The stress conditions in the Indian peninsula initiated formation of fissure swarms and with increasing intensity and developed miniature Conti- nental rifting. The Killari-Latur 1993 earthquake rejuvenated the debate over the existence of rift valleys underneath the DVP (Valdiya 1993; Kailasam 1993). The Deccan Traps, which cover an area of more than 600,000 sq km of this region, consist of a number of flows ranging in thickness from a few meters up to about 100 m with the successive flows being separated by red bole or In- ter-trappean beds and are characterized by compact basalt at the bottom part succeeded by a vesicular zone (Gupta ir Dwivedy 1996). The Deccan trap sequence, in general, is classified into stratigraphic units on the basis of chemical composition of various flows (e.g. Mitchell ir Widdowson 1991). The southern part of Deccan volcanic province in the eastern Maharashtra is composed of Poladpur and Ambenali Formations of the Wai sub group (Mitchell ir Widdowson 1991; Bilgrami 1999). The Deccan basalt flows, in general, are broadly hori- zontal in disposition and exhibits gentle gradients. The gra- dient is towards ENE and SE. Drilling at Killari (Gupta ir Dwivedy 1996; Gupta et al. 1998) indicates that the total thickness of basaltic layers is about 338 m with about 12-15 flows. The lava flows are underlained by 8 m thick infra- trappean sequence comprising 1-2 m oxidized shale fol- lowed by a conglomeratic grit-sandstone. This layer overlies the Precambrian granitic basement (biotite-granitic gneisses to pink granite). In the present study area there are nine ba- saltic lava flows as given in Table 1. Closely spaced gravity survey and modeling along the two profiles (Mishra et al. 1998) across the epicentral area of 1993 Killari-Latur earthquake suggest some high and low density bodies of shallow origin indicating highly heteroge- neous basement. Under these circumstances the most con- vincing evidence of paleoseismicity as well as tectonic activ- ity, which may have occurred in this region, is most likely to come from the sediments, which have been preserved along the rivers. 3 Methodology 3.1 Satellite Data For the present study the IRS P6 LISS III 2010 satellite data was used to delineate Quaternary litho units of the Terna River. Active channels and floodplain features were mapped. The digital data format from Indian remote sensing satel- lite (IRS P6) of LISS-III 2010 with 24 m spatial resolution with four spectral bands was used to meet the requirement of area under study. The image taken was false colour com- posite (FCC) on 1:50,000 scale, having band combination of 4:3:2:1 (NIR: red: green). The SOI toposheets and digital sat- ellite data were geometrically rectified and geo-referenced and merged using Arc GIS 9.3. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 157 Fig. 2: Location map of study area for sites of lithologs along the Terna River Basin. 3.2 Field Work The geomorphic study carried out was based on the satellite data, Survey of India (SOI) topographic maps and extensive field survey. The height of terrace surfaces was determined using the data acquired through toposheets and hand-held global positioning systems (GPS). The data presented are based on the field observation on several outcrops, where a representative section has been discussed in detail. The mor- phological details are presented after careful examination of SOI topographic maps and observations made in the field. Sections were logged and sedimentary structures were de- scribed in the field itself. The fieldwork is under taken dur- ing 2009-10. The river shows the evidences of channel movement by avulsion and the lineaments largely control these. Old- er palaeo-levees exist in the form of ridges 4-5 m high at Ter, Killari, Sastur and Makni villages along the Terna River floodplain. The abnormally greater thickness of sediments is recorded at Ter village, consisting of mounds of 12 to 15 m height from the bed level of the Terna River (Rajendran et al. 1996; Sukhija et al. 2006). In the field these are marked by a curvilinear deposition of Paleolithic sites on the silty or sandy over bank deposits. They occur as irregular patches and can be related to the older course of the river. Several lineaments run NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W and WNW-ESE direc- tions (Fig. 3), which control the basement structure in the study area. The lineament map is prepared using the basin map prepared in Arc GIS 9.3 and the lineaments are incor- porated from the lineament maps of Arya et al. (1995) and Srivastava et al. (1997). The geology of area is illustrated in Fig. 4, litho-sections were logged (Fig. 5) and sedimentary structures were described. 3.3 Radiocarbon Analysis For the present study seven charcoal samples were collect- ed from different locations including two samples from Ter area, one each from Duta and Makhani and three samples from Killari villages locations, depth and ages with Figures referred are given in Table 4. Ages of charcoal fragments were estimated by radiocarbon dating method following liquid scintillation spectrometry (Yadava & Ramesh 1999). Benzene was synthesized from sample carbon in three ra- diochemical steps: l) under dynamic vacuum sample carbon was first combusted to carbon dioxide 2) it was reacted with lithium metal to get acetylene 3) finally benzene was cata- lytically synthesized from acetylene. Residual radiocarbon activity of the sample benzene was measured by liquid scin- tillation counter (LKB-QUANTULUS). All the estimated ag- es reported here was calibrated using online version (http:// www.calib.qub.ac.uk) of the programme Calib 6.1 (Stuiver Tab. 1: Lava flows in the Terna River basin (Modified after GSDA, 1973-74). Sr. No. Flow No. Lithology of the flow Altitude range [m] 1 IX Highlyjointed compact basalt flow [fine grained massive and moderately weathered] 746.00 to 722.00 2 VIII Jointed compact basalt flow [fine grained massive and moderately weathered] 722.00 to 685.00 3 VII Highly weathered vesicular amygdaloidal basalt flow 685.00 to 675.00 4 VI Jointed compact basalt flow [fine grained massive, grey to dark grey coloured and poorly weathered] 675.00 to 643.00 5 - Red bole bed 643.00 to 642.00 6 V Compact basalt flow [fine grained massive and moderately weathered] 642.00 to 634.00 7 - Red bole bed 634.00 to 633.00 8 IV Highly weathered vesicular amygdaloidal basalt flow 633.00 to 621.00 9 III Jointed compact basalt flow [fine grained massive, dark grey coloured and highly to moderately weathered] 621.00 to 580.00 10 II Poorly weathered vesicular amygdaloidal basalt flow 580.00 to 569.00 11 1 Jointed compact basalt flow [fine grained massive, dark brownish coloured and poorly weathered] 569.00 to 551.00 158 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License I. im-;irni.-uE Msi|} uf Tfrna River Basin » Fig. 3: Lineament map of the study area showing lineaments occurring along NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W and WNW-ESE directions (Modified after Arya et al. 1995 and Srivastava et al 1997). TKL - Terna-Killari Linea- ment, SKL - Sastur-Killari Lineament, AOL - Ausa-Osmanabad Line- ament, JKL - Jawalganala-Killari Lineament, KUL - Kallam-Umarga Lineament, GBL - Ghod-Bhima Lineament. if Reimer 1993). In most of the cases estimated radiocarbon ages when calibrated results into several age ranges with varying relative area (or probability). For simplifying the discussion, here we consider only those ranges which have high corresponding relative area (> 0.89, given in column 5, Tab. 4). For further details on the procedure refer the Stu- iver ir Reimer (1993). 4 Results 4.1 Quaternary Sediments In the Deccan Peninsular India Quaternary deposits are pri- marily fluvial. They are confined to very narrow belts along rivers with not much recognizable landscape features, ex- cept for the sediments recognized along Tapi and Purna riv- ers (Ghatak if Ghatak 2008; Tiwari et al. 1996; Tiwari if Bhai 1997b; Tiwari if Bhai 1998; Tiwari 1999; Tiwari 2001; Tiwari et al. 2010). These deposits are often discontinuous, generally unfossiliferous and lack suitable material for ra- diometric dating, further more; the deposits lack proper pres- ervation of pollen and proper sedimentological record. The lithology of the Terna valley of older alluvium con- sists of dark grey sand and silts with grey brown clay and at some places development of calcretes suggests that the Older Quaternary Alluvial deposits are of Upper Pleistocene age. Lithostratigraphically the Quaternary deposits of the Terna River basin have been divided into three informal forma- tions including (i) dark grey silt formation - Late Holocene, (ii) Light grey silt formations - Early Holocene, (iii) Dark grayish brown silt formation - Late Pleistocene. There are two formations of Holocene age including early and late Holocene, which are equivalent of the Ramnagar and Bau- ras formations of Narmada alluvium (Tiwari if Bhai 1997). The Quaternary sediments observed in the area are present floodplain (To), older floodplain (Tl) and pediplain (T2). The fine clay and silt formations in the lower reaches reflect that the streams are of low gradient and more sinuosity. In this area monsoon is the most dominating parameter controlling Legend | Presenl flood plain | Older Alluvial Plain Compact Basalt (aa> Amygdaloldal Basalt ■IRtdBsIa «.» Fig. 4: Geological Map of the Terna River Basin. the behavior of the river. The highly seasonal rainfall results in the highly seasonal discharge in the river. Most of the geo- morphic work is done during the flood events that occurred during individual storm at the end of monsoon. A large part of the alluvial record is therefore produced during flood and this is well illustrated by the fineness in the sediments (Bull 1991; Nanson if Tooth 1999; Schumm 1978; Mishra et al. 2003). 4.2 Morphostratigraphy of Terna River Sediments Alluvial plain of the Terna River shows 3 terraces namely, TO, Tl, T2 in increasing order of elevations (Tab. 2). These terraces were described as suggested by Tiwari if Bhai (1997b) and Babar et al. 2010 with reference to the soil types and soil characteristics. The lithostratigraphic formations have been identified on the basis of nature of sediments, sedimentary structures and pedogenic characters. Thus we have four lithostratigraphic formations. The dark grey sand and silt with grew brown clay for- mation is correlated with upper Hirdepur formation of late (upper) Pleistocene age (13 ka to 25 ka). The Gray Sand and Silt formation and dark grey silt formation is correlated with the Ramnagar formation of late Holocene age (2 ka to 5 ka) (Tiwari 1999). 4.3 Lithologs of sediments exposed along Terna River The lithologs of the Quaternary sediments are studied from the source area of the Terna River at Terkheda to the conflu- ence with Manjra river at Aurad Shahjani. The important localities of the litholog studied are Yermala, Rui, Ter, Bor- gaon, Ujni, Makhni, Duta, Sastur, Sawari, Gunjarga, Aurad Shahjani and Wanjarkheda (Fig. 5). At Yermala highly jointed compact basalt (aa type) lava flow is exposed on the right bank, while on left bank there is exposure of 6 m thick sediment consisting of the grey clayey soil followed by pebbly gravel, sandy silt and sandy gravel (Fig. 5 a). The litholog (Fig. 5 b) at Rui is 5.7 m thick and con- sist of grey clayey soil followed by sandy silt, clay, sandy silt and pebbly gravel along with compact basalt at bottom. The surprising element in the Terna River basin is the thickness of about 15 m of Quaternary sediment at Ter. The river bluff EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 159 Yermala Rui BcrgaiiiRSi TIT Borgaon LB G::m:^::;j LEGEND l-l'KScy IJU AmygdalokleK Basalt ^| Bm Clayey So: H Charcoal H Clay [33 Clay While f-"3 Clay WHl Boulder *.' !|| Compact Basalt ^H Graey Clayey Soil [:A:Fi Gravel ftr 1 "! House Foundation U3 Pebbly Gravel St RedBuhe i..: Sandy Gravel Sandy sill Sandy £111 with Crosstaadding S,lt | . Siltstone : Silty Clay ;= T I Silty Clay With Catenates ■ Silly Clay With Pebbles :■: Volcanic Breccia Fig. 5: Lithologs of the sediments observed along the Terna Valley, a to n indicates the exposed lithologs at different localities. at Ter village (Fig. 5 c) in Latur District is occurring on the western bank of the Terna River. The Quaternary sediments section occurring along the right bank of Terna valley at Borgaon (Fig. 5 d) is 6.8 m thick. The section shows the silty clay at the base resting over the present level of the floodplain followed by grayish black peb- bly gravel, light grey sandy silt, dark grey sandy gravel fol- lowed by grey sandy silt and grey silty clay intercalated with thin clay layers and grey clayey soil at the top (Fig. 5 d). There is less thickness of sediment on the left bank of the Terna River i.e. 3.2 m consisting of top most grey clayey soil followed by grey silty clay with calcretes and jointed com- pact basalt at the base (Fig. 5 e). The Quaternary sediment found along the Terna valley at Ujni (Fig. 5 f) is 6.4 m thick. The section shows sandy silt at the base followed by alternate layers of silt and clay, peb- bly gravel layer, grey black clay, sandy gravel, sandy silt, clay and major sandy silt layers in upward succession. The topmost layer is the black clayey soil. The major sequence of this section is the thick massive grey sandy silt. The litho-section along left bank of the Terna River is oc- curring at Makni village (Fig. 5 g) and having total thickness of 2.4 m. The section consists of silty clay at the base, which is followed by the dark sandy layer, silty clay, grey brown clayey soil, light grey silty clay in upward succession with top most grey black silty clay with pebbles. lie-: Legend I I Hlghliy Dissected Plateau Denudational HHIt ' Latarltlc upland :s ■ Fig. 6: Geomorphic surfaces of Terna River Basin. The two exposures of Litho-section at Dhuta are found at left bank (Fig. 5 h) and right bank (Fig. 5 i). The left bank sec- tion (6 m thick, Fig. 5 h) shows sandy silt (0.60 m) at the base followed by alternate layers of clay (0.20 m), sandy gravel layer (1.50 m), and silty clay with pebble (2.50 m) as a major layer in upward succession. The topmost layer is the black clayey soil (1.20 m). The sedimentary section observed along the right bank of Terna valley at Dhuta village (Fig. 5 i) is 6.8 m thick. This section is developed as the compact basalt at the base followed by pebbly gravel (0.85 m) grayish brown clay (0.40), sandy gravel (0.82 m), alternating layers of silty clay and light grey clay and black clayey soil (0.24 m) at the top. The Quaternary sediments along Terna valley at Sastur (old) village (Fig. 5 j) is 6.8 m thick. This section is developed as the grey brown sandy silt at the base followed by grayish brown clay bed, grey brown sandy silt layer, sandy gravel, which is overlain by Grey clayey soil. Above clayey soil bed there is a layer of Sandy silt showing cross bedding structure followed by light grey clayey, silt, light grey clayey and black clayey soil. The litho-section along left bank of the Terna River is oc- curring at Sawari village (Fig. 5 k) and having total thick- ness of 2.0 m with 0.4 m jointed compact basalt exposed at the base. The Quaternary sediment (1.6 m thick) exposed consists of gravel at the base, which is followed by the silty clay with gravel, sandy gravel, silty clay and black clayey soil at the top. The similar section is also visible at Gunjarga (Fig. 5 1) with jointed compact basalt at the base and Quater- nary sediments of 2.5 m thickness. The sedimentary sections at Aurad Shahjani (2 m thick, Fig. 5 m) and Wanjarkheda (2.2 m thick, Fig. 5 n) near con- fluence of Terna River with the Manjra river, show the simi- larity in the Quaternary sediment such as the black clayey soil at the top followed by silt and then sandy gravel with jointed compact basalt at the base. The exposure of basalt flows show differences in these two areas. At Aurad Shah- jani there is exposure of Amygdaloidal basalt at the base fol- lowed by jointed compact basalt flow, volcanic breccia and jointed compact basalt, whereas at Wanjarkheda there are two lava flows including Amygdaloidal basalt flow at the base followed by jointed compact basalt flow and both are separated by red bole bed. 160 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License L1KAII1AG1 IH Villi Fig. 7: Drainage morphology ofTerna River basin showing the migration of river course (after Chetty 2006). 5 Geomorphic Characteristics The Terna River basin has been divided in to six geomorphic surfaces: present floodplain, older alluvial plain, pediplains, highly dissected plateau, denudational hills and lateritic up- land (Fig. 6) based on the topographic features, morphologi- cal characteristics and IRS P6 LISS-III satellite imagery. To- wards the source of the basin, i.e. in western and northwest- ern part, the area is characterised by the moderately steep gradient, rocky upland with deep and narrow valleys and moderately steep longitudinal profile. Such features are due to Quaternary tectonic uplift as found in upland Maharash- tra (Powar 1993; Radhakrishna 1993; Rajaguru et al. 1993). The uplifted terrace, escarpment, deep grooves, dissected col- luvium and a general youthful topography are believed to be indicative of tectonic uplift during the Quaternary. The middle zone of the basin corresponds to shallow and gently sloping pediplain. The Quaternary sediments directly overlie Deccan Basalt in the pediplain zone. The third zone towards the confluence with Manjra River includes the area of Pleistocene-Holocene alluvial deposits. The development of gullies and badlands in this zone suggests active denuda- tion processes, which may be attributed to the Quaternary tectonic uplift. Based on geomorphic characteristics ofTerna River and locations of archaeological sites, complex surface deforma- tional features and the shallow focal depth consideration, it is suggested that block rotation tectonics about the verti- cal axis seems to have played a crucial role in causing such a deadly earthquake of magnitude 6.3 (Chetty 2006). The block structure of the basalts also shows considerable in- fluence on the behaviour of seismic waves across the block boundaries. The seismic energy might have been channelled along the boundaries and interfaces amongst different com- positional flows. It is inferred that the block rotation model for the basement tectonics could be responsible for the con- tinued tectonic activity in Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and in turn the inherited structural fabric and reactivation tectonics in the overlying Deccan traps. Two major sets of lineaments trending NW-SE and ENE- WSW are inferred from satellite data (Chetty & Rao 1994) revealing a well-developed mosaic of block structure (Fig. 3), similar to that described in the EDC. Orientation of structur- al and lineament fabrics in the Latur region mimics those of the adjacent pre-Deccan basement regions. It is most prob- ably the reflection of structural inheritance of the basement. The mechanism for this transmission is probably related to movements along the reactivated ancient structures in the basement exerting profound control in generating frac- tures and small-scale displacements in the overlying basalts. While some of the inferred lineaments terminate against the east-flowing Terna River course, sinistral strike-slip displace- ments could be seen along the ENE-WSW lineaments. Grav- ity maps (Mishra et al. 1998) exhibit many localized grav- ity highs and lows of 3-5 mgal coinciding with the major NW-SE striking lineaments in the region. The geomorphic features associated with Terna River (Chetty & Rao 1994) indicate that it follows a tectonically active lineament. Fur- ther, several archaeological sites along NW-SE trending lin- eament are also observed along the Terna River. Rajendran ir Rajendran (1998) inferred that one ancient earthquake of AD 450 had occurred around one such archaeological site near Ter. Examination of the Terna basin and its morphology re- veals the shift and migration of the river course in an alter- nating changing fashion (Fig. 7). Migration of the river course is inferred based on the imaginary midline drawn on the ba- sis of the symmetry of the river basin. In the northwestern part, the river course is east-west, and the migration is to- wards south. The migration direction changes in accordance with the change in direction of the river course. Further, it is also evident that the lineament fabric pattern influenced the river course (Fig. 3). Interestingly, the location of the ar- chaeological site at Ter, lies at the intersection of two major lineaments. The topographic profile along the Terna River (Fig. 8) shows steep gradient until the river takes an east- ward direction, 10 km west of Killari. The gradient becomes zero near Killari and further east. There is a gradual change not only in the gradient, but also in the regional topography from ~ 700 m in the northwest to 560 m in the east. The main shock and aftershock activities are restricted to the region of lower elevation. Considerable influence of the lineament fabric on the topography, drainage pattern as well as on the river gradient is evident. Any tectonic deformation that changes the slope of a river valley will result in corresponding changes in sinuosity so as to maintain an equilibrium channel slope (Keller & Pin- Tab. 2: Morphostratigraphy ofTerna Alluvium. Terrace Origin Soil Type Soil Characteristics Av. Elevation m amsl TO Depositional Entisol [1] Dark Gray Sand and Silt 574.0 Tl Erosional Inceptisol [II] Gray Sand and Silt 582.5 T2 Depositional Vertisol [III] Dark Gray Sand and Silt with Gray Brown Clay 591.0 EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 161 TOPOGRAPHIC PROFILE ALONG TERNA RIVER COURSE KILIAB MLAItSA -i* — tk — *- 6 Discussion DISTANCE IN KILOMETERS Fig. 8: Topographic profile along Terna River showing steep gradient before becoming flat (after Chetty 2006). Fig. 9: Map showing segments studied for sinuosity. ter 1996). Thus sinuosity parameters can be used to deduce the role of tectonism development of channel morphology (eg. Gomez ir Marron 1991; Rhea 1993; Rachna Raj et al. 1999). The sinuosity of a meandering stream is the result of topography and hydraulic factors, which can be expressed by a ratio called the index of sinuosity (Muller 1968). The river channel is divided into number of segments (Fig. 9) as suggested by Muller (1968) and Friend ir Sinha (1988) for determination of sinuosity parameter. The measurements of channel length (CL), valley length (VL) and the shortest dis- tance between the source and the mouth of the river (AL), i.e. air lengths are used for calculation of channel index, CI=CL/ AL and valley index VI= VL/AL. The standard sinuosity in- dex is calculated using SSI= CL/VL, hydrological sinuosity index HIS=% equivalence of CI-VI/CI-1 and topographical sinuosity index TSI=% equivalent ofVI-l/CI-1. The standard sinuosity index (SSI) for the Terna River channel varies from 1.002 to 1.76 (Tab. 3). The increase in SSI in the lower reaches of the basin is accompanied by lower values of Hydraulic Sinuosity Index (HSI), which suggests that the hydraulic fac- tor is not responsible for increase in SSI in the lower reaches. The values of HSI vary from 2.13 to 85.58 (Tab. 3). Low values of HSI and correspondingly higher values of Topographic sinuosity index (TSI) in the upland areas and pediment zone suggests that the meandering streams do not belong to the initial denudation cycle (Friend ir Sinha 1988), but the present area has been rejuvenated there by indicating the role of tectonism. As the river progresses in the cycle of erosion, the role of hydraulics increases and the role of topography decrease (Rachana Raj et al. 1999). This is observed in the lower reaches of the area; where there is a relative increase occurs in HSI though it remains substan- tially lower than TSI (Tab. 3). The Peninsular Shield of India was supposed to be seismi- cally stable, but the 1993 Latur earthquake indicated the seis- mic vulnerability of the area. The deep drilling in the Deccan Volcanic Province in basalt flows, on both side of 1993 rup- ture zone provided the evidence of a fault and displacement of about 6 m, at a depth of 220 m (Gupta et al. 1998). Down dip slickenlines on the steep dipping slickenside surface in the drill cores confirm dip slip nature of the fault. Howev- er the observed displacement is too much to account for a single earthquake of Mw 6.1, hence they suggested repeated seismicity in the area. Rajendran ir Rajendran (1999) sug- gested the reactivation of the pre-existing fault and evidence of earlier seismicity in the area by trenching in the rupture zone of 1993 earthquake near Killari. While Sukhija et al. (2006) find the wide spread geological evidence of a large paleoseismic event near the Meizoseismal area of the 1993 Latur earthquake at Ter on Terna River and Halki and Shiv- oor on Manjra river. The deformational structures in the sediments observed are flexures, warps, buckle folds and vertical offset in the sediments (Fig. 10). These structures are earlier studied by Rajendran (1997), Rajendran ir Rajendran (1999) and Sukhija et al. (2006). The variation in the individual layers that belong to the same deforming mass can be explained by strain partitioning, which depends on the bulk proper- ties of the rock (Hatcher 1995). Because of partitioning of mechanical behaviour, the stiffer and more competent rocks are expected to show variation is shapes and wavelength of folds. From the style of deposition it is clear that buckling of the sediment strata has formed the structures in section at Ter. Here the buckling must have been accompanied by flexural slip between the layers (Fig. 11). The vertical offset of marker horizons at the northern part of the section (Fig. 12) indicates a displacement of 10-15 cm. The up thrown block is on the southern side of the offset plane. These features are observed in the 15-20 cm thick in- ter layers of whitish clay in blackish clay. Detailed assessment of morphological and morphomet- ry characteristics have confirmed the role of neotectonism in the evolution of Terna River basin. The relative degree of tectonic activity is also manifested by the anomalous behav- iour of the streams such as right angled turn of the streams, convergence and divergence of stream, streams flowing parallel to main river for a considerable distance and offset drainage (Babar et al. 2000). All the parameters in general, suggest an increasing degree of tectonic activity from lower reaches towards the upland source region. The alignments of the significant morphological features and stream orienta- tions have provided information about the linear tectonic el- ements. The anomalous behaviour of streams indicates that subsurface faulting may be controlling the drainage patterns of the basin (Kaplay et al. 2004). The orientations of the stream channels in the upland zone and in the middle reaches of the Terna River basin have been guided by lineaments, which are the indicators of re- cent tectonic activity. Higher order stream channels reflect the general NW-SE and E-W trend. These trends have been reactivated in recent times as shown by displaced Quater- nary deposits (Rajendran ir Rajendran 1999). The offset 162 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License in the sedimentary section atTer (Fig. 10, 11 and 12) reflects only a fraction of movement in the basement fault below the basalt flows. On the basis of seismogenic features exposed in the sedimentary sections including flexures, warps, buckle fold and vertical offsets. Rajendran (1997) marked the sig- natures of pre-existing earthquake (-1500 year ago). These deformational features may be the result of reactivation of NW-SE trending fault. These older tectonic directions, al- though active until very recent times, had conditioned the drainage network in an earlier period. The TSI values indi- cate rejuvenation of the area leading to the dominating ef- fect of topography on the sinuosity of the river channels. The break in slope in the long profile is also indication of the Quaternary tectonic uplift of the area. Additional sup- port for the neotectonic activity in the upland zone and mid- dle zone of the Terna River basin is provided by valley floor ratios and longitudinal profile. Morphometric analysis has thus been useful in delineating areas with differing levels of tectonic activity in the basin (Babar et al. 2009). The reactivation of pre-existing basement structures was proposed by Chetty ir Rao (1994), while Kayal (2000) opined that the Latur earthquake could be due to interac- Fig. 10: Quaternary Sediments atTer showing folding in upward section and faulting (f-f) in the middle part. The upper layer is marked with the pottery layer showing the warping (Location is given in Fig. 2). Arrows indicate the direction of compression for folding and horizontal shortening. ■L t ■'■-- '*" Fig. 11: Photograph showing the flexure and horizontal shortening in the sediment at Ter village. Fig. 12: Close-view of offset in middle of the section at Ter shown in Fig. 10. tions of two shallow crustal faults. However, Chetty (2006), proposed an alternative explanation in terms of block rota- tion tectonics as a plausible mechanism for the Latur earth- quake. According to him based on the structural fabric in the EDC, as derived from satellite data as well as aerial photos, and the unusual shapes, sizes and geometry of mafic dykes and distinct fault systems, block rotation tectonics with clockwise rotations were inferred from the deformational system of the EDC. Block rotation is a significant mode of deformation in the earth's crust (Freund 1970; Kissel ir Laj 1989; McKenzie ir Jackson 1986). The Latur region lies in the proximity of the Kurudwadi lineament, earlier described by Brahmam ir Negi (1973) as a subtrappean rift on the ba- sis of gravity anomalies. Based on geomorphic studies us- ing satellite data and aerial photos, Peshwa ir Kale (1997) concluded that this is a Precambrian deep crustal-scale shear zone comprising an array of NW-SW trending faults along which dextral sense of movements have taken place, even during the Quaternary period. This is evident from the par- allelism of the drainage network with the Kurudwadi linea- ment, suggesting the control of basement structures in their development. These movements based on the presence of sheared segments of the Archean gneisses were also respon- sible for the secondary development of east-west trending faults identified by gravity studies. Structural architecture of the Latur earthquake region presented in this study favours the block rotation model, which could be a part of dextral sense of shear along the NW-SE trending lineaments (Chet- ty 2006). The seismicity associated with the Killari source is com- parable to those in other cratons, such as Australia. Inter- estingly, location of historic earthquakes during AD 1201- 1960 (Geological Survey of India) appears to be mostly con- fined to a 400-km-long NW corridor passing through Killari (Fig. l). Spatial correlation of this corridor of activity with a structure inferred from a variety of data as well as the fault plane solution of the main event suggested reactivation of a NW-oriented fault (Rajendran ir Rajendran 1999). Search for palaeoearthquakes in the vicinity of Killari led to the identification a deformation event dating to AD 350-450, at a location known as Ter, about 40 km northwest of Kil- lari (Rajendran 1999). The data on age dating of the char- coal samples varies from AD 120 to AD 1671 and is given in Table 4. In the present study the calendar ages of the de- formed section at Ter is found to be between AD 1151 to AD EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 163 > b 4 ; , L '■ ^ i ft ■ *^TJ| , r f --V *- - » ^J " ■ < * 1 .Mi r 1 in V-il UP ■ \ I ....,-■ 1 '. '"- ?>* V;. L ^'^ ; ^S ^:Ul" .' " --v^'- .. 'V v ■ v ^ . "v ■■'■<.'■ ■"' ^ .■-'-< * -' ^; ■ i^. Fig. 13: (a) Sediment section at Makni showing deformation in silty clay formation, (b) Sediment section at Dhuta along the left bank ofTerna valley. 353, while for the deformed sections at Dhuta and Makhni the corresponding calendar ages are between AD 650 and AD 1183. Similarly, the deformed structure at Killari (Fig. 14) indicates the dates are between AD 1256 and AD 1454. The litholog of Quaternary sediments occurring along the left bank ofTerna valley at Dhuta (Fig. 5 h) is 6.0 m thick. The section shows the silt at the base resting over the present lev- el of the floodplain followed by grayish black pebbly grav- el, light grey sandy silt, dark grey sandy gravel followed by clay, grey sandy gravel and thick grey silty clay with pebble and black clayey soil at the top. The charcoal sample from this sediment (Fig. 13 b) has been dated and found the age of 1010 ± 110 year B.P. (Tab. 4). The sedimentary section on the right bank of the Terna River at Dhuta is 4.4 m thick and quite different than the left bank section. It consists of top most black clayey soil followed by alternate layers of sandy silt and clay, which is succeeded by sandy gravel, clay and pebbly gravel (with subangular pebbles) and jointed com- pact basalt occurs at the base (Fig. 5 i). The epicenter of Latur 1993 earthquake old Killari village is located on the left bank of the Terna River and has an approximately 08 m thick layer of alluvium topped by the anthropogenic dump. The deposit is in the form of a mound Fig. 14: Sediment section at Killari showing Fault at a depth of 6.20 m. occurring below the ruins of the Killari-Latur earthquake of 1993. The trench is developed in this region because of the fact that the local people are excavating the soil for the pur- pose to use it as a fertilizer. The alluvium is highly dissected and now represented by irregular excavated mounds. Old Killari village was spread over these mounds, now nothing left except the Nilkantheshwar Temple and remains of earth- quake affected dump. The bluffs in general show evidences of deposition by river surges and are marked by alternating layers of coarse sands with cobbles and silty clay. The courser layers may have been deposited during the floods and fine sediments during the leaner seasons. Texturally the sediments can be classified as clay loam, sandy clay and silty clay loam. These types of sediments have been noted for major rivers in Ma- harashtra and are categorized as flood loams or diluvium (Rajaguru ir Kale 1985). These rivers are noted for highly fluctuating discharge and active channel migration (Rajag- uru et al. 1993). In the Ter village section, in a pit at the base of bluff, it is found that the alluvium extends > 2m below the present riverbed. This probably suggests that fluvial process- es at Ter (Rajendran 1997) must have started much earlier, analogues to other rivers in Maharashtra and the same is the case of the Killari area. The well-exposed vertical section of the mound along the left (southern) bank of the Terna River, was selected for paleoseismic investigation, this 8 m thick section (Fig. 10) extends in E-W trending arc measuring about 35 m long. This section mainly consist of dumped material like broken bricks, pottery, boulders etc for the top 1.5 m, followed by gray clays inter-bedded with varied mixtures of sand, silt and ash in the form of either thin layers or elongated lens- es and wedges. The bedding is imperfect and is commonly marked by colour variations in individual layers. The fluvial/ fluvio-lacustrine nature of bottom layers at the depth of 7.5 m is evidenced by the presence of load cast and scour and fill structures deposited in a high-energy environment. Pebble/ stone beddings at that depth. The site has been modified by human activity and arti- facts like pottery, beads, idols, human bones and even large objects like earthen pots and a number of in situ wooden 161 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.M / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Tab. 3: Sinuosity variation in Terna River channel. Segment No. CL (Km) VL [Km] AL [Km] CI VI SSI HSI TSI 1 8.60 8.52 8.36 1.033 1.020 1.014 39.39 60.61 2 9.72 9.70 8.52 1.141 1.138 1.002 2.13 97.87 3 6.48 6.35 5.76 1.125 1.102 1.020 18.40 81.60 4 5.28 5.04 4.68 1.128 1.077 1.048 39.84 60.16 5 7.32 6.97 6.25 1.171 1.115 1.050 32.75 67.25 6 6.49 6.44 5.76 1.127 1.118 1.008 56.52 43.48 7 5.76 5.54 5.08 1.134 1.091 1.040 32.75 67.25 8 6.00 5.78 5.40 1.111 1.087 1.022 21.62 78.38 9 5.64 5.62 5.40 1.044 1.041 1.004 6.82 93.18 ID 7.49 6.94 6.25 1.198 1.110 1.079 44.44 55.56 11 9.72 9.24 8.43 1.153 1.096 1.052 37.25 62.75 12 8.88 8.16 8.04 1.104 1.015 1.088 85.58 14.42 13 7.08 6.27 6.09 1.163 1.030 1.129 81.60 18.40 14 6.24 5.48 4.08 1.529 1.343 1.138 35.16 64.84 15 8.16 7.23 6.25 1.306 1.157 1.129 48.69 51.31 16 6.61 5.66 5.16 1.281 1.097 1.168 65.48 34.52 17 6.27 5.60 5.25 1.194 1.067 1.119 65.45 34.55 18 7.32 6.25 5.52 1.326 1.132 1.171 59.51 40.49 19 5.28 4.49 4.20 1.255 1.069 1.176 69.33 30.67 20 4.44 3.79 3.46 1.284 1.094 1.174 66.90 33.10 CL - Channel length, VL - Valley length, AL - Air length, CI - Channel index, VI - Valley index, SSI - Standard Sinuosity Index, HSI - Hydraulic sinuosity index, TSI - Topographic sinuosity index posts used for construction of various structures are present in the section. There is a small wedge shaped burnt layer of 10 cm thickness is found in the section at the depth of 5.7 m from the ground surface. The structural feature observed in this section is the northwest dipping normal fault trending N-S (Fig. 14). The observed fault appears to be a secondary manifestation of a deep-seated disturbance in the area. Surface faults are not reported in the region. Ancient faults are likely to be present below the Deccan trap volcanic cover and do not have any direct expression on the surface. Hence, it becomes neces- sary that geomorphic evidences indicating tectonic activity have to be linked with seismicity via drainage pattern, soft sediment deformation in alluvial and colluvial sediments (Chetty & Rao 1994). Thus in the absence of surface expres- sion of fault and in view of the presence of several inferred faults in the region, it is thought reasonably to conclude that features observed in this section could the surface manifesta- tion of a deep seated disturbance in the region. The fault in the section is observed in the variegated clay/ silty clay beds separated by feature less horizon of 3.5 m thick silty clay. The fault is about 6.2 m below the ground surface and the observed displacement is about 40-45 cm of the silty clay bed. The layers above these faulted sediments are undisturbed, while the clay horizon at the lower portion of the fault shows the severity of frictional and compres- sional forces acting simultaneously on it. It is attributed by the present study that the displacement along the fault and slickensided surfaces of the clay blocks as the surface mani- festation of the tectonic disturbance. To assess the possible time of the faulting a number of charcoal samples were col- lected around the fault as well as from the rest of the section. The well-exposed vertical Section of the mound along the left bank of the Terna River is 3.5 m thick section (Fig. 15 a) extends in a NE-SW trending arc measuring about 25 m long. This section mainly consist of dumped material like broken bricks, pottery, boulders etc for the top 0.35 m, followed by gray clays inter-bedded with varied mixtures of sand, silt and ash in the form of either thin layers or elongated lens- es and wedges. The bedding is imperfect and is commonly marked by colour variations in individual layers. The sedi- mentary unit observed in the section on the whole has been warped at different scales. On a large scale, the entire section appeared to have been folded. Individually, the structures present in the section can be broadly categorized as flexures, warps and buckle fold (Fig. 15 a). The burn layer in the same section shows the folding (Fig. 15 b). The structures includ- ing warping and low amplitude folding of near surface beds of alternating clay and cohesion less sediment have been re- ported from the other earthquake prone areas (Audemard £r de Santis 1991). It was observed that the structures at Killari are better developed on more competent layers such as the layers containing ceramics and pebble foundations made by settlers, although weak traces of folds can be discerned on the argillaceous layers as well, on cluster look. Variation in intensity of deformation observed in individual layers that belong to the same deforming mass can be explained by strain partitioning, which depends on the bulk properties of the rock (Hatcher 1995). From the style of the deformation, it is clear that the structure in the section at Killari have been formed by buckling of the sediment strata. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 165 Fig 15: (a) Sediment section at Killari showing Folding in lower part at a depth of 3.87 m, (b) Sediment section at Killari showing Warp at a depth of 2.60 m in a burn layer. 7 Conclusion Acknowledgement The study of lithologs and the description of Quaternary sed- iments of Terna River basin indicate that there is significant amount of the coarse gravelly deposits along with silty de- posits. These deposits are indicator of changes in the hydrau- lic conditions which are induced by climate or tectonics. The lithology of the Terna valley alluvium suggests that the Older Quaternary Alluvial deposits are of Upper Pleistocene age. Lithostratigraphically the Quaternary deposits of the Terna River basin have been divided into three informal forma- tions including (i) dark grey silt formation - Late Holocene, (ii) Light grey silt formations - Early Holocene, (iii) Dark grayish brown silt formation - Late Pleistocene. The basin area has been divided in to six Quaternary geomorphic units including present floodplain, older alluvial plain, pediplains, highly dissected plateau, denudational hills and lateritic up- land. The lineaments occur along NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W and WNW-ESE directions, which control the basement structure in the study area. The TSI values indicate rejuvenation of the area leading to the dominating effect of topography on the sinuosity of the river channels. The break in slope in the long profile is also indication of the Quaternary tectonic uplift of the area. The radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples indi- cate that the event of palaeoseismic activity might had taken place along the Terna valley from AD 971 to AD 1183 and at Ter it may be AD 1151 to AD 353. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by DST, New Delhi, under the project F. No. SR/S4/ES-198/2006, dated 05.06.2007. We are also indebted to our College Princi- pal, Dr. P.L. More, for encouragement and constant support for research. We are also very much grateful to Dr. D.V. Red- dy for the Radio Carbon dating of Charcoal samples from Killari area KLl and KL2. References Arya, A.S., Murthy, T.V.R., Garg, J.K., Narain, A & Baldev S. (1995): Lin- eament pattern and its possible relationship with Killari earthquake: A case using IRS data. - Geological Survey of India special Publication, 27: 211-214. Audemard, A. & de Santis, F. (1991): Survey of Liquefaction structure in- duced by recent moderate earthquakes. - Bulletin International Asso- ciation Engineering Geology, 44: 5-16. Babar, Md, Chunchekar, R.V., Ghute, B.B. ir Kaplay, R.D. (2009): Tec- tonic Geomorphology of Terna-Manjra River Basin, West Central India. - Journal Indian Geological Congress, 1(2): 69-78. Babar, Md., Ghute, B.B. & Chunchekar, R.V. (2010): Quaternary Mor- phostratigraphy and Litostratigraphy of Godavari River sediments in Parbhani District Maharashtra. - Gondwana Geological Magazine, 12: 271-274. Babar, Md., Kaplay, R.D. & Panaskar, D.B. (2000): Structural control on drainage pattern in the Terna River Catchment, Central west India. - Indian Journal of Geomorphology, 5: 126-133. Bilgrami, S.Z. (1999): A geological map of the eastern part of the Deccan traps (Bidar-Nagpur). - Memoir Geological Survey of India, 43: 219- 232. Fab. 4; Data on age dating of Quaternary Sediments. Lab No. Sample ID Location Depth cm uncal lq C Date year BP Ref. Fig. PRL-3154 TTE-1 Ter 284 570+/-340 Fig. 10 PRL-3155 TTE-2 Ter 565 1.850+/-120 Fig. 10, 12 PRL-3153 TMK-2 Makni 255 1,300+/-140 Fig. 13 [a] PRL-3157 TDU-1 Dhuta 211 1.010+/-110 Fig. 13 [b] PRL-3150 TKL-2 Killari 590 Modern Fig. 1H KL-1 KL-1 Killari 610 590+/-167 Fig. m KL-2 KL-2 Killari 622 595+/-141 Fig. m ' based "C half-life=5730 yr 166 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Bilham, R. (2004): Earthquakes in India and the Himalaya: tectonics, geod- esy and history. - Annals of Geophysics, 47(2): 839-858. Bose, M.K. (1996): Deccan Basalt, Mantle activity and Extensional Tecton- ics. - Gondwana Geological Magazine, 2: 267-281. Brahmam, N.K. ir Negi, J.G. (1973): Rift valleys beneath Deccan Traps (In- dia). - Geophysics Research Bulletin, 11: 207. Bull, W.B. (1991): Geomorphic response to Climatic Change. - Oxford (Ox- ford University press). Chandrasekharam, D. (1985): Structure and evolution of the Western con- tinental margin of India deduced from gravity, seismic, geomagnetic and geochronological studies. - Physics of Earth and Planetary Letters, 41: 186-198. Chetty, T.R.K. (2006): Contrasting deformational systems and associated seismic patterns in Precambrian peninsular India. Current Science, 90(7): 942-951. Chetty, T.R.K. ir Rao, M.N. (1994): Latur earthquake of September 30, 1993: Surface deformation and lineament pattern. Memoir Geological Survey of India, 35:65-73. Cox, K.G. (1989): The role of mantle plumes in the development of continen- tal drainage patterns. - Nature, 324: 873-876. Cox, KG. (1991): A super plume in the mantle. - Nature, 352: 564-565. Freund, R. (1970): Kinematics of transform and transcurrent faults. - Tec- tonophysics, 21: 93-134. Friend, P.F. ir Sinha, R. (1988): Braiding and meandering parameters. - In: Best, J.L. ir Bristow, C.S. (eds.): Braided rivers. - Geological Society of London, 75: 105-111. Ghatak S. ir Ghatak M. (2008): Active faulting and its behaviour on the geology, drainage and landscape in Tapi fault. - Gondwana Geological Magazine, 23(1): 31-37. Gomez, B., ir Marron, D.C. (1991): Neotectonic effects on sinuosity and chan- nel migration, Belle Fourche River, Western SouthDakota. - Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 16: 227-235. GSDA (1973-74): District Appraisal Report. - Groundwater Survey Devel- opment Agency (GSDA). Gupta, H.K. ir Dwivedy, K.K. (1996): Drilling at Latur earthquake region exposes a peninsular gneiss basement. - Journal of Geological Society of India, 47: 129-131. Gupta, H.K., Dwivedy, K.K., Banerjee, CD., Rao, R.U.M., Rao, G.V. ir Shrinivasan, R. (1998): Latur earthquake, Maharashtra, India: A case study of a borehole investigation at SCR earthquake site. - Abstract volume Stable Continental Region (SCR) Earthquakes. National Geo- physical Research Institute, Hyderabad, India, 39-40. Hatcher, R.D. (1995): Structural Geology. - Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 525 pp. Kailasam, L.M. (1993): Geophysical and Geodynamical aspects of the Ma- harashtra earthquake of September, 1993. - Current Science, 65: 736- 739. Kapley, R.D., Md. Babar, Panaskar D.B. ir Rakhe A.M. (2004): Geomor- phometric characteristics of 30th September 1993 Killari Earthquake Area, Maharashtra (India): - Journal of Geophysics, XXV (2 & 3): 55-61. Kayal, J. R. (2000): Seismotectonic study of the recent SCR earthquake in central India. - Memoir Geological Survey of India, 55: 123-138. Keller, E.A, ir Pinter, N. (1996): Active Tectonics Earthquakes, Uplift and Landscape. - Prentice Hall-Inc, 337 pp. Kissel, C. ir Laj, C. (1989): Palaeomagnetic Rotations and Continental De- formation. - 513 pp., The Netherlands (Kluwer). McKenzie, D. ir Jackson, J. (1986): A block model of distributed defor- mation by faulting. - Journal of Geological Society of London, 143: 349-353. Mishra, D.C, Tiwari, V.M., Gupta, S.B. ir Rao, Y.M.B.S. (1998): Anomalous mass distribution in the epicentral area of Latur earthquake, India. - Current Science, 74: 469-472. Mishra, S., Sonali, N., Rajaguru, S.N., Sushma D. ir Savita G (2003): Fluvial response to late Quaternary climatic change: Case studies from Upland Western India. - Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad. 69 (2): 185-200. Mitchell, C, ir Widdowson, M. (1991): A geological map of southern Dec- can traps, India and its structural implications. - Journal of Geological Society of London, 148: 495-505. Muller, J.E. (1968): An introduction to hydraulic and topographic sinuosity indices. - Annals of Association of American Geography, 58: 371-385. Nanson, G.C. ir Tooth, S. (1999): Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in Arid Land - (Eds. A.K. Singhvi ir E. Derbyshire), Oxford and IBH Delhi, 175 pp. Peshwa, V.V. ir Kale, V.S. (1997): Neotectonics of the Deccan Traps Prov- ince: Focus on the Kurduwadi Lineament. - Journal of Geophysics, 1: 77-86. Powar, K.B. (1993): Geomorphological evolution of Konkan Coastal belt and adjoining Sahyadri uplands with reference to Quaternary uplift. - Current Science, 64 (11 & 12): 793-796. Rachna Raj, Maurya, D.M. ir Chamyal, L.S. (1999): Tectonic Geomorphol- ogy of Mahi River basin Western India. - Journal of Geological Society of India, 54: 387-398. Radhakrishna, B.P. (1993): Neogene uplift and geomorphic rejuvenation of the Indian Peninsula. - Current Science, 64: 787-793. Rajaguru, S.N. ir Kale, V.S. (1985): Changes in the fluvial regime of West- ern Maharashtra upland rivers during Late Quaternary. - Journal of Geological Society of India, 26: 16-27. Rajaguru, S.N., Kale, V.S. ir Badam, G.L. (1993): Quaternary fluvial sys- tems in Upland Maharashtra. - Current Science, 64 (11 & 12): 817-822. Rajendran, C.P. (1997): Deformational features in river bluffs at Ter, Os- manabad district, Maharashtra, evidence for an ancient earthquake. - Current Science, 82: 750-755. Rajendran, C.P., Rajendran, K. ir John, B. (1996): The 1993 Killari (Latur) Central India Earthquake: An example of fault reactivation in the Pre- cambrian crust. - Geology, 24: 651-654. Rajendran, CP. ir Rajendran, K. (1999): Geological investigations at Kil- lari and Ter central India and implications for palaeoseismisity in the shield region. - Tectonophysics, 308: 67-81. Rajendran, K. ir Rajendran, C. P. (1998): Characteristics of the 1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanism. Current Sci- ence, 74: 168-174. Rhea, S. (1993): Geomorphic observations of rivers in the Oregaon coast range from a regional reconnaissance prospective. - Geomorphology, 6: 135-150. Schumm SA. (1978): The fluvial system. - New York (Wiley). Stuiver, M., ir Reimer, P.J. (1993): Extended 14 C database and revised CAL- IB radiocarbon calibration program. - Radiocarbon, 35: 215-230. Srivastava, S.K., Dangwal Manoj, Bhattachrya, A. and Reddy, P.R. (1997): Satellite data reveals pre-earthquake thermal anomalies in Kil- lari area, Maharashtra. - Current Science, 72: 880-884. Sukhija B.S., B.V.Lakshmi, M.N. Rao, D.V Reddy, P. Nagabhushanam, Syed Hussain ir. Gupta H.K (2006): Widespread Geologic Evidence of a large Paleoseismic event near the Meizoseismal Area of the 1993 Latur Earthquake, Deccan Shield, India. - Journal of Indian Geophysi- cal Union, 10(1): 1-14. Tiwari, M.P. (1999): Quaternary Lithostratigraphic formations of Central Indian River Basins; their Correlation and Chronology. - Gondwana Geological Magazine, 4: 17-31. Tiwari M.P. (2001): Quaternary Geology of Central India. - Geological Sur- vey of India, 64: 625-635. Tiwari, M.P. ir Bhai, H.Y. (1997a): Geomorphology of the alluvial fill of the Narmada valley. - Geological Survey of India, 46: 9-18. Tiwari, M.P. ir Bhai, H.Y. (1997b): Quaternary stratigraphy of the Narmada valley. - Geological Survey of India, 46: 33-63. Tiwari, M.P. ir Bhai, H.Y. (1998): Quaternary stratigraphy of the Puma val- ley. - Geological Survey of India, 128: 30-31. Tiwari, M.P., Bhai, H.Y., Padhi, R.N. ir Bandopadhyay (1996): Geomor- phology and Geology of the Purna valley. Symposium on Integrated approach to management of water and soil of Purna river basin with special reference to Salinity, 2-4 Feb. 1996, VRCE Nagpur. Tiwari M.P., Bhai H.Y. ir Varade A.M. (2010): Stratigraphy and Tephra beds of Purna Quaternary basin, Maharashtra, India. - Gondwana Ge- ological Magazine, 12: 283-292. Valdiya, K.S. (1993): Latur Earthquake and 30 th September, 1993: Implica- tions and planning for hazard preparedness. - Current Science, 65(7): 515-517. Yadava, M. G. ir Ramesh, R. (1999): Speleothems— Useful proxies for past monsoon rainfall. - Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 58: 339-348. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2D12 / 159-167 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D4 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 167 E&G Quaternary Science Journal Volume 61 / Number 2 / 2012 / 169-183 / DQI 10.3285/eg.61.2.05 www.quaternary-science.net GEQZDN SCIENCE MEDIA ISSN 0424-7116 Reconstructing 2500 years of land use history on the Kernel Heath [Kemeler Heide], southern Rhenish Massif, Germany Christian Stolz, Sebastian Bohnke, Jorg Grunert How to cite: Abstract: Stolz, Ch., Bohnke, S., Grunert, J. (2012): Reconstructing 2500 years of land use history on the Kernel Heath (Kemeler Heide), southern Rhenish Massif, Germany. - E&G Quaternary Science Journal, 61 (2): 169-184. DOI: 10.3285/eg.61.2.05 The Kernel Heath (Kemeler Heide) in the Lower Taunus Mts. was used as a heath until the early 19 th century. Today, it is the most densely wooded area of the German state Hesse (about 60 %). The history of the regional landscape and the land-use patterns of this area in the last 2500 years will be reconstructed by different methods and considering relicts, which have been preserved in the forest. For reconstructing the former situation, three deserted agriculture areas with well recognizable field balks under forest were inves- tigated for the first time by 14 C and OSL dating, sediment analysis and mapping. Furthermore, points of interest were the traces of Early Modern charcoal burning. For this purpose, we reconstructed the spectra of tree-species of the burned wood and dated it by 14 C. In addition, we dated the formation of two former slag heaps, of a medieval refuge castle, and calculated the sedimentation rate of a small colluvial filling of a slope depression that was deposited since the Roman times. Regarding the results, there are clear traces of land use during the Iron Age and Roman Period, and strong impacts during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. Thus, it is likely, that the deforestation in the investigated area was much higher during these periods than previously believed. Most of the field balks originate from the High Middle Ages. In contrast, during the Early Modern Period, the landscape was predominantly pastureland. Kurzfassung: Keywords: Die Rekonstruktion der Landnutzungsgeschichte wahrend der letzten 2500 Jahre auf der Kemeler Heide im sudlichen Rheinisches Schiefergebirge Die Kemeler Heide im westlichen Hintertaunus ist heute Teil des grofitetl zusammenhangenden Waldgebietes in Hessen mit einer Waldbedeckung von rund 60 %. Bis ins friihe 19. Jahrhundert wurde sie jedoch als Heide genutzt. Mit der vorliegenden Studie wird versucht, die regionale Landnutzungsgeschichte auf der Kemeler Heide mithilfe verschiedenartiger methodischer Ansiitze zu rekonstruieren. Eine besondere Beriicksichtigung erfahren dabei historische Relikte, die sich im Wald erhalten haben. Zur Rekonstruktion friiherer Landnutzungssysteme wurden hochmittelalterliche Ackerraine in drei verschiedenen Wustungsfluren kartiert und im Hinblick auf ihre Sedimentzusammensetzung und ihr Alter untersucht. Die Datierung derartiger Ackerkolluvien erfolgte erstmals mit mehreren 14 C- und einer OSL-Datierung. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt der Untersuchungen waren frtihneuzeit- liche Holzkohlemeilerplatze, anhand derer die Artenzusammensetzung der friihneuzeitlichen Walder rekonstruiert werden konnte. Zusatzlich wurden auch zwei verschiedene Schlackenhalden als Hinterlassenschaften hochmittelalterlicher Eisenverhuttung datiert und die Ergebnisse mit den Sedimentationsraten einer kolluvialen Dellenfiillung verglichen. Dabei konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass die anthropogene Landnutzung auf der Kemeler Heide spatestens wahrend der Eisenzeit begann. Die starksten Einflusse erfolgten jedoch erst wahrend des hohen Mittelalters und der friihen Neuzeit. Besonders im Hoch- mittelalter fiihrte ausgedehnter Ackerbau dazu, dass der Waldanteil weitaus kleiner war als heute. Die meisten Ackerraine stammen daher aus dieser Periode. Wahrend der Neuzeit wurde dagegen vermehrt Heidewirtschaft betrieben. Field balks, charcoal burning, iron slag, deforestation, sedimentation rate, Rhenish Massif, Taunus Mts. Addresses of authors: Ch. Stolz, University of Flensburg, Department of Geography and its Didactics, Auf dem Campus 1, D-24943 Flensburg, E-Mail: firstname.lastname@example.com, S. Bohnke, J. Grunert, Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Department of Geography, D-55099 Mainz 1 Introduction 1.1 Open questions The Kernel Heath (Kemeler Heide; Fig. l) is a historic area of around 60 km 2 in the Lower Taunus Mts. characterized by wide spread etchplains and deeply incised valleys at their edges (Huser 1972). Today, about 60 % of the former heath area is forested (forest area of the community of Heiden- rod; Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt 2008). However, historical reports confirm a large deforestation in the past (Ehmke 2003). So far, very little is known about the real pro- portion of the deforested area and land use intensity during different prehistoric and historic periods in this area. In at least half of the wooded area of the Lower Tau- nus Mts., remains of former agriculture, such as field balks (Fig. 4) and clearance cairns are visible, which give evidence of an enhanced cropland area in the past. In most cases, the age of these relicts is quite unknown. In addition, there are frequently found kiln sites as relicts of former charcoal pro- duction for the local iron industry. 168 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Fig. 1: Regional setting of the investigation area. Abb. 1: Lage der Unter- suchu ngsge biete. The special aim of this study is to create a chronologi- cal order of these remains for reconstructing the land-use distribution during specific periods and for comparing this with historical data: How old are the field balks and clear- ance cairns at selected locations, how are they structured and, in which way is it possible to date the concerning col- luvial sediments? In which periods agricultural activities can be proven on the Kernel Heath? Furthermore, when the kiln sites were being used and which was the composition of the forests? Moreover, this study focuses on the consequences of former land-use. This was done by the investigation of the filling of a small valley the chronology of which was used to identify local soil erosion phases. The different sedimenta- tion rates of the valley filling are given in mm/a. We used a small valley filling for the chronological classi- fication of local soil erosion phases (listed in mm/a), respec- tively by heavy rainfalls and a strengthened susceptibility on soil erosion by land-use. Altogether, we investigated 7 forested locations in 3 dif- ferent parts of the Kernel Heath by pedological analyses of selected soil profiles inside of field balks, datings of organic remains by AMS- 14 C, one dating of Holocene colluvium by Optical Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) and by the anthra- cologic analyses of charcoals from kiln sites (Fig. l): a) 3 former field locations: In the Pfaffenwald forest (the term means "forest of pastors", in the past it was prob- ably owned by the church), district of Heidenrod-Zorn (N 50°10'8.6l", E 7°55'34.3"); in the Ohren-Forest (the term Ohren means the former presence of maple trees), district of Heidenrod-Niedermeilingen (N 50.1742°, E 7.9458°); in the Struth forest, district of Aarbergen-Kettenbach at the outside rim of the Kernel Heath (N 50.257°, E 8.065°). b) 2 charcoal kiln sites: In the Pfaffenwald Forest, district of Heidenrod-Obermeilingen (N 50.167°, E 7.919°) and in the Reifibriihl forest, district of Heidenrod-Zorn (N 50.169°, E 7.930°; both are located on north-facing slopes which im- proves comparability). c) 2 slag heaps: In the district of Zorn, five slag-heaps in the forests were found. Most of them are not located close to flowing waters, which may be a hint of a relatively high age (14 th century and earlier; Geisthardt 1954). The first one we investigated is located a few meters beside the refuge castle (see below). Another one is located in the upper course of the small stream Rodelbach near Zorn (N 50.15829°, E 7.93905°). d) 1 refuge castle in the district of Heidenrod- Zorn: The refuge castle "Alte Schanz" (N 50.1538°, E 7.9145°) is an 18m broad and 1.5-3m high, round earthwork in the Struthheck forest with a moat around. Von Cohausen (1879) assumed it to be a part of transition phase from Early to High Mid- dle Ages. e) The sediment sequence of the alluvial fan of a small valley near the village of Kernel, which included a Roman water well (N 50.1650°, E 8.0147°). 2 Regional setting and state of research 2.1 Physical conditions The Kernel Heath belongs to the northern foreland of the Taunus mountain range. The altitudes range from 350 to 540m a.s.l. Its bedrock consists almost exclusively of mostly clayey Paleozoic metamorphs, which are completely weath- ered on the higher etchplain levels (Felix-Henningsen 1990). The bedrock on the slopes is comprehensively covered by loess-containing periglacial cover beds on the slopes typi- cally of at least three different solifluction layers. This pro- file can be typically divided by the German concept of per- iglacial slope deposits into at least two, however, more often into three different solifluction layers (Semmel 1968, Kleber 1997, Volkel et al. 2002, Stolz ir Grunert 2010, Semmel t Terhorst 2010). In the Kernel region, the cover-beds mostly consist of a loess containing upper layer and one or several basal layers, rich in debris. Additionally, at protected loca- tions there are one or several loess containing intermediate layers. Common soil types on these sediments are cambisols, cambisol-luvisols, luvisols and podsolic cambisols. Due to the clayey weathered bedrock, several of these profiles show stagnic conditions. The annual precipitation rate is approx. 750 mm and the annual temperature is 8 °C (data from the climate station of Waldems-Steinfischbach, measuring peri- od 1961-1990; DLR-RLP 2012). EBG/Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 169 2.2 Cultural history Principally, the German Uplands can be divided into older and younger settled areas. The first ones, settled from pre- historic periods to the Early Middle Ages, are the loess-rich forelands of the mountain ranges, the tectonic depressions and the valleys of the large rivers, such as the Rhine (Born 1989). An exception is the village of Kernel. Its name with- out a suffix, respectively with the former suffix -aha, is of prehistoric age and probably of Celtic origin (Bach 1927). The settlement was located at the important "Hohe Strafie" (High Street; connection between the old cities of Mainz and Koblenz) on the watershed between the Lahn and Rhine catchments. Along this probably prehistoric road, there are hundreds of grave mounds from the Iron Age. Due to their special construction some of them must be of Bronze Age. One example was been found in the district of Laufenselden (6 km S of Kernel; Kubach 1984). Basically, most of these grave mounds in the Lower Taunus are located along paths on the watersheds and typically arranged like cem- eteries (Herrmann & Jockenhovel 1990, Behaghel 1949). However, prehistoric settlements are unknown in this area (Schwind 1984). Kubach (1984) believes that there is a find- ing gap in the Taunus Mts. Evidences of settlement activities for this period are located in the Rhine-Main lowland, the Basin of Neuwied and the adjacent early settled areas out- side of the Taunus Mts. Furthermore, the Romans had settled in the region be- tween 10 and 260 AD and built up the Upper German-Rae- tian Limes. Its western part was probably constructed since 85 AD and crossed the prehistoric "Hohe Strafie" near the village of Kernel (Baatz & Herrmann 2002). Roman forts on the Kernel Heath were located in Kernel and Holzhausen an der Haide. Several villae rusticae were only known from the southern Rhine-Main area. From the Early Middle Ages (Merovingian Period) only some findings are known from the Basin of Nastatten (Neu- mayer 1993). At the end of the 10 th century AD, the region was ruled by the archbishops of Mainz, who started a colonization phase. In many upland regions of western Germany, the coloniza- tion of the High Middle Ages (Hochmittelalterlicher Landes- ausbau) started at the same time (Born 1989). Numerous settlements with the suffixes -roth, -schied and -hain are in- dicative of this period on the Kernel Heath (Bach 1927). In agriculture, the shifting cultivation including grassland and cropland phases (Feld-Gras-Wechselwirtschaft) was widely disseminated (Ehmke 2003, cf. Born 1989). Bork et al. (1998) describe a change from the bread-eat- ing to meat-eating people in Central Europe since the Late Middle Ages. Therefore, the term "heath" can be explained by a predominant use of pastureland, mostly for sheep in a sparsely wooded area during the Early Modern Period (since approx. 1500 AD; cf. Born 1989) up to the beginning of the 19 th century. The main part of the heath was an area with common grazing rights for everyone's animals (Allmende). In most villages, there were many more sheep than inhabit- ants during the Early Modern Period (Stolz 2008). The small town of Nastatten at the rim of the Kernel Heath was a center of wool weaving and textile fabrication since the 16 th century, which was already mentioned in the 13 th century (Spielmann 1926). During the 15* and 16 th century, towels from Kernel heath and from the surrounding Nassau and Hesse territories were even traded by the powerful mer- chant family, Fugger, in Augsburg, Bavaria (Orth 1953). At the same time, the region was also a center of iron pro- duction with a high consumption of charcoal. The charcoal which was primarily needed for iron-smelt- ing was produced in numerous charcoal kilns. For produc- tion, small round or oval leveled places on slopes or on pla- teaus were prepared by the charcoal-burners. On these plac- es, the wood branches were stacked and covered by grass and earth material. As a result, inside of the kiln was a lack of oxygen, which prohibited quick burning. Only the vola- tile wood gases burned, which resulted the wood to become transformed into pure carbon. By the introduction of fossil coal after 1850 AD, charcoal burning was strongly declining; in the 20 th century the profession became extinct (cf. Kortz- fleisch 2008). The main consumer of the charcoal from the Kernel Heath was the iron melt of Michelbach (10 km NNE of Kernel). It has been running since 1656. Charcoal has not been in use since 1856 (Stolz 2008, Geisthardt 1957). Maybe also the melt of Geroldstein in the Wisper valley (12 km SW of Kern- el, worked from 1589 to 1634 AD) and the melt of Katzenel- nbogen (14 km N of Kernel, worked from 1736 to 1840 AD; Geisthardt 1957, Herold 1974, Ehmke 2003) were consum- ers of the charcoal from the Kernel Heath. By 1677, the melt of Michelbach was forced to get its charcoal from the for- ests on the quartzite mountain range of the Taunus because of a severe lack of charcoal in its surroundings. In 1780, the iron melts of the Nassau-Idstein county employed 300-400 people only for the purpose of charcoal and wood transport (Geisthardt 1957: 169). The melt of Katzenelnbogen was temporarily shut down around 1810 because of the absence of charcoal (Herold 1974). The few remaining forests were of great importance to the people. Harsh punishments were the consequences for the theft of wood, grass, green branches for cattle feed, leaf litter, charcoal, oak bark for tannery, and venison (Roedler 1910). The consequence of this overexploitation was in the neighbored Aar valley near Michelbach the formation and further development of more than 200 gully systems (Stolz & Grunert 2006, Stolz 2008). Similar situations are known from other parts of the Rhine-Main area (Moldenhauer et al. 2010, Semmel 1995, Bauer 1993). Already in the beginning of the 18 th century, landlords tried to draw a clear border between fields and forests by the enacting of special laws (Ehmke 2003, Kaltwasser 1991). Since 1815, the local Earls of Nassau (Herzoge von Nassau) started a reforestation campaign led by the forest scientist, Ludwig Hartig (Kuls 1951). In forest district of Bad Schwal- bach (Kernel region) the forests increased from between 1816 and 1866 of 1670ha (Kaltwasser 1991). By 1926, only a few remains of the heath existed (Roedler 1926). So far, there are no pollen data from the Kernel heath, but from the Usa Valley (40 km in the NE) and from the Lower Westerwald Mts. (40 km in the NW). Schmenkel (2001) evi- denced in the Usa Valley a first significant increase of non- tree pollen during the iron age but sinking back in the Ro- man Period. However, cereal pollen could be first evidenced since Early Middle Ages. The largest proportion of non-tree 170 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 16B-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License pollen is proven for the High Middle Ages. Hildebrandt et al. (2001) confirm in the Westerwald a low level of beech pollen (Fagus sylvatica) and a moderate rise of grass pollen (Poaceae) during the High Middle Ages. This was followed by a reforestation phase during the Late Medieval destruc- tion period from about 1320 AD, which affected especially the uplands in Central Europe (Hildebrandt 2004; Abel 1976). While this time the values of beech pollen in the West- erwald are more than tripled. Concerning the intensity of soil erosion, Becker (2011) assumed a total rate of soil erosion since the Roman period of almost lm, proven by the depth of an investigated Limes- ditch in the village of Kernel. Furthermore, three charcoal particles from the filling of the ditch were dated by "C to a period between 3 rd and 6 th century AD as indication for hu- man activities and fire events. In the neighboring upper course of the Aar valley, there is, however, no evidence of prehistoric or Roman floodplain de- posits, although the Limes crosses the Aar valley in this area. First sedimentation could not have been proven until 1000 AD. In the lower course of the Aar the overbank fines are of earliest Bronze age, but the main part was deposited not until Early Modern period (Stolz 2011a; Stolz ir Grunert 2008). 3 Results from other mountain areas Increased soil erosion in Central Europe is primarily trig- gered by anthropogenic land-use or by climate (cf. Dikau et al. 2005; Bork et al. 1998). First anthropogenic triggered erosion events are known for the Neolithic Period in the ear- ly settled parts of Germany (Lang 2003; Dreibrodt 2010). However, the sedimentation of Holocene colluvia started during quite different periods, just like the temporal peaks of soil erosion and redeposit are varied (cf. Leopold & Volkel 2007, Wunderlich 2000, Dreibrodt ir Bork 2005, Dot- terweich et al. 2003, Bork et al. 1998, Semmel 1993, Bibus 1989). Including the results of Holocene German river activ- ity, summarized by Hoffmann et al. (2008), the sediment fluxes until 2250 BC are mainly coupled to climate. Since a geomorphologic activity phase 1320-820 BC, the influence cannot clearly be related to climate but rather to anthropo- genic influence. In contrast, Mackel et al. (2009) describe a very early be- ginning of anthropogenic influences on the landscape in low mountain ranges of the Central Black Forest and the Kai- serstuhl Mt. (Southwestern Germany; 250 km S of Kernel). By sedimentological investigations and pollen analyses, an anthropogenic influenced sedimentation of loamy river sedi- ments and slope colluvia could be proven since Neolithic, even for the river valleys of the Black Forest. The highest sedimentation values in these valleys were detected dur- ing Iron Age and Late Middle Ages. These results become confirmed by Rosch ir Tserendorj (2011) who detected a shrunken forest cover to less than 70% in the Northern Black Forest Mts. in the Iron Age. During the Roman period and the following Migration Period the forest cover rises again. For the High Middle Ages Wolters (2007) described a clear rising of Poaceae pollen and a moderate shrinking of arboreal pollen for two spring mires near Johanniskreuz in the Palatinate Forest (95 km SSW of Kernel), a young settled region of SW-Germany in the Bunter Sandstone. Bork et al. (1998) assume that the biggest proportion of forest distribu- tion in Germany within the last 1000 years is during this period. Mackel et al. (2009) detected a gap in sedimentation within profiles of the Black Forest at the transition between Early and High Middle Ages followed by strong sedimenta- tion of particular alluvial sediments from the Upper Rhine Rift to the watershed of the Black Forest. However, very little is known about the real proportion of deforested areas and land use intensity during different periods in Central Europe. In many cases, there are indices for a stronger utilization of woods and forests during sev- eral historical periods (cf. Ludemann ir Nelle 2002, Kuster 2008). Another method reconstructing former forests is the anthracologic analysis of former kiln sites. Due to their in- vestigations of charcoal samples from the Palatinate Forest Hildebrandt et al. (2007) described a strong overexploita- tion of the forests as consequence of charcoal burning and harvesting especially during the 18 th century. In the central Black Forest, Ludemann (2008) indicated a main period of charcoal burning in the 16 th and 17 th century. Similar results are known from the Harz Mts. (northern Germany; Hille- brecht 1982). Evidences indicating former cropping are field balks and clearance cairns known from different European mountain areas. In most cases, the age of these relicts is quite un- known. For some examples a formation during High Middle Ages is assumed (cf. Born 1961; Scharlau 1961). 4 Materials and methods Many of the studied sites pits had to be dug with the help of an excavator. Several profiles were investigated according to the rules set by the German Bodenkundliche Kartieran- leitung (Ad-hoc AG Boden 2005) and International Union of Soil Sciences (2006). Laboratory analyses were conducted according to Blume (2000). The parameters analyzed were grain size, pH, carbonate content, organic matter and heavy mineral content. The determination of heavy minerals was made by M. Guddat-Seipel, Bad Nauheim. The presence of Laacher See tephra in the field was prov- en by rapid testing, which is a method that was employed by Salter if Felix-Henningsen (2006): bringing the sample into contact with filter paper impregnated with a 0.1% solution of phenolphtaleine in ethanol and a 5% aqueous NaF solution. Dateable fragments of charcoal were separated from col- luvial sediments by an archaeobotanical elutriation proce- dure of five liters sediment per sample (cf. Jacomet ir Kreuz 1999). These samples were not taken in regular intervals, but rather with regard to genetic layers and soil horizons. Another possibility to reconstruct former land-use is of- fered by the analysis of charcoal kiln sites. By this method it is possible to indicate the used and, in consequence, the availability of wood species in the surroundings of a kiln. The charcoals from two different kiln sites were taken by sieve with a mesh size of 10 mm. To avoid any contamina- tion while sampling, the individual layers of charcoal con- taining soil sediment were removed in thin layers by a small spade and a spatula (Fig. 8). Because of the low sediment- thickness on the investigated kiln sites, the samples of at least 100 charcoal fragments were taken in only two different depths of the Sttibbewall (Fig. 7). A further sample was taken EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 171 on the surface in the center of the kiln site. Thereafter, the charcoals were identified under a reflected light microscope with a magnification range of 100 to 400x (Schweingruber 1990; cf. Hillebrecht 1982, Manske 1997, Hildebrandt et al. 2001, Ludemann if Nelle 2002, Hildebrandt et al. 2007, Kortzfleisch 2008, Ludemann 2008). For identification, it is necessary to look at the charcoal in radial, longitudi- nal and tangential sections. The relevant characteristics of wood anatomy are the distribution and the size of the pores, the vascular rays the presence of spiral thickenings and the pits inside of the pores. In most cases, it is only possible to identify the genus and not the precise tree species (Nelle & Schmidgall 2003). After the identification procedure, the fragments of every genus were counted to identify the number of units (the charcoals were not weighted; therefore, G/N values for the individual samples could not be calcu- lated; cf. Nelle ir Schmidgall 2003). Other parameters like the former diameter of the wood were not measured. Some of the charcoal fragments or woods were chosen for radio- carbon-dating at the Radiocarbon Laboratories of Erlangen University (Germany), Poznan University (Poland) and Be- ta Analytics (USA). With regard to these results, it should be noted that there are possible error sources. Fundamen- tally, charcoal fragments can be much older as the time of sediment production. Thus, it has to be considered that 14 C- datings give only minimum ages (terminus post quern). Fur- thermore, disturbances and a vertical displacement by past land-use or bioturbation are possible. However, the deeper the sediment is taken beneath the surface, the possibility of this error becomes smaller. Additionally, one OSL (Optical Stimulated Luminescence) sample was dated at the Department of Geography of the Humboldt-University of Berlin. Within the interpretations of the results, it must be observed that "C and OSL ages are not exactly equivalent with historic data but rather only a statis- tical probability (cf. Geyh 2008). 5 Results 5.1 Former field balks in forests Field balks on slopes and accumulations consisting of gath- ered stones and colluvium on flat ground (in some parts of Germany such small landforms are called Ackerberge; Fig. 4) occur frequently in the forests of the Kernel Heath. At three different locations, we opened pits by an excavator to a depth of 300 cm. Gathered stones *$£**-* Legend Erosion . j l Accumulation [J]] Soil formation yy\ Holocene ^ colluvium r~l Upper layer ™ (E) [~3 Upper layer (B tg ) □ intermediate layers | | Basal layer P^l Saprolite cal. C samples (charcoal) @ (379-245 BC), displaced (D 1044-1136 AD ® OSL: 110 ± 230 BC (3) 1351-1219 BC @ 1210-1280 AD 1 m- 0,5 - > horizontal - 1 i 1 2 m Draft: C. Stolz. Cartography: S. Bohnke. Dept. of Geography, Mainz University (2010). Fig. 2: Longitudinal section through the investigated field balk in the Pfaffenwald forest. Abb. 2: Langsprofil durch den untersuchten Ackerrain im Pfaffenwald. 172 E6G / Vol. Bl / No. 2 / 2012 / 1BB-1B3 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 5.1.1 Deserted fields in Pfaffenwald forest near the village of Zorn [N 50°10'8.61", E 7°55'34.3") In the Pfaffenwald forest (Fig. 5), there are two well visible, as well as some indistinct field balks, forming long-striped field terraces on a north-exposed, 4-9° inclined slope. The recent forest consists of tall, 160 year old beeches. In one of the balks, a pit was dug and another one 10 m upwards on the field terrace, in which a stone cluster (slates and quartzites) became visible within the balk (Fig. 2). Down to a depth of 100 cm, a Holocene colluvium has been accumu- lated by former agriculture. Its texture is very homogenous and clayey, because of its origin as an eroded soil (Tab. 1). The slightly brighter color of the uppermost 30 cm layer in- dicates an initial soil formation, while the texture and other parameters are inconspicuous. Underneath, the clay con- tent rises and the soil aggregates are covered by well visible clay films indicating an eroded fossil Bt horizon, 33 cm thick (Tab. 1). The typically high contents of the heavy minerals augite, brown hornblende and titanite indicate the pumice of the event of Lake Laach. Thus, this layer represents the up- per layer, which was active latest during Younger Dryas (cf. Semmel 2002; Tab. 2). The Holocene colluvium also contains the Lake Laach heavy minerals because of its origin from the eroded upper layer upslope. Below the upper layer, two individual intermediate lay- ers are deposited, which have a high content of skeleton (stones) and loess-like sediments. The typical heavy miner- als of loess-like garnet and green hornblende are detectable (cf. Semmel 2002). The basal layer below only consists of lo- Tab. 1: Sedimentological data of the field balk profile in the Pfaffenwald forest. Tab. 1: Sedimentologische Daten zum Profit innerhalb des Aekerrains im Pfaffenwald. Horizon/layer Depth gS mS fS ffS gU mU fU T Skeleton content pH Loss on ignition Color Charcoal cm % % % % % % % % % % Munsell mg/L 1 Bw/M [colluvium] 10-30 11,45 6,37 4,43 3,83 18,05 17,46 12,18 26,42 28,73 3,97 3,75 2,5Y-4/4 4,53 1 M [colluvium] 30-83 6,88 6,99 4,97 3,79 19,28 18,53 12,22 27,36 34,28 3,97 2,72 2,5Y-4/4 463,57 1 M [colluvium) 83-100 7,00 7,21 5,32 3,98 18,47 17,78 11,56 28,67 25,52 3,91 2,77 5Y/R-4/6 42,87 2fBtg [upper layer] 100-125 3,80 8,43 6,12 4,07 17,94 16,55 11,59 31,51 9,89 3,88 2,86 5Y/R-4/6 23,40 lfBtg [upper layer] 125-133 8,86 6,79 3,45 3,19 21,07 20,08 11,77 26,79 18,84 3,85 2,39 10YR-4/4 n.a. 3Cg [interm. layer] 133-175 20,87 11,30 3,84 4,74 14,12 11,97 10,27 22,89 55,08 3,85 2,62 10YR-5/B 0,00 3Cg [interm. layer] 175-218 16,67 11,08 4,79 7,61 13,31 12,62 12,79 21,14 51,32 3,79 2,79 10YR-5/6 n.a. 4C [basal layer] 218-244 23,48 14,85 5,05 4,81 10,32 10,87 12,92 17,71 42,14 3,79 2,99 10YR-6/6 n.a. 5R [weathered slates] 244-280 22,17 14,63 5,18 5,52 11,73 11,56 13,81 15,39 62,61 4,04 2,63 10YR-B/4 n.a. M = Holocene colluvium, gS = course sand, mS = middle sand, fS = fine sand, ffS = finest sand, gU = course silt, mil = middle silt, fU = fine silt, T = clay Tab. 2: Heavy mineral content of the field balk profile in the Pfaffenwald forest. (M = Holocene colluvium, UL = upper layer, IL = intermediate layer, BL - basal layer). Tab. 2: Schwermineralgehalt des Ackerrain-Profils im Pfaffenwald (M = Kolluvium, UL = Hauptlage, IL = Mittellage, BL = Basislage). Horizon/layer Typical for [Semmel 2002] Bw/M M llfBtg.UL llfBtg.UL IIICg.IL III Cg, IL Depth [cm] 30-83 83-100 100-125 125-133 133-175 175-218 Augite pumice 46 60 59 84 18 1 Epidote/zoisite 3 Garnet loess 1 1 Green hornblende loess 1 Brown hornblende pumice 127 145 155 121 28 2 Titanite pumice 42 34 32 25 2 Zircon 15 12 14 10 5 SUM 237 252 260 240 57 7 M = Holocene colluvium, UL = upper layer, IL = intermediate layer, BL = basal layer; analysis: M. Guddat-Seipel, Bad Nauheim. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 173 cal debris. At a depth of 244 cm, the weathered Devonian bedrock is reached. The colluvium was dated by three charcoals ( 14 C) and one OSL sample to the following ages (Tab. 5): 20 cm deep (cal. 379-245 BC, La Tene Period, Poz-36328), 53 cm depth (cal. 1044-1136 AD, High Middle Ages, Poz-36337), 83 cm (OSL: 110±230 BC, La Tene Period, HUB-0095) and 112.5 cm (cal. 1351-1219 BC, Bronze Age, Poz-36338). A piece of charcoal from the field terrace above the balk was dated to: 28-50 cm, cal. 1210-1280 AD (Beta-294174; Fig. 2). 5.1.2 Deserted fields in the Ohren forest near the village of Niedermeilingen [N 50.1742°, E 7.9458°] Likewise, in the Ohren forest traces of former agriculture were found. The location is relatively isolated at the rim of an old etchplain. There are several elongated low earthworks (Ackerberge, Fig. 4) with clearance cairns partly correspond- ing with each other by the right angle. They are formed by soil material fallen out during the turning of the plough at this place and also formed by clearance cairns. A pit of 3m depth, dug by an excavator, revealed a struc- ture consisting of gathered stones and a 71 cm thick layer of tarnished colored loess-like Holocene colluvium with an initial soil formation in the uppermost 30 cm (Fig. 3). Under- neath follows the 29 cm thick remain of the upper layer with strong stagnic conditions and iron stains. The Btg horizon of a luvisol with visible clay films on the soil aggregates has been formed in both the upper and the intermediate layer (clay content 27-29 %). The colluvium consists of former material of the eroded upper layer. Both layers are contain- ing typical heavy minerals of Lake Laach pumice (Tab. 4). In contrast, the only 25 cm thick intermediate layer below is nearly free of these minerals. The sandy basal layer (48 cm thick) is poor in skeleton (stone content) due to the bedrock of strongly weathered slates. The colluvium only contains charcoal fragments (Tab. 3) which were dated at two different depths: 7-31 cm (cal. 919- 999 AD, transition from Early to High Middle Ages, Quercus spec, Poz-36339) and 50-71 cm (cal. 7-79 AD, early Roman Period, Quercus spec., Poz-36340). Thus, the results are simi- lar to those of Pfaffenwald forest (chapter 3.1). 5.1.3 Deserted fields in the Struth forest near the village of Kettenbach (N 50.257°, E 8.065°] Eighteen km away from the two previously presented loca- tions near Zorn, we investigated another wooded area at the rim of the Kernel Heath with deserted fields near the villages of Kettenbach and Hausen iiber Aar. There are two well visible field balks running parallel on a slightly in- clined upper slope (3-9°; in western exposition; 265 m a.s.L). A pit in the lowermost one revealed a 60 cm thick Holocene colluvium with an initial soil formation and charcoal con- tent (Fig. 6). A covered luvisol had developed underneath. Its E-horizon located in the upper layer has been shortened by erosion. The Btg-horizon has been generated within the intermediate layer (clay content 33%). The whole profile is rich in loess and poor in skeleton (0-14%). Partly, the skel- SS" r Fig. 3: The profile of Ohren forest with datings. Abb. 3: Das Profit in der Waldabteilung Ohren mit Datierungen. eton content consists of Oligocene-Miocene gravel (Aren- berger Fazies; Muller 1973), which occurs on the adjacent plateau above. A charcoal fragment taken from a depth of 45 cm, which was above the lowermost third of the colluvium, was dated at cal. 361-272 BC (La Tene Period; Erl-7539). 171 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Table 3: Sedimentological data of the field balk-profile in Ohren forest. Tab. 3: Sedimentologische Daten zum Profil innerhalb des Ackerberges in der Waldabteilung Ohren. Horizon/layer Depth gS mS fS ffS gU mU fU T Skeleton content pH Loss on ignition Colour Charcoal cm % % % % % % % % % % Munsell mg/L IBw/M [colluvium] 10-30 7,56 5,58 4,81 3,43 20,17 19,34 12,47 26,65 26,76 3,94 4,60 10YR- 3/24 255,03 1M [colluvium] 30-83 6,73 6,29 4,85 3,67 20,96 18,21 12,34 26,96 18,46 3,97 3,04 10YR-5/6 369,93 2 fBwtg [upper layer] 83-100 10,46 5,76 4,36 3,48 18,14 19,28 12,70 25,82 24,12 3,94 3,23 10YR-5/8 0,00 3fBtg [interm. layer] 100-125 12,66 5,49 1,88 2,60 22,05 17,98 10,30 27,04 32,18 3,76 2,79 10YR-6/4 n.a. 3 fBtg [interm. layer] 125-133 7,79 5,21 1,86 2,71 26,11 17,26 9,58 29,47 15,55 3,77 2,56 10YR-5/6 0,00 4C [basal layer] 133-175 19,41 9,02 4,14 8,24 16,76 13,44 11,75 17,25 2,30 3,66 2,13 10YR-4/6 n.a. 5R [weathered slates] 175-218 37,04 16,21 5,35 6,38 11,01 6,44 4,69 12,89 71,97 3,81 2,64 10YR-4/4 n.a. 5R [weathered slates] 218-244 37,11 18,00 5,69 6,97 9,19 7,06 5,31 10,69 72,21 3,70 3,16 10YR-2/1 n.a. M = Holocene colluvium, gS = course sand, mS = middle sand, fS = fine sand, ffS = finest sand, gLI = course silt, mU = middle silt, fU = fine silt, T = clay Horizon/layer Typical for M M II fBwtg UL IlifBtg IL Depth [cm] 31-50 50-71 71-100 100-115 Augite pumice 77 88 38 4 Epidote/zoisite 1 4 12 Garnet loess 1 2 Green hornblende loess 1 2 4 Brown hornblende pumice 130 159 75 8 Titanite pumice 49 50 16 1 Zircon 12 18 8 4 SUM 268 317 144 35 Tab. 4: Heavy mineral content of the field balk profile in Ohren forest. (M - Holocene colluvium, UL = upper layer, IL = inter- mediate layer, BL = basal layer). Tab. 4: Schwermineralgehalt des Ackerrain-Profils im Pfaffen- wald (M = Kolluvium, UL = Hauptlage, IL = Mittellage, BL = Basislage). M = Holocene colluvium, UL = upper layer, IL = intermediate layer, BL = basal layer; analysis: M. Guddat-Seipel, Bad Nauheim. 5.2 Charcoal kiln sites For the detailed investigation of kiln sites the complete for- ested area of Zorn was mapped (40 kiln sites; 0.11 sites/ha). To investigate the influences of historical charcoal burn- ing, we chose two different kiln sites, one in the Pfaffenwald and another one in the nearby Reifibriihl forest. From each of them, we took 83-130 pieces of charcoal by sieving top- down at different depths below the plane of the kiln (Meil- erplatte; see Fig. 7) and from the bordering rim (Sttibbewalt). The determination of tree species resulted only three dif- ferent types (Fagus sylvatica, Quercus spec, and Betula pen- dula; Fig. 9) but in several compositions. Five charcoals were radiocarbon dated. 5.2.1 Dating and determination of tree species The first investigated kiln site (N 50.167°, E 7.919°; 430 m a.s.l.) is actually located on the low inclined, NNW exposed slope of a small valley in a nearly pure, old beech forest (Gal- io odorati Fagetum; cf. Ellenberg 1996, Ludemann & Nelle 2002). The investigated one belongs to a group of 4 kiln sites in an area 130 m wide. Due to the hillside location of the kiln, it is plausible that the used wood originates from the forested upper slope. It is plausible that the origination area of the wood is wider on the slope above the kiln, because it was easier to carry the wood downslope (cf. Hildebrandt et al. 2007). After 100 m, the slope is bounded by the edge to the open fields. It is furthermore noticeable in this for- est that there are several former field balks around the kiln sites. These belong to the investigated former farmland of the Pfaffenwald forest. The investigated kiln site is located exactly on one of these former field terraces. The spectra of species at different depths of the kiln site- sediment are very homogenous and show nearly the same result as today (90% beech and 10% oak). The 3 datings are EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 175 field balk with clearance cairns calluvium wil formation former ground surface Graphic: C. Stolz Cartography: S. Btthnka Dept. of Geography, Mainz University (2010) Holocene slope foot- colluvium former field pile of soil material displaced by ploughing (Ackerberg) Fig. 4: Model of former field balks on a slope and an earthwork of soil material and gathered stones (Ackerberg) on aflat location under forest. Abb. 4: Modell eines ehemaligen Ackerrains und eines Ackerberges, bestehend aus Bodenmaterial and Lesesteinen, in Hanglage. v \ \ \ \ Pfaffenwald/ReiBbruhl forest Mapping and Cartography: Sebastian Bohnke. Coordinate system: UTM Zone 32, ETRSB9. Department of Geography, Mainz University (20 ID). Legend A Charcoal kiln site ,X. Former slate mining ™ Gathered stones "- Field balk Height contour | General map | -, r Zorn / Fig. 5: Map section of the Zorn district with former field balks and charcoal kiln sites in forest. Abb. 5: Kartenausschnitt der Gemarkung Zorn mit Ackerrainen und Meilerplatzen unter Wald. indicative of the Early Modern Period: cal. 1712-1906 AD (Fagus sylvatica, Poz-36326), cal. 1654-1794 AD (Quercus spec, Poz-36322) and cal. 1476-1604 AD (Fagus sylvatica, Poz-36321). However, the dated samples were not layered stratigraphic, because the sediment cover was obviously mixed between the individual burning sessions of the kiln or beyond. Thus, a detailed reporting about the forest history in the surrounding of the kiln site is only possible to a limited extend. However, it could be demonstrated that the kiln was used from the 16 th to the 19 th century. The second one (N 50.169°, E 7.930°; 427 m a.s.l.) is located on a moderate inclined, NNE exposed lower slope within a small, wet spring-depression, covered by a forest with up to 160 year old beeches (result of a dendrochronological count) and some oaks. In the surrounding area of 450 m, there is no further evidence of kiln sites. The forested slope above the kiln is with a distance of 500 m to the top of the hill much larger. Eventually, the origin area of the used wood could have been much larger, too. The spectra of species in the sampling depths of 0-13 cm 176 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License m a.s 266 -i ,75- .5(1 ,25- 265- .75- ,50- ,25- 264- Former field w Clae ranee cairns I 50' vertical E 25' N - 8° 4' E exaggeration 2 x BMEMSME © Soil formation @ Periglacial coverbed Former field Bw M (Colluvium) fEBtg (UL) fBtg (IL) Cg (IL) — i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 123456789 10m Draft by Cur. ST0LZ& J. GRUNERT • Graphics by T, BartSCH • Dept, of Geography, Mainz University, Germany • 02/2011 Fig. 6: Field balk in Struth forest, probably generated during Iron Age and later. For the parts of the profile marked with question marks there is no de- tailed information. Abb. 6: Fin Ackerrain in der Waldabteilung Struth. Er geht vermutlich auf die Eisenzeit zuriick. Fur die mit Fragezeichen gekennzeichneten Profilbereiche liegen keine detaillierten Informationen vor. and 13-25 cm of the Stubbewall were different (Fig. 8). The lower spectrum is dominated by beech (82%), followed by birch (13%, a tree which needs an exposure to the sunshine) and oak (5%). In the uppermost spectrum, beech is only 34% and birch is found in higher concentration (19%). Oak is the predominant species (47%) in this layer. Although the kiln site is located directly above the spring depression, there could not be proven any hydrophilic species like willows or alders. This indicates an origin of the used wood exclusively upslope of the kiln. Dating of charcoal samples from the two presumably dif- ferent layers gave exactly the same ages: cal. 1677-1921 AD (Fagus sylvatica, Poz-36323 and 36324). It is possible that the kiln was used for only a short period at the end of the 18 th and beginning of the 19 th century. However, the spectra of species in the different layers are quite different. Therefore, the lower charcoal sample could have been displaced by bio- turbation or similar processes in the past. 5.3 The medieval refuge castle of Zorn with a neighboring slag heap At the eastern rim of the castle (81° E), where it has been damaged by a modern stairway, we took a small portion of soil material from the lower part of the rampart (the permis- sion from the local preservation authority was given). By the archaeobotanical elutriation procedure, a fragment of char- coal was eliminated, which was dated to cal. 900-970 AD (Poz-36343). A charcoal sample of the slag heap, eliminated in the same way, was dated to cal. 1103-1203 AD (Poz-36341; High Middle Ages). An analysis of the slag by x-ray diffractom- eter resulted in residual iron contents of 36-49% and silicate contents of 9-25%. A piece of charcoal of the other slag heap, which is located beside the small stream Rodelbach near Zorn (N 50.15829°, E 7.93905°) was dated to the similar age of cal. 1160-1260 AD (Beta-294172). 5.4 Calculation of sedimentation rates of a small alluvial fan near Kernel [N 50.1650°, E 8.0147°] To calculate the local sedimentation rate from a single loca- tion on the Kernel Heath, we investigated an archaeological site, which included a Roman water well, stabilized by wood beams. It was located close to the former Roman castle of Kernel and, geomorphologically, on a small and flat alluvial fan, respectively a colluvial depression filling in the non- perennial upper course of the Aulbach and Wisper stream. The side walls of the well were supported by several sedi- ment covered oak-wooden beams, which were dated den- drochronologically to 215 AD (information given by the Hessian Office of Monument Preservation). The site was dug 384 cm into a sandy-silty, uppermost clayey, well-layered colluvial/alluvial sediment with a dis- tinct content of skeleton (5-29%). Downwards 316 cm inside the well, the groundwater level was detected and the sedi- ment is grey-reduced. Around 179 cm deep, it contains char- coal fragments; underneath, there are no organic remains. A charcoal fragment of 0-35 cm depth was dated to cal. 1160- 1260 AD (High Middle Ages; Beta-294173), another piece of 35-55 cm to cal. 1080-1124 AD (High Middle Ages; Erl-8905) and a further piece of 140-163 cm to cal. 678-773 AD (Early Middle Ages; Erl-8906). Below this sample the top of the cov- er of the water-well was detected by archaeologists. The soil samples downwards to 383 cm were analyzed concerning their content of heavy minerals. All samples con- tain the minerals augite, brown hornblende, titanite, green hornblende and garnet thus giving evidence of distinct con- tents of loess and the pumice of Lake Laach eruption of the Allerod Interstadial (cf. Stolz & Grunert 2006, Semmel 2002). Summarized, the lower part of the profile (152-384 cm and deeper) had been already deposited when the Romans built the well in 215 AD. This can be assumed because of the lack of finds and charcoals in these sediments. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 177 Scheme of a charcoal kiln site in hillside location Loam pit Charcoal kiln \ Earthern wall/stuebbewall (layered) Legend Soil formation Egg Vitrification by heat Charcoal Wood tar containing sediment Draft: C. Stolz. Cartography: S. Bohnke. Dept. of Geography, Mainz University [2011]. Fig. 7: Scheme of a charcoal kiln site in hillside location with loam pit. Abb. 7: Schema eines Hangmeiler- platzes mit Lehmgrube zur Entnahme der Stubbe, mit der der Meiler verkleidet wird. According to the "C-datings, it is possible to calculate ap- proximate sedimentation rates for different periods. There- fore, it has to be considered that there are some uncertain- ties of this analysis concerning a subsequent displacement of charcoal samples: Between the 4 th and 7 th centuries AD, no traces of deposition have been found. After this period, the second part of the profile (152-45 cm depth) was depos- ited between approx. 725 and 1100 AD. This corresponds to a sedimentation rate of 2.8 mm/a (Fig. 10). The third part (45- 20 cm depth) was deposited between approx. 1100 and 1210 (sedimentation rate of 2.3 mm/a). The upper part (20-0 cm depth) was deposited during the time after 1210 until today, corresponding with a much smaller rate of only 0.25 mm/a. 6 Discussion The 16 datings of this study include 5 of Prehistoric and Ro- man periods (until 260 AD; cf. Baatz and Herrmann 2002), 1 of Early Middle Ages (approx. 400-1000 AD), 5 of High Middle Ages (approx. 1000-1320 AD) and 5 of Early Modern Age (approx. 1450-1850 AD; cf. Born 1989; Tab. 5). The pres- ence of charcoal particles in the sediment archives concludes that in most cases, there is a certain amount of human influ- ence on the landscape in the different periods. But it has to be considered that "C-datings give only minimum ages (ter- minus post quern). If a piece of charcoal is trapped within a sediment layer, the sediment must have been displaced after the formation time of the organic carbon of the charcoal. 6.1 Agriculture This is proven by the uppermost sample (20 cm deep) within the field balk-profile in the Pfaffenwald forest, which was dated to an earlier time (cal. 379-245 BC, La Tene Period, Poz-36328) compared with the samples below. It could have been deposited for a long time (approx. 1300 years) on the soil surface upslope or within a colluvium when it was bur- ied by the sediment. However, a vertical displacement by bioturbation could be also plausible. To clarify this, we ad- ditively used one OSL dating which confirmed the other ! Fig. 8: Sampling of a charcoal kiln site in different • t ' layers. Abb. 8: Die Beprobung eines Hangmeilerplatzes (Stiibbewall) in verschiedenen Tiefen. 178 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Quercus spec 5% Betula pendula 13% ' Fagus sylvatica 82% Betula pendula 19% ' uercus Fagus sylvatica ^34%> Fig. 9: Spectra of tree species at depths of 0-13 cm and 13-25 cm (kiln site 2). Abb. 9: Baumartenspektrum in 0-13 und in 13-25 cm Tiefe (Meilerplatz 2). 14 C-datings. Additionally, a piece of charcoal from the field terrace above the balk (28-50 cm deep) was dated to cal. 1210-1280 AD (Beta-294174). Unfortunately, archaeological findings were missing, which is typical for agrarian loca- tions away from settlementsAs well as within the field balk- profiles in Pfaffenwald forest, in those of Ohren forest and Struth forest, we dated charcoals to prehistoric and Roman Periods. In consequence, at these locations the agriculture began before the arrival of the Romans (OSL: 340 BC-120 AD). Thus, the agriculture started during the Iron Age is proven for one location and it is likely so for the other two locations. In addition, based on the datings of Pfaffenwald and Ohren forests, it is also plausible that Roman agricul- ture existed for local supply of the border troops. Basically, we should know that fields were not so wide spread in that time as within Early Modern Periods or today. However, as non-favorable areas (North faced slopes) were cropped dur- ing that time and which are currently wooded. Thus, we also have to assume prehistoric agriculture in the actual cropped areas, too. Therefore, fields could have been more distributed than today. On the other hand, the forests must have been mm/a 3 -i £ 2 — 1 — 1000 Time (years AD) 2000 AD Fig. 10: Sedimentation rates in a small valley filling near Kernel. Abb. 10: Unterschiedliche Sedimentationsraten im verfullten Unterlauf eines Talchens bei Kernel. smaller. In contrast, prehistoric people might have preferred other locations than modern farmers, for example locations on plateaus or smooth slopes far away from recent settle- ments. Within the field balks, dates from Early Middle Ages are missing. But the agriculture on these fields continued until the High Middle Ages. The covering of the terrace itself by colluvial sediments took place within the High Middle Ag- es. Maybe it was reactivated in this period. The presence of gathered stones within the colluvial sediments and the OSL age give a solid result. After the High Middle Ages, there is no further evidence of agriculture in the three investigated former field districts. Furthermore, due to the soil formation (luvisol) within the colluvium, a resting phase since High Middle Ages seems plausible (Fig. 2). 6.2 Charcoal burning In the forests of the Zorn district (374ha), we found and mapped only 40 kiln sites (0.11 sites/ha). In a forest 15 km away near to the ironworks of Michelbach, we calculated 0.38-0.58 kiln sites per hectare (Stolz 2011b). In the mining region of the southern Harz Mts. von Kortzfleisch (2008) mapped 3.3 sites/ha. Therefore, charcoal burning was not so wide spread in the investigation area compared with other districts. However, in the cleared areas, charcoal burning was a frequent activity. Most of the mapped kiln sites have a diameter of 10-12 m. This indicates an origin within the pe- riod of massive charcoal burning of the 18 lh or 19 th century in the Taunus Mts. (cf. Stolz 2011b, Hildebrandt et al. 2001). Basically, the investigated field balks in the Pfaffenwald for- est must be older than the kiln sites, because kiln sites are located on the former field terraces using the leveled surface. By physical dating methods we could substantiate charcoal burning in the investigated area from the 16 th century and increasing until the end of the 18 th century. The tree spectrum of the second investigated kiln site (Reifibriihl forest) taken from the lower layer of the char- coal containing sediment is dominated by Quercus spec, and Betula pendula (in total 66%). Betula is a typical pioneer EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 179 Tab. 5: "C and OSL datings of this study. Tab. 5: Aufstellung der in der vorliegenden Studie enthaltnen "C- und OSL-Datierungen. No. Type Site Depth [cm] Material "CAge [aBP] Calibration or OSLage[aBC/AD] 1 Poz-36328 "C Pfaffenwald forest 10-30 charcoal [field balk] 2260±35 379-245 BC 2 Poz-36337 "C Pfaffenwald forest 30-83 charcoal, hardwood [field balk] 940±30 1044-1136 AD 3 HUB-0095 OSL Pfaffenwald forest 83 basal colluvium [field balk] - 110±230 BC 4 Poz-36338 "C Pfaffenwald forest 100-125 charcoal, Quercus [field balk] 3015±35 1351-1219 BC 5 Beta- 294174 "C Pfaffenwald forest 28-55 charcoal, hardwood [colluvium from terraced field] 790±30 1210-1280 AD 6 Poz-36339 "C Ohren forest 7-31 charcoal, Quercus [field balk] 1065±30 918-999 AD 7 Poz-36340 "C Ohren forest 50-71 charcoal, Quercus [field balk] 1950±35 7-79 AD 8 Erl-7539 "C Struth forest, Kettenbaoh 45 charcoal [field balk] 2205±56 361-272 BC 9 Poz-36321 "C Kiln site 1, Zorn 0-8 charcoal, Fogus [kiln site] 360±30 1476-1604 AD 10 Poz-36322 "C Kiln site 1, Zorn 8-17 charcoal, Quercus [kiln site] 220±30 1654-1794 AD 11 Poz-36326 "C Kiln site 1, Zorn 30-48 charcoal, Fogus [kiln site] 85±30 1712-1906 AD 12 Pdz-36323 "C Kiln site 2 0-13 charcoal, Fogus [kiln site] 180±30 1677-1921 AD 13 Poz-36324 "C Kiln site 2 13-25 charcoal, Fogus [kiln site] 180±30 1677-1921 AD 14 Poz-36343 "C Refuge castle "Alte Schanz" - charcoal [artificial deposit] 1105±30 900-970 AD 15 Poz-36341 "C Slag heap nearthe refuge castle 0-20 charcoal, Fogus [slag heap] 865±30 1103-1203 AD 16 Beta- 294172 "C Slag heap nearthe Rotelbach stream 0-15 charcoal, hardwood [slag heap] 850±30 1160-1260 AD 17 Erl-8905 "C Kernel, site with Roman water well 35-55 charcoal [colluvium] 953±37 1080-1125 AD 18 Beta- 294173 "C Kernel, site with Roman water well 55-90 charcoal, half-ring porous hardwood [colluvium] 840±30 1160-1260 AD 19 Erl-8906 "C Kernel, site with Roman water well 140-163 charcoal [colluvium] 1274±44 678-773 AD tree species (Ludemann & Nelle 2002). The species are an indication for a bright, cleared forest with a high content of Quercus spec, which was an important kind of timber (Ellenberg et al. 1991). While degradation processes, Quer- cus spec, and Carpinus betulus can be favored (Ludemann 2008). In the layer above, the content of Quercus and Betula has fallen (18%) and Fagus is the dominating species; how- ever, the content of birch is still 13%. Today, there grow only few birches. However, the so-called Little Ice Age (Glaser 2008) cannot had direct influences to the detected changes in vegetation, because oaks (Quercus robur) are, in contrast to the beeches, counted among the slightly more thermophile deciduous trees (Ellenberg et al. 1991), however with a wider ecological range. An eventual wood selection by the charcoal burners should not be considered. Ludemann (2008) demonstrated that charcoal burners during the Early Modern Period in the Black Forest used all available species and all thicknesses of wood. 6.3 Refuge castle and iron smelting The refuge castle of Zorn, the neighboring slag heap and a further slag heap in the Rodelbach valley originate almost simultaneously from the High Middle Ages (10 th to 12 th cen- tury AD). Based on these findings, we also have to assume a high wood consumption around these small melts. Fur- thermore, the relatively high ferrous content of the slags in- dicates a low yield of iron due to a still primitive technol- ogy of iron-smelting. Nearly the same age we detected for the use of the deserted fields. The slag heaps, which are 2 of 5 samples from within the Zorn district, the castle and the field terraces give evidence of a wide spread, decentralized, agriculture, iron production and forest clearing in the district of Zorn during the High Middle Ages (cf. Stolz ir Grunert 2008, Geisthardt 1954). The dating of a charcoal fragment from inside the rampart of the refuge castle has to be regarded as an approximate value for a possible real age of the refuge castle As the char- 180 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 16B-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License coal was located inside the rampart, it must be older or of the same age as the castle. In consequence, the castle must originate from the 10th century or from a younger period. 6.4 Sediment sequences of the alluvial fan of Kernel Within the alluvial fan profile of Kernel we calculated the highest sedimentation rate for the High Middle Ages, too. Direct climatic influences as a triggering factor are unlike- ly; in the contrary, however the local influence of anthro- pogenic triggered soil erosion in the small catchment of the depression was high (Thiemeyer et al. 2005). It must be ex- pected that the accumulation of alluvial sediments probably was discontinuous, which means that it could have probably happened during heavy precipitation events in a more or less cleared landscape. Thus, the calculated sedimentation rates have to be considered as limited reference values for the sus- ceptibility of soil erosion within the catchment. The only dated charcoal from the Early Middle Ages (7 th /8 th century) is taken from this alluvial fan which is an im- portant fact. The charcoal has been deposited directly above the Roman well. Thus, soil erosion rates during the Migra- tion Period must have been reduced. Otherwise, the finding of Early Medieval charcoal supports the opinion of Becker (2011) concerning an increased human influence in Kernel in this period. Most likely, during Early Modern times the dis- tribution of fields did not reach the level of the High Middle Ages. Instead, heathlands became predominant in the land- scape. Therefore, the sedimentation rate within the fan pro- file of Kernel was shrinking again. 7 Conclusions The agriculture on the Kernel Heath probably started during the La Tene or Roman Period. This conforms to the results of regional palynologic investigations. Since this time - in- terrupted during the Migration Period - to the High Mid- dle Ages agriculture was intensified and non-favorable ar- eas were cultivated. The spreading of fields increased up to 13 th century and was shrinking again in favor of pastureland during the Early Modern Period. In the remaining cleared forests, charcoal burning was widespread, especially from 16 th to the end of the 18 th century. The consequences con- cerning forest degradation and changes in the composition of tree species could be evidenced due to the charcoals from two different kilns. Of nearly the same age like the High Medieval agriculture are the slag relicts of decentralized iron melting and, prob- ably, the refuge castle of Zorn next to the slags. Although the sediment sequence of a small alluvial fan near Kernel is of very local character, we evidenced the high- est deposition rate in its catchment for the High Middle Ag- es, too. With this study, we evidenced the benefit of the applica- tion of several different methods to reconstruct former land- scapes of different periods: Future studies have to investigate as much single relicts to get more representative informa- tion. Unfortunately, this was not possible due to limited fi- nancial resources. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the "Hessisches Ministerium fur Umwelt, Energie, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz" for finan- cial support. We also thank Mr. R. Schmidt of the Heimat- verein Heidenrod and the students of the working group Grunert/Stolz for support during their field work. References Abel, W. (1976): Die Wustungen des ausgehenden Mittelalters. - Quellen und Forschungen zur Agrargeschichte 1: 186, Stuttgart (Lucius & Lu- cius). Ad-hoc AG Boden (2005): Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. 5 th Edition. - 437 pp., Stuttgart (Schweizerbart). Baatz, D. & Herrmann, F.-R. (2002): Die Romer in Hessen. - 531 pp., Stutt- gart (Tneiss). Bach, A. (1927): Die Siedlungsnamen des Taunusgebiets in ihrer Bedeutung fur die Besiedelungsgeschichte. - Rheinische Siedlungsgeschichte, 1: 249 pp., Bonn (Rohrscheid). Bauer, A. (1993): Bodenerosion in den Waldgebieten des ostlichen Taunus in historischer und heutiger Zeit - Ausmafl, Ursachen und geookologi- sche Auswirkungen - Frankfurter Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten D14: 194 pp. Becker, T. (2011): Untersuchung eines Limesabschnitts in Heidenrod-Ke- mel, Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis. - Denkmalpflege und Kulturgeschichte 3-2011: 16-22. Behaghel, H. (1949): Die Eisenzeit im Raume des rechtsrheinischen Schie- fergebirges. - 146 pp., Wiesbaden (Verlag des Vereins fur nassauische Altertumskunde und Geschichtsforschung). Bibus, E. (1989): Die Auswirkung quartarer Formungsdynamik auf Relief und Standort in der lossbedeckten Gaulandschaft des Neckar-Enz-Ge- bietes. - Frankfurter Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten D10: 69-83. Blume, H.P. (ed.; 2000): Handbuch der Bodenuntersuchung. Terminologie, Verfahrensvorschriften und Datenblatter; physikalische, chemische, biologische Untersuchungsverfahren; gesetzliche Regelwerke. - Wein- heim, New York. Bork, H.-R., Bork, FL, Dalchow, C, Faust, B., Piorr, H.-P. & Schatz, T. (1998): Landschaftsentwicklung in Mitteleuropa. - 328 pp., Gotha (Klett-Perthes). Born, M. (1961): Friihgeschichtliche Flurrelikte in den deutschen Mittelge- birgen. - Geografiska Annaler 43, 1: 17-25. Born, M. (1989): Die Entwicklung der deutschen Agrarlandschaft. - Ertra- ge der Forschung 29: 185pp., Darmstadt (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell- schaft). Cohausen, K.A. von (1879): Die Wallburgen, Landwehren und alten Schan- zen des Regierungsbezirks Wiesbaden. - Nassauische Annalen, 15: 343-388. Dikau, R., Herget, J. & Hennrich, K. (2005): Land use and climate impacts on fluvial systems during the period of agriculture in the Rhine catch- ment (RhineLUCIFS) - an introduction. - Erdkunde 59: 177-183. DLR-RLP (Dienstleistungszentrum Landlicher Raum Rheinland-Pfalz) (2012): Agrarmeteorologie Rheinland-Pfalz. - URL: www.dlr.rlp.de (Zugriff: 20.8.2012). Dotterweich, M., Haberstroh, J. & Bork, H.-R. (2003): Mittel- und jung- holozane Sedimententwicklung, Landnutzung, Bodenbildung und Bo- denerosion an einer mittelalterlichen Wiistung bei Friesen, Landkreis Kronach in Oberfranken. - In: Bork, H.-R., Schmidtchen, G. if Dot- terweich, M. (ed.): Bodenbildung, Bodenerosion und Reliefentwick- lung im Mittel- und Jungholozan Deutschlands. - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, 253: 17-56. Dreibrodt, S. ir Bork, H.-R. (2005): Historical soil erosion and landscape development at Lake Belau (North Germany) - A comparison of col- luvial deposits and lake sediments. - Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, N.F., Supplement 139: 101-128. Dreibrodt, S., Lubos, C, Terhorst, B., Damm, B. & Bork, H.-R. (2010): Historical soil erosion by water in Germany, Scales and archives, chro- nology, research perspectives. - Quaternary International 222: 80-95. Ehmke, W. (2003): Holzmangel zwang zur Aufforstung. Die landwirtschaft- liche Nutzung der Kemeler Heide vor 1800. - Jahrbuch des Rheingau- Taunus-Kreises 55 (2004): 67-70. Ellenberg, H. (1996): Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen in okologi- scher, dynamischer und historischer Sicht. - 1095 pp., Stuttgart. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2Q12 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution ticense 181 Ellenberg, H., Weber, H.E., Dull, R., Wirth, V., Werner, W. & Paulissen, D. (1991): Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. - Scripta Geobo- tanica 18: 248 pp. Gottingen (Goltze). Felix-Henningsen, P. (1990): Die mesozoisch-tertiare Verwitterungsdecke (MTV) im Rheinischen Schiefergebirge. Aufbau, Genese und quartare Uberpragung. - Relief, Boden, Palaoklima 6: 192 pp., Berlin (Borntra- ger.) Geisthardt, F. (1957): Landesherrliche Eisenindustrie imTaunus. - Nassau- ische Annalen 6: 156-174. Geisthardt, F. (1954): Friihe Eisenindustrie imTaunus. - Nassauische Hei- mafblatter, 44, 2: 57-64. Geyh, M.A. (2008): The handling of numerical ages and their random uncer- tainties. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, Quaternary Science Journal 57, (1-2): 239-252. Glaser, R. (2008): Klimageschichte Mitteleuropas. 1000 Jahre Wetter, Kli- ma, Katastrophen. - 227 pp., Darmstadt (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell- schaft). Herrmann, F.R. ir Jockenhovel, A. (1990): Die Vorgeschichte Hessens. - 533pp., Stuttgart (Theiss). Herold, R. (1974): Katzenelnbogen und der Einrich. Katzenelnbogen. - 158 pp., Katzenelnbogen (Einricher Heimatverein). Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt (2008): Hessische Gemeindestatistik 2008. - URL: www.statistik-hessen.de (10.1.2012). Hildebrandt, H. (2004): Die spatmittelalterliche Wiistungsperiode aus der Sicht der Bodenerosionstheorie, betrachtet vornehmlich am Beispiel der Wiistung Horb im westlichen Steigerwald. - Bamberger Geographische Schriften, Sonderfolge 7: 121-137. Hildebrandt, H, Heuser-Hildebrandt, B., Wolters, S. (2007): Kultur- landschaftsgenetische und bestandsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen von Kohlholzspektren aus historischen Meilerplatzen, Pollendiagrammen und archivalischen Quellen im Naturpark Pfalzerwald, Forstamt Johan- niskreuz. - Mainzer Geographische Studien, special edition 3: 182 pp. Hildebrandt, H, Heuser-Hildebrandt, B. ir Stumbock, M. (2001): Be- standsgeschichtliche und kulturlandschaftsgenetische Untersuchungen im Naturwaldreservat Stelzenbach, Forstamt Nassau, Revier Winden. - Mainzer Naturwissenschaftliches Archiv, Beiheft 25: 83 pp., Mainz (Geographisches Institut). Hillebrecht, M.-L. (1982): Die Relikte der Holzkohlewirtschaft als Indika- toren fiir Waldnutzung und Waldentwicklung. - Gottinger Geographi- sche Abhandlungen 79: 157 pp. Hoffmann, T, Lang, A., Dikau, R. (2008): Holocene river activity: analy- sing "C-dated fluvial and colluvial sediments from Germany. - Quater- nary Science Reviews 27, 2031-2040. Houben, P. (2007): Geomorphological facies reconstructing of Late Quater- nary alluvia by the application of fluvial architecture concepts. - Geo- morphology 86: 94-114. Huser, K. (1972): Geomorphologische Untersuchungen im westlichen Hin- tertaunus. - Tiibinger geographische Studien 50: 184 pp. International Union of Soil Sciences (2006): World reference base for soil resources. A framework for international classification, correlation and communication (FAO). - World soil resources reports 103: 145 pp., Rome. Jacomet, S. if Kreuz, A., (1999): Archaobotanik. Aufgaben, Methoden und Ergebnisse vegetations- und agrargeschichtlicher Forschung. - 368 pp., Stuttgart (Ulmer). Kaltwasser, S. (1991): Die Wiederbewaldung ehemals landwirtschaftlicher Flachen im Herzogtum Nassau (1816-1866). - Diplom thesis FHS Hil- desheim/Holzminden (unpublished). Kleber, A. (1997): Cover-beds as soil-parent materials in midlatitude regi- ons. - Catena 30: 197-213. Kortzfleisch, A. von (2008): Die Kunst der schwarzen Gesellen, Kohlerei im Harz. 408 pp., Clausfhal-Zellerfeld (Papierflieger). Kubach, W. (1984): Hiigelgraberbronzezeit. - In: Geschichtlicher Atlas von Hessen. Text- und Erlauterungsband, 23-25, Marburg (Landesamt fiir geschichfliche Landeskunde). Kuster, H. (2008): Geschichte des Waldes. Von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart. - 297 pp., Miinchen (Beck). Kuls, W (1951): Wirtschaftsflachen und Feldsysteme im westlichen Hinter- taunus. - Rhefn-Mainische Forschungen, 30: 85 pp., Frankfurt a. M. (In- stitut fiir Kulturgeographie, Stadt- und Regionalforschung der Johann- Wolfgang-Goefhe-Universitat). Lang, A. (2003): Phases of soil erosion-derived colluviation in the loess hills of South Germany. - Catena 51: 209-221. Leopold, M. ir Volkel, J. (2007): Quantifying prehistoric soil erosion - the discussion of different methods by the example of a Celtic square enclo- sure in southern Germany. - Geoarchaeology, 22, 8: 873-889. Ludemann, T. (2008): Natiirliches Holzangebot und historische Nutzung. Heutige Vegetation und historische Holzkohle wertvolle Quellen. - Das Mittelalter 153, 2: 39-62. Ludemann, T. ir Nelle, O. (2002): Die Wilder am Schauinsland und ih- re Nutzung durch Bergbau und Kohlerei. - Freiburger Forstliche For- schung 15: 139 pp. Mackel, R., Friedmann, A. ir Sudhaus, D. (2009): Environmental changes and human impact on landscape development in the upper Rhine regi- on. - Erdkunde 63, 1: 35-49. Manske, D. (1997): Einige Bemerkungen zur Kohlerei unter Beriicksichti- gung der Oberpfalz und des ostbayerischen Grenzgebirges. - Oberpfal- zerHeimat41: 111-125. Moldenhauer, K.-M., Heinrich, J. ir Vater, A. (2010): Causes and history of multiple soil erosion processes in the Northern Odenwald uplands. - DieErde, 141 (3): 171-186. Muller, K.-H. (1973): Zur Morphologie des zentralen Hintertaunus und des Limburger Beckens: Ein Beitrag zur tertiaren Formengenese. - Marbur- ger Geographische Schriften, 58: 112 pp. Nelle, O. ir Schmidgall, J. (2003): Der Beitrag der Palaobotanik zur Land- schaftsgeschichte von Kartstgebieten am Beispiel der vorgeschichtlichen Hohensiedlung auf dem Schlossberg bei Kallmunz (Siidostliche Fran- kenalb). - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, 53: 55-73. Neumayer, H. (1993): Merowingerzeitliche Grabfunde des Mittelrheinge- bietes zwischen Nahe- und Moselmiindung. - Archaologische Schriften des Instituts fiir Vor- und Friihgeschichte der Johannes Gutenberg-Uni- versitat Mainz 2: 213 pp. Orth, W. (1953): Wollindustrie in den Orten der ehemaligen Grafschaft Kat- zenelnbogen, die heute zum Untertaunuskreis gehoren. - Der Unter- taunus. Heimatjahrbuch Untertaunus-Kreis, 5 (1954): 89-92. Roedler, G (1910): Aus vergangener Zeit. Allerlei aus Alt-Nassaus Wal- dern. - Alt-Nassau, 10: 38-40. Roedler, G. (1926): Ober die Kemeler Heide. - Nassauische Heimat, 6, 22: 109-110. Rosch, M. ir Tserendorj, G. (2011): Florengeschichtliche Beobachtungen im Nordschwarzwald (Siidwestdeutschland). - Hercynia N.F. 44: 53-71. Sauer, D. ir Felix-Henningsen, P. (2006): Saprolite, soils and sediments in the Rhenish Massif as records of climate and landscape history. - Qua- ternary International, 156-157: 4-12. Scharlau, K. (1961): Flurrelikte und Flurformengenese in Westdeutschland. Ergebnisse, Probleme und allgemeine Ausblicke. - Geografiska Anna- ler, 43, 1: 264-276. Schmenkel, G. (2001): Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen imTaunus. - Be- richte der Kommission fiir Archaologische Landesforschung in Hessen 6: 225-232. Schweingruber, F. H. (1990): Wood Anatomy. - 226 pp., Birmensdorf (Eid- genossische Forschungsanstalt fiirWald, Schnee und Landschaft). Schwind, F. (1984): Geschichtlicher Atlas von Hessen, Erlauterungsband. - 338 pp., Marburg (Hessisches Landesamt fiir geschichfliche Landes- kunde). Semmel, A. (1968): Studien iiber den Verlauf jungpleistozaner Formung in Hessen. - Frankfurter Geographische Hefte, 45: 133 pp., Frankfurt (In- stitut fiir Kulturgeographie, Stadt- und Regionalforschung der Johann- Wolfgang-Goethe-Universitat). Semmel, A. (1993): Bodenerosionsschaden unter Wald - Beispiele aus dem Kristallinen Odenwald und dem Taunus. - Jubelfeier der Wetteraui- schen Gesellschaft fiir die gesamte Naturkunde, 144/145: 5-15. Semmel, A. (1995): Development of gullies under forest cover in the Taunus and Crystalline Odenwald Mountains, Germany. - Zeitschrift fiir Geo- morphologie, N.F., Supplement, 100: 115-127. Semmel, A. (2002): Hauptlage und Oberlage als umweltgeschichfliche Indi- katoren. - Zeitschrift fiir Geomorphologie N.F. 46: 167-180. Semmel, A. ^Terhorst, b. (2010): The concept of the Pleistocene cover-beds in central Europe: A review. - Quaternary International, 222: 120-128. Spielmann, C. (1926): Geschichte von Nassau. Part 2: Kultur und Wirt- schaftsgeschichte. 705 pp., Montabaur: Verlag des Nassauischen Vereins fiir landliche Wohlfahrts- und Heimatpflege. Stolz, C. (2011a): Budgeting of soil erosion from floodplain sediments of the central Rhenish Slate Mts. (Westerwald), Germany. The Holocene, 21, 3,499-510. Stolz, C. (2011b): Spatiotemporal budgeting of soil erosion in the district of the deserted estate "Rahnstatter Hof" near Michelbach (Taunus Mts., Western Germany). - Erdkunde, 65, 4: 355-370. Stolz, C. (2008): Historisches Grabenreifien im Wassereinzugsgebiet der Aar zwischen Wiesbaden und Limburg. - Geologische Abhandlungen Hessen, 117: 138 pp., Wiesbaden (Hessisches Landesamt fiir Umwelt und Geologie). 182 E6G / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2012 / 16B-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License Stolz, C, Grunert, J. (2010): Quaternary landscape development in Pa- for sediment input into the river rhine: soils, sediments and slope pro- latinate Forest (Pfalzerwald, south-western Germany). - Quaternary cesses. - Erdkunde 59, 3/4: 184-198. International, 222: 129-142. Volkel J., Zepp, H. ir Kleber, A. (2002): Periglaziale Deckschichten in Mit- Stolz, C. ir Grunert, J. (2008): Floodplain sediments of some streams in telgebirgen - ein offenes Forschungsfeld. - Berichte zur deutschen Lan- fheTaunus andWesterwaldMts., western Germany, as evidence of his- deskunde, 76: 101-114. torical land use. - Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, N.F., 52, 3: 349-373. Wolters, S. (2007): Zur spatholozanen Vegetationsgeschichte des Pfalzer- Stolz, C. ir Grunert, J. (2006): Holocene colluvia, medieval gully forma- waldes - Neue pollenanalytische Untersuchungen im pfalzischen Berg- tion and historical land use. A case study from the Taunus Mountains, und Hiigelland. - Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, Quaternary Science southern Rhenish Slate Massif. - Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, N.F., Journal, 56 (3): 139-161. Supplement, 142: 175-194. Wunderlich, J. (2000): Prahistorische und historische Bodenerosion im Thiemeyer, PL, Blumel, W.D., Dambeck, R., Diekmann, B., Eberle, J., Amoneburger Becken - Abgeleitet aus einer Sequenz datierter Kollu- Glade, T., Hecht, S., Houben, P., Moldenhauer, K.-M., Schrott, L., vien. - Berichte der Kommission fur Archaologische Landesforschung Schulte, A., Voigt, R. ir Wunderlich, J. (2005): Boundary conditions in Hessen, 5: 9-15. EBG / Vol. 61 / No. 2 / 2Q12 / 168-183 / D0I 10.3285/eg.61.2.D5 / © Authors / Creative Commons Attribution License 183 Instruction to Authors Basically the manuscript shall be submitted in electronic form and has to include the name and the address of the first author. Please use a standard word processor in .rtf .odt or .doc-format (LaTeX files on request). As character set please use the standard fonts Times Roman, Helvetica or Courier with 1.5 line spacing. For the submission please use our online system at www. quaternary-science.net. After the login you can upload your manuscript as well as separate figures and tables. Manuscript style The acceptable languages are English and German. Manu- scripts in German have to contain an English subtitle, an abstract in English and English keywords. The rules of the new German spelling reform apply to German texts. Manuscripts should be arranged in the following order: I Short but concise title II Full names, full address and e-mail III 5 to 10 keywords that describe the contents of your paper VI An abstract of up to 200 words in German and English. The translated abstract should carry the translated titel in square brackets, V Clearly structured text. For chapter numbering use Ara- bic numerals. VI The reference list has to be arranged alphabetically and should be conform to the examples given below. References have to be insert in the text as brief quotations, the name of the author has to be set in small Capitals, the year of publication in brackets e.g. Muller (2006). If more than one publication of the same author in the same year is cited, identify each citation as follows: Muller (2006a, 2006b). Where three or more authors are listed in the refer- ence list, please cite in the text as Muller et al. (2006). Pa- pers with up to three authors should be cited as Muller & Meyer (2006) or Muller, Meyer ir Schulz (2006). If a spe- cial page or figure of a paper should be cited, use following citation style: Muller (2006: 14) or Muller (2006, Fig. 14). Scientific names of flora and fauna (gender, sub-gender, species, sub-species) have to be written in italics. Use small Capitals for the author (Armeria maritima Willd.) Do not justify your text, use a ragged left alignment. Do not use automatic hyphenation. Do not use any automatic formatting. Do not use pagination. Illustrations Supply each figure as a separate file with the name of the author. Illustrations should be reducible to a column width (8.4 cm) or type area (17.2 x 26 cm). The lettering has to be easy readable after reduction. Where a key of symbols is re- quired, include this in the figure, not in the caption of the fig- ure. Avoid fine lines (hairlines) and grey-shading/halftones. All figures may be colored. There are no additional costs. For printing all illustrations have to be supplied electroni- cally. Please use for pixel-based images (photos) the .tif-for- mat with a resolution of at least 450 dpi and for vector-based illustrations (graphs, maps, tables) the .eps-format. Greatly reduced .jpg-files or .pdf-files or figures included in word- documents are not accepted. References [examples] Papers: Schwarzbach, M. (1968): Neue Eiszeithypothesen. - Eiszei- talter und Gegenwart, 19: 250-261. Eissmann, L. ir Muller, A. (1979): Leitlinien der Quartaren- twicklung im norddeutschen Tiefland. - Zeitschrift fur Ge- ologische Wissenschaften, 7: 451-462. Zagwijn, W.H. (1996): The Cromerian Complex Stage of the Netherlands and correlation with other areas in Europe. - In: Turner, C. (ed.): The Middle Pleistocene in Europe: 145-172; Rotterdam (Balkema). Magny, M. ir Haas, J.N. (2004): A major widespread climat- ic change around 5300 cal. yr BP at the time of the Alpine Iceman. - Journal of Quaternary Science, 19: 423-430. DOI: 10.1002/jqs.850 Books: Ehlers, J. (1994): Allgemeine und historische Quartargeolo- gie. - 358 S.; Stuttgart (Enke). Please do not use abbreviations of the journal names. Specimen copies Authors receive no printed specimen copies. The electronic version is available as download free. For further questions about the submission of manuscripts please contact the production editor (imprint). Do not insert images, tables and photos into the text, it should be added as separate files. Captions of figures and tables in German and English should be placed at the end of the manuscript. 186 E&G / Vol. 61 / No. 2/2012 Radiocarbon Dating Results 100% Confidential BETH Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating M- \ Xs i! Beta Analytic grants you: • Confidentiality of results • Ownership of results and reports • No co-publication requirement Australia Brazil 7 Results in as little as 2-3 days Brazil China India Japan Korea UK USA www.radiocarbon.com Autorenhinweise Das Manuskript ist grundsatzlich in elektronischer Form einzureichen und muss mit Namen und Adresse des Erstau- toren versehen sein. Birte benutzen Sie eine Standard-Text- verarbeitung im .rtf, .odt oder .doc-Format (LaTeX-Dateien auf Anfrage). Als Zeichensatz verwenden Sie birte die Stan- dard-Fonts Times Roman, Helvetica oder Courier mit einem 1,5-fachen Zeilenabstand. Zur Einreichung nutzen Sie birte unser Online Submission System unter www.quaternary-science.net. Nach dem Login stent Ihnen hier eine Upload-Funktion fur das Manuskript und die Abbildungs-Dateien zur Verfugung. Manuskriptform Als Publikationssprachen sind Englisch und Deutsch zuge- lassen. Manuskripte in deutscher Sprache miissen einen eng- lischen Untertitel tragen sowie eine englische Kurzfassung und englische Keywords beinhalten. Fur die deutschen Texte gelten die Regeln der neuen Rechtschreibreform. Die Manuskripte sollen folgendem Aufbau entsprechen: I Kurze, aber pragnante Oberschrift II Ausgeschriebener Vor- und Nachname, Post- und E-Mail- Adresse III 5 bis 10 englische Keywords, die den Inhalt des Manus- kriptes widerspiegeln. IV Deutsche und englische Kurzfassung des Textes mit einer Lange von bis zu 200 Wortern. Der englische Untertitel des Manuskriptes ist der englischen Kurzfassung in ecki- gen Klammern voranzustellen. V Klar gegliederter Text. Kapitelnummerierungen sind mit arabischen Ziffern zu versehen. VI Alphabetisch geordnete Literaturliste. Die Zitierweise muss der unten angegebenen Form entsprechen. Im fortlaufenden Text sind Literaturhinweise als Kurzzitate einzufiigen, der oder die Autorennamen sind in Kapital- CHEN-Schrift zu setzen, das Erscheinungsjahr in Klammern, z. B. Muller (2006). Werden von einem Autor mehrere Ar- beiten aus einem Jahr zitiert, so sind diese durch Buchsta- ben zu unterscheiden: Muller (2006a, 2006b). Bei mehr als drei Autoren kann et al. verwendet werden: Muller et al. (2006). Arbeiten mit bis zu drei Autoren werden folgenderma- fien zitiert: Muller & Meyer (2006) oder Muller, Meyer ir Schulz (2006). Sind mit der Zitierung bestimmte Seiten oder Abbildungen gemeint, miissen diese genau angegeben wer- den: Muller (2006: 14) oder Muller (2006: Fig. 14). Die wissenschaftlichen Namen von Pflanzen und Tieren (Gattungen, Untergattungen, Arten, Unterarten) sind kursiv zu schreiben. Die den biologischen Namen folgenden Au- toren werden in Kapitalchen gesetzt (Armeria maritima Willd.). Bitte keinen Blocksatz verwenden, sondern linksbundigen Satz. Bitte keine automatische Silbentrennung verwenden. Bitte alle automatischen Formatierungen in Ihrer Textbear- beitung deaktivieren. Bitte keine Seitenzahlung. Abbildungen, Tabellen und Fotos nicht in den Text einbauen, sondern separat als Datei beifiigen. Abbildungsunterschrif- ten in Deutsch und Englisch am Ende des Manuskriprtextes platzieren. Abbildungen Birte fiigen Sie jede Abbildung als separate Datei mit ei- nem eindeutigen Namen bei. Alle Grafiken miissen eine Verkleinerung auf Spaltenbreite (= 8,4 cm) oder Satzspiegel (= 17,2 x 26 cm) zulassen. Die Beschriftung muss nach der Verkleinerung noch gut lesbar sein. Sollte eine Legende notig sein, so binden Sie diese in die Abbildung ein. Bitte vermei- den Sie Haarlinien oder Grauwerte. Alle Abbildungen kon- nen farbig sein. Es entstehen keine Mehrkosten. Fur die Drucklegung miissen alle Abbildungen in elektro- nischer Form eingereicht werden. Bitte verwenden Sie fur pixelbasierte Abbildungen (Fotos) das .tif-Format mit einer Auflosung von mindestens 450 dpi und fur vektorbasierte Abbildungen (Diagramme, Maps, Tabellen) das .eps-Format. Stark reduzierte .jpg oder .pdf-Dateien sowie in Text-Doku- mente eingebundene Abbildungen werden nicht akzeptiert. Zitierweise (Beispiele) Aufsatze: Schwarzbach, M. (1968): Neue Eiszeithypothesen. - Eiszeit- alter und Gegenwart, 19: 250-261. Eissmann, L. ir Muller, A. (1979): Leitlinien der Quartar- entwicklung im norddeutschen Tiefland. - Zeitschrift fur Geologische Wissenschaften, 7: 451-462. Zagwijn, W.H. (1996): The Cromerian Complex Stage of the Netherlands and correlation with other areas in Europe. - In: Turner, C. (ed.): The Middle Pleistocene in Europe: 145-172; Rotterdam (Balkema). Magny, M. ir Haas, J.N. (2004): A major widespread clima- tic change around 5300 cal. yr BP at the time of the Alpine Iceman. - Journal of Quaternary Science, 19: 423-430. DOI: 10.1002/jqs.850 Monographische Werke, Biicher: Ehlers, J. (1994): Allgemeine und historische Quartargeolo- gie. - 358 S.; Stuttgart (Enke). Bitte keine Abkiirzungen der Zeitschriftentitel verwenden. Belegexemplare Es werden keine gedruckten Belegexemplare verschickt. Die elektronische Version steht zum kostenlosen Download zur Verfugung. Bei weiteren Fragen zur Manuskripteinreichung wenden Sie sich bitte an die technische Redaktion (s. Impressum) 188 E&G / Vol. 61 / No. 2/2012 Neubrandenburger Geologische Beitrage •QSD Harausgegebcn vnm Eeowissenschaft lichen Varein N»ub rand am burg e.V. AUS DEM INHALT Nachweis des Europaischen Waldelefanten Elephas antiquus [Falconer & Cautley, 1817] bei Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern [NE-Deutschland] - Fundbericht Stefan Meng [Greifswald] Findling Trlssow Hans-Jorg Altenburg [Utzedel] Klassifikation und Aufbau ausgewahlter Vorkommen glazilimnischer Sedimente nordlich der Pommerschen Eisrandlage im brandenburgischen Abschnitt der Erdgasfernleitung 0PAL1 OlafJuschus [Berlin], Norbert Schlaak [Cottbus] Steine am Stolper Turin Karl-Jochen Stein [Waldsee] Die Blekinge-Region - Gesteine im Anstehenden und als Geschiebe Hans-Jorg Altenburg [Utzedel] 88 Seiten, 17 x 24 cm, Softcover www.geologische-beitraege.de Fur 8,50 Euro heim Verlag order direkt bei den Herausgebern bestellbar. Manuskript-Einreichungen sind gerne gesehen. Bitte schreiben Sie an: firstname.lastname@example.com Hgeozon Geozon Science Media Postfach 3245 D-17462 Greifswald Germany Tel. 03834-80 14 80 Fax 03834-80 14 81 E-Mail: info (ageozon.net www.geozon.net Eiszeitlandschaften in Mecklen- burg-Vorpommern ISBN 978-3-941971-05-9 31- Euro Zur Landschafts- und Gewasser- geschichte der Miiritz ISBN 978-3-911971-00-1) 29,- Euro Glaciations and periglacial features in Central Europe ISSN 0121-7116 51,- Euro From the northern ice shield to the Alpine glaciations ISBN 978-3-911971-06-8 29,- Euro IN VORBEREITUNG Die spatpleistozane und holozane Gewassernetzentwicklung im Bereich der Pommerschen Haupteisrandlage Mecklenburgs Sebastian Lorenz ■ ISBN: 978-3-941971-03-5 Die Bauern- und Waldarbeiterdbrfer im Naturpark und seinem Umfeld Forderverein Naturpark Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide e.V. ■ ISBN 978-3-941971-07-3 Ogeozon Geozon Science Media Postfach 3245 D-17462 Greifswald Germany Tel. 03834-80 14 80 Fax 03834-80 14 81 E-Mail: info(a)geozon.net www.geozon.net DEUQUA German Quaternary Association The German Quaternary Association (DEUQUA) eV is an association of German-speaking Quaternary Scientists. The aim of the association is to promote the Quaternary Science, to represent it in public, to intensify the contact to applied science as well as to advice public and political boards in qua- tarnary issues. Furthermore, the association has set itself the task of op- erating the contacts between the Quaternary Scientists and related organizations at home and abroad. The DEUQUA published annually several editions of "E&G - Quaternary Science Journal". In that journal research results from the field of Quaternary Science are published. In addition, developments in the DEUQUA are announced in the "Geoscience messages" (GMIT). GMIT is published quar- terly. Every two years, the German Quaternary Association held the DEUQUA-Conference. At this conference the la-test research results of the Quaternary Science are presented and discussed. Deutsche Quartarvereinigung Die Deutsche Quartarvereinigung (DEUQUA) e.V. ist ein Zusammenschluss deutschsprachiger Quartarwissenschaft- ler und wurde 1949 gegriindet. Der Verein hat zum Ziel, die Quartarwissenschaft zu fordern, sie in der Offentlichkeit zu vertreten, den Kontakt zu angewandter Wissenschaft zu in- tensivieren sowie offentliche und politische Gremien in quar- tarwissenschaftlichen Fragestellungen zu beraten. Des Wei- teren hat der Verein sich zur Aufgabe gemacht, die Kontakt- pflege der Quartarforscher untereinander und zu verwandten Organisationen im In- und Ausland zu betreiben. Die DEUQUA veroffentlicht jahrlich mehrere Ausgaben von "E&G - Quaternary Science Journal". Dort werden For- schungserkenntnisse aus dem Bereich der Quartarwissen- schaft publiziert. Zusatzlich werden Entwicklungen in der DEUQUA vierteljahrlich in den Geowissenschaftlichen Mit- teilungen (GMIT) bekannt gemacht. Im zweijahrigen Turnus veranstaltet die Deutsche Quar- tarvereinigung e.V. die DEUQUA-Tagung. Diese bietet ein Forum, in welchem aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse aus dem Bereich der Quartarwissenschaften vorgestellt und disku-tiert werden. Committee / Vorstand PRESIDENT/ PRASIDENTIN MARGOTBOSE Freie Universitat Berlin Malteserstr. 71-100 D-12219 Berlin, Germany Tel.: +19 [0]30-838-70 37 3 E-Mail: m.boese [at] fu-berlin.de VICE PRESIDENTS / VIZEPRASIDENTEN CHRISTOPHSPOTL Institut fur Geologie und Palaontologie Universitat Innsbruck Innrain 52 A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria Tel.:+13[0]512-507-5593 Fax: +13 [0]512-507-2911 E-Mail: christoph.spoetl [at] uibk.ac.at LUDWIGZQLLER Fakultat II - Lehrstuhl fur Geomorphologie Universitat Bayreuth Universitatsstrafse 30 D-95110 Bayreuth, Germany Tel.:+19[0]921-55 2266 Fax: +19 [0]921-55 2311 E-Mail: ludwig.zoeller [at] uni-bayreuth.de TREASURER / SCHATZMEISTER JORGELBRACHT Landesamt fur Bergbau, Energie und Geologie Stilleweg 2 D-30655 Hannover, Germany Tel.:+19[0]511-613-36 13 E-Mail: joerg.elbracht [at] lbeg.niedersachsen.de EDITOR-IN-CHIEF / SCHRIFTLEITUNG [E&G] HOLGERFREUND ICBM - Geoecology Carl-von-Ossietzky Universitaet Oldenburg Schleusenstr. 1 D-26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany Tel.:+19[Q]1121-9112 00 E-Mail: holger.freund [at] uni-oldenburg.de ARCHIVIST /ARCHIVAR STEFAN WANSA Landesamt fur Geologie und Bergwesen Sachsen-Anhalt Postfach 156 D- 06035 Halle, Germany Tel. +19[0]315-5212-12 7 E-Mail: wansa [at] lagb.mw.sachsen-anhalt.de ADVISORY BOARD / BEIRAT CHRISTIAN H0SELMANN Hessisches Landesamt fur Umwelt und Geologie Postfach 3209 D-65022 Wiesbaden, Germany Tel.:+19[0]611-69 39 92 8 E-Mail: christian. hoselmann [at] hlug.hessen.de DANIELASAUER Institut fur Bodenkunde und Standortslehre Universitat Hohenheim Emil-Wolff-Str. 27 D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany Tel.: +19 [0]711-159-22 93 5 E-Mail: d-sauer [at] uni-hohenheim.de FRANK PREUSSER Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology Stockholm University 10961 Stockholm, Sweden Tel. +16 8 6717590 E-Mail: frank.preusserianatgeo.su.se REINHARD LAMPE Institut fur Geographie und Geologie Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universitat Greifwald Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Strafse 16 D-17187 Greifswald, Germany Tel: +19 [0]3831-86-15 21 E-Mail: lampe [at] uni-greifswald.de BIRGITTERHORST Geographisches Institut Universitat Wurzburg Am Hubland D-97071 Wurzburg, Germany Deutschland Tel. +19[0]931-88 85 58 5 E-Mail: birgit.terhorst [at] uni-wuerzburg.de 190 E&G /Vol. 61/ No. 2/2012 Reorder / Nachbestellung The volumes 6-7, 11-17, 19-28 and 30-58 are currently available. All other volumes are sold out. A reduced special price of 10,- € per edition is up to and including volume 55. The regular retail price applies from vol. 56/1-2. The complete content is searchable at www.quaternary-science.net. 1951-2006 Vol. 6-7, 11-17, 19-28, 30-55 2007 Topics each volume 10,- € Price Vol. 56 No 1-2 Special issue: Stratigraphie von Deutschland - Quartar Vol. 56 No 3 Pfalzerwald, pollen types and taxa, Oberosterreich, Rifi-Iller, Schatthausen Vol. 56 No 4 Nufiloch, Rangsdorfer See, Lieth/Elmshorn, Gardno Endmorane/Debina Cliff 2008 Topics 54,- € 27,- € 27,- € Price Vol. 57 No 1-2 Special issue: Recent progress in Quaternary dating methods Vol. 57 No 3-4 Special issue: The Heidelberg Basin Drilling Project 2009 Topics 54,- € 54,- € Price Vol. 58 No 1 Surface Exposure Dating, Bodensee, Living Fossil, Hochgebirgsboden Vol. 58 No 2 Special issue: Changing environments - Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow 2010 Topics 27,- € 27,- € Price Vol. 59 No 1-2 Baltic Sea Coast, Rodderberg Crater, Geiseltal, Wettersteingebirge, Mon, Argentina 2011 Topics 54,- € Price Vol. 60 No 1 Special issue: Loess in Europe Vol. 60 No 2-3 Special issue: Glaciations and periglacial features in Central Europe Vol. 60 No 4 Special issue: Quaternary landscape evolution in the Peribaltic region 2012 Topics 27,- € 54,- € 27,- € Price Vol. 61 No 1 Calcareous Alps Austria, Loss, Holzreste Schweiz, Rinnen-Strukturen, Permafrost carbon The prices are understood plus shipping costs. VAT is included. Subscription / Abonnement Title: E&G - Quaternary Science Journal Print-ISSN: 0424-7116 Issues per volume: 2 Prices [EUR] print per volume End customers: 50,46 € (Free for DEUQUA-Members) Wholesalers, booksellers: 32,80 € Scientific libraries: 47,94 € VAT is not included. Postage [EUR] per volume within Germany: 2,50 € World (Surface): 6,80 € World (Airmail): 7,70 € Special offer 27- € Libraries which subscribe our journal can receive the volumes 1951-2006 for free. Only shipping costs have to be paid. Order address Geozon Science Media P.O. Box 3245 D-17462 Greifswald Germany tel: +49 (0)3834-80 40 80 fax: +49 (0)3834-80 40 81 e-mail: info (at) geozon.net web: www.geozon.net E&G Quaternary Science Journal Volume 61 / Number 2 / 2012 / ISSN 0424-7116 / DOI 10.3285/eg.61.2 www.quaternary-science.net DOI lQ.3285/eg.B1.2.01 103 Late Quaternary evolution of rivers, lakes and peatlands in northeast Germany reflecting past climatic and human impact - an overview Knut Kaiser, Sebastian Lorenz, Sonja Germer, Olaf Juschus, Mathias Kuster, Judy Libra, Oliver Bens, Reinhard F. Huttl DOI irj.3285/eg.B1.2.D2 133 Younger Middle Terrace - Saalian pre-Drenthe deposits overlying MIS 7 Nachtigall interglacial strata near Hbxter/Weser, NW-Germany Peter Rohde, Jocben Lepper, Wolfgang Thiem t DOI lQ.3285/eg.B1.2.Q3 m 6 Interrelation of geomorphology and fauna of Lavrado region in Roraima, Brazil - suggestions for future studies Thiago Morato de Carvalho, Ce/so Moroto de Carvalho D0llD.3285/eg.61.2.Q4 156 Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of Terna River Basin in West Central India Mohammad Babar, Radhakrishna Chunchekar, Madhusudan G. Yadava, Bhagwan Ghute D0llD.3285/eg.B1.2.D5 168 Reconstructing 2500 years of land use history on the Kernel Heath [Kemeler Heide], southern Rhenish Massif, Germany Christian Stolz, Sebastian Bohnke, Jorg Grunert