text: "?rjx 1 HARVARD UNIVERSITY .;% Library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 15 3a VOLUME 100 PART 1 FEBRUARY 1991 MCZ LIBRARY 1 991 HARVARD UNIVERSITY ISSN 0303-2515 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM CAPE TOWN INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS 1. MATERIAL should be original and not published elsewhere, in whole or in part. 2. 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REFERENCES cited in text and synonymies should all be included in the list at the end of the paper, using the Harvard System (ibid., idem, loc. cit., op. cit. are not acceptable): (a) Author's name and year of publication given in text, e.g.: 'Smith (1969) describes 'Smith (1969: 36, fig. 16) describes 'As described (Smith 1969a, 1969ft; Jones 1971)' 'As described (Haughton & Broom 1927) 'As described (Haughton et al. 1927) . . .' Note: no comma separating name and year pagination indicated by colon, not p. names of joint authors connected by ampersand et al. in text for more than two joint authors, but names of all authors given in list of references. (b) Full references at the end of the paper, arranged alphabetically by names, chronologically within each name, with suffixes a, b, etc., to the year for more than one paper by the same author in that year, e.g. Smith (1969a, 1969ft) and not Smith (1969, 1969a). For books give title in italics, edition, volume number, place of publication, publisher. For journal article give title of article, title of journal in italics (according to the World list of scientific periodicals. 4th ed. London: Butterworths, 1963), series in parentheses, volume number, part number in parentheses, pagination (first and last pages of article). Examples (note capitalization and punctuation) Bullough, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Fischer, P. H. 1948. Donn/es sur la resistance et de la vitalite des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140. Fischer, P. H., Duval, M. & Raffy, A. 1933. Etudes sur les echanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie experimental et generate 74 (33): 627-634. Kohn, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320. Kohn, A. J. 19606. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51. Thiele, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: Schultze, L. Zoologische und anthro- pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Sud-Afrika ausgefuhrt in den Jahren 1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270. (continued inside back cover) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM Volume 100 Band February 1991 Februarie Part 1 Deel LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER By MICHAEL R. COOPER Cape Town Kaapstad The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material becomes available Obtainable from the South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000 Die ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM word uitgegee in dele op ongereelde tye na gelang van die beskikbaarheid van stof Verkrygbaar van die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum, Posbus 61, Kaapstad 8000 OUT OF PRINT/UIT DRUK 1, 2(1-3, 5-8), 3(1-2, 4-5, 8, t.-p.i.), 5(1-3, 5, 7-9), 6(1. t.-p.i.), 7(1-4), 8, 9(1-2, 7), 10(1-3), 11(1-2, 5, 7, t.-p.i.), 14(1-2), 15(4-5), 24(2, 5), 27, 31(1-3), 32(5), 33, 36(2), 43(1), 45(1), 67(5), 84(2) Copyright enquiries to the South African Museum Kopieregnavrae aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum ISBN 86813 118 Printed in South Africa by The Rustica Press, Pty., Ltd., Court Road, Wynberg, Cape In Suid-Afrika gedruk deur Die Rustica-pers, Edms., Bpk., Courtweg, Wynberg, Kaap D43 LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER By Michael R. Cooper Department of Geology, University of Durban-Westville, Natal (With 25 figures) [MS accepted 8 October 1989] ABSTRACT The diversity of trigonioid bivalves makes their assignment to a single family inappropriate. On phyletic grounds it is proposed to recognize the suborders Trigoniina and Myophorellina nov. to include the superfamilies Myophoriacea Bronn, Trigoniacea Lamarck, Myophorellacea Kobayashi, and Megatrigoniacea van Hoepen. In addition, the following new taxa are introduced: family Gruenewaldiidae, subfamily Steinmanellinae, tribe Heterotrigoniini, and genera Skwarkoella and Lambertiella. The late Valanginian trigonias of the Sundays River Formation, last reviewed as a group in 1908, are revised and shown to comprise 11 species in seven genera (Trigonia, Myophorella, Steinmanella, Iotrigonia, Megatrigonia, Pisotrigonia and Pterotrigonia) . These taxa represent six subfamilies in four families. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 1 Geology 2 Systematic palaeontology 3 Superfamily Myophoriacea 4 Superfamily Trigoniacea 4 Superfamily Myophorellacea 9 Superfamily Megatrigoniacea 24 Acknowledgements 48 References 48 INTRODUCTION The trigonioid bivalves comprise a generally highly ornate group of infaunal burrowers that dominated Mesozoic shallow-marine environments. They display a bewildering and unsurpassed diversity of morphology that, because of a strong substrate control, involves rampant homoeomorphy and parallel evolution. Relationships have been further obscured by a general failure to appreciate that in each region evolution occurred in isolation for long periods of time, punctuated by periodic regional interchange (at times of high sea-level) and 1 Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (1), 1991: 1-52, 25 figs. 2 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM faunal replenishment. As a result, although there are general similarities between the trigonioid faunas of different regions, species are almost invariably endemic and are descended from and most closely related to species from the same region. Consequently, a conservative taxonomy (cf. Cox 1969) and attempts to apply a few well-established names to taxa from different regions has served merely to obscure and confuse the phylogeny of the group, and to mask one of the great radiations in the animal world. Trigonioid bivalves are particularly well represented in the Sundays River Formation of the Uitenhage Group (Goldfuss 1837; Krauss 1843; Sharpe 1856; Holub & Neumayr 1881; Kitchin 1908; Pringle 1960; Cooper 1979a). This fauna was last revised as a group in 1908, when only the genus Trigonia was recog- nized, and it is now in need of modern revision. This is all the more desirable given the major changes in trigonioid classification and nomenclature over the past 20 years. The South African Museum holds large collections of trigonias from this formation. These include the material described by Kitchin (1908), the early Geological Survey collections, and subsequent collections made by the late E. C. N. van Hoepen and the writer. There are also small collections in the Port Elizabeth Museum, the Albany Museum, and the University of Zimbabwe, which the writer has studied. The repositories of material cited herein are as follows: AM = Albany Museum, Grahamstown PEM = Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth SAM = South African Museum, Cape Town. GEOLOGY The Cretaceous deposits of the Algoa Basin are assigned to the Uitenhage Group. At the base are fanglomerates and coarse fluviatile elastics of the Enon Formation. These grade vertically and laterally into finer elastics of the Kirk- wood Formation, deposited by high-sinuosity streams in a marginally marine environment. A marine tongue of the Infanta Shale, known as the Colchester Member, is intercalated within the Kirkwood Formation and reflects earliest Cretaceous transgression. The occurrence of the Berriasian belemnite Belem- nopsis gladiator Willey, in the Algoa Basin (Willey 1973; Cooper 1981) may serve to date this intercalation. The Sundays River Formation rests with toplap relationship and basin-margin disconformity on the Kirkwood. It is a strongly transgressive marine unit of richly fossiliferous mudstones, siltstones and fine- grained sandstones deposited in an intertidal to littoral situation (Shone 1976). The ammonite fauna, dominated by Olcostephanus , with occasional Distoloce- ras, Neohoploceras, Partschiceras , Eodesmoceras , Bochianites and Umgazani- ceras (Cooper 1981, 1983), indicates a latest Valanginian age for surface exposures, though Hauterivian microfossils are reported from the subsurface (McLachlan & McMillan 1979). LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 3 SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY Order trigonioida Dall, 1889 Discussion If taxonomy is to reflect phylogeny, it is clear that the current subdivision of the Trigoniidae into as many as 19 subfamilies is inappropriate. It implies that this evolutionary radiation is devoid of phyletic lines and that no two subfamilies are more closely related to each other than to any other subfamily. This is spurious. On phylogenetic grounds these subfamilies are here distributed among two suborders and four superfamilies (Fig. 1). re 8 co .2 « 5 a> o U) Q- o a co 1 f 2 I Fig. 1. Hypothesized relationships among the proposed superfamilies of Trigonioida. Charac- ter states: 1 = prominent marginal carina,* myophorian hinge, radial ornament to area subordinate to transverse ornament; 2 = hinge trigonian, radial ornament to area predominant; 3 = marginal carina relatively fine, nodate, area with transverse ornament, flank costae predominantly nodate, mostly oblique or V-shaped; 4 = escutcheon carina generally obsolete and marginal carina commonly restricted to umbonal region, shell often pyriform or posteriorly rostrate, also somewhat produced and often inflated anteriorly. Suborder trigoniina Dall, 1889 Discussion Since strict application of the phylogenetic principles of Hennig (1966) leads to almost as many supraspecific taxa as there are species, the writer prefers a more utilitarian approach in which paraphyly is preferred to a burgeoning and unwieldy higher taxonomy. Consequently, the suborder Trigoniina is here held to comprise the superfamilies Myophoriacea and Trigoniacea. 4 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Superfamily myophoriacea Bronn, 1849 (nom. transl. herein ex family Myophoriidae Bronn, 1849) Diagnosis Generally small to medium-sized trigonioids with prosogyrous beaks, rarely orthogyrous or opisthogyrous. Dentition myophorian or schizodian, with smooth or weakly ribbed teeth. Main tooth of left valve opithsocline, simple or bilobed; two main teeth of right valve asymmetrical, posterior one generally longer and narrower. Additional teeth may be present in left valve, on one or both sides of main tooth, whereas additional relatively weak teeth may also be present anteriorly in right valve. Myophorous buttress generally weak or absent; pallial line distinct, mostly entire. Area not usually discriminated ornamentally from flank. Age: Upper Silurian-Triassic. Discussion Although Myophoriacea are absent from the present fauna, they are dis- cussed because of their relevance to the revised classification presented here. The superfamily comprises the following taxa: Schizodidae (Schizodinae and Eoschizodinae), Scaphellinidae, Myophoriidae, Pachycardiidae (Pachycardiinae and Eoastartinae), and Minetrigoniidae (including Costatoriidae). Superfamily trigoniacea Lamarck, 1819 Diagnosis Umbones orthogyrous to opisthogyrous, rarely prosogyrous; escutcheon usually present; bipartite area and flank differently ornamented in most genera; respiratory margin obliquely truncate or subtruncate; left valve with broad median tooth, strongly concave to deeply emarginate below in most genera; posterior left tooth marginal, weak or obscure; anterior left tooth moderately strong; right valve with two subequal, more-or-less symmetrically divergent teeth not borne on hinge plate; anterior marginal tooth very obscure in some species; main teeth with strong transverse ridges except in a few primitive forms; anterior myophorous buttress generally well developed. Discussion At present this superfamily comprises the families Gruenewaldiidae fam. nov., Trigoniidae (Pleurotrigoniinae and Trigoniinae), Neotrigoniidae (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Neotrigoniinae Kobayashi) (Nototrigoniinae and Neotrigoniinae) and Prosogyrotrigoniidae (Praegoniinae and Prosogyrotrigonii- nae) (Fig. 2). The most primitive trigoniaceans are assigned to the family Gruenewaldii- dae nov., in which the hinge is myophorian, with only partially striated teeth, and the areal ornament is predominantly transverse (Newell & Boyd 1975). At LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN Fig. 2. Hypothesized relationships within the superfamily Trigoniacea. Character states: 1 = shell trigonal with prominent marginal carina and escutcheon, flank costae concentric, radial ornament to area subordinate to transverse ornament, hinge myophorian; 2 = hinge tri- gonian, area with radial ornament, at least in nepionic stages; 3 = shell ovate, marginal carina obsolete, beaks prosogyrous; 4 = area with concentric ornament; 5 = antecarinal sulcus very broad, shallow; 6 = area very broad, flanks wholly or partly with radial costae; 7 = marginal carina and ornament to area restricted to nepionic stages, flank costae terminate at antero- lateral shoulder in prominent tubercles. present only Gruenewaldia and Lyriomyophoria are assigned here and both are very small. The trigonian hinge (Newell & Boyd 1975) first appeared in the mid-Triassic, derived from the gruenewaldiid condition. Almost immediately there was a fundamental dichotomy into the Trigoniidae and Prosogyrotrigoniidae. Whereas the latter taxon preserves the primitive condition of prosogyrous beaks, a pre- dominantly transversely ornamented area (in all but Praegonia), and a weak hinge with the main tooth of the left valve ungrooved, the loss of the prominent marginal carina and the generally trigonally ovate to suborbicular shape, with rounded respiratory margin, are derived characters. The Trigoniidae, on the other hand, preserve the pronounced marginal carina of Gruenewaldia while accentuating the radial costation of the area. Their conspicuously striated main teeth and orthogyrous to opisthogyrous beaks are derived characters. The Neotrigoniidae evolved from the Trigoniidae in the late Jurassic (Nakano 1970) by broadening and shallowing of the antecarinal sulcus. The 6 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM primitive subfamily Nototrigoniinae Skwarko, 1963 (including the Austrotrigo niinae Skwarko, 1968), is widely distributed in the Australasian Realm and is descended from Opisthotrigonia. The link between the Nototrigoniinae and Neotrigoniinae is provided by the late Cretaceous Mesotrigonia (Freneix 1958; Fleming 1964). Even should Mesotrigonia prove to be based upon juvenile Paci- trigonia (Nakano 1961), its ornament is sufficiently similar to that of Eotrigonia to support a phyletic relationship. Additional evidence is the predominantly Australasian distribution of both the Nototrigoniinae and the Neotrigoniinae. Darragh (1986) has recently suggested derivation of Eotrigonia from Neocomian species such as Trigonia vertistriata Skwarko and T. marumbiana Skwarko, via the late Cretaceous T. miriana Skwarko. The writer is unaware of any Senonian Trigonia s.s. and the long time gap between the last appearance of Trigonia (?Cenomanian) and the first appearance of Eotrigonia (Palaeocene) makes such a phylogeny untenable. Trigonia miriana differs substantially from all other Tri- gonia species in its small, inflated, quadrate shell with subterminal umbones, its steeply inclined, shallowly excavate escutcheon with faint radial costellae, its broad area that is wider than the flank, and in having pustulose flank costae that terminate posteriorly in a low node at the smooth antecarinal sulcus (Skwarko 1963). These differences warrant generic separation and T. miriana Skwarko is here designated type species of Skwarkoella gen. nov. It is believed to be a member of the Nototrigoniinae. Contrary to Newell & Boyd (1975), the writer believes that radially orna- mented Permo-Triassic forms such as Costatoria, Procostatoria and Minetrigonia are unrelated to N eotrigonia, and that the similarities are due to convergence. This is supported by the long time gap between the last appearance of Minetri- goniidae and the first appearance of Neotrigoniinae. Family Trigoniidae Lamarck, 1819 Diagnosis Trigonal to rhomboidal, very inequilateral trigoniaceans; dentition trigo- nian, with conspicuously striated main teeth; escutcheon prominent; broad area with obliquely truncate respiratory margin; posterodorsal margin straight; flank ornament nontuberculate, subconcentric; carinae prominent, generally persist- ing to maturity, with prominent antecarinal sulcus; area typically with radial ornament, but in some may become smooth in maturity. Discussion As restricted here, the family Trigoniidae comprises only the nominate sub- family and the Pleurotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929, in which the very narrow escutcheon is unornamented, the marginal carina becomes obsolete in maturity, the radial costellae to the area are restricted to the nepionic stages, and the flank costae bear a tubercle at the anterolateral shoulder. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 7 Subfamily Trigoniinae Lamarck, 1819 Diagnosis Small to moderately large trigoniids; umbones well developed; carinae and radial costellae to area persisting to maturity; marginal carina corded; antecari- nal groove variable, often restricted to left valve. Genus Trigonia Brugiere, 1789 Type species. Venus sulcata Hermann, 1781; ICZN Opinion 327 (1955). Diagnosis Escutcheon with radial ornament; flank costae terminating at the antecari- nal sulcus or marginal carina. Discussion Neuquenitrigonia Leanza & Garate (1987) has transverse costellae to the escutcheon, whereas Guineana Skwarko, 1967, has flank costae that continue on to the area to produce cancellate ornament. The Upper Triassic Heslingtonia, which is here elevated to generic status, differs from Trigonia in the effacement of costae from the posterior part of the flank, and in the fine radial sculpture of the area and narrow escutcheon (Fleming 1987). Given the vast number of Tri- gonia s.s. species now known, if taxonomy is to reflect phylogeny, current perceptions of the genus are too broad and this taxon requires further phylo- genetic subdivision. Trigonia tatei Neumayr, 1882 Fig. 3 Trigonia cassiope d'Orbigny. Tate, 1867: 158. Lycett, 1877: 172. Trigonia tatei Neumayr {in Holub & Neumayr), 1881: 275, pi. 2 (fig. 3). Kitchin, 1908: 125. Lambert, 1944: 371. non Trigonia (Trigonia) aff. tatei Neumayr. Rennie, 1947: 58, pi. 2 (figs 11-13) (= Trigo- nia sp.). Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Neumayr {in Holub & Neumayr 1881, pi. 2 (fig. 3)). Material A total of 22 specimens were examined: SAM-4646, D1876 (2 specimens), D1881-82, D1893 (9 specimens), D1896, D1932 and D1973 (2 specimens), as well as 4 unnumbered specimens also in the South African Museum collections. Description Shell medium sized (maximum length about 70 mm), trigonally ovate, elongate (H/L = 0,71-0,73), with moderately elevated umbones situated about ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 3. Trigonia tatei (Sharpe). A-C. Dorsal (x 1 and x 2) and lateral views of an unnum- bered right valve in the South African Museum. Note the absence of an antecarinal sulcus. D-E. SAM-D1876, a right valve. D. Lateral view showing obliquity and crowding of flank costae anteriorly. E. Dorsal view of umbonal region, x 2. Note the beaded radial costellae to the escutcheon which curve to meet the dorsal commissure. F. Lateral view of an unnumbered left valve in the South African Museum, x 1. Note the distinct antecarinal sulcus. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 9 one-quarter of the shell length from the anterior and weakly inturned, opistho- gyrous beaks. The valves are moderately weakly inflated (W/H = 0,28-0,33), with an almost straight posterodorsal margin at right angles to the broadly convex anterior margin. The ventral margin is broadly convex and the moder- ately short respiratory margin obliquely truncate. The escutcheon is lanceolate, slightly more than half the shell length, and is ornamented with radial rows of fine tubercles that, on DI876, curve inward to meet the commissure. The trigonal area is relatively narrow and almost flat. It is ornamented by finely beaded radial costellae, one of which corresponds to the escutcheon carina. There is no median groove to the area. The marginal carina is marked by a prominent rib that thickens posteriorly and is crossed by growth lirae that give it a scaly corded appearance. The flanks are ornamented with up to 28 pronounced, subconcentric costae that are slightly narrower than the interspaces on the posterior half of the shell. In maturity, the ribs flex slightly upwards anteriorly, becoming slightly oblique, crowded and broader than the interspaces. Posteriorly the ribs terminate against the marginal carina of the right valve, but there is a narrow antecarinal sulcus to the left. Discussion Rennie (1947) compared material from the Lower Aptian of southern Mozambique with this species, but it differs in being slightly more elongate, with a more convex anterior margin, and in having maximum downward convexity of the flank costae more anterior than in Uitenhage material. It probably rep- resents a new species. Occurrence Trigonia tatei Neumayr is known with certainty only from the Upper Valanginian of south-east Africa, where it is an uncommon element of the faunas. Suborder myophorellina nov. Discussion This monophyletic suborder is here held to comprise the superfamilies Myo- phorellacea and Megatrigoniacea. Superfamily myophorellacea Kobayashi, 1954 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954) Diagnosis Small to very large trigonioids, suborbicular to ovate, trigonal and subquad- rate; strongly inequilateral; posteriorly produced, with subterminal umbones; marginal and inner carinae prominently nodate, generally persisting to maturity; 10 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM area broad, typically with transverse ornament and longitudinal groove often marked by row of nodes; respiratory margin generally broadly truncate; escut- cheon smooth, nodate, or with transverse ornament; flank ribs primitively subconcentric and entire but mostly strongly oblique and nodate, in derived forms may form chevrons. Discussion This superfamily comprises the families Frenguelliellidae (Frenguelliellinae and Laevitrigoniinae) with subconcentric, more or less entire, flank costation, Myophorellidae (Myophorellinae and Steinmanellinae subfam. nov.) with obliquely nodate flank costation, and the derived Vaugoniidae (Vaugoniinae and Quadratotrigoniinae) with nodate, V-shaped flank costae. The Frenguelliel- linae (Fig. 4) preserve the primitive condition of subconcentric flank costae and re c 1 o a o > 2 (/) re c 'E o o> 3 re > Fig. 4. Hypothesized relationships within the Myophorellacea. Character states: 1 = flank costae subconcentric, beaded inner and marginal carinae which persist to maturity, escutcheon smooth, area with fine transverse ornament; 2 = antecarinal sulcus virtually obsolete, nodose flank costae oblique, escutcheon sometimes with transverse costellae, longitudinal furrow to area often delimited by row of nodes; 3 = flank costae form chevrons near umbo; 4 = large, massive, carinae breaking up into rows of nodes or becoming obsolete in maturity, area often with transverse growth rugae in maturity; 5 = large, massive, carinae replaced by prominent nodes, longitudinal furrow delimited by prominent nodes, escutcheon with radial rows of nodes, area with transverse growth rugae in maturity, comprises Quadratotrigonia homoeo- morphs; 6 = shell ovate, very broad antecarinal sulcus shallow and unornamented, weak irregular flank costae commonly pustulose or with oblique rows of pustules. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 11 prominent antecarinal sulcus, linking it to ancestral trigoniaceans, but have the myophorelline synapomorphies of nodate marginal and escutcheon carinae, smooth escutcheon and transversely ornamented area, whereas the ribs in some, e.g. Jaworskiella, show a tendency to become nodate. The Laevitrigoniinae Saveliev, 1958, are frenguellielline descendants in which the subconcentric flank costation is irregularly nodate and the antecarinal sulcus is very wide and shallow. The Myophorellinae are frenguelliellid descendants in which the flank costae are oblique in maturity and ornamented with conspicuous nodes. Jaworskiella is an intermediate stage. The Steinmanellinae subfam. nov. are myophorelline descendants that evolved in parallel with the Quadratotrigonii- nae. The latter are derived from Vaugoniinae that evolved from Myophorellinae by the development of V-shaped flank costae in the early and middle growth stages. Family Myophorellidae Kobayashi, 1954 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954) Diagnosis Myophorellaceans with generally conspicuously nodate flank costae that are subconcentric near the umbo, commonly becoming strongly oblique in maturity. Subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954 Diagnosis Small to moderately large myophorellids; trigonally ovate to suborbicular; escutcheon smooth or transversely ornamented; area with fine transverse costel- lae; costae oblique over much of flank, often discontinuous anteroventrally or joined by intercalatories. Discussion Morphologically the most primitive myophorelline is Ibotrigonia Kobayashi (in Kobayashi & Tamura, 1957), which preserves subconcentric flank costae that are broken up unevenly into tubercles, and with an irregularly serrated marginal carina. Although it has been included (Poulton 1979) in the synonymy of Myo- phorella, Cox (1969) and Hirsch (1980) are followed in regarding it a valid taxon. Pseudomyophorella Nakano, 1961, stands in the same relationship to Myo- phorella as Paranditrigonia does to Anditrigonia and Arabitrigonia to Scabro- trigonia. It is here considered a valid genus within the Myophorellinae characterized by radial costellae to the area. Scaphotrigonia Dietrich. 1933, is a widely recognized genus within the Myophorellinae, characterized by its nearly- straight flank costae, enlarged nodes to the anterolateral shoulder, and short subhorizontal costae to the flat anterior face. 12 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Genus Myophorella Bayle, 1878 Type species. Trigonia nodulosa Bayle (= T. nodulosa Lamarck, 1801); by the subsequent designation of Crickmay (1932). Diagnosis Escutcheon smooth; area relatively broad, with or without nodes demar- cating the longitudinal furrow; marginal carina persisting to maturity; flank costae evenly curved, nodes predominating, without greatly enlarged nodes or intercalatories anteriorly. Discussion Within Myophorella it is possible to recognize several subgenera: M. (Myophorella) — escutcheon smooth; flank costae distinctly curved, essen- tially uninterrupted, with prominent nodes. M. (Promyophorella) — like Myophorella, but with ribbing dominant and fine tuberculatum. M. (Scaphogonia) — like Promyophorella, but with a vertical row of enlarged nodes on the anterolateral shoulder and anterior ribs that are separated by a gap from the flank ribs; apparently endemic to North America. M. (Clavotrigonia) — like Myophorella but relatively large, subtrigonal; anterior face almost straight, with subangular, anteroventral margin; flank costae distant, weakly curved, not crowded dorsally, meeting the marginal carina almost at right angles, or with a very short, strongly upcurved taper; a predominantly Tethyan subgenus. Although Scaphogonia was treated as a strict synonym of Myophorella by Cox (1969) and Poulton (1979), the latter worker observed that its diagnostic characters serve '. . .to distinguish these (North American) species from nearly all otherwise similar Middle and Late Jurassic European Myophorella species' (p. 27). On this basis Scaphogonia is retained as a valid subgenus of Myopho- rella, apparently endemic to North America. Similarly, there are a host of European Myophorella species that are closer to the type of Clavotrigonia (of which Clavitrigonia Leanza, 1942, is a junior objective synonym) than they are to the type of Myophorella s.s. The subgenus M. (Clavotrigonia) is here applied to this predominantly Tethyan group. Although Haidaia Crickmay, 1930, has been rejected (Cox 1952, 1969; Poulton 1979) as a junior objective synonym of Myophorella, it was regarded as subgenerically distinct by Leanza (1981) and Leanza & Garate (1987). The type species, M. dawsoni (Whiteaves) was redescribed by Poulton (1979: 33, pi. 1 (figs 12-21), pi. 2 (figs 1-4)) and the writer concurs that its features are essen- tially those of Myophorella s.s. The taxonomic position of the mid-Jurassic Awadia Hirsch, 1980, is cur- rently uncertain. It is assumed to be a myophorellacean that, in its broad, radial, nontuberculate flank costae and smooth area, is convergent toward the Pterotri- goniinae. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 13 There are, however, still many species of Myophorella that do not fit com- fortably into any of the above taxa (cf. Leanza & Garate 1987) and the species to be described below is one of these. Until a major phylogenetic study of the Myophorellinae is undertaken, the writer hesitates to apply a new subgeneric name to the present species. Myophorella first appeared in the Lias and attained a cosmopolitan distri- bution in the later Jurassic, becoming extinct in the Hauterivian. Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper, 1979 Fig. 5 Myophorella (Myophorella) oosthuizeni Cooper, 1979a: 22, fig. 1. Types The holotype, SAM-PCU5941 (RO-300), together with four paratypes, all of which are in the South African Museum, Cape Town, as well as SAM-D1875 (2 specimens). Description Shell small (maximum length about 60 mm), trigonally ovate, longer than high (H/L = 0,79), moderately inflated (W/H = 0,42), and somewhat produced posteriorly. Umbones subterminal, elevated, with moderately inturned, opistho- gyrous beaks. Posterodorsal margin shallowly concave, anterior and ventral margins broadly rounded forming a semi-circle, respiratory margin obliquely truncate. The sunken escutcheon is large, lanceolate, smooth, and extends almost the entire posterodorsal length of the shell. The marginal and escutcheon carinae are marked by rows of large, regular, obliquely clavate tubercles that increase in size posteriorly; those of the escutcheon carina are elongated anteromedially and those of the marginal carina posteromedially. Each tubercle of the marginal carina corresponds with a flank costa. The area is trigonal, rather narrow and ornamented with uniform, fine, transverse costellae that show no sign of strengthening posteriorly. There is a well-developed longitudinal groove that is situated close to the escutcheon carina. The flank ornament of the nepionic stages comprises subconcentric ribs that pass with an inflexion across the marginal carina on to the area. The remaining flank costae are strongly oblique, posteriorly meeting the marginal carina at an angle of c. 30°. Except for the posterior few ribs, most flank costae curve strongly forwards to meet the anterior and anteroventral commissures almost at right angles. All flank costae bear rather sharp, pointed tubercles and nodes that, on the anterior part of the valve, are concentrically elongated. There is a gap in some of the ribs terminating along the anteroventral margin, with some irregularity of tuberculation, in Scaphotrigonia fashion. The entire flank surface is ornamented with conspicuous growth lirae that are continuous with the costel- lae of the area. 14 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 5. Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper, x 1. A-C. Lateral, dorsal and anterior views of the holotype, SAM-PCU5941. D. Left valve of a paratype in the South African Museum. E. Left valve of a paratype in the South African Museum. Occurrence Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper is known only from the Upper Valangi- nian of south-east Africa, where it is a very rare element of the faunas. Subfamily Steinmanellinae subfam. nov. Diagnosis Generally very large, massive, trigonally ovate to quadrate and elliptical myophorellids; escutcheon narrow, lanceolate, with irregular, radially elongated tubercles; median groove to area marked by rows of coarse nodes; area of early and middle growth stages with transverse growth striae, later remaining smooth or with coarse, irregular growth rugae, which may extend on to the flanks; flank costae tend to become crowded ventrally, where they may bend sharply for- wards and coalesce to form irregular concentric growth rugae. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 15 Discussion Poulton (1977, 1979) included Steinmanella in the synonymy of Myophorella but such treatment cannot be justified morphologically o? phyletically. As here interpreted, the Steinmanellinae arose from a myophorelline ancestor late in the Jurassic by an increase in size, with the shell becoming massive and robust, losing its delicate gracile character. The longitudinal groove to the area is marked by a row of conspicuous nodes, of similar strength to those forming the marginal and escutcheon carinae, whereas the transverse growth striae of the area are replaced in maturity by coarse, irregular growth rugae. The earliest genus in the subfamily is Steinmanella itself, which first occurs in Tithonian rocks of South America (Leanza & Garate 1987). Simply by failure to produce coarse irregular growth rugae across the mature area, Steinmanella gave rise to Yaadia, a predominantly North Pacific genus (Saul 1979). The latter lineage persisted into the Upper Cretaceous with the replacement of Yaadia by its subgenera Yeharella and Setotrigonia, both of which have been interpreted previously (Cox 1969) as subgenera of Steinmanella. Although Saul (1979), Tashiro (1988) and Tashiro & Kano (1989) included Yeharella within the strict synonymy of Yaadia, it seems to be phyletically important and is here retained at the subgeneric level. Significantly, Tashiro & Kano (1989, fig. 4) showed the Japanese species of Yaadia as having evolved in parallel with their North American counterparts. Yeharella differs from ancestral Yaadia in the early effacement of the radial rows of nodes from the area, leaving the latter smooth for most of its ontogenetic development. In addition, the flank costae of Yeharella are not interrupted anteroventrally or accompanied by enlarged tubercles at the anterolateral shoulder (Saul 1979). Setotrigonia was said to differ from Yaadia (Yeharella) in that the flank costae are broken into segments of various lengths and continue on to the area as narrow, wavy, transverse ridges (Cox 1969). Tashiro & Moro- zumi (1982) questionably included it in the synonymy of Yaadia. As here envis- aged, the Steinmanellinae comprise Steinmanella, Yaadia s.s. and Y. (Yeharella). The suprageneric placement of Mediterraneotrigonia Nakano, 1974a, is uncertain. The morphologically similar Quadratotrigoniinae are a convergent, pre- dominantly Tethyan group; they are phyletically distinct and can be dis- tinguished from the Steinmanellinae nov. by the V-shaped costae of the umbonal region and their conspicuously ornamented areas (Nakano 1968). Genus Steinmanella Crickmay, 1930 Type species. Trigonia holubi Kitchin, 1908; by original designation. Diagnosis Steinmanellines in which the escutcheon is ornamented with radial rows of irregular nodes, which may be continuous with the coarse growth rugae of the posterior part of the area; flank costae generally weakly curved, uninterrupted, and coarsely nodate. Age: Tithonian-Neocomian. 16 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin, 1908) Figs 6-8 Trigonia sp. 2 Sharpe, 1856: 202. Trigonia holubi Kitchin, 1908: 103, pi. 4 (fig. 2). Stoyanow, 1949: 68. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin) Crickmay, 1930: 50. 1932: 458. Cox, 1969: N487, fig. D74.6. Levy, 1969: 66. Cooper, 1979ft: 63, fig. 12. Saul, 1979: 6, fig. 2. Steinmannella holubi (Kitchin) Kobayashi & Amano, 1955: 195. Trigonia (Steinmanella) holubi Kitchin. Rennie, 1936: 346. Yaadia holubi (Kitchin) Cox, 1952: 57. Pringle, 1960: 89. Myophorella (Steinmanella) holubi (Kitchin) Poulton, 1977: 9. Steinmanella cf. holubi (Kitchin) Cooper, 1983: 63. Type By lectotype designation of Rennie (1936: 350), the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pi. 4 (fig. 2)), SAM-PCU3981 (Fig. 6). Material A total of 59 specimens were available for study in the South African Museum; SAM-D1881 (25 specimens), D1977 (3 specimens), D1979, D1989, D2541, and 28 without catalogue number. Fig. 6. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. The lectotype, SAM-PCU3981, in lateral view. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 17 Fig. 7. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. Lateral view of an unnumbered topotype in the South African Museum. Description The shell is large (maximum length 128 mm), massive, quadrate, somewhat longer than high (H/L = 0,59-0,78), with inconspicuous terminal umbones and an abruptly truncate anterior face. The dorsal and anterior margins are straight, the ventral margin broadly rounded, and the broad respiratory margin subtrunc- ate. The valves are weakly inflated (W/H = 0,27-0,34) and the inturned beaks orthogyrous to slightly opisthogyrous. The escutcheon is very narrow, lanceolate, and ornamented with irregular rows of bullae that follow the growth lines and are continuous with the growth rugae of the area. There is a narrow lunule, about one-third of the shell height. The ligament pit is well developed, lanceolate, and may extend 40-50 per cent of the length of the escutcheon. The positions of the escutcheon and marginal carinae are marked by rows of prominent nodes, as is the dorsal edge of the longitudinal groove to the area. In maturity the tubercles of the escutcheon and marginal carinae are drawn out and eventually coalesce to produce irregular transverse ridges that parallel the growth lines. The longitudinal groove to the area persists to maturity, and is closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The broad trigonal area is essentially flat; in the nepionic stages it is crossed by sub- concentric flank costae but in the middle growth stages is ornamented only by 18 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B / Fig. 8. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. A-B. Lateral and dorsal views of an aberrant individual in which the flank costae are interrupted anteroventrally. C. Lateral view of a frag- mentary left valve from the Mngazana Formation of Transkei, in the South African Museum. D-E. Dorsal and lateral views of a juvenile, PEM-1208c. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 19 growth striae and the median row of tubercles. These are replaced by irregular, transverse growth rugae in maturity. Flank ornament comprises c. 16 distant rows of prominent nodes that curve slightly to the anterior, the nodes becoming more crowded ventrally with an occasional intercalated row along the anteroventral margin. The interspaces are slightly narrower than the rows of nodes. Along the ventral margin of mature shells, the tubercles tend to become elongated and may coalesce to form concen- tric growth rugae. In many individuals, the distal terminations of the ribs curve strongly to the anterior. Ornamentation does not extend on to the flattened anterior face and the latter is ornamented only by deep grooves and ridges par- allel to the growth striae. Occurrence Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin) is endemic to the Upper Valanginian of south-east Africa. It abounds in the more argillaceous units of the Sundays River Formation and also occurs in the Mngazana Formation of Transkei (Cooper 1983). Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss, 1837) Figs 9-12 Lyrodon herzogii (Hausmann MS) Goldfuss, 1837: 193, pi. 137 (fig. 5). Krauss, 1850: 453, pi. 48 (fig. 3). Trigonia herzogi (Goldfuss) Steinmann, 1882: 220, pi. 7 (figs 1-2), pi. 9 (figs 1-2). Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin, 1903: 102; 1908: 8, pi. 5 (fig. 1). Hatch & Corstorphine, 1905: 245, fig. 66 (left-hand side). Stoyanow, 1949: 68. Levy, 1969: 66. Trigonia (Steinmanella) herzogi (Goldfuss) Rennie, 1936: 346. Steinmannella herzogi (Goldfuss) Kobayashi & Amano, 1955: 195. Reyes et a/., 1981: 35, pi. 1 (fig. 13). Yaadia herzogi (Goldfuss) Pringle, 1960: 89. ? Steinmannella (Steinmannella) herzogi (Hausmann) Reyes, 1970: 15, pi. 3 (fig. 2). pi. 4 (figs 1-3). Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss) Cooper, 1979b: 63. Type The whereabouts of Goldfuss' (1837) type material is unknown; it may prove necessary to designate a neotype. Material In addition to 106 specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-4416, 4994, 5035-36, 7498, 7520, D164, D1840, D1881, D1892 (13 specimens), D1911 (40 specimens), D1914, D1916, D1940 (3 specimens), D2541 and 41 specimens without number, PEM-1463/52-3 and AM-2428 were also available for study. Description Shell very large (maximum length 150 mm), massive, posteriorly very elongate (H/L = 0,52-0,63), with moderately inflated valves (W/H = 20 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM U i < a OJj LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 21 I' 22 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM \ ^S¥ v I - *T W*"" ^r, ft\1 Fig. 11. Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss), x 1. A-B. Lateral and dorsal views of a specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. C. Lateral view PEM- 1463/53. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 23 Fig. 12. Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss), x 1. Lateral, dorsal and anterior views of AM-2428 in which the tubercles are diagonally elongate. Note the lack of tubercles to the anterior face. 24 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 0,29-0,36). The straight dorsal and weakly curved anterior margins form an acute angle, with terminal umbones and weakly inturned, orthogyrous to slightly opisthogyrous beaks. The ventral margin is very long, weakly convex, and the broad respiratory margin subtruncate. The escutcheon is fairly narrow, and about two-thirds the length of the shell. It is ornamented by irregular oblique rows of elongate tubercles that vary in size and follow the growth striae. Posteriorly these tubercles are continuous with the growth rugae of the area. There is a very narrow lunule, about 40 per cent of the shell height. The ligament pit is moderately developed, lanceolate, and about 40 per cent of the length of the escutcheon. There are three rows of tubercles to the area, corresponding to the escutcheon and marginal carinae and the dorsal margin of the longitudinal groove. The number of tubercles in the marginal row approximates the number of flank costae. At lengths of 50-100 mm the tubercles of the area become elongated transversely to form coarse, irregular, growth rugae. The concentric flank costae of the nepionic stages pass on to the area, whereas the longitudinal furrow persists almost to maturity and is situated closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The flanks are ornamented with coarse nodes that form almost straight rows directed posteroventrally over much of the shell surface. Anteriorly the tubercle rows are narrower than the interspaces but posteriorly they are as wide as, or slightly wider than, the interspaces. There may be some irregularity in the tubercle rows anteroventrally, with a few tubercles intercalated between rows. Occurrence Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss) is abundant in the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin. It may also occur in the early Hauterivian of southern Chile. Superfamily megatrigoniacea van Hoepen, 1929 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929) Diagnosis Small to very large myophorellines, commonly pyriform to very produced and rostrate posteriorly, frequently strongly inflated anteriorly; carinae obsolete, or entire and restricted to umbonal region; antecarinal sulcus lacking; area narrow, bipartite, with ridge marking longitudinal groove internally; area com- monly smooth but in some with transverse, oblique or radial ornament; flanks variably ornamented, with subconcentric, V-shaped or strongly oblique costae, which may be entire, weakly nodate or strongly tuberculate; posteroventral shell margin generally crenulated internally. Discussion As here interpreted, the superfamily Megatrigoniacea comprises the famil- ies Megatrigoniidae (Megatrigoniinae, Apiotrigoniinae and Pterotrigoniinae), Rutitrigoniidae and Iotrigoniidae (Fig. 13). LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 25 Fig. 13. Hypothesized relationships within the Megatrigoniacea. Character states: 1 = escut- cheon carina obsolete or restricted to nepionic stages, marginal carina often restricted to umbonal region, anteriorly produced so that umbones are generally not subterminal, area rela- tively narrow with concentric ornament in nepionic stages later smooth, flank costae subconcentric; 2 = beyond nepionic stages flank costae V-shaped, with tendency to form nodes at anterolateral shoulder; 3 = posterior part of flank with straight, steeply inclined, finely crenulated and often crowded costellae, inner margin of shell crenulated posteroventrally; 4 = escutcheon with transverse costellae; 5 = posteriorly produced to rostrate, often inflated anteriorly, in some with subterminal umbones, flank costae strongly oblique varying from finely crenulated to spinose, respiratory margin generally rounded, escutcheon with transverse costellae. Family Megatrigoniidae van Hoepen, 1929 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929) Diagnosis Commonly pyriform to subovate megatrigoniaceans that are generally weakly inflated anteriorly; carinae lacking or generally restricted to the nepionic stages; escutcheon smooth or with transverse costellae; area smooth or with transverse or radial costellae; flank costae V-shaped or oblique, weakly nodate, entire or tuberculate. Discussion As interpreted here, the family comprises the nominate subfamily, the Pte- rotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929, and the Apiotrigoniinae Tashiro, 1979. 26 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Anditrigonia is the earliest megatrigoniine (Levy 19676; Reyes & Perez 1982); its diversity and abundance in South America leaves little doubt as to its Gondwanic origin. Megatrigonia is descended from Anditrigonia by a straighten- ing of the flank costae from V-shaped to strongly oblique. Although Columbitrigonia Poulton, 1977, can be assigned to the Megatrigoniidae without difficulty, its subfamilial placement is more problematical. It was placed in the Megatrigoniinae by Poulton (1977) and the Apiotrigoniinae by Tashiro (1979). Contrary to Tashiro (1979), however, it lacks the fundamental apiotrigoniine characters of relatively small size, weak inflation, V-shaped flank costae and transversely costellate escutcheon. On the other hand, Columbitrigonia is strongly reminiscent of Megatrigonia in its large, robust shell, oblique flank costae, and smooth escutcheon, while resembling Pterotrigoniinae in its strong anterior inflation and posteriorly rostrate valves. Until its phylogeny is better understood, Poulton (1977) is followed in assigning it to the Megatrigoniinae. Heterotrigonia and its allies are included in the Apiotrigoniinae by Tashiro (1979), but from virtually the first appearance of the subfamily there are two dis- tinct phyletic lines (cf. Tashiro 1979, figs 17-18). Skwarko (1970), Nakano (1971) and Tashiro (1979) consider Trigonia calderoni Castillo & Aguilerae from the Oxfordian-Tithonian of New Mexico and Arizona (Stoyanow 1949; Reyes & Perez 1982) to be the earliest apiotrigoniine. Whereas Skwarko (1970) and Tashiro (1979) referred this species to Apiotrigonia, Nakano (1971) assigned it to Heterotrigonia, Reyes & Perez (1982) questionably included it in Anditrigo- nia, and Perez & Reyes (1983) placed it in Anditrigonia {P ar anditrigonia) . Given the smooth escutcheon and fine radial costellae to the area of T. calde- roni, the latter assignment is followed here. Anditrigonia {Par anditrigonia) calderoni is thus the common ancestor to two phyletic lines that persisted until the close of the Cretaceous (Tashiro 1979). Since treatment of Par anditrigonia as a subgenus of Anditrigonia emphasizes primitive characters, when it is the derived characters (radial ornament to the area) that are phyletically important, Par anditrigonia is elevated to generic status and included as the most primitive representative of the Heterotrigoniini new tribe. As such, the subfamily Apiotri- goniinae is divided into the nominate tribe Apiotrigoniini (comprising Apiotrigonia, Dampietrigonia, Turkestanella and Microtrigonia) and the tribe Heterotrigoniini nov. (with Par anditrigonia, Heterotrigonia and Nakanotrigonia). The origins of the Pterotrigoniinae are more cryptic. The subfamily first appeared in the Lower Tithonian of India (Spath 1935; Kobayashi & Amano 1955; Cox 1961) and rose to dominance in the Cretaceous. Although widely interpreted as descended from the Myophorellinae (Kobayashi & Nakano 1957; Nakano & Numano 1961; Nakano 1974a; Tashiro & Matsuda 1986), this view is based upon a comparison with relatively derived members of the Pterotrigonii- nae, viz. Pterotrigonia and Ptilotrigonia , when it is the characters of the most primitive representatives, i.e. Pisotrigonia, that must carry the most weight phy- logenetically. Some individuals of Megatrigonia (cf. Figs 15B, 16B) closely approach the Pisotrigonia condition, differing mainly in being larger, less- LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 27 inflated anteriorly and pyriform in outline, with a strongly convex anterior margin. Subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929 Diagnosis Shell generally large, massive, pyriform; respiratory margin rounded and anterior margin convex; escutcheon carina lacking, marginal carina restricted to nepionic stages; bipartite area initially with concentric ribs, later smooth; flank costae primitively subconcentric anteriorly and subvertical and crowded pos- teriorly, hence V-shaped; later strongly oblique anteriorly and weakly nodate. Discussion Megatrigonia is known with certainty only from Tithonian and Neocomian rocks of the east coast of Africa. However, its close morphological resemblance to Anditrigonia Levy, 1967b, many species of which have been included (Nakano 1965) in Megatrigonia, leaves no doubt as to its ancestry. Although Tashiro (1979) included Columbitrigonia and Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) in the Apiotrigoniinae, their unornamented area and escutcheon sug- gests better placement in the Megatrigoniinae. Genus Megatrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Megatrigonia obesa van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Very large, robust megatrigoniids with nontuberculate flank costae that pinch and swell irregularly without forming discrete nodes. Anterior flank costae strongly oblique, distant. Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss, 1843) Figs 14, 15A-C, 16 Lyriodon conocardiiformis Krauss, 1843: 130. Lyrodon conocardiiformis Krauss, 1850: 454, pi. 49 (figs la-d). Trigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) Lycett, 1879: 210, 211, 230. Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin. 1908: 119, pi. 7 (figs 2-4). Lambert, 1944: 392. Stoyanow, 1949: 80. Reyes, 1970: 9. non Trigonia aff. conocardiiformis (Krauss) Burckhardt, 1903: 72, pi. 13 (figs 1-2) (= Anditri- gonia eximia (Philippi)). non Trigonia conocardiiformis Lange {non Krauss), 1914: 235, pi. 19 (figs la-b) (= M. siaffi ■ (Lange)). Trigonia (Megatrigonia) conocardiiformis (Krauss) Rennie, 1936: 332. Leanza, 1941: 232. Megatrigonia (Megatrigonia) conocardiiformis (Krauss) Cox, 1952: 58. Da Silva, 1966: 68, pi. 4 (fig. 2); Levy, 19676: 136. Nakano, 1965: 17. Cooper, 19796: 58. Apiotrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) Tashiro, 1979: 183. 28 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM DC LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 29 Type The whereabouts of Krauss' (1843) type material is unknown; it may be necessary to designate a neotype. Material A total of 75 specimens were available for study, 70- in the South African Museum, SAM-4642-3, 4644, 4649, 5033-4, 5042, 7107, 7492, 7524, 7494, 7591, 9841-3, 12444-5, D1897, D1898 (11 specimens), D1910 (23 specimens), D1934, D1937, D1939 (3 specimens), D1991, and 12 unnumbered specimens, as well as 5 in the Port Elizabeth Museum, PEM-1464/72, 1463/51 and 3 unnum- bered specimens. Description Shell very large (maximum length about 165 mm), massive, pyriform, inequilateral, strongly produced posteriorly (H/L = 0,50-0,61). Umbones fairly prominent, rounded, situated about 30 per cent of the shell length from the anterior, with moderately inturned, slightly opisthogyrous beaks. Valves moderately inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,40-0,57). Anterior margin strongly convex, passing imperceptibly into the broad, gently convex ventral margin; the posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave and the respiratory margin rounded. The very elongate, lanceolate escutcheon is sunken and smooth. There is a very narrow but rather deep lunule that extends about one-third of the shell height. An escutcheon carina is lacking whereas, beyond about 8 mm from the umbo, the marginal carina passes into a rounded umbonal ridge. The area is narrow, unornamented beyond the nepionic stage, with a prominent longitudi- nal groove that is closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The nepionic stages show crowded, simple, subconcentric ribs running from the anterior commissure to the marginal carina, where they flex strongly forwards, forming an acute angle with the flank costae, to cross the area obliquely and pass weakly on to the outer part of the escutcheon. Later flank costae are discrepant, with a coarse, robust, distant, strongly oblique anterior set of about 10-13 ribs that pinch and swell irregularly but do not form true nodes. These costae curve strongly upwards posteriorly to become subvertical, whereas anteriorly they may zigzag or break up into pustules; in large specimens they become effaced anteroven- trally. Then follow about seven similar ribs that are subvertical and only weakly curved. The posterior set of c. 18 costae are narrow, crowded, somewhat undu- latory, broader than the interspaces, almost straight, and inclined postero- ventrally. Ribbing is effaced posterodorsally, just before reaching the area, to leave a small portion of the flank smooth. Occurrence Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) is reported from the Upper Titho- nian of northern Mozambique, the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin, 30 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM v ^^jgf ,r ■if Fig. 15. A-C. Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss). A. Left lateral view of PEM-1463/51, x 1. B. Left lateral view of a specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Note the similarity of this individual to Pisotrigonia, the main difference being the more rounded anterior and lack of anterior inflation. C. Right valve of an unnumbered specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. D. Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin), x 1. Left valve of a juvenile, SAM-PCU7623. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 31 Fig. 16. Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss), x 1. A-B. Dorsal and lateral views of a juvenile, PEM- 1464/72. C-D. Right lateral views of two unnumbered topotypes in the Port Elizabeth Museum. where it is a moderately common element, and from the Robberg Formation, the age of which is under debate but probably late Valanginian. Subfamily Pterotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929 Diagnosis Small to moderately large megatrigoniids, ovate to club-shaped and posteriorly rostrate; umbones prominent, often with strongly incurved, opistho- gyrous beaks; escutcheon sunken, lanceolate, with transverse costellae; escutcheon carina obsolete; marginal carina generally restricted to umbonal region; area crossed by concentric ribs in nepionic stages, later ribbing effaced, oblique, V-shaped or radial; flank costae oblique, prominently tuberculate or finely crenulated, often differentiated into anterior and posterior sets. 32 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Discussion The earliest representative of the subfamily is Pisotrigonia which, at the beginning of the Cretaceous, gave rise to Pterotrigonia. The latter, in turn, is believed to have given rise to the Scabrotrigoniini Cooper, 1989, which rose to dominance in the Upper Cretaceous. The Scabrotrigoniini comprise the weakly inflated and lunate pterotrigoniines such as Ptilotrigonia, Scabrotrigonia, and Acanthotrigonia, culminating in Linotrigonia in which tuberculation is reduced and the ribs are finely crenulated. Arabitrigonia is similar to Scabrotrigonia but with a straight dorsal margin, an obliquely truncate respiratory margin, and radial costellae to the nepionic stages of the area. Its relationship to Scabrotrigo- nia is the same as that between Anditrigonia and Paranditrigonia. Although there are marked similarities between Apiotrigoniinae and Ptero- trigoniinae, including transverse costellae to the area and escutcheon, finely tuberculate costae in some, and an internally crenulated posteroventral margin, the phylogeny depicted by Tashiro (1979) suggests the similarities are the result of convergence. Genus Pterotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Pterotrigonia cristata van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Club-shaped pterotrigoniines, much longer than high, with a concave posterodorsal margin; valves strongly inflated anteriorly, rostrate posteriorly; area smooth in maturity; flank costae conspicuously tuberculate, poorly discrimi- nated into anterior and posterior sets; those to the anterior are curved whereas those to the posterior are straight, inclined, and finely crenulated. Discussion The above diagnosis of Pterotrigonia is more restricted than that of Cox (1969), since it excludes Scabrotrigonia, Acanthotrigonia, Ptilotrigonia and Piso- trigonia, which are regarded as generically distinct. Differences with Pisotrigonia are noted below. Like the genera Trigonia and Myophorella, there are numerous species of 'Pterotrigonia' that only vaguely approach the type species and which must, in the future, be assigned, on phyletic grounds, to other taxa. Several represen- tatives in the present fauna fall into this category but, until a more thorough phylogenetic analysis of the genus is attempted, no new names are introduced. Subgenus Pterotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Diagnosis Small to large, generally much longer than high; flank ornament discrepant, with tuberculate anterior set and finely crenulated, straight posterior set. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 33 Pterotrigonia (? Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle, 1960) Figs 17-18 Trigonia knighti Pringle, 1960: 90, pi. 1 (figs 1-3). Pterotrigonia (Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle) Cooper, 1979b: 55. Types The holotype is in the Port Elizabeth Museum (Figs 17-18). There are two paratypes in the British Museum (Natural History), and a third in the Natal Museum (Pietermaritzburg). The whereabouts of two other specimens referred to by Pringle (1960) is uncertain. Description The shell is large (maximum length at least 109 mm), club shaped, as high as long (H/L = 0,99-1,01), massive, strongly inflated anteriorly (W/H = 0,37-0,43) and rostrate posteriorly. The very prominent umbones are subtermi- nal, with strongly inturned, opisthogyrous beaks. The straight, subvertical anterior margin passes evenly into the almost straight ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is broadly concave and the respiratory margin seems to have been narrowly rounded. The oval, flattened anterior face meets the flanks at prominent anterolateral shoulders. The escutcheon is very broad, sunken, and extends almost the entire postero- dorsal length of the shell. It is ornamented with numerous, finely beaded, transverse costellae that are narrower than the interspaces. The area is narrow, unornamented beyond the nepionic stages and has a persistent longitudinal groove. As in P. tocaimaana (Lea), there is a prominent marginal carina that per- sists to the middle growth stages. Flank ornament is moderately discrepant. It comprises a flexuous set of about 12, rather coarse, flared anterior costae that curve strongly upwards and extend to the anterior commissure. These ribs are irregularly tuberculate, with 3-4 large tubercles on the anterolateral shoulder. The ten or so costae of the posterior set of ribs are finely crenulated, subparallel, narrower than the inter- spaces, and meet the posteroventral margin at right angles. Occurrence Pterotrigonia (? Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle) is known only from the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin, where it is a very rare component of the faunas. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin, 1908) Figs 19-20 Trigonia rogersi Kitchin, 1908: 99, pi. 3 (fig. 3), pi. 4 (fig. 1), pi. 5 (fig. 2). Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Pringle, 1960: 89. Cooper, 1979b: 57, fig. 7. Megatrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Nakano, 1965: 17. ?Megatrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Reyes, 1970: 8, pi. 1 (figs 1-2), pi. 3 (fig. 1). 34 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM W O J3 © X c •C Oh, ■2 c ■I ft, &0 LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 35 Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pi. 3 (fig. 3), pi. 4 (fig. 1)), SAM-3974 (Fig. 19C). Material A total of 108 specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-5088, 12950- 53, 12955-58, 12960-62, D1882 (73 specimens) and 22 without number, as well as PEM-1465/61. Description Shell moderately large (maximum length 135 mm), strongly inequi- lateral, moderately inflated anteriorly (W/H = 0,35-0,44), longer than high Fig. 18. Pterotrigonia (? Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle), x 1. Dorsal view of the holotype. 36 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM X B Fig. 19. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin), x 1. A-B. Dorsal and lateral views of PEM- 1465/61. C. Lateral view of the lectotype in the South African Museum. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 37 (H/L = 0,63-0,71) and posteriorly produced. Umbones prominent, broad, strongly incurved, situated about one-quarter of the shell length from the anterior, with slightly opisthogyrous beaks. Anterior margin broadly convex, flattish, passing into the very broad, gently convex ventral margin. The postero- dorsal margin is shallowly concave, and the respiratory margin subtruncate with a distinct posterior gape. The ligament pit is about 17 per cent of the shell length. The sunken escut- cheon is very broad, conspicuous, lanceolate, with fine, beaded, obliquely transverse costellae that become obsolete before reaching the commissure. In the nepionic stages, the costellae of the escutcheon extend to the median longi- tudinal groove of the area, giving the inner area a beaded appearance for up to 15 mm from the beak. A beaded marginal carina may extend for the same dis- tance, becoming rounded thereafter. The area is narrow, with a prominent longitudinal groove that persists to maturity and is positioned slightly closer to the escutcheon than the flank. In the nepionic stages it is ornamented by fine, oblique costellae that are more numerous than the flank costae, which they meet at the marginal carina in an anteriorly directed chevron. Beyond 15 mm from the umbo, the area is unornamented. Fig. 20. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin), x 1. Left valve of a topotype in the South African Museum. In the nepionic stages the distinctly tuberculate flank costae are subconcen- tric. Later flank costae are strongly oblique but not sharply discrepant and extend to the anterior commissure. The anterior 12 or so costae are narrower than or as broad as the interspaces, finely but prominently tuberculate, and weakly curved until they reach the anterior face where they curve strongly upwards to meet the anterior commissure almost at right angles. On the pos- terior half of the flanks the costae are straight, rigid, and inclined slightly to the posterior, with slightly narrower interspaces. 38 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Discussion The side-by-side occurrence of two species of Pterotrigonia, Pterotrigonia (? Pterotrigonia) knighti and P. rogersi points to an early Neocomian radiation of the Pterotrigoniinae. Although P. rogersi does not fall easily into any of the available genera and subgenera, it is referred to Pterotrigonia pending further phylogenetic study. Occurrence Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) is a common element in the Upper Valangin- ian faunas from the Algoa Basin. It may also occur in the Lower Hauterivian of southern Chile. Genus Pisotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Pisotrigonia salebrosa van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Like Pterotrigonia but as high as long, often extremely inflated anteriorly and with broadly flattened anterior face. Posterodorsal margin deeply excavate. Umbones very conspicuous, subterminal, with beaks exceptionally incurved, opisthogyrous; escutcheon with transverse costellae, which may be very weak or absent in early representatives; area smooth except in nepionic stages; flank costae markedly discrepant, with generally thick, robust, distant, coarsely tuber- culate, anterior costae and narrow, straight, crowded, finely serrated posterior costae. Age: Tithonian-Cenomanian (?Maastrichtian). Discussion Although most workers have rejected Pisotrigonia as a junior subjective synonym of Rinetrigonia (Kobayashi & Nakano 1957; Skwarko 1963; Nakano 19746), the former genus has page priority (Cooper 1988, 1989). Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss, 1843) Fig. 21 Lyriodon ventricosa Krauss, 1843: 130. Lyrodon ventricosus Krauss, 1850: 456, pi. 49 (figs 2c-f only). Trigonia ventricosa (Krauss) Stoliczka, 1871: 315, pi. 15 (figs 9, 9a). Lycett, 1875: 119, plus text-figure. Miiller, 1900: 543, pi. 19 (figs 4-5). Paulcke, 1903: 308. Rogers, 1905: 291, fig. 25,2. Kitchin, 1908: 91, pi. 3 (fig. 1). Woods, 1917: 21. Spath, 1931: 542; 1933: 798. Dietrich, 1938: 97. Stoyanow, 1949: 88. Reyes, 1970: 9. Rinetrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) van Hoepen, 1929: 22. Pterotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) Cox, 1952: 59; 1961: 23. Pringle, 1960: 89. Pterotrigonia (Rinetrigonia) ventricosa (Krauss) Crickmay, 1932: 461. Kobayashi & Nakano, 1957: 230. Skwarko, 1963: 20; 1966: 99; 1968: 173. Levy, 1967a: 102. non Trigonia ventricosa Kitchin (non Krauss), 1903: 104, pi. 10 (figs 4-8) (= P. parva van Hoepen). non Trigonia ventricosa Etheridge (non Krauss), 1907: 76, pi. 1 (figs 7-8) (indeterminate pterotrigoniine). LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 39 Type The whereabouts of Krauss' (1843) type material is unknown; it may be necessary to designate a neotype. Material Hundreds of specimens in the South African Museum, many unnumbered or with the Van Hoepen number D1841. Description Shell medium sized (maximum length 50 mm), strongly inequilateral, as high as long (H/L = 0,91-1,13), anteriorly extremely inflated (H/W = 0,47-0,54) and rostrate posteriorly. Conjoined valves are wider than long. Umbones very prominent, extremely incurved, with opisthogyrous beaks. Anterior margin weakly curved to almost straight, very high, with broad, flattish anterior face, passing rather sharply into the broad, straight to slightly concave ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is deeply concave and the narrow respiratory margin rounded. The escutcheon is broad, deeply sunken, lanceolate, with weak oblique costellae along its outer margin, the inner margin being smooth. In some individuals the escutcheon is entirely ribbed or entirely smooth. Carinae are restricted to the nepionic stage. The area is narrow, bipartite, with oblique costellae in the umbonal region but later smooth. The flank costae of the nepionic stages are subconcentric, with fine trans- verse ridges. Later costae are markedly discrepant, divided into a coarse, distant anterior set that curves markedly only on the anterior face to meet the com- missure at right angles, and a fine, crowded posterior set. The anterior costae are as wide as or narrower than the interspaces; those closest to the umbo are coarsely tuberculate throughout. Posteriorly, however, the coarse rounded tuberculation is increasingly restricted to the ventral part of the costa, leaving the dorsal extension as a thin, wavy, vertical, finely crenulated costella. It is with final loss of coarse tuberculation that the change to the posterior set occurs in which the wavy, crowded, subvertical costellae are finely crenulated throughout. There are about 10-12 costae in the anterior set and 8-12 in the posterior set. Discussion Kitchin (1903: 104, pi. 10 (fig. 4)) identified material from the Tithonian of Cutch with T. ventricosa (Krauss). Van Hoepen (1929: 38), however, considered the anterior ribs of the Cutch species to be too coarse, with larger and more prominent nodes, and the posterior ribs too uneven for assignment to T. ventri- cosa. Consequently, he renamed the Cutch species Pisotrigonia parva (Fig. 22). Although Rennie (1936) was highly critical of Van Hoepen's (1929) taxonomy, the writer has — through the courtesy of Drs N. J. Morris and R. J. Cleevely, studied topotype material of P. parva van Hoepen and concurs that it is a dis- tinctive Tithonian species. Also closely allied is Pisotrigonia tuberculifera 40 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 21. Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss), x 1. A-D. Lateral, posterior, anterior and dorsal views of the provisional neotype. E-F. Dorsal and lateral views of a topotype. G-H. Lateral and dorsal views of a topotype. I-J. Internal and external views of a left valve. All the speci- mens are in the South African Museum. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 41 Fig. 22. Pisotrigonia parva van Hoepen, x 1. The holotype (after Kitchin 1903). (Stoliczka) (1871: 315, pi. 15 (figs 10-12)), which was said to differ '. . . by being of a more regularly rounded triangular shape, less attenuated and pro- duced posteriorly, and possessing a narrower and not so deeply excavated area' (Stoliczka 1871: 315). Occurrence Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) abounds in the Upper Valanginian of south-east Africa. It questionably also occurs in the Tithonian of India (Cutch) and East Africa (Tanzania). Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin, 1908) Figs 15D, 23 Lyrodon ventricosus Krauss, 1850, pi. 2 (fig. 2a-b only). Trigonia kraussi Kitchin, 1908: 95, pi. 3 (fig. 2). Rinetrigonia kraussi (Kitchin) van Hoepen, 1929: 22. Pterotrigonia (Rinetrigonia) kraussi (Kitchin) Kobayashi & Nakano, 1957: 230, fig. 1. Skwarko, 1968: 174. Type The holotype is, by monotypy, the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pi. 3 (fig. 2)) (Fig. 23), in the South African Museum. Material In addition to the holotype (SAM-3999), there are three other specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-D1942 and D1883 (2 specimens). Description Shell large (maximum length about 90 mm), higher than long (H/L = 0,82), strongly inequilateral, extremely inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,54) and rostrate 42 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM posteriorly. Umbones very prominent, massive, subterminal, with extremely incurved, opisthogyrous beaks. The anterior margin is very high, weakly convex, and with a very broad, flattened anterior face. It passes rather abruptly into the straight to shallowly concave ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is mark- edly concave and the respiratory margin presumably narrowly rounded. The anterolateral shoulders protrude significantly beyond the anterior commissure. The escutcheon is relatively broad and deeply excavate, without oblique costellae. The marginal carina is restricted to the nepionic stages, quickly becoming rounded and indistinct. The area is very narrow, with a prominent longitudinal groove, and lacks ornament for much of its growth. On the nepionic stages the flank costae are subconcentric. Later they become strongly oblique and markedly discrepant. The eight ribs of the anterior series are very robust, exaggerated, narrower than the interspaces, almost straight, but curving upwards on the anterior face. They are generally coarsely tuberculate but on SAM-D1942 the anterior costae seem to be nontuberculate. These anterior ribs approach the anterior commissure obliquely but pinch out before reaching it; the anteroventral ribs are the first to reach the commissure, which they contact at right angles. The finely crenulated, crowded costellae of the posterior series are initially subvertical, but become increasingly inclined to the posterior, and are about as narrow as the interspaces. Fig. 23. Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin), x 1. Lateral and anterior views of the holotype in the South African Museum. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 43 Occurrence Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin) is a very rare component in the Upper Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa. Family Iotrigoniidae Saveliev, 1958 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Iotrigoniinae Saveliev, 1958). Diagnosis Medium to large megatrigoniaceans; pyriform to subovate; posteriorly strongly produced, inequilateral; respiratory margin narrowly rounded to obliquely truncate; escutcheon crossed by weak transverse costellae in nepionic stage, later smooth; carinae generally restricted to nepionic stage; area narrow, bipartite, smooth except in earliest growth stages; flanks with generally fine sub- concentric costae anteriorly meeting fewer, broader, subvertical posterior costae in a chevron; ornament may be replaced by concentric growth rugae in maturity. Discussion Although this taxon is included by many within the synonymy of the Mega- trigoniinae, the subfamily is present already in the Upper Bajocian of Argentina, contemporaneous with the most primitive megatrigoniines, i.e. Andi- trigonia kiedeli (Weaver) (Leanza & Garate 1987). Since Iotrigonia persists into the Maastrichtian of New Zealand (Fleming 1964, 1987) it is an important phy- letic line that merits recognition. Its origins are cryptic. Saveliev (1958) suggested derivation from Vaugoniidae of the Myophorellacea, but the writer follows Kitchin (1903) in regarding the similarities as due to convergence. The importance of V-shaped flank costae to primitive Megatrigoniinae, together with a smooth escutcheon and impersistent carinae, suggests a common ancestry for the Iotrigoniinae and Megatrigoniinae. Genus Iotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Iotrigonia crassitesta van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Area unornamented beyond the nepionic stages and with a rounded respir- atory margin. Anterior flank costae often irregular, zigzagging, pinching and swelling, and forming prominent tubercles at the anterolateral shoulder in some; anterior face smooth; chevrons persist to large size but may become effaced in maturity when they are replaced by concentric growth rugae. Discussion The earliest species to be assigned to Iotrigonia is /. radixscripta (Lambert) (1944: 369, pi. 1 (figs 7-8), pi. 6 (fig. 1); Leanza & Garate 1987: 225, pi. 2 44 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM (fig. 7)) from the mid-Bajocian to early Callovian of Argentina. This species differs in several noteworthy aspects from typical Iotrigonia, notably in its straight posterodorsal margin, obliquely truncate respiratory margin, relatively prominent marginal carina, and the presence of a carina marking the longitudi- nal furrow to the area, as well as conspicuous growth rugae to the adult area. These differences are here considered to warrant generic separation and the name Lambertiella is proposed, with Trigonia radixscripta Lambert as type species. Iotrigonia attained a near-cosmopolitan distribution in the Tithonian- Neocomian. In the Australasian province it gave rise to Zaletrigonia Skwarko, 1963, which is distinguished by the rapid replacement of chevrons by two sets of oblique ribs that converge ventrally but do not meet. Iotrigonia vau (Sharpe, 1856) Fig. 24 Trigonia vau Sharpe, 1856: 194, pi. 22 (fig. 5). Tate, 1867, pi. 7 (fig. 8). Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin, 1903: 67; 1908: 110, pi. 6 (figs 1-3). Stoyanow, 1949: 79. Skwarko, 1963: 17. Reyes, 1970: 12. Iotrigonia vau (Sharpe) van Hoepen, 1929: 9. Nakano, 1965: 19. Trigonia (Iotrigonia) vau Sharpe. Rennie, 1936: 343. Megatrigonia (Iotrigonia) vau (Sharpe) Cox, 1952: 58. Pringle, 1960: 89. Iotrigonia cf. vau (Sharpe) Cooper, 1979b: 52, fig. 2. Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Sharpe (1856, pi. 22 (fig. 5)). Material In addition to 25 specimens available for study in the South African Museum, SAM-653, 4645, 4650-2, 4655, 5039-40, 5089, 7454, 7567, 7569, 7571, 7572 (2 specimens), 7573-74, 7575 (2 specimens), 7595, 12776, D574, D1944 and two unnumbered specimens, there are also several unnumbered specimens in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Description Shell medium sized (maximum length about 65 mm), trigonally ovate, elongate (H/L = 0,52-0,61), with the moderately elevated umbones situated about one-third of the shell length from the anterior. The posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave, the anterior margin strongly convex passing imperceptibly into the broadly convex ventral margin, and the respiratory margin narrowly rounded. The valves are moderately inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,33-0,36). The sunken escutcheon is narrow, lanceolate, smooth, and extends about 50 per cent of the posterodorsal shell length. It rises slightly at the commissure. The area is narrow, smooth beyond the nepionic stages, and with a longitudinal groove that weakens and may become obsolete posteriorly. Inner and marginal LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 45 Fig. 24. Iotrigonia vau (Sharpe), x 1. A. Lateral view of the specimen in the South African Museum figured by Kitchin (1908). B-C. Lateral and dorsal views of a right valve in the Port Elizabeth Museum. D. Right valve of a posteriorly elongate individual in the Port Elizabeth Museum. E-F. Lateral and dorsal views of a left valve in which the posterior branches of the flank costae are unusually swollen. carinae are lacking. The area is ornamented by transverse costellae for about 7 mm from the beak, after which the ribs are restricted to the angulation separ- ating the area and escutcheon. The flank ornament of the nepionic stages, up to a distance of 10 mm from the umbones, comprises fine concentric ribs, about as wide as the interspaces. These pass obliquely across the area with a slight inflexion at the position of the marginal carina, and continue weakly on to the outer edge of the escutcheon. 46 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Beyond this stage the adult ornament is developed abruptly, with the flank costae forming deep chevrons whose axial trace is inclined to the posterior. The broad, low, ribs of the posterior branches are much wider than the interspaces and, except perhaps at the extreme posterior, are directed anteroventrally. The much finer oblique ribs of the anterior branches meet the posterior ribs almost at right angles in a ratio of 3 : 2 in the later growth stages. Anteriorly the ribs bend sharply upwards and become sinuous, with irregular zigzags, but become obsolete on the anterolateral shoulder, leaving the anterior face impressed only by growth striae. The flank chevrons become obsolete at the largest growth stages, when the anterior branches form coarse concentric growth rugae that interfere with and crenulate the posterior ribs, giving them a nodate appearance. Anteroventrally the ribs become irregular, zigzagging and pinching and swelling. Occurrence Iotrigonia vau (Sharpe) is a common element in the late Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa. It is probably also present in the Robberg Formation, and has been reported from the Tithonian of East Africa. Iotrigonia stowi (Kitchin, 1908) Fig. 25 Trigonia sp. Kitchin, 1903: 74. Trigonia stowi Kitchin, 1908: 115, pi. 6 (figs 4-5), pi. 7 (fig. 1). Iotrigonia stowi (Kitchin) van Hoepen, 1929: 8. Nakano, 1965: 19. Cooper, 1979b: 52, fig. 4. Trigonia (Iotrigonia) stowi (Kitchin) Rennie, 1936: 343. Megatrigonia (Iotrigonia) stowi (Kitchin) Cox, 1952: 58. Pringle, 1960: 89. ? Iotrigonia stowi (Kitchin) Reyes, 1970: 11, pi. 2 (fig. 3). ?Iotrigonia stowi var. aisenensis Reyes, 1970: 13, pi. 2 (figs 1-2). Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pi. 6 (fig. 5)), SAM-PCU3979 (Fig. 25A). Material Two unnumbered specimens in the South African Museum, as well as PEM-1465/62 and AM-721. Description Shell moderately large (maximum length about 110 mm), very elongate (H/L = 0,52), variable in outline, but typically subtrapezoidal, with weakly inflated valves (H/W = 0,16). The fairly prominent umbones are situated between one-quarter and one-third of the shell length from the anterior, and the beaks are weakly incurved and slightly opisthogyrous. The posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave, almost straight and forms an obtuse angle with the straight, strongly produced anterior border. The long ventral margin is gently convex and the siphonal margin narrowly rounded. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 47 <^0 Fig. 25. Iotrigonia stowi (Kitchin), x 1. A. Lateral view of right valve figured by Kitchin (1908). B-C. Dorsal and lateral views of a specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Note the swollen tubercles near the anteroventral margin. 48 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM The escutcheon is relatively long, lanceolate, shallowly concave, and smooth. The ligament pit is relatively short and broad. The area is narrow, convex, and with a pronounced longitudinal furrow that persists to maturity. Marginal and inner carinae are lacking at all observable growth stages. The flank ornament of the nepionic stages comprises fine concentric ribs that cross the line of the marginal carina with an inflexion and continue across the area and escutcheon. The adult flank costae form deep acute chevrons whose axial trace curves posteriorly, the anterior branches being fine and oblique whereas the posterior branches are broad, low, and directed anteroven- trally. The number of ribs in the two branches are approximately equal, although an occasional rib may be intercalated anteriorly. In maturity the anterior costae become relatively broad, swollen, and irregular, zigzagging and forming upwardly directed chevrons, or breaking into weak nodes. In some indi- viduals ribbing becomes obsolete anteroventrally. Close to the ventral border the posterior ribs are intersected by deep, irregularly developed growth striae causing them to break up into weak nodes. Large specimens show exaggerated swollen tubercles anteroventrally that replace the zigzagging costae. Occurrence Iotrigonia stowi (Kitchin) is a rare element in the Upper Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa. It may also occur in the Lower Hauterivian of southern Chile. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Drs M. A. Cluver and H. C. Klinger for access to the collections of the South African Museum, Mr W. Holleman for allowing me to study the col- lections of the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, and Mr Barney Newman for assistance with the collections of the Port Elizabeth Museum. Drs E. Perez d'Angelo (Santiago) and M. Tashiro (Kochi) critically reviewed the manuscript, for which I am grateful, and Betsie Greyling provided general assistance. REFERENCES Burckhardt, C. 1903. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Jura- und Kreideformation der Cordillere. Palaeontographica (B) 50: 1-145. Cooper, M. R. 1979a. A new species of Myophorella (Bivalvia, Trigoniidae) from the Sunday's River Formation, South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 78 (3): 21-27. Cooper, M. R. 19796. Cretaceous Trigoniidae (Mollusca, Bivalvia) from the Brenton Forma- tion, Knysna. Annals of the South African Museum 78 (6): 49-67. Cooper, M. R. 1981. Revision of the late Valanginian Cephalopoda from the Sundays River Formation of South Africa, with special reference to the genus Olcostephanus . Annals of the South African Museum 83 (7): 147-366. Cooper, M. R. 1983. The ammonite genus Umgazaniceras in the Sundays River Formation. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa 86 (1): 63-64. Cooper, M. R. 1988. A new species of trigoniid bivalve from the Lower Cretaceous (Albian) of Zululand. South African Journal of Geology 91 (3): 326-328. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 49 Cooper, M. R. 1989. The Gondwanic bivalve Pisotrigonia (family Trigoniidae), with a description of a new species. Paldontologische Zeitschrift 63 (3/4): 241-250. Cox, L. R. 1952. Notes on the Trigoniidae with outlines of a classification of the family. Pro- ceedings of the Malacological Society of London 29 (2-3): 45-70. Cox, L. R. 1961. The molluscan fauna and probable Lower Cretaceous age of the Nanutarra Formation of Western Australia. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 61: 1-39. Cox, L. R^ 1969. Trigoniacea Lamarck, 1859. In: Moore, R. C. ed. Treatise on invertebrate paleontology. Part N, Mollusca 6 (1): N471-N489. Boulder: Geological Society of America; Lawrence: University of Kansas. Crickmay, C. H. 1930. The Jurassic rocks of Ashcroft, British Columbia. University of Cali- fornia Publications in Geological Sciences 19 (2): 23-74. Crickmay, C. H. 1932. Contributions toward a monograph of the Trigoniidae. American Journal of Science 24 (5): 443-464. Darragh, T. A. 1986. The Cainozoic Trigoniidae of Australia. Alcheringa 10 (1): 1-34. Dietrich, W. O. 1933. Das Muster der Gattung Trigonia (Moll. Lam.). Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin 1933 (2): 326-332. Dietrich, W. O. 1938. Lamelibranquios cretacicos de la Cordillera Oriental. Estudios geolo- gicos y paleontoldgicos sobre la Cordillera oriental de Colombia 1934 (3): 81-108. Etheridge, R. 1907. Cretaceous fossils of Natal. Part II. The Umsinene River deposits, Zulu- land. Report of the Geological Survey of Natal and Zululand 3: 67-90. Fleming, C. A. 1964. History of the bivalve family Trigoniidae in the south-west Pacific. Aus- tralian Journal of Science 26 (7): 196-204. Fleming, C. A. 1987. New Zealand Mesozoic bivalves of the superfamily Trigoniacea. Palae- ontological Bulletin. Geological Survey 53: 1-104. Freneix, S. 1958. Contribution a l'etude des lamellibranches du Cretace de Nouvelle-Caledo- nie. Sciences de la terre 4 (3/4): 153-207. Goldfuss, A. 1826-44. Petrefacta Germaniae tarn ea, quae in museo universitatis regiae Borussicae Friedericiae Wilhelminae Rhenanae servantur quam alia quaecunque in museis Hoeninghusiano Muensteriano aliisque extant, iconibus et descriptionibus illustrata. Abbild- ungen und Beschreibungen der Petrefacten Deutschlands und der angrdnzenden Lander unter Mitwirkung des Herrn Grafen Georg zu Munster. Part 2: 1-312. Diisseldorf: Arnz & Co. Hatch, F. H. & Corstorphine, G. S. 1905. The geology of South Africa. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Hennig, W. 1966. Phylogenetic systematics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Hirsch, F. 1980. Jurassic bivalves and gastropods from northern Sinai and southern Israel. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 28 (4): 128-163. Holub, E. & Neumayr, M. 1881. Uber einige fossilien aus der Uitenhage-Formation in Siid- afrika. Denkschriften der Akademie der Wissenschaften (Math.-nat. Klasse) 44: 267. Kitchin, F. L. 1903. The Jurassic fauna of Cutch. The Lamellibranchiata. Genus Trigonia. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Palaeontologica indica (9) 3 (2): 1-122. Kitchin, F. L. 1908. The invertebrate fauna and palaeontological relations of the Uitenhage Series. Annals of the South African Museum 7 (2): 21-250. Kobayashi, T. 1954. Studies on the Jurassic trigonians in Japan. Part I. Preliminary notes. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 15 (1/2): 61-80. Kobayashi, T. & Amano, M. 1955. On the Pseudoquadratae Trigonians, Steinmannella , in the Indo-Pacific Province. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 26 (3/4): 193-208. Kobayashi, T. & Nakano, M. 1957. On the Pterotrigoniinae. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 28 (4): 219-238. Kobayashi, T. & Tamura, M. 1957. Additional new genera and species of trigonians from the Jurassic of Soma, North Japan. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 28 (1): 35-42. Krauss, F. 1843. Uber die geologischen Verhaltnisse der ostlichen Kiiste des Kaplandes. Amtlicher Berichte der Gesellschaft fur Deutsch-Naturforschungs der Aertze 1843: 126. Krauss, F. 1850. Uber einige petrefacten aus der untern Kreide des Kaplandes. Nova Acta Acadamiae Caesareae Leopoldino Carolinae germanicae naturae curiosorum 11 (2): 439-464. 50 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Lambert, L. R. 1944. Algunas Trigonias del Neuquen. Revista del Museo de La Plata (Paleontologia) (n.s.) 2 (14): 357-397. Lange, E. 1914. Die Brachiopoden, Lamellibranchiaten und Anneliden der Trigonia schwarzi-Schicht, nebst verleichender Ubersucht der Trigonien der gesamten Tendaguru- schichten. Archiv fur Biontologie 3 (4): 193-289. Leanza, A. F. 1941. Dos neuvas Trigonias en el Titonense de Carrin-cura, en el territorio del Neuquen. Notas del Museo de La Plata (Paleontologia) 3 (31): 225-233. Leanza, A. F. 1942. Los Pelecipodos del Lias de Piedra Pintada en el Neuquen Instituto del Museo de la Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Revista del Museo de la Plata (Palaeontolo- gia) (n.s.) 2 (10): 145-206. Leanza, H. A. 1981. Una nueva especie de Myophorella (Trigoniidae-Bivalvia) del Cretacico Inferior de Neuquen, Argentina. Ameghiniana 18 (1/2): 1-9. Leanza, H. A. & Garate, J. I. 1987. Faunas de Trigonias (Bivalvia) del Jurasico y Cretacico Inferior de la Provincia del Nequen, Argentina, conservadas en el Museo Juan Olsacher de Zapala. In: Volkheimer, W. ed. Bioestratigrafia de los Sistemas Regionales del Jurasico y Cretacico de America del Sur 1: 201-255. Mendoza. Levy, R. 1967a. Revision de las Trigonias de Argentina. Parte III. Los Pterotrigoniinae de Argentina. Ameghiniana 5 (4): 101-107. Levy, R. 19676. Revision de las Trigonias de Argentina. Parte IV. Los Megatrigoniinae de Argentina y su relacion con Anditrigonia gen. nov. Ameghiniana 5 (4): 135-144. Levy, R. 1969. Revision de las Trigonias de la Argentina. Part V: El grupo de las pseudoqua- dratae. Ameghiniana 6 (1): 65-68. Lycett, J. 1872-79. A monograph of the British fossil trigoniae. Monograph of the Palaeonto- logical Society: 1-52 (1872); 53-92 (1874); 93-148 (1875); 149-204 (1877); 205-245 (1879). McLachlan, I. & McMillan, I. 1979. Microfaunal biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy and history of Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits on the coastal margin of South Africa. Special Publications. Geological Society of South Africa 6: 161-181. Muller, G. 1900. Versteinerungen des Jura und der Kreide. In: Bornhardt, W. ed. Zur Oberfldchengestaltung und Geologie Deutsch-Ostafrikas. Deutsch-Ost-Afrika 7: 514. Nakano, M. 1961. On the Trigoniinae. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 4 (1): 71-94. Nakano, M. 1965. On the Megatrigoniinae. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 5 (1): 13-20. Nakano, M. 1968. On the Quadratotrigoniinae. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima Univer- sity (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 39 (1): 27-41. Nakano, M. 1970. Notes on the Trigoniinae and the Nototrigoniinae. Research Bulletin. Hiroshima Institute of Technology 4 (1): 91-108. Nakano, M. 1971. A note on Trigonia calderoni Castillo & Aguilerae. Research Bulletin. Hiroshima Institute of Technology 6 (1): 11-13. Nakano, M. 1974a. A new genus Mediterraneotrigonia nov. Research Bulletin. Hiroshima Institute of Technology 9: 77-80. Nakano, M. 19746. Rinetrigonia and its allies. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 7 (2): 101-111. Nakano, M. & Numano, K. 1961. On some Gyliakian Pterotrigoniae from Kyushu and Hok- kaido, Japan. Transactions and Proceedings of the Palaeontological Society of Japan (n.s.) 43: 89-98. Newell, N. D. & Boyd, D. W. 1975. Parallel evolution in early trigoniacean bivalves. Bull- etin of the American Museum of Natural History 154 (2): 53-162. Paulcke, W. 1903. Ueber die Kreideformation in Sudamerika und ihre Beziehungen zu anderen Gebieten. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie. Beila- gebdnde 17: 252-312. Perez d'A., E. & Reyes, B. R. 1983. Par anditrigonia, subgenera nuevo de Anditrigonia Levy (Mollusca; Bivalvia). Revista Geologica de Chile 19-20: 57-79. Poulton, T. P. 1977. Early Cretaceous trigoniid bivalves of Manning Provincial Park, south- western British Columbia. Geological Survey Paper. Mines and Geology Branch, Canada 76-9: 1-25. Poulton, T. P. 1979. Jurassic trigoniid bivalves from Canada and the western United States of America. Bulletin. Geological Survey of Canada 282: 1-82. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 51 Pringle, J. A. 1960. A new species of Trigonia from the Sundays River Beds of the Uiten- hage Series, Cape Province. Annals of the Natal Museum 15 (8): 89-92. Rennie, J. V. L. 1936. Lower Cretaceous Lamellibranchia from northern Zululand. Annals of the South African Museum 31 (3): 277-391. Rennie, J. V. L. 1947. Aptian fossils from Chalala near Lourenco Marques. Boletim. Servi- gos de ( Indus tria), Minas e Geologia. Colonia de Moqambique. Lourenco Marques 9: 1-81. Reyes, B. R. 1970. La fauna de Trigonias de Aisen. Boletin. Instituto de Investigaciones Geo- logicas, Chile 26: 5-40. Reyes, B., R. & P£rez d'A., E. 1982. El genero Anditrigonia Levy, 1967 (Mollusca; Bival- via) en Chile. /// Congreso Geologico Chileno, 1982, Concepcion: A289-A301. Reyes, B. R., Serey, E. T. & Perez d'A., E. 1981. Estudio sistematico y filogenetico de las especies sudamericanas del genero Steinmannella (Trigoniidae; Bivalvia). Revista Geo- logica de Chile 12: 25-47. Rogers, A. W. 1905. An introduction to the geology of the Cape Colony. With a chapter on the fossil reptiles of the Karroo Formation by R. Broom. London: Longmans, Green & Co. Saul, L. R. 1979. The North Pacific Cretaceous trigoniid genus Yaadia. University of Califor- nia Publications in Geological Sciences 119: 1-65. Saveliev, A. A. 1958. The Lower Cretaceous trigoniids of Mangyschlak and western Turkme- nia. Trudy Vsesoyuznogo Neftyanogo-Issledovatel'skogo Geologicheskikh Instituta (VNIGRI) 125: 1-516. (In Russian.) Sharpe, D. 1856. Description of fossils from the secondary rocks of Sundays River and Zwart- kops River, South Africa. Transactions of the Geological Society. London (2) 7: 193-215. Shone, R. W. 1976. The sedimentology of the Mesozoic Algoa Basin. Unpublished M. Sc. thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Silva, G. H. da. 1966. Sobre a ocorrencia do Jurassico marinho no norte de Mozambique. Revista dos Estudios Gerais Universitdrios de Mocambique(6) 3: 61-68. Skwarko, S. K. 1963. Australian Mesozoic trigoniids. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 67: 1-55. Skwarko, S. K. 1966. Cretaceous stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Northern Territory. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 73: 96-104. Skwarko, S. K. 1967. Mesozoic Mollusca from Australia and New Guinea. 2A. First report of Upper Triassic and ?Lower Jurassic marine molluscs from New Guinea. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 75: 39-82. Skwarko, S. K. 1968. Lower Cretaceous Trigoniidae from Stanwell, eastern Queensland. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 80 (Palaeonto- logical Papers, 1965): 167-180. Skwarko, S. K. 1970. An Upper Jurassic Apiotrigonia from Mexico. Boletin de la Sociedad geologica mexicana 31 (2): 75-78. Spath, L. F. 1927-1933. Revision of the Jurassic cephalopod fauna of Kachh (Cutch), 1-6. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Palaeontologia indica 9 (2): vii, 1-955. Spath, L. F. 1935. On the age of certain species of Trigonia from the Jurassic rocks of Kachh (Cutch). Geological Magazine 72 (850): 184-189. Steinmann, G. 1882. Die gruppe der Trigoniae pseudoquadratae. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mine- ralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie 1: 219-228. Stoliczka, F. 1870-1871. Cretaceous faunas from southern India. III. The Pelecypoda, with a review of all known genera of this class, fossil and recent. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Palaeontologia indica (6) 3: 1-537. Stoyanow, A. 1949. Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy in southeastern Arizona. Memoirs. Geo- logical Society of America 38: 1-169. Tashiro, M. 1979. A study of the 'pennatae trigoniids' from Japan. Transactions and Pro- ceedings of the Palaeontological Society of Japan (n.s.) 116: 179-222. Tashiro, M. 1988. Notes on 'Trigonia deckeina Kubota' from the Cretaceous of Hokkaido. Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kochi University (E, Geology) 9: 11-14. Tashiro, M. & Kano, M. 1989. On a new species of Yaadia (Cretaceous trigonian) from Kyushu, Japan. Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kochi University (E, Geologv) 10: 7-12. 52 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Tashiro, M. & Matsuda, T. 1986. A study of the Pterotrigoniae from Japan. II. Morphologi- cal changes. Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kochi University (E, Geology) 7: 1-18. Tashiro, M. & Morozumi, Y. 1982. Late Cretaceous knobby trigonians from the Izumi Mountains, southwest Japan. Bulletin of the Osaka Museum of Natural History 36 (260): 1-8. Tate, R. 1867. On some secondary fossils from South Africa. Quarterly Journal of the Geo- logical Society of London 23: 139-174. Willey, L. E. 1973. Belemnites from south-eastern Alexander Island: II. The occurrence of the family Belemnopseidae in the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous. Bulletin. British Antarctic Survey 36: 33-59. Woods, H. 1917. The Cretaceous faunas of the north-eastern part of the South Island of New Zealand. Palaeontological Bulletin. New Zealand Geological Survey. Wellington 4: 1-41. Van Hoepen, E. C. N. 1929. Die krytfauna van Soeloeland. 1. Trigoniidae. Paleontologiese Navorsing van die Nasionale Museum van Bloemfontein 1 (1): 1-38. 6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the International code of zoological nomenclature (particu- larly Articles 22 and 51). Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb, nov., syn. nov., etc. An author's name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author's name and year. The author's name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a, species or subspecies is trans- ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published scientific names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: Family Nuculanidae Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845) Figs 14-15A Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37. Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pi. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pi. 2 (fig. 8a-b). Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87. Leda bicuspidata: Nickles, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9. Note punctuation in the above example: comma separates author's name and year semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author full stop separates references by different authors figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers. 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SPECIAL HOUSE RULES Capital initial letters (a) The Figures, Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text e.g. '. . . the Figure depicting C. namacolus ...':'... in C. namacolus (Fig. 10) . . .' (b) The prefixes of prefixed surnames in all languages, when used in the text, if not preceded by initials or full names e.g. Du Toit but A. L. du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene (c) Scientific names, but not their vernacular derivatives e.g.Therocephalia, but therocephalian Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary Reference to the author should preferably be expressed in the third person Roman numerals should be converted to arabic, except when forming part of the title of a book or article, such as 'Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.' Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation to initial capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. The generic name should not be abbreviated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title; it should be included in the abstract, counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Biological Abstracts. MICHAEL R. COOPER LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER ^3Z VOLUME 100 PART 2 MAY 1992 ISSN 0303-2515 JUL 2 1 1992 HARVARD UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM CAPE TOWN INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS 1. MATERIAL should be original and not published elsewhere, in whole or in part. 2. LAYOUT should be as follows: (a) Centred masthead to consist of Title: informative but concise, without abbreviations and not including the names of new genera or species Author's(s') name(s) Address(es) of author(s) (institution where work was carried out) Number of illustrations (figures, enumerated maps and tables, in this order) (b) Abstract of not more than 200 words, intelligible to the reader without reference to the text (c) Table of contents giving hierarchy of headings and subheadings (d) Introduction (e) Subject-matter of the paper, divided into sections to correspond with those given in table of contents (f) Summary, if paper is lengthy (g) Acknowledgements (h) References (i) Abbreviations, where these are numerous. 3. MANUSCRIPT, to be submitted in triplicate, should be typewritten and neat, double spaced with 3 cm margins all round. First lines of paragraphs should be indented. 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REFERENCES cited in text and synonymies should all be included in the list at the end of the paper, using the Harvard System (ibid., idem, loc. cit., op. cit. are not acceptable): (a) Author's name and year of publication given in text, e.g.: 'Smith (1969) describes 'Smith (1969: 36, fig. 16) describes 'As described (Smith 1969a, 1969b; Jones 1971)' 'As described (Haughton & Broom 1927) . . .' 'As described (Haughton et al. 1927) Note: no comma separating name and year pagination indicated by colon, not p. names of joint authors connected by ampersand et al. in text for more than two joint authors, but names of all authors given in list of references. (b) Full references at the end of the paper, arranged alphabetically by names, chronologically within each name, with suffixes a, b, etc., to the year for more than one paper by the same author in that year, e.g. Smith (1969a, 19696) and not Smith (1969, 1969o). For books give title in italics, edition, volume number, place of publication, publisher. For journal article give title of article, title of journal in italics (according to the World list of scientific periodicals . 4th ed. London: Butterworths, 1963), series in parentheses, volume number, part number in parentheses, pagination (first and last pages of article). Examples (note capitalization and punctuation) Bullough, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Fischer, P. H. 1948. Donnees sur la resistance et de la vitalite des mollusques. Journal de conchy liologie 88 (3): 100-140. Fischer, P. H., Duval, M. & Raffy, A. 1933. Etudes sur les echanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie experimentale et generate 74 (33): 627-634. Kohn, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320. Kohn, A. J. 19606. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51. Thiele, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: Schultze, L. Zoologische und anthro- pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Siid-Afrika ausgefuhrt in den Jahren 1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270. (continued inside back cover) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM Volume 100 Band May 1992 Mei Part 2 Deel THE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PART I TECHNOLOGY By E. M. SHAW Cape Town Kaapstad The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material becomes available Obtainable from the South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000 Die ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM word uitgegee in dele op ongereelde tye na gelang van die beskikbaarheid van stof Verkrygbaar van die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum, Posbus 61, Kaapstad 8000 OUT OF PRINT/UIT DRUK 1, 2(1-3, 5-8), 3(1-2, 4-5, 8, t.-p.i.), 5(1-3, 5, 7-9), 6(1, t.-p.i.), 7(1-4), 8, 9(1-2, 7), 10(1-3), 11(1-2, 5, 7, t.-p.i.), 14(1-2), 15(4-5), 24(2, 5), 27, 31(1-3), 32(5), 33, 36(2), 43(1), 45(1), 67(5), 84(2) Copyright enquiries to the South African Museum Kopieregnavrae aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum ISBN 86813 125 3 Printed in South Africa by The Rustica Press, Pty., Ltd., Old Mill Road, Ndabeni, Cape In Suid-Afrika gedruk deur Die Rustica-pers, Edms., Bpk., Old Mill-weg, Ndabeni, Kaap D839 THE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PART 1 TECHNOLOGY By E. M. Shaw Department of Ethnography, South African Museum, Cape Town (With 110 figures and 1 table) [MS accepted 30 September 1988] ABSTRACT This account of the indigenous basketwork of southern Africa is the result of some years of study of basketwork specimens in collections in southern Africa and overseas, and of investi- gation in the field. The literature has been searched and records have been made of some 2 500 specimens, and of information gained in the field. The study is confined to southern Africa, that is, Africa south of the line made by the Cunene, Okavango and Zambesi rivers. There are several modern political divisions within the area, but they are only indirectly relevant to the study. Part 1 is a study of the techniques and materials that have been recorded throughout the area. The objects made, their names when these are known, the techniques and materials that are used, and the division between the sexes in the type of object made, will be studied ethno- graphically in subsequent parts. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 54 Technology 55 Fabric 55 Beginnings 87 Shaping 102 Edges 106 Finishings 139 Decoration 146 Ornamentation 164 Shapes 168 Tools 181 Materials 183 Dyes 202 Conclusion 208 Acknowledgements 208 References 209 Glossary 210 Appendix 1 : Summary and index of basketwork techniques 214 Appendix 2: Summary and index of materials used in basketwork 246 Appendix 3: 247 53 Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (2), 1992, 53-248, 110 figs, 1 table. 54 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM INTRODUCTION The account does not claim by any means to be exhaustive. For one thing the coverage is very uneven. For another, as was made clear by visits to overseas museums where the collections tend to be older, many styles have died out and the account is, therefore, likely to be inadequate with regard to the earlier types of basketwork used in southern Africa and, most of all, in any attempt to indi- cate the styles brought into the sub-continent by the various peoples when they first arrived. The gaps are, however, likely to be more numerous in subsequent parts — the sections on ethnography — than in Part 1 on technology, because the number of techniques, though extensive, is not unlimited, and many of them are found consistently enough to seem to form a basic pattern. The term basketwork is taken here to include all such objects as are made by the interlacing of two or more sets of elements, usually both flexible, and in addition, plaiting which interlaces only one set. It is differentiated from netting and knitting by the use, except in plaiting, of more than one set of elements, and from other weaving by the use of coarse and unspun material and the absence of a loom. In southern Africa, the number of objects to be included under basketwork as defined above is very large and varied. Besides actual baskets, there are mats for several purposes, hut-doors, hut-walls, roof-frames, fences, sledges, traps, grain-bins, strainers, spoons, trays, hats, bags and personal clothing and orna- ments. These are not all made everywhere. Their distribution belongs to ethnography rather than technology, and will be considered under the headings of the peoples by whom they are made. There may be some surprise at some of the work included, but a close consideration of the technique will, it is sug- gested, justify the decision that it was reasonable to include the use of basketwork techniques in objects other than baskets. There are certain qualities to basketwork that are probably responsible for the wideness of its use, and for the strength of its resistance to ready-made store-goods. It is usually light to carry and does not add greatly to the weight of its load; it is light for wear as hats or ornaments; and it is light and airy for roofing. It can be made close enough to hold liquids or open enough to strain them. It allows great variety of size and shape, from small bags to hold a snuff- box or pipe, to large grain-bins to hold part of the season's harvest. By its tough- ness and, in some cases, flexibility, it is durable, wears slowly, and does not break if dropped. It is in no danger, when being made, of being ruined at the last moment, like pottery by bad firing, or woodwork by an unfortunate cut of the knife. Lastly, except in actual desert, it is hard to imagine a stretch of country that would not furnish at least some suitable materials, however sparsely, so that, given the knowledge of making, it would be available to all. Latterly, however, and with increasing speed since this study was com- menced, other containers, mainly plastic, with similar useful qualities, have become available, and the practice of basketwork has declined. The young people are not interested' say the mothers and grandmothers. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 55 On the other hand, an even more recent trend, is the very widespread desire among industrial societies for hand-made articles, which has stimulated the growth of home industries where baskets are made not for use but for sale. The extent to which this particular cultural trait can, at this stage, be expected to show relationships, other than those of recent proximity, between the various groups of people, or their former movements, is limited by present- day ease of movement of individuals, and by the increasing rate of change in the old societies. Nevertheless, basketwork is a conservative craft and some indica- tions of these things can be seen. TECHNOLOGY In basketwork there are two main techniques, which may be called woven and sewn, and these differ according to the way in which the elements are put together. In woven work the sets of elements are interlaced by crossing over and under each other. Plaiting is included here because the interlacing is essentially the same, although with only one set of elements. In sewn work one set of elements is sewn together by the other. Attempts have been made (summarized by Balfet 1952 and translation 1957) to cut across these two simple categories so as to class the warps of woven work and the foundation of sewn work together as the passive elements or 'stan- dards' {'montants') and the wefts of woven work and the sewing strand of sewn work as the active elements or 'threads' ('fr/ms'). While one follows the logic, this seems to me to remove the classification from the reality of how the work is done, the technique in fact. Accordingly, each of the techniques classified here relates back to one or other of the two major techniques, woven or sewn. As far as possible vernacular terms — whether European or African — for a particular technique, have been avoided in favour of descriptive terms. Only those techniques recorded so far in southern Africa are described below. FABRIC The following are the techniques of the body of the work. The descriptions are given as viewed by the maker, who generally works from left to right with the outside of the work towards the body, except when making shallow baskets in which the inside is the side seen. WOVEN Woven work may be flat, cylindrical or ascending. The two sets of elements are, by analogy with weaving, called warps and wefts, the warps being the straight, sometimes taut, passive elements, whether vertical or horizontal, and the wefts those elements that are woven across the warps. The same techniques can be used whether the work is flat, cylindrical or ascending and the main dif- ferences in technique are in the way the wefts proceed to cross the warps. 56 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Check or chequer This is the simplest form of all, in which the warps and wefts pass over and under each other singly, as in darning or plain woven cloth. In many cases, both are the same width and thickness, which gives the true close chequer effect. The work is usually straight {la, Figs 1A, 2) but a few examples of pouches were seen in which it proceeded diagonally {lb, Fig. IB). The chequer stitch may also be used at wide intervals in mat-making. This is called open chequer (7c, Fig. 1C). Chequer weave has a great variety of uses but, although widespread in southern Africa, is less commonly used than some other weaves. Twilled Each element passes over and under two or more of those of the other set, but in each successive row the element goes under one element further on. This gives a herringbone effect (Fig. 3). By varying the number passed over, and by introducing a different colour or width of element into one set, an endless variety of decorative effects can be produced. The work may be straight {2a, Fig. 3 A) or diagonal {2b, Figs 3B, 4). Twilled weave is very common in south- ern Africa. Its most frequent use is for winnowing trays {straight) in the northern and central regions, where the elements are thin, flat strips of wood or reed, and for beer-strainers (see Fig. 107) and pouches {diagonal) among the eastern people of the coastal palm-belt, where the elements are strips of palm-leaf. Wrapped Very flexible wefts are wrapped once right round each warp in passing. Plain wrapped weave {3, Figs 5, 6) has been seen on a variety of objects but is very uncommon in southern Africa. Twined In each row two or more wefts pass alternately one in front of and one behind each warp, taking a half-twist round each other between the warps. A warp may consist of one strand or two taken together, or of a bundle of strands; it may thus be described as single, double or multiple warp. This is the common- est variety of the woven technique in southern Africa and, in addition to forming the main fabric, it is often used ornamentally or as a strong edging. Its distribution shows, however, that it is favoured particularly by the south-eastern people, the Nguni and Tsonga, and those who have been in contact with them. Several styles are known. Plain, (i) Close. When only two wefts are twined at a time and the warps are straight and the rows of weft are placed immediately next to each other. Warps may be single {4a, Fig. 7 A) or multiple {4b, Fig. 8). (ii) Open. In which the rows of twining are separated so that the warps, which are generally single, are left uncovered for a certain space. Warps may be single {4c, Fig. 7B) or multiple BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 57 Fig. 1. A. Straight close chequer weave, la. B. Diagonal close chequer weave, lb. C. Open chequer weave with twined edge, 1c. 58 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 2. Straight close chequer weave basket of palm-leaf; reinforced selvedge and additional ornamental reinforcement; stiff handle. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6126). Height 205 mm. (4d, Fig. 7C). (iii) Chain. Plain close twine in which the direction of twine is reversed at each row, thereby making a chain-stitch effect over the whole fabric. The warp may be single (4e) or multiple (4f, Fig. 7D). Twilled. Close twine in which the wefts go over and under two warps but in each successive row move one warp further on to make a twilled effect (4g, Fig. 7E). The warps may be single or multiple. Only one example was seen. Split warp. A double or multiple warp may be divided after each row of the twining and the two sections joined to sections from the adjoining warps for the next row of twining. There seem to be two ways of doing this, (i) Zigzag. When the warp is divided equally and the two sections, together in one row, part to right and left in the next, and come together again in the third row, in such a way that each section follows a vertical zigzag line. The weaving may be close (4h, Fig. 9A, B) — with the twining rows next to each other, or open (4i, Fig. 9C) — with twining rows at wide intervals, (ii) Diagonal. When the left section of the warp goes off to the left, but the right section remains vertical and receives the left of the adjoining warp; then having become the left section itself, goes off to the left to rejoin its former mate, so that each warp section follows a stepped diagonal line across the work. The weaving may be close (4j, Figs 9D, E, 10), or open (4k) and the warps equally or unequally divided. When the weaving is close, the difference between zigzag and diagonal split-warp BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 59 U^A rnmrnn T iraif= i*iu±± t -\M-- ■ ■'■" Fig. 3. A. Straight twilled weave, 2a. B. Diagonal twilled weave, 2b. 60 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM WBT ^5^ X'X" 1- '-> *N >%^|-"- #; ' ' ' ' aXa '•'/•'XV) ^HiijBjSw llf£/ " "''^'V. ' ^^^1 ...... , : . pO^to^i PPl ■ • ' •■> i«xi| i^ill ^^J Fig. 4. Diagonal twilled weave basket of wood slivers, shaped by moulding and holding edges between hoops; coloured decoration with dyed elements of same material. Venda, Louis Trichardt, 1962 (SAM- 12084). Height 289 mm. Fig. 5. Plain wrapped weave, inner and outer appearance, 3a. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 61 Fig. 6. Plain wrapped weave bird cage of withies and bark strands, shaped by tension. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6176). Height 430 mm. twining can scarcely be seen on the finished surface of the object unless, as has been recorded in the Transkei in the diagonal style, the warp is divided unequally (41, Fig. 9F), which gives a twilled appearance. The difference may be very noticeable in this case when the warp consists of a bundle of grass, and only a small section is carried to the left each time. This can give the superficial appearance of a diagonal strand having been run through the work afterwards. Split-warp twine seems to have been characteristic of the eastern Southern Nguni and the southern Transvaal Ndebele. Latterly the technique has been seen a little in the western Transkei. Lattice. When there is a horizontal as well as a vertical set of warps, single (4 m) or (Figs 9G, H, 11) double (4 n), and one or more wefts that twine at the crossings of the warps. This technique, with all flexible elements, is very rare. Wickerwork Wickerwork is distinguished by the fact that the warps are rigid whereas the flexible wefts bend in and out. The weave may be chequer, wrapped or twined. 62 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN. MUSEUM B ""l'^'^'' rf 0""#''"i» , ''0" -, 0''"0' , ''0""^''"^'^''"* Fig. 7. A. Close plain twined weave, single warp, 4a. B. Open plain twined weave, single warp, 4c. C. Open plain twined weave, multiple warp, 4d. D. Plain chain twined weave, mul- tiple warp, 4f. E. Twilled twined weave, single warp, 4g. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 63 Fig. 8. Food-mat of close plain twined weave, multiple grass warp, sedge weft; scalloped sel- vedge; looped warp beginning; added warps for shaping; decoration — same material dyed. Mpondo, Mevana, Libode, 1969 (SAM-9564). Diameter 330 mm. Twilled wickerwork has not been recorded in southern Africa. By its nature wickerwork is suited to heavy articles, such as hut doors and traps, but it is also used in lighter form for baskets and fish traps. It is therefore widely distributed. It is not very common, however, and for actual baskets is seldom used except by the Shona peoples of the north-east and the southern Tsonga of Mozambique. (The wicker influence seems to come from the north-east.) The following varieties have been recorded: Chequer. Plain straight chequer (5a, Figs 12A, 13) is the most common variety recorded. Wrapped, (i) Plain (5b); (ii) Lattice wrapped with one (5c) or two (5g) lat- tices, is a second, more common variety in which there is a horizontal as well as a vertical set of warps, one or both of which is generally rigid, and the weft is wrapped round the crossing of the two warps. As far as recorded, in southern 64 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B v^ E H Fig. 9. A-B. Close zigzag split-warp twined weave, double warp, 4h. C. Open zigzag split- warp twined weave, double warp, 4i. D-E. Close diagonal split warp twined weave, double or multiple warp, 4j. F. Diagonal split-warp twined weave, multiple warp unequally divided, 41. G-H. Three-strand lattice twined weave, single lattice, outer and inner appearance, 4m. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 65 Ws& "\ '* ™ p Fig. 10. Basket of close diagonal split-warp twine; multiple warp; both elements of sedge; dec- orative band of plain twine, one of the strands same material dyed; scalloped selvedge. Mpondomise, Tshixo, Tsolo, 1969 (SAM-9579). Height 365 mm. Africa at least, the vertical set of warps is straight and the horizontal set may be single (5c) or double (5g), one on each side of the upright. In the latter case the wrapping may enclose a row of plain twine (5/?, Fig. 12F). In chain lattice wrapped the wrapping strand is hitched in loops that make a chain stitch effect. It has been seen with one lattice (5d, Fig. 12B, C). In figure-of-eight lattice wrapped, the wrapping strand makes a figure-of-eight (5e, Fig. 12D); and in hitched lattice wrap the weft, after wrapping and emerging to the front, hitches under the stroke below before proceeding, thereby holding the lattice (5/). This was seen among the Ndau with a circular grass lattice and gave the impression of sewn coiled work, but there is no stitching. Twined, (i) Plain twine, close or open (5i and 5j). (ii) Lattice twine, with one lattice and one or more twining strands (5k, 51, Fig. 14). (iii) Lattice twine, with two lattices and one or more twining strands (5m, Fig. 12E; 5n). (iv) A combination of (i) and (iii) in which a row of double lattice wrap is placed over a row of plain twine (5o, Fig. 12F). Wattlework This is a form of wickerwork in which the warps are stakes that are planted in the ground or in a heavy base. It is used for fencing and for the framework of 66 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 11. Basket of lattice twine, single lattice, all elements palm-leaf; reinforced selvedge. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6129). Height 205 mm. huts and sledges, and is found for these purposes over most of southern Africa. In wattlework the varieties so far found are chequer (6a), plain lattice wrapped, with one or two lattices (6b, 6c, Fig. 15), hitched lattice wrapped (6d) (when the strand takes a turn round itself at each crossing), figure-of-eight lattice wrapped (6e), and varieties of lattice twine (6f-6k). Lattice wrapped wattlework is used on hut walls in the north and east, and there may be two sets of horizontal lat- tices holding one set of vertical warps, or two sets of vertical warps with one set of horizontal lattices between them. The latter demands a different way of wrap- ping the weft, which takes a figure-of-eight instead of a simple course. Plaiting Plaiting is the process by which three or more strands of a single set of ele- ments are interlaced to form a flat, round or square braid. It is used mostly for ornaments or hanging loops for articles and for decorating other basketwork, and is found mainly in the east and south. There are several sorts of plaiting: Simple plaiting (7a, 7b, Fig. 16A, B). When three or more strands are interlaced in a diagonal chequer weave to form a flat braid. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 67 iswEi> ° p <^ <£3 IG fZ jC / c^ ] d 1 ! il . ^fefe Fig. 12. A. Chequer wickerwork, 5a. B-C. Chain lattice wrapped wickerwork, single lattice. 5d. D. Figure-of-eight lattice wrapped wickerwork, lattice between two sets of warps, 5e. E. Double lattice one strand twined wickerwork, 5m. F. Double lattice wickerwork. one strand twine over plain twine. 5o. 68 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 13. Basket of chequer wicker weave, warp wood slivers, weft split creeper stems; stapled edge. Mari, Chibi, Zimbabwe, 1963 (SAM-8952). Height 176 mm. Extended plaiting {7c, 7d, 7e, 7f, 7g). When a simple plait of three, four or more strands is continued in a flat or ascending coil to make a fabric. Each round of the coiling is joined to the next by bringing in a new strand at the beginning of each plaiting movement in the first round (and later at intervals to increase the size), and letting it continue in the braid, while the strand whose place it is taking goes out at the end of the movement, and in the next round is picked up as a new strand. The two adjoining rounds may be drawn close (7c, Fig. 16C), or an open space may be left between them (7d, Fig. 16D, E). A dif- ferent appearance may be given to the latter by tightening the strands unevenly (7e) but, in the only instance recorded, the decorative effect was on the wrong side and not exploited as decoration. The same varieties of plait may be used with more than three strands (7f, 7g, Fig. 16F). Twilled plaiting (7h, Fig. 17A). Similar to simple plaiting, but the strands go over and under two or more strands instead of one. Multiple plaiting (7i, 7j). A flat braid formed of any number of strands divided into groups. Each strand is treated singly at the edge, but the groups are interwoven as a so-many-strand plait. If the groups of the strands cross at the centre a plain plaited effect is obtained (7i, Fig. 17B). By having an unequal number in the groups they can be made to cross at the edges and a zigzag effect is obtained (7/). Herringbone (7k, Fig 17C). A flat braid formed of any number of strands divided into two groups which start in opposite directions. Each strand is treated BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 69 Fig. 14. Fish trap of open lattice twined wickerwork, 51, warps and lattices withies, two wefts of bark; shaped by tension; to finish, warps gathered into a bound bundle, held by figure-of- eight seizing. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6124). Height 710 mm. singly at the edge, and goes under the opposite strand at the centre. This pro- duces a herringbone effect. Open (71). A flat braid formed from a number of strands which instead of crossing at the centre, plait only at the edge, which gives the appearance of one group always on top and the other underneath. Angular, (i) A flat braid in which the elements are interlaced only at the edges where they turn at a sharp angle to make an angular product, in a manner best indicated by the figure (7m, Fig. 17D). (ii) A rounded braid in which the elements are interlaced in a regular but uneven rhythm and take a sharp turn at each side (7n, Fig. 17E). Round (7o, Fig. 17F). Four strands are plaited simply to make a round braid. Those on the left go under two to the right and over one to the left, whereas those on the right go under two to the left and over one to the right. 70 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM E^MljM Fig. 15. Sledge of plain lattice wrapped wattlework, single strand, warps and lattices withies, wefts bark. Ndebele. near Empandeni, Zimbabwe. 1967. (Mrs Masuku standing.) Height c. 1 780 mm. Square (7p, 7q, Fig. 17G, H). Seven or more strands are plaited simply, to make a square (four edged) braid, each side of which looks like a simple three- strand plait. Hitched (7r, Fig. 171). Each of a number of strands, usually four, is hitched round a central strand, proceeding in turn for the desired length to make a round cord. Three- or more strand spiral (7s, 7t). Three or more strands are plaited across and surrounding a central strand to make a round plait with a spiral twist and ridge. SEWN In sewn work the two sets of interlacing elements may be called the foun- dation and the sewing, and the major division is according to whether the foundation is straight or coiled. Each division has further varieties, according to the type of foundation and, in coiled work, the manner of sewing as well. Straight foundation: flat or cylindrical In straight work a number of separate foundation strands is laid side by side longitudinally and the sewing strand, which joins them together, passes through BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 71 B Fig. 16. A. Three-strand simple plait, 7a. B. Many-strand simple plait, 7b. C. Four-strand close extended plait, 7c. D-E. Outer and inner appearance four-strand open extended plait. strands tightened unevenly, 7d. F. Many-strand open extended plait, 7g. 72 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM J5 • - j- a. ■3-° C u S "3 a. — (U 3 c cr o 1/3 X3T3 1 = c 1 ' E c/> *C <U ^ DC ^ y ti) X 1 i\ | -i-j a • ctf o. £ <u _D- L "^ a. ML e -a a WTB .g 3 | Nov 'c3 o 15 ^ ftj CQ ;fc OX) BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 73 I I Fig. 18. A. Straight sewing, single foundation, 8. B. Straight sewing through each twist of a two-ply twisted cord foundation, 9a. C. Straight sewing through each twist of a three-ply twisted cord foundation, 9c. 74 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 19. Straight sewn cylindrical beer-strainer, foundation of three-ply cords of twisted sedge; sewing sedge, edge fringed above knots. Mpondomise, Tsolo, Transkei, 1936 (SAM-5564). Length 521 mm. them horizontally at intervals. The work may be flat or cylindrical. When the work is flat, the sewing strand may cross it only once and then be fastened off, or may turn back and re-cross it once or several times, according to the width of the fabric. When the work is cylindrical, the sewing strand travels in a continu- ous spiral. It is possible to join the straight foundation strands by oversewing, but this technique does not commonly occur in southern Africa. One poorly authenticated example was seen. There are two sorts of straight foundation: Single. When the foundation strands are single and simple. Very commonly smooth sedge stems (8, Fig. 18A) are used, but in Zimbabwe split and flattened reed stems are used. This is only known in flat work. It is a common technique for sleeping-mats and is widely distributed. Composite. When each foundation strand is composed of a number of twisted elements. These may be two- or three-ply twisted cords, between the strands of which the sewing strand, which may also be twisted, passes. Only cyl- indrical work is known. When two-ply cord is used for the foundation the sewing strand passes over one and under one strand, generally through each twist of the cord (9a, Fig. 18B), although in examples from the Transvaal Tsonga it only passes through every fourth or fifth twist (9b). When three-ply cord is used the sewing strand passes through each twist of the cord, under two and over one strand (9c, Figs 18C, 19). This technique is used for one of the two most common sorts of beer-strainer made in this country. Coiled foundation Coiled work is circular and may be flat or ascending. A continuous foun- dation is sewn together in a flat or an ascending coil and, in all but the two sorts of flat work seen, the sewing strand passes right round the new coil foundation at each stitch. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 75 B D \ Fig. 20. A-B. Straight sewing through flat coiled plaited foundation. 10a. C. D, E. Tacking through flat coiled plaited foundation, 10b. 76 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 21. A. Simple oversewing over simple coil foundation, 11a. B. Simple oversewing over one coil of multiple coil foundation, lib. C-D. Corded oversewing over simple coil foun- dation, diagram and finished effect, 12a. E. Plain beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, 17a. F. Diagonal beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, 17b. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 77 Fig. 22. A. Basket, simple oversewing over one coil of multiple foundation; chequer square start; triple oversewn edge; foundation grass, sewing palm. Zulu, Eshowe, Natal, 1961 (SAM-8397). Diameter 210 mm. B. Basket, corded oversewing over two coils of multiple foundation; diagonal oversewn edge; foundation grass, sewing twisted sedge. Kgatla, Mochudi, Botswana, 1933 (SAM-4799). Diameter 400 mm. 78 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 23. Grain-bin, diagonal beeskep sewing over one coil of multiple foundation; foundation grass, sewing plaited grass. South Sotho, HaSouru, Lesotho, 1978. Height c. 1 200 mm. Coiled foundation: flat This is only known with a single composite foundation of plaited grass. The plaits are laid face to face and joined in one of two ways: (a) By sewing right through as in straight sewn work. The use of this technique has only been recorded for personal ornaments of the south-eastern area and Lesotho (10a, Fig. 20A, B). (b) By tacking with a running stitch that passes only through the new coil and the one before, a stitch which seems to be of recent origin, prob- ably in Zululand, and is becoming increasingly used, especially for floor mats (10b, Fig. 20C-E). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 79 B ^ 7 FT M Fig. 24. A-C. Stages in ribbed beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation. 17c. D. Basket, ribbed beeskep sewing over multiple foundation; neck simple oversewing with decoration of columns of lengthened stitches over two coils; foundation and sewing palm-leaf. Natal, isichuma, (British Museum 337a). Height c. 170 mm. 80 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 1^ 15 I BHRHHU B Fig. 25. A. Close interlock sewing over simple coil foundation, 13a. B. Close interlock sewing over multiple coil foundation, piercing foundation, 13c. C. Close interlock sewing over mul- tiple coil foundation, round two coils, 13d. D-E. Open interlock sewing over multiple foundation, stitch passing between the coils, 13g. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 81 Fig. 26. Basket, close interlock sewing over two coils, single foundation; foundation root stem, sewing split root stem; herringbone edge. Lobedu, Duiwelskloof, Transvaal, 1936 (UCT 38/70). Diameter 341 mm. Coiled foundation: ascending The ascending oversewn coiled work is probably the most widespread bas- ketwork technique in southern Africa and it would seem to be the main technique for all except the Shona, who use wickerwork, and the Southern Nguni, most of whom nowadays use split warp twine. The varieties of the work may be differentiated according both to the foundation and the sewing. In southern Africa only two sorts of ascending coiled foundation have been noted — a simple foundation, consisting of a single rod, and a multiple foun- dation, consisting of numerous thin strands or even a soft plaited element. There are several methods of oversewing. To a certain extent they depend on the type of foundation used. In each method of oversewing the stitches may be close together so that the sewing covers the whole foundation, or widely spaced so as to show the foundation. Many different effects can thus be produced by using essentially the same technique. The sewing strand may be flat, single or mul- tiple, twisted or a plaited strand, and this too produces different effects with the same way of sewing, but some of the stitches limit the choice of strand. It should be noted that most workers in most areas proceed from left to right and the fol- lowing descriptions are based on this fact, but it should be borne in mind that some do work from right to left. Whether the worker faces the right or the wrong side of the work is a matter of convenience and depends on the object being made. The following methods of sewing and the foundations on which they are used have been recorded: On simple or multiple foundation Simple oversewing: each stitch, coming out at the back of the work. i.e. away from the worker, passes over the new portion of the foundation slightly 82 A ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 27. A. Openwork sewing over multiple foundation, 14b. B-C. Knot stitch over simple coil foundation; outer and inner appearance, 15a. D. Knot stitch over multiple foundation, 15b. diagonally, goes in at the front ahead of the stitch below, i.e. in the direction the work is proceeding, and passes straight under or through the previous coil. This is perhaps the most widely used of all the sewn techniques. When a simple foundation of a single rod (11a, Fig. 21 A), generally the pliable stem of a creeper or a root, is used, the sewing must of necessity pass round the previous coil since it cannot pierce it. This technique is used mainly in the eastern Transvaal and Mozambique. If the simple foundation is soft, or when the foundation is multiple and con- sists of a bundle of thin strands of, for example, grass or shredded palm-leaf, the sewing, after passing round the new coil, pierces only a small portion of the top of the last coil (lib, Figs 21B, 22A). This latter is by far the more common type of foundation of the two in southern Africa. Sometimes, however, the stitch passes right round the last coil as well as the new (lie), and the effect is then the same as when a single rod foundation is used. Simple oversewing gives no special decorative effect to the finished surface, whether closely or openly worked. Corded. When the stitching is markedly diagonal and the stitch is put in ahead of or behind (i.e. either to right or left) the one below it and goes straight through to the back without interlocking and when a thick or twisted sewing strand is used, a vertical corded effect is obtained that is often exploited for dec- oration. The foundation may be simple (12a, Fig. 21C, D), in which case the BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 83 Fig. 28. Basket, openwork sewing with palm-leaf over multiple foundation of palm-leaf; no edging, herring-bone finish. Ndebele, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1939 (SAM-5998). Height 77 mm. sewing is over two coils, or multiple, where the stitch may go over one (12b) or two coils (12c, Fig. 22B), and for purely decorative purposes over more. The sewing may be close or widely spaced. This technique seems to be favoured especially by Natal Nguni, Central Sotho, Venda and Tswana. Interlock. When the new stitch is brought straight over the new coil and passes diagonally through the loop of the stitch below. On a simple foundation it must also go round the coil below (13a, Figs 25 A, 26). The sewing may be close or open (13b). On a multiple foundation the stitch generally, but not always, pierces the top of the foundation below (13c, Fig. 25B) but it may go round it (13d, Fig. 25C). On either foundation it may go between the two coils (13g, Fig. 25D, E). Open stitching of this sort gives the effect of a series of diagonal lines across the work; close stitching gives a checked effect of stitches and spaces alternating in adjoining coils. This technique was rarely found. Openwork (14a, 14b, Figs 27A, 28). When the sewing strand, after passing round or through the top of the preceding coil, is wound round the new coil once or several times between stitches. The stitches and the windings are gener- ally regulated to make a pattern. This would seem to be an introduced stitch, though the Zimbabwe Ndebele deny this, and claim that it is the first stitch taught to children, which may be, but several generations have passed. Knotstitch (15a, 15b, Fig. 27B-D). In this method, the sewing passes round both coils, but breaks its journey up the back to come out to the front between the two coils — either to the left or to the right of itself depending on whether the work is from the left or the right — crosses over its own last stitch and goes through to the back again to continue diagonally its journey upwards. The work is done closely and gives the appearance of a row of knots between the coils. 84 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 29. A-B. Inner and outer appearance of three-strand sewing over multiple coil foun- dation, 16b. C. Close furcate split-stitch oversewing on multiple coil foundation, 18a. D-E. Close furcate sewing, twice into one hole, on multiple coil foundation, 18c. F-G. Outer and inner appearance of open split-stitch furcate sewing on multiple coil foundation, 18d. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 85 Fig. 30. Basket, close furcate sewing with sedge, over multiple foundation of grass or stripped sedge, twice into one hole. (Lid is of hide.) ?Lesotho, early twentieth century (SAM-6536). Height 153 mm. Often, however, an extra encircling of the foundation of the new coil separates the knots. This does not seem to be a southern African technique and was prob- ably first taught in schools, as it still is. Three-strand. Oversewing done diagonally with three separate strands, each stitch of each strand missing two stitches of the previous coil. In the only example recorded, a Southern Sotho hat (SAM-2261), the sewing is interlocked and over a multiple coil (16b, Fig. 29 A, B). On a multiple foundation only Beeskep. The stitches are like simple or corded oversewing, but widely spaced with each stitch placed just behind (17a, Fig. 21E), or just in front of, the stitch of the coil below (17b, Figs 21F, 23). The effect of the latter is often of radial lines on the fabric. Comparatively few examples have been recorded, from widespread localities, and only with a multiple foundation. The technique may not be indigenous. A variety seen on a basket from Natal (an isolated example) has the stitch coming out and going over an external semi-circular rib of grass before going in again (17c, Fig. 24A-D). Furcate sewing. When the new stitch splits the stitch below it of the pre- ceding coil, (18a, Figs 29C, 30) or when the successive stitch is sewn into the same hole (18c, Fig. 29D, E), it gives a forked effect. This is often done inadvertently in simple oversewing, but when done systematically a vertical chain-stitch effect is produced, which is the more marked when the stitches are widely spaced (18d, Fig. 29F, G). Closely sewn modern work is not very 86 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 31. A. Plain cross-stitch sewing on multiple foundation, 19a. B-C. Outer and inner appearance of interlock cross-stitch sewing on multiple foundation, 19b. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 87 remarkable, but on some old examples of Xhosa and Thembu baskets, of a type no longer made, the work is so fine as almost to look like another technique (Fig. 29E). This latter has not been recorded from any other area in southern Africa. Cross-stitch. When the sewing strand is so stitched as to form a plain cross- stitch or herring-bone effect, the same on both sides. The stitch passes diag- onally forward over to the front from the last stitch, through straight between the coil from front to back, returns diagonally over to the front, crossing its first stitch, through the previous coil and first part of the stitch below from front to back, and diagonally forward to commence the next stitch (19a, Fig. 31A). In a variety of this the sewing strand passes through the old coil and interlocks with the stitch below in its first wrapping, and either round or through the new coil in its second wrapping. This gives a rather different effect and is different on each side (19b, Fig. 31B, C). This has been seen only on baskets from Ovambo and it too may have been introduced, possibly by the Finnish missions. BEGINNINGS Beginnings are to a certain extent influenced by the eventual shape of the object. FLAT AND STRAIGHT WORK Woven or sewn The manner of beginning scarcely needs description. In twined or wrapped woven work or in straight sewn work, the warps or foundation strands that are to be used are laid out first and joined together by the first row of weft or sewing. The weft strand may start with a knot (20a) or be doubled over in a loop (20b). The latter may start several foundation strands from the edge, go to the edge, and then turn back (20c, Fig. 32). A sewing strand starts with a knot. This is the way of beginning mats and also some brooms, where small bundles of the grass are taken separately, bent over for about 25 mm at the root end (which is to be the handle) and held so by twining, each bundle being added on separately until a long fringe of grass is formed, held by one twined row. The fringe is then rolled to form a broom. In the case of sleeping-mats, the first row of weft or sewing is generally at one edge but certain practitioners were seen to start at the centre of the mat. In the isolated instance of the Northern Nguni skimming spoons (Fig. 106), the midrib of a palm foliole is bent at its centre to form the bowl and held in shape by twining. In all other flat woven techniques except plaiting, the work is generally started at one corner with one warp and one weft, and others are added alter- nately (21). A Tsonga maker of twilled winnowing baskets, however, first twined six warps together for the start, in a corner that was subsequently cut off. 88 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 32. Loop start to flat open twine, some distance from the edge, 20c. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 89 Plaiting In plaiting, all the strands are taken together at the start and may be knotted to hold them in place (22); sometimes the knot is left on as a decoration. CYLINDRICAL WORK For cylindrical work, that is work with open ends unless closed by other means, the following beginnings have been noted. Woven Chequer weave (a) The warps are bound tightly in position at the base of a cylinder and the binding string continues as the weft to weave in and out (23). This is the begin- ning of a chequer covering to a stick. It is also the beginning for a spoon-bag, which is woven on a form, nowadays a bottle, that is removed when the weaving is complete. (b) Another way of beginning chequer work is to lay the warps out and, after the first row of weft, bend into a cylinder so that the edges meet and the weft continues in a spiral (24). (This was seen on one example of the flat- bottomed seroto with wicker sides made by Kalanga in Serowe.) (c) Zulu spoon-bags were seen with the warps and wefts knotted in pairs to begin, and a diagonal chequer weave continued (24 bis). Twilled weave There are several ways of beginning a cylindrical twilled weave, but the most common is to knot the strands together in pairs of one warp and one weft at a slightly obtuse angle (25, Fig. 33 A). The pairs are then twilled together in a row and either then, after one row, or later, when a good bit of the fabric has been woven, bent round so that the two ends or edges meet and are woven together to make the circlet or cylinder. Alternatively, the warps and wefts may be knotted together as a bundle and then woven (26). This is used for twilled beer-strainers or pouches. Another method is that, instead of knotting two strands, one wide strand may be folded diagonally to make the warp and weft pair and then each split into two or more (27, Fig. 33B, C); this makes a pleas- ing flat edge. The work then proceeds as above. This is seen on a Manyika fez- shaped cap. Twined weave The warps are joined by the first row of weft, which starts with a knot. The work is bent round so that the edges meet and the weft continues in a spiral (28, Fig. 33D). Or, as in chequer weave, the warps may first be bound round a mould of the desired diameter. 90 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 33. A. Start to cylindrical twill, warps and wefts knotted in pairs, 25. B-C. Start to cyl- indrical twill, warps and wefts split from folded wider strand, 27. D. Start to cylindrical twine warps joined by first row of weft; work curved so that edges meet and wefts continue in a spiral, 28. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 91 Fig. 34. Garden basket, lattice twined wicker — one lattice, two wefts, start at open base later covered with a small mat; all elements palm. Ronga, Lebombo, 1954 (UCT 54/15). Height 285 mm. Sewn Straight foundation The beginning is as for a flat object but at the end of the first row of sewing the work is bent round so that the two edges meet. The sewing strand then starts the second row and continues in a continuous spiral (29, Fig. 35). This is the beginning of one type of beer-strainer in which the foundation elements are two- or three-ply cords. The cords are knotted at one end and the knots are left on to form an edge. The work is begun by threading the sewing strand through the cords just above the knots (from the worker's point of view) and, finally, through the first foundation element to make the circle. It then continues in its spiral course. Sometimes an end is left to be joined by the ends of the cords to make a fringe (29b, Fig. 35). Sometimes the end of the sewing strand is knotted (29a, Fig. 35 A) but more often it is left long and turned up to become a cord in the fabric (29c, Fig. 35B). Very rarely the sewing starts from a decorative feature at the narrow end (29d). The foregoing beginnings are in no way notable; they are merely the most obvious ways of beginning the work and do not influence the rest of the body. CIRCULAR WORK! FLAT OR ASCENDING For circular work, however, the beginning is more important because it is the point from which the rest of the work radiates and it must be equally avail- able to all sides. There is not a great deal of variety in these beginnings. 92 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 35. Start to straight sewn cylindrical work. A. End of sewing strand is knotted, 29a. B. Sewing strand left long and worked in with foundation, 29c. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 93 Woven work In woven work it is necessary to commence at the centre of a number of warp strands, which then radiate. Other strands can be inserted between them to increase the size. The following woven beginnings have been recorded in southern Africa: Crossed warp A few warps are taken, fewer than are necessary for the completion of the basket, and crossed at their centres (30, Fig. 36A). They are held together by one or two rows of the weft and then made to radiate, and other warps are inserted. It is essential that for chequer weaving the final number of warps be odd. One recorded type of this is on the wicker baskets of the Shona. Two warp elements (each of which will make two warps) are crossed, then two more added on top and held by two rows of weft; two more pairs are added in the same way and then a single one, to make the odd number seventeen. Each of these is doubled by adding another to it after 25 mm or so of weaving and, as they turn up for the sides, all but the odd one are divided and redoubled by the addition of further warps, thereby making thirty-three double warps. (This doubling and re-dividing is a common way of increasing circular woven basketwork.) A similar beginning is seen on an Ambo granary, which is lattice twined; two lots of five vertical warps are crossed and then held by the first ring of the horizontal warp. This beginning is suitable for any type of weaving and has been recorded on chequer, twine and, especially, wicker. It is mainly seen among the Shona, where woven work predominates. Bound warp A few warps are taken and bound together at their centres by the weft strand, which then commences to weave in and out. The warps radiate and others are added as the work progresses (31, Fig. 36B). This is the usual com- mencement of the circular twined work of the peoples of the south-east and seems only to be used there. Wrapped bird-cages also begin in this way, but the correct number of warps is used from the start. Looped warp As a variation of the above, the warps, instead of being bound together straight, are looped (32, Fig. 36C). Twined warp The warps are laid side by side and joined by one or more rows of twining at their centre. They are then bent about their centre and the twining continues spirally to make a round or elliptical bag (33a, 33b, Fig. 36D). Square mat Sufficient warp strands to make the basket are chosen and woven together at their centres into a square mat, which forms the base of the basket. In its sim- 94 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM <F^^5 Jul I Juun_riLjiji_r Fig. 36. A. Crossed warp beginning, 30. B. Bound warp beginning, 31. C. Looped warp beginning, 32. D. Twined beginning to elliptical container, 33b. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 95 plest form it is of single thickness (34a-d, Fig. 37A, B). Any type of weave would serve but only chequer, twill, twine and lattice twine have been noted. The strands are then turned up and become the warps of the sides, and a new continuous weft is woven through them. It is essential for circular chequer weaving that there be an odd number of warps, so that an extra one must be inserted at the base or one of the basal warps must be bent up on one side only. The basket could be kept square in section but, in the only examples seen in southern Africa, it is allowed to become round, except in the case of lattice twine baskets. There, a few strands of two sets of warps, each set held by a double row of twining, are laid across each other at right angles and other warps are added, tucking under each other singly, in such a way as to form increasing squares, making a square base of double thickness (34d, Fig. 37C). These begin- nings are used only by Ambo and Kavango people. An alternative method is that two sets of warps are taken (in the example seen there were eight strands in each set) and in each set the strands are laid side by side and held together by enough rows of twining to make a small flat square. The two squares are super- imposed, with the warps at right angles, and the twining is continued over the free part of all the warps to make the sides of the basket, new warps being added where necessary for width (34e, Fig. 37D). This is used only by immi- grants to the Kavango territory. Finally, one set of warps is held in groups between a double set in the opposite direction to make triple thickness (34f). They are held together by a row of twining between the groups in the same direction. The twine starts with a loop and the free end, when the base is formed, continues as the weft of the sides. The base may be strengthened by rods tied to it. This has only been seen in Mozambique and may not be indigenous. Open base Ronga lattice twined garden baskets flange from an open base (Fig. 34) begun in the same way as twined cylindrical work (Fig. 33D), and covered later. Extended plait For the start of the extended plait, the first four elements are looped and plaited together in a way that cannot be described (35, Fig. 38). Fancy Fancy starts to South Sotho hats: a bundle of warps is taken and divided into groups. At one end of each group the elements straight away become the multiple warps of the hat, and at the other end of each group they are plaited or bound (figure-of-eight) into braids that are looped over to make an ornamental top-knot, before re-entering the fabric of the hat as extra warps (36, Fig. 39). Sewn work There is no record of sewn circular work on a straight foundation, which would be very impractical. In sewn work in which the coiled technique is used. 96 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 3 C 03 r j -o "» ^n *cu <»■ c n g s- 03 o i/l ^ -t-> 03 E C3 H 3 a- 03 T3 3 a; cr o a E > Of H 3 00 CQ U « <* 3 *-> i) 3 0^03 <u 2 6 3 CO OX) BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 97 Fig. 38. Start of extended plait, 35. the beginning is most commonly, but not always, at one end of the foundation. There is not much variety. The following beginnings have been recorded in southern Africa: Bent foundation The end of the foundation is bent over, for a short distance, and the sewing begins at the bend {37a, Fig. 40A); sometimes it is first bound a little with the sewing strand (37b, Fig. 40B); for an oval shape a longer piece is bent over and runs flat along the other for a little way. When knot-stitch is used for an oval shape, a longer piece is bent over and knot-stitch commences at the bend and continues to the end of the bent part, quite straight, and then continues round the coil (37c, Fig. 40C). Sometimes a short length of the foundation is plaited and then it is bent and sewn round the plait (37 d, Fig. 40D). 98 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 39. Start of Southern Sotho hat, 36. Foundation ring The end of the foundation is bent into a ring — generally round but oval has been seen — and closely oversewn all round so that sometimes a hole is left (38b, Fig. 40F) and sometimes the sewing is so thick that the hole is filled up (38a, Fig. 40E). Then the coiling continues. Knotted foundation A thick knot is made at the end of a multiple foundation and the coil is sewn round it (39, Fig. 40G). Knotted sewing A knot is made at the end of the sewing strand and forms a pad into which the first round of stitches over the foundation is caught (40, Fig. 40H). This may be a single or multiple foundation. Sewing strand start The sewing strand is bent to a ring before the foundation is introduced. The sewing strand then encircles it and its own end (41, Fig. 401). Starting pad The end of the foundation (42a, Fig. 40J) or of the sewing (42b, Fig. 40K) is roughly stitched into a pad. Chequer square A chequer square is made by folding wide strips of the sewing material alternately, to interlock in a chequer square, two or more layers thick according BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA /2L B 99 Fig. 40. Start of coiled sewing. A. Foundation bent, 37a. B. Foundation bent and bound, 37b. C. Foundation bent and held with knot stitch, 37c. D. Foundation plaited and bent, 37d. E. Foundation bent to a ring, hole closed, 38a. F. Foundation bent to a ring, hole open. 38b. G. End of foundation knotted, 39. H. End of sewing knotted, 40. I. Start with sewing strand, 41. J. Start with stitched pad of foundation, 42a. K. Start with stitched pad of sewing. 42b. 100 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 41. Start with double chequer square of sewing material, 43a. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 101 H 102 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM to choice. The strips are then split and the thin strands form the beginning of the sewing (43a, b, Fig. 41). This is almost always made of palm-leaf and almost entirely confined to the Zulu, Tsonga and Ambo. It is most probably an intro- duced technique. SHAPING INCREASES AND DECREASES There is nothing in any way remarkable about the methods of increasing or decreasing the size of the fabric. Woven and straight-sewn work Natural A natural increase or decrease in the width of flat elements may be exploited in shaping the object being made (44a, 44b). This has been recorded in twilled beer-strainers and pouches of palm-leaf, and in a San sieve where the thick nodes of the reeds used as warps are placed at the same edge to make a flanging shape. Artificial before use It can also be achieved artificially (45, Fig. 42 A) before the weaving begins, as, for example, by the Venda and others, who whittle down the ends of the slivers of wood with which they twill winnowing baskets. The narrowing of the fabric edge that thus ensues causes the fabric to turn up at the edges, which are secured between hoops. Dividing, adding and subtracting A common method of increasing woven work is by dividing the existing warps (46a) or adding new warps (47a, Fig. 42C), either put in straight, in which case they are generally doubled with the old warps for a few wefts, or in a U- bend. Wefts can also be added in this way (47c). The corresponding method of decrease is by pairing one or both elements (46b, Fig. 42B) or by taking the warps (47b) or foundation strands (48, Fig. 42E) out of the fabric, knotting or sewing them, and cutting off the remaining piece. This latter method is used very commonly in straight-sewn beer-strainers. Thickening and thinning Increases or decreases can also be made by thickening or thinning a multiple warp (49a, 49b), but this is not very common unless it is preparatory to dividing the thickened warp. Altering tension The tension of the work is used to widen or narrow the shape (50a, 50b, Fig. 14), particularly in wickerwork, and less commonly in twilled work and sewn beer-strainers. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 103 Fig. 42. A. Chequer weave showing artificial decrease and increase of elements, 45. B. Twilled weave showing artificial decrease by pairing elements, 46b. C. Twined weave showing increase by adding warps, 47a. D. Decrease in coiled sewn work by placing of coil. 51b. E. Decrease in straight sewing by removing foundation elements, 50. 104 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Coiled sewn work Placing coil In coiled sewn work, the shaping is achieved by the placing of the coil to enlarge or reduce the diameter (51a, 51b, Fig. 42D). Thickening or thinning Certain alterations may be made by thickening or thinning the coil foun- dation for one or more coils, but this is not common (52a, 52b). MOULDING OR CUTTING This occurs in woven work and straight sewn work only. Moulding A loosely woven fabric may be moulded into shape and held in shape by oversewing the edge to a hoop or holding it between two hoops (53, Fig. 43). Examples of this are the winnowing baskets and especially the waisted mufharo basket of the Venda (Fig. 4), in which the bowl is hollowed by forcing each edge of the fabric into a band that is smaller than the natural diameter of the bowl. A curved upper portion is then moulded in the same way. Craftsmen aid the process by working with damp material. One who was visited made a shallow depression in the ground and forced the mat into it to set the required curve, and another used a basin of water in the same way. Gathering A cylindrical fabric may be shaped by gathering into a knot or bound bundle at one end (54, Fig. 14). This is seen in traps and some beer-strainers. Fig. 43. Winnowing basket, shaped by cutting and moulding and edge held between hoops. Straight twill, warp and weft of wood slivers, hoops wood. Manyika, Mutare (Umtali), Zim- babwe, 1963 (SAM-8968). Greatest diameter, 378 mm. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 105 Move to right In a special instance, that of shaping the bulbous top-knot on some South Sotho hats, the warps are moved one to the right or left, depending on the direc- tion of work, with a twist round the next one to make the ridge stand out before narrowing (55, Fig. 44). Fig. 44. Shaping by moving warps to right for ridge of hat, 55. Bend warps Warps may be bent into shape during the weave (56), as in the somewhat specialized case of woven spoons, where the warps are bent at their centre to form the bowl and then come together to form a central core that is wrapped or plaited to form a handle (58, Fig. 106). Bend fabric A fabric may be bent into shape after the weave, for example, in pouches and spoon-bags where a cylindrical fabric is pressed flat and held by sewing; or the shallow straight-sided baskets of the Kalanga in Botswana, where a flat narrow fabric is bent to form a shallow cylinder, sewn at the overlap of the ends, and the shape held by hoops and a hide base (57, Fig. 45); or the ornamental knobs on South Sotho hats. Cut fabric A certain amount of shaping is done by cutting the fabric (59, Fig. 43), par- ticularly where a round object is made from a square piece of fabric. This may 106 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 45. Chequer wicker basket, shaped by bending fabric to shape after weave. Warp split reed; weft and stitching bark; hide base and binding of rim. Ngwato (Kalanga), Serowe Botswana, 1904 (SAM-586). Height 154 mm. be seen in the winnowing baskets, where a round hoop is attached to a square of fabric (Fig. 43). As soon as the first fastening is done the four corners are cut off. Shorten wefts The ends of some Xhosa sleeping-mats are rounded by shortening the wefts and trimming the warps off to shape (60). JOINING OF PARTS In certain baskets, two or more pieces of fabric are prepared and have to be joined together (61). Examples are the mufharo baskets of the Venda, where the upper and lower parts are joined at the centre by a band of sewing over a hoop on each side of the fabric (Fig. 4). Similarly, the walls of the straight-sided Kalanga and Ndau baskets have to be joined to a woven or hide base (Fig. 45). EDGES There is a great variety in edges, which differ mainly according to whether the body of the work is woven or straight sewn, or, on the other hand, coiled sewn. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 107 WOVEN AND STRAIGHT SEWN WORK On woven and straight sewn work there are two edges to be considered: the warp edges, where the warps or foundation strands end, and the weft edges, where the wefts or sewing strands end. Warp or foundation edges No edging The warp edge of some chequer wicker- and wattlework and of finely twined work frequently has no edging at all. The warps are merely cut off short, but not so short that the wefts will slip off (62a, 62b, 62c). Changed weft The use of a different and sometimes thicker material for the last weft (63 ) has been recorded on twined work, but is not very widespread. Selvedge The most common edging of close woven work, whether chequer, twilled, twined, lattice twined or plaited, might be considered a form of selvedge, in that the warps are turned back and tucked in. There are very many varieties of this. On straight chequer the last row of weft may be tucked straight back (64a), or into the next gap (64b), or may be reinforced by thickenings or by the addition of an extra element before or after (64c, Fig. 46A) the warps are bent over and tucked back on their tracks. All these are rare. On diagonal chequer both warps and wefts continue over the edge and are threaded through the check on a natural course and cut off invisibly (65). On straight twill the warp ends are turned back and tucked in, without reinforcement of the last weft (66). On diagonal twill both sets of elements, before being cut off, continue over the edge on a normal course — front down back and back down front — to make a single edge (67 a). Or, both sets are turned over to the front when they have reached the top and are threaded through the twill on a natural course; when done without further complication this makes a slightly thickened front edge (67b, Fig. 47 A). This is the most common edge but there is some variation in the way in which it is done. Alternatively elements of each set are turned over at right angles and threaded through on the same side to make a double edge (67c, Fig. 47B). The effect of a raised edge on the finishing side is made by turning down those elements that are in front before they complete their course to the back (67 d). On a pouch, the lower portion may have the elements turned to the back and those of the lid to the front so that the smooth sides are together when closing. On a bag of modern style with a pointed flap, the edges of the flap are finished by turning one set of elements back on its tracks over a reinforcing strip — reinforced edge (67 e). A further variation is for one set of elements to be cut off at the edge and for the other set to bend over to the back, hiding the cut elements, and making a thin edge (67 f, Fig. 47C). 108 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM On twined work the warps may simply be bent under and held either by a single row of twining (68a), or by a strand made by twisting some warps to the right to continue, one after the other (68b, Fig. 48 A). More commonly in the south, the warps may be turned over from back to front or front to back, and tucked into the stitches of a final row of twining and through to the back again to give a scalloped effect (68c-68o, Fig. 52, right). Several ways in which this is done, sometimes with the full warp, part warp, or alternate warps, are demon- strated by the illustrations (Figs 48, 49). This edging appears to be characteristic of the Nguni, especially in the south. Another selvedge gives a plaited effect and this too has a number of varieties (68p-68w, Fig. 50). Twined work sometimes has a reinforced edge when a lattice is added on each side of the fabric, above the last row of the weft. Each warp then passes round both lattices, and out to the front below the front lattice, where it is cut (68w, Fig. 50G). This is not very common. On another edge an extra strand is wrapped round the twining strands (68x). On lattice twined work a selvedge is made by turning the warps back on themselves, either to hold and be held by the twining strand (69a, Fig. 51 A), or to hold the lattice (69c, Fig. 5 IB); either may be reinforced (69b, d). This was recorded only from the Hlengwe and Ndau of Zimbabwe and from the Kwanyama. On wickerwork the warps may be bent sideways and tucked in next to the following warp (70, Fig. 46B). The isolated body technique of the extended plait is edged with another plait close to the last, with the inner ends that should go through again, cut off and the end from the previous plait going through alone (71, Fig. 51C). This is a South Sotho technique. Tucked edge Straight sewn work may be given a tucked edge by bending the foundation elements to the side and tucking them either under the last sewing strand or into one or more rows of twining above the last sewing strand (72a-72g, Fig. 53 A). Chequer edge The mouth of a lattice twined granary of the Ambo has a rounded edge that is made by laying a number of horizontal strands over the tops of the vertical strands and holding them by chequer weave with the bark weft (73, Fig. 53B). Whipped edge A Lobedu twined sleeping-mat has its edges finished with a double row of twining and then, at one edge only, the warp bundles are whipped with single- ply twisted sedge (74, Fig. 53C), formerly part of the warp. Twined edge The most common warp edging is of two or more rows of close plain twining with the warps or foundation elements cut short (75a). This is used when the BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 109 EErapl &4PK fciirnrivl MS nr-rr 2!_ T F5ir =c T TrT T c ^^ - — K — ==1 — - i r ^< ZPI^^ . TTT T^ Fig. 46. A. Straight selvedge on warp edge of chequer, with reinforcing strand, 64c. B. Plain sideways selvedge on warp edge of chequer wicker, ^70. 110 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 47. A. Front selvedge on diagonal twill, 67b. B. Double selvedge on diagonal twill, 67c C. Thin selvedge on diagonal twill, 67f. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 111 r Jxi O ea - > x> (U-o _c G 112 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 49. A-B. Front and back of scalloped selvedge on twine, multiple warp; part up to edge and cut, part from back to front to back and cut, 68d. C-D. Scalloped selvedge on twine; part up to edge and cut, part from back to front to back and up to edge and cut, 68h. E-F. Scal- loped selvedge on twine, full multiple warp from front to back and down through two rows of twine, 68n. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 113 body is of a fancy twine, or of a widely spaced open twine, as on mats. On a Naron sieve of open twine, several rows of close twine are placed just below the nodes of the reeds that form the warps. It is also used on a body of chequer and is used very frequently on straight sewn work; sleeping-mats in the latter tech- nique are generally edged with two or three rows of plain twining as are, among some people, the sewn beer-strainers described above. These latter nearly always start with the cords knotted and some makers leave the knots on as an edging; others start the work with four or five rows of plain twining and cut the knots off. It is sometimes used in the opposite diagonal to the main body of twining (75b, Fig. 54A). Similarly, plain twined work may have a border of two- ox three-strand fancy twining, over two and under one (75c, 75d, Fig. 54B), or a chain stitch effect on the front only, by twining with three strands, one of which turns round the other two between warps and comes out in front again (75 e, Fig. 54C). A twined food-mat is edged by weaving or sewing one or two extra wefts through the first and last row of twining in the same (75 f, Fig. 54D, E), or in the opposite (75 g) direction. The warps are cut short on a Mpondo mat or, on a Xesibe example, bent over on the right side and held down by the extra weft. Sometimes, on straight sewn mats, a fibre cord on each side of the edge of the fabric is lattice twined to it (75 h). Wrapped edge A wrapped edge is seen very often on straight sewn sleeping-mats, but tends to be more common in the east and north, especially amongst the Shona. It may be plain wrapping with a single strand over two, three or four foundation ele- ments or warps, and under one or two (76a, Fig. 55A, B); or two strands are used and one or both of them twine as well as wrapping (76c, 76d, Fig. 55E, F); or the edge may be hitched (76b, Fig. 55C, D), when a single strand is given a full- or half-hitch after each wrap; or it may be wrapped in a figure-of-eight (76i): or taken over three foundation strands to give a chain effect (76j). Sometimes a lattice, in the form of fibre cord, is added to the plain and hitched wrapping (76g, 76h, Fig. 56A, B). Only the plain and hitched varieties are at all common. An isolated instance from the Fue in the Okavango area is tied with a half-reef knot at each wrap (76e, 76f). Plaited edge An elaborate plaited edging is given to some Zulu grain-bins of twined fabric. First of all the warps are bent outwards almost at right angles and held by three rows of twining; then the warps are twisted sideways and finished off with a plait (77a, Fig. 57). In a similar example from the Chopi, the edge is double (77b). A different sort of plaited edging is seen on similar grain-bins of the Ndebele in Zimbabwe, where the thinned warps — after separation into groups of three strands — are plaited and hang down (77c, Fig. 58A, B). 114 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM J J 1 t J r u n f^i B Fig. 50. A-B. Plaited selvedge on twine, full warp, 68p. C-D. Plaited selvedge on twine, part warp, 68q. E-F. Twilled plaited selvedge on twine, 68u. G. Reinforced selvedge on twine, 68w. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 115 116 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 51. A. Selvedge on lattice twine; warps turned back on themselves, holding, and then held by single twining strand, 69a. B. Selvedge on lattice twine, holding, and then held by one or more lattices; extra lattices added later, 69c. C. Selvedge on extended plait, 71. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 117 rwmsmmrmtmmmm Fig. 52. Corner of twined food-mat. Scalloped selvedge, multiple warp back to front and cut, 68k (right), and wrapped weft edge on twine, 86d (below). Oversewing An oversewn edge, similar to that on coiled work, is sometimes used, mostly in the east of the area. The sewing may be direct (78a, 78b) or over additional wefts (78c, 78d), in plain or fancy stitch or over one or more thick- ened coils added above the last wefts (78e, 78f). This latter is commonly sewn with a three-strand plait (78e, Fig. 59A, B) or with plain bark (78f). An over- sewn edging on chequer wicker with widely spaced warps, is made by bending the remaining warps sideways and twisting them round the edge, where they are held in place by oversewing at intervals (78g). This is seen more commonly than elsewhere in the extreme north-east of Zimbabwe. Oversewing on wicker may be over and into the warps only (78h), and sometimes only into alternate warps (78i, Fig. 59C), or the edge may be reinforced and oversewn at intervals (75/), or all round (78k). The reinforcing may be with one or more lattices on each side (781, Fig. 59D). Knotted edge Beer-strainers, whether sewn or woven, usually have a knotted edge. This generally results from the manner of starting. The varieties are: a plain knotted edge (79a, Fig. 60B); a fringed edge in which either the knots are between fringe and fabric (79b, Fig. 60A, 107) or the fringe is between knots and fabric (79c, Fig. 60D). In the latter, the fringe may be twisted (79c, Fig. 60D) or plaited 118 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM EJ fc JJJJ LK TT -U L~ Ml (1111 JlUl JJ -1 Fig. 53. A. Tucked selvedge on straight sewn work, 72a. B. Chequer edge on lattice twine, 73. C. Whipped warp edge on twine, 74. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 119 CT3 C a II o cm cd 'r 1 •— i ■oQ g "^ hn is o U U (U oo C C ^^ ^? C * n* •— «« o c g o o * o £ a,« o ■8-8 1 (U C i- ■£•>■£ - 5b c CO "" — ec O o DO C -a «j a. <u *- o g* c ° <u N! <" O # C <L> £ aS5 ° o . o O..E 55 * fa -O 120 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 55. A-B. Outer and inner views of plain wrapped warp edge to twine, with single strand over two double warps and under one, 76a. C-D. Inner and outer views of warp edging of hitched wrapping with single strand on straight sewn, 76b. E-F. Outer and inner views of edging of wrapped twining on straight sewn, 76d. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 121 v — ; j L J V > u U 122 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM (79d), and an edge on which the knots are tucked under the last sewing strand and may be cut off plain or end in a fringe too {79 e, 79 f, Fig. 60C). Stapled edge For wickerwork, a purely utilitarian type of edging seen on Shona garden baskets and Mpondo meat trays is the insertion of a hoop of the same material as the wefts, between each pair of warps, crossing the cross of the wefts (80, Fig. 61A). 1 1 H n 3 u uuo 3 4 B ~J 1 B Fig. 56. A. Lattice wrapped edge on straight sewn, 76g. B. Hitched lattice wrapped edge, 76h. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 123 Rims Flat twilled work that is cut to a round after weaving is edged in a similar way throughout the centre, east and north-east of the country, and the edge is as important for determining the shape of the object as for giving it strength (Fig. 63). One or more thin hoops of wood or reed are fixed on one or both sides of the edge of the fabric in such a way that the fabric has to turn up to fit the size of the hoop and the whole is oversewn closely with a strong material (81a, 81c, Fig. 61B-D). Sometimes another hoop is placed on top before the oversewing (81b). Winnowing trays, both twilled and chequer weave, are edged like this. As a variation of this, occurring only in the north and in Mozambique, an extra upstanding rim, wide or narrow, and of wood or bamboo, may be sewn on in addition to the hoops, (81 d, 81 e, Figs 62A-B, C-D, 63). In one example seen, two outside hoops are projected as a ridge (81 f, Fig. 62E). Sometimes deep, lidded baskets are made in this way. Hems and flat bindings Edgings to twilled work that seem to point to external influence are a turned down hem (82) stitched with fine string, and a flat binding (83) sewn on with string. Weft or sewing edges The weft edges are rather different, since for the most part their finish depends on the fact that the wefts or sewing strands have to be carried back to continue the weaving or sewing along the next row. The main difference depends on whether wefts or sewing strands are close together or far apart. In some cases, the last warp on each end is either reinforced or made of a thick stick, e.g. sieves of the San of northern Cape. Sometimes, however, the wefts are not taken back, but are cut off at the end and secured in various ways. Wefts or sewing strands end off singly The simplest of the weft edge techniques is for wefts or sewing strands to end off when they reach the edge. They may be knotted at the edge and cut off Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Fig. 57. Plaited edge on twine, 77a. 124 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 58. A. Warp edge of hanging plaits on twine, 77c. B. Grain-bins with ends of warps plaited to hang down. Ndebele, between Nyambi and Humbani, Zimbabwe, 1967. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 125 Fig. 59. A-B. Edge of circular work oversewn with plaited strand over thick multiple coil, 78e. C. Edge of oversewing into alternate warps on chequer wicker, 78i. D. On wicker, edge reinforced above weaving by one lattice on each side, and oversewn all round and through warps, 781. 126 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 60. A. Knotted edge on straight sewn, fringed above knots, 79c. B. Plain knotted edge on straight sewn, 79a. C. Knotted edge on straight sewn, knots tucked under last sewing strand with short fringe, 79f. D. Knotted edge on twill, twisted fringe below knots, 79c. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 127 JCX Fig. 61. A. Stapled edge on wicker chequer, 80. B-C. Rim formed by one hoop on one side, oversewn, 81a. D. Rim formed by one hoop on each side, oversewn, 81c. 128 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 62. A-B. Hoop inside and outside, extra rim covered by wide band on outside, spaced oversewing on twill, 81d. C-D. Wide wooden band outside, hoop inside, spaced oversewing on twine, 81 e. E. Wide wooden band outside, two hoops inside, two extra hoops oversewn outside as outstanding rim, spaced oversewing of band and hoops; on twill, 81 f. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 129 Fig. 63. Basket, diagonal twill; fabric held between narrow hoop inside and wide wooden band outside, spaced oversewing. Ndau, Chimanimani (Melsetter), 1964 (SAM-9104). Diameter 335 mm. (84a, Fig. 64A). Alternatively, they may be sewn over the last warp or warps several times (84b), or wound round one or more of the last warps or foundation strands before being knotted and cut (84c, Fig. 64B). Or the loose end may, after or without knotting, be threaded, twined or sewn back parallel to itself for a short distance (84d, Fig. 64D; 84e, Fig. 64C). In straight sewn work, the sewing strand may be wrapped round the last foundation element, threaded up and cut (84f), or finished with a fancy knot (84g). Wefts or sewing strands taken back It is more common in a close weave for the wefts or sewing to turn straight back (85a-85c). The corresponding form in open work is for them to be twisted together and carried down the edge to the place where the next row is to com- mence. They may be carried down taut (85 d), or left slack to form a series of loops on the edge (85e, Fig. 65 A), or they may be half-hitched at the beginning and end of each row (85f-85i, Fig. 65B). Quite frequently they are wound (85j-85m, Fig. 65C) or twined (85r) round the outside warp or an extra reinforcing warp, or twined back and forth several times until the starting point of the next row is reached (85j-m). In southern San sieves they turn straight back (85n), sometimes with an extra twist round the last warp (85 o), but sometimes take a diagonal direction (Figs 65D, 66), and sometimes every second row of weft is knotted and cut off at the edge. The edges may be reinforced (85 p. Fig. 66). On Mpondo and Mpondomise sleeping-mats of sedge stems, held together by twining with fibre cord, the ends of the cord are twined back on 130 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ^£3 ^^s JUiJ B JQQ D D 0QR □ Dug QPOQ 000000 0Ofe^ Fig. 64. A. Wefts knotted and cut at the end of the row, 84a. B. Sewing strand wound round three foundation elements before being knotted, 84c. C. Twining wefts taken back parallel for a short distance, 84e. D. Sewing strand wrapped round and threaded back a short distance, 84d. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 131 Fig. 65. A. Sewing strands carried down slack to next row, 85e. B. Weft half-hitched, carried down to next row and half hitched again, 85f. C. One strand of weft wound round last warp to next starting place, one strand carried straight down, 85k. D. Weft taken straight back diagonally, with extra twist, 85n. 132 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 66. Sieve, open twine; wefts taken back diagonally in three places, straight in two; warp of twigs, wefts of thick sinew; two lattices wrapped; edges reinforced. San (Bushman), Gordonia, Cape, 1911 (SAM-1552). Length 615 mm. their tracks for a few warps, which may be doubled, before being wound down a warp to the next row (85 q). The same method is put to decorative use on a Mpukushu sleeping-mat of sedge stems sewn together, where the ends of the sewing strands, when they emerge at the edge of the work, are twined back for 10-15 cm, in irregular lengths, making a fancy border at each end of the mat, before continuing across the work. Wefts wrapped In close twined food-mats there are a few characteristic side edges, the basis of which is for one of the weft strands to be wrapped once or more often around the last warp, while the other turns back without going round the last warp, but passing over the other weft in a variety of ways to form a decorative edging (86a-86j, Figs 67, 52). Edge oversewn The weft edge may be oversewn over the last warp (87), either plain or with a fancy stitch, after the work is complete. Neither of these methods is common. Lattice wrap The ends (weft edges) of straight sewn work may be reinforced with a lat- tice and the sewing wrapped over and under before going back along its row (88). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 133 Fig. 67. A-F. Six versions of wrapped weft edge on twined weave, 86a, 86b, 86d, 86%. 86h, 86i. 134 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM r^-^Cx r^ ) \* \ \\ <~s ^\ 1 -, \1 ■t-y Vi KSK \ V ^ \^ >^y \ Fig. 68. A. Edge of close simple oversewing over thinned coil, 90. B. Edge of close oversewing over thickened coil, 91. C. Final coil reinforced and sewing material changed, 93. D-E. Front and back views of alternating oversewing, coil partly encircled, then pierced, 94b. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 135 COILED SEWN WORK On coiled work, the edging is of necessity some sort of oversewing, often different from the technique of the rest of the body. It may be done with the same or with different material, or with the coil unchanged, thickened or thinned, or with or without a change of stitch. No change of stitch An edging gives added strength to the final coil, but that it is not absolutely necessary is shown by the fact that very many of the coiled baskets have no special edging, the last coil being sewn in just the same way as the others (89a). In simple oversewing over a simple foundation, however, the spaces between the long stitches in the last row may be filled with a short stitch, which gives the impression of an edging (89b). Sometimes, however, the stitch remains the same but the material (92) or the thickness of the coil (90, 91, Fig. 68A, B) is changed. The coil may also be reinforced and the material of the sewing strand changed (93, Fig. 68C). Change of stitch A simple and fairly common edging is plain oversewing, closely worked and often used when another stitch or more widely spaced oversewing has been used for the body (94a). In the latter case, the edge oversewing strand may sew into the space between the stitches only, and the last coil may be alternatively pierced and encircled one (94b, Fig. 68D, E) or more times, the latter in the manner of openwork sewing. Nauhaus (1881) described Nguni coiled work edge as being like 'fine buttonhole-stitch'. The plain buttonhole or blanket stitch does not now seem to occur on coiled work, but a fancy variety is used on Himba baskets in the Kaoko- veld (95a, 95b, Fig. 69). B Fig. 69. Top and side views of fancy blanket-stitch edging. 95b. 136 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 70. Herring-bone edging on coiled sewn work, with flat material. A-B. Round coil, 96a. C. Long stitch on top of coil, 96e. D. Once half round and once through new upper coil and once through lower coil, 96f. E. Once round upper coil and once through lower coil, 96g. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 137 Fig. 71. A. Two-coil herring-bone edge, 96h. B. Raised herring-bone edge, 96i. C. Diagonal oversewing of edge, round coil, 97a. D. Diagonal oversewing of edge, raised on top of coil. 97c. E. Diagonal oversewing of edge, round coil in opposite direction, making cross stitch. 97e. 138 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM A very common decorative edging for coiled baskets is oversewing that gives a herringbone effect (96). This method of sewing is shown in Figures 70 and 71. It is generally done with a fairly wide flat strand but sometimes with a cord. The stitch may be long, i.e. over many sewing stitches, or short. The coil foundation of the fabric may be multiple or single, unchanged, thickened or thinned, or a new coil may be added. The sewing may be close or open, and the stitches may pass round the final coil (96a-d, Figs 26, 70A, B) or through the top of it (96e, Fig. 70C). Or a new coil may be attached and the sewing pass once round and once through the new coil (96f, Fig. 70D), or round the new coil and through the old coil (96g, Fig. 70E). A slightly different effect is obtained by sewing in a similar way alternately over two coils — the new and the old, and then one — the new (96h, Fig. 71 A). By using the identical stitch to this over one coil and the sewing only, a raised herringbone effect is obtained (96i, Fig. 71B). In plain open sewing a cross- stitch effect is obtained (96j). An edging that is frequently used by the Nguni, some Tsonga and the Tswana is a diagonal oversewing round (97a, Fig. 71C) or on top of the last coil, each stitch passing over several of the straight stitches of the coil. When it is on top, it may be done so that it lies flat (97b), is raised (97c, Fig. 71D), or it may make a cross-stitch by being sewn in the opposite direction through (97d) or round (97e, Fig. 71E) the coil. It may be used on a multiple or a single rod foun- dation, and with one or more sewing strands. A chain stitch effect is obtained by reinforcing the edge with two strong ribs of palm-leaf, and oversewing with three strands, the first with straight stitches Fig. 72. A-B. Triple oversewing, 98. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 139 over both reinforcing strands, and each of the others diagonally over one reinforcing strand, so that the stitches pass between the straight stitches (98, Fig. 72A, B). This edging of triple oversewing appears to be a Natal Nguni style. Added edge Sometimes the edge is strengthened by the addition of an extra coil or two of foundation on top of or side by side with the last one (99a). This may be attached by simple oversewing or with a different stitch (99b). A variety of added edging that seems to be Sotho is for one or more com- plete rings of foundation to be sewn on after the last coil has been ended off. This may be done in the same sewing stitch (99c) or a different one (99d), and the foundation may or may not be thickened. Very occasionally the edge is strengthened by placing a hoop round one or both sides of the edge and oversewing it into place (100, Fig. 73), or by making the last coil a withy and oversewing it at intervals (101). Finally, the edge may be bound, generally with leather (102) — this is poss- ibly a modern innovation. Many of these edgings, particularly those on coiled work, may be made more decorative by the introduction of coloured strands. Fig. 73. Hoop added to the inner side of last coil, 100; cross-stitch oversewing. FINISHINGS In general, the finishing off, both of the loose ends in the work and of the whole piece of basketwork, is purely utilitarian and not turned to decorative effect. No special finishing The usual finishing of ends of material in the body is to cut or break them off close to the work (103), generally with the new strand overlapping a little, or to thread them back into the work before cutting off (104), where the stiffness of 140 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM the material prevents them from unravelling. The Ndebele in Zimbabwe, in coiled work, sew over the end with the new strand and consider it poor work if this is visible. Oversewn The strand at the end of sewn work, whether straight or coiled, is oversewn once or twice, either simply or in figure-of-eight or herringbone (105a-105c, Figs 74A, 78). Knotted In either coiled or woven work the finishing and restarting ends may be knotted, either together (106a, 106b, Fig. 74B) or separately, or plaited and knotted (106c), but this is more common in woven work. Taken back diagonally A rare, and perhaps not important, decorative finish to an oversewn edge is used by the Kalahadi in the Molepolole area. Each strand of the oversewing of the edge is taken back diagonally, threaded through and cut off (107, Fig. 74C). In woven circular work the edgings already described act as finishings. Strands back on tracks with fringe The 'hemmed' edge of a Manyika twilled fish bag has the ends of each set of elements turned back on themselves outwards, threaded through and cut off, at the level of the edges, about 15 mm. This makes a fringe in between the two sections (108, Fig. 74D, E). Ends bound together To finish off plaited bangles, the usual method is to make the ring by laying the two ends together, either in the same (109a, Fig. 74F) or in the opposite (109b, 109c) direction, and then bind them with a strand of the same material for a length of about 15 mm. The join may also be made by winding the plaiting strands round the join in turn, tucking them under in a half-hitch and cutting them off (109d, Fig. 74G, H). The winding may be done with a new strand. Spiny finish An extension of this idea is used for finishing off the ends of sewn beer- strainers. The twined foundation strands that remain after the narrowing by knotting inside, are brought up in front and over the sewing strand and put through to come out below it on the outside. As several rows are necessary to end off all the strands, the effect is of a spiny cone (110b, Fig. 75 A, B, F). Sometimes this method of finishing is also used on flat plaited grass bracelets and necklets and on brooms, and it was seen on one twilled beer-strainer. Some- times, instead of a cone, the spiny finishings make a narrow band (HOe, HOf, Fig. 75C, D). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 141 H r%lt A Fil ? ish / n §. of figure-of-eight oversewing, 105b. B. Ends knotted together 106b ^U^^d^riSl' 7 F 7 F^-? n di T nal tWiU ' Strands taken bafkon-t/ackt turned up again and cut 70S. F Ends laid together in same direction and bound 109c G-H. Ends laid together and half-hitched, 109d. 142 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 75. A-B. Spiny cone on straight sewing, 110b. C. Spiny band on central core of straight sewing, HOe. D. Spiny finishing plus whipping, on central core of diagonal twill, llOf. E. Seiz- ing on sewn beer-strainer, 111. F. Whipping and spiny cone on straight sewn beer-strainer, 112. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 143 Seizing and whipping Great use is made of various types of wrapping — seizing (777, Fig. 75E), whipping (112, Fig. 75F), and woven figure-of-eight seizing (113, Fig. 76A). This may be seen on broom-ends, spoon handles and beer-strainers. Sometimes two methods of finishing are combined (Fig. 75D, F). Fig. 76. A. Figure-of-eight seizing round end of broom, 113. B. Elements of twilled beer- strainer turned inside and knotted together, 114. C. Invisible sewing on cylindrical twilled work, 115a. D-E. Two views of double tacking to join two edges of flattened cylindrical twill. 117b. 144 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Elements turned inside While the base of most sewn beer-strainers is bound several times in one of the foregoing styles, with a cord similar to those that form the foundation, the woven beer-strainers and some sewn ones are finished at the bottom, by turning the elements inside and knotting them, or knotting them first and pushing them inside (114, Fig. 76B). Generally the hanging loop is knotted in with them. Sewing on twilled work One of the most ingenious finishings is used on nearly all twilled palm-leaf pouches, from whatever part of the country they come. When the weaving is finished, the cylinder is pressed flat and the knots with which the work was com- menced (see p. 90, Fig. 33A) are turned under inside to form the lower end. A strong thread is then sewn through from the outside, picking up one of the bent strands on each side alternately, in such a way that when pulled tight the thread is invisible and the twill appears to be uninterrupted (115a, Fig. 76C). An Ndau example had the knots cut off and the ends woven back on themselves before the thread went through, thus making a neat ridge inside. This invisible method is also used to join twilled edges on a sleeping-mat from Mozambique, which is made up of a great number of twill-plaited strips, 50 mm wide. The whole appears to be a continuous twill with horizontal ridges. This appears to be a technique that has spread south down the East African coast. It is found mainly at the coast. The Tsonga do not always use this method on cylindrical work, but leave the sewing visible (115b) or oversew (116) or tack twice (117a, 117b, Fig. 76D, E) on the outside with bark fibre thread. A Ronga specimen used by diviners has the closed ends folded and sewn together in three points instead of two. On cylindrical work At the base of Zulu cylindrical spoon-bags, the warps of the chequer fabric are knotted together in twos and threes to join the two edges made by flattening the cylinder (118a); this is often followed by a row of twining (118b). Alter- natively, the warps are crossed, sometimes after an initial row of twining, and a row of twining holds each edge separately (118c-118g, Fig. 77A, B). In this case the edge is sometimes sewn together with fancy stitching or beadwork, or each side of it may be bound (118h-118i). Sometimes the warps are simply knotted in pairs after crossing. Open base A cylindrical basket made with the base open may have it closed by a round of hide (119a), or a square of matting sewn or woven on (119b, Fig. 77C, D). Closed base Baskets with closed bases, particularly conical baskets, often have a round of dressed skin, bark, palm midrib, wood or, latterly, cloth or even cardboard, BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 145 X5 "^1 :j *-* c~ o -^ Q V3 CO U O C/> 00 b ** - ZI .,_, r, t/j '; r, $ EJ '; <u s: J= *-" .2 g o w c x: J. "5 .2? 8 146 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM plastic or inner tubing, sewn on the outside of the base to protect it from wear (120a-120g). This is very much Tswana practice. Side edges joined by half-hitches The two cones that are fitted one inside the other to make a fish trap are joined together by half -hitches (121). Fig. 78. Herring-bone finish to sewing of coil. Ndebele, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1939 (SAM-5998). DECORATION This section deals with decoration in the body of the work, exclusive of the often decorative body techniques and decorative as well as utilitarian edgings already described. It should be noted that decoration takes place during the work as a modification of the fabric and, further, that ornamental adjuncts (see below) may themselves be made in one of the main techniques. South African basketwork is not highly decorated. A good deal of it is quite plain, but the majority does show a simple line decoration or some geometrical pattern. The latter is more common in the extreme north, where there is influ- ence from Angola or Zambia. Naturalistic patterns do not occur south of the Zambezi, except as a result of foreign influence. It is interesting to note that basketwork differs from many other crafts in that the decoration, bound as it is by the technique, is based on the accentuation and enhancement, rather than the disguising or obliteration, of the technique of making. In many cases, the technique itself is decorative and always it is the actual strokes or stitches of which the work consists that are used, with or without the addition of colour, to form patterns on the surface. The choice of decoration is therefore largely dictated by the stroke or stitch being used and may either be planned beforehand or as the work proceeds. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 147 Decorative patterns may be produced either in self-colour by a change in the weave or stitch or even in the material, or by the introduction of a contrast- ing colour. Sometimes these are combined. CHANGE OF WEAVE OR STITCH Woven work On chequer Chequer weave does not lend itself easily to decoration in the weave unless colour is used. The following methods of introducing decorative bands or pat- terns, often in relief or diaper, have, however, been recorded: by changing to a different technique — twill or twine (122a, Fig. 79A), by changing the width of one set of elements (122b), which can be done only if the elements are soft; by lengthening certain strokes (122c); or by twisting warps across each other (122d). Only isolated examples of these styles have been recorded. Twill The weave itself is very decorative and gives infinite opportunity for variety in pattern, by altering the apparent direction (123a, Fig. 79B) or width of the twill, i.e. by going over more strokes (123b, Fig. 79C) or by altering the width of the elements (123c). (In one of the few examples of the latter that has been recorded, a separate band made with narrower elements was added.) Compara- tively little use is, however, made of this opportunity, and the examples so far recorded come from Mozambique or its neigbourhood, and from the eastern Okavango, where decorative bands of a different twill from the body of the work are used on palm-leaf pouches. In one isolated example from Natal, a dec- orative band was made by a change of weave, i.e. by a few rows of twining over crossed twill elements (123e). In another isolated example from Natal, one set of elements is overlaid and the overlay twisted at the intersections to give a spiny effect (123 d). Wicker There is little opportunity for this sort of decoration on wickerwork and the only examples that have been recorded were made by the Vazezuru, who in general show a great deal of outside influence. In these examples a band was made of several rows of twining on chequer (124, Fig. 79D). Twine Most twined work has some form of decoration, although the types of pattern are fairly uniform and consist most commonly of bands. As in chequer, it would be possible to introduce a band of a different weave but this has so far not been recorded. The use of a different sort of twine is, however, very common. This may be a plain band on a fancy ground (125a) or vice versa, or a pattern on a plain 148 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM £L 1 l| |l l| 1 l n nh i ■ ■ ■ i i i J 4 Fig. 79. A. Change of weave on chequer, 122a. B. On diagonal twill, altering length of strokes gives band of apparent change of direction, 123a. C. On straight twill, a pattern is made by changes in the width of the twill, 123b. D. Change of weave from chequer to twine on wicker chequer, 124. (In B and C shading is used here merely to show up the pattern). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 149 ground (125b). The Southern Nguni split-warp technique is decorative in itself (4h-4l). Sometimes the whole work is carried out in this and sometimes alter- nate bands of plain and split-warp twining are used for decorative effect, or bands (125c, Fig. 80A) or geometric patterns (125d) of split-warp are used on the plain twine. Another decorative effect, frequently seen on food-mats, is obtained by twining alternately in the opposite direction (of twine, not of row) thereby giving a chain-stitch effect. This is sometimes used all over (4f), or in bands (125e, Fig. 80B) or patterns (125 f). Sometimes several styles are used in one piece of work (125h, Fig. 80C). The above twine decorations are very characteristic of the eastern Cape, Natal and Lesotho, and are also found among the Zambian immigrants. Bands of lattice twining (one strand) are put on to Fue plain twined baskets. By putting the lattice on the outside the bands are raised (125g). Very commonly the decoration is achieved by the manipulation of one or other of the sets of elements. The diaper patterns so frequently worked on twined food- and grain-mats are made by lengthening the stroke, i.e. by putting the wefts over two or three warps instead of the usual one and even crossing these wefts. Very often these patterns consist of bands (125i, Fig. 81C) or merely of regular or haphazard lines in any direction but, on finely worked specimens, regular patterns of chevron, zigzag, herring-bone or triangles are made (125), Fig. 81 A). On circu- lar ascending woven basketwork, this type of diaper pattern does not seem to have been used. Decorative lines, bands and, less commonly, patterns may be made by introducing a third weft strand into the twine, in which case each weft goes over three warps on the front and one on the back and makes a raised line on the front (125k, Fig. 81C). By introducing two extra wefts or one looped to work as two and threading them in and out of the twining, a line or a pattern (125n, Figs 81B, 82) of raised chain stitch effect is formed. The appearance of a line of knots may be given by interrupting the twine to wind the back twining weft round the front one and through to the back again (125o). The ornamental bulbs on top of South Sotho hats sometimes show a decor- ative change of stitch and the ridge at the widest circumference may be accentuated by tucking each warp under the next before moving each of them one or two warps to the left or right (55, 125p, Fig. 44). Close twined work may have open bands with the warps crossed (125r, Fig. 81D). Sleeping-mats composed of long warps held together by rows of open twining, allow of decoration by alternating bands of twining with free spaces (125 q), by bands of crossed warp (125s), or by twining a pattern in between two pairs of straight rows (125t). In one example from Natal, the fabric has been doubled in thickness by overlaying the warps. But this is hardly a decoration. 150 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 80. A. Band of split-warp twine on plain twine, 125c. B. Band of chain stitch twine on plain, 125e. C. Band of several twined weaves on plain, 125h. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 151 B Fig. 81. A. Decorative pattern by lengthening the stroke on twine, 125 j. B. Raised chain pattern on twine, 125n. C. Decorative band on split-warp twine by lengthened stroke and an extra weft, 125i, 125k. D. Crossing warps in spaces of open twine, 125r. 152 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 82. Food-mat showing pattern of raised chain on twine; warp and weft of sedge. South Sotho, Leribe, Lesotho, 1958 (SAM-7995). Width 382 mm. Lattice twine On lattice twine decorative bands and patterns may be made by introducing a third weft (126). Plaited work In straight plaited work there is no opportunity for further decoration beyond that of the type of plait itself. In open extended plaited work, which is more or less confined to Lesotho, a more decorative effect may be obtained by lengthening and/or crossing the extensions (127a, 127b, Fig. 83 A). A different appearance may be given to both of these by tightening the strands unevenly (127c). Plain close extended plaiting may be decorated with a band of extended multiple plaiting (127d). Sewn work Straight sewn In straight sewn work with single foundation strands the only recorded dec- orations are: BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 153 B Fig. 83. A. Crossed elements on open extended plait, 127b. B. Decorative chain-stitch stripe on straight sewing with composite foundation, 129a. C. Decorative stripe by changing direction of twists of composite foundation in straight sewing, 129d. D. Vertical lines by change of stitch in coiled sewn work, 130. 154 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM by crossing the foundation strands between the lines of sewing. This is done on sleeping-mats, especially in Lesotho and also on South Sotho bale masks (for girl initiates), which are exactly similarly made (128a). by putting a 25 mm depth of lattice wrap at each end of a straight sewn mat (an isolated instance from the Northern Transvaal Ndebele) (128b). by arranging in a design the nodes of the split reeds used as straight sewn foun- dation by the Shona (128c) (this may be accidental). In straight sewn work with composite foundation strands, the only decor- ations recorded are on beer-strainers with foundation strands of two-ply or three-ply. Stripes may be made at fairly equal intervals by lengthening the twist of two or three strands (129b), or by twisting them in the opposite direction from the prevailing one (129d, Fig. 83C), or by doing this with alternate strands of two-ply cords only, which gives a chain-stitch effect (129a, Fig. 83B), or by putting in one or more strands of a different ply (129c). These styles are found mainly among the Sotho-Tswana. Coiled sewn In these techniques there is considerable opportunity for decoration through stitching. The most common is a series of vertical or radial lines, gener- ally fairly evenly spaced on the surface of the basket, but open lines (by missing one stitch), spiral lines, concentric bands and geometrical patterns equivalent to the diaper patterns of woven work, or an irregular mottled effect, may be made. The following methods have been recorded; with the exception of the lengthened stitch none is very common, but all are widespread: by change of stitch, e.g. vertical furcate stripes on simple oversewing (130, Fig. 83D). by sewing one or more stitches at the required intervals in each coil over an extra coil, thereby making a long stitch, which may also be in a different stitch from the main body (131, Fig. 84A). A decorative effect seen only on a Mpuku- shu coiled basket of simple oversewing is obtained by sewing a stitch over two coils at frequent but irregular intervals. There is no pattern but the mottled effect is very pleasing. The long-stitch method is very commonly used for radial stripes, which may be solid, by lengthening successive stitches, or open, by making a short stitch between two long stitches. This technique is very typical of Natal, but it is widespread and by far the commonest form. by splitting the stitch with the new stitch unevenly, but always in the same place, which gives the appearance of a little stripe going off at an angle (132). by doubling the stitch on single rod foundation, i.e. by sewing twice instead of once round the foundation into the space left (133). by wrapping a series of stitches each round its neighbour in a half hitch (134a, Fig. 84B) seen on a Mpondo beer basket where the motifs so made are spaced between vertical lines of lengthened stitches. An openwork pattern may be BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 155 Fig. 84. A. Open stripe on sewn work by lengthening stitch, 131. B. Pattern bv half-hitching. 134a. C. Beading, 135. made by wrapping the sewing round the foundation strands for a space and bending them into openwork patterns, which are held between two plain coils (134b). This is surely a modern innovation. by beading, i.e. by allowing a flat strand to weave in and out of the sewing stitch, which gives a chequer effect (755, Fig. 84C). It is rarely seen and is sus- pected to be of foreign influence. by overlaying, i.e. by laying a flat strand over the foundation before the sewing, so that the foundation shows through particularly smoothly (136). 156 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM In addition to these specific patterns, the sewing itself is often decorative and by judicious spacing can be made more so (137). Furcate sewing, particu- larly, is often widely spaced to make a pretty radially or spirally striped effect. A very slight decoration seen on an Ambo basket was made by ending the sewing strand in the same place in each row and cutting it off not quite close to the surface, thereby making slight radial lines (138). If the sewing is done with tapering strands the effect is decorative (139). CHANGE OF MATERIAL, SAME COLOUR Woven and sewn work This is not common. It has been recorded in twined woven work on a Mpu- kushu coiled basket, where concentric bands of a different, twisted material were used on a plain ground (140); on a Huruthse coiled sewn basket, where concentric bands (141a) of untwisted different material were used on a ground of twisted material, and on an Ambo coiled basket, where a radial pattern (141b) was made by sewing with two-ply twisted cord of the palm fibre that is used plain for the rest of the sewing. INTRODUCTION OF COLOUR Coloured patterns are not very common, except in recent work where there has been foreign inspiration. Coloured patterns, which generally gain their effect by accentuating some aspect of the technique of the work, may be obtained either by using materials naturally different in colour or by turning the material inside out when the two sides have different colours, for example bark, or by dyeing the strands before use. In a specialized case, coloured beads may be introduced. The pattern is worked into the fabric and it is interesting to note that colour is nearly always introduced in the weft or sewing and not in the warp or foundation, but there are exceptions. Baskets that have a flat wooden rim may have a pattern branded on the rim, but there is no painting or stencilling of patterns in southern African basketwork. Frequently there are slight variations in shade in the same lot of material and these may be used to make some simple patterns or may do so accidentally. One interesting example of this is on a South Sotho coiled grain basket, where one end of each piece of sewing strand is considerably lighter than the other, so that in each ten or twelve centimetre section of each coil, there is a shading from light to dark and then a sharp recommencement at light (Fig. 88). The introduction of naturally different coloured materials is confined in this country to various reddish brown barks very common in the central area, a brown sedge, a light yellow reed as a contrast for brownish wood, occasionally ox- or horse-tail hair, or two slightly different shades of the same material as the ground-work. The colours obtained by dyeing are black, various shades of brown, yellow, mauve and red (see Materials). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 157 Woven work Fabric In woven work the decoration may be either by having the two sets of ele- ments of different colours, which makes a decorative effect over the whole surface, or by the introduction of only a few coloured strands to make linear designs.. In chequer work most of the examples so far recorded have a check effect over the whole surface and most of them come from KwaZulu (142a). In each case, except one, the warp and weft are of different materials as well as different colours. In Zulu purses or spoon-bags, the weft is often of fine cord and the warp wider sedge or grass stems. A few examples with decorative bands (142b) have been seen, for example, Zulu spoon-bags, a Chopi mat, and a Man basket. An isolated example from KwaZulu has an open diamond pattern made by whipping the warps with different material and colour for a distance at the requisite places (142c). In twilled work there is endless scope for pattern by introducing coloured strands in place of a certain number of others. Nevertheless, it is not very much used, and most of the examples, both of all-over pattern (143a, Fig. 85 A) and of designs (143b), come from the Tsonga and Chopi, who use it particularly on pouches and sometimes on winnowing baskets, from the Venda, who use it on the mufharo baskets, and from the Okavango immigrants, who use the all-over pattern on winnowing baskets. In recent examples of this, coloured plastic has been used. In wickerwork only one example of a coloured pattern has been recorded, except among the Vazezuru of Botswana, where it is almost certainly intro- duced. The one example is a band of the same material dyed black on a Mari chequer wicker garden basket (144, Fig. 85B). In twined work very simple colour decoration has been noted — generally a solid or broken line made by introducing a pair of coloured strands or one in a pair or three. Decoration of the whole surface by using one or both wefts of a different colour has been recorded only from Natal and the Okavango (145a, 145b). In circular work concentric rings or bands may be made in this way (145c). If both of the pair of wefts or each of three wefts are coloured, and several rows worked, a solid band is made (145 d, 145e). In the Transkei ox- or horse- tail hair or a dark brown sedge is used, and, for solid bands, slightly different shades of the same material as the ground work. Sometimes the stroke is altered as well as the colour (145 f, Fig. 85C). Twining is a quite suitable medium for squares or geometrical patterns in colour of one or both wefts, as the wefts can be finished off and need not com- plete a row (145c, 145d, Fig. 86A). This is often seen on Zulu food-mats. One isolated example from KwaZulu has a pattern made by overlaying one of the pair of wefts with different coloured material (145g, Fig. 86B). 158 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM XX^XXXXXXVXXXV / ./ / / / / / / / / / / / / / /// / / / / / / xwswwwwv "/// / / / / / / 7777/ ^^^^^^^ Fig. 85. A. Introduction of colour over whole surface of twill, 143a. B. Band of colour in chequer wicker, 144. C. Decorative band of different colour and material, and lengthened stroke on twine, 145 f. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 159 t \ Begin Begin brown white B Fig. 86. A. Geometric design on twine with two different coloured wefts, 145d. B. Overlaying in colour on twine, 145g. Warps may also be whipped with a strand of a different colour, to make a design (145h). In plaited work chevron patterns in either direction could be made by the introduction of coloured strands. This has, however, not been found. The only example found of decoration in a plaited fabric is on the sleeping-mat from Mozambique already described (p. 144). In this special case, where separate plaits are joined together to form the whole, horizontal stripes of plain colour can be made by making some of the plaits entirely coloured (146). In three-strand lattice twined work, bands and patterns are made by having one or more of the strands in a different material dyed. This was recorded among the Subia of the Okavango (147a-c). 160 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Coloured edges on woven work The only example recorded is from the Lala of Natal where the edge of a food-mat is oversewn in blanket stitch with a material of different colour (148). Sewn work In the fabric of straight sewn work there is little scope for the introduction of colour, either in foundation or sewing. The only instances of coloured foun- dation recorded are on beer-strainers from the Nguni, Tsonga and Sotho, where a series of stripes is made by using coloured foundation strands (149a, Fig. 87 A). The examples look influenced. There is no instance recorded of coloured sewing. In the south, however, certain belts and headbands, in which the technique is straight sewn with composite foundation of twined cords or plaits and only two or three foundation strands, have the sewing strand dec- orated with beads that hold the foundation strands widely apart (149b, Fig. 87B). The narrow headbands may have an edging of beads made by thread- ing one bead on the sewing strand whenever it emerges at the edge (Fig. 87B, C). Patterns are introduced by means of the colour of the beads, generally alter- nating stripes or blocks of different colour. On a Zulu mat, a decoration that seems to be modern is the wrapping of the end foundation strands with material of a different colour — in the only instance recorded this is brown cord (149c). In coiled work there is ample scope for coloured bands and radial patterns, or all-over light and dark patterns. In most cases the colour is introduced by making a certain number of coloured stitches in every coil or every few coils, according to plan. The following are the ways so far recorded of introducing colour in coiled work — each way naturally allows of numerous variations. Foundation: concentric bands may be made by changing the colour of the foundation for one or more coils. The sewing must then be spaced to let the foundation show through (150a). Only two examples of this were seen, from the Thembu and the Tshangana-Tsonga, and these may well have been influenced by overlaying — that is, the laying of a coloured strand over the foundation before the stitch, which thus goes over it. This is suitable for bands or designs, but has only been recorded on two hats, one Southern Sotho and one Tswana (150b, Fig. 87D, 150c). Sewing: by sewing the whole basket with a strand of colour that contrasts with the foundation and by spacing the stitches widely. This is often used with a furcate stitch, which lends itself well to striped effects. So far this has been recorded among the Natal Nguni and Swazi, the Tsonga, Tswana, Venda and Mpukushu (151a). The Sarwa near Serowe were making similarly decorated baskets, but these were Ngwato style and made for sale to the Ngwato. by using a sewing strand that varies in colour from one end to another. This makes a natural mottled effect, with a change of colour at the beginning of each BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 161 B Fig 87. A. Decorative stripes of coloured foundation strands, straight sewing 149a B-C. Introduction of beads on straight sewn work, 149b. D. Band of overlaying in different colour, different material, 150b. 162 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM new strand (151b, Fig. 88). This was only recorded among Southern Sotho and Tswana and the people of the eastern Kavango. by sewing one or more coils of the basket with a different colour from the rest to make single or concentric rings, or bands of colour (151c). If wide spacing or knot-stitching is used, the line or band becomes striped in two colours (15 Id). This has a fairly wide distribution, except in Zimbabwe. by putting one or two coloured stitches directly or diagonally above the other at intervals in succeeding coils, to make radial stripes or to trace a thin line pattern (15 le). This is not commonly seen, but has a wide distribution. Fig. 88. Basket showing natural variation in colour in sewing strand, giving mottled effect, 151b. South Sotho, Leribe, Lesotho, 1958 (SAM-8005). Height 179 mm. by sewing with coloured strands, for requisite short distances, to make a series of motifs — squares, rectangles, triangles, or odd shapes, generally geometrical, either regularly over the whole surface or in concentric radial patterns (757/, Fig. 89 A; 15 lg), or at odd irregular intervals. The concentric patterns are fre- quently seen and widespread, but especially favoured in Botswana. The irregularly spaced patterns are uncommon and mostly confined to Botswana. by beading — that is the insertion of a strip of coloured material so that it passes over and under one or more stitches of the sewing (152a, 152b, Fig. 89B, C). If several rows are made, patterns analogous to those of twilled weaving may be created. Only isolated instances of this have been found — so far apart as to make one suspect foreign influence. by the introduction of beads — by threading beads over the sewing strand before use. Only one example was seen, among the Ndau, where the beads were intro- duced on the last coil (153). by wrapping the edges of straight sewn articles (154) or oversewing the final or last two rows of coiled baskets (755) with material of a different colour. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 163 B Fig. 89. A. Geometric motifs in a different colour, 151 f. B. Band of beading in different colour, 152a. C. Geometric motif by beading in different colour, 152b. ALTERATION OF SHAPE A purely decorative modern tendency in Southern Sotho conical hats is to alter their shape by surmounting them w'\\\\ fancy knobs (156). The technique of these is generally the same as the body of the work, but sometimes plaited or hitched bands are taken out in loops to enhance the knob. The origin of the latter is said to have been Queen Victoria's crown as seen on coins. 164 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ORNAMENTATION 'Ornamentation' as distinct from 'decoration' is used here to mean some- thing added after the work and separate from it. It is comparatively rare on southern African basketwork and nearly always indicates foreign influence. It is often utilitarian. Ornament may be made of the same materials as the body or of different materials. Colouring Colour is sometimes painted on the outside or underside of baskets, but it is hard to say whether this is purely ornamental or intended, as in the case of the use of dung, as a protective or water-proofing treatment. The only people amongst whom this has so far been noted are the Tsonga, Chopi and Tswana. In one case of an Ngwato basket, the colour was definitely ornamental (157). The Tsonga in Mozambique use a paste obtained from mangrove bark. One basket was seen in Zimbabwe where two rings of colour had been applied to the wefts of a wicker basket. Embroidery A type of ornament that was very popular on the grass arm-bands and belts of the south-eastern people, is a series of raised bands of twisted grass or sinew cord, knotted on the outside of the object (158a). Coloured wool, braid and other materials have been used latterly as orna- mentation on hats, spoon-bags and the edges of mats. This is a modern development and not very common (158b). Sometimes the coloured material is tied on, but more often it is oversewn or whipped on (158c, Figs 90A, C). This latter is sometimes seen on straight sewn sleeping-mats, where wrapping or twining with coloured materials is also done after the work is finished. Whipped and sewn embroidery with palm-leaf was seen in huts of the Tembe in northern KwaZulu (158c, 158d, Fig. 90B, C). This was said to have been done by an itinerant builder. It is usually found in the homes of important people (Cunningham & Gwala 1986). An example of sewn embroidery (158d) has been recorded on a coiled Zulu basket, on which an arrowhead shape had been sewn, each stitch being taken over five coils. Most rarely recorded of all is embroidery with the same or similar material to that of the fabric; this has been seen on a Himba basket and a Mpukushu mat. Carved or branded Where baskets have a wooden band or rim, there is opportunity for carved (159, Fig. 91 A) or branded (160, Fig. 91B) ornamentation, but so far this has only been recorded from among the Hlengwe and the Ndau of Zimbabwe. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 165 Fig. 90. A. Whipped embroidery in colour, 158c. B. Cross-stitch oversewing with palm-leaf, over lattices of hut wall, 158d. C. Whipped embroidery with palm-leaf over circular lattices of the ceiling of the same hut, 158c. Tembe, Mselini, KwaZulu, 1970. 166 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM B Fig. 91. A. Carving on rim, 159. B. Branding on rim, 160. Extra lattices On a chequer basket of the Ambo, and on a lattice twined basket of the Fue with the lattices inside, extra lattices were put on the outside, as ornamental bands (161). Beads and buttons Beyond these, the only pure ornament so far recorded is beadwork (163, Fig. 92A-D) and the use of brass buttons (162, Fig. 92A). On actual baskets it is rare. One specimen recorded is a small basket bowl from Maun, Botswana; round the outside of the mouth are four rows of beads, in alternate patches of blue and pink. From this band small, hanging, beadwork ornaments are sus- pended at intervals. The Nkuna of Tzaneen area make twilled lids for coiled conical baskets and both lid and basket are beaded in strands and fringes, or a cover of beadwork fabric may be put over the lid. These seem to be made as presents, especially for weddings. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 167 Fig. 92. A. Ornamentation with brass buttons, 162, and beads, 163b. B. Spoon-bag orna- mented with beads, 163a. C-D. Belts with beads sewn on after completion, 163b, as well as during work, 149b. 168 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM On the small bags, purses and spoon-bags made in KwaZulu, and also on small mats for various purposes, rows or fringes of beads are sometimes used (163a, Figs 92B, 101). The most common use of beads for ornament on basketwork, however, is on personal ornaments (163b, Fig. 92A, C, D), which occur for the most part in the south. In some cases it is hard to draw the line between basketwork and beadwork. On the basketwork belts worn in Natal, KwaZulu and Lesotho, and which are straight sewn with a composite plaited foundation element, beadwork (163b) and brass buttons (162) seem to have taken the place of the presumably older knotted ornament (125o, see p. 149). Sometimes beads or brass buttons are sewn on the outer surface in striped patterns, and sometimes the whole outer surface is covered with beads. When beads are used alone there is no sign of their attachment on the back of the work, which is perfectly smooth, but if brass buttons are used their eyes are pushed through the work and secured on the back, sometimes with a bead. Headbands from the Lesotho border, of straight sewn technique with edgings of beads, one bead being threaded on to the sewing strand whenever it emerges, may have another row of beads sewn down the centre of the outer surface (Fig. 92D). Finally, rows and fringes of beads often decorate the small straight sewn mats used as masks by the girl initiates in Lesotho. Bead ornamentation is at its most vigorous in the east of the country. SHAPES In southern African basketwork, shape is rarely ornamental and, for the most part, is dictated by the use to which the object is to be put and, to some extent, by the material as well. The former is obvious in such things as huts, mats, sledges, fish-traps, birdcages, bracelets, bags, hats and strainers, but it can also be seen in actual baskets. UTILITARIAN ADDITIONS Lids When they occur, lids are generally plain rather than ornamental (164, Figs 93, 94). They are frequently separate from the body and serve some other purposes as well, such as winnowing trays or drinking cups. In the south, when a lid is needed, a shallow basket bowl is generally inverted over the top of the other vessel. In Botswana, lids with small, more or less ornamental knobs are used. This latter is possibly a recent development. Handles Loops. The apparently indigenous form of handle, if such it can be called, is a loop of twisted sedge, grass or other fibre or of thong, attached either to the edge, or to the centre bottom of the article, by means of which it can be hung up (165). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 169 Fig. 93. Lid on coiled sewn basket, 164. Cords are almost exclusively seen on twilled pouches. They serve both as handles and to hold in place the lid, which slides up and down the cord (166a-166f, Fig. 95 A). They may be attached in a variety of ways, most of which are on the outside of the lower portion and ornamental. They always run up inside the lid, finishing outside on top, sometimes through a flat piece of wood. Stiff handles (167a, 167b, Fig. 95B, C), as distinct from cords, have not been recorded on uninfluenced indigenous work. They occur quite frequently in influenced work which is, however, commonly used. In woven work they may be made by extending two opposite warps, and in coiled work by taking a loop out of the coil foundation. In either woven or coiled work they may be sewn on. Some skimming spoons have been recorded with an ornamental ring handle at the end of the shaft; this is, in fact, an extension of the warps, sewn into a ring. Hinges The lid of certain types of basket may be hinged on to the body in one or two places, either by means of simple strands (168, Fig. 96A) or by means of a 170 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 94. A, C. Lids on twilled baskets, 164. B, D. Cross-sections illustrating fit. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 171 Fig. 95. A. Cord handle on pouch, knotted outside, runs inside, 166a. B. Stiff handle on woven work, 167a. C. Stiff handle on sewn work, 167b. 172 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 96. A-B. On twined work, lid hinged by three strands, 168. C. On sewn work, lid hinged by corresponding loops and a ring, 169. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 173 loop in corresponding positions on each and fastened with a ring (169, Fig. 96C). In the latter case, as used by the Ronga near Maputo, the loops are made of the ordinary grass or split palm-leaf foundation, closely bound round in chequer weave with palm-leaf. They are decorated with beading in black. Rims Rims consisting of flat wooden hoops have already been discussed under 'edges' (80). They may be termed ornamental if they are ornamented or if they are made wider than is functionally necessary, to give an ornamental effect (170, Fig. 63). Feet An addition that may be modern and is fairly rare is a foot or stand, seen occasionally on small baskets in the Kavango territory. It is coiled, like the rest of the basket and is, in effect, a straight or slanting rim at the bottom of the basket (171). It seems to be a foreign element from north of the Okavango. In KwaZulu, three small pieces of wood may be sewn on to the bottom of a small basket to act as feet when it stands on its own, or as a handle when it is used as a lid (172, Fig. 97 A). Or a solid ring of wood (173, Fig. 97B) or a thick plait may be attached (174, Fig. 97C). BASKETS Garden baskets Throughout the southern African region, these are small at the base and wide at the top, thus allowing a good load to be packed in, and helping to balance the basket on the head (175, Fig. 98). They may be conical, flanging or bowl-shaped. They frequently have a concave base to fit the head. This base is commenced as it were inside out and, when deep enough, the warps are turned up or the sewn coils similarly placed, so that the cone is inside. Other utensils and containers Food bowls are shallow and wide-mouthed. Beer baskets, for drinking beer, are fairly straight-sided and wide-mouthed (176, Fig. 99); containers (777) for storing beer, like bins for storing grain, close in at the top to a small mouth (Fig. 100), and usually have a lid. Otherwise, the only baskets in which the shape is not entirely conditioned by the use are the Venda and Lobedu twilled carrying baskets, where the waist is ornamental, but at the same time not unconnected with the technique — there would have to be a join somewhere (Fig. 4). Certain shapes have been adopted from the fashions of other cultures with which the people have come in contact. Examples of this are rectangular baskets, baskets with hinged lids, and the addition of handles. 174 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 97. A. Small pieces of wood at base of basket, as feet or handle, 172. B. Wooden ring sewn on base of basket as a foot, 173. C. A plaited ridge as foot on a basket, 174. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 175 ' m JZ 3 0> -a — G - d n OO a c «5 > C3 « .^ cO o , Efl o ~ ^ U- X Q EQ E "^ E en E <_> o -C r- O0 (N) '(U <_i X J3 op '3 00 X CM r- cs ^E !Q E s co«^ < in C/3 mJ OO 3C ^^'3 O 00 T. " Os u -m '— <D O •7: >~.0 45 C OC «J 1 u ~3 *:> 08 < -C cw 13 t/i c -a H c U CL S £ < E vn 00 [fi <N N w ~- J3 " .2P r '<u X X .-3 -C d" z in u — s ca OS < DC C/5 3> ' oc .5P£ 176 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 99. Utensil, 176. Beer-beaker, Mpondo, Flagstaff district, Transkei 1932 (UCT 32/41). Height 292 mm. OBJECTS OTHER THAN BASKETS Bags Bags (178, Fig. 101) are of different sizes, but differ in shape only according to the ratio between length and width. Bracelets Bracelets (179, Fig. 102) are straight bands and differ only in width. Birdcages Birdcages (180, Fig. 6) have no special shape. Fish-traps Fish-traps (181, Fig. 14) are nearly always conical in shape, but there are some like little fences. Food- and grain-mats These (182, Figs 8, 82; 183) may be round, half-oval, rectangular — which is most common — square, or apron-shaped. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 177 Fig. 100. Containers, 177. A. Small lidded basket. Natal Nguni, Nkhandla, 1941 (SAM-6201). Greatest diameter 160 mm. B. Large container, Zulu, Melmoth, 1965 (SAM-9215). Height c. 550 mm. 178 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 101. Bag for spoons, 775, decorated with white beads, 163a, Zulu, no locality, 1938 (UCT 38/19). Length 255 mm. Fig. 102. Bracelet, 179, 'Mpondo, Flagstaff, Transkei, 1901 (SAM-249). Width of fabric 30 mm. Hats It used to be said that the shape of South Sotho hats (184, Fig. 103) was dic- tated to some extent by whether they were to be worn in sunshine (in which case they were wide brimmed) or rain (in which case they were conical), but this seems to be no longer the case, if ever it was, and the conical hat has become a national symbol. In other groups, hats are mainly wide-brimmed. Huts Before the spread of mud walls, the frames of walls and roofs of huts were, with some exceptions, wattlework (185, Fig. 104). In some places there was a woven top-knot on the roof. Sledges Sledges (186, wooden base. Fig. 15) have wattlework walls built on to the V-shaped Sleeping-mats Sleeping-mats (187, Fig. 105) are rectangular, although some Xhosa some- times make one end rounded. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 179 Fig. 103. Hat, 184, Southern Sotho, Leribe, 1958 (SAM-7987). Height 320 mm. Fig. 104. Framework of hut, 185, Karanga, Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, 1967. 180 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM l ■■'M\:hu^ :'■<>■ \i'dd-: H k :)*,,■ J\. y -'^ 7;v,,,'-Av ■''■■,.;,; 'd.;^::^.-^'.. , / ' X:y! I ; >:' : :)- :'^k, '\' yVy V. Vf:*. \.- ■. ' ,y . A ^^ <-..\ dK(^:^yy y - Fig. 105. Sleeping-mat, 257, Tswana, Thaba Nchu, 1978. Fig. 106. Skimming-spoon, 255, Zulu, Eshowe, Natal, 1961 (SAM-8398). Diameter of bowl 100 mm. Spoons The basketwork spoons used as skimmers for beer (188, Fig. 106) are gen- erally rather more ornamental in shape than is strictly necessary for their purpose. Strainers Strainers are tubular and their shapes differ only at the narrow base (189., Figs 19, 107), which may be tucked in, bound or sewn into a straight projection. They are used mainly for straining beer, but small examples for straining por- ridge have been seen. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 181 Fig. 107. Beer-strainer, 189, Xolo, Port Shepstone, 1939 (SAM-6010(3)). TOOLS Basketwork is done by hand and very few tools are used. PREPARATION In preparation of the materials, a knife (nowadays often a penknife) or spear blade is necessary to cut them and split them ready for use. For heavy stakes that are the warps of wattlework hut frames or sledges an axe or an adze is needed. The splitting of small strands may be done with an awl (Fig. 108A) or, nowadays, even a pin may be used. Where reeds have to be flattened before use, they are cut once down the length and opened out and, at least among the Mpukushu and Kuangari, hammered flat with a mallet (Fig. 108C). A mallet or a piece of wood is used by Tsonga to flatten the ridges made by sewing plaited strips together to make a mat or basket. 182 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 108. Tools. A. Awl, Lobedu, Duiwelskloof, 1936 (SAM-9742). Length 147 mm. B. Core of grass for beer-strainer, Zulu, Nongoma, 1970. C. Mallet, Kuangari, Lupala, Kavango, 1961 (SAM-8512). Length 384 mm. D. Needle, Nama, Fransfontein, Namibia, 1923 (SAM-UCT 23/138). Length 255 mm. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 183 WORKING Woven work In the actual work, woven techniques need no tools, but a knife or blade is used for cutting off the loose ends. A core of grass is used for shaping woven beer-strainers (Fig. 108B) or Zulu chequer weave spoon-bags; latterly a bottle has been used for this purpose. Sewn work Sewn techniques, however, need an awl or needle (Fig. 108 A, D) for the actual sewing. In straight work, a needle may be used to pierce the foundation strands; it has an eye through which the strand is passed and by means of which it is drawn through the foundation strands. It is recorded of the Khoi that a needle and an awl were used, the latter to pierce the foundation strands and then turn on its side to hold the hole open while the needle was pushed through. This method was seen among the Hlubi too. Sewn beer-strainers are made on a core of grass (Fig. 108B), at least in Lesotho and Transkei. In coiled sewn work, the choice of an awl or a needle depends on the close- ness of the work. If it is loose and the foundation is of grass, a needle may be used to pull the sewing strand through. If it is close sewing of hard materials, an awl will be used to make a hole through the foundation and the stiff sewing strand will be inserted through the hole. Sometimes the forward end of the sewing strand will be cut to a point to facilitate this, or the stiff er root portion of sedge left on for this purpose. Both straight and coiled work have to be trimmed when finished and a knife is used to cut off the loose ends. Latterly the Thembu have used shears for this purpose. The material of which awls and needles are made varies. Most awls are of iron nowadays, but wood, bone and thorn, especially the sharp point of an aloe leaf, or the sharp spike of a palm-leaf, are used. Some have handles, some not. Nails are often put into handles for use as awls. Umbrella spokes, flattened and pointed at one end, make very good needles. MATERIALS The materials used in Southern African basketwork are as numerous and varied as the tools are few, and are obtained almost entirely from plants. Dressed skin is sometimes used for bindings or for bases, sinew thread is some- times used for sewing, and ox- or other tail hair, brass buttons and beads are sometimes used for decoration and ornamentation, but the bulk of the materials come from plants. In many cases the materials are available near or not impossibly far from the maker's home, but many areas are being over-exploited and the need to import from another part of the country is sufficient to encourage some people in the suitable environments to grow material for sale. 184 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM The preparation of each type of material varies but, in general, most of them, before use, are soaked in water for a certain time; this varies according to material and custom. The materials are used damp, to prevent splitting or crack- ing. In addition, the worker usually has a container of water nearby and keeps wetting the hands. Thin material is often kept in this water until used, or wrapped in something to keep it damp. One woman was seen to warm the water for the start of the basket. Record of the materials used is far from complete, for which reason it has been thought best to list them according to the parts used rather than to make an alphabetical list of the botanical names of the plants so far identified. Materials collected in the field are marked by the place name, and were identified by the National Botanic Gardens, Kirstenbosch. The names listed under 'Author' are those of other informants or sources. STEMS Grass: family Gramineae — various genera True grass stems are comparatively seldom used for either element in woven work; there are few objects for which the majority of grasses would be strong enough. However, grass stems, that is the stems of the inflorescence, are used for the plaited grass bracelets and necklets popular throughout the country. For these a shiny yellow-stemmed grass is preferred. Thin tough grass stems are used for South Sotho sun-hats of extended plait technique. By far the most common use of grass is as a coil foundation for coiled bas- ketry. When the foundation is to be completely or almost completely covered, the choice of grass need not be so particular, but on hats of boater shape and on certain baskets shiny stems are carefully selected for the foundation, so that in showing through the stitches they add to the decorative effect. Fine grass stems may be plaited as a sewing strand for coiled work. Stronger grass is plaited to make ropes. Grass stems need little or no preparation. They are sometimes used green, particularly for ornaments or hats, and sometimes dried first and dampened for use. The following grasses have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author *Andropogon amplectans Nees sewing of coiled work Zulu Melmoth * Andropogon cymbarius L. sleeping-mats Zulu Natal Gerstner Aristida sp. coil foundation; weft of grain-bin Zulu Melmoth Hlabisa warps Biyela Nkhandla broom Zulu Babanango coil foundation Ambo Oshikango Aristida congesta Roem. & baskets, food-mats Zulu Grossert Schult. (1967) •See Appendix 3 for current name. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 185 Species Use Group Place Author Aristida junciformis Trin. & brooms Swazi Pigg's Peak Rupr. *Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens sewing strand for coiled work Swazi Pigg's Peak Cymbopogon sp. coil foundation of bin for groundnuts Lenge Masiyene Earthy (1933) Cynodon sp. bangles Hlengwe Sabi-Lundi Digitaria' eriantha Stend. ornaments Zulu * Natal Gerstner (1938: 223) sewing of coiled work Zulu Hlabisa baskets, beer-strainers Zulu Grossert (1967) sewn beer-strainers Thulini Appelsl^osch sewing of coiled work Tembe Sodwana *Digitaria littoralis Stent. ornaments Thembu Beukes (1937) Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle) plaited bangles Ndebele Zimbabwe Stapf. Eragrostis curvula Nees ropes and grain-bins Zulu Melmoth Gerstner (1939: 58, 1941: 381) baskets, ornaments, grain- Zulu Grossert bins, plaited rope (1967) Eragrostis gummiflua Nees coil foundation S. Sotho Lesotho coil foundation S. W. Tswana Botswana coil foundation Ngwato Serowe Eragrostis pallens Hack coil foundation general Botswana Campbell (pers. comm.) coil foundation Sarwa Nata R. Ebert (1978) Eragrostis plana Nees ropes, mats Zulu Melmoth coil foundation Zulu Nongoma sewing Zulu Mahlabatini sewn baskets Zulu Grossert (1967) grain-mats Swazi Ohlangotini Festuca costata Nees coil foundation Ndebele Esigodini (Essexvale) McCalman (pers. comm.) coil foundation Swazi Pigg's Peak warp of grain-mats Swazi Pigg's Peak Hyparrhenia sp. coil foundation Hlubi Sigogo sewing for grain-bin Venda Ndzehele Hyparrhenia filipendula Stapf roof mat Zulu Grossert (1967) part of initiation costume Lobedu Duiwelskloof Davison (1984) large grain-bin Venda Ndzehele Hyparrhenia hirta Stapf grain-bins, bangles Zulu Natal Grossert (1967) bangles Tlokwa Bochum bangles N. Sotho Lydenburg See Appendix 3 for current name. 186 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf grain-bins Zulu Grossert (1967) Ischaemum fasciculatum plaited rope Zulu Natal Brongn. *Ischaemum arcuatum (Nees) baskets, beer-strainers Zulu Grossert Stapf (1967) Loudetia simplex (Nees) C. E. plaiting bangles Ndebele Zimbabwe Hubbard * Miscanthidium capense Stapf rough mats Xhosa Umtata Oplismenus sp. 'baskets' Zulu Natal Gerstner (1939: 314) food-mats, baskets Zulu Natal Grossert (1967) Pogonarthria falcata Rendle garden baskets S. Sotho Lesotho Pogonarthria squarrosa (Licht.) coil foundation Ndebele Esigodini McCalman Pilger (Essexvale) (pers. S. Sotho Teyateyanen£ ; comm.) Rhynchelytrum repens C. E. coil of nest for hens Lobedu Duiwelskloof Hubb * Rhynchelytrum setifolium baskets Zulu Grossert Chiov. (1967) *Sporobolus indicus Stapf coil foundation Zulu Zulu Nongoma Hlabisa Sporobolus pyrimidalis Beauv. coil foundation of hats, S. Nguni Transkei coil foundation of baskets Hlubi Sigogo with plaited sewing coil foundation Ximba Mahlabatini coil foundation Koni Northern Transvaal Themeda triandra Forsk. grain-bin Zulu Grossert (1967) * Tricholaena setifolia Stapf coil foundation; wefts of grain-bins Zulu Melmoth * — See Appendix 3 for current name. Reeds: family Gramineae — genera Phragmites and Arundenaria The stems of river reeds {Phragmites australis (Cuv.) Trin. ex Steud.), the indigenous bamboo (Arundenaria tesselata Munro), and the introduced bamboo (Bambus vulgaris Schreb.) are used in various types of basketwork, especially in the north. Thin reed stems were used by the Naron of Sandfontein for the warps of the reed sieves that they used for sieving white ants' larvae, and are said to have been used by the Southern San for fish traps. Reed stems are split and flattened out for weaving coarse twilled matting in the north-west. This seems to be an Angolan style and is found among people with Angolan affinities: Kuangari, Bunja, Sambiu, Diriko, Mpukushu. The matting may be used for sleeping mats, roofing mats, screens, grain-bins and sledges. Reeds are used for another type of sleeping mat, made in Zimbabwe, in which the reeds are flattened out, but are sewn through side by side instead of being woven. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 187 Strips of split reed are used quite extensively for baskets — generally in check or twilled weave — in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and the north of Botswana, where influence from Zimbabwe and Angola is apparent. Winnowing baskets and similar shapes, which further south are always twilled of slivers of wood, are there frequently made of reed strips, which are also used for strengthening rims. Reeds and bamboo are prepared by drying, cleaning, sorting, and splitting or slitting and beating flat. They are used whole, especially for one or more ele- ments of doors, or for filling in walls in the north and east, and also as the warps of fish traps. Their shiny yellow surface is very decorative. The following species have been identified so far: Species Use Group Place Author Pennisetum purpureum warp and weft of twilled Ndau Ngorima, Schumach baskets Chimanimani (Melsetter) Phragmites mauritanus Kunth. Zimbabwe Sedges: families Cyperaceae (Fig. 109) and Juncaceae These are probably the most fruitful source of material for basketwork in southern Africa — particularly so in the south where in some parts they are used almost exclusively. The long, smooth, tough stems of the inflorescence are emi- nently suited to many types of work. Many species of both families are used. So important are they that they form an item of trade to areas where they do not naturally grow. For this purpose they may be collected or actually cultivated. Sedge stems are used whole, most commonly for sleeping mats or for the roofing mats of the San and Khoikhoi. They form the single warps or the foun- dation elements, with twined wefts or straight sewing through. The material is used in the same form and technique for the veils worn by girls at their initiation ceremonies in Lesotho. Less commonly, and in twined work only, several sedge stems go to each warp. Whole sedge stems also furnish the warps for most of the woven baskets and bags in the south-east, and for many of the food- and grain-mats wherever these are made. Sedge stems are used practically exclusively for the wefts of these woven baskets, bags and mats, but it varies according to the thickness of the stem and the taste of the maker, whether they are used whole, split in half, or split in half and the pith removed. Split and de-pithed sedge stems are used in various parts of the country for oversewing in coiled basketwork, including hats, where a flat stitch is wanted. They are also plaited into braids for certain types of ornament. A Shona bag is twilled of split, de-pithed and flattened sedge stems, and so is a Pedi beer- strainer. Stems of thinner smaller sedges are greatly used in the centre and north and are twisted into one- or two-ply cords for oversewing in coiled work. Sedge stem 188 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM stf^nra mm* Fig. 109. Sedge (Cyperus textilis Thunb.), Cape. cords of rather stronger species furnish the material for the beer-strainers of the straight sewn type. The sedges are generally cat and carried home in bundles, then laid out in the sun to dry, sometimes on the roof of a hut. The Nama soak the stems in water to draw out the tannin and make them more durable. When dry, the unsuitable stems are sorted out. It depends on the use to which they are to be put whether they are then used as they are, split, beaten flat, de-pithed or twisted into cords. They are dampened before use. The species so far recorded are: Species Use Group Place Author Cyperus alternifolius L. subsp. warp of sleeping-mats, Ndebele Zimbabwe McCalman flabelliformis (Rottb.) warp and weft of food- (pers. Kiikenth. mats, sewing of coiled baskets comm.) * Cyperus comp actus Lam. ornaments Naron Sandfontein Bleek (1928) Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. beer-strainers Lobedu Modjadji, Duiwels- kloof ■See Appendix 3 for current name. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 189 Species Use Group Place Author Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperus fastigiatus Rottb. Cyperus immensus C.B. CL Cyperus latifolius Poir Cyperus margaritaceus Vahl Cyperus natalensis Hochst. Cyperus papyrus L. Cyperus sexangularis Nees Cyperus textilis Thunb. sleeping-mats, food-mats. Zulu Grossert baskets (1967) sleeping-mats Ndebele Zimbabwe McCalman (pers. comm.) mats Zulu Eshowe baskets Tsonga Gazankulu baskets S. Tsonga *Sodwana food-mats Natal Natal Marianhill Nguni (1900- 1910) sleeping-mats Xhosa Willowvale Mpondo Umvume Springs Zulu Eshowe Zulu Hlabisa Zulu Mahlabatini Venda Nzhelele girls' ritual dresses Zulu Bryant (1949) sleeping-mats Zulu Bryant (1949) sleeping-mats Zulu Mayr (1906- 1907) baskets S. Tsonga Manguzi sleeping-mats Mbukushu Botswana Campbell (pers. comm.) sleeping-mats Mpondo Pondoland food-mats. Mpondo Pondoland sewing of coiled baskets. Koni Sekhu- khuneland grain-bins Tlokwa Bochum sleeping-mats Lobedu Modjadji sleeping-mats Venda Nzhelele roofing mats Khoikhoi weft of garden baskets Fingo Transkei baskets S. Nguni sewing of grain-bins Hlubi Sigogo warps of sleeping-mats S. Nguni warp and weft of food- S. Nguni mats beer-strainers S. Nguni warp and weft of shrimping Mpondo Umvume basket Springs, Pondoland sleeping-mats Swazi Nelspruit Velcich (pers. comm.) baskets West Tswana sewing of garden basket Rolong Tlhakgameng foundation of beer-strainer Huruthse Moshane Thlaping Moretcle Ngwato Serowe sleeping-mats East Tswana sleeping-mats Tsonga Gazankulu 190 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Kyllinga alba Nees small baskets Zulu Grossert (1967) Maris cus sp. foundation of mats Nama S. Kalahari Schultze (1907) part of initiation costume Lobedu Duiwels- kloof Davison (1984) *Scirpus inclinatus (Del.) warps of sleeping-mats, Ndzundza Bronkhorstspruit Aschers & Schweinf. baskets sleeping-mats Tlokwa Silwerkrans Scirpus nodosus Rottb. ornaments Naron Sandfontein Bleek (1928) *Scirpus paludicola Kunth. beer-strainers Ximba Mahlabatini belts Thulini South Natal Scirpus rogersii N. E. Br. sewing of doormats Ndebele Zimbabwe * Scirpus tege talis Burch. sleeping-mats Cape Burchell Khoikhoi Fraserberg (1824) beer-stirrer Zulu Tugela Ferry ] uncus effusus L. beer-strainers Zulu Mahlabatini beer-strainers Ngwane Bergville warps of grain-bins Zulu Zulu Ngwane Melmoth Tugela Ferry Bergville Dept. Agric. (1940) sleeping-mats Zulu Mahlabatini Gerstner -' (1938: 323) sitting-mats Zulu Nongoma ?spoon-bags, sleeping- Zulu Gerstner mats, food-mats (1938: 228) *Juncus maritimus Bak sleeping-mats Zulu Melmoth stirrers Zulu Tugela Ferry Juncus punctorius L.f. warps of sleeping-mats Swazi Pigg's Peak baskets Swazi Mbabane * — See Appendix 3 for current name. Rushes: family Typhaceae Rush stems, when used, are cut and dried in the same way as sedge stems. They are used as warps for a common type of sleeping-mat in Natal and for a tobacco-mat in Mozambique. The Southern San are said to have made a cord for fish traps from them, but the word 'rush' is very loosely used in the literature. The only rush identified is the bulrush: Species Use Group Place Author *Typha latifolia subsp. capensis sleeping-mats Rohrb. sleeping-mats Zulu Tswa Natal Mozam- bique Gerstner (1938: 228) * — See Appendix 3 for current name. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 191 Creepers The stems of creepers are used extensively in the northern and eastern Transvaal, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, either as foundation rods for coiled basketwork or split for use as the sewing strand. They are also used, in the same areas, as strengthening rods for the rims of woven baskets. Thicker creeper stems are used as wefts over rigid warps for meat trays and hut doors by Mpondo and Zulu. The creeper stems are generally stripped, dried and soaked in water for use, but in some cases, for example the meat trays, they are used green and untreated. The following species have been recorded: Species Use Group Place Author Combretum zeyheri Sond. warp and weft of conical basket Manyika Mutare (Umtali) Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels oversewing edge of winnowing basket Tsonga Gazankulu sewing strand Lobedu Duiwels- kloof Dalbergia obovata (E. Mey) basketwork Zulu Natal Gerstner (1941: 291) Dioscorea sp. coil foundation and sewing Venda Venda Flagellaria guineensis Schumach hut doors and baskets Zulu Natal Jasminum streptopus E. Mey. coil foundation; edge of woven basketwork Venda Mpephu Menispermaceae sp. coil foundation Tswana Botswana Campbell (pers. comm.) Pharnacium sp. warp Ambo Ovambo Rhoicissus rhomboidea (E. oversewing edge S. Nguni Transkei Mey) Planch. Xesibe Bhaca East Griqualand East Griqualand "Solatia zeyheri PI. oversewing edges Ndau Chipinge (Chipinga) Smilax kraussiana Meisn. hut doors Zulu Natal Tecomaria capensis Spach. coil foundation Lenge Masiyene *Xylopia antunesii Engl. & oversewing winnowing Budjga Mutoko Diels baskets (Mtoko) N — See Appendix 3 for current name. LEAVES OF PLANTS Leaves of various plants are dried and split into strands of suitable width for various sorts of basket work. Palm: family Palmae (Fig. 110) The most widely used leaf is the palm-leaf. Wherever the palm grows it is used; the most commonly used are the two species of the fan palm Hyphaene 192 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM natalensis Kunze (= *H. crinita Gaertn.) and *H. ventricosa Kirk. Among the Nguni speakers the fan palm is called ilala, and elsewhere by various forms of the same root word, but in Botswana it is known as mokola, mokolane and mo- kolwane. In the south-east, the wild date Phoenix reclinata Jacq, known as isundu (Xhosa, Thembu, South Tsonga), is used. Along the east coast, where the coconut palm has been introduced, its leaves are used. For certain purposes the palm-leaf is used whole, in which case the leaf folioles are merely separated and woven on the midrib. Such is the cover made for covering the cups in which palm sap is collected, made of a small leaf of a fan palm with the folioles woven chequer. This may be done while the leaf is still green. For the most part, however, palm-leaves are dried, then the folioles are stripped off the midrib, which is also kept for use. The folioles may be used whole or split, if necessary, and sorted. Before use they are soaked in water. * — See Appendix 3 for current name. Fig. 110. Palm (*Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk), Ovamboland. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 193 The initiation costumes of the Southern Nguni are made of whole Phoenix re- clinata folioles taken off the midrib and secured with lattice wrapping over a cord. Far more commonly, and particularly those of Hyphaene spp., the folioles are split to the required width for use. In woven work, strips 5-25 mm wide are used for weaving chequer or twilled baskets (Ambo), mats (Ambo, Tsonga), winnowing trays (Tsonga and Chopi), ankle rattles (?Mpondo), and especially for the pouches that are found all along the east coast and in the Kavango territory. For twilled beer-strainers that are found in the south-east, the strips are split to follow the natural decrease of the leaf and their use provides the required decrease in the beer- strainer. Stripped leaves of Hyphaene are said to have been used sometimes as wefts of Zulu grain-bins. The only instance recorded where the midribs of folioles are used in woven work is in the skimming spoons for beer, which are used in Natal and neighbour- ing territories. The midribs are used both for warp and weft, but sometimes for warp with a weft of another material — sedge or fibre or modern string. In coiled sewn work palm-leaf is very largely used throughout a large part of the country for sewing strands and for the oversewing of edges. The folioles are dried and split into strips 1-5 mm wide. Generally, the best strands are used for sewing and the remainder used with the midribs for the coil foundation; some- times they are mixed with grass for this latter purpose, which is frequently made of grass entirely. More rarely, for example among the Valenge, palm-leaf strands are used for sewing over a single foundation of the stem of a creeper. Family Iridaceae Second in importance to palm-leaf are the leaves of numerous species of the family Iridaceae. Many members of this family have long, tough, fibrous leaves, like shoe laces, which make very suitable material for sewing strands in coiled work. No woven work using these plants has been recorded so far, except plaited cords for various purposes. The following have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author Hypoxis spp. wefts of grain-bins Natal Nguni Dept. Agric. (1940) ornaments Fingo Kawa (1929) cords, ropes Natal Gerstner (1939: 323) cords, baskets, ropes for Natal Grossert thatch (1967) * — See Appendix 3 for current name. 194 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Other plants The Venda, particularly, use the leaves of a Strelitzia or Ensete sp. for over- sewing the join in the centre of their mufharo baskets. The leaves are dried and split into wider strips than palm. They give only a short strand. The smooth folded leaves of one of the Amaryllidaceae — Vellozia retinervis Bak (bobbejaan-stert), are split in half and used by the Lobedu of the Transvaal to weave twilled beer-strainers, like the palm-leaf strainers elsewhere. The Pedi plait them into cord. The following other plants of which the leaves are used have been iden- tified: Species Use Group Place Author Anthericum sp. baskets Zulu Grossert (1967) Dicoma zeyheri Sond. girls' skirts Zulu Krige (1950) bridal veils Zulu Krige (1950) Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. for sewing delicate baskets Ndebele Zimbabwe Ensete ventricosum Cheesm. sewn beer-strainer Lobedu Duiwelsklool sewing together parts of Venda Ndzehele twilled basket Strelitzia augusta Thb. penis sheaths Zulu Mahlabatini penis sheaths Zulu Natal Gerstner (1938: 326) rope for hut building Zulu Natal Gerstner (1938: 218) Strelitzia sp. sewing together parts of woven baskets Venda Ndzehele Zea sp. (maize) sewing strand in coiled work Ndebele Zimbabwe Davies (1934) WHOLE PLANT Rather more rarely the whole plant is used, but only in the case of grass and reeds. The whole tuft of grass, stripped of its roots, may be used as a warp element in woven work. This occurs more especially in twined work, where the weft is of some other material, as for example, in the Mpondomise and Bhaca garden baskets and South Sotho grain-mats. Whole grass plants are used for the plaited ropes with which South Sotho and Nguni tie down the thatch of their huts and which are used generally for many purposes. Similar to this is the plaited grass cord with which loose-coiled grain-bins are oversewn. Whole grass plants may also be used as a coil foundation. This is seen particularly in the soft granary baskets. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 195 The following plants have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author Aristida sp. coil foundation Ambo Oshikango *Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens plaited coil foundation Swazi Pigg's Peak Cymbopogon sp. rope Bomvana Elliotdale Eragrostis curvula Nees grain-bins Zulu Natal Gcrstncr (1938: 337) Ischaemum fasciculatum Brongn. plaited Zulu Natal *Oplismenus africanus P. Beauv. coil foundation Zulu Natal Pogonarthria squarrosa Pilger coil foundation Ndcbcle Zimbabwe Sporobolus pyramidalis Beauv. coil foundation Hlubi Mpondo Ximba S. Sotho Koni Hcrschel Transkci Mahlabatini Mataticlc Transvaal * — See Appendix 3 for current name. BARK Thin bark is widely used for basketwork in many areas. It is stripped from the stem and dried; it may be boiled to toughen it. The Chopi finally rub the bark of Brachystegia with Trichilia emetica seeds to make it soft. Natural coloured bark may be used as a weft element, especially over stiff warps, and is very frequently used as the ordinary sewing element in coiled sewn work. It is also much used for oversewing of rims and edges and for sewing joins. Coloured barks, generally reddish brown, are frequently used for the intro- duction of colour. Very thin strips of bark may be twisted to a single- or two-ply cord and used for sewing or twining sleeping-mats, for twining open fish baskets, for sewing coiled baskets, or as both elements in a woven cloth made in Zimbabwe. Wide strips of bark are used especially in Mozambique to cover and protect the base of conical baskets. The following species have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author * Acacia capensis Burch. Acacia polycantha Willd Acacia sp. Annona senegalensis Pers. Bauhinia galpinii N. E. Br. soft outer bark for sewing Khoikhoi Riet River Burchell mats string for sewing mats Nama inner bark for sewing mats Nama sewing hoop to basket Ndau oversewing coiled baskets Swazi (1824) Fransfontein Hoernle (1913- 1922) Andersson (1854) Chimanimani (Melscttcr) Hlatikulu * — See Appendix 3 for current name. 196 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Boscia albitrunca Gilg. et oversewing coiled baskets Huruthse Mangodi Bened. weft of food-mats Ngwato S. Tsonga New Town, Serowe Manguzi Brachystegia boehmii Taub. 2-ply cord of inner bark Manyika Mutare (Umtali) Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. base of basket Tsonga Manjacaze outside supporting bands Lenge Masiyene Earthy (1933) protecting base of basket Chopi Makupulane weft of fish trap Karanga Mbercngwa (Belingwe) Bridelia micrantha Buill. sewing hoop to basket Ndau Chimanimani (Melsetter) Colophospermum mopane weft of fish basket Ndau Chipinga (Kirk & Benth.) Kirk ex J. (Chipinge) Leonard weft of grain-bin Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) oversewing edge of Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) baskets *Dombeya natalensis Sond. sewing coiled baskets Zulu Swazi Natal Hlatikulu Gerstner (1938: 236) oversewing edge Zulu Oswatini, Natal decorativcsewing Zulu Hlabisa Ficus sp. weft for mats Zulu Melmoth *Ficus capensis Thunb. bark for whipping handle of bag Tsonga Sodwana Grewia bicolor Juss. sewing coiled basketwork Sarwa north and west of Serowe Ebert (1978) Grewia flava DC. sewing of hats Korana Bloemhof Engelbrecht (1936) oversewing winnowing Thlaping Moretele basket decoration of basket Rolong Stad Mafikeng oversewing of basket Huruthse Dinokana Grewia monticola Sond. wefts of thatching mats; Ndebele Zimbabwe oversewing edge of baskets Ndebele Zimbabwe McCalman (pers. comm.) Grewia subspathulata N. E. Br. oversewing edge of baskets Tswana Botswana * Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd. sewing coiled baskets Ndebele Zimbabwe Pterocarpus angolensis DC. cover to base of basket Chopi Zavala Salix capensis Thunb. sewing of mats Nama Keetmans- hoop Schinz (1891) *Sclerocarya caffra Sond. sewing (pattern) Ndebele Tjolotjo, Zimbabwe Sterculia rogersii N. E. Br. sewing of coiled basket Koni Sekhukhune land Terminalia sericea Burch. sewing of coiled baskets Tswana Botswana Campbell (pers. comm.) * — See Appendix 3 for current name. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 197 FIBRES Except for one instance in Sekhukhuneland, where the root fibres of Vello- zia retinervis are used in their natural state as a coil foundation, the vegetable fibres so far recorded are used twisted into two-ply string. The fibres are separated by scraping and may be softened in water, or very often by chewing, before being rolled on the thigh, first into two one-ply cords, then into one two-ply cord, in a continuous movement. Fibre cord has many uses. In basketwork it is mostly used for sewing or twining sleeping-mats, and also for twining fish traps and for oversewing edges of baskets. The most common source of fibre is the Sansevieria plant (wild sisal), which is indigenous to many parts of the country. Where it is not available, some sort of aloe usually is and for the last century or so the agave (sisal) has been planted in many areas. The inner bark (bast) of the acacias is also a very good source of fibre. Latterly, the threads of grain-bags have been twisted into cord for sewing. The following species have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author * Acacia capensis Burch. sewing mats Khoikhoi Riet River Burchell (1824) * Acacia horrida Willd. sewing mats Nama — Schapera (1930) Acacia zizyfolius oversewing edge of baskets Mpukushu Andara Agave americana L. oversewing of edge of baskets Vundla Quthing weft of sleeping-mats Zulu Natal weft of sleeping-mats Swazi Ingwavuma wefts of mats Ndebele Zimbabwe sewing strand of mats Chopi Makupulane sewing strand of beer- widely strainers and mats used Aloe sp. binding; brooms Ximba Mahlabatini foundation coil Ngwaketse Kanye Brachystegia boehmii Taub. sewing for mat Ndau Roswi Mutare (Umtali) Rusape Ficus sp. sewing or twining mats Bhaca Matatiele *Ficus vogelii (Miq.) Miq. oversewing hoops Tembe Sodwana sewing bands on baskets Lenge Masiyene Earthy (1933) Grewia flava D.C. inner bark for wefts or sewing of mats Rolong Ganyesa Hibiscus canabinus L. sleeping-mat Venda Mpephu *Hyphaene crinita Gaertn. = rope Zulu Natal Gerstner H. natalensis Kunze (1941: 277) Rhus sp. warps of fish traps S. San Orange R. Barrow (1801) Sansevieria aetheopica Thunb. sewing edge of baskets Kwanyama Ovambo Rodin (1985) sewing baskets Mpukushu Andara -See Appendix 3 for current name. 198 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Sansevieria aetheopica Thunb. sewing mats Lobedu Duiwelskloof (cont. ) sewing beer-strainers Pedi Sekhukune- land weft of mats Ndebele Zimbabwe twining sieves Naron Sandfontein Drury (1935) Campbell * Sansevieria desertii N. E. Br. binding (?sewing) of coil Tswana Botswana (pers. comm.) Sansevieria pearsoni N. E. Br. sewing edge of basket Kwanyama Ovambo Rodin (1985) *Sclerocarya caffra Sond. coil foundation Ndebele Tjolotjo Vellozia retinervis Baker coil foundation Pedi Sekhukune- land sewing basket Pedi Schoonoord sewing mats Pedi Schoonoord brooms Ndebele Zimbabwe beer-strainer Lobedu Duiwelskloof Davison (1984) beer-strainer Venda Ndzehele Vigna sp. root fibres used for making string Zulu Natal — in many places, especially in south -See Appendix 3 for current name. WOOD Three sorts of wood are used in basketwork — thin withies (or stems of creepers) used whole or split in half, timber cut as required, and thin root stems used whole or cut in half. Withies These are stripped, dried, and soaked. Thin stems may be used as foundation rods for coiled basketwork, in which case they may be used whole or split in half. They are also used in the northern Transvaal and Mozambique par- ticularly, as strengthening hoops for woven work, and are split for use as the pliable wefts in the wicker baskets of the Shona. Thin twigs are used as warps for fish traps (Southern San, Tsonga, Ambo), sieves (Southern San), beer- strainers (Ambo), grain-bins and other baskets. The species recorded are: Species Use Group Place Author ia sp. basket coil foundation Tsonga ypha glabrata Thunb. warps of fish traps Tsonga Palmer & Pitman (1972) BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 199 Species Use Group Place Author Colophospermwn mopane coil foundation Ambo (Kirk & Benth.) Kirk ex J. Leonard. lattice of grain-bin Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) Combretum parvifoliwn Dinter reinforcement of basket Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin rim (1985) Combretum engleri Schinz reinforcement of basket rim Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) *Grewia deserticola Ulbr. warps of fish traps Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) Grewia flava DC. coil foundation Tlaping rim of winnowing basket Rolong Stad Mafikeng Grewia flavescens Juss. warps of smoking frames Herero Ghanziland, Ngami- land, Botletli, Mahala- pye Campbell (pers. comm.) Rhus lancea L.f. oversewing edge Huruthse Duiwels- kloof Terminalea sericea Burch. ex warp and lattice of grain- Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin DC. bin (1985) Triomfetta sp. beer-strainer Lobedu -See Appendix 3 for current name. Timber Timber may be used as thick stakes for warps in wattlework, for example, doors, fences or the sides of sledges. Or it may be cut from branches into thin slivers of wood about 6-10 mm wide and 2 mm thick and used for both warp and weft in check or twilled woven work — mostly twilled. It is particularly com- monly used for shallow winnowing trays in the central area and the rather deeper trays that are commonly used for various purposes throughout Zim- babwe. Thin slivers of wood are also used as warps for wicker baskets in Zimbabwe. The Venda and Lobedu of the Transvaal make a special sort of carrying basket (see Fig. 4) of this material. Rather thicker slivers are used for the strengthening rims of baskets of this type that hold the work together for the oversewing. Wider pieces (2-8 cm wide) are sewn on to the body of baskets of this type as rims for the edges. The following species have been recorded: Species Use Group Place Author Acacia ataxacantha DC. fabric of winnowing baskets fabric of winnowing baskets Nkum Tsonga Tzancen Hans Merensky Reserve 200 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Acacia ataxacantha DC. fabric of winnowing Lobedu Duiwelskloof (cont.) baskets fabric of winnowing Venda Sibasa and baskets Louis Trichardt * Acacia detinens Burch. fabric of winnowing baskets Ngwato New Town, Serowe Acaiypha glabrata Thunb. fish-trap Tsonga Palmer & Pitman (1972) Brachylaena discolor DC. hoop of winnowing baskets Venda Sinthumule hoops of baskets S. Tsonga Manguzi Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. warp and weft of conical baskets Manyika Chibi Inyanga Victoria, Zimbabwe winnowing baskets Mari Mahango, Victoria, Zimbabwe * Caesalpina sepiaria Roxb. winnowing baskets Lobedu Duiwelskloof Cassine crocea (Thunb.) Kunze warp and weft of baskets Ndau Ngorima, Chimanimani (Melsetter) * Commiphora fischeri Engl. winnowing baskets Ndau Chipinge (Chipinga) Craibia brevicaudata (Valke) warp and weft of conical Karanga Charter Dunn basket Grewia flava DC. winnowing baskets Rolong Tlhakgameng *Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk winnowing baskets Manyika Inyanga midribs for building huts; Kosi Bay Palmer & rafts Pitman (1972) Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. hoop and slivers of winnowing baskets Manyika Mutare (Umtali) Macaranga mellifera Prain hoop of basket Ndau Ngorima, Chimanimani (Melsetter) Oxtytenanthera abyssinica winnowing basket Mari Victoria (A. Rich) Munro Reserve warp and weft of conical Ndau Gondola, basket Mozambiqu e Rhus lancea L.f. winnowing basket Huruthse Marico Rhus pyroides Burch. winnowing baskets Kgatla Mankwe Trichilia emetica Vahl hoops of winnowing baskets S. Tsonga Tsonga Manguzi Makupulane Lenge Masiyene Earthy (1933) warp and weft of Tsonga Chibuto winnowing basket hoops Chopi Makupulane -See Appendix 3 for current name. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 201 Root wood Thin root stems, stripped and dried, are used extensively in the north for coil foundations. Split in half they are used for oversewing in coiled work, for oversewing of edges, and for weaving the necks to the skin vessels of the Korana. Thicker roots, split into flat pieces, are used for woven work (winnow- ing baskets) by Ndebele of Zimbabwe, and Chopi, Tsonga and Shona. Species recorded are: Species Use Group Place Author Asparagus laracinus Burch. oversewing edge of win- nowing basket Huruthse Dinokana Boscia albitrunca Gilg. & Ben. warp and weft of winnow- Tswana between ing baskets Mochudi and Kwarape Pan Combretum zeyheri Sond. wefts of wicker basket Roswi Rusape wefts of wicker basket Karanga Charter Mberengwa (Belingwe) wefts of wicker basket Govera Charter Grewia flava DC. oversewing edge of win- nowing basket Rolong Tlhakgameng Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. warps of wicker basket Budjga Mutoko (Mtoko) warps of wicker basket Roswi Rusape Lycium hirsutum Dunal. foundation and sewing of Korana Bloemhof Engel- ('katbos') basketwork neck brecht (1936) Rhus lancea L.f. fabric of winnowing baskets Rolong Stad Mafikeng fabric of winnowing Tlharo Gadiboyi baskets Rhus tenuinervis Engl. & Gilg. frame of winnowing Sarwa Nata R. Ebert baskets (1978) ANIMAL MATERIALS Animal sinew Animal sinew is comparatively little used and almost exclusively as a sewing element. It may be first twisted to a two-ply cord or used as it is. Stow (1907) mentioned San use of it for sewing sleeping-mats; specimens of San sieves in the South African Museum have unspun sinew as wefts. Where articles are orna- mented with beads the latter are usually sewn on with sinew thread. Animal hair Ox, horse or other animal tail hair is sometimes used to introduce decor- ative patterns in twined, woven and coiled sewn work, or to oversew an edge. It may be rolled into a two-ply cord, plaited, or used as it is. This has onlv been 202 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM recorded among the Southern Nguni, the Southern Sotho and the Western Tswana. Ndebele in Zimbabwe use elephant or giraffe tail hair for sewing coiled hats. Leather or dressed skin Leather is seldom used in the actual fabric of basketwork. In some South- ern and Central San wicker mat sieves, the wefts are strips of leather, as may be the wefts of Herero smoking-frames. In one recorded example from Lesotho a thin thong was used as the sewing for a beer-strainer. A round or a square of leather or dressed skin is, however, very commonly sewn to the bottom of conical grain baskets of the Sotho, Tswana and others to strengthen them and make them less slippery on the head. The entire base of a certain type of Kalanga basket (Fig. 45) is leather. Leather thongs are frequently used for adding straps or handles to baskets. IMPORTED MATERIALS It was inevitable that imported material should have found its way into indigenous basketwork to a certain extent, but so far comparatively little has been used. String is often used as the weftin mat-making and for finishing off edges of mats. As early as 1772, pack-thread was being used (Sparrman 1785: 209). String has also been recorded as used for the weft element on a skimming spoon, which is generally made entirely of palm-leaf. The woven cylindrical spoon-bags or purses of the Zulu usually have cotton or fine string for the weft, and have latterly come to be decorated with coloured wools or beads. Coloured wools are much used for the decoration of mats. Conical baskets sometimes have a piece of cotton material sewn over the bottom in place of the usual leather or bark. Beads are used for decoration and ornamentation. Grain-bag fibres are very much used for making a two-ply sewing strand, where sinew, plant fibre or a thong would have been used before. DYES The subject of dyes is as yet far from being fully investigated — most of those known seem to be vegetable. The question of mordants, in particular, needs investigation. Strands of material are dyed before use, to provide colour where no suit- able naturally coloured materials exist. What information has been recorded so far is presented in Table 1 . BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 203 II 5 > a. 2 E a C ^ 3 3 <u o 3 3 CA £ 03 3 DC ^ C =5 O to <u 53 a- 3 £ O 43 J3 «- ■g o a £ £ 2 S o ^ * * ".a -S *S -O 73 a fi .= i J2 S « 8 'So §- £ -o X) X G £ - 5 -a a) o X 3 ^ 3 ^ •Is a a N -^ ||5 03 C = :§ I 3 « o r8 S iS P -c N -5 C3 i_ M JH > o a Soz H^ DC ■a * bo S a. 3 &o <u u •a o E E Hi X £ o o o JD X T3 "3 3 C a x o ~~ c B 1 II- -I §•§■! •a efl -a •- £ 85 o U9 -C '§> [rt 1 "O &> ,. "O *Vh -o ll 0) u 03 £ 'o X) 'o * X 2 c c o CJ 00 X ca .22 C X! E CUD •c«2 o a- 73 <u <u U > > > C3 03 C3 a> QJ <D PQ > o DC < 03 DC a K -5 s K •2? a ■8 "3 5 •2 S2 <3 i 3 5 1 "a 1 - oi rn «5 Vi CA V5 c« V2 C/5 E E 0) <D OJ <u U <u > > > > > > CO 03 03 03 03 KJ u OJ O JH JD M U JJ c c m u Q to > 3 Bj (U ■32 Oh rs •2 g o c I B 5 d •o « # (/5 2 I bo .B S 2 o E S <3 a 3 g On ob c s s 6? .1 a ll •So 6^"2 Table 1 continued Purl used Colou Source other than field 14. Acacia sp. ('wattle') bark 15. Berchemia discolor (Klotsch) bark Hemsl. (formerly Phyllogeiton discolor) bark bark near 16. Bridelia micrantha Baill. bark 17. Colophospermum mopane Leon, bark 18. Commiphora sp. bark 19. *Lannea stuhlmanni Engl. bark 20. Mangrove (probably bark Rhizophora mucronata Lam. 21. Piliostigma thonningi bark (K. Schum.) Milne-Redhead red, red brown boiled first, then material boiled Port Shepstc or mauve with it brown Mahlabatini red. brown, Ovambo purple reddish brown reddish brown simmered with materia dark brown crushed and boiled with material (the most and allowed to stand for several common dye) days red boiled with material brown boiled with material red boiled with material red brown ?boiled with material reddish brown made into varnish for coating certain baskets Odibo Namibii Kavango people Ximba Ambo Oshikango Kwanyan Loeb (1962). Palmer & Pitman (1972), Rodin (1985) Palmer & Pitman (1972) Campbell (pers. comm.) Rodin (1985) material simmered i Chimanimani (Melsetter) Ndau Gazankulu Tsonga Louis Trichardt Venda Gazankulu Tsonga Maputo Tsonga Ovamboland Northern Botswana Ambo Palmer & Pitman (1972) Campbell (pers. 22. * Rhamnus zeyheri (Sond.) 24. Trichilia emetica Vahl 25. Euclea divinorum Hiern 26. Pterocarpus angolensis DC. 27. Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. 29. * Elephantorrhiza burchelli (Benth.) 30. Euclea natalensis A. DC. bark dark brown inner bark red boiled, dried and powdered; Zimbabwe powder added to boiling water and material placed in it boiled with materia boiled with materia boiled with materia boiled with material ith material heartwood brownish red crushed or chopped fine before of root boiling to make colour wood brown, purple pounded and boiled Mahlabatini Ximba Sodwana Tembe Bushbuck Nhlanganu Ridge Gazankulu Tsonga Pigg's Peak Swazi Sibasa Tsonga Chibuto Tsonga Kavango Campbell (pers. w comm.) Ovambo Ambo Palmer & 1 Pitman (1972), Rodin o (1985) Kavango Mpukushu Palmer & Pitman S c (1972) Oshikango Kwanyama Rodin (1985) 3 m Mberengwe Karanga § (Belingwe) | Senthumule, Venda 9 Louis Trichardt Bergville Zizi Zululand Zulu Palmer & Pitman (1972) Vukani (pers. comm.) -See Appendix 3 for i Table 1 continued 31. Euclea schimperi (A. DC.) Dandy 32. Euclea sp. 33. Harpephyllum caff rum Bemh. 34. Hypoxis sp. 35. Olea capensis L. 37. * Sclerocarya caffra Sond. 38. /Icaria karoo Hayne 39. Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsley 40. Euclea divinorum Hiern 41. Indigo fera sp. 43. Pterocarpus angolensis DC. 'Phyllogeiton zeyheri (Sond.) Suesseng. 45. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 46. *Indigofera pretoriana Harms 47. Carbon paper 48. Dye from store 49. Indelible pencil 50. Ink 51. Permanganate of potash 52. Typewriter ribbon 54. Wet manure 55. Wet sand or kraal soil 56. Rusty iron (car springs or By whom Source other used than field black brown dark brown Tsonga boiled, then material boiled boiled, material put into boiling dye boiled with material; some say pounded and boiled for 3 day; boiled with material dried, cleaned, stamped and boiled with material Port Shepstone All coastal people Sodwana Tembe Hlabisa Zulu Vukani (pers. comm.) Sodwana Tsonga Nongoma Zulu Vukani (pers. comm.) Hlabisa Zulu Vukani (pers. comm.) Mahlabatini Zulu Mvula Zulu Senthumule, Venda Louis Trichardt Sodwana Tembe it orange it purple Serowe crushed and boiled with material Oshikango and left to stand boiled to make dye, and material Oshikango (not fast) stood in it fruit, leaves pinkish brown boiled with material until colour Moshana or whole looks right plant bluish black yellow (the mashed, with sorghum as mordant Ovambo preferred dye) Ngwato Kwanyama Rodin (1985) Kwanyama Rodin (1985) Huruthse Silwerkrans Tlokwa Kgatla Botswana Namibia Tswana Campbell (pers. comm.) Palmer & Pitman (1972) Ovambo Kwanyama Rodin (1985) brown purple blue/black blue black dark brown red brown boiled, dried, powdered and added to boiling water, fibres placed in it boiled with material boiled with material broken into small pieces and boiled with material boiled with material soak material overnight soaked in water with material material buried in it soaked with material —See Appendix 3 for current name. Bergville Zizi Sodwana Tembe Inhambane Chopi Eshowe Zulu Nongoma Zulu Mokgola Huruthse Gopane Huruthse Ha Popolosi, Taung Lesotho Serowe Ngwato Malaissa Chopi Mahlabatini Ximba Maputo Ronga Makumbe Tsonga Venda Stayt (1931) Mari Louis Trichardt Venda Nzhelele Venda Kavango Campbell (pers. comm.) 208 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM CONCLUSION The main factors that govern the distribution of the techniques described are the type of material available in different parts of the country and the tra- ditions of work of the respective groups. Some quite striking differences in technique have been noted, for example, the split-warp twine with sedge wefts that is characteristic of the eastern Transkei, the coiled sewn work that is used throughout southern Africa but in which the different materials available modify the style, and the influence of the palm-belt on both woven and sewn tech- niques. The materials used for dyes have not yet been researched thoroughly and it is suspected that, with the rise of the new basketwork, experiments are being made to find and use new dye materials and this may make it difficult to isolate those that were used earlier. Considerable influence has been exercised by contact with people of several different cultures. An attempt will be made in the following parts of this series to plot the distribution of techniques and materials and to note the extent of foreign influence. The rapid rise of basketwork as a commercial craft or home industry is now causing anxiety about the depletion of the local material resources on which it depends (Cunningham 1987a, 1981b). In the early 1970s, when the craft began to be encouraged as a home industry, one of the advantages was that the plant materials were close at hand; now practitioners are having to go quite far afield for their needs, or to import materials. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgement is made with thanks for the financial assistance of the Human Sciences Research Council towards the field research for this study and the Centre for Science Development towards the publication of this work. Opinions expressed or conclusions reached are those of the author and should not be regarded as representative of those of the HSRC or CSD. In a survey of this kind, where a study of other people's property is involved, one is dependent on the goodwill and helpfulness of many people. It would be invidious to single out any among the numerous individuals — museum and herbarium officers, government officials, missionaries, guides and interpret- ers, owners of basketwork, craftsmen and craftswomen — whose assistance has made the work possible. I am deeply indebted to them all. The contribution of the late Miss Leonie Phillip who gave much of her spare time to illustrating the techniques, is gratefully acknowledged, as is that of Mrs A. C. Lawton (van Jaarsveld) — who was involved in the early stages of the study, and of Mr Cedric Hunter and Mr V. Branco for compiling the figures. Mrs M. Carey and Mr A. C. Campbell gave advice on the text. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 209 REFERENCES Andersson, C. J. 1854. Lake N garni or explorations and discoveries during four years' wan- derings in the wilds of South West Africa. London: Hurst & Blackett. Balfet, H. 1952. Vannerie: Essai de classification. L 'Anthropologic 56: 256-280. (Trans- lation: Baumhoff, M. A. 1957. Basketry: a proposed classification. Papers on Cali- fornian Archaeology 47-49: 1-21.) Beukes, W. T. 1937. Ethnography Collections, Transvaal Museum. Bleek, D. F. 1928. The Naron, a Bushman tribe of the central Kalahari. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 1929. ^Notes and queries in Anthro- pology. 5th ed. London: Royal Anthropological Institute. Bryant, A. T. 1949. The Zulu people. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter. Burchell, W. J. 1824. Travels in the interior of Southern Africa. 2 vols. London: Batch- worth Press. (Reprinted in 1953.) Carstens, P., Klinghardt, G. & West, M. (eds.) 1987. Trails in the thirstland. The anthro- pological field diaries of Winifred Hoernle [1913-1922]. Communications of the Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town 14: 1-198. (See also Hoernle, A. W.) Cunningham, A. B. 1987a. Commercial craftwork: balancing out human needs and resources. South African Journal of Botany 53 (4): 250-266. Cunningham, A. B. 1987Z?. Effects of basket-weaving industry on Mokola palm and dye plants in north-western Botswana. Economic Botany 41 (3): 386-402. Cunningham, A. B. & Gwala, B. R. 1986. Building methods and plant species used in Tembe-Thonga hut construction. Annals of the Natal Museum 27 (2): 491-511. Davies, C. S. 1934. The Amandebele habitat. Nada 12: 74-79. Davison, P. J. 1984. Lobedu material culture. Annals of the South African Museum 94(3): 41-201. Department of Agriculture. 1940. Survey of native methods of storing grain. Report. Department of Agriculture and Forestry (Entomology). Unpublished MS. Drury, J. 1935. Preliminary report on the anthropological researches carried out in South West Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 2A (2): 89-109. Earthy, E. D. 1933. Valenge women. London: Oxford University Press. Ebert, M. 1978. Patterns of manufacture and use of baskets among the Basarwa of the Nata River region. Botswana Notes and Records 9: 69-83. Engelbrecht, J. A. 1936. The Korana. Cape Town: Maskew Miller. Graument, R. & Hensel, J. 1946. Encyclopedia of knots and fancy rope work. New York: Cornell Maritime Press. Gerstner, J. 1938. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 12 (3): 215-236; (4): 321-342. Gerstner, J. 1939. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 13 (1): 49-64; (4): 307-326. Gerstner, J. 1941. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 15 (3): 277-301; (4): 369-384. Gibbs Russell, G. E., Reid, C, Van Rooy, J. & Snook, L. 1985. List of species of southern African plants. Part 1. (2nd ed.) Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 51: 1-152. Gibbs Russell, G. E., Welman, W. G., Retief, E., Immelman, K. L., Germishuizen, G.. Pienaar, B. J., Van Wyk, M. & Nicholas, A. 1987. List of species of southern African plants. Part 2. (2nd ed.) Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 56: 1-270. Grossert, J. W. 1967. Zulu names of grasses and grasslike plants. Unpublished MS. Hoernle, A. W. 1913-1922. Diary (Unpublished MS). University of Witwatersrand Archives. (See also Carstens, P. et al.) Junod, H. A. 1927. The life of a South African tribe. 2 vols. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Kawa, R. T. 1929. / Bali lama-Mfengu. Lovedale: Lovedale Press. Krige, E. J. 1950. The social system of the Zulus. 2nd ed. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter. Loeb, E. M. 1962. In feudal Africa. Publications. Research Center in anthropology. Folklore, and Linguistics, Indiana University 23: 1-383. Mariannhill. c. 1900-1910. Photographs. Mason, O. T. 1904. Aboriginal American basketry: studies in a textile art without machinery. Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insitution 1902 (2): 171-548, 248 pis. Mayr, F. 1906-1907. The Zulu Kafirs of Natal. Anthropos 1: 453-471 (1906): 2: 392-398. 633-645 (1907). Nauhaus, G. 1881. Ethnographische Gegenstande aus Siid-Afrika. Zeitschrift filr Ethno- logie 13: 343-344. Notes & Queries in Anthropology — see British Association Palmer, E. & Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of southern Africa. Cape Town: Balkema. 210 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Quiggin, A. H. 1912. Textiles. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to the Torres Straits 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rodin, R. J. 1985. The ethnobotany of the Kwanyama Ovambos. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 9: 1-164. Schapera, I. 1930. The Khoisan people of South Africa. London: Routledge. Schinz, H. 1891. Deutsch-Sudwest-Afrika. Oldenburg und Leipzig: A. Schwartz. Singer, C, Holmyard, E. J. & Hall, A. R. (eds.) 1954. History of technology 1: 418-424. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Sparrman, A. 1785. A voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. Dublin: White, Cash & Byrne. Stayt, H. A. 1931. The Bavenda. London: Humphrey Milford. Stow, G. W. 1907. The native races of South Africa. London: Swan Sonnenschein. Definitions as used by: M- S— Shaw. S ascending S BAND S BASKET M, S BASKETRY N, S BASKETWORK M BEADING Q. s BEESKEP S BINDING S BLANKET STITCH S N S s S BORDER BRAID BRAND BUNDLE CHAIN STITCH M, s CHECK N CHEQUER S M, s CHEQUER-WORK CHEVRON N COIL S FLAT COIL s ASCENDING COIL GLOSSARY •Mason (1904); N— Notes & Queries (1929); Q— Quiggin (1912); Raised up as distinct from flat. A flat line of colour, change of weave or other material, arranged concentrically on a circular object (as opposed to stripe on flat or straight objects). A vessel (or receptacle) made of interlaced flexible material. The process or art of making baskets and allied products. (Synonymous with basketwork.) 1. The technique, strokes or stitches used in making baskets or other objects. 2. A collection of finished baskets or objects made in the same- technique. An element run in and out through the spaces in woven, or the stitches in sewn, basketwork. Widely spaced oversewing in coiled work, each stitch passing just behind the stitch below. A strip of material sewn over the edge of the work to secure it. Oversewing in which the thread is caught once behind each new stitch, i.e. half-hitched. A decorative band or stripe near the edge of the work. A narrow strip formed by plaiting. To mark by burning. A number of things bound together loosely. A type of stitch in which the thread, having passed to the back of the material, passes through a loop in itself as it re-emerges in front. In a series this gives the effect of a chain stretched across the surface of the material. A single square of a pattern in squares; where warp and weft cross in chequer work. Technique of woven basketry in which the warp and weft pass over and under each other singly. Work made in the above technique. Geometrical motif in which two lines meet at an angle to make a V or inverted V. (v) To wind into a circle or spiral. (n) A continuous element wound into a spiral. When the element is wound in the same plane so that the work remains flat. When at each turn the element is put above the turn below, so that the work ascends and the object becomes hollow and circular or cylindrical. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 211 M, Q COILED BASKETWORK COIL FOUNDATION N, s COMPOSITE ELEMENT S CONCENTRIC Q, N CORD S CROSS-STITCH s CROSSED WARP s CYLINDRICAL s DARN N, Q, S DECORATION Q, S M, S S N, S N, S N, M DIAGONAL WEAVING DIAPER EDGE ELEMENT EMBROIDERY END N EXTENSION N, s FABRIC N, s FIBRE S FIGURE-OF-EIGHT s FINISHING s FOOT N, s FOUNDATION s FRINGE N, M FURCATE S HALF-HITCH s HALF HOOP M. S HERRINGBONE S HITCH N, s HOOP N, M INTERLACE S INTERLOCK N INTERSTICE Type of basketwork in which a foundation of hard or soft material, arranged in a fiat or ascending spiral, is held to- gether by means of oversewing. The element which is coiled in coiled basketwork and round which the stitches pass. Element made up of distinct parts. Having a common centre. A string composed of several strands twisted together, in the same direction. Two stitches crossing each "other to make an X. When the warp is crossed between strokes of the weft. In the shape of a hollow tube. To sew or embroider with interweaving stitches. The embellishment of the surface of the work, made during the work. (i) By the addition of elements that are not essential to the construction but which are worked into it. (ii) By special treatment of elements that are essential to the construction. An item of decorative work or the general effect of such items. Running the weft and warp at an angle. A raised pattern in the weave. The extreme margin of anything. One of the simple constituent parts of anything, in this case the wefts, the warps, the coil foundation, or the sewing strand. Embellishment with needlework after the basket is finished. The extreme point of anything that has more length than breadth. An enlargement in breadth or a continuation in length. An interlaced texture; the work. A filament in plants or animals; a substance composed of a collection of such filaments. A stitch the outline of which makes an eight. Securing of the loose ends in woven or coiled work. The lower part, on which an object rests. The base or ground work; the element in sewn basket- work which the sewing penetrates, and which controls the shape. A border composed of separate loose strands. Forked, used of stitches in coiled sewing intentionally and symmetrically split or sewn twice into one space to give a forked or chain effect. A half interrupted movement in stitching. A strip of wood or other solid material bent into half a ring, round or oval. A border or edging made by turning an edge over on itself to strengthen it. A series of parallel chevrons. A full interrupted movement in stitching. A strip of wood formed into a ring. To lace together; to insert one thing with another, to cross and intertwine elements. To hold two elements together by looping one through the other. A small space between things closely set. 212 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Q, S S N, S M, N KNOB KNOT STITCH LATTICE WEAVING N, S LOOP N, s MORDANT S NODE N MOTIF N MOTTLE S MOULD s MULTIPLE N, Q, S ORNAMENTATION N, S OVERLAY S OVERSEW PATTERN M PIERCED WARP N, S PLAIT N PLY N RADIAL N, N s RIM ROD S s SCALLOP SEIZING s SELVEDGE N, s SEWING SIDE N. S SIMPLE ELEMENT S SLIT N, s SLIVER S SPACING s SPINY M. , s SPIRAL N SPLINT N SPLIT S SPLIT WARP A small rounded protuberance on the surface of the work. Sewing of coiled work when the sewing strand comes out between coils, crosses the last stitch and goes round a former stitch to give the appearance on one surface of a tied knot. A strip of wood or other firm material added to the inner or outer surface of the fabric, most frequently in the same direction as the weft. Work in which two sets of rods cross at right angles and are held together by wrapping or twining one or more strands round the intersections. A doubling of flexible material; a bend. A substance that has a chemical affinity for colouring matter and serves to fix dyes. The point of a stem from which the leaves spring. The distinctive feature of an ornamental design. One of a number of spots by which a surface is vari- egated; to mark or cover with spots. To bend into shape. Consisting of many components, e.g. stems of grass. The embellishment of objects by the addition of separable elements after the work is completed — as distinct from decoration. To place over certain elements a decorative element. To sew over the edge of an object or round a foundation; to sew one round of foundation to the next in coiled bas- ketwork. The surface effect produced by various strokes. The form of weaving in soft materials where the wefts pass through the warps. To interlace three or more continuous strands in the same ultimate direction, to form a narrow strip of material so interlaced; a braid. A strand of a twisted cord. Moving outwards from a centre. An extended, raised or projecting margin. A long slender twig. One of a series of rounded projections on the edge of an object; to trim the edge with such. To fasten together by binding round with a thin strand. Edge of woven work on which the ends of the warp are turned back into the fabric. The fastening together of elements with a thread or strand. The broad part of a thing; an edge. One of the two longer (usually vertical) edges of an object. An element consisting of one part. Cut open lengthwise. A piece cut or split off lengthwise. Division into sections. Having stiff processes sticking out from the surface. A curve which continually recedes from a centre round which it revolves. A thin piece of wood split off. Divided lengthwise. When the warps are divided lengthwise into two or more parts which are treated singly. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 213 s STAPLE N, Q, S STITCH S STRAND N, S STRING N STRIP N STRIPE S OPEN STRIPE S STROKE s TACKING s TECHNIQUE s TENSION N THREAD N TIMBER N, Q, S TWILL Q, S s WAIST s, Q, M WARP N ,Q WATTLING, WATTLEWORK N ,s WEFT S WHIP N. N N , Q, M WICKERWORK WIND WINDING N ,s WITHY N , Q, S WOVEN BASKETWORK N , s WRAP N , s WRAPPED N, M, S ZIGZAG A short rod or twig bent into the form of an inverted U. The complete action of a (needle and) thread or strand when sewing. A completed movement in coiled basket- work corresponding to 'stroke' in woven work. A thin simple flexible element. A thin twisted line or cord of two- or more ply; used for fastening anything. A long narrow piece; to pull or tear off. A line or long narrow division of anything of different colour or texture from the groundwork. A narrow division made by two parallel lines different from the groundwork, with the groundwork showing in between. A complete movement in woven work. A long slight stitch used in fastening elements together. Method; manner of work. The action of stretching or condition of being stretched. A thin line used for sewing; a twisted filament; any thin filament. Wood — the body or stem of a tree. A woven technique in which each weft passes over and then under two or more warps, starting alternately over one or over two, so that the crossings make diagonal lines across the fabric. Twist two or more elements together in the same direc- tion. In basketwork, a woven technique in which two or more wefts are twisted together in the same direction so that they enclose a warp at each half turn by passing alter- nately in front of and behind it. A narrowing of the body. Group name for the elements in woven basketwork which are vertical and more or less passive and about which the wefts are woven; also a single one of these elements. A special type of woven basketwork in which the warps are rigid stakes planted in the ground, or in a frame. One of the elements that cross the warp in woven basket- work; the actively woven element; the horizontal ele- ments; group term for these elements. To bind round; to cover with a cord or the like bound closely and regularly round and round. Woven basketwork with strong rigid or almost rigid warps, between which the flexible wefts bend in and out. To turn round some fixed object. A turning. A twig; a flexible twig. Made by the interlacing by crossing of two or more sets of elements. To wind something round. A type of woven work in which a single weft element wraps right round a warp element before continuing. A line having short sharp turns, generally of equal length and equal angular proportions. A series of short lines inclined at angles in alternate directions. A line or course having sharp turns of this kind. APPENDIX 1 SUMMARY AND INDEX OF BASKETWORK TECHNIQUES WOVEN 1 Chequer 2 Twilled a close b open a straight b diagonal i straight ii diagonal 3 Wrapped 4 Twined plain a plain i close b twilled c split-warp i zigzag i diagonal a single warp b multiple warp a single warp b multiple warp a single warp b multiple warp a close b open a close b open c unequal divisions 2b 3B.4 3 5,6 4a 7A 4b 8 4c 7B 4d 7C 4e 4f 7D 4g 7E 4h 9A-E 4i 9C *j 9DE. 5 Wicker a chequer b wrapped a single plain b single chain r single figure- of-eight d single hitched e double plain /plain over a close 5c 63. 65 Sd 12B- C 63. 65 5e 5/ 5g 12D 65 65 65 5h 5i 12F 65 65 Sj 65 a chequer b wrapped one strand 1 more than one strand ■ combination of i and iii b hitched c figure-of-eight plain one lattice a one strand b more than one strand two lattices a one strand wrap b more than one strand a simple b extended c twilled d multiple e herring-bone /open g angular / hitched k spiral three strand more strands four strands more strands close i open uneven tension close plain zigzag 7a 16A 7b 16B 7c 16C 7d 16D-E 7c 16D-E 7/ 7g 16F 7h 17A 7i 17B 7) 7k 17C 71 7m 17D 7n 17E 7o 17F 7 P 7q 17G-H Straight foundation (flat or cylindrical) FABRIC (continued) sewn every twist ; sewn less often Tech. Fig. 8 18A Page ii plaited 2 Coiled plaited i straight sewn foundation (flat) ii tacked 3 Coiled a simple or i simple a simple foundation multiple oversewing foundation (ascending) foundation ii corded b multiple foundation a simple b multiple i over one ii over two ii over two iii interlock a simple b multiple i close ii open i close a pierced b round a pierced b round c between iv openwork a simple v knot-stitch b multiple a simple vi three-strand b multiple a simple multiple foundation i beeskep b multiple a plain e ribbed' ii furcate a split stitch i close b twice into ii open i close one iii cross-stitch a plain b interlock ii open BEGINNINGS 9c 9d 18C, 19 74 10a 20A-B 78 10b 20C-E 78 lla 21A 82 lib 21B, 22A 82 He 82 12a 21C-D 82 12b 83 12c 22B 83 13a 25A, 26 83 lib 83 13c 25B 83 13d 25C 83 13e — 13f — 13g 25D-E 83 14a 83 14b 27A, 28 83 15a 27B-C 83 15b 27D 83 16a — 16b 29A-B 85 17a 21E 85 17c 24A-D 85 18a 29C, 30 85 18b 18c 29D-E. 30 85 18d 29F-G 85 19a 31A 87 19b 31B-C 87 ON FLAT STRA1GH1 WORK 1 Woven or straight a all warps laid out first and joined by first row of weft or sewing strand b start with one pair and add alternately all elements start together, maybe with a knot to hold them in place 87 32 87 87 ON CYLINDRICAL WORK 1 Woven a cheque i warps bound round cylin- der and the binding con- tinues as the weft BEGINNINGS iionnuiwJ) 11 warps laid out, joined by first row of weft, work curved so that edges meet and weft con- tinues in a spiral to make an open cylinder iii warps and wefts knotted in pairs i warps and wefts knotted in pairs at obtuse angle ii warps and wefts knotted in bundle, knots turned inside iii warps and wefts split from folded wider strands warps joined by first row of weft which may be knot- ted, work curved round so that edges meet and weft con- Tech. 24 27 33B-C hiuiui.ltli elements knotted one end and joined by first row of sewing; work bent to a circle. continues a spiral sewing b sewing strand left as part of fringe c sewing strand worked in with foun- dation d sewing starts at narrow end 29b 29c 35B 29d CIRCULAR WORK (flat or ascending) 1 Woven a crossed warp b bound warp c looped warp d twined e square or rectangular mat base; warps and wefts become warps of sides with one added to make an odd number true circular elliptical single a chequ b twill c twined d lattice /extended plait g South Sotho BEGINNINGS (continued) ii superimposed iii triple Tech. Fig. Page 34e 37D 95 34f 95 35 "38 95 36 39 95 2 Sewn (coiled a foundation foundation) bent b foundation bent to a ring c end of foundation knotted d end of sewing knotted e beginning with sewing strand, foundation introduced / stitched start- ing pad g chequer square of sewing strand i plain ii bound iii knotted iv plaited i closed ii open 37 b 40B 97 37c 40C 97 37d 40D 97 38a 40E 98 38b 40F 98 39 40G 98 42a 40J 42b 43a 40K 41 43b INCREASES AND DECREASES 1. Woven and a natural increase or decrease in width of decrease in width of elements c dividing exist- ing warps or pairing one or both elements d adding new warps or taking warps out, knotting and cutting off or adding new wefts e decrease by removal of foundation elements / thickening or thinning of multiple warps g slackening or increasing tension 47a 47b 42C 47c 49a 49b 50a 50b 14 ' placing coil to widen or narrow the diameter thickening or thinning the coil foundation MOULDING OR CUTTING Woven a moulding fabric and holding between hoops SHAPING (continued) b gathering into a knot or bound bundle c moving warps to right or left to shape bulb d bending warps to shape during weave e bending to shape after /binding handle to shape g cutting woven fabric to shape h shortening wefts and trimming to shape Tech. Fig. 54 14 Page 104 56 105 57 45 105 58 106 105 59 60 43 105 106 ON WOVEN OR STRAIGHT SEWN WORK 1. Warp or a no edging i foundation edge (warps tucked in) i on diagonal chequer i on straight twill / on diagonal twill end tucked straight a single edge b front edge c double edge d raised edge e reinforced edge /thin edge a bent warps i held by single row of twine i held under a strand made by twisting a few warps one after the other i multiple warp a full warp from back to front to back and 68c 48B-C i as above but warps threaded up to edge before cutting c alternate warps a full warp b part warp c alternate warp 68d 49A- 68e 68f EDGES (continued) iii single warp from back to front and cut iv multiple warp from back to front and cut v single warp i from front to back and cut vi multiple warp from front to back and down through one or two rows of twine at back and cut vii single warps twisted together in pairs and pushed through last twine from front to back ' alternate warps plaited i over and under two alternate or part warp full warp ■ alternate or part warp 68p 50A-B 68q 50C-D d reinforced e wrapped a warps back on themselves holding then held by a single twine strand b warps back on themselves holding then held by one or more lattices warps bent side- ways and tucked in i (S. Sotho hat) j twilled plait simple plait i reinforced i plain 68u 50E-F 68v 68w 50G 68x 69a 51A 69d 51B 70 46B following warp tucked edge on straight sewn single foundation elements bent from back to front diagonally and back under last sewing strand between 2nd and 3rd elements further on and cut EDGES (combined) b single foundation elements bent over from front to back behind elements on right and through to front c elements held in pairs by twining and tucked in diagonally to right Tech. 72b Page 108 ingly i one of pair, the other elements bent over and caught i pair twisted together i singly e chequer edge on lattice /whipping on twine g twined plain twine on body of fancy, or on chequer or straight 72g 108 73 53B 108 74 53C 108 75a 108 ii close plain twine in opposite diagonal on plain or fancy iii two-strand fancy on body of plain or fancy twine iv three-strand a over two, fancy twine under one on body of plain or fancy b chain effect v extra row of a same direction twine through first and last row b opposite direction vi lattice twin- ing; string lattice in front and behind, twined to foundation on straight sewn ["plain wrapping with single strand over two (three or four), under one (or two) ii hitched wrapping with single strand iii twined a one strand wrapping, strands twine as well as wrapping 75e 54C 113 75f 54D, E 113 75g 113 1 1 75h 113 76b 55C-D 76c EDGES (continued) ' plaited iv tied v lattice- wrapped vi figure-of- eight vii chain effect i three rows of twine with warp twisted in and finished off with a plait i double edge i hanging plaits of thinned warps b both strands b both a plain b hitched Tech. Fig. Pag, 76d 55E-F 113 76e 113 76/ 113 76g 56A 113 76h 56B 113 76/ 113 76j 113 77a 57 113 77b 77c 58 A, / stapled — on wicker- or wattlework l over additional wefts a plain b fancy a furcate b simple with three-strand plait iii over thick a with plaited multiple weft strand coil b with bark iv at intervals over warps bent sideways and twirled round mouth v on chequer a each warp wicker, over, and into warps only b alternate warps c reinforced i sewn at intervals ii sewn all round iedge reinforced above weaving by one or more lattices on each side, and oversewn all round but through the warps as well i plain i fringed a i knot tucked a plain round last sewing strand b fringed twisted plaited l one or more hoops on one side, oversewn ii same with extra hoop on top, oversewn iii one or more hoops on each side, oversewn iv one or more wooden bands and hoop outside, and hoop inside 78a 78b 78c 117 117 117 78d 117 78e 59A-B 117 8ld 62A- 79a 79b 79c 79d 79e 60B 60A, 107 60D 117 117 117 122 122 79f 60C 122 80 61A 122 81a 61B-C 123 EDGES (comiiiiii'il) o flat binding ' wide wooden band with or without hoop outside and hoop inside i one or more hoops outside wide band, making projecting rim Tech. Fig. Page 81e 62C-D, 63 123 2 Weft or a wefts or sewing i knotted sewing edges strands end off and cut singly ii oversewn iii wound round last warp before knotting iv threaded back v twined, sewn or darned back parallel to last row vi sewing strand wrapped round last element, threaded up and cut vii fancy knot b wefts or i straight • sewing strand back 84d 64D 84e 64C ii carried down to ne; row in open work, and then back ii half-hitched, carried down and half- hitched again twist c wrapped round last three foundation elements a taut b left slack as loop a single sewing strand b both wefts c one weft, other taken straight down d twined back and forth between half- hitches a over last i warp 85e 65 A 129 85f 65 B 129 85g 85h 129 129 85j v straight diagonally b over e warp reinforced last warp one strand, other straight at edge 85k 65C 851 85m 85n 65 D 85o 85p 66 EDGES (amtiiuicil) c wefts wrapped — one weft is wrapped once or more round last warp which may be thickened; the other weft goes back into the next row vi twined back and forth for short distance, then continues across work vii twined down outer warp i back weft a across front weft and behind second warp Tech. Fig. 85q Page 132 b across front weft and in front of second warp over returning weft c across front weft and between 2nd and 3rd warps, over returning weft d half-circle i across front and returning wefts to back between 1st and 2nd warps front weft wrapped back 11 each weft wraps last warp with double or triple row of half-hitches between 3rd and 2nd, and 2nd and final warps. The appearance is of two or three knots in alternate rows. circle; loop made front to back round other weft going and coming, then behind into next row i across 2nd warp over returning weft between 1st and 2nd warp 1 one and a half circles through to back encircling back weft going and coming and then forward to next row between 2nd and 3rd warp between first and second warps between second and third warps EDGES (am(imicd) d oversewing i plain over last warp ii fancy e lattice wrap over two and under one, back along row at each end of straight sewn row FINISHINGS ON COILED SEWN WORK 1 No change of a coil i multiple stitch unchanged b coil thinned c coil thickened d material changed e coil reinforced anc material changed foundation ii simple foundation 2 Change of a oversewing i close stitch (with same or different material, with coil unchanged. thickened or thinned) ii alternately piercing and encircling coil b blanket stitch i plain ii fancy c herring-bone i round coil a multiple i close foundation ii open b round one single foundation c round two single foundations ii on top of coil ii once round a upper and upper coil and lower coil once through b lower coil v two-coil v raised vi cross-stitch d diagonal i round coil oversewing ii on top of coil a fiat b raised ii in opposite a through coil direction making cross- stitch b round coil e triple oversewing 3 Added edge a extra coil i no change of added on top stitch 70C 70D 70E 71A 71B 71C 71D 71E 72 Page 132 89a 135 89b 135 90 91 92 68A 135 135 135 93 68C 135 b one or more complete rings of foundation sewn on separately after last coil i change of no change of stitch i change of stitch FINISHINGS (continued) Tech. Fig. c one or more hoops d withy added e binding 1 No special finishing a ends simply cut off b ends threaded into work and cut 2 oversewn a simple b figure-of-eight c herring-bone 3 knotted a together b separately c plaited and knotted 4 ends taken back diagonally, threaded and cut off 5 Strands back on tracks to make two edges, with fringe between 6 Lay ends together and bind a same direction b opposite c half hitched 7 spiny finish a cone b band on central core 8 Seizing on sewn beer- strainers and brooms 9 Whipping on sewn beer- strainers and brooms 10 Woven seizing 11 Elements turned inside and knotted together 12 Sewing on a invisible twilled work b visible 13 Oversewing to join edges on cylindrical work 14 Double a folded tacking to join edges on cylindrical work b flattened 15 On cylin- a knotted in drical work, pairs and bag flattened threes and warps joined to make base plaiting straight ii on diagonal twill v as fastener in itself straight sewn twilled 115b 116 76A 76B Page 139 103 139 104 139 105a 105b 105c 74A 78 140 140 140 106a 106b 106c 74B 140 140 140 109a 74F 140 109b 109c 109d 74G-H 140 140 140 110a 110b 75A-B, F 140 110c - 11 Od - HOe 75C 140 11 Of 75D 140 111 75E 143 117b 76D-E 118a 238 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM bo bo PQ Q <t 6 -S -C> U ^3 <U <-t-^ bo -S ■- « -O « -O O ^3 <U ^ be OOOOo Oooooo^ QOOOOO Os On CS O Q> <^> <^> ^o "-< fc»«< i-^ >«»< •- — I l~-s >~— ( I-s - I — | !~-H ' — | t~-H ''^ — < ~~-l '~-i >--~( i~~< • — < ' — ( **~^ S 60 ^ 60 60 M Uu -o 'B -a \s 'B £ eg .QTO^TOctfTOTO,^ S*£ .£ S.:s *8 a Jj j* -a c 0) •- 09 ~ 00 TO E 2 09 >- TO C X> 3 T3 C o 1- V— cd cr c/9 T3 C o 09 T3 — TO E TO a. T3 O O x: _o u C £j -a Ih TO a c c e -o a -O o -^ <ii <+-, to X! <U Xj TO 09 TO X) 1 o9 xj 60 >. ■°T3 C g 0) ~0 X) oo w X) .S £> 1/5 l-i <u a> x! O > 12 £ 3 O 3 o o '& '.si'j* V£> r- oo a> boos o\ o\ Os Os j £2 ■* *t •^J" ^ (N OO U PQ oo oo >i«e 5 K O <o £> >o "o u-> <N <N <N <N <N "-i ~~i •-i "-i I X> ft 3 * S3 8 R W >H CO -a g a o a 43 "3 Xi o u 1 1/3 • "8 a w H ofl • on T3 C <U C T3 £ 2 Is s 0> ft .S3 <d a -O u FRIC 39) a 2 «» 11 .9 ° ERNA f page 2 ffi o ^J o o g <L> n o 1 O * X G ORK Insert u H H 00 P4 O "T3 KETW TION( O w > < Pu O <3 CO o H O z a u > o 2* Sop? fm mm ■i 9BhhH899B ---■■■.■'.".:■. : •-••.■- I BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 239 < mo Q <mou< r- t*^ f- t~~- ooooooocoo S c £ c S T3 C a> cd R3 co cd fl 03 05 axi a.X) a X> a & I || I ? u |§ C 'CO S3 « a S* -g & M& <u 8* = > c - -S ° " j5"| > •§ .8 c .S £-.S ^ c i - * ~ 1 1 " u m _ uJ3u.Su &o-^6o-oo-a)JH>2: 1 " ° 2: ", t: <" 9* S «j^ c-5 a-&^ £ >- a3 coc-Sc-£cT:^S> <d d^ g>"E^ =3 S -3 "£ g |8 js S £ S s -S ^ -6 -^ -S -^ •§ o g --e It § *£ %%G% o ^5 9 £ <-> > > <D I 3 u cr H <L> E o « a o w a > < w £ u. o c w aj a > z -P $ £ U i— < § g I DECORATION (continued) e on lattice extra strands /on plaited i straight work ii extended d twisting warps across each other e spacing of groups / crossing warps in spaces g twining a wavy pattern a open extended b open crossed c uneven tension d extended multiple a crossed strand a close twine b open twine Tech. 125p 125q 125r 127a 127b 127c 127 d b lattice wrap c arrangement of nodes a chain stitch b lengthening twists c changing ply d change of direction of twists 128b 128c 129a 129b 129c 129d b lengthening stitch c split stitch d doubling stitch e wrapped i half-hitched ii openwork /beading g overlaying h spacing ; cutting off sewing strand long / tapering sewing strand 134a 134b CHANGE OF MATERIAL, SAME COLOUR 1 Woven 2 Sewn i concentric bands ii radial patterns INTRODUCTION OF COLOUR 1 Woven a fabric i chequer a over whole surface b designs or bands c whipping warps ii twill a over whole surface b designs or bands iii wicker designs or bands iv twined a over whole surface i one weft ii two wefts b designs or i one weft bands 141a 141b 142a 157 142b 157 142c 157 143a 143b 85A 157 157 144 145a 85B 157 157 DECORATION (continued) ■ plaited b edges 2 Sewn a fabric ii two wefts iii three wefts iv different stroke v overlaying c whipping sewing different pieces of fabric together designs or bands i one weft c wrapping end foundation strand a foundation i concentric bands of normal coil ii overlaying b sewing i whole ii mottled iii concentric bands a close b spaced iv radial stripes v geometric a concentric motifs b spaced i bands ii designs 145d 145e 145 f 145g I45h 146 147b 147c 149b 149c 150b 87D 160 150c 160 151a 160 151b 88 162 151c 162 151d 162 151e 162 151f 89A 162 I5lg 162 152a 89B 162 152b 89C 162 153 162 * ■*- * *»-»♦♦ <• ORNAMENTATION 1 Colouring 2 Embroidery a raised bands of knots b tying on coloured wool c whipping, wrapping or twining d sewn embroidery 3 Carving 4 Branding 5 Adding bands 157 158a 158b 158c 90 A, C 91A 91B 6 Brass buttons 7 Beads a on utensils 162 92A 163a 92B, 101 163b 92C-D UTILITARIAN , 1 Lids 2 Handles a loops b cords l knotted outside, runs inside ii knotted inside, runs outside iii continuous loop outside and inside 164 93, 94 165 166a 95A 166b 166c SHAPES (cuniiminl) 4 Rims 5 Feet loops a woven ridge b small pieces of wood c wooden ring d plait b through strip of wood on top of lid iv sewn round sides and/or base of pouch, inside lid v cord made of twill elements near edge of pouch Tech. Fig. 166d 166f Page 169 167a 95B 169 167b 95C 169 168 96A-B 169 169 96C 173 170 63 173 171 173 172 97A 173 173 97B 173 174 97C 173 BASKETS 1 Garden baskets 2 Other utensils 3 Containers OBJECTS OTHER THAN BASKETS 1 Bags 2 Bracelets 3 Bird cages 4 Fish traps 5 Food-mats 6 Grain-mats 7 Hats 8 Huts 9 Sledges 10 Sleeping-mats 11 Spoons 12 Strainers 176 99, 11 173 177 100, 2, 4, 30 173 178 101 176 179 102 176 180 6 176 181 14 176 182 8,82 176 183 176 184 103 178 185 104 178 186 15 178 187 105 178 PREPARATION a cutting i spear ii knife iii axe b splitting i spear ii knife iii awl c flattening mallet WORK 1 Woven a trimming knife b shaping core 2 Sewn a sewing i awl ii needle b shaping core a bundle of grass b bottle c trimming i knife ii shears 108A 183 108D 183 108B 183 183 183 183 246 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM APPENDIX 2 SUMMARY AND INDEX OF MATERIALS USED IN BASKETWORK Material Figure no. Page no. STEMS 1 Grass 184 2 Reed 186 3 Sedge 109 187 4 Rush 190 5 Creepers 191 LEAVES lPalm 110 191 2 Iridaceae 193 3 Other 194 WHOLE PLANT 194 1 Grass 2 Reed BARK 195 PLANT FIBRES 197 WOOD 1 Withies 198 2 Timber 199 3 Root wood 201 ANIMAL MATERIAL 1 Sinew 201 2 Hair 201 3 Skin 202 IMPORTED MATERIALS 202 dyes (Table 1) 1 Leaves/stem 203 2 Bark 204 3 Root/wood 205 4 Fruits 206 5 Synthetic materials 207 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 247 APPENDIX 3 The names of some of the plant species mentioned in the text differ from the currently accepted names. An alphabetical list of those names names and their current equivalent, according to Gibbs Russell et al. (1985, 1987), is provided below. Name used in text Current name Acacia capensis Burch. Acacia detinens Burch. Acacia decurrens var. mollis Lindl. Acacia horrida Willd. Andropogon amplectans Nees Andropogon cymbarius L. Caesalpina sepiaria Roxb. Commiphora fischeri Engl. Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens Cyanotis nodiflora Kunth Cyperus compactus Lam. Digitaria littoralis Stent Dombeya natalensis Sond. Elephantorrhiza birchelli (Benth.) Ficus capensis Thunb. Ficus vogelii (Miq.) Miq. Grewia deserticola Ulbr. Indigofera pretoriana Harms Ischaemum arcuatum (Nees) Stapf Hyphaene crinita Gaertn. = H. natalensis Kunze Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk J uncus maritimus Bak. Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. Miscanthidium capense Stapf Oplismenus africanus P. Beauv. Osyris abysinnica A. Rich = O. compress a DC. Phyllogeiton zeyheri (Sond.) Suesseng. Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd. Rhamnus zeyheri (Sond.) Rhynchelytrum setifolium (Stapf) Chiov. Salacia zeyheri PL Acacia karroo Hayne Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth. subsp. detinens (Burch.) Acacia dealbata Link Acacia karroo Hayne Diheteropogon amplectans (Nees) Clayton Hyparrhenia cymbaria Stapf Caesalpina decapetala (Roth.) Alston Commiphora mossambicensis (Oliv.) Engl. Styppeiochloa gynoglossa (Goossens) de Winter Cyanotis speciosa (L.F.) Hassk. Cyperus obtusiflorus Vahl Digitaria natalensis Stent Dombeya tiliacea (Endl.) Planch. Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels Ficus sur Forssk. Ficus lutea Vahl Grewia retinervis Burret Indigofera setiflora Bak. Ischaemum fasciculatum Brongn. Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. Hyphaene petersiana Klutzsch Juncus rigidus Desf. Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl, var. stuhlmanni (Engl.) Kokwaro Mis can thus capensis (Nees) Anderss. Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) Beauv. Osyris lanceolata Hochst. Berchemia zeyheri (Sond.) Grubov Pouzolzia mixta Solms Berchemia zeyheri (Sond.) Grubov Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch.) Chiov. Cassine crocea (Thunb.) Kuntze 248 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM APPENDIX 3 (continued) Name used in text Current name Sanseveria desertii N. E. Br. Scirpus inclinatus (Del.) Aschers & Schweinf. Scirpus paludicola Kunth Scirpus tegetalis Burch (= S. spathaceus Hochst.) Sclerocarya caffra Sond. Sporobolus indicus Stapf Tricholaena setifolia Stapf Typha latifolia subsp. capensis Rohrb. Xylopia antunesii Engl. & Diels Sanseveria pearsonii N. E. Br. Schoenoplectus corymbosus (Roth, ex Roem. & Schult.) J. Raynal Schoenoplectus paludicola (Kunth) Palla ex J. Raynal Scirpus inanis (Thunb.) Steud. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch.) Chiov. Typha capensis (Rohrb.) N. E. Br. Xylopia odoratissima Welw. ex Oliv. 6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the International code of zoological nomenclature (particu- larly Articles 22 and 51). Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb, nov., syn. nov., etc. An author's name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author's name and year. The author's name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a species or subspecies is trans- ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published scientific names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: Family Nuculanidae Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845) Figs 14- 15 A Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37. Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. - Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pi. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pi. 2 (fig. 8a-b). Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87. Leda bicuspidata: Nickles, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9. Note punctuation in the above example: comma separates author's name and year semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author full stop separates references by different authors figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers. Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby the year is placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is not acceptable. In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other specimens mentioned in the original description are to be designated paratypes; additional material not regarded as paratypes should be listed separately. The complete data (registration number, depository, descrip- tion of specimen, locality, collector, date) of the holotype and paratypes must be recorded, e.g.: Holotype SAM-A13535 in the South African Museum, Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region. King's Beach, Port Eliza- beth (33°51'S 25°39'E), collected by A. Smith, 15 January 1973. Note standard form of writing South African Museum registration numbers and date. 7. SPECIAL HOUSE RULES Capital initial letters (a) The Figures, Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text e.g. '. . . the Figure depicting C. namacolus ...':'... in C. namacolus (Fig. 10) . . .' (b) The prefixes of prefixed surnames in all languages, when used in the text, if not preceded by initials or full names e.g. Du Toit but A. L. du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene (c) Scientific names, but not their vernacular derivatives e.g.Therocephalia, but therocephalian Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary Reference to the author should preferably be expressed in the third person Roman numerals should be converted to arabic, except when forming part of the title of a book or article, such as 'Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.' Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation to initial capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. The generic name should not be abbreviated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title; it should be included in the abstract, counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Biological Abstracts. E. M. SHAW THE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PARTI TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 100 PART 3 APRIL 1992 ISSN 0303-2515 MCZ LIBRARY JUL 2 7 1992 HARVARD UNIVERSITY ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM GAPE TOWN INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS 1. MATERIAL should be original and not published elsewhere, in whole or in part. 2. LAYOUT should be as follows: (a) Centred masthead to consist of Title: informative but concise, without abbreviations and not including the names of new genera or species Author's(s') name(s) Address(es) of author(s) (institution where work was carried out) Number of illustrations (figures, enumerated maps and tables, in this order) (b) Abstract of not more than 200 words, intelligible to the reader without reference to the text (c) Table of contents giving hierarchy of headings and subheadings (d) Introduction (e) Subject-matter of the paper, divided into sections to correspond with those given in table of contents (f) Summary, if paper is lengthy (g) Acknowledgements (h) References (i) Abbreviations, where these are numerous. 3. MANUSCRIPT, to be submitted in triplicate, should be typewritten and neat, double spaced with 3 cm margins all round. First lines of paragraphs should be indented. 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REFERENCES cited in text and synonymies should all be included in the list at the end of the paper, using the Harvard System (ibid., idem, loc. cit., op. cit. are not acceptable): (a) Author's name and year of publication given in text, e.g.: 'Smith (1969) describes . . .' 'Smith (1969: 36, fig. 16) describes . . .' 'As described (Smith 1969a, 1969b; Jones 1971)' 'As described (Haughton & Broom 1927) 'As described (Haughton et al. 1927) . . .' Note: no comma separating name and year pagination indicated by colon, not p. names of joint authors connected by ampersand et al. in text for more than two joint authors, but names of all authors given in list of references. (b) Full references at the end of the paper, arranged alphabetically by names, chronologically within each name, with suffixes a. b, etc., to the year for more than one paper by the same author in that year, e.g. Smith (1969a, 19696) and not Smith (1969, 1969a). For books give title in italics, edition, volume number, place of publication, publisher. For journal article give title of article, title of journal in italics (according to the World list of scientific periodicals . 4th ed. London: Butterworths, 1963), series in parentheses, volume number, part number in parentheses, pagination (first and last pages of article). Examples (note capitalization and punctuation) Bullough, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Fischer, P. H. 1948. Donnees sur la resistance et de la vitalite des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140. Fischer, P. H., Duval, M. & Raffy, A. 1933. Etudes sur les echanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie experimental et generate 74 (33): 627-634. Kohn, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320. Kohn, A. J. 19606. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51. Thiele, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: Schultze, L. Zoologische und anthro- pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Siid-Afrika ausgefuhrt in den Jahren 1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270. (continued inside back cover) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM Volume 100 Band April 1992 April Part 3 Deel THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS (COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA) By GARY C. WILLIAMS Cape Town Kaapstad The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material becomes available Obtainable from the South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000 Die ANNALE VAN DIE SUTD-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM word uitgegee in dele op ongereelde tye na gelang van die beskikbaarheid van stof Verkrygbaar van die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum, Posbus 61, Kaapstad 8000 OUT OF PRINT/UIT DRUK 1, 2(1-3, 5-8), 3(1-2, 4-5, 8, t.-p.i.), 5(1-3, 5, 7-9), 6(1, t.-p.i.), 7(1-4), 8, 9(1-2, 7), 10(1-3), 11(1-2, 5, 7, t.-p.i.), 14(1-2), 15(4-5), 24(2, 5), 27, 31(1-3), 32(5), 33, 36(2), 43(1), 45(1), 67(5), 84(2) Copyright enquiries to the South African Museum Kopieregnavrae aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum ISBN 86813 127 X Printed in South Africa by The Rustica Press, Pty., Ltd., Old Mill Road, Ndabeni, Cape In Suid-Afrika gedruk deur Die Rustica-pers, Edms., Bpk., Old Mill-weg, Ndabeni, Kaap D1027 Fig. 1. Living soft corals of southern Africa. A. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921) (Alcyoniidae); purple and orange colour morphs. B. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 (Alcyoniidae); purple and orange colour morphs. C. Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900) (Alcyoniidae). D. Anthelia sp. (Xeniidae). E. Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906 (Alcyoniidae). F. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a (Alcyoniidae). G. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) (Nidaliidae). H. Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865) (Nephtheidae). I. Capnella thyrsoidea and Alcyonium fauri (white morph). THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS (COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA) By Gary C. Williams* Department of Marine Biology, South African Museum and Department of Zoology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch (With 45 figures and 1 table) [MS accepted 28 July 1989] ABSTRACT Of the eleven families of stoloniferous octocorals and soft corals recognized worldwide, seven are represented in southern Africa. These are the families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae, Coelogorgiidae, Alcyoniidae, Nidaliidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae, which are recorded from African coastal waters south of the 20°S. Twenty-five species representing twelve genera are illustrated and described in detail from material housed in the collection of the South African Museum, Cape Town. The majority of this material has been collected since 1983 using dredges and SCUBA diving. This has allowed for many observations of living material in situ and in aquaria. Thirty-three additional species are mentioned that appear in the literature but for which satisfactory material is presently not available for examination. Presently undetermined species representing 15 genera are also mentioned. Four soft coral genera are here considered southern African endemics: Acrophytum, Malacacanthus , Pieterfaurea, and Verseveldtia. Six genera are here recorded from southern Africa for the first time: Sarcodictyon, Telestula, Carijoa, Minabea, Siphonogorgia and Nephthea. Scanning electron micrographs of sclerite form accompanies the descriptions of almost all species. New information has allowed re-evaluation of several species and the alteration of their taxonomic status. This includes recent observations on intraspecific variation. A key to all iden- tified genera and species presently known to occur in southern Africa is provided. This account of the regional soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna comprises seven families, 32 genera and 78 species, which includes 28 genera, and 26 identified species that are here considered valid and to occur in southern Africa. At least 12 additional species have recently been collected that represent undescribed species; these have not been included in the present study. From an assessment of all collected material and literature sources, as well as the numbers of new records and new species recently obtained by dredging and diving surveys, it is esti- mated that at least 90 species of soft corals and stolonate octocorals occur in southern Africa. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction '. 250 Materials and methods 25 1 Systematic account 252 Key to the families of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals in southern African coastal waters 252 Descriptions 253 Family Clavulariidae 253 Family Tubiporidae 265 * Present address: Department of Invertebrate Zoology, California Academy of Sciences. Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118, U.S.A. 249 Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (3), 1992: 249-358, 45 figs, 1 table. 250 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM PAGE Family Coelogorgiidae 265 Family Alcyoniidae 266 Family Nidaliidae 323 Family Nephtheidae 328 Family Xeniidae 340 Key to the soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals of southern Africa 345 List of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals recorded from southern Africa 350 Summary and conclusion 352 Acknowledgements 353 References 354 INTRODUCTION Coastal southern Africa, from the Skeleton Coast of Namibia to the region of Beira in Mozambique, has a remarkably rich and diverse benthic fauna. The octocoral cnidarians are no exception, as at least 200 species may be present, with an extremely high percentage of endemism, perhaps 60-70 per cent. Many species are restricted to the region between the Cape of Good Hope and Natal, whereas the extensive Agulhas Bank is probably a centre of adaptive radiation for the region. The regional fauna has one' other primary component in addition to this endemic constituent: the Indo-Pacific element. This component, along with Atlantic, cosmopolitan, widespread, or scattered species, account for the remainder of the fauna (30-40 per cent). The present survey represents the second paper in a series of three covering the octocorals of southern Africa that have been identified and recorded to date. The pennatulaceans have been described in a previous paper (Williams 1990a). Stoloniferans and soft corals are dealt with in the present paper. Gorgonian octocorals will be dealt with in a subsequent paper. The stoloniferans (families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae, and Coelogorgiidae) are relatively simple octocorals characterized by having low and rounded or cyl- indrical to tubular polyp calyces that are separate and individually placed. These arise from a thin ribbon-like or reticulating stolon that adheres to the sub- stratum. Colonies have separate or fused sclerites. The soft corals (families Alcyoniidae, Nidaliidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae) are characterized by having polyps aggregated or concentrated into polyparies. The colonies are fleshy and the gastric cavities of the polyps extend to near the base of the colony through soft coenenchymal tissue which may or may not be impregnated with sclerites. An internal medulla or axis is absent. The stoloniferous families Taiaroidae, Cornulariidae and Pseudogorgiidae, and the soft coral families Paralcyoniidae and Asterospiculariidae, are not known to occur in southern Africa and are therefore not included in the present study. The old ordinal names 'Stolonifera' for the stoloniferans and 'Alcyonacea' sensu stricto (i.e. reserved for soft corals) are considered by Bayer (19816: 943) to be of no taxo- SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 251 nomic value. The ordinal name Alcyonacea, as used here, follows the proposal of Bayer, and includes all non-helioporacean and non-pennatulacean octocorals. The first large-scale collecting of South African octocorals was made by the S.S. Pieter Fame during dredging and trawling surveys between 1898 and 1907. The most important literature sources describing species from the regional soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna include Hickson (1900, 1904), Kukenthal (1906), Thomson (1910, 1921, 1923), Molander (19296), Broch (1939), and Tixier-Durivault (1954, 1960). Day et al. (1970) and Day (1974) listed the distri- butions of many common species; Branch & Branch (1981) provided colour and black-and-white photographs of a few of the most common intertidal and shallow subtidal species; and Williams (1986a, 19866, 1987a, 19876, 1988, 19896, 19906) gave detailed descriptions of several species. The benthic environment of southern Africa is extremely varied. A very high percentage of endemism is evident. Day et al. (1970: 2) reported that approximately 66 per cent of the benthic invertebrate species from False Bay are South African endemics. Millard (1978: 182) concluded that, with regard to the hydroid fauna, zoogeographical characteristics point to an active centre of evol- ution in the South African region. This can be applied to other invertebrate groups as well. Williams (19866, in press a, in press 6) provide a more detailed account of the regional zoogeography and geographical definition, particularly regarding the octocoral fauna. Species of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals in this study have been collected from the littoral (e.g. Alcyonium fauri) to a depth of 468 m on the edge of the continental shelf (e.g. Anthomastus gigan- teus). Areas of concentrated collecting with regard to recently procured material include (from west to east): the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Penin- sula, False Bay, the Danger Point-Dyer Island region, Cape Agulhas and the Agulhas Bank, Algoa Bay, the offshore region between East London and south- ern Natal including Transkei, the Durban area, and Sodwana Bay. Older records include scattered localities along the west coasts of the Cape Province and Namibia, many south and east coast localities, Inhaca Island, and southern Mozambique. The classification system used in this study at the ordinal and familial levels conforms to Bayer (19816). Nomenclature conforms to the trilingual glossary of Bayer et al. (1983). The abbreviation SAM refers to the South African Museum. MATERIALS AND METHODS Recently procured material was collected by means of intertidal collecting, snorkelling, SCUBA diving, or dredging from the littoral zone to 500 m in depth at many localities between Cape Columbine on the west coast of South Africa to Sodwana Bay, northern Natal. Live material was relaxed in a solution of magnesium chloride and sea- water, then preserved in 70 per cent ethanol. Some particularly delicate colonies were first fixed in buffered 10 per cent formalin before transfer to ethanol. 252 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Sclerites were isolated by excising a small piece of tissue (<10 mm 3 ) and placing it in a small vial with a few drops of concentrated sodium hypochlorite to disassociate the sclerites from the tissue. Sclerites were then washed repeatedly in water, and finally transferred to ethanol. The sclerite and alcohol suspension was then pipetted on to microscope slides. Canada balsam was used as a permanent mounting medium, whereas glycerine was used for temporary purposes. Draw- ings from dissecting or compound microscopes were made using a camera lucida. Scanning electron micrographs were made with a Cambridge S180 or S200 SEM. Alcohol suspensions of minute sclerites were pipetted on to circular pieces of exposed and developed black-and-white photographic paper, which were glued to the surface of a stub. Larger sclerites were arranged individually on a stub with a fine camel-hair brush and SEM glue. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN COASTAL WATERS 1A. Colonies attached to substrata by narrow basal stolons, or stolon reduced to a spreading holdfast, or stolons form multi-layered platforms (Figs ID, 7A) 2 IB. Colonies without true stolons. Colonies attached to substrata by basal hold- fast or membranous sheets (Fig. 16A) 4 2A. Colonies with stolons forming multi-layered platforms above the sub- stratum Tubiporidae 2B. Colonies arborescent with a spreading holdfast or colonies forming a single layer with separate polyps arising from a basal stolon 3 3A. Colonies arborescent, polyps not retractile, distinct anthosteles not present. Stolon reduced to a spreading holdfast Coelogorgiidae 3B. Colonies composed of separate polyps arising from a basal stolon, anthoco- diae retractile into distinct anthosteles or into base of polyp. Stolons well developed, rounded, flattened, ribbon-like or reticulate Clavulariidae 4A. Mesenterial filaments two. Sclerites, if present, are reduced to minute cir- cular or oval platelets (<0,05 mm in diameter). Shallow water, usually littoral to 30 m; Indo-Pacific, central Transkei to Mozambique . . Xeniidae 4B. Mesenterial filaments eight. Sclerites usually present, conspicuous, densely distributed, and of variable form. Littoral to 500 m; entire coastline 5 5A. Polyps grouped together in clusters or catkins, adjacent polyps sharing a common base. Polyps with a non-retractile base (a stalk) composed of dense sclerites Nephtheidae 5B. Polyps separate, not grouped together into clusters or catkins. Polyps some- times with a basal calyx composed of sclerites, but often totally retractile into coenenchyme of colony 6 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 253 6A. Colonies usually fleshy, sclerites usually <1 mm in length and not generally longitudinally disposed, sclerites sometimes reduced or absent. Calyces present or absent Alcyoniidae 6B. Colonies with a rigid consistency, outer surface rough, containing large tuberculate sclerites, longitudinally placed, permanent calyces present Nidaliidae DESCRIPTIONS Family Clavulariidae Hickson, 1894 Stoloniferous octocorals that encrust hard or firm objects such as rock, mollusc shells, coral fragments, sponges and worm tubes. Anthocodiae retractile into low conical, cylindrical, or tall tubular anthosteles. In addition to basal stolons, polyps may be linked laterally by some elevated stolonic bars but not by an elevated series of transverse calcareous platforms. Sclerites numerous; usually thorny or tuberculate rods, spindles, or needles; sometimes fused. Three subfamilies are currently recognized with 14 genera of cosmopolitan distribution. Subfamily Clavulariinae Bayer, 1981a Anthosteles longer than wide; cylindrical, tubular or slightly clavate. Polyps usually solitary; secondary, lateral polyps rarely if ever bud from main polyps. Sclerites tuberculated rods, spindles, and crosses; sometimes fused. Four genera. Genus Clavularia de Blainville, 1830 Clavularia de Blainville, 1830: 464. Bayer, 1956: F184. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 19. Weinberg, 1978: 143. Diagnosis Calyces cylindrical, arising from band-like or spreading stolons. Sclerites numerous, usually spiny spindles, rods, or needles. Approximately 40 described species; widespread, Atlantic and Indo-Paciflc. Type species. Clavularia viridis Quoy & Gaimard, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850; Indo-Paciflc. Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889 Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889: 258, pi. 43 (figs 9-10). Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 124. Day etai, 1970: 16. Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1954) merely listed this species, without description or figures, from south of Cape Point at 547 m. Day et al. (1970) listed the same without description along the south coast from Cape Point to Jeffrey's Bay up to 20 m depth. Wright & Studer (1889) originally described the species from 254 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Tristan da Cunha at 183-274 m. Because of the lack of descriptions and lack of material for examination, it is impossible to determine if the subsequent records actually pertain to this species. According to Wright & Studer, the cylindrical calyces are 4-6 mm in height with 8 longitudinal ribs. The calyx sclerites are stout thorny spindles up to 0,43 mm in length. Tentacle sclerites are blunt, straight, spiny spindles up to 0,2 mm long. Colour yellowish-white. I consider the presence of C. cylindrica in southern Africa to be dubious. Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939 Clavuiaria diademata Broch, 1939: 5, figs 2-5. Remarks This species was described from a single small colony from Table Bay at 20 m depth, and has not been recorded since the original description. Broch (1939) assigned this material to the genus Clavularia with hesitation and dis- tinguished the species by the presence of 16 points in the anthocodia — 8 tentacular (or primary) and 8 inter-tentacular (or secondary) ones. The 8 primary points are joined proximally by a transverse band of tuberculate needles or slender spindles up to 9,4 mm long. The tentacles have a few rod-like sclerites arranged longitudinally. The stolons and calyces have numerous needle- like tuberculated sclerites 0,5-0,6 rnm long. Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889 Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889: 257, pi. 42 (fig. 11). Clavularia elongata var. africana Thomson, 1921: 153. Remarks Thomson (1921) named a new variation of this species, C. elongata var. africana from Cape Infanta at 77 m, without description or figures. Wright & Studer (1889) described the type locality as 1829 m off the Azores. It is not possible to determine if Thomson's specimen is in fact C. elongata without a comparison of material. According to Wright & Studer, the species is distinguished by having tentacles strongly beset with sclerites, and the calyx wall flexible but with numerous large spiny spindles, which are often curved and somewhat club-shaped. I consider the presence of C. elongata as a dubious record for southern Africa. Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964 Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964: 46, figs 7-8. Remarks This species was described from Ponta Zavora, southern Mozambique, at 590 m depth. Tixier-Durivault (1964) distinguished the species by the low SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 255 rotund anthosteles with eight longitudinal ridges, long tubular anthocodia and neck zones strongly impregnated with sclerites of tuberculated spindles, some curved and up to 0,26 mm long. Some sclerites of the stolons may be club- shaped. The species has apparently not been recorded since the original description. Clavularia spp. Remarks Material assignable to the genus Clavularia, representing perhaps two or three species, has recently been collected in False Bay (western Cape), Algoa Bay (southern Cape), off the Transkei Coast, and Sodwana Bay, at 6-490 m (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Because of the uncertain status of many of the species described in this genus and the present unavailability of certain specimens for examination, it is not possible to identify this material to species level. Part of the material may be conspecific with species already described for southern Africa and part may represent undescribed species. Tixier-Durivault (1954: 124, figs 1-2) identified material from a shore station at Port St Johns (Transkei coast) as Clavularia capensis (Studer, 1879). Examination of Tixier-Durivault's material has shown that this material actually represents an undetermined species of Clavularia and cannot be aligned with Studer's Anthelia capensis. Material conspecific with that of Tixier-Durivault has recently been collected from the sublittoral coral reefs of Sodwana Bay, 12-20 m in depth (Williams 1989a, in press b). Remarks on the genus Clavularia Approximately 40 species have been described world-wide. Many of the original descriptions lack sufficient detail to clearly assign diagnostic features. Thus accurate determination of material to species is very difficult. A revision of the genus, involving a detailed comparison of available type material, is needed. Genus Bathytelesto Bayer, 1981a Telesto (Telesto) Wright & Studer, 1889: 260 (part.). Telesto Laackmann, 1908: 41 {part.). Kukenthal, 1913: 229 {part.). Deichmann, 1936: 40 (part.). Bathytelesto Bayer, 1981a: 884. Williams, 19896: 622. Diagnosis Secondary polyps sometimes arise from walls of primary polyps. Antho- steles long and slender, flaring slightly toward distal ends; walls composed of inseparably fused tuberculate sclerites. Proximal portion of anthostele cavity may or may not be filled with spiculiferous mesogleal intrusive material. Base of anthostele without calcareous lattices. Two species, one from the northern Atlantic and one from the south- western Indian Ocean. 256 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Type species. Telesto rigida Wright & Studer, 1889, by subsequent designation; Azores. Bathy telesto tubuliporoides Williams, 19896 Figs 2-3 Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 19896: 622-632, text-figs 1-5, pis 1-3. Material SAM-H3747, off Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'S 28°45,2'E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, many polyps attached to sponge and dead coral, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3748, off Rame Head, Transkei (31°50,0'S 29°22,7'E), 65-70 m, 15 July 1982, several polyps attached to bits of shell, dredge, coll. Natal Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3749, off East London (33°10,3'S 28°06,2'E), 100 m, 17 July 1984, several polyps attached to rock, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3750, off Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'S 28°45,2'E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, many polyps attached to sponge, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description The polyps examined range from 5-13 mm in length, 1 mm in width at the base and 1,5-2,0 mm in width at distal end. Anthosteles are clavate or trumpet- shaped, straight, curved or bent. Primary polyps with or without secondary polyps budding from anthostelar walls. Stolons flattened, encrusting surface of rocks sponges, dead corals, or shells. Wall of polyp tube brittle and inflexible; composed of inseparably fused sclerites that do not disassociate in concentrated sodium hypochlorite. Free and partially fused sclerites are highly irregular in shape and variously tuberculated, mostly rods, spindles, and antlers. Antho- codiae are capable of complete retraction into anthosteles and have 8 strong interseptal points, and slender and sparsely thorny spindles arranged more-or- less longitudinally; no crown is developed. Free sclerites up to 0,3 mm in length. Basal region of polyp tube filled with a matrix of intrusive mesogleal material containing partially fused, branched sclerites; no calcareous tubules or canals present. Colour of colonies white or greyish-white to brownish-white. Distribution Presently known only from the eastern Cape, Transkei, and Natal coasts of South Africa, depth 65-450 m. Type locality is Transkei. Remarks The species differs from Bathytelesto rigida (Wright & Studer, 1889) and Rhodelinda gardineri (Gohar, 1940) by the following combination of charac- teristics: highly irregular form of the free sclerites, possession of spiculiferous mesogleal matrix in the proximal region of the gastric cavities, possession of secondary and tertiary polyps in some colonies, and anthocodia with 8 strong SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 25' interseptal points, sclerites arranged longitudinally, crown not evident. Bathytelesto rigida is known from west of the Azores at 3 064 m, whereas R. gardineri has been collected from Subantarctic islands (Tristan, Gough, and Macquarie), 40-180 m in depth. See Williams (19896) for a discussion of problems in distinguishing the several genera related to Bathytelesto. Fig. 2. Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 19896. A. Colony growing on a dead coral fragment; total length of figure 20 mm. B. Single anthostele with anthocodia retracted, proximal portion of anthostele cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; total length of figure 10 mm. C. Transverse section through base of anthostele showing a non-partitioned gastric cavity filled with spiculiferous mesogleal matrix; total diameter of figure 1 mm. D. Three sclerites from the spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. E. Free and partly fused sclerites from the anthostele and interior of stolon. Scale bar for D-E = 0,2 mm. F. Two anthocodial sclerites; scale bar =1,0 mm. Abbreviations: aw — anthostelar wall, g — gonad, gc — gastric cavity, mf — mesenterial filament, ph — pharynx, s — stolon, smm — spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. 258 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Genus Scyphop odium Bayer, 1981a non Cyathopodium Verrill, 1868: 415. Cyathopodium Madsen, 1944: 11. Scyphopodium Bayer, 1981a: 880. Remarks The genus was named by Bayer (1981a: 880) to accommodate the species Cyathopodium ingolfi Madsen (1944: 12), since Cyathopodium Verrill, 1868, applies to a different genus. Apparently monospecific and widespread, known from the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, and South Africa, from 500 m to over 1 000 m in depth. Scyphopodium ingolfi (Madsen, 1944) Cyathopodium ingolfi Madsen, 1944: 12, figs 9-14. Scyphopodium ingolfi Bayer, 1981a: 881, fig. 2. Material SAM-H3795, off Leven Point, northern Natal (27°59,5'S 32°40,8'E), 550 m, 22 May 1976, heavy dredge, coll. S.A. Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). Determinations by F. M. Bayer and H. Zibrowius. Description According to Madsen (1944) and Bayer (1981a), the species is characterized by rigid encrusting stolons and cylindrical anthosteles usually less than 5 mm in height with rigid body walls composed of fused, branching sclerites. Basal portion of anthostele with 8 longitudinal canals formed by thin calcareous septae. Canals filled with intrusion of fused sclerites. Upper part of anthostele and anthocodia with free sclerites of tuberculated rods and crosses less than 0,1 mm in length. Colour white. Distribution The species is reported from the Azores, Crete, Iceland, Agulhas Bank south of Knysna (Cape Province), and northern Natal, South Africa (Bayer 1981a: 883; Williams in press a). Type locality is south of Iceland. Remarks The proximal portion of a single anthostele and part of a stolon (SAM-H3795) attached to the base of a dried skeleton of the solitary sclerac- tinian coral, Trochocyathus rawsonii (sensu Gardiner 1904, non Pourtales, 1874) (SAM-H3191), is held in the SAM collection. This partial specimen is insuffi- cient material to give an adequate description of the species. (See Bayer (1981a: 881) and Madsen (1944: 11) for detailed descriptions and figures.) SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 259 Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 198%. A. A single anthostele, 3,0 mm in length, with anthocodia removed. B. Same, showing under- view of stolon. C. Another anthostele, 4,6 mm in length. D-H. Free anthostelar sclerites. D. 0,15 mm. E. 0,054 mm. F. 0,10 mm. G. 0,15 mm. H. Both 0,13 mm. 260 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Subfamily Sarcodictyinae Bayer, 1981a Polyp calyces low, often retracting almost completely into stolons; or calyces non-retractile, conical to tall cylindrical. Polyps do not bud secondary lateral polyps. Sclerites often slightly flattened to plate-like. Five genera. Genus Sarcodictyon Forbes, in Johnston, 1847 Evagora Philippi, 1842: 36. Kiikenthal, 1916: 458. Molander, 1929a: 40. non Evagora Peron & Lesueur, 1810 (Hydrozoa). Laporte & Gory, 1839 (Coleoptera). Sarcodictyon Forbes, in Johnston, 1847: 179. Hickson, 1930: 210 (part.). Deichmann, 1936: 37. Bayer, 1956: F184; 1981a: 885. Manuel, 1981: 36. Rolandia Lacaze Duthiers, 1900: 424. Weinberg, 1978: 166. Diagnosis Polyps retractile into stolons forming rounded or conical protuberances. Stolons narrow, often forming reticulating network. Sclerites often somewhat flattened six-radiates or tuberculated rods and crosses. Anthocodial sclerites sparse or absent. A genus of perhaps 7 species, Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Sarcodictyon roseum Philippi, 1842 (by subsequent desig- nation); Europe. Remarks Several examples have recently been collected off the Transkei coast between 240 m and 360 m depth. The reticulating stolons encrust hard objects such as shells, coral rubble and rock. Expanded polyps up to 5 mm in height, cylindrical. Sclerites are six-radiates and rods, very few crosses present. Colour reddish-orange. The southern African species is indeterminable at present as pertinent liter- ature sources are unavailable. It differs markedly from S. catenatum of the Atlantic and S. roseum from the Mediterranean by possessing a very low pro- portion of cross-shaped sclerites. This study establishes the first record of the genus for southern Africa. Genus Scleranthelia Studer, 1878 Scleranthelia Studer, 1878: 137. Molander, 1929: 29. Aurivillius, 1931: 33. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 19. Bayer, 1981a: 890. Skleranthelia Studer, 1879: 634. Bayer, 1956: F200. Diagnosis Calyces rigid non-retractile; conical, cylindrical, or tubular. Anthocodia completely retractile. Stolons often reticulate or membranous. Stolons and calyces covered with large pavement-like layer of contiguous, often flattened, plate-like sclerites. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 261 Two species of the Mediterranean, north Atlantic, and south-western Indian oceans. Type species. Sarcodictyon rugosum Pourtales, 1867 (by subsequent desig- nation); Cuba, 494 m in depth. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a Figs 4-5 non Skleranthelia musiva Studer, 1879: 634. Bayer, 1956: F200. non Scleranthelia musiva (Studer, 1879) Thomson, 1921: 153, text-fig. 1, pi. 5 (fig. 1). Scleranthelia sp. indet. Molander, 1929a: 29. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a: 207-218, figs 1-8. Material SAM-H3687, off East London, eastern Cape Province (33°10,3'S 28°06,2'E), 100 m, 17 July 1984, many polyps attached to coral and sponge rubble, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Mature colonies consist of many crowded polyps arising from band-like or spreading stolons. Calyces rigid, conical, cylindrical, to elongate-tubular, up to 15 mm in length and 3 mm in width. Anthocodiae completely retractile into calyces. Surface of calyces covered with a mosaic of close-fitting (but not fused) plate-like sclerites, 0,5-1,6 mm long. Abcalicular surface usually with rounded protuberances <0,1 mm in diameter. Calicular surface usually densely covered with minute prickly tubercles. Anthocodiae possess narrow rod-like sclerites with sparse rounded tubercles; sclerites 0,20-0,45 mm long. Proximal region of gastric cavities contain a matrix of mesogleal material and numerous unfused irregular and thorny sclerites 0,16-0,32 mm long. These sclerites may be found sparsely impregnating the gastric cavity wall of the calyx and underlying the pavement-like plates of the stolons. Entire surface of calyces and stolons covered with a thin, brownish, horn-like cuticle. Colour of colonies dull yellow- ish to pinkish-tan or brownish or greyish-white. Distribution East London to Durban, 85-340 m in depth (Williams in press a); probably endemic to southern Africa. Recorded from Tulear, Madagascar by Tixier- Durivault (1966, 1972): an examination of this material is necessary to validate its status. Type locality Gonubie, eastern Cape Province. Subfamily Telestinae Bayer, 198 ia Primary polyps tall and cylindrical, often with secondary polyps budding laterally; with monopodial branching. Sclerites are thorny, slender rods and spindles or robust, coarsely tuberculated spindles. Four genera. 262 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Genus Carijoa F. Miiller, 1867 Carijoa F. Miiller, 1867: 330. Diagnosis Axial region of colony interior hollow. Primary polyp long and thin with many lateral secondary polyps. Sclerites are thorny, slender rods and spindles, often branched. Some sclerites may be fused forming clumps. Colour whitish. Several species of primarily tropical distribution. Type species. Carijoa rupicola F. Miiller, 1867 (by original designation). Remarks Telesto arborea Wright & Studer, 1889, has been recorded by Tixier- Durivault (1954: 126; 1960: 359) from southern Natal to Inhaca Island, Mozam- bique, and by Day (1974: 33) from Port Shepstone, Natal, to Inhambane, Mozambique. However, recently collected material from 52 m depth off Dur- ban, and other material labelled Telesto arborea and T. trichostemma (Dana, 1846) in the South African Museum collection, all possess characteristics common to the genus Carijoa (as defined by Bayer 19816: 906): slender, branch- ing sclerites of the calyx body wall with some sclerites fused forming clumps; sclerites with thorns or prickles; colony colour white. The two generic names Telesto and Carijoa, have often been applied to the same species by various authors, whereas Wright & Studer (1889: 262) consid- ered Carijoa as a subgenus of Telesto. According to Bayer (19816: 906), Telesto differs from Carijoa by having robust, blunt spindles, often with ornamentation of outer surface rounded or smooth, and with coarser tuberculation on the opposite surface; walls of axial polyp with one ring of solenia; colony colour reddish to orange. Because of the need for a revision of these taxa, it is at present not tenable to identify this material to species. The present study establishes a new record of the genus for southern Africa. Genus Telestula Madsen, 1944 Telestula Madsen, 1944: 16. Bayer, 1956: F186. Diagnosis Polyps long and tubular. Base of calyx interior filled with mesogleal intrusion material mixed with sclerites. Polyps commonly solitary but may bud lateral secondary polyps. Stolons may form multi-layered platforms or sheets. Four species of northern Europe, West Indies, and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Telestula septentrionalis Madsen, 1944 (by original desig- nation); Iceland. Remarks Material recently collected from the Transkei coast at 460 m depth is assignable to this genus. The largest anthostele is 25 mm long and 2,5 mm SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 263 wide. The stolon encrusts the surface of a rock and forms a broadened expansion 6 mm in width from which four cylindrical anthosteles arise. The interior of the base of one polyp examined is densely filled with a spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. Sclerites of the body wall are slender to broad spindles or oval plates 0,12-0,54 mm in length, thickly set with coarse tubercles. Colour of colony brownish. Fig. 4. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a. A. An entire colony; scale bar =10 mm. B. A single anthostele with anthocodia retracted, 12 mm length. C. Three anthocodial sclerites. D. Four sclerites from the spiculiferous mesogleal matrix contained in the basal interior of the polyps. C-D. Scale bar = 0,2 mm. E. Five plate-like sclerites from anthostelar wall, sclerite at left shows outer surface, other four sclerites show inner surface; scale bar = 0,5 mm. 264 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a. A-C. Three plates from the calyx wall showing the inner surface. A. 0,95 mm. B. 1,14 mm. C. 0,9 mm. D. Detail of inner surface from a calicular plate; total length of micrograph = 0,22 mm. E. A calicular plate showing the outer surface; 0,9 mm in length. F. Detail of outer surface of a calicular plate; total length of micrograph = 0,165 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 265 This study represents the first record of the genus to the southern African region. The material has at present not been identified to species as not all pertinent literature sources are presently available. Family Tubiporidae Ehrenberg, 1828 Polyps with lateral connections of multi-layered stolons or transverse platforms, placed at regular or irregular intervals. Anthocotlia retractile. Two genera of the Indo-Pacific. Genus Tubipora Linnaeus, 1758 Tubipora Linnaeus, 1758: 789. Bayer, 1956: F184. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 22. Diagnosis Anthocodia retractile into calcareous, tubular anthostele. Anthostele walls form rigid tubes of solidly fused sclerites. Polyp tubes joined laterally by an elevated series of transverse platforms that contain solenia. Sclerites of antho- codia free to partly fused; mostly tuberculate spindles. Colonies form rounded clumps. Colour red to reddish-violet. A monotypic genus of the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 (by monotypy); Indo- Pacific. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 Fig. 6 Remarks Characters of the genus. A variable species. Beach-worn skeletons of the organ-pipe coral may be encountered washed ashore in Mozambique and possibly Natal. Living material has been observed at Santa Carolina, Mozam- bique (G. M. Branch pers. comm.). The diameter of the tubes ranges from 0,7 to 2,0 mm. Distance between adjacent platforms may vary from 5 to 10 mm. Branch & Branch (1981: 151) reported the species as being commonly washed ashore on southern African beaches. Family Coelogorgiidae Bayer, 1981a Polyps contractile, but not retractile. Polyps not divided into delimited anthocodia and anthostele. Stolon reduced to a spreading holdfast. Colour white. Monogeneric. Genus Coelogorgia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 Coelogorgia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857: 191. Bayer, 1956: F186. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 24. 266 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Diagnosis Colonies bushy, arborescent. Axial polyps very long. Lateral polyps short and numerous. Axial regions of colonies hollow. Primary polyp wall thickened and penetrated by numerous solenia. Sclerites are tuberculated spindles, some club-shaped. Presumably a monotypic genus; western Indian Ocean. Type species. Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 (by monotypy); Indian Ocean. Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 359) recorded this species from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Tixier-Durivault (1972: 17) listed it from Zanzibar, Inhaca, Aldabra (Seychelles), and Madagascar. The species is not known from any other southern African locality. Family Alcyoniidae Lamouroux, 1812 Colonies membranous or fleshy and upright. Polyps monomorphic or dimorphic; placed singly, not joined into catkins or clusters. Sclerites usually present; most commonly spindles although radiates, capstans, rods, needles, and clubs also occur. About 15 genera of cosmopolitan distribution, very common in the Indo- Pacific. Genus Acrophytum Hickson, 1900 Acrophytum Hickson, 1900: 74. Bayer, 1981ft: 913. Diagnosis Colonies digitiform: unbranched, finger-like. Stalk length usually less than one-half of total length. Polypary conical, elongate, tapering distally with rounded terminus. Polyps dimorphic. Sclerites are primarily tuberculated clubs, or club-shaped spindles, coarsely warty, up to 0,35 mm long. Sclerites dense in surface coenenchyme of polyparium and stalk, sparse or absent in the interior. A monotypic genus of the southern and eastern coast of South Africa. Type species. Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 (by monotypy); South Africa. Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 Figs 7-8 Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900: 74, pi. 4 (figs 4, 4'). Thomson, 1921: 170; 1923: 47, 69. Broch, 1939: 11. Bayer, 1956: 188. Alderslade, 1985: 105, figs 1-6. Metalcyonium natalensis Thomson, 1910: 559, pi. 1 (fig. 2), pi. 3 (figs 15, 18), pi. 4 (fig. 39a-c). SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 267 Fig. 6. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758. A. Lateral view of a beach-worn skeleton of a colony; length of photograph = 105 mm. B. Dorsal view of same; length of photo- graph = 95 mm. 268 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Material SAM-H967 (paralectotype), Algoa Bay (33°53'15"S 25°51'43"E), 47 m, 6 December 1898, 1 colony, coll. not known. SAM-H910, off Great Fish Point, eastern Cape Province (33°30'S 27°10'E), 64 m, 20 May 1905, 2 colonies, large trawl, coll. S.S. Pieter Fame survey, PF 18703. SAM-H911, off Cove Rock south-west of East London (33°06'S 27°49'E), 36-55 m, 6 June 1905, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Fame survey, PF 18706. SAM-H1039, off Great Fish Point (33°30'S 27°10'E), 64 m, 20 May 1905, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Fame survey, PF 18703. Description Colonies examined are up to 150 mm in length. The stalk varies from one fourth to one-half total colony length, but commonly less than one third. Col- onies digitiform, tapering distally, apex rounded. Sharp demarcation between polyparium and stalk. Polyparium elongate-conical or finger-like. Polyps dimorphic although siphonozooids may not be apparent in smaller or tightly contracted colonies <70 mm in length. Autozooids completely retractile. Calyces absent. Extended autozooids approximately 6 mm in length. Siphono- zooids between two adjacent autozooids often about five in number in colonies >70 mm, and often up to 1,0 mm in height. Polyps numerous and completely covering polyparium, evenly distributed. Anthocodial sclerites apparently absent. Oral surface of tentacles covered with several rows of pinnules, appearing clustered in contracted specimens. Surface of colony densely spiculated. Interior coenenchyme with very few irregularly-shaped rod-like sclerites and spindles, or internal sclerites totally absent. Sclerites of the polyparium are tuberculated clubs, 0.17-0,35 mm in length. Tubercles mostly large, prickly to rounded and almost smooth. Sclerites of stalk are also mainly clubs but are more pronounced with spheroid heads, 0,20-0,35 mm long, tubercles numerous. Colony colour in life light mauve-purple with flesh-coloured polyps and brownish stalk. In alcohol, colour fades to dull brownish. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa; Cape St Francis and Algoa Bay to Port Durnford, Natal; depth range 30-146 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is Algoa Bay. Remarks The genus Minabea Utinomi, 1957. is known from the western Pacific (Japan and the Australian Great Barrier Reef). Two species are described at present. Species of Minabea are also digitiform and dimorphic. The genus differs from Acrophytum by possessing surface sclerites of double heads or double stars and capstans, and interior sclerites of capstans and narrow spindles. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 269 av* Fig. 7 Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. A. Colony with exerted autozooids. B. Colony with retracted autozooids. A-B. Scale bar = 30 mm. C. Detail of polyparium surface showing autozooids, siphonozooids, and sclerites; scale bar = 2 mm. D. Sclerites from the polyparium. E. Sclerites from the stalk. D-E. Scale bar = 0,3 mm. Abbreviations: a — autozooid, s — siphonozooid, sc — sclerite. 270 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrographs of Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. A-G. Clubs from the surface of the polyparium. A. 0,58 mm. B. 0,42 mm. C. 0,3 mm. D. 0,27 mm. E. 0,39 mm. F. 0,36 mm. G. 0,37 mm. H-I. Clubs from the surface of the stalk. H. 0,22 mm. I. 0,17 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 271 Dimorphism in smaller colonies of Acrophytum claviger is usually not apparent. It may be that siphonozooids are present only in large colonies, where greater facility of internal water circulation is needed, or that siphonozooids develop in large breeding colonies only. Colonies less than 70 mm in length that are apparently monomorphic are distinguished by the lack of non-retractile calyces, sclerites that are clubs (<0,35 mm long) densely distributed in the surface layer of the polyparium, and stalk and internal sclerites very sparse or altogether absent. Genus Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758 Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758: 803. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 28. Manuel, 1981: 40. Parerythropodium Kiikenthal, 1916: 461. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 101. Manuel, 1981: 44. Diagnosis Colonial growth form highly variable: colony may be upright, with a definite basal stalk, and with a multi-lobed, digitate, capitate, digitiform, or disc- shaped polyparium; or colony prostrate, without a definite stalk, with a membranous to encrusting or globular polyparium. Polyps monomorphic. Sclerites are often tuberculate spindles; capstans, rods, clubs, and needles also common. A cosmopolitan genus of many species. Type species. Alcyonium digitatum Linnaeus, 1758. Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988 Figs 9-10 Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988: 2-7, figs 1-4. Material SAM-H3910, off Cape St Francis, Cape Province (34°16'S 24°50'E), 35 m, 15 January 1986, one whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-H3909 (paratype), same data as SAM-3910. SAM-H3911, off Cape Agulhas, Cape Province (34°52'S 20°05'E), 54 m, 23 February 1985, single colony cut longitudinally into two halves, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved (Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey). Description Colonies examined measure 30-50 mm in height and 30-60 mm in diameter. Colonial growth form is lobate. Stalk short and thick (10-15 mm in height and 30-40 mm in diameter). Polyparium with 2-5 main branches that further ramify distally to produce rounded, swollen or spheroid terminal lobes (5-12 mm long). Polyps concentrated on lobes, sparse on surfaces of branches. Polyps usually preserved exerted (1-2 mm in length), but capable of total retraction into polyparium. Calyces absent. Sclerites restricted to the surface region of the stalk, absent from all other parts of colony. Sclerites are 272 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM tuberculate spheroids, some approaching barrels or eight-radiates, 0,08- 0,15 mm in length. Colony colour vivid purple in life, fading to cream or brownish-white in alcohol. Distribution The species is known only from the south coast of South Africa — Cape Agulhas and Cape St Francis, 35-54 m in depth (Williams 1988; in press a); apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality is Cape St Francis. Fig. 9. Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988. A. An entire colony, 46 mm in height. B. Paratype specimen cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; height of specimen 52 mm. C. Four sclerites from the surface of the stalk; scale bar = 0,1 mm. Abbreviations: gc — gastric cavity, s — sclerites. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 273 ■Jm ,: -# * f [ *- " -«'"\ .'V-- 1 © © © ' v^\^. <#*** & ' "">!«■ *-^S 1 i?"*' k" ■Jl ' - - ft ■ ml 1 © o Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium distinction Williams, 1988. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. A. 0,13 mm. B. 0,13 mm. C. 0,10 mm. D. 0,10 mm, 0.14 mm and 0,11 mm. E. 0,09 mm. F. 0,14 mm. 274 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Remarks This species is distinguished from other southern African Alcyonium species by the possession of lobate growth form and the restriction of sclerites to the surface region of the stalk. Alcyonium elegans (Kukenthal, 1902) comb. nov. Figs 11-12 Anthomastus elegans Kukenthal, 1902: 301; 1906: 64, pi. 2 (figs 6-7), pi. 11 (figs 63-66); 1910: 8. Thomson, 1921: 169; 1923: 48, 70. Jungersen, 1927: 13. Material SAM-H3802, Shixini Point, Transkei (32°31,2'S 28°52,2'E), 300 m, 11 July 1984, several colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3803, Mendu Point, Transkei (32°21,8'S 29°00,0'E), 300 m, 12 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3804, Stony Point, Transkei (32°38,9'S 28°45,0'E), 360 m, 12 July 1984, several colonies, dredge coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3805, Qolora River, Transkei (32°47,2'S 28°36,2'E), 290-300 m, 14 July 1984, several colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined range in length from 4 mm to 18 mm. Colonies are attached to pieces of coral rubble, small stones, or shell fragments by flattened lobate extensions of the proximal region of the stalk, forming an often elaborate holdfast. Stalk broad and often compressed, giving rise to the distal polyparium. Polyps restricted to distal terminus of colony. Polyps large, conspicuous, up to 6 mm in length and usually numbering <12 per colony. Calyces absent. Polyps capable of total retraction into polyparium. Polyps heavily impregnated with finely tuberculated sclerites. Anthocodiae with crown and points of slender spindles or needles <0,30 mm long. Shorter rod-like sclerites are also present. These are often curved with ends drawn out to needle-like points. Sclerites of polyparium and stalk are capstans and some double stars, usually <0,11 mm long. Gastric cavity walls impregnated with stout capstan-like spindles and also slender spindles approximately 0,10 mm in length. Stalk white or rose, polyps rose to deep red; colour due to permanent pigmentation of sclerites. Distribution Apparently endemic to southern Africa — Agulhas Bank, Transkei and southern Natal, depth 126-360 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is the region of the Agulhas Bank, south-east of Cape Agulhas. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 275 Fig. 11. Alcyonium elegans (Kiikenthal, 1902). A. Colony growing on a stone; total height of figure 15,5 mm. B. Polyp-bearing distal region of a colony cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; total height of figure = 6,2 mm. C. Sclerites from crown and points of anthocodia. D. Stalk sclerites. C-D. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. Abbreviations: a — anthocodia, c — crown, g — gonad, gc — gastric cavity, ic — interior coenenchyme, mf — mesenterial filament, p — points, ra — retracted anthocodia, sc — surface coenenchyme. 276 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 277 Remarks Kiikenthal (1902) originally described this species in the genus Anthomastus in spite of the fact that he did not detect the presence of siphonozooids, believing his material to be young colonies. Anthomastus is characterized by having dimorphic polyps and capitate colony shape with capitulum sharply delimited from stalk. The present species is neither markedly capitate nor dimorphic. Jungersen (1927: 13) first pointed out that this* species was wrongly placed in the genus Anthomastus since siphonozooids are absent and because the body shape differed significantly from other members of the genus. He also pointed out that in very young colonies of Anthomastus grandiflorus, distinct siphonozooids are evident. Jungersen therefore suggested that Kukenthal's species be excluded from Anthomastus but did not propose an alternative. I have examined several whole specimens and sectioned colonies and have found no indication of siphonozooids either externally or internally. I therefore believe them to be monomorphic. At least two members of the genus Alcyonium possess polyps restricted to the distal terminal regions of unilobate, unbranched colonies: A. complanatum Verseveldt, 1977, and A. planiceps Williams, 1986a. The nature of the sclerites (capstans in the coenenchyme and needles in the polyps) are similar in shape and distribution to those of other Alcyonium species such as A. variabile (Thomson, 1921). I therefore believe that the present species can be accommodated in the morphologically diverse genus Alcyonium. Superficially A. elegans most closely resembles A. clavatum Studer, 1901, which was originally described from 318 m depth off the Azores. However, the latter apparently lacks sclerites of eight-radiates (capstans) in the stalk, which are common in A. elegans. Alcyonium elegans differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by the restriction of polyps to the distal terminus of the colony, anthocodial sclerites that are mostly spindles, and stalk sclerites that are mostly capstans. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 sensu lato Figs IB, I, 13-15 non Alcyonium purpureum Lamarck, 1836: 608. Alcyonium purpureum {non Lamarck, 1836: 608) Hickson, 1904: 215, pi. 7 (fig. 1), pi. 9 (fig. 18). Thomson, 1921: 156; 1923: 47, 68. Day etal, 1970: 15. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910: 568, pi. 1 (fig. 5), pi. 3 (figs 16, 24, 25), pi. 4 (fig. 44); 1923: 47, 68. Liittschwager, 1922: 535. Broch, 1939: 8. Alcyonium fallax Liittschwager, 1922: 534 (nom. nov). Parerythropodium purpureum: Day, 1974: 34, fig. p. 34. Branch & Branch, 1981: 152, pis 34, 37. Parerythropodium wilsoni {non Thomson, 1921: 160): Day, 1974: 34. Parerythropodium wilsoni {non Thomson, 1921: 160): Branch & Branch, 1981: 152. Fig. 12. (see opposite.) Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium elegans (Kiikenthal. 1902). A-F. Anthocodial sclerites. A. 0,14 mm. B. 0,215 mm' C. 0,27 mm. D. 0,09 mm. E. 0,135 mm. F. 0,31 mm. G-J. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. G. 0.06 mm. H. 0,065 mm. I. 0,09 mm. J. 0,05 mm. 278 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 13. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910. A. Two membranous colonies growing on axes of dead gorgonians; longest linear dimensions of figures 48 mm (left) and 75 mm (right). B. Digitate colony, 52 mm in height. C. Lobate colony, 33 mm in height. D. Two capitate colonies, 12 mm in height (left) and 4 mm in height (right). E. Globular colony, 11 mm in height. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 279 Fig. 14. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910. A-C. Variation in sclerite content of anthocodiae from three different colonies; all anthocodiae 2 mm in length. A. Sclerites dense. B. Sclerites sparse. C. Sclerites absent. D. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,3 mm. 280 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Material SAM-H3712, Algoa Bay near Port Elizabeth (33°50'S 25°41'E), 15-16 m, 16 August 1980, large colony encrusting dead gorgonian axis, trawl, coll. W. R. Liltved (R.V. T.B. Davie). SAM-H3328, Algoa Bay (33°0'S 25°40'E), 11 m, 20 May 1984, 3 colony fragments encrusting hard objects, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3330, Algoa Bay (33°50'S 25°40'E), 11 m, 15 May 1984, several fragments, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3168, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 13-16 m, 18 August 1983, one large colony, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3772, Malgas Island (33°03'S 17°56'E), intertidal rock pools, 26-29 September 1983, one small colony, coll. S. L. Burke. SAM-H3773, Buffels Bay, False Bay (34°19'S 18°28'E), 6-10 m, 17-18 March 1984, several colonies on dead gorgonian axis, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3774, Sunny Cove, False Bay (34°09'S 18°27'E), 7 m, 17 February 1985, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Description Growth form highly variable; colonies may be membranous, globular to capitate, or lobate; often asymmetrical. Entire colony often covered with polyps. Sometimes there is a clear demarcation between base and polyparium, distinct stalk rarely well defined. Polyps generally <8 mm in length, completely retractile into coenenchyme. Sclerites numerous and dense in surface coenen- chyme, sparse to dense in between gastric cavities of the interior. Sclerite distri- bution in polyps highly variable. In some colonies polyp sclerites are very scarce or totally absent. Other colonies have polyps with dense sclerites in the proximal region forming eight contiguous longitudinal bands resembling a calyx. Amount of sclerites in the anthocodiae also varies greatly: some may be devoid of sclerites, whereas others may contain numerous sclerites of the neck zone and bases of tentacles, forming eight points. Sclerites are tuberculated to thorny spindles and capstans with varying numbers of globular or ovoid spheroids and radiates. Some spindles may be distinctly clubbed. Most sclerites do not exceed 0,25 mm in length. Colony colour extremely variable; often vivid purple, but can be pink, white, golden yellow, orange, or dark smoke-grey to dark brown. Sclerites are white or somewhat translucent. Some colonies may be mottled with two colours such as purple and white. The purple pigment is alcohol-soluble and varies from magenta or red-purple to blue-purple. Distribution Endemic to southern Africa; known from Saldanha Bay on the west coast, to Richard's Bay in Natal; littoral to 90 m in depth (Williams in press a). This is one of the most common and conspicuous octocorals of the rocky intertidal and shallow sublittoral of southern Africa. Type locality Cape St Blaize near Mossel Bay. Remarks Hickson (1904) erroneously determined Alcyonium purpureum from Mossel Bay, South Africa. Thomson (1910) described A. fauri from Cape St Blaize, SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 281 Fig. 15. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910; coenenchymal sclerites. A. 0,17 mm. B. 0.18 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0.175 mm. E. 0.21 mm. F. 0.24 mm. G. Detail of surface tuberculation from a single sclerite: total length of micro- graph = 0,052 mm. H. Detail of surface tuberculation from sclerite shown in F: total length of micrograph = 0,054 mm. 282 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM South Africa. However, Liittschwager (1922), not recognizing that Thomson's and Hickson's material were conspecific, applied the new name, A. fallax, since A. purpureum was found to be used previously by Lamarck (1836) for a species from Australia. Broch (1939: 8) observed many intergrading features and considered A. purpureum of Hickson and A. fauri to be conspecific, thus eliminating the need for the name A. fallax. I agree with Broch and consider A. purpureum of Hickson and A. fallax as synonyms of A. fauri. The genus Parerythropodium was described by Kiikenthal (1916) for membranous or encrusting forms. Day (1974) and Branch & Branch (1981) used the name P. purpureum for the South African species. Groot & Weinberg (1982) showed the type species of the genus Parerythropodium to be inseparable from Alcyonium, therefore the former must be considered congeneric with the latter. Alcyonium fauri is perhaps the most highly variable soft coral species in southern Africa. Groot & Weinberg (1982) described the extreme degree of variability found in Alcyonium coralloides from Europe. Like A. coralloides, A. fauri is highly variable not only in regard to colour but also in colonial growth form, size, and sclerite distribution. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921, and A. wilsoni Thomson, 1921, are superficially similar species (see remarks for A. wilsoni). Membranous colonies may grow on a variety of hard or soft substrata — the axes of dead gorgonians, rocks, coral rubble, worm tubes, sponges, or algal stipes and holdfasts are common. Lobate colonies may be erect and upright or with lobes lying prostrate adjacent to substratum. Globular or capitate colonies may be attached to the surfaces of a variety of hard or firm objects. In February 1984, off Cape Agulhas at 26-36 m depth, SCUBA divers observed the purple membranous form of Alcyonium fauri growing upon the bared axis of living gorgoniids, Eunicella tricoronata Velimirov, 1971. Hughes (1983: 46), in referring to corals of tropical reef regions, stated that colony death can result if naked areas of coral axis are colonized by fouling organisms. In this case, A. fauri appears to act as a fouling organism. Some living colonies of E. tri- coronata were observed to be almost entirely covered by purple, encrusting to lobate growths of A. fauri (W. R. Liltved and A. Penny pers. comm.). Alcyonium fauri is distinguished from other southern African Alcyonium species by the possession of robust, ovoid to subspheroid spindles with coarse tuberculation. Some of the spindles may be slightly clubbed. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921 Figs 16, 17A-E Alcyonium (Erythropodium) foliatum Thomson, 1921: 158, fig. 2; 1923: 47, 50, 69. Material SAM-H561 (holotype), off Cape Morgan, border of Cape Province and Transkei (32°45'S 28°20'E), 82 m, 13 August 1901, 1 colony on sponge, dredge, SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 283 coll. S.S. Pieter Fame survey, PF 13364. SAM-H3690, off Gonubie, eastern Cape Province (33°04,7'S 28°07,2'E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 3 colonies on separate sponges, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H840, off Umtwalumi River mouth, Natal (30°30'S 30°40'E), 91 m, 11 March 1901, 12 colonies on sponges, dredge, coll. S.S. Pieter Fame survey, PF 12282. Description Colonies membranous on external surface of an unidentified species of clavate sponge. Base of colony often thin (<0,3 mm), and sheet-like. Fig. 16. Alcyonium foliatwn Thomson, 1921. A. Colonies growing on two clavate sponges; length of figures = 75 mm (left) and 67 mm (right). B. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,1 mm. 284 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Aggregations of polyps form globular or somewhat digitate polyparies up to 5 mm in height and diameter. Some individual polyps arise directly from the membranous base. Retracted polyps <1,0 mm in diameter. Membranous base may form stolon-like bands joining polyparies, or base may form a continuous sheet with swollen aggregations of polyps forming polyparies. Coenenchyme sclerites of the membranous bases and polyparies are predominantly leaf clubs and double heads, 0,07-0,12 mm long. Anthocodiae with crown and points of slender tuberculated spindles, 0,06-0,12 mm in length. Colour of colonies in life: polyparies vivid pinkish-magenta, with membranous bases white to pinkish. Colour fades to cream or brownish-white when preserved. Pigments are alcohol soluble. Distribution Known only from the above material — the border region between Cape Province and Transkei to the Natal south coast; 82-91 m in depth. Apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality is Cape Morgan, border of Cape Province and Transkei. Remarks The host sponges are clavate, upright, unbranched, 45-100 mm in length, with a smooth external surface, and yellowish-grey to tan in colour. Spicules are styles and isochelas. Alcyonium foliatum differs from other southern African members of the genus by the possession of many sclerites that are leaf clubs and double heads. Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) comb. nov. Figs 17F-H, 18 Nidalia morifera Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 128, figs 3, 4. Eleutherobia rotifer a (non Thomson, 1910): Verse veldt & Bayer, 1988: 36 (part.). Material SAM-H1271, Umhloti River mouth, Natal (29°50'S 31°15'E), 73 m, 18 December 1900, large dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10863. SAM-H1581, east of Durban (29°50'S 31°15'E), March 1963, dredge, coll. not known. SAM-H3826, Park Rynie, Natal (30°20'S 30°51'E), 96 m, 10 July 1984, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3827, Umlaas River, Natal (30°01'S 31°03'E), 100 m, 10 July 1985, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies are digitiform, 3-22 mm in length. Stalk and polypary clearly differentiated, each of approximately equal length. Polyps relatively few and large: <25 per colony and calyces 1,5-2,0 mm in diameter. Polyps uniformly covering surface of polypary, completely retractile. During polyp retraction, SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 285 % t% « ^#%^ iv PIP* jfcj &* 1 rc -. : ; : *\ Sm I it^sjp^z^v fei : ^:^ r ' *' ' ' f$l ?A?^ % ) ''h - : 4 VV"\ ^71 -,"• , * <• 45 J- #jili • . # [G] Fig. 17. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921; coenen- chymal sclerites. A. 0,1 mm. B-D. 0,75 mm. E. 0,12 mm. F-H. Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954); sclerites from the surface of the polyparium. F. 0,09 mm. G. 0,07 mm. H. 0,09 mm. 286 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM calyces may form prominent rounded protuberances on the surface of the polypary, but these are also capable of total retraction into the polyparium, becoming flush with the external surface. Sclerites are dense and numerous in the surface of the polypary, stalk and calyces. Sclerites are present throughout the colony, dense on the surface, fewer and sparser in the interior. All sclerites are globular, tuberculate spheroids resembling the shape of fruits of the mulberry tree (genus Moms, family Moraceae), hence the specific epithet, A. moriferum; they are 0,04-0,09 mm in diameter. Colony colour is yellow or orange with yellow, orange, or red calyces. Distribution Known only from Durban to Cape St Lucia along the Natal north coast, 27-100 m in depth (Tixier-Durivault 1954: 128; Williams in press a); commonly encountered in the Durban region; apparently endemic to the southern African east coast. The collected colonies are attached to pelecypod shells, dead coral fragments, and small stones. Type locality is off St Lucia, northern Natal. Remarks Because the entire polyp including the calyx is capable of complete retraction into the polyparium, this species must be allocated to the genus Alcyonium, as Nidalia possesses firm, projecting calyces. It differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by digitiform growth habit, prominent stalk, and sclerites of tuberculate spheroids. Verseveldt & Bayer (1988: 36) maintained that Nidalia morifera is synonymous with Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910). However, the two species can be differentiated as follows. In the former, the colonies are digitiform, the polyps are capable of complete retraction into the polyparium without retaining permanent calyces, and the sclerites are predominantly tuberculate spheroids without medial waists. In the latter species, the colonies are digitate, the polyps retract into permanent calyces, and sclerites are mostly compact radiates with medial waists. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988 Figs 19, 20A-D ?Metalcyonium molle {non Burchardt, 1903: 31) Thomson, 1921: 162. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988: 14—19, figs 11-14. Material SAM-H3716, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 15-18 m, 11 November 1984, 4 whole colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Description Colonies upright, unbranched, up to 40 mm in length; digitiform when expanded, capitate when contracted. Polyp-bearing distal portion arising from SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 287 prominent stalk. Stalk approximately one-half length of expanded colony. Polyparium and stalk distinctly delimited. Stalk covered with a thin cuticle. Polyps monomorphic, capable of retraction into polyparium. Calyces absent. Sclerites few; thin, flattened rods with little surface ornamentation; 0,06- 0,26 mm long; restricted to neck region of polyps and portion of polyparium Fig. 18. Alcyoniwn moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954). A. Entire colony with anthocodiae retracted into basal portions of polyps; total colony length 15 mm. B. Entire colony with polyps completely retracted into polyparium; total length of colony 20 mm. C. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,1 mm. 288 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ~cC<\\ i;-:-:;V-v^V::v.'.;.;.A^ Fig. 19. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988. A. Entire colony, contracted, preserved, 12 mm in height. B. Single polyp showing placement of sclerites, length of polyp 1,5 mm. C. Entire colony, expanded in life, 25 mm in height. D. Polyp sclerites; scale bar = 0,2 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 289 surrounding polyps; usually sparsely scattered. Colour of colonies rust-orange in life, reddish-brown in alcohol. Distribution Presently known only from the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula, 15-21 m depth (Williams 1988, in press a). Remarks See Williams (1988) for a discussion of material identified by Thomson (1921) as Metalcyonium molle Burchardt, 1903. Alcyonium mutabiliforme differs from other southern African species in the genus by having only a few thin rod-like sclerites restricted to the regions of the anthocodiae. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a Figs IF, 20E-J, 21 Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a: 53-63, figs 1-7. Material SAM-H3280, off Llandudno, Atlantic side of Cape Peninsula (34°01'S 18°20'E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3713, off East London, eastern Cape Province (33°06,8'S 28°04,9'E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 2 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined range in length from 12 to 30 mm. Colonies clavate to subcapitate, upright and unbranched. Stalk prominent, expanding distally and giving rise to a more-or-less flattened, disc-like polyparium. Polyps completely retractile, and restricted to this terminal disc; <10 mm in length preserved, <20 in number. Calyces absent. Sclerites dense and usually confined to outer coenenchyme of stalk and sides of capitulum; a few may be scattered in surface of polyparium and in the interior coenenchyme at base of stalk. Sclerites are large robust spindles (1,0-2,5 mm in length), finely to coarsely tuberculated. Sclerites evident through transparent cuticular epidermis of stalk. Stalk covered with a rough cuticular envelope upon which epizoic organisms and foreign particles may be attached. Colour in life: polyparium and bases of some polyps rose-purple, magenta, or vivid red-purple; polyps white to cream with bright golden-yellow tentacles; stalk brownish. Pigments are alcohol soluble; preserved colonies fade to greenish-grey or yellowish-brown. Distribution Presumably endemic to southern Africa; known only from the type locality on the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula, off Cape St Francis, 290 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 20. Scanning electron micrographs. A-D. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988; polyp sclerites. A. 0,16 mm. B. 0,18 mm. C. 0,17 mm. D. Detail of surface from a polyp sclerite; total length of micrograph = 0,022 mm. E-J. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a; sclerites from surface of stalk. E. 1,1 mm. F. 1,0 mm. G. Detail from surface of a sclerite with thorny tubercles; total length of portion of sclerite shown = 0,185 mm. H. 1,3 mm. I. 1,7 mm. J. Detail from surface of a sclerite with simple tubercles; total length of portion of sclerite shown = 0,25 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 291 and off East London, in the eastern Cape Province; depth range 21-90 m (Williams in press a). Remarks Alcyonium planiceps differs from other southern African members of the genus by the restriction of polyps to the flattened distal terminus of the colony and sclerites that are large robust spindles with varying tuberculations; anthocodial sclerites are absent. Fig. 21. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a. A. Entire colony, 30 mm length. B. Sclerites from surface of stalk; scale bar = 1,0 mm. 292 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906 Figs IE, 22-23 Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906: 42, pi. 3 (fig. 11), pi. 8 (figs 39-41). Verseveldt & Williams, 1988: 316, figs 1, 2A, C-D, 3. Alcyonium pachyclados (non Klunzinger, 1877) Hickson, 1900: 72. Thomson, 1910: 570, pi. 2 (fig. 14), pi. 4 (figs 33, 34); 1921: 155-156, pi. 5 (figs 6-8); 1923: 48. Lobularia rutila Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 261, figs 1-3. Material SAM-H3249 (holotype of Lobularia rutila), off Cape St Lucia, Natal (28°28 , S 32°26'E), 27 m, 15 May 1948, 1 colony, dredge, coll. University of Cape Town Ecological Survey. SAM-H3732, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Penin- sula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 14 m, 22 March 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3822, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 23 m, 15 June 1983, 5 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-H3832, off Cape Agulhas (34°55'S 20°20'E), 54 m, 23 February 1985, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved (Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey). SAM-H3349, off Port Elizabeth, Algoa Bay (33°50'S 25°40'E), 15 m, 14 May 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H4201, off Port Durnford (28°58,7'S 32°08,0'E), 52 m, 13 June 1988, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H4202, off Jesser Point (Zululand, northern Natal) (27°35,0-'S 32°41,8'E), 70 m, 9 June 1987, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined are 12-100 mm in diameter and 15-110 mm in height. Stalk conspicuous, relatively thick, variable in length. Tightly contracted col- onies with terminal lobes globular or conical, 4-5 mm in length. Expanded colonies with terminal lobes finger-like, 2-4 mm in diameter and up to 15 mm in length. Terminal lobes numerous, arising from several branches that diverge from distal region of stalk. Polyps numerous and crowded; retracted polyps often form small rounded protuberances on the surface of the polyparium, expanded polyps mostly 0,5 mm in length and diameter preserved. Polyps without conspicuous or permanent calyces but may form hemispherical pro- trusions on the surface of the polyparium when retracted. These protuberances are capable of retraction into the polyparium. Sclerites from surface of lobes are predominantly compact eight-radiates (capstans), 0,040-0,065 mm in length, with angular or thorny tubercles. A few sclerites are triradiates or modified capstans, approximately 0,035-0,040 mm long. Sclerites of the stalk are also primarily capstans, 0,03-0,05 mm in length, with tubercles markedly angular to deltoid. Colony colour highly variable: white, yellow, pink, orange, orange-red, reddish-brown, deep cherry red or brick red. Some colonies may be bicoloured. Polyps white. Colour is permanent due to sclerite pigmentation, restricted to surface of colony, interior white. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 293 Fig. 22. Alcyonium valdiviae Kukenthal, 1906. A-C. Lateral views of three entire colonies. A. 38 mm in height. B. 37 mm in height. C. 55 mm in height. D. Coenenchymal sclerites from the polyparium. E. Stalk sclerites. Scale bars = 0,1 mm. 294 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM K&L ^^v xrv'-v, « 1 ' ^ ibpVv \-\ <|te i x "a. ii^>\ < ^ ^ £ Hfe% ¥ * JE2II IB -»P dH HPv ?V L ' i E 4- " G Fig. 23. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium valdiviae Kukenthal, 1906; polyparium sclerites. A. 0,046 mm. B. 0,042 mm. C. 0,04 mm. D. 0,057 mm. E. 0,05 mm. F. 0,045 mm. ' G. 0,059 mm. Distribution Apparently a southern African endemic; known from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula to Boteler Point (northern Natal); 10-100 m in depth (Verse veldt & Williams, 1988; Williams in press a). Type locality is the Agulhas Bank, south-east of Cape Agulhas. Remarks This is a highly variable species with regard to coloration. Colonies from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula are commonly bright orange, less frequently yellow, and some colonies exhibit both yellow and orange colour. They form a SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 295 common constituent of subtidal rock walls and reefs at 14-18 m depth. Colonies from the Cape Agulhas region are white, pink, or yellow. Colonies from Algoa Bay are vivid orange-red, common at 10 m depth. Colonies from the eastern Cape Province near East London are mostly white or yellow, sometimes reddish-brown with yellow-tipped lobes, frequently encountered at 30-40 m. Colonies from northern Natal are commonly bicoloured with stalks brick red and polyparia golden yellow. Some are red with only the terminal tips of the lobes yellow. Some colonies from the western Cape Province are orange with yellow-tipped lobes. Alcyonium valdiviae differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by having lobate growth form and sclerites of capstans approximately 0,05 mm in length. Common at depths of 30-78 m. Hickson (1900) and Thomson (1910) misidentified material from the Cape Province as Alcyonium p achy dados. According to Tixier-Durivault (1966: 52) and Verseveldt (1971: 10), sclerites of this species have rounded to slightly angular, tubercles and are large dumb-bells (double stars) up to 0,12 mm in length. The species was considered by them to belong to the genus Cladiella, and has a widespread Indo-Pacific distribution, from the Red Sea and Madagascar to the south-western Pacific. I believe that Hickson's and Thomson's material can be considered conspecific with Alcyonium valdiviae, as their descriptions agree well with characteristics of this species. At present, I do not consider Cladiella pachyclados as a constituent of the South African fauna. Lobularia rutila was described by Tixier-Durivault for a specimen from off St Lucia (27 m in depth). The specimen can easily be included within the wide range of colour variants in Alcyonium valdiviae. The genus Cladiella {Lobularia, Microspicularia, and Sphaerella are synonyms) possesses sclerites of double heads or double stars, not capstans (eight-radiates). Since Tixier-Durivault's specimens contain capstans rather than double heads, the correct generic name is Alcyonium. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921) Figs 1A, 24, 25A-E Alcyonium antarcticum (non Wright & Studer, 1889) Hickson, 1900: 73, pi. 4 (fig. A, A'). Alcyonium (Metalcyonium) patagonicum {non May, 1899) Kiikenthal, 1906: 47 (part.). Metalcyonium patagonicum (non May, 1899) Thomson, 1910: 562, pi. 1 (fig. 8), pi. 2 (fig. 12), pi. 3 (figs 22, 26-29), pi. 4 (figs 30-32). Metalcyonium variabile Thomson, 1921: 152; 1923: 47, 69. Metalcyonium variabile var. molle Thomson, 1921: 162, pi. 5 (fig. 2), pi. 6 (figs 1-3); 1929: 47-69. Metalcyonium variabile var. durum Thomson, 1921: 165, pi. 5 (figs 3, 4); 1923: 47, 69. Alcyonium paessleri (non May, 1899) Molander, 19296: 4. Alcyonium fungif or me Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 385, figs 1-3. Alcyonium luteum Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 388, fig. 4. Alcyonium variabile Williams, 19866: 241-270, figs 1-15. 296 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Material SAM-H3166, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 23 m, 15 June 1983, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-H3167, Hotten- tots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 13-16 m, 18 August 1983, 10 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3770, off Hout Bay, Cape Peninsula (34°05'S 18°20'E), 39 m, 27 April 1985, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Fig. 24. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921). A. Entire colony, 40 mm length. B. Single polyp, 12 mm length. C. Sclerites from the capitulum. D. Sclerites from the stalk. E. Sclerites from the anthocodia. C-E. Scale bar = 0,2 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 297 Fig. 25. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921); sclerites from surface of capitulum. A. 0,066 mm. B. 0,055 mm. C 0,072 mm. D. 0,096 mm. E. 0,115 mm. F-I. Alcyonium wilsoni, coenenchymal sclerites. F. 0,21 mm. G. 0.24 mm. H. 0,15 mm. I. 0,23 mm. 298 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Description Colonies examined are 20-50 mm in length. Colony mushroom-shaped, unbranched, capitate; a spherical capitulum arises from a conspicuous stalk. Polyps covering entire surface of capitulum. Stalk and capitulum strongly delineated. Polyps completely retractile into capitulum. Polyps with proximal region strongly impregnated with sclerites forming a calyx-like base. Sclerites dense and varied. Polyps with crown and points in neck region, slender spindles and rods in tentacles, capstans in calyx, tuberculate spindles, clubs, and capstans in coenenchyme of capitulum and stalk. Colour highly variable: red, red-purple, orange, yellow, pink, white, grey or various combinations of these. Colour permanent, originating within the sclerites. Distribution Presumably endemic to southern Africa; known from the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula to the Tugela River mouth, Natal; depth range 13-468 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is off East London, eastern Cape Province. Remarks This is perhaps the most commonly encountered soft coral of the South African continental shelf. The species is commonly observed by SCUBA divers in the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas regions, but not in False Bay. It is a common benthic species of subtidal horizontal rock reefs and vertical walls. Strikingly different colour varieties may be encountered within a few centi- metres of each other. Numerous colonies representing several distinct colour varieties may be brought up in a single dredge haul. For a detailed account of this species, including variability and a historical survey of systematics and synonymy, see Williams (1986b). Alcyonium variabile differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by capitate growth form and sclerites of spindles, needles, rods, clubs, and capstans. Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921 Figs 25F-I, 26 Alcyonium (Erythropodiwn) wilsoni Thomson, 1921: 160, fig. 3; 1923: 50, 69. Material SAM-H558 (holotype), off Knysna Heads (34°12'S 23°02'E), 73 m, 11 October 1900, colony attached to brachiopod shell, large dredge, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10219. SAM-H3820, off Llandudno, west coast Cape Peninsula (34°00'S 18°20'E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, colony attached to brachiopod shell, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 299 Description The two colonies examined are attached to the valves of brachiopods, probably of the genera Kraussina and Megerlina. Globular polyparies (up to 5 mm in diameter) arise from thin and membranous, often spreading bases that adhere to the brachiopod shells. Retracted polyps are 1,5 mm in diameter. Usually 6-20 polyps per polypary. Polyps restricted to polyparies, none arise directly from membranous base. Sclerites of the polyparies and coenenchyme of Fig. 26. Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921. A. Entire colony growing on a brachiopod {Kraussina sp.) that is attached to a fragment of stylasterine coral; length of coral fragment 23 mm. B. Sclerites from polypary and base of colony; scale bar = 0,3 mm. 300 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM the membranous base are predominantly tuberculated spindles and clubs 0,10- 0,33 mm in length. Globular forms are rare. The autozooids have crown and points of mostly slender spindles approximately 0,15 mm long. Tubercles of all sclerites are usually dense and coarse, often low, but sometimes thorny. Colour of colonies in life not known; cream-white or brownish-white when preserved. Distribution Known only from the above material — Cape Peninsula to Knysna, 21- 73 m in depth; apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality off Knysna, south coast of South Africa. Remarks Alcyonium wilsoni, A. fauri, and A. foliatum are superficially similar species and may be confused; all three may have membranous growth forms with polyparies of more-or-less globular aggregations of polyps, and alcohol- soluble pigments. Accurate identification can only be made by examination of coenenchymal sclerites. The three species possess coarsely tuberculated sclerites and can usually be distinguished by sclerite shape only. Alcyonium wilsoni has elongated clubs and spindles predominant (Figs 25F-I, 26). Alcyonium fauri has spindles and clubbed spindles (see Figs 14, 15) as well as many globular to oval spheroids or compact capstans; and A. foliatum is characterized by having distinct double heads and leaf clubs predominant (see Figs 16, 17A-E). Six membranous colonies in the South African Museum collection are problematical: a colony attached to a brachiopod shell, 51 m depth in Sebastian Bay (34°29'S 21°00'E) (SAM-H879) ; two colonies from 11 m depth in Algoa Bay (33°50'S 25°40'E), which were blue-violet in life (SAM-H3326, H3350); a colony from 20 m depth off Onrus River (34°29'S 19°12'E), mottled purple and white in life (SAM-H3807); and two colonies from 14-33 m depth off the Atlantic side of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula (34°00'S 18°20'E), salmon pinkish-orange in life (SAM-H3806, H3808). These colonies mainly have elongate clubs and spindles but, some sclerites are more robust and ovoid to spheroid, and may have large thorny tubercles characteristic of Alcyonium fauri. It may be that A. wilsoni is in fact yet another variant of the extremely variable A. fauri. A detailed comparative examination of a large suite of specimens from throughout coastal southern Africa is necessary to determine the true nature of these taxa. Other species of Alcyonium Six additional species of Alcyonium have been described or recorded from southern Africa. Alcyonium membranaceum was originally described by Kiikenthal (1906: 53) from St Francis Bay (34°7'S 24°59'E) at 100 m depth. Kiikenthal charac- terized the species by its membranous growth form and sclerites of spindles in the polyps with capstans and spindles in the coenenchyme. Since Kukenthal's SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 301 material is not available presently for examination, I cannot determine the status of this species. The possibility exists that it represents yet another variant of the highly variable A. fauri complex. If this were proved valid, then the name would have priority over all other names applied, since it precedes them all with the exception of A. purpureum Hickson, 1904, which Luttschwager (1922) found to be preoccupied. Thomson (1921: 159) listed A. membranaceum without description or figures, from several South African south coast localities: Mossel Bay (18-22 m), Cape St Blaize (22 m), and Algoa Bay (46 m). Tixier- Durivault (1954: 263) listed the species from Plettenberg Bay, South African south coast, without description or figures. Thomson (1921: 158) equivocally identified a small and incomplete colony from northern Natal (165 m) as Alcyonium reptans Kiikenthal (1906: 53), originally described from Bouvet Island (457 m). Tixier-Durivault (1954: 264) identified two colonies from 200 km south of Cape Infanta, Cape Province (177 m) as Parerythr op odium reptans. Neither author gave descriptions or figures, but merely listed the species. This material is not presently available for examination. It is therefore not possible to determine the validity of Thomson's or Tixier-Durivault's identification, and I consider these to be dubious records. Thomson (1921: 157) identified a specimen (SAM-H560) from the Cape Town region (40 m depth) as Alcyonium sollasi Wright & Studer (1889: 240), originally described from the Straits of Magellan (100 m depth). The material is fragmentary and badly damaged through desiccation. An examination of scler- ites reveals that they are superficially similar to those of A. wilsoni. However, considering the unsatisfactory condition of Thomson's material, I must consider it unidentifiable and his identification of it as A. sollasi to be dubious. Thomson did not give a description or figures for the material. A single colony in the SAM collection (H562) was described and identified by Thomson (1921: 157) as Alcyonium sarcophytoides Burchardt (1903: 671), originally described from the eastern Malay Archipelago. The golden-yellow specimen is about 80 mm in length and digitiform with a well-demarcated stalk and an elongate, smooth and unfolded polyparium. Many sclerites from the surface coenenchyme of the polyparium are very thin, slender needles up to 0,35 mm in length. These do not resemble any sclerites described or figured by Burchardt. At present, I consider this material to be of an undetermined species. Tixier-Durivault (1954: 265, figs 4, 5) described Parerythr op odium roseum from depth 27-28 m in False Bay (34°07'S 18°31'E). Groot & Weinberg (1982) have shown that the genus Parerythr op odium must be considered a synonym of Alcyonium. According to Tixier-Durivault, the species is distinguished by rose-carmine coloration that is conserved in alcohol, and diverse sclerites that are mostly irregularly-shaped radiates and branched forms that are less than 0,24 mm in length. A specimen in the South African Museum collection (SAM-H3811), also from False Bay resembles Alcyonium roseum but possesses a markedly different growth form with small polyparies of one to four polyps 302 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM arising from a stolon-like base. Tixier-Durivault did not designate a holotype for A. roseum. A comparison of type material of A. roseum with SAM-H3811 is necessary since Tixier-Durivault's description lacks sufficient detail for comparison. Thomson (1921: 155) identified a colony from off Durban (155 m depth) as Alcyonium glomeratum Hassall, 1843, a species known from the British Isles, France, and possibly the western Mediterranean (Manuel 1981: 42). Recently acquired material from Durban (133-165 m depth) is conspecific with Thom- son's specimen. This species cannot be considered a member of the genus Alcyonium because of the possession of permanent calyces into which the polyps retract. A comparison of the Durban material with type specimens of the European A. glomeratum is necessary to ascertain valid taxonomic status but the latter material is not presently available for comparison. Genus Anthomastus Verrill, 1878 Anthomastus Verrill, 1878: 376. Kukenthal, 1910: 3. Diagnosis Colonies fungiform; a broad capitulum usually arising from a narrower stalk. Holdfast often with long projections. Capitulum smooth, rounded spherical, or somewhat flattened. Polyps dimorphic restricted to distal capitu- lum. Stalk and polyparium distinctly delimited. Autozooids relatively large and few in number. Siphonozooids numerous between autozooids, usually conspicuous. Sclerites are mainly double stars, double heads, and capstans, with sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum. Colour often red, rarely white. A genus of about nine species, north Atlantic to Bovet Island and the Indo- Pacific, mainly in deep water, 50-2 800 m; includes some of the deepest known of all soft corals. Type species. Anthomastus grandiflorus Verrill, 1878, northern Atlantic. Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954 Figs 27-28 Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 526, figs 1, 2. D'Hondt, 1988: 271, text-fig. 5, pi. 1 (figs 9-12). Material SAM-H3246 (paratype), off Cape Columbine (32°53,3'S 17°30'E), 309 m, 27 September 1947, 2 colonies, dredge, coll. University of Cape Town Eco- logical Survey. SAM-H3666, Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'S 28°45,2'E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3667, Stony Point, Transkei (32°38,9'S 28°45,0'E), 360 m, 12 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 303 Fig. 27. Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954. A. Two entire colonies, 40 mm in length (top) and 138 mm in length (bottom). B. Stalk sclerites. C. Sclerites from pinnules of tentacles. B-C. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 304 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 28. Scanning electron micrographs of Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954; stalk sclerites. A-B. 0,11 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0,12 mm. E. 0,08 mm. Description Colonies examined range in length from 30-110 mm. Each colony is unilobate, unbranched, with an upright and well-developed stalk. The capitulum arises from the distal end of the stalk and may be rounded or spheroid, or only slightly flared from the rest of the stalk. Surface of stalk smooth and uniform. Autozooids generally less than 12 per colony; very large, up to 35 mm in length and 10 mm in diameter preserved. Calyces absent. Autozooids capable of par- tial if not total retraction into capitulum. Siphonozooids numerous on surface of capitulum between autozooids, <0,5 mm in diameter. Autozooid tentacles with needle-like sclerites <0,2 mm long, particularly numerous in pinnules. Body walls of anthocodiae with sclerites filling spaces between siphonozooids; these are thorny rods and double stars similar to those of the stalk. Surface of stalk and stalk interior with numerous thorny double stars <0,15 mm long and SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 305 slender elongate needle-like sclerites with simple thorny processes (which may be hook-like), up to 0,55 mm long. Colonies cream-white to rose or pale red. Autozooids often greyish in alcohol. Distribution Apparently endemic to southern Africa, known from the south-west coast of South Africa to Transkei. This species is one of the deepest known identified soft corals in southern African waters, ranging from 309 m to 450 m depth. Alcyonium variabile was recorded by Thomson (1921: 164) at 468 m off Cape Recife. The type locality of Anthomastus giganteus is off Cape Columbine, west coast of South Africa. Remarks Anthomastus giganteus is distinguished by its relatively elongate stalk, the capitulum that is only slightly wider than the stalk, and by stalk sclerites that are needles with hook-like tubercles, together with thorny double stars. Remarks on the genus Anthomastus Hickson (1904: 217) identified a single specimen from 450 m off Cape Recife, near Port Elizabeth as Anthomastus grandiflorus Verrill, 1878. Junger- sen (1904: 13) maintained that Hickson's material does not resemble any known specimen of A. grandiflorus and therefore does not belong to the species. Bock (1938: 44) gave the new name A. hicksoni for this specimen. It is possible that A. giganteus is synonymous with A. hicksoni since colony shape of the two species is similar, but a comparison of type material is necessary because Hickson's description does not include figures of sclerites. D'Hondt (1988: 271) discussed the systematics of four species of Anthomastus , including A. giganteus and A. hicksoni. Genus Cladiella Gray, 1869 Lobularia {non Lamarck, 1836). Ehrenberg, 1834: 281. Tixier-Durivault, 1943: 437. Cladiella Gray, 1869: 125. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 35. Sphaerella Gray, 1869: 122. Bayer, 1956: F188. Microspicularia Macfadyen, 1936: 28. Diagnosis Colonies with a distinct basal stalk. Distal polyparium is multi-lobed or many branched to form many short, rounded, knob-like lobes during contrac- tion; these are often elongate and finger-like with acute tips during expansion. Polyps are restricted to this multi-lobed polyparium. Polyps monomorphic. Capable of complete retraction into polyparium, without permanent calyces. Sclerites are primarily compact double heads or double stars, usually <0,12 mm in length. Colour often white or cream in alcohol. 306 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM A genus of over 40 species, from the tropical Indo-West Pacific, in rela- tively shallow water. Cladiella species are common constituents of shallow- water coral-reef regions in the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Alcyonium tuberculosum Quoy & Gairriard, 1833. Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-Durivault, 1944) Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) listed Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier- Durivault, 1944) from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique, without description or figures. According to Tixier-Durivault (1966: 47), the species is characterized by possessing sclerites of double stars (0,07-0,11 mm long); colony colour greyish-white; distribution — Comoro Islands, Madagascar, and southern Mozambique. Pople (1960) recorded the genus Cladiella from intertidal rock pools near Durban, Natal, and tentatively identified the species as Sphaerella krempfi (Hickson, 1919). No description or figures were given and thus the identity of the material must be considered dubious. An unidentified species of Cladiella is occasionally encountered on the coral reefs at Sodwana Bay, northern Zululand at 13 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Genus Eleutherobia Putter, 1900 Eleutherobia Putter, 1900: 449. Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 27. Diagnosis Colonies unbranched; digitiform, capitate, or digitate. Polyps monomor- phic. Retracted polyps form distinct hemispherical, cup-like or dish-like per- manent calyces on the capitulum surface. Anthocodia completely retractile into calyx, sometimes forming a low rounded eight-rayed protuberance inside the calicular cup. Sclerites are primarily eight-radiates and capstans. A genus of perhaps 15 species of the Indo-West Pacific; three species in southern Africa. Type species. Eleutherobia jap onica Putter, 1900, Japan. Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) Figs 29, 30D-F Alcyonium rotiferum Thomson, 1910: 573, pi. 1 (figs 3, 4), pi. 4 (fig. 38); 1923: 47, 50, 68. Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 36, figs 18c, 29 {part.). Material SAM-H566 (type material) Keiskamma Point, eastern Cape Province (33°15'S 27°30'E), 60 m, 27 August 1901, 2 colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13553. SAM-H849 and H850, Great Fish Point, eastern Cape SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 307 Fig. 29. Eleutherobia rotifera Thomson, 1910. A. Entire colony, 30 mm in length. B. Entire colony, 35 mm in length. C. Polyparium sclerites. D. Stalk sclerites. C-D. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 308 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Province (33°30'S 27°10'E), 90 m, 4 September 1901, 11 colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13727 and PF 13727B. Description The colonies that were examined range in length from 20 to 35 mm. Colonies are upright, digitate; 3-8 finger-like unbranched lobes arise form a prominent robust stalk. Lobes are up to 15 mm long and 4 mm wide. Stalk with a broad base forming an extended holdfast. Surface of preserved colonies markedly wrinkled or pustulate. Polyps restricted to lobes. Anthocodiae com- pletely retractile into prominent, rounded calyces up to 1,5 mm in diameter. Sclerites numerous in stalk, lobes and calyces; almost exclusively compact 6-8 radiate capstans, 0,030-0,065 mm in length. Colour golden yellow. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa, known only from the eastern Cape Province south-west of East London, 60-120 m depth (Williams in press a). Type locality is Keiskamma Point. Remarks Eleutherobia rotifera differs from other southern African Eleutherobia species by digitate growth form, prominent stalk, and sclerites that are tuberculate spheroids and capstans. Eleutherobia studeri (Thomson, 1910) Figs 30A-C, 31 Bellonella studeri Thomson, 1910: 550, pi. 1 (fig. 1), pi. 3 (fig. 23), pi. 4 (figs 45a-e); 1921: 171; 1923: 50, 71, chart 2. Eleutherobia studeri Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 41 (figs 33, 36, 37). Material SAM-H1249 (holotype), St Francis Bay, Cape Province (34°10'S 24°50'E), 42-64 m, 3 May 1906, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18831. SAM-H909, off Flesh Point, Cape Province (34°18'S 21°55'E), 60 m, 29 January 1904, 2 colonies attached to a large gastropod shell (Fusinus ocelliferus Lamarck, 1816), large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18423. Description Colonies examined are 40-95 mm in length. Colonies are capitate, the polyp-bearing capitulum arises from an upright stalk. Stalk length approximately 40-50 per cent of total colony length. A distinct demarcation is present between the stalk and polyparium. Capitulum usually slightly elongate or conical, rarely spheroid. Polyps retractile, crowded, and distributed over entire surface of capitulum. Preserved expanded polyps <12 mm in length. Anthocodiae with crown and points of needle-like spindles 0,15-0,30 mm long. Wall of pharynx SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 309 often densely spiculated. Wall of calyx with capstan-like radiates, 0,05-0,08 mm long. Surface region of polyparium with mostly spindles and radiates 0,04- 0,13 mm in length. Surface of stalk with capstan-like radiates 0,04-0,1 mm long. Stalk interior with thorny spindles 0,12-0,20 mm long. Preserved colony colour yellow or pink. Distribution Known only from south and east coasts of South Africa, Mossel Bay to central Natal, 42-121 m in depth. Thomson (1921: 171; 1923, chart 2) recorded Fig. 30. Scanning electron micrographs. A-C. Eleutherobia studeri (Thompson, 1910); sclerites from surface of polyparium. A. 0,05 mm. B. 0,065 mm. C. 0,10 mm. D-F. Eleutherobia rotifera Thomson, 1910; sclerites from surface of polyparium. D. 0,052 mm. E. 0.054 mm. F. 0,047 mm. 310 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM the species from Umtwalume River mouth (Natal) at 46 m depth and off Great Fish Point (eastern Cape Province) at 121 m. Type locality St Francis Bay (south coast of Cape Province). Remarks Eleutherobia studeri is distinguished by the possession of pliable dish-like calyces that are formed during the retraction of polyps; the terminal ends of the polyps form eight-rayed protuberances inside these calyces; sclerites are radiates and spindles; anthocodial sclerites are present. Remarks on the genus Eleutherobia A third species of Eleutherobia is encountered in southern Africa. Thomson (1921: 155) identified a colony from Durban (155 m in depth) as Alcyonium glomeratum (Hassall, 1843). Recently collected material from Durban to Cape St Lucia, Natal (depth 100-164 m), has been compared with Thomson's specimen, with which it appears to be conspecific. However, the colonies possess permanent calyces in which the anthocodiae retract, and the coenenchymal sclerites are primarily eight-radiates and capstans. Because of these characters, I consider the material to represent an undetermined species of the genus Eleutherobia, that cannot be attributed to A. glomeratum. Genus Lobophytum von Marenzeller, 1886 Lobophytum von Marenzeller, 1886: 352, 362. Pratt, 1903: 514: Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 55. Verseveldt, 1983: 4. Diagnosis Colonies encrusting, dish-shaped or stalked and upright. Polyp-bearing capitulum arises from a basal region or distinct stalk. Capitulum relatively smooth or variously lobed, folded, or plicate. These are closed folds which may be digitate or plate-like, resembling ridges or crests. Polyps dimorphic. Sclerites of capitulum are tuberculated spindles, usually somewhat club-shaped with ill- defined heads. Sclerites of stalk are generally capstans <0,3 mm in length. About 47 species from the Indo-Pacific, usually in warm shallow water, and often associated with coral reefs. See Verseveldt (1983) for a detailed revision of the genus, with a key and descriptions for the recognized species. Type species. Lobophytum crassum von Marenzeller, 1886; Indo-Pacific. Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) recorded Lobophytum crebiplicatum von Marenzeller, 1886, and L. crassum von Marenzeller, 1886 (as L. crassospicu- latum Moser, 1919), without descriptions or figures, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Verseveldt (1983: 32) considered Tixier-Durivault's identification of L. crebiplicatum as a misidentification and considered the species to be confined to the western Pacific Basin. Several unidentified species SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 311 Fig. 31. Eleutherobia studeri (Thompson, 1910). A. An entire colony, 55 mm in length. B. An entire colony, 90 mm in length. C. A single exsertile polyp, 8 mm long, tentacles contracted. D-F. Three cup-like calyces with retracted anthocodiae; 1,0-1,4 mm in diameter. G. Sclerites from the crown and points of the anthocodia. H. Calyx sclerites. I. Sclerites from the surface region of the polyparium. J. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. K. Sclerites from the stalk interior. G-K. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 312 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM of the genus are found on the coral reefs and coral assemblages at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay (northern Natal), 12-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Material representing these species is in the South African Museum collection. The alcyoniids Lobophytum, Sarcophyton and Sinularia are three of the most abundant and conspicuous soft coral genera in the warm and shallow coral reef regions of the Indo-Pacific. Verseveldt & Benayahu (1983: 3) reported that these genera, together with the nephtheid genus Litophyton, often form monospecific carpets at depths of 1-6 m in the Red Sea. In the shallow sublittoral of northern Natal and southern Mozambique, the most commonly encountered soft coral genera are Sinularia, Sarcophyton, Lobophytum, Dendronephthya, Cladiella, Xenia, and Anthelia. Genus Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910 Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910: 583. Williams, 19876: 1337. Diagnosis Colonies capitate, broad capitulum arising from a columnar stalk. Stalk enveloped by rough cuticle. Polyps dimorphic, restricted to distal surface of capitulum. Capitulum retractile into distal portion of stalk. Autozooids and siphonozooids numerous and crowded. Autozooids capable of complete retrac- tion into capitulum. Calyces absent. Tentacles with a single row of pinnules per side. Sclerites absent from all parts of colony. A monotypic genus, endemic to southern Africa. Type species. Heteroxenia capensis Hickson, 1900; South Africa. Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900) Figs 1C, 32 Heteroxenia capensis Hickson, 1900: 70, pi. 4 (fig. C); 1931: 172. Thomson, 1923: 47, 66-67. Broch, 1939: 4. Day etal, 1970: 16. ?Xenia uniserta Kiikenthal, 1906: 22, pi. 1 (fig. 5), pi. 6 (figs 25-29). Thomson, 1923: 47, 66-67. Malacacanthus rufus Thomson, 1910: 583, pi. 1 (fig. 6); 1921: 171; 1923: 48, 71. Broch, 1939: 12, fig. 8. Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 390. Day et al, 1970: 15. ?Heteroxenia uniserta: Day et al., 1970: 16. Malacacanthus: Bayer, 19816: 912. Malacacanthus capensis Williams, 1987&: 1338, figs 1-7. Material SAM-H3192, off Llandudno, west coast Cape Peninsula (34°01'S 18°20'E), 25-31 m, 24 September 1983, 6 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM- H3864, off Llandudno (34°01'S 18°20'E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-H3865, Sunny Cove, False Bay (34°09'S 18°26'E), 12 m, Dec. 1980, 1 colony, SCUBA, G. M. Branch. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 313 Description Preserved colonies 12-80 mm in height. Colonies fungiform, a broad capitulum arising from a prominent cylindrical stalk. A tough horn-like cuticular envelope surrounds the stalk and proximal portion of the capitulum. Polyps restricted to the distal surface of the capitulum. Polyp-bearing surface of cap- itulum is plainly delimited from the stalk and proximal region of the capitulum by a distinct boundary, which is formed by the distal termination of the cuticle. Polyps dimorphic. Polyp calyces absent. Autozooids often over 100 per colony, up to 25 mm in length. Siphonozooids conspicuous in mature colonies, crowded between autozooids, approximately 1,0 mm in diameter. Autozooids retractile into capitulum. Capitulum capable of almost total retraction into distal region of stalk. Colonies in this state assume a cylindrical shape. Tentacles with one row of pinnules per side. Sclerites altogether absent. Fig. 32. Malacacanthus capensis Hickson, 1900. A. Entire colony with polyps expanded, total length 80 mm. B. Entire colony with polyps retracted, 80 mm. C. Single autozooid with fourteen siphonozooids at base; length of figure = 22 mm. 314 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Distribution Known from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula to the Gonubie region, eastern Cape Province, between 10 and 93 m in depth. Apparently endemic to southern Africa. A locally common species on vertical rock walls and reefs. One of the few species that is common both on the Atlantic and False Bay sides of the Cape Peninsula. Type locality is False Bay. Remarks The cuticular covering of the stalk provides a substratum for epizoic organisms such as encrusting white didemnid ascidians. Malacacanthus capensis is distinguished by the presence of siphonozooids, total lack of sclerites, and horny cuticle surrounding the stalk. Branch & Branch (1981: 152), illustrated this species and referred to it as the 'sun-burst soft coral'. Genus Minabea Utinomi, 1957 Minabea Utinomi, 1957: 139. Utinomi & Imahara, 1976: 206. Bayer, 19816: 913. Diagnosis Colonies digitiform. Finger-like polyparium gradually tapers distally from a stalk that is short and thick. Apex of colony broadly rounded, not markedly pointed. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids completely retractile into polyparium. Siphonozooids not densely distributed between autozooids. Sclerites are mostly capstans, with some spindles. At least three species from the Indo-Pacific: Japan, Australian Great Barrier Reef, and south-eastern Africa. Type species. Minabea ozakii Utinomi, 1957, by monotypy; Japan. Remarks Several colonies of two undetermined species of Minabea have recently been collected from Transkei and northern Natal (Zululand), 250-370 m in depth. The colonies are either pale brownish-orange in colour or white with pinkish retracted polyps. This account represents a new record for the genus to southern Africa and to the south-western Indo-Pacific. Genus Sarcophyton Lesson, 1834 Sarcophyton Lesson, 1834: 517. Pratt, 1903: 505. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 106. Verseveldt, 1982: 5. Diagnosis Colonies mushroom-shaped to somewhat funnel-shaped or cup-shaped. A broad capitular disc arises from a distinct stalk. Surface of capitulum smooth, usually with open folds on the disc margin. Disc spreading and wider than distal SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 315 portion of stalk. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids numerous, often several hun- dred per mature colony; capable of total retraction into capitulum. Siphono- zooids minute, contained on surface of disc between autozooids. Sclerites often numerous and dense, usually tuberculated clubs and spindles. A large genus in warm tropical seas of the Indo-Pacific; mostly shallow water, often inhabiting coral reefs; about 36 valid species; see Verseveldt (1982) for a detailed revision of the genus and a key to the recognized species. Type species. Sarcophyton lobulatum Lesson, 1834, by monotypy; Indo- Pacific. Remarks Several presently unidentified species occur on the submerged platform coral reefs of northern Natal at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, 12-27 m depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b), and representative material is present in the South African Museum collection. Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) listed Sarcophyton trocheliophorum von Marenzeller, 1886, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Genus Sinularia May, 1898 Sinularia May, 1898: 24. Luttschwager, 1915: 5. Kolonko, 1926: 293. Tixier-Durivault, 1945: 56; 1951: 1; 1966: 164. Verseveldt, 1980: 4. Diagnosis Colonies low, flat, and encrusting or erect with a definite stalk. Polyp- bearing capitulum arises from an encrusting basal portion or a distinct stalk. Surface of capitulum relatively smooth to plicate, forming crests or ridges, or intricately lobate with many crowded upright finger-like lobes. Polyps mono- morphic. Sclerites of capitulum usually clubs with distinct heads and thorn clubs, 0,06-1,5 mm long. Sclerites of stalk are generally large robust spindles, >2,0 mm in length. A large genus with about 105 species of the tropical Indo-Pacific. Common in warm and shallow waters of coral reef regions. See Verseveldt (1980) and Verseveldt & Benayahu (1983) for a revision of the genus with a key and descriptions for the recognized species. Type species. Sinularia brassica May, 1898, by monotypy; Indo-Pacific. Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) recorded Sinularia polydactyla (Ehrenberg, 1834), without description or figures, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozam- bique. Single specimens of two distinct species have been collected from Sodwana Bay, northern Natal (18 m depth) and are in the South African Museum collection. The two specimens are partial, freeze-dried, and somewhat damaged. Many presently unidentified colonies representing several species are also present in the South African Museum collection and occur on the coral 316 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM reefs at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, 12-27 m (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Some colonies from 12 m depth can attain a diameter of over 2 m. Genus Verseveldtia Williams, 19906 Verseveldtia Williams, 19906: 22. Diagnosis Colonies unbranched, capitate. Stalk narrow, elongate. Polyps dimorphic. Anthocodiae capable of total retraction into capitulum. Permanent calyces absent. Coenenchymal sclerites are mainly double stars, barrels, eight-radiates, or tuberculate spheroids. A genus of two species, endemic to southern Africa. Type species. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900), by subsequent desig- nation; South Africa. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) Figs 33, 34F-I Sarcophytum trochiforme Hickson, 1900: 77, pi. 3 (fig. C), pi. 6 (fig. C). ?Thomson, 1921: 168; 1923: 48, 70. Anthomastus trochiformis Kukenthal, 1910: 6. Verseveldt, 1982: 10. Verseveldtia trochiforme Williams, 1990frj 22-28, text-figs 1-3, pi. 1, pi. 2 (figs a-e). Material SAM-H724, off Ncera River Mouth, eastern Cape Province (co-ordinates unknown), 91 m, 7 August 1901, 3 incomplete colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Fame survey, PF 13329. SAM-H742, same data as SAM-H724, 1 incomplete colony, PF 13329C. Description The partial colonies do not exceed 60 mm in length. Colonies are capitate, an enlarged capitulum arises from an elongate and narrow stalk. The largest specimen has a capitulum measuring 12 mm in width, whereas the stalk is 2-3 mm in width. The capitulum is dome-shaped or elliptical with the polyps covering the entire surface. Polyps are dimorphic. The retracted anthocodiae of the autozooids may form small protuberances on the surface of the capitulum but these are not true calyces, since the protuberances are capable of complete retraction into the capitulum. Autozooids are small and numerous (50-100 in number and 0,9-1,2 mm in diameter). Siphonozooids crowded between the autozooids, 0,3-0,5 mm in diameter. Sclerites of the capitulum surface and interior, as well as the stalk sclerites are predominantly eight-radiates, 0,05- 0,11 mm in length. A few girdled spindles (0,110-0,114 mm) may also be present in the capitulum. The autozooid anthocodiae possess flattened plates, 0,04-0,07 mm in length, and girdled or tuberculate spindles, 0,10-0,17 mm in length. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 317 Fig. 33. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900). A. Entire mature colony, 65 mm in height. B. Young colony attached to a foraminiferan fragment, 9 mm in height. C. Sclerites from the anthocodial wall. D. Tentacular sclerites. E. Sclerites from the capitulum. F. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 318 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Colonies are light grey or brownish-white to cream, retracted autozooids are rust orange, siphonozooids are grey or cream in coloration. Distribution Eastern Cape Province, the vicinity of East London, 82-97 m in depth (Williams 19906, in press a). Remarks Hickson (1900) assigned this species to the genus Sarcophyton (mis-spelled as Sarcophytum) . Kiikenthal (1910) recognized this as incorrect and placed the species in the genus Anthomastus . Verseveldt (1982) repeated Kukenthal's opinion and considered it an invalid species of Sarcophyton. Verseveldtia trochiforme does not have the sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk that are characteristic of the genus Anthomastus . Thomson (1921: 168) identified eleven specimens from Natal (46-165 m in depth) as Sarcophytum trochiforme. He did not give descriptions or figures for the material, other than stating that most of the colonies are reddish in colour. Because of this, it is possible that at least some of the specimens may be Verseveldtia bucciniforme . Examination of Thomson's material is necessary to establish valid taxonomic status. Verseveldtia trochiforme is differentiated by a convex, dome-shaped polyp- bearing portion of the capitulum, coenenchymal sclerites that are primarily eight radiates, and colony colour greyish-white with rust-orange retracted autozooids and greyish-white siphonozooids. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 19906 Figs 34A-E, 35 ? Anthomastus granulosus (non Kiikenthal, 1910) Thomson, 1921: 169. ? Anthomastus trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) Thomson, 1921: 168. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 19906: 28-34, text-figs 3-5, pi. 2 (figs f-i), pi. 3. Material SAM-H3799, off Gonubie, eastern Cape Province (33°06,8'S 28°04,9'E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3800, off Mbotyi, Transkei (31°29,2'S 29°45,4'E), 50 m, 21 July 1982, 1 colony, dredge, coll. Natal Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3801, off East London (33°15,0'S 27°58,0'E), 85 m, 17 July 1984, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined range in length between 12 and 20 mm. Colonies are funnel-shaped, markedly capitate with a long, slender stalk. Polyps restricted to the somewhat flattened capitular disc at the distal terminus of colony. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids capable of total retraction into capitulum, usually 10-20 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 319 Fig. 34. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams. 1990b. A-B. Sclerites from bases of polyps and surface of capitulum. A. 0,075 mm. B. 0,048 mm. C-E. Stalk sclerites. C. 0,058 mm. D. 0,08 mm. E. 0,08 mm. F-I. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900). F. An eight-radiate from the capitular surface, 0,072 mm. G. Girdled spindle from the capitular surface, 0,114 mm. H. Sclerite from the interior of the capitulum, 0,060 mm. I. Stalk sclerite, 0,064 mm. 320 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM per colony, 1,5-2,0 mm in diameter when retracted. Siphonozooids crowded between autozooids, usually around 0,5 mm in diameter. The autozooids of all material examined have the anthocodiae totally retracted. Partly retracted autozooids may produce hemispherical protuberances on the surface of the capitulum but these are not true calyces since they too are capable of complete retraction into the capitulum. Sclerites of the capitular surface and interior, as well as the stalk are barrels, double stars and tuberculate spheroids, 0,06- 0,08 mm in length. The anthocodiae contain rods and irregularly-shaped flattened platelets, 0,03-0,08 mm in length. Colonies orange, red or pink in colour with retracted autozooids and siphonozooids bright yellow. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa, known from the eastern Cape, Transkei, and Natal coasts between East London and Durban, 50-90 m in depth (Williams 1990b, in press a). Type locality is off East London, eastern Cape Province. Remarks Thomson (1921: 169) identified a specimen from 58 m off East London as Anthomastus granulosus Kiikenthal, 1910. From his brief and unillustrated description, it seems probable that the colony actually belongs to V. buc- ciniforme. Like the two species of Verseveldtia, A. granulosus (from Japan) does not have sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum that are characteristic of the genus Anthomastus. Verseveldtia bucciniforme is distinguished by a somewhat flattened or disc- shaped polyp-bearing portion of the capitulum, sclerites that are barrels, double stars, and tuberculate spheroids, and red colony colour with yellow siphono- zooids and retracted autozooids. Digitiform and capitate species of the families Alcyoniidae and Nidaliidae Approximately 18 species of southern African alcyoniids and nidaliids have digitiform or capitate growth forms. Many digitiform species have in the past been plagued with considerable confusion in the literature as to proper generic placement. Verseveldt & Bayer (1988) recently provided a much needed revision of four genera that contain digitiform species: Bellonella Gray, 1862, and Eleu- therobia Putter, 1900 (Alcyoniidae), and Nidalia Gray, 1835, and Nidaliopsis Kiikenthal, 1906 (Nidaliidae), and named two new genera, Inflatocalyx (Alcyoniidae) and Pieterfaurea (Nidaliidae). This re-assessment has shown that Metalcyonium Pfeffer, 1888, is not a valid genus because the type species M. capitatum Pfeffer, 1888, can be accommodated in Bellonella. All of the above-mentioned genera have polyps that retract into permanent calyces or at least into protuberances composed of palisade-like arrangements of sclerites. Some digitiform alcyoniids do not possess permanent calyces but rather the polyps retract directly into the polyparium or into basal protuberances that are SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 321 Fig. 35. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 19906. A. Entire colony growing on a foraminiferan fragment, length of colony 13 mm. B. Entire colony. 17 mm in length. C. Sclerites from tentacles. D. Sclerites from polyps and capitulum. E. Stalk sclerites. C-E. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 322 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM capable of complete retraction into the polyparium. Williams (1986a: 61; 1988: 18) maintained that the genus Alcyonium should be considered a morphologically diverse assemblage of species and that certain digitiform or capitate forms with- out permanent calyces can be accommodated within it. The southern African Alcyonium moriferum and A. variabile and the Japanese A. muricatum Yamada, 1950, and A. pacificum Yamada, 1950, are examples of such species. Eight of the digitiform or capitate southern African forms have been included in the pres- ent work: Alcyonium mutabiliforme , A. moriferum, A. planiceps, A. variabile, Acrophytum claviger, Eleutherobia studeri, Pieterfaurea unilobata and P. khoisa- niana. Of the ten or so remaining undetermined species or those with unverified identifications (many of which have recently been collected from the southern African coast), the following names have been recorded by previous authors. Bellonella rubra Brundin, 1896, was recorded by Thomson (1910: 554) (eastern Cape Province, Transkei, central Natal; 44-100 m). Utinomi (1957: 149) questioned Thomson's identification of the South African material. Bello- nella rubra was originally known from the western Pacific. Tixier-Duri vault (1954: 127) placed the species in the genus Nidalia. More recently, Verseveldt & Bayer (1988: 37) transferred it to the genus Eleutherobia. The South African material possesses sclerites that resemble those figured by Brundin. However, the colonies do not have non-retractile calyces, which are characteristic of the genera Nidalia and Eleutherobia. In fact, the polyps are capable of totally withdrawing into the polyparium without forming protuberances or permanent calyces. Because of this, I presently consider this taxon to be an undetermined species of the genus Alcyonium. The colonies vary from pink-magenta to deep wine-red, both in life as well as in alcohol. Metalcyonium clavatum Pfeffer, 1889, was recorded by Thomson (1910: 556) from central Natal, 66-73 m. Thomson considered this southern African material (SAM-H550) to be conspecific with M. clavatum from the Subantarctic island of South Georgia. This identification cannot be validated without a comparison of Pfeffer's type material, since the original description lacks sufficient detail. Thomson described three digitiform species with large sclerites: Met- alcyonium natalensis Thomson (1910: 559 — Durban, Natal, 71-73 m depth); Metalcyonium lanceatum Thomson (1921: 167 — eastern Cape Province, 40 m depth); and Sinularia unilobata Thomson (1921: 172 — East London to Durban, 40-93 m depth). Metalcyonium natalensis was later considered by Thomson (1921: 170) to be conspecific with Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. Sinularia unilobata is synonymous with Pieterfaurea unilobata. Metalcyonium lanceatum possesses finely tuberculated needle-like spindles in both the stalk and polyparium, whereas P. unilobata has large robust spindles with ornate tuberculation. The holotype of M. lanceatum (SAM-H793) has unfortunately been pre- viously dried and somewhat damaged, thereby making detailed redescription and comparison difficult. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 323 Kukenthal (1906: 48) described Metalcyonium novarae from the Cape of Good Hope in a brief description, without any figures of the colony or sclerites. Many colonies recently collected from the Cape Agulhas region (24-54 m depth) show characteristics that conform to Kukenthal's description. However, a comparison of these specimens with Kukenthal's type material is necessary for a positive identification; the latter is at present not available for examination. Family Nidaliidae Gray, 1869 Colonies unbranched (capitate or digitiform) or arborescent, with still and cylindrical branches. Texture of colonies rough and rigid. Polyps monomorphic or dimorphic. Anthocodiae retractile into permanent, spiculose calyces or 'palisade-like' protuberances. Sclerites are primarily large, tuberculate spindles, mostly longitudinally aligned. Six genera of widespread distribution, but concentrated in the Indo-Pacific, West Indies, central Atlantic, and southern oceans. Two genera in southern Africa. Genus Pieterfaurea Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988 Pieterfaurea Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 66. Diagnosis Colonies unbranched, digitiform. Polyps monomorphic. Anthocodia retrac- tile into a permanent conical calyx composed of a palisade-like arrangement of spindle-like sclerites. Sclerites of the colony are robust coarsely tuberculated spindles and clubbed spindles, densely distributed in the surface region of the stalk and polyparium. Similar sclerites are common in the colony interior. A genus of two species, endemic to southern Africa. Type species. Sinularia unilobata Thomson, 1921; South Africa. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) comb. nov. Figs 1G, 36, 37A-D Alcyonium khoisanianum Williams, 1988: 7-14, figs 5-10, 14, 16A. Material SAM-H3411 (holotype), off Danger Point, Cape Province (34°43'4,94"S 19°20'30,19"E), 48 m depth, 29 April 1984, 1 sectioned colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. Description The holotype is 82 mm in length. Colonies are digitiform; a finger-like polyparium arises from a prominent stalk. Polyps are numerous, completely retractile, relatively large (up to 12 mm long and 3 mm wide), calyces absent. Sclerites of the anthocodiae are small rods up to 0,33 mm long, sparselv 324 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM distributed in crown and points. Sclerites from surface region of polyparium and stalk are robust, densely tuberculated spindles or slightly club-shaped spindles, somewhat crowded but not exceedingly dense. Sclerites from the polyparium are 0,5-1,4 mm in length, whereas those from the stalk are 0,4-1,9 mm long. Most elongate spindles from the stalk are widest in the middle and taper toward both ends. Only a few scattered spindles may be present below the surface sclerites of the polyparium and stalk, contained in between gastric cavities. These sclerites are totally absent from the central interior region. Colour in life is vivid purple or magenta with polyps whitish, tentacles bright yellow, and stalk whitish. Colours fade to uniform dull greyish-yellow in alcohol. Distribution This species is presently known from the Cape south coast, Danger Point to the eastern Cape Province, 30-50 m in depth (Williams 1988, in press a). Type locality is Danger Point. Remarks This species may be confused with smaller colonies of Acrophytum claviger that are 70 mm in length, in which siphonozooids are not apparent. Larger colonies of A. claviger show obvious dimorphism. Colonies of A. claviger have densely set clubs and slightly clubbed spindles in the surface layer of the polyp- arium and stalk, 0,17-0,35 mm in length. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana, on the other hand, has comparatively sparsely set spindles in the surface of the polyparium. Many of these are slightly club-shaped. In the surface region of the stalk are many robust spindles that are widest medially with ends that taper markedly. All spindles are densely and ornately tuberculated, and vary from 0,4 to 1,9 mm in length. Anthocodial sclerites are absent in Acrophytum claviger but are present in Pieterfaurea khoisaniana. This species is here provisionally transferred to the genus Pieterfaurea because of the possession of large tuberculate spindles in the surface of the stalk and polyparium as well as in the bases of the polyps, even though 'palisade-like' arrangements are not distinct. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921) Figs 37E-G, 38 Sinularia (Sclerophytum) unilobata Thomson, 1921: 172, fig. 5. Bellonella unilobata Verseveldt, 1980: 11. Metalcyonium unilobatum Williams, 19866: 263, fig. 2B. Pieterfaurea unilobata Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 67, figs 62-64. Material SAM-H741 (paralectotype), off Umhloti River mouth, Natal (29°40'S 31°10'E), 73 m, 18 December 1900, 1 colony, large dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10880. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 325 Fig. 36. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988). A. Entire colony (paratype), preserved, 90 mm total length. B. Single polyp showing arrangement of sclerites. total height of polyp 5 mm. C. Polyp sclerites. D. Sclerites from surface of polyparium. E. Stalk sclerites. C-E. Scale bar = 1,0 mm. 326 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Description The colony examined is slightly damaged due to lengthy desiccation. The colony is 35 mm long and finger-like; a cylindrical polyparium arises from an upright stalk. Stalk length approximately 40-50 per cent of total colony length. Stalk and polyparium distinctly delineated. Anthocodiae retractile into perma- nent calyces. Anthocodial sclerites absent. Calyx sclerites are spindles 0,7- 1,0 mm long. Surface of polyparium is densely spiculated with spindles or slightly clubbed spindles, mostly 0,4-1,0 mm in length. Surface of stalk with large robust spindles or slightly clubbed spindles 0,25-2,6 mm long. Similar large sclerites are common throughout the interior of the colony. Preserved colony colour brownish, sclerites white. Distribution The species is known only from the east coast of southern Africa, from East London (eastern Cape Province) to the Durban region (Natal), 40-93 m (Williams in press a). Type locality unspecified. Remarks Pieterfaurea unilobata is distinguished by the possession of conspicuous permanent conical protuberances formed by a palisade-like arrangement of large spindles; large tuberculate spindles- and clubbed spindles are present throughout the surface as well as in the interior of the colony; anthocodial sclerites are absent. The two species of Pieterfaurea can be differentiated as follows: P. khoi- saniana has sclerites in the anthocodiae that form well-defined crown and points, in which the sclerites may be sparsely or densely disposed; the maximum length of the coenenchymal sclerites is 1,9 mm; sclerites are more sparsely disposed in the surface of the stalk and polyparium giving the colonies a softer, more flexible appearance; and the bases of expanded polyps are sparsely spiculated with a 'palisade-like' arrangement not well defined; the maximum size of colonies is 130 mm long by 50 mm wide; the colonies are mostly stout with the stalk usually comprising half or less of the total colony length; the species is apparently restricted to the Cape south coast from Danger Point to the eastern Cape. Pieterfaurea unilobata, on the other hand, does not possess sclerites in the anthocodiae; the maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 2,6 mm; sclerites of the surface of the colony are very dense giving the colonies a relatively stiff and rough appearance; and the bases of expanded polyps have sclerites that are densely arranged in a 'palisade-like' fashion; the maximum size of colonies is 50 mm long by 10 mm wide; the colonies are mostly narrow with the stalk usually comprising one-half or more of the total colony length; the species is apparently restricted to the South African east coast from East London to central Natal. The placement of the genus Pieterfaurea in the Nidaliidae is here considered nominal as it also shares characteristics with the family Alcyoniidae. The SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 327 Fig. 37. Scanning electron micrographs. A-D. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams. 1988). A-B. Sclerites from the surface of the polyparium. A. 0,85 mm. B. Detail of surface tuberculation from a polyparium sclerite, total length of micrograph represents 0,24 mm. C-D. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. C. 0,28 mm. D. 1,0 mm. E-G. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921), sclerites from the surface of a colony. E. 1,0 mm. F. 0,70 mm. G. 0,24 mm. 328 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 'palisade-like' arrangement of sclerites at the base of the polyps do not represent true calyces (Verseveldt & Bayer 1988: 47, 66). Alcyonium complanatum Verseveldt, 1977, and A. planiceps Williams, 1986a, also do not possess calyces but do have large multi-tuberculate spindles that are longitudinally placed in the outer surface giving the colony a rough appearance, a feature used to define the Nidaliidae (Verseveldt & Bayer 1988: 47). Even though Verseveldt & Bayer (1988) considered Pieterfaurea to be a genus of the Nidaliidae, they at the same time included it in the key to the genera of the family Alcyoniidae, and not in the key to the nidaliid genera. Genus Siphonogorgia Kolliker, 1874 Siphonogorgia Kolliker, 1874: 18. Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 48. Diagnosis Colonies branched and arborescent. Slender branches arise from a well- defined stalk. Surface of colonies brittle and rough. Polyps arise from the ends of terminal branches but are not present on the main branches or on the stalk. Polyps armed with well-developed crown and points. Sclerites are mostly tuberculated spindles. A genus of perhaps twelve or more species from the Red Sea and Indo- Pacific. Type species. Siphonogorgia godeffroyi Kolliker, 1874; Indo-Pacific. Remarks A single undetermined species has been collected by dredge from northern Natal between 62 m and 142 m in depth. This account represents a new record of the genus for southern Africa. Family Nephtheidae Gray, 1862 Colonies lobate or arborescent, upright, with a distinct stalk. Polyps monomorphic, arranged individually or in clusters or catkins, along surface of branches and/or at the tips of ultimate branches. Sclerites often dense, mainly of spindles, clubs, and radiates. A family of about 20 genera known world-wide; at least four genera repre- sented in southern Africa. Genus Capnella Gray, 1869 Capnella Gray, 1869: 129. Utinomi, 1960: 28. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 233. Verseveldt, 1977: 184. Eunephthya Verrill, 1869: 284. Utinomi, 1951: 28. Paranephthya Wright & Studer, 1889: 227. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 329 Fig. 38. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thompson, 1921). A. An entire colony, 35 mm in length. B. A single polyp showing palisade-like arrangement of sclerites to form a permanent calyx; diameter of base of calyx = 2 mm. C. Sclerites from the calyx and surface of polyparium. D. Sclerites from surface of stalk. C-D. Scale = 0,6 mm. 330 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Diagnosis Colonies often arborescent, usually with multiply branched polyparium arising from a prominent stalk. Polyps in clusters, curved inward, without crown and points arranged en chevron. Sclerites scattered throughout polyps. Polyp sclerites include leaf-clubs and thorny spindles. Stalk sclerites include leaf-clubs and thorny spindles. Stalk sclerites are often irregular and compact radiate-like structures, frequently thorny. A genus of perhaps 19 species, primarily Indo-Pacific and extending into the south-eastern Atlantic (Cape of Good Hope Peninsula). Type species. Alcyonium imbricatum Quoy & Gaimard, 1833, by subsequent designation. Capnella susanae Williams, 1988 Figs 39-40 Capnella susanae Williams, 1988: 19-26, figs 14-15, 16B, 17-19. Material SAM-H3717 (holotype), Hottentots Huisie, Cape of Good Hope Penin- sula, South Africa (33°59'S 18°21'E), 15-18 m depth, 11 November 1984, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, G. C. Williams. Description The holotype is arborescent and somewhat digitiform, not luxuriantly bushy, <50 mm total length. Stalk and polyparium strongly demarcated. Polyparium inconspicuously and sparsely branched. Lateral branches <6 mm long. Polyps sometimes solitary but often clustered into groups of 2-20 (commonly 3-7). Polyps of these clusters joined proximally. Polyps elongate clavate, 2-3 mm in length, curved adaxially, non-retractile, but tentacles retractile into body of polyps. Polyparium sclerites are caterpillars, leaf clubs, and thorny spindles, <0,33 mm in length. Surface sclerites of stalk tuberculate spheroids of irregular shape, and capstan-like radiates, <0,15 mm in length. Radiates are densely set in gastric cavity walls of the colony interior, <0,12 mm in length. Colony colour pink in life, fading to dark grey or brown in alcohol. Distribution Known from the west coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula to southern Transkei, between 15 and 70 m in depth (Williams 1988, in press a). Type locality is the west coast of the Cape Peninsula. Remarks Capnella susanae differs from other southern African nephtheids by digitiform growth habit, polyps 2-3 mm long distributed along finger-like polyparium, and sclerites <0,33 mm long. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 331 Fig. 39. Capnella susanae Williams, 1988. Entire colony 25 mm in length. B. Group of three polyps; central polyp is 3 mm in length. C. Sclerites from polyp wall. D. Sclerites from surface of stalk. C-D. Scale bar = 0,2 mm. 332 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 40. Scanning electron micrographs of Capnella susanae Williams, 1988. A-E. Sclerites from polyp bases. A. 0,15 mm. B. 0,125 mm. C. 0,035 mm. D. 0,20 mm. E. 0,14 mm. F-H. Sclerites from surface of stalk. F. 0,07 mm. G. 0,07-0,09 mm. H. Both 0,075 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 333 Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865) Figs 1H-I, 41-42 Nephthya thyrsoidea Verrill, 1865: 1982. Nephthya rugosa Kiikenthal, 1902: 299. Capnella rugosa Kiikenthal, 1906: 68, pi. 3 (figs 12, 13), pi. 11 (figs 67-69). Thomson, 1910: 575, pi. 2 (fig. 10), pi. 4 (figs 42a-c). Broch, 1939: 12, fig. 9. Capnella gilchristi Thomson, 1910: 578, pi. 2 (fig. 11), pi. 4 (figs 40a-c). Capnella- thyrsoidea Utinomi, 1960: 31. Verseveldt, 1977: 185. England & Robson, 1984: 313, figs 4C, 5C-D. Material SAM-H917, Mossel Bay, Cape Province (22°15'S 34°10'E), 38 m, 24 June 1898, 2 colonies, shrimp trawl, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 88. SAM- H3385, off Danger Point, Cape Province (34°39'S 19°20'E), 39 m, 12 April 1984, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. SAM-H3415, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21'E), 14 m, 22 March 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Description Colonies examined are 15-170 mm long. Colonies upright, bushy arborescent, with an intricately branched polyparium arising from a prominent stalk. Stalk often robust, up to 30 mm in diameter and 40 mm in length. Polyparium wider than stalk, exuberantly branched. Polyp clusters arising from sides and apexes of ultimate branches. Polyps extremely numerous, cylindrical or tear-shaped with distal portion sometimes slightly expanded; c. 1,0-2,0 mm in length. Sclerites of stalk are compact six-radiates (capstans), some approaching irregular spheroids with prominent tuberculation, 0,04-0,09 mm in length. Sclerites of the polyp clusters and calyces are elongate coarsely- tuberculate spindles, clubs and leaf-clubs, 0,12-1,2 mm long. Colour variable, brown to dark brown, light grey to smoke-grey, white to salmon to pinkish, or cream to yellowish. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa, west coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula to the Durban region of Natal, 10-240 m in depth (Williams in press a). This species is one of the commonest octocorals in southern Africa, often seen by divers on vertical rock walls and reefs. It is probable that the distribution of this species extends into northern Natal (England & Robson 1984: 315). Type locality South Africa, detailed locality unspecified. Remarks The appearance of colonies of C. thyrsoidea differs remarkably depending on degree of contraction or expansion. Underwater observation of the species off the west coast of the Cape Peninsula (12-20 m depth) during daylight hours in turbid water, has revealed that in feeding posture the colonies are greatly 334 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 41. Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865). A. Entire colony, partially contracted, 135 mm in length. B. Detail from a group of five polyps; total length of figure 2,5 mm. C. Entire colony, tightly contracted, 105 mm in length. D. Sclerites from polyp wall. Scale bar = 0,3 mm. E. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 335 expanded and elongated, reaching up to 300 mm in length and 200 mm in width, very limp and flexible. The colonies have all branches elongated and exposed with the ultimate branches containing polyp clusters forming protuber- ances along the surface of the branches. During severe contraction, as in daylight hours in clear water or during preservation, the colonies are tightly compacted, stiff and rigid, resembling stalks of cauliflower, usually not more than 80 mm in total length. A recently described and unusual species of ptychodactiarian anemone, Preactis miliar dae England & Robson, 1984, representing a new anthozoan family (Preactiidae), has been shown to be a species-specific predator on C. thyrsoidea (England & Robson 1984: 313). The large anemone (up to 200 mm in length) is relatively mobile, using the lateral vesicles and pedal disc to temporarily adhere to various substrata. Preactis miliar dae is at present known only from the south-western Cape Province, in less than 20 m of water. The anemone apparently engulfs and digests whole polyparies of C. thyrsoidea, often leaving only the basal portion of the stalk remaining. Macfadyen (1936: 51) recorded C. rugosa (a junior synonym of C. thyr- soidea) from the Australian Great Barrier Reef. This is probably a misidenti- fication; examination of Macfadyen 's material is necessary for verification. Verseveldt (1977) considered at least eight species of the genus Capnella to occur in Australia, C. thyrsoidea (= C. rugosa) not being one of them. Capnella thyrsoidea is distinguished from C. susanae by the presence of bushy arborescent form with intricately branched polyparium, polyps 1-2 mm long, and sclerites up to 1,2 mm long. Genus Dendronephthya Kukenthal, 1905 Dendronephthya Kukenthal, 1905: 667. Utinomi, 1952: 161; 1954: 319. Diagnosis Colonies are bushy and arborescent with a prickly or bristly appearance. Colonial growth form is umbellate, glomerate or divaricate. Polyps arranged in groups. Each polyp has a conspicuous supporting bundle of sclerites that usually projects far above the polyp. Sclerites are primarily tuberculate spindles. A very large genus of over 250 described species, distributed in the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Nephthya savignyi Ehrenberg, 1834, by subsequent desig- nation; Red Sea, Indo-Pacific. Remarks At least four undetermined species of this genus occur in Natal between Durban and Kosi Bay, 12-50 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press). Tixier-Durivault & Prevorsek (1962: 70) described Dendronephthya muta- bilis as Morchellana mutabilis from the Durban region of Natal, at 64-91 m in depth. Verseveldt (1960: 511) described Dendronephthya inhacaensis from 336 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 42. Scanning electron micrographs of Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865). A-I. Sclerites from polyp bases. A. 0,29 mm. B. 0,17 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0,24 mm. E. 0,09 mm. F. 0,25 mm. G. 0,40 mm. H. Detail of surface tuberculation from sclerite shown in F; total length of micrograph = 0,07 mm. I. 1,0 mm. J-L. Sclerites from surface of stalk. J. 0,10 mm. K. 0,09 mm. L. 0,10 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 337 Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique; depth not recorded. The two species can be distinguished as follows: D. mutabilis has supporting bundles of one large projecting spindle whereas in D. inhacaensis the supporting bundles are composed of 3-5 large projecting spindles. Genus Litophyton Forskal, 1775 Litophyton Forskal, 1775: 139. Bayer, 1956: 188; 19816: 913. Ammothea Savigny in Lamarck, 1816: 410. Litophytum Agassiz, 1848: 616. Kukenthal, 1903: 105. Shann, 1912: 511. Light, 1915: 1. Diagnosis Colonies arborescent, branches arise from a single erect stalk. Polyps clustered in lappets or catkins on the terminal branches only, not present in other portions of colony. Colonies repeatedly branch distally. Surface of stalk and branches smooth. Polyps non-retractile, without supporting bundles. Sclerites of various types, but leaf clubs are not present. Twenty or more species of the Indo-Pacific and the south coast of South Africa. Type species. Litophyton arboreum Forskal, 1775; Indo-Pacific. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988 Figs 43-45 Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988: 321-327, figs 2B, E, 4-8. Material SAM-H3400, off Danger Point (34°38'S 19°20'E), 39 m depth, 12 April 1984, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. SAM-H3863, off Cape Agulhas (34°52'S 20°05'E), 54 m depth, 23 February 1985, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. Description Colonies examined are 56-110 mm in height. From a common base several stems may arise, which repeatedly ramify distally. Colonies are cauliflower-like, with polyp-bearing regions of distal branchlets arising from a tall branching stalk, which is smooth and fleshy. Polyps are contained on the sides and apices of short lateral branches, as well as on the distal-most branchlets. The finely divided ultimate branchlets usually contain 3-12 polyps, giving the colony a luxuriantly bushy appearance. Ultimate branchlets are 3-8 mm long and 2- 5 mm wide. Polyps are concentrated on distal portions of these branchlets. Tentacles are retractile into the body of the polyp. Polyps are tear-shaped (clavate) with global distal portions when contracted, or elongate-cylindrical when expanded, 1,5-3,0 mm long and 0,8-1,5 mm wide. Several ultimate 338 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM branchlets were observed with young polyps budding laterally from near the bases of adjacent polyps. Sclerites are of three general types. The tentacles possess small irregular rod-like structures that may branch near the ends. These sclerites are 0,05- 0,10 mm in length. Their arrangement in the tentacles was impossible to determine due to contraction. The polyp walls and branchlets contain spindles with fine but sparse tuberculation. These sclerites are 0,09-0,25 mm in length. Some of these may be slightly club-shaped. Those of the polyps are relatively robust spindles that may be somewhat curved with marginal protuberances more Fig. 43. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A. An entire colony, 110 mm in height. B-E. Four groups of polyps from terminuses of four separate ultimate branches. B. Group of four polyps with tentacles retracted into bodies of polyps, length 3,3 mm. C. Group of three polyps with tentacles retracted into bodies of polyps, 2,5 mm in length. D. Group of seven polyps; total length of figure 6 mm. E. Group of three polyps, total length of figure = 4,5 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 339 pronounced and numerous on the convex side. Sclerites of the ultimate branches are often slightly shorter than the polyp sclerites, usually <0,15 mm long. The surface region of the stalk contains stout and irregular modified capstans, 0,05-0,13 mm long. Colony colour is pale cream-white, both in life and in alcohol. Distribution The species is known only from the south coast of South Africa — Danger Point, Cape Agulhas, and Cape St Francis; 30-54 m in depth (Verseveldt & Williams 1988; Williams in press a); apparently endemic to southern Africa. This species is locally common on vertical rock walls off Cape St Francis, with a relatively dense population (approximately 5-8 colonies/m 2 — W. R. Liltved pers. comm.). Type locality is Danger Point, south-western Cape Province. Remarks Litophyton liltvedi is distinguished from other southern African nephtheids by having polyps clustered in catkins at ends of terminal branches, and sclerites of spindles and double stars. Genus Nephthea Audouin, 1826 Nephthea Audouin in Savigny, 1826: 230. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 271. Nephthya Ehrenberg, 1834: 284. Kukenthal, 1903: 141. Shann, 1912: 510. Diagnosis Colonies copiously branched. Polyps are contained in lappets, catkins or bundles on the many branchlets. Each polyp has a supporting bundle of usually slender and more-or-less similarly-sized tuberculated spindles. A large genus of the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Nephthea chabrolii Audouin, 1826, by monotypy; Red Sea and Indo-Pacific. Remarks One unidentified species has recently been collected on the sublittoral coral reefs of northern Natal at 12-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). This account represents a new record of the genus to southern Africa. Other species of Nephtheidae Only five nephtheid species have been identified and recorded from south- ern Africa, these being Capnella thyrsoidea, C. susanae, Litophyton liltvedi, Dendronephthya inhacaensis, and D. mutabilis. Material from at least three other species not presently identified to genus or species, occur from Saldanha Bay, False Bay, the eastern Cape Province to Transkei, and Sodwana Bay. This material is held in the South African Museum marine invertebrate collection. 340 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Family Xeniidae Ehrenberg, 1828 Colonies membranous, lobate or capitate. Polyps monomorphic or dimorphic. All mesenterial filaments except the two asulcal ones are absent or rudimentary in mature polyps. Pinnules are in several rows on each side of tentacles. Sclerites are minute flattened oval rods or discs that are smooth, knobbly or granular and rough in appearance (<0,1 mm long), or are com- pletely absent. Many species possess symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) in the gastrodermal tissues of the tentacles. Colour of tentacles in life is often blue, green, brown, grey, or yellowish. Seven genera recognized world-wide, primarily in warm shallow seas of the Indo-West Pacific. Genus Anthelia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 Anthelia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816: 407. Roxas, 1933: 59. Gohar, 1940: 88. Utinomi, 1958: 98. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 348. Diagnosis Colonies form membranous sheets from which individual polyps arise. Polyps not retractile. Sclerites, if present, are small ovoid or rod-like platelets <0,05 mm in diameter, often granular or rough in surface texture. Perhaps twenty or more species of the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific; littoral or shallow water. Type species. Anthelia glauca Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816; Indo-Pacific. Remarks Three species of Anthelia have been recorded from southern Africa (Table 1). In addition, Anthelia capensis Studer, 1879, was described from the Cape of Good Hope at 91 m in depth. Studer gave only a brief description and a very generalized figure that lacked sufficient detail to define diagnostic characters or even to assign to a genus with certainty. According to him the outer polyp wall is smooth and soft, without grooves or ribs. The cylindrical polyps are weakly thorny spindles 0,2 mm long, and are thus consistent with those of the genus Clavularia (Clavulariidae) but quite unlike sclerites of the family Xeniidae. The colony colour is described as vermilion red. Studer's material is presently not available for examination. Two presently undetermined species of Anthelia have recently been col- lected from Natal: a slate-grey species common on the sublittoral coral reefs of Sodwana Bay, 9-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b); and a vivid blue species that is frequently encountered at Durban from the littoral to at least 3 m in depth (see Fig. ID). Genus Cespitularia Valenciennes, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850 Cespitularia Valenciennes, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850: lxxviii. Hickson, 1931: 162. Roxas, 1933: 103. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 351. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 341 Fig. 44. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A. Sclerites from polyp walls and ultimate branches. B. Sclerites from tentacles. C. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 342 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Diagnosis Colonies are lobed and digitate; several lobes or branches arise from a common stalk. Polyps arise from different levels of the polyparium on several lobes and are non-retractile. Sclerites if present are minute, usually smooth round to oval rods or discs. Perhaps ten or more species of the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacifk. Type species. Cornularia multipinnata Quoy & Gaimard, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850, by subsequent designation; Indo-Pacific. Remarks A single species of Cespitularia has been recorded from South Africa (Table 1), but no new material has been collected representing this genus. Genus Heteroxenia Kolliker, 1874 Heteroxenia Kolliker, 1874: 12. Hickson, 1931: 168. Roxas, 1933: 95. Gohar, 1940: 101. Tixier- Durivault, 1966: 368. Diagnosis Colonies capitate; capitulum arises from an upright stalk. Polyps arise from a distinct terminal disc on the capitulum. Polyps dimorphic at least during breeding periods, non-retractile. Type species. Heteroxenia elisabethae Kolliker, 1874, by subsequent designation, Red Sea and Indo-Pacific. Remarks Four species of Heteroxenia have been recorded for southern Africa (Table 1), but no new material has been collected that is assignable to this genus. Genus Xenia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 Xenia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816: 409. Hickson, 1931: 148. Roxas, 1933: 76. Gohar, 1940: 93. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 358. Diagnosis Colonies are lobed and capitate; several polyps arise from the top of upright stalks or lobes. There may be one or several lobes in a colony but they do not arise from a common stalk. Polyps always monomorphic, non-retractile. Scler- ites, if present, are mostly minute smooth rounded or irregular plates. A genus of perhaps 30 or more species from the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Xenia umbellata Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816; Red Sea, Indo- Pacific. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 343 Fig. 45. Scanning electron micrographs of Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A-E. Sclerites from the bases of the polyps. A. 0,235 mm. B. 0,26 mm. C. 0,208 mm. D. 0,19 mm. E. Detail of a single tubercle from a polyp sclerite; total length of micrograph = 0,09 mm. F-I. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. F. 0,74 mm. G. 0,09 mm. H. 0,07 mm. I. 0,052 mm. 344 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM X 1 re i-l o S CL H re re c U. o s CC o o C/0 O Q Tt O OO O O CT^ _ O \O v -OO v O v >0^oO v Oi/'N. ' — v *0 O; On On On On On O* On O- |£> on >>>>>>>>>X-J>> ■z 'C -^ - n - c •£ "c -c -c: -^£? ~z 3333333333^3 QQDQQQQQQo-Q !5 !S !S '5 S !5 '3 !5 !E J ±r !a hhHHhhHhrh ffl h Q 3 O 3 1 «"■§ eve O 3 O 2" cr .5"2" £ £ S 15 •- s s a s = O O O O re .3 W 8 I u = £ -o ■a C -OT3T3 T3T3 c/? s c re c 3 r, 3 3 3 re re O re re re re re £ a !/) o C/l re re re re re re re c/3 u o re u o w o y C3 re re re re re re .3.3-0.3.3.3.3.3 o s c c 3 ^3 3 3 3 s© oo S -3- r- 00 « 3 T "- oT-s9>>S on ^ <-< re * °° £\°. 5 <u > — ' <3 § & -S ■2 -S -S *§ §* Qj ^j <u -13 g •5 ~s: >s: i^, <^> 22 3 O £Py o xn X) ^- 3 q J= « ¥1 y — ~ ■ n re -a * « S 32| SLfJ 8 4* ,^-vOn re ON <-< ^vj ON ~ \C\ ^\0 OC — CN C On »-H 3 00 ""OO >> > - 3 .. ^Q S ^ 2 11 ■S "° 5 c 2-1 .22 -o £ 5 O J3 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 345 Remarks Four species of Xenia have been recorded from Natal (Table 1). Material representing one or more undetermined species of the genus has been collected from Durban (shore station), Umtwalumi (shore station), and off Kosi River mouth (47 m in depth). Other species of Xeniidae in southern Africa Twelve species representing four genera have been recorded from southern Africa. These are summarized in Table 1. The known distribution of the family Xeniidae in southern Africa is along the Indian Ocean coast from Port St Johns in Transkei to Inhaca Island, Mozambique; presence of the family is to be expected north of Inhaca. KEY TO THE SOFT CORALS AND STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 1A. Colonies attached to substrata by basal stolons that are mainly ribbon-like or reticulate; or stolons form multi-layered platforms. Polyps separate, not grouped together by common swellings or globular polyparies 2 IB. Colonies without true stolons. Colonies attached to substrata by a basal holdfast or membranous sheets; if base stolon-like then adjacent polyps grouped together by a common swollen or globular polyparium, or base spreading and membranous, not ribbon-like 10 2A. Colonies arborescent. Anthocodiae not retractile into anthosteles Coelogorgia palmosa 2B. Colonies not arborescent; polyps solitary or with secondary lateral polyps. Anthocodiae totally retractile into anthosteles 3 3A. Walls of anthostele brittle and inflexible, composed of permanently fused sclerites, or a mosaic of tightly fitting, flattened plates 4 3B. Walls of anthostele flexible, not brittle, composed of numerous free sclerites or clumps of partly fused sclerites 7 4A. Colonies heavily calcified, with lateral connections of multi-layered stolons that form successive platforms. Colonies form rounded clumps. Colour wine-red Tubipora musica (Fig. 6) 4B. Polyps arise from stolons which adhere directly to substrata in one layer, not forming multiple layers. Colour whitish, pinkish, or brownish 5 5A. Anthosteles composed of separate flattened plates, tightly fitting together like a mosaic Scleranthelia thomsoni (Fig. 4) 5B. Anthosteles composed of inseparably fused, tuberculated sclerites 6 6A. Anthocodia with 8 points of sclerites arranged longitudinally. Base of gastric cavity open, not forming a calcareous lattice of 8 canals Bathytelesto tubuliporoides (Fig. 2) 6B. Anthocodial sclerites not arranged in 8 points. Base of gastric cavity forming a calcareous lattice of 8 canals Scyphopodium ingolfi 346 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 7A. Long axial polyps produce many lateral secondary polyps. Sclerites of polyp walls sometimes partly fused forming clumps Carijoa sp. 7B. Polyps solitary or sometimes producing one lateral secondary polyp. Sclerites of polyp walls are free, not fusing to form clumps 8 8A. Retracted polyps form low rounded or conical anthosteles, polyps may retract into stolons Sarcodictyon sp. 8B. Retracted polyps form prominent cylindrical or tubular anthosteles 9 9A. Polyps long and tubular (often >10 mm), sometimes with lateral secondary polyps. Proximal part of gastric cavity filled with mesogleal material Telestula sp. 9B. Polyps cylindrical (usually <10 mm long), never with lateral secondary polyps. Proximal part of gastric cavities open Clavularia spp. 10A. Polyps of one type (monomorphic) 19 10B. Polyps of two distinct types (dimorphic) 11 11A. Sclerites entirely absent or, if present, then of inconspicuous, flattened, ovate structures (usually <0,05 mm long), with smooth surfaces 12 11B. Sclerites conspicuous, numerous and dense; of diverse form (>0,05 mm in length), with surface tuberculations 13 12A. Tentacles with pinnules in several rows per side. Stalk without a rough horn-like cuticle. Sclerites present or absent. Polyps not retractile Heteroxenia spp. 12B. Tentacles with pinnules in a single row per side. Stalk covered by a rough horn-like cuticle. Sclerites altogether absent. Polyps retractile Malacacanthus capensis (Fig. 32) 13A. Colonies digitiform 14 13B. Colonies distinctly capitate or with broad capitulums that are folded, lobed, or plicate 15 14A. Sclerites are mostly clubs Acrophytum claviger (Fig. 7) 14B. Sclerites are mostly capstans Minabea sp. 15 A. Colonies clavate to capitate. Capitulums spheroid or funnel form without open folds on margins. Deeper water (>50 m depth) 16 15B. Colonies with broad capitulums that are folded, lobed, or plicate. Shallow sublittoral (<30 m depth) of Natal and Mozambique 18 16A. Colonies with sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum. . . . Anthomastus giganteus (Fig. 27) 16B. Colonies without sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum 17 17 A. Colony colour red-orange with yellow retracted polyps. Coenenchymal sclerites are barrels and tuberculate spheroids Verseveldtia bucciniforme (Fig. 35) 17B. Colony colour greyish-white with rust-orange retracted polyps. Coenen- chymal sclerites are eight radiates .... Verseveldtia trochiforme (Fig. 33) SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 347 18A. Colonies fungiform or funnelform. Capitulum smooth or with open folds on margin Sarcophyton spp. 18B. Colonies often low and encrusting or dish to bowl-shaped. Capitulum with closed folds or lobes or ridge-like plications Lobophytum spp. 19A. Sclerites are absent, or are very sparse flattened rods (0,06-0,26 mm long); or if numerous, then are smooth, flattened ovate or rod-like forms (<0,05 mm long) *...... 20 19B. Sclerites numerous, dense, and conspicuous (>0,10 mm long), usually with conspicuous surface tuberculation 23 20A. Sclerites are rods (0,06-0,26 mm long) confined to the neck zones of polyps and sometimes forming rings surrounding the bases of polyps. Tentacles with a single row of pinnules per side. Colour orange or brownish Alcyonium mutabiliforme (Fig. 19) 20B. Sclerites absent or reduced to minute smooth circular, oval, or rod-like bodies, usually <0,05 mm long. Tentacles with two or more rows of pinnules per side, often vivid blue, slate grey, or greenish. Littoral or shallow sublittoral of the Indian Ocean (family Xeniidae) 21 21A. Colonies membranous and flattened, without a basal stalk Anthelia spp. (Fig. ID) 21B. Colonies capitate or digitate, usually with a distinct stalk 22 22A. Colonies capitate Xenia spp. 22B. Colonies digitate . . . Cespitularia spp. 23 A. Colonies branched repeatedly or multilobate (>10 ultimate lobes or branches) 24 23B. Colonies membranous or creeping, capitate, digitiform, digitate, or few lobate (<10 ultimate lobes) 33 24A. Surface of colony rough and stiff, due to large, narrow finely tuberculate spindles, densely packed and longitudinally placed. Polyps with conspicu- ous crown and points, retractile into calyces composed of elongate spindles Siphonogorgia sp. 24B. Surface of colony usually smooth and soft, not packed with large, narrow longitudinally placed spindles; polyp calyces, if present, not composed of large, finely tuberculate spindles 25 25 A. Entire polyp capable of complete retraction into polyparium, or antho- codiae retractile into base of polyp that is either sparsely set with sclerites or without sclerites altogether. Polyps arise singly from surface of lobes or ultimate branches, adjacent polyps not joined together proximally .... 26 25B. Anthocodia retractile into a permanent calyx that is densely set with sclerites of variable form. Adjacent polyps clustered together, often forming a common base and joined proximally, polyp clusters distributed on sides and distal tips of branches (family Nephtheidae) 30 26A. Sclerites are mostly spindles and/or clubs, 0,05-5,0 mm long 27 348 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 26B. Sclerites are mostly small capstans, double stars, or tuberculate spheroids, 0,03-0,15 mm long 28 27 A. Polyparium with complex plications or with digitate lobes often long, thick and tapering distally. Polyps cover entire surface of lobes or plications, often preserved totally retracted. Sclerites are small clubs (0,06-0,2 mm long); and large, robust, coarsely tuberculated spindles (0,5-5,0 mm long) Sinularia spp. 27B. Polyparium repeatedly ramifies distally. Polyps confined to ultimate branches in the distal-most portion of colony. Sclerites are spindles with sparse tuberculation (0,09-0,25 mm long), and irregularly shaped, modi- fied capstans (0,05-0,13 mm long) Litophyton liltvedi (Figs 43-44) 28A. Sclerites are primarily double stars or double heads (0,03-0,08 mm long) Cladiella spp. 28B. Sclerites are primarily capstans or tuberculate spheroids (0,03-0,15 mm long) 29 29 A. Sclerites are capstans distributed throughout the surface region of the polyparium and stalk (0,03-0,065 mm long) Alcyonium valdiviae (Fig. 22) 29B. Sclerites are primarily tuberculate spheroids restricted to the surface of the stalk (0,08-0,15 mm long) Alcyonium distinctum (Fig. 9) 30A. Individual polyps each with a supporting bundle of spindles 31 30B. Individual polyps without a supporting bundle of spindles 32 31A. Supporting bundle of spindles conspicuously projects beyond the polyp. Colonies brightly coloured; white with red, orange, yellow, or maroon . Dendronephthya spp. 31B. Supporting bundle of spindles does not project beyond each polyp. Colonies uniform cream-coloured Nephthea sp. 32A. Sclerites of the polyps and branchlets are mostly leaf clubs and robust tuberculate spindles (0,12-1,2 mm long) . . Capnella thyrsoidea (Fig. 41) 32B. Sclerites of the polyps and branchlets are mostly leaf clubs, caterpillars, and thorny spindles (0,12-0,33 mm long) .... Capnella susanae (Fig. 39) 33A. Polyps relatively few (usually <20) restricted to distal and sometimes flattened terminal surface of colony 34 33B. Polyps numerous (usually <20), dispersed over entire surface of a globular, lobate, or finger-like polyparium 35 34A. Polyps with numerous red needle-like sclerites. Sclerites of polyparium and stalk are mostly capstans. Stalk without a cuticular envelope. Colony colour permanent Alcyonium elegans (Fig. 11) 34B. Polyp sclerites absent. Colony sclerites are exclusively large, robust tuberculate spindles restricted to surface of stalk and sides of capitulum. Stalk covered with a thin cuticular envelope. Colony colour alcohol- soluble Alcyonium planiceps (Fig. 21) SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 349 35A. Colonies digitate, polyparium of several slender finger-like processes aris- ing from a prominent basal stalk Eleutherobia rotifera (Fig. 29) 35B. Colonies capitate, digitiform, lobate, globular, membranous or encrust- ing 36 36A. Colonies digitiform or capitate 37 36B. Colonies lobate, globular, membranous to encrusting 45 37A. Colonies excluding polyps are digitiform (finger-like) 38 37B. Colonies excluding polyps are capitate (fungiform) 43 38A. Bases of retracted polyps often form globular swellings or conical to cylindrical calyces or palisade-like arrangements of spindle-like sclerites 39 38B. Polyps without calyces or palisade-like arrangements of spindle-like sclerites; entire polyp capable of complete retraction into polyparium . 42 39A. Polyp bases form conical calyces by the palisade-like arrangement of large spindle-shaped sclerites (>0,3 mm long) 40 39B. Polyp bases globular, low and hemispherical or tall and cylindrical to clavate. Calyx wall filled with small sclerites (<0,3 mm in length) .... 41 40A. Palisade-like arrangement of sclerites in retracted polyps strongly devel- oped with sclerites erect and densely set. Anthocodial sclerites absent. Maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 2,6 mm Pieterfaurea unilobata (Fig. 38) 40B. Palisade-like arrangement of sclerites in retracted polyps is weakly developed with sclerites sparsely or irregularly arranged. Anthocodial sclerites present. Maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 1,9 mm Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Fig. 36) 41A. Polyp bases low and globular, low and rounded. Adjacent polyps are solitary and arise directly from polyparium. Colony colour permanent Alcyonium moriferum (Fig. 18) 41B. Calyces elongate cylindrical or slightly clavate. Adjacent polyps often clustered together with common bases. Colony colour alcohol-soluble Capnella susanae (Fig. 39) 42A. Sclerites are exclusively tuberculated spheroids (<0,1 mm long) Alcyonium moriferum (Fig. 18) 42B. Sclerites are predominantly clubs with spheroid heads and narrow pointed handles (<0,35 mm long) Acrophytum claviger (monomorphic colonies) (Fig. 7) 43A. Fully retracted polyps from flexible and circular cup-like or disc-like calyces Eleutherobia studeri (Fig. 31) 43B. Fully retracted polyps form low rounded, protuberances on the surface of the capitulum or are completely retractile into the capitulum; not forming cup-like calyces 44 350 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 44 A. Some sclerites are tuberculate spheroids, double heads, or ovoid forms. Colony colour alcohol-soluble Alcyonium fauri (capitate form) (Figs 13-14) 44B. Sclerites are clubs, capstans, spindles, and needles; no globular or ovoid forms. Colony colour permanent Alcyonium variabile (Fig. 24) 45 A. Sclerites are entirely elongate, tuberculated clubs and spindles; no globu- lar, ovoid, or foliate forms or double heads present Alcyonium wilsoni (Fig. 26) 45B. Sclerites diverse, but many are globular, ovoid, or distinctly foliate forms or double heads 46 46 A. Many sclerites are distinctive foliate forms and double heads. Colonies usually encrusting soft substrata such as sponges Alcyonium foliatum (Fig. 16) 46B. Some sclerites are globular or ovoid tuberculate forms or double heads, no foliates present. Colonial growth form variable: globular, lobate, or membranous; usually on hard substrata such as rock, shell, and dead or living corals Alcyonium fauri (Figs 13-14) LIST OF SOFT CORALS AND STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS RECORDED FROM SOUTHERN AFRICA Order Alcyonacea Lamouroux, 1816; amended by Bayer, 1981/?. Family Clavulariidae Subfamily Clavulariinae * Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889 * Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939 * Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889 * Clavularia parva Tixier-Duri vault, 1964 ** Clavularia spp. ° Bathytelesto tuhulip oroides Williams, 1989/? t Scyphopodium ingolfi (Madsen, 1944) Subfamily Sarcodictyoniinae ** Sarcodictyon sp. ° Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a Subfamily Telestinae ** Carijoa sp. * Telesto arborea Wright & Studer, 1889 ** Telestula sp. Family Tubiporidae ° Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 351 Family Coelogorgiidae * Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 Family Alcyoniidae ° Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 ° Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988 ° Alcyonium elegans (Kiikenthal, 1902) ° Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 ° Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921 ** Alcyonium 'glomeratum' (Hassall, 1843) * Alcyonium membranaceum Kiikenthal, 1906 ° Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) ° Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988 ° Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a * Alcyonium reptans Kiikenthal, 1906 * Alcyonium roseum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) ** Alcyonium 'rubrum' (Brundin, 1896) ** Alcyonium sarcophytoides Burchardt, 1903 ** Alcyonium sollasi Wright & Studer, 1889 Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906 ° Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921) Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921 ° Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954 * Anthomastus hicksoni Bock, 1938 * Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-Durivault, 1944) ** Cladiella sp. ° Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) ° Eleutherobia studeri (Thomson, 1910) * Lobophytum crassum von Marenzeller, 1886 * Lobophytum crebiplicatum von Marenzeller, 1886 ** Lobophytum spp. ° Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900) ** 'Metalcyonium' 'clavatum Pfeffer, 1889 t 'Metalcyonium' lanceatum Thomson, 1921 * 'Metalcyonium' molle Burchardt, 1903 * 'Metalcyonium' novarae Kiikenthal, 1906 ** Minabea sp. * Sarcophyton trocheliophorum von Marenzeller, 1886 ** Sarcophyton spp. * Sinularia polydactyla (Ehrenberg, 1834) ** Sinularia spp. ° Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990/? Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) 352 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Family Nidaliidae ° Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) ° Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921) ** Siphonogorgia sp. Family Nephtheidae ° Capnella susanae Williams, 1988 ° Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865) * Dendronephthya inhacaensis Verseveldt, 1960 * Dendronephthya mutabilis (Tixier-Durivault & Prevorsek, 1962) ** Dendronephthya spp. ° Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988 ** Nephthea sp. Family Xeniidae * Antheliaflava (May, 1899) * Anthelia glauca Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 * Anthelia profunda Tixier-Durivault, 1964 ** Anthelia spp. * Cespitularia coerulea May, 1899 * Heteroxenia elisabethae Kolliker, 1874 * Heteroxenia fuscescens (Ehrenberg, 1834) * Heteroxenia membranacea (Schenk, 1896) * Heteroxenia rigida (May, 1899) * Xenia dayi Tixier-Durivault, 1959 * Xenia florida (Lesson, 1825) ** Xenia spp. * Xenia umbellata Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 * Xenia viridis Schenk, 1896 Incertae sedis * Anthelia capensis Studer, 1879 * Literature record only; adequate material not available for study. ** Species indeterminate; material available but status uncertain or unidentifiable at present. Described and illustrated in the present work. t Identified, but material is partial or damaged or otherwise not adequate for full description. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The present study represents the first comprehensive survey of the known soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna for all of southern Africa. Of at least sixty species presently recorded in the literature, 26 species, 27 genera, and seven families are here considered to be valid. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 353 Several species remain indeterminate or of uncertain status due to one or more factors: (1) the lack of availability of type material for comparison with pre- viously described species, either because of lack of response or co-operation from a particular source, or not knowing the whereabouts of type material or even if a type specimen exists; (2) the lack of sufficient detail pertaining to the original descriptions of many species; (3) the lack of availability of certain literature references and problems such as delays or lack of co-operation from sources of inter-library loans; (4) the damaged or inadequate nature of available material pertaining to a given species, or (5) in some cases a large-scale revision of a given group may be necessary in order to accurately identify an individual species. The genera Sarcodictyon, Telestula, Carijoa, Minabea, Siphonogorgia, and Nephthea are here recorded from southern Africa for the first time. Approximately 90 species of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals are presently estimated to occur in southern African coastal regions. This number is subject to change as future studies will undoubtedly reveal many unrecorded and undescribed species. Detailed examination of the fauna from the west coast Atlantic and east coast Indian Ocean regions is still necessary. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the late Dr J. Verseveldt of Zwolle, the Netherlands, for the identification of some material and for his comments regarding the status of the genera Acrophytum and Metalcyonium; Dr F. M. Bayer of the Smithsonian Institution for his ideas concerning the taxonomy of Malacacanthus and for his critical comments on the manuscript; Dr M. Grasshoff of the Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt, for critically reading the manuscript; and Phil Alderslade of the Northern Territories Museum, Darwin, Australia, for his comments per- taining to the status of Alcyonium, Metalcyonium, and Acrophytum. I particularly thank W. R. Liltved of the South African Museum for his keen underwater observations and copious material; also Dr R. N. Kilburn, Dr D. Herbert, and Ruth Fregona of the Natal Museum, Susan Burke, Philip Coetzee, Alan Connell, Dr T. M. Gosliner, the Sea Fisheries Research Institute Dive Survey Unit (particularly Andrew Penney, Rob Tarr, and Paul Williams), and the crew of the R.V. Meiring Naude (particularly Captain George Foulis) for help in the collection of material. Dane Gerneke and Klaus Schultes of the University of Cape Town Electron Microscopy Unit provided assistance in the preparation of scanning electron micrographs. Liz Hoenson, Michelle van der Merwe, and Sheryl Ozinsky provided curatorial assistance and prepared photographic prints. Marcelle Scheiner and Sandra Saven typed the manuscript. Figure 42C was prepared by Virgilio Branco (South African Museum). I thank Prof. G. M. Branch and Dr J. A. 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Savigny, J. C. 1821-1829. Description de I'Egypte ou recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont ete faites en Egypte pendant I 'expedition de VArmee Franqaise. Cum. Atlas, Paris. Shann, E. 1912. Observations on some Alcyonaria from Singapore, with a brief discussion of the classification of the family Nephthyidae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 2 (34): 505-527. Studer, T. 1879. Ubersicht der Anthozoa Alcyonaria, welche wahrend der Reise S.M.S. Gazelle um die Erde gesammelt wurden. Monatsberichte der Koniglichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1878: 632-688. Studer, T. 1901. Alcyonaires provenant des campagnes de l'Hirondelle (1886-1888). Resul- tats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par le Prince Albert I 20: 1-64. Thomson, J. S. 1910. The Alcyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. Alcyonacea. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 47 (3): 549-589. Thomson, J. S. 1921. South African Alcyonacea. 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Critical remarks of the halcyonoid polyps in the Museum of Yale College with descriptions of new genera. American Journal of Science and Arts (2) 45: 411-415. Verrill, A. E. 1869. Critical remarks on halcyonoid polyps. No. 3. American Journal of Science and Arts (2) 47: 282-286. Verrill, A. E. 1878. Notice of recent additions to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of North America. No. 2. American Journal of Science and Arts (3) 16: 371-378. Verseveldt, J. 1960. Two new species of the genus Dendronephthya Kiikenthal (Coelente- rata: Octocorallia). Proceedings. K. Nederlandse akademie van wetenschappen (C) 63 (4): 511-517. 358 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Verseveldt, J. 1971. Octocorallia from north-western Madagascar (Part II). Zoologische Verhandelingen 111: 1-73. Verseveldt, J. 1977. Australian Octocorallia (Coelenterata). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 28 (2): 171-240. Verseveldt, J. 1980. A revision of the genus Sinularia May (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zoologische Verhandelingen 179: 1-128. Verseveldt, J. 1982. A revision of the genus Sarcophyton Lesson (Octocorallia, Alcyo- nacea). Zoologische Verhandelingen 192: 1-91. Verseveldt, J. 1983. A revision of the genus Lobophytum von Marenzeller (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zoologische Verhandelingen 200: 1-103. Verseveldt, J. & Bayer, F. M. 1988. Revision of the genera Bellonella, Eleutherobia, Nidalia, and Nidaliopsis (Octocorallia: Alcyoniidae and Nidaliidae) with descriptions of two new genera. Zoologische Verhandelingen 245: 1-131. Verseveldt, J. & Benayahu, Y. 1983. On two old and fourteen new species of Alcyonacea (Coelenterata, Octocorallia) from the Red Sea. Zoologische Verhandelingen 208: 1-33. Verseveldt, J. & Williams, G. C. 1988. A redescription of the soft coral Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906, with the description of a new species of Litophyton Forskal, 1775, from southern Africa (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Annals of the South African Museum 97 (12): 315-328. Weinberg, S. 1978. Revision of the common Octocorallia of the Mediterranean circalittoral. III. Stolonifera. Beaufortia 27 (338): 139-176. Williams, G. C. 1986a. A new species of the octocorallian genus Alcyonium (Anthozoa: Alcyonacea) from southern Africa, with a revised diagnosis of the genus. Journal of Natural History 20 (1): 53-63. Williams, G. C. 1986b. Morphology, systematics, and variability of the southern African soft coral Alcyonium variabile (J. Stuart Thomson, 1921) (Octocorallia, Alcyoniidae). Annals of the South African Museum 96 (6): 241-270. Williams, G. C. 1987a. A new species of stoloniferous octocoral (Cnidaria, Alcyonacea) from the south-western Indian Ocean. Journal of Natural History 21 (1): 207-218. Williams, G. C. 1987b. The aberrant and monotypic soft coral genus Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910 (Octocorallia: Alcyoniidae) endemic to southern Africa. Journal of Natural History 21 (6): 1337-1346. Williams, G. C. 1988. Four new species of southern African octocorals (Cnidaria: Alcyo- nacea), with a further diagnostic revision of the genus Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society of London 92 (1): 1-26. Williams, G. C. 1989a. A provisional annotated list of octocorallian coelenterates occurring on the sublittoral coral reefs at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, northern Natal, with a key to the genera. South African Journal of Science 85 (3): 141-144. Williams, G. C. 1989b. A comparison of the stoloniferous octocorallian genera Scypho- podium, Stereotelesto , Bathytelesto and Rhodelinda, with the description of a new species from southeastern Africa (Anthozoa, Clavulariidae). Journal of Zoology 219 (4): 621-635. Williams, G. C. 1990a. The Pennatulacea of southern Africa (Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Annals of the South African Museum 99 (4): 31-119. Williams, G. C. 1990b. A new genus of dimorphic soft coral from the south-western fringe of the Indo-Pacific (Octocorallia: Alcyoniidae). Journal of Zoology 221 (1): 21-35. Williams, G. C. (in press a). Biogeography of the octocorallion coelenterate fauna of southern Africa. Biological Journal of Linnean Society. Williams, G. C. (in press b). Coral reef octocorals: an illustrated guide to the genera of soft corals, sea fans, and sea pens inhabiting the coral reefs of northern Natal. Pietermaritzburg: Natal Parks Board. Wright, E. P. & Studer, T. 1889. Report on the Alcyonaria collected by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Report on the scientific results of the exploring voyage of H.M.S. Challenger 1873-76. Zoology 31 (1): 1-314. 6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the International code of zoological nomenclature (particu- larly Articles 22 and 51). Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb, nov., syn. nov., etc. An author's name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author's name and year. The author's name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a species or subspecies is trans- ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published scientific names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: Family Nuculanidae Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould. 1845) Figs 14- 15 A Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould. 1845: 37. Leda plicifera A. Adams. 1856: 50. Laeda bicuspidata Hanley. 1859: 118, pi. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby. 1871: pi. 2 (fig. 8a-b). Nucula largillierti Philippi. 1861: 87. Leda bicuspidata: Nickles, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard. 1964: 234, figs 8-9. Note punctuation in the above example: comma separates author"s name and year semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author full stop separates references by different authors figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers. Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby the year is placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is not acceptable. In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other specimens mentioned in the original description are to be designated paratypes; additional material not regarded as paratypes should be listed separately. The complete data (registration number, depository, descrip- tion of specimen, locality, collector, date) of the holotype and paratypes must be recorded, e.g.: Holotype SAM-A13535 in the South African Museum. Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region. King"s Beach. Port Eliza- beth (33°51'S 25°39'E), collected by A. Smith, 15 January 1973. Note standard form of writing South African Museum registration numbers and date. 7. SPECIAL HOUSE RULES Capital initial letters (a) The Figures, Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text e.g. '. . . the Figure depicting C. namacolus ...':'... in C. namacolus (Fig. 10) . . .' (b) The prefixes of prefixed surnames in all languages, when used in the text, if not preceded by initials or full names e.g. Du Toit but A. L. du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene (c) Scientific names, but not their vernacular derivatives e.g.Therocephalia, but therocephalian Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary Reference to the author should preferably be expressed in the third person Roman numerals should be converted to arabic. except when forming part of the title of a book or article, such as 'Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.' Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation to initial capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. The generic name should not be abbreviated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title; it should be included in the abstract, counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Biological Abstracts. GARY C. WILLIAMS THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS (COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA) SHUSHST. MAYR LIBRARY 3 2044 128 443 876