text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Sep 5, 2006
|Filing date
|Jun 14, 2004
|Priority date
|Dec 22, 1994
|Fee status
|Also published as
|Publication number
|Amin Samsavar, William R. Wheeler, Steven G. Eaton, Jian-Ping Zhuang
|Original Assignee
|Kla-Tencor Corporation
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (60), Non-Patent Citations (39), Referenced by (18), Classifications (33), Legal Events (3)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/133,510, filed Apr. 25, 2002, now abandoned which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/900,806, filed Jul. 6, 2001, now abandoned which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/199,634, filed Nov. 25, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,267,005, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/730,641, filed Oct. 11, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,972, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/598,848, filed Feb. 9, 1996, now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/362,818, filed Dec. 22, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,705,741. This application is also related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/728,480, filed Oct. 11, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,866,806, referred to hereinafter as the "companion application."
This invention relates in general to instruments for scanning samples or specimens and in particular to a system for scanning samples or specimens with improved characteristics.
Profiling instruments were first developed for the purpose of characterizing surfaces in terms of roughness, waviness and form. In recent years, they have been refined for precise metrology in the measurement and production control of semiconductor devices. Profiling instruments are also used outside the semiconductor industry, for example, for scanning and sensing optical disks, flat panel displays, and other devices.
Stylus profilometers for use in the above-mentioned applications have been available from Tencor Instruments of Mountain View, Calif., and other manufacturers. In a conventional stylus profilometer, a sample is placed on an X-Y positioning stage, where the surface of the sample to be measured or sensed defines the X-Y plane. The stylus profilometer includes a stylus tip brought to a position relative to the sample to sense certain interactions between the stylus tip and the surface of the sample. The stylus and stylus tip are attached to an elevator which moves in a Z direction that is perpendicular to the X-Y plane. The sensor does not move in X or Y directions (i.e., directions in the plane parallel to the surface of the sample). The interactions between the stylus tip and the sample are measured by the sensor. In a data acquisition sequence, the X-Y stage moves the sample in a controlled manner under the stylus tip while the sensor senses variations of sample-stylus tip interactions across the sample surface as the sensor scans the sample surface. Thus during data acquisition using the sensor, the X-Y stage is moving the sample in a controlled manner.
The Alphastep is another type of stylus profilometer available from Tencor Instruments of Mountain View, Calif. The Alphastep scans a sample by moving a stylus arm across the sample.
Thus stylus profilometers provide for scans in the X-Y plane for distances ranging from a few microns to hundreds of millimeters. The sensors used for profilometers usually have large dynamic range as well. For example, in stylus profilometers for sample height measurements, vertical variations in the Z direction as small as a few Angstroms to as large as a few hundred micrometers can be detected. Significantly, the height measurement profilometer measures height directly.
As the semiconductor industry has progressed to smaller dimensions with each new generation of products, there is an increasing need for scanning instruments that can repeatably scan samples to a very fine resolution. The large size of the X-Y stage in the stylus profilometer limits the lateral positioning resolution of the conventional stylus profilometer. Thus the repeatability of X-Y repositioning of stylus profilometers is limited to about 1 micrometer; such device lacks the capability for repeatable nanometer or sub-nanometer X-Y positioning capability.
It is therefore desirable to provide an improved scanning instrument that can provide better X-Y repeatable positioning resolution than the conventional stylus profilometer, while retaining many of the profilometer's advantages, such as wide dynamic range in the Z direction and long scan capability up to hundreds of millimeters.
It is desirable for semiconductor wafer surfaces to be flat or planar. To achieve such global planarization, Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) is employed. CMP processing is typically applied after tungsten plugs, via holes have been fabricated on the surfaces of the semiconductor wafers. If the CMP processing is not functioning properly, it may cause a recess in the tungsten plug or via hole and, therefore, affect the size and depth of the tungsten plugs and via holes. This may lead to a variation of capacitance and electrical resistance across the surface of the semiconductor wafer which adversely affect the operation of electronic circuits fabricated on the wafer. The problem becomes particularly accute in vary large scale integration circuits where the size of transistors and other electronic devices have been continually reduced. This is true also for laser textured hard disks.
To monitor the functioning of CMP processing, scanning probe microscopes and profilometers have been used. While profilometers are able to provide a measure of the surface topography of the wafer, conventional profilometers lack the resolution to discover the shape and depth of the tungsten plugs or via holes, for example. Thus, if the profilometer scan did not pass over the tungsten plug or the via hole, information from the scan would not reveal such information. Conventional profilometers lack the position/positioning capability to allow precise alignment of submicron features with the scan. Hence, if profilometers are used for monitoring the CMP process, even though the global planarization of the sample and the relative height of points that are spaced apart on the wafer can be monitored, a precise local morphology of the surface cannot be measured.
While scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) do have the precision positioning capability to allow precise alignment of submicron features with the scan path, SPM devices do not have a precise long range and repeatable motion, so that it is difficult to use SPM devices to find out the relative locations of two points that are spaced far apart on the wafer surface or the height relationship between two tungsten plugs or via holes that are spaced apart on the wafer. As a matter of fact, in many SPM devices, any tilt experienced by the devices is considered as background and is subtracted. Even if a number of local images acquired by the SPM are stitched together, the global topography of the surface is lost, and height differences between points that are spaced that are spaced apart by distances beyond the range of SPM devices cannot be precisely measured. Moreover, data correlation between a number of local images of the SPM is cumbersome, time consuming and requires significant duplication of resources.
It is, therefore, desirable to provide an improved system which avoids the above-described difficulties.
This invention is based on the observation that by including a fine stage having a resolution much finer than that of the conventional X-Y positioning stage used for the stylus profilometer, positioning resolution can be much improved while retaining all of the advantages of the conventional stylus profilometer. A positioning stage with characteristics similar to the conventional X-Y positioning stage used in the stylus profilometer will be referred to below as the coarse stage as opposed to the fine stage. A fine stage is defined as a positioning stage with resolution better than that of the coarse stage.
In the preferred embodiment and at the time of this application, a coarse stage means one that can position a sensor to an accuracy of, at best, about 100 Angstroms, and a fine stage is defined as one that can position the sensor at an accuracy better than 100 Angstroms. As known to those skilled in the art, as technology advances, the dividing line between a coarse stage and a fine stage, namely 100 Angstroms, may be continually reduced. Such coarse and fine stages with improved resolution employed in the manner described herein are also within the scope of the invention.
A first aspect of the invention is directed towards an instrument for sensing a sample, comprising a sensor for sensing a parameter of the sample, a coarse stage causing relative motion between the sensor and the sample, a fine stage causing relative motion between the sensor and the sample, and at least one controller controlling the two stages so that either one or both of the two stages cause relative motion between the sensor and the sample when the sensor is sensing a parameter of the sample.
Another aspect of the invention is directed towards a method for sensing a sample, comprising the steps of causing relative motion between a sensor and the sample by means of a coarse stage, causing relative motion between the sensor and the sample by means of a fine stage, and sensing a parameter of the sample when relative motion between the sensor and the sample is caused by each of the two stages.
Yet another aspect of the invention is directed towards an instrument having a finer lateral resolution than a conventional profilometer but retains the wide dynamic range of the conventional profilometer in the vertical direction. Such instrument comprises a sensor for sensing a parameter of the sample, where the sensor includes a stylus arm having a stylus tip for sensing a surface parameter of the sample, a hinge supporting the stylus so that the stylus arm is rotatable about the hinge and means for applying a force to the stylus arm. The instrument further includes a fine stage causing relative motion between the sensor and the sample, said fine stage having a resolution of 1 nanometer or better.
Still another aspect of the invention is directed towards a method for measuring one or more features of a surface, comprising the steps of (a) scanning a first probe tip of a profilometer or scanning probe microscope along a first scan path over the surface and sensing a first feature to provide first data on the first feature; and (b) scanning a second probe tip of a profilometer or scanning probe microscope of the first probe tip along at least a second scan path over the surface and sensing at least one second feature to provide second data on the at least one second feature, said second path being shorter than the first scan path. The resolution of the sensing during the second scanning step is higher than that during the first scanning step. One more aspect of the invention is directed towards an apparatus for measuring a sample, comprising two sensors, one suitable for use in the profilometer, and the other in a scanning probe microscope; in coarse stage for causing relative motion between the two sensors and the sample; and a fine stage for causing relative motion between the two sensors and the samples.
For simplicity in description, identical components in the different figures of this application are identified by the same numerals.
Fine stage 70 preferably has a lateral resolution of about 1 to 50 Angstroms (0.1 to 5 nanometers), although a lateral resolution of 100 or even 1000 Angstroms (10 or 100 nm) may be adequate for some applications. The lateral resolution of the coarse stage 80 is preferably about 50 to 100 Angstroms (5 to 10 nanometers) and a vertical resolution of about 10 to 50 Angstroms (1 to 5 nanometers), although a lateral and vertical resolution of 1 micrometer may be adequate for some applications.
The coarse stage has a scan range of about 1 micrometer to hundreds of millimeters, such as 500 millimeters. While the fine stage has a scan range of about 0.01 to 500 micrometers, this is compensated for by the coarse stage so that the dual stage instrument 100 has a scan range of about 0.01 micrometer to hundreds of millimeters, such as 500 millimeters. This will be illustrated in more detail below. Sensor 60 is of a type that has a dynamic range that can accommodate the vertical dynamic range of the coarse stage, or at least about 500 micrometers.
Instrument 100 can be used in a number of modes for sensing samples. Thus instrument 100 can be used in the same manner as a conventional profilometer. By deactivating the fine stage 70, the coarse stage 80 can be used in the same manner as a conventional profilometer for scanning sample 90 by means of sensor assembly 60. This is possible since sensor assembly 60 has an adequate dynamic range to accommodate possible large variations in the height of a surface of sample 90 over a long scan that can be as long as hundreds of millimeters.
Another possible mode of operation is to use the coarse stage to move the sensor assembly 60 while sensing the sample in a manner similar to that of a conventional profilometer to locate an area of interest of the specimen or sample 90, while the fine stage is deactivated. After such an area has been located, the coarse stage can be deactivated and the fine stage activated and used to scan the area of interest at high resolution. In other words, the two stages may be used sequentially to move the sensor while a sample parameter is being sensed.
Yet another possible mode of operation is to operate both the fine stage 70 and the coarse stage 80 substantially simultaneously and the sensor assembly 60 is used to sense a parameter of the sample 90 while both stages are substantially simultaneously causing relative motion between the sensor assembly and sample 90. Thus the X-Y portion 80 b of the coarse stage may be used to move the sample along the X axis while the fine stage 70 is used to move the sensor assembly 60 along the Y axis. While both stages are causing relative motion between the sensor assembly and the sample, the sensor assembly 60 may be used to sense one or more parameters of sample 90. In this manner, since the X-Y portion of the coarse stage 80 is stationary in the Y direction, the resolution of the fine stage 70 would control when the sensor assembly 60 senses the parameter of the sample along the Y direction. Then to obtain the same resolution along the X direction, the X-Y portion 80 b of the coarse stage may be used to move the sample along the Y direction but remain stationary along the X direction, while the fine stage is used to move the sensor assembly 60 along the X direction but remain stationary along the Y direction. In this manner, fine resolution can be achieved along both the X and Y directions. Further modes of operation will be described in more detail below.
As shown in
With reference to
An electrical solenoidal coil 51 is comprised of wire coil 53 around a plastic bobbin 50. The wire used is preferably thousands of turns of fine copper wire. The coil 51 becomes magnetized on application of current by means of wires 55, seen in
Variations in the force exerted as the magnet 57 moves may be minimized and the magnitude of the force maximized by placing the magnet 57 near the position of the peak magnetic field gradient, i.e., on the axis of the coil 51 and proximate to the plane of the end of the coil winding. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, the magnet 57 is spaced apart from the coil winding 51 to prevent it from traveling inside the center bore of the coil. At its closest position, magnet 57 is nearly touching the coil 51. The placement of magnet 57 allows for easy adjustment of the position of the magnet. Alternatively, magnet 57 can be positioned so that it enters the center bore of the coil 51. This allows the magnet's range of travel to be centered on the peak of the magnetic field gradient, but requires precise alignment of the magnet 57 with the coil 51.
The use of a very powerful material for the magnet 57, such as a neodymium-iron-boron material, allows the magnet to be very small and light in weight and to still generate useful amounts of force. In the preferred embodiment, the magnet is 3 mm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick. The corresponding low current requirement minimizes the power dissipated in the coil, which minimizes the heat generated. This in turn minimizes the thermally-induced expansion and contraction of the materials comprising the sensor assembly. These thermally-induced size changes can cause undesirable drift in the measured profile of the sample or specimen.
In the preferred embodiment, the underside of a support body 71 has attached a transducer support 72 which acts as an elevational adjustment for a pair of spaced-apart parallel capacitor plates 35 and 37. The spacing between the plates is approximately 0.7 mm, with an air gap between the plates. A small spacer, not shown, separates plate 35 from plate 37 and a screw fastens the two plates to transducer support 72. The area extent of the plates should be large enough to shield the vane 41 from outside air, so that the vane experiences resistance to motion due to compression of air momentarily trapped between the closely spaced plates. A pair of electrical leads 39 of
The illustrated configuration of the support body 71, L-shaped bracket 73, and transducer support 72 is intended only as an example of a support for the sensor stylus assembly of the present invention. Additionally, the stylus displacement measurement means or motion transducer described and positioned relative to the stylus tip is preferred, but may be substituted by an equivalent means for indicating the stylus tip motion.
In operation, the stylus tip 11 scans a surface to be measured, such as a patterned semiconductor wafer. Scanning may be achieved either by moving the stylus arm frame with respect to a fixed wafer position or alternatively moving the wafer, on an X-Y positioning wafer stage such as the fine and/or coarse stages with the position of the stylus fixed, or a combination of the two motions. In the latter instance, the stylus arm may be moved linearly in the X direction while the wafer is advanced in the Y direction after each lengthwise X direction scan. The stylus tip 11 is maintained in contact with the surface of the wafer at a steady level of force by an appropriate bias applied through the coil 51 into the lever 59. The bias is preferably great enough to maintain contact, but not great enough to damage the surface being measured. Deflections of the tip 11 are caused by topological variances in the surface being measured and these are translated rearwardly through the flexural pivot 21 to the vane 41. Vane 41 resists undesirable large amplitude motion due to vibration because of the air displacement between the parallel plates 35 and 37. However, as the air is compressed and displaced, the vane 41 moves slightly causing a signal in electrical leads 39 reflecting a change in an electrical bridge circuit connected to these wires. At the end of a scan, the tip 11 is raised to protect it from damage in the event that a wafer is changed.
In building arm 15, wire 13 and tip 11, it is desirable to maintain the moment of inertia as small as possible. The mass-radius squared product should preferably not exceed about 0.5 g-cm2. The current design has a mass-radius squared product of 0.42 g-cm2. The radius is measured with respect to the center of the flexural pivot 21 to the furthest radial extent of the steel wire 13. A similar moment of inertia is calculated with respect to the vane 41 and the lever 59. The sum of the moments is termed the moment of inertia for the entire stylus arm. By maintaining a low moment of inertia, the stylus arm is less sensitive to vibration. Greater resolution in profile measurements of thin films, and the like, may therefore be achieved in the preferred embodiment.
The present invention signifies an improvement over the prior art because it allows for a dynamic change in the force coil current as the stylus moves vertically, thereby eliminating the stylus force variability of previous devices. The instrument of the present invention may be calibrated by serving the drive current to move the non-engaged stylus to regularly spaced positions to create a table of position versus current settings. That table provides the data for a polynomial curve fit approximation. A digital signal processor 84 of
The above description of one embodiment 60′ of the sensor assembly 60 is taken from the parent application. In reference to
Instead of a magnetic force biasing device shown in
In reference to
The arc motion of the tube is non-linear and may produce errors in the Z direction. This can be corrected by using capacitative devices 136 to measure the position of the sensor assembly 60 in the Z direction and feeding back any Z motion to the fine stage control 110. Devices other than capacitative devices 136 can also be used as known to those skilled in the art.
Thus as shown in
The embodiment of
In some applications, it may be desirable to use the fine stage to move the sample or specimen. This is shown in
In reference to
The interactions between the stylus tip 164 and a surface of the sample would cause arm 162 to rotate about hinge 182. Rotation of arm 162 will cause the back end 162 b to move away from or towards the deflection sensor 168. Such movement of end 162 b is sensed by the sensor 168 as discussed above in order to measure directly the height of the surface of the sample.
One particular embodiment of sensor assembly 60′″ where the deflection sensor 168 as a capacitive sensor is illustrated in
As shown in
The sensor 300 has a thickness of about 0.1–0.2 mm, except for the hinges. Arm 362 is about 15 to 16 mm long. The hinges 374 are about 0.02 mm thick. The arm-support-hinge assembly has a resonance frequency of about 1 to 50 kHz.
Mode of Operation
Some of the modes of operation have already been described above. Thus the dual stage scanning instrument may be used like a conventional stylus profilometer by deactivating the fine stage altogether. Alternatively, the dual stage scanning instrument may be first used as a stylus profilometer to find an area of interest. Then the fine stage as well as the coarse stage are both activated for causing relative motion between the sensor assembly and the sample. As noted above, in order to retain the fine resolution of the fine stage in X-Y positioning, it is desirable to use the fine stage to cause relative motion in between the sensor assembly and the sample in a direction orthogonal to that caused by the coarse stage.
Where it is desirable to obtain a height profile of a surface of a sample, the above-described mode where the fine stage causes relative motion in a direction orthogonal to that caused by the coarse stage may be controlled in order to cover any desired area of the surface of the sample. This is illustrated in
While the controls 110, 112, 114, 116, 120 of
As noted above, one or more parameters of the sample may be sensed while relative motion is caused between the sensor and the specimen by means of both the fine and the coarse stage. The sensor may be operated at a sensing rate which is independent of the speed of relative motion between the sensor assembly and the sample by the two stages. More specifically, where the two stages cause relative motion at one or more frequencies, the sensing rate of the sensor is independent of such frequencies and may be asynchronous with respect to such frequencies. The sensor may be used to sense the one or more parameters when the coarse stage causes relative motion in one direction and the fine stage does not cause relative motion in such direction. Alternatively, the sensor may be used to sense the one or more parameters when the fine stage causes relative motion in another direction and a coarse stage does not cause relative motion in such direction.
In one particular operational mode, one or both stages may be used to cause relative motion between the sensor assembly and the sample until the sensor assembly is in a predetermined position relative to a surface of the sample and this defines the initial imaging position. Then relative motion between the sensor assembly and the sample is caused so that the sensor assembly moves in an initial direction substantially parallel to the surface of the sample to scan the surface. In a contact mode, such as when sensing of the height variations of the surface of the sample is desired, the predetermined position of the sensor assembly relative to the sample is such that the stylus tip of the sensor assembly is in contact with the surface of the sample to be measured or sensed. In a non-contact mode, such as where the parameter of the sample other than height variation is to be sensed, the predetermined position is such that the sensor assembly is not in contact with the sample. In either the contact or the non-contact mode, the fine and coarse stage controls may be operated in a constant force mode where the output of the deflection sensor 168 is fed back to the force control 166 in
In yet another useful operational mode, either one or both of the fine and coarse stages may be used to cause relative motion so that the stylus tip 164 and the sample surface move toward each other. This motion can continue after the stylus tip is in contact with the surface of the sample to measure the compliance of the surface. Using the magnetic biasing scheme of
By using the secondary sensor to measure one or more parameters other than height variations of the sample surface at locations of the surface of the sample interacting with the stylus tip 164, it is possible to use the scanning instrument of this application to sense substantially simultaneously the height at one or more locations of the surface and another parameter of the specimen at the one or more locations. This can be done with or without using both the fine and coarse stages. In other words, it is possible to use either just the coarse stage, or just the fine stage, so as to place the sensor assembly at particular locations relative to the surface of the sample in order to measure both the height and one or more other parameters at such location of the surface.
The following description, related to a method for searching features of a surface, is taken from the companion application; such description refers to
System 1020 can also be a scanning probe microscope, in which case the probe 1026 may or may not be in contact with surface 1032. Rather, the probe 1026 is maintained at a predetermined distance from or in contact with surface 1032 by moving the scanner, sensor and probe up and down by means of a feedback signal. The change in the feedback signal then gives an indication of the topology of the surface 1032. One type of scanning probe microscope is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,318. The sensor 1024 can also be a capacitance, magnetic force, van der Waals, electrical resistance or current sensor for sensing parameters in addition to the topology or topography of the surface. In such manner, even though a feature of interest may not be detectable optically, as long as the feature exhibits other detectable characteristics such as magnetic force, electrical capacitance or resistance or van der Waals type forces, the feature can still be located and measured.
For many features of interest, it may be important not only to locate the feature, but also a center of the feature. Thus, for tungsten plugs, vias or clusters of and electrical conductive material, bumps or valleys on the surface of a textured hard disk, or pull tip recessions of a read/write head, it is useful or sometimes important to detect the center of such features and perform the measurement having the probe at the center of the feature.
Once the sensor 1024 senses the presence of feature 1030, system control 1038 instructs position control circuit 1036 to stop the scanning motion along scan line segment 1052(3) even though some parts of the area 1040 remains unscanned. The boundary points A, B are noted and the mid-point C between points A, B is determined, and system control 1038 and position control 1036 cause the scanner 1022 to scan along scan line segment 1052(4) instead where the scan line segment 1052(4) passes through point C and is transverse to the scan line segments 1052(1)–1052(3). The sensor 1024 senses the boundaries D, E of the feature 1030 along the scan line segment 1052(4). Then the mid-point O of the portion of the line segment 1052(4) between points D, E is determined to be the center of feature 1030 and the controls 1036, 1038 cause the scanner 1022 to move the probe along scan line segment 1052(5), that is, through the center O of the feature 1030, in order to measure the feature. System control 1038 records the output of sensor 1024 and determines the locations of points A, B, C, D, E and O. The boundary points A, B, D, E may be found by sensing variations in the feature over the surface.
Where it is not important to determine the center of the feature and to measure the feature at its center, the above searching process may be terminated after the feature 1030 has been found when scanning along scan line segment 1052(3). The feature can simply be measured, such as at point C.
From the above procedure, it is evident that the searching method of the invention of the companion application is superior to the conventional search technique. Since no optical system separate and apart from system 1020 is used for locating the approximate location of feature 1030, the searching method of the invention of the companion application is not limited by the resolution or power of a optical system employing one or more lenses. Since the instrument for measuring the feature is used also for locating the feature, the method of the invention of the companion application avoids the need to locate the measuring probe and sensor relative to the feature after the feature has been located. Furthermore, there is no need to acquire data over the entire target area 1040 before the location of the feature can be accurately determined. Instead, once the feature has been discovered, there is no need to scan the remainder of the unscanned portion of the target area and the user can proceed immediately to measure the feature. This greatly improves throughput and avoids wasting the user's resources.
The advantages of the invention of the companion application can be seen more clearly by reference to a concrete example. The feature of interest is an object of one micron diameter. Assuming that it is possible to first identify the feature to an accuracy of plus or minus two microns. This means that the object can be located initially at best to within a target area of four microns by four microns. One can then scan this target area along scan line segments of length of four microns along the x direction and moving the probe 1026 in the y direction by an offset of 0.75 microns each time until one of the scan lines crosses the object of interest. This means that a maximum of 5 scan lines are required to cross the object in
As before, the feature 1030′ is sensed when the probe tip is scanned along scan line segment 1162 d and the boundary points A′, B′ are noted and the mid-point of the portion of the line segment between points A′, B′ is noted and the probe tip is caused to be scanned along scan line or path segment 1162 e transverse to the other scan line segments as before to locate boundary points D′, E′ so as to locate the center of the feature 1030′ as before.
In some applications, it is advantageous to change the mode of operation after the approximate location of the feature has been found. Thus, where the feature to be sensed has two different characteristics that can be sensed differently, a first characteristic can be used when the surface is scanned to discover the approximate location of the feature, such as during scan paths 1162 a–1162 d. Then after the approximate location of the feature has been located, the user can switch to a different operational mode for sensing the center of the feature. Then the feature can be measured by means of either one of the two characteristics or any other characteristic that the feature may have. In many applications, however, it may be adequate to employ the same operational mode to find the approximate location of the feature as well as the center of the feature and use a different operational mode when the feature is actually measured. This is illustrated in
As shown in
Different modes are appropriate for different measurements. For example, to find magnetic or electrical variations, it may be appropriate to use intermitent or non-contact modes. For precise geometric measurements, contact or intermitent contact mode may be more desirable. The feature can have a measurable magnetic characteristic as well as a rough surface. It can be located by in the non-contact mode and its roughness measured in the contact mode. But if such feature is very rough, it may be desirable to measure it in the intermitent contact mode instead to avoid damage to the tip or surface to avoid frictional effects inherent in a constant contact technique.
The scanning speed during the intermittent contact mode can also be faster than that in the contact mode. Then after the feature has been located and its center identified, the feature, such as its profile or geometry can then be measured through an operational mode different from that used in locating the feature and its center if desired or necessary. Thus, when measurement of the geometry or profile of the feature is desired, system 1020 would then be operated in either the contact mode or the intermittent contact mode.
In some applications, it may be desirable to be able to locate the boundaries and/or the center of the feature more accurately. For such applications, it may be desirable to repeat the above-described searching process, but at a finer resolution. This is illustrated in
In order to measure the profile or geometry of a surface, in reference to
In the embodiment of
Yet another operational mode of system 1020 in the intermittent contact mode is illustrated in
A number of different types of features can be located and measured in the manner described above. In the semiconductor industry, it is frequently desirable to locate a tungsten plug, or a metal cluster or metal filled via hole, for measurement of a specific geometric, magnetic or electrical parameter. Thus, the tungsten plug, metal cluster or via hole filled with a metallic material may be located by sensing for changes in capacitance, magnetic fore, electrical resistance or geometric properties of the site. Thus, when system 1020 is operated in a non-contact operational mode, where the tip is held at a small distance above the surface and scanned at a high speed over the surface along a search pattern, the sensor 1028 senses changes in capacitance, tunneling current or magnetic parameter (e.g. magnetic force experienced by the probe tip and sensor 1024) of the surface. The change in capacitance, tunneling current or magnetic force may indicate location of a tungsten plug, metal cluster or via hole filled with a metal. Once this location is determined, the stylus or probe can be brought into contact or close proximity to the surface to measure the electrical, magnetic or geometric properties of the site. Alternatively, system 1020 may be operated in an intermittent contact mode and the resistance, capacitance or magnetic parameter of the surface is sensed at scanned locations by sensor 1024. When the resistance, capacitance or magnetic parameter changes, this may indicate the location of the tungsten plug or metal cluster or via hole. For example, the change in resistance may be indicated by the change in the amount of current flow between the stylus tip and the surface. If the amount of current flow increases, it may mean that the stylus is either at or at close proximity to a tungsten plug, metal cluster or via hole. When the tip is in contact or in close proximity to the plug, cluster or via hole, maximum current can be expected to pass. Also when the spacing between the tip and the plug, cluster or metal filled via hole is decreased, the capacitance between the probe tip and the surface is also decreased, because the dielectric effect of space between the surface and tip decreases with the spacing. When the tip is moving closer to the feature such as a plug or cluster made of a magnetic material or via hole filled with such material, the magnetic force between the probe tip and the feature may also increase until a maximum value when the feature and tip are in contact. This allows the user to locate the plug, cluster or via hole. After the plug, cluster or via hole has been located, the electrical, optical, magnetic or geometric characteristic of the feature can then be measured. The above-described effects may be detectable and the features can be sensed in the contact, intermittent contact or non-contact mode.
The above description applies to a process of locating and measurement of a magnetic feature by means of a magnetic parameter such as magnetic force. This can be performed by means of a magnetic force microscope which measures the magnetic force exerted between the sensor 1024 and a feature of a surface, such as a magnetic domain. Such magnetic domain may be a pole tip recession on a magnetic read/write head. Such magnetic force microscope may employ an atomic force microscope or a profilometer in AC or DC modulation modes as described in known magnetic microscope applications. Magnetic force microscopy is described by P. Grutter, H. J. Mamin and D. Rugar in Springer Series in Surface Science, Vol. 28, entitled "Scanning Tunneling Microscopy II", Eds. R. Wiesendanger and H. J. Guntherodt, published by Springer-Verlag Berling Heidelberg 1992, pp. 152–207.
Another characteristic of a parameter that may be used to locate a feature is tunnelling current between the feature and the probe tip. For example, a metal cluster on a semiconductor surface may have a radically different current tunnelling characteristic to the probe than the semiconductor surface.
Still other possible features that may be located and measured by means of the invention of the companion application are unfilled via holes and surface bumps or valleys on laser textured hard disks. The uniformity in size of these bumps and valleys is a key factor in the manufacture of hard disks. There may also be a variety of different sizes and shapes of these bumps on the disks. The bumps may have a donut shape or be asymmetrical about one or more axis. The pattern of such textured disks is generally known and the user is usually interested in measuring some key features of several of these bumps around the disk. This means that exact positioning of a bump or valley under the probe tip or stylus for measurement is desirable. The bumps can vary in size from 1 to 10 microns in lateral dimensions and a height of 100 to 1,000 Angstroms. The approximate locations of such bumps and valleys and the centers of such bumps and valleys may be located by means of the methods described above, in particular the methods described in reference to intermittent contact and contact modes for locating a geometric feature. Where intermittent contact mode is employed, the values of δx and height h employed in reference to
Where it is desirable to locate a step on a surface, the user may wish to find the approximate location of the step by moving the probe tip in an intermittent contact mode. After the approximate location of the step has been found, the user may wish to rescan such approximate location in a contact mode. After the location of the step has been found, the user may lift the probe tip or stylus off the surface by a known distance until it clears the step, moves it laterally over the step and then lowers the tip across the surface until it touches the top of the step. The difference between the distance that the tip has been lifted and the distance that the tip has been lowered yields an indication of the height of the step. Alternatively, after the location of the step has been found, the probe tip may be caused to move across the surface at the step in contact mode, with the probe tip scaling or climbing the step by means of a sideways sensor. Once the step is sensed, the sensor can be used to measure the topography of the sidewall of the step or a trench, or a tungsten plug or a via hole by means of a sideways sensing technique such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,347,854.
Other features of a surface that can be located and measured by means of the invention of the companion application include rough spots on a smooth surface or a smooth spot on a rough surface. The operating system 1020 in a contact mode or an intermittent contact mode such as shown in
In the description above, the probe tip is scanned along scan line segments that are substantially parallel to one another. This is, however, not required and other search paths are possible as illustrated in
Instead of scanning the probe tip along substantially parallel scan lines, the feature 1030′ in window 1040′ of the surface may be located by means of a substantially random positioning scheme illustrated in
In another embodiment, after the feature is discovered at location f by positioning the tip at a sequence of random locations, in order to find out more information about the feature such as its boundary, the probe tip may be moved along the +X, −X, +Y, −Y axis in any order in order to find the boundary of feature 1030′ along the new axis. The boundary may be found by sensing changes or variations in a parameter detected by the tip or sensor.
Thus, the probe tip may be first moved along the positive Y axis to position 1 and then position 2 from position f to locate the boundary in such direction. After the boundary in such direction has been discovered when the probe tip moves from position 1 to position 2, it is discovered that position 2 is outside the boundary. The probe then may be moved to position 3 which is along the positive X direction from position 1. It is discovered that position 3 is within the feature and the tip is moved consecutively to positions 4 and 5, discovering that both positions are outside the feature, so that position 3 is at the boundary of the feature. The tip is then moved in the −Y direction from position 3 to position 6 discovering that it is still within the feature. The probe tip is then moved to position 7, 8 along the X direction discovering that these are within the feature, and moved to position 9 along the Y axis, discovering that it is outside the feature. It is then moved to position 10, finding that it is within the feature. Therefore, an approximation of the boundary of the feature can be obtained by drawing a line linking positions 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10. In a similar manner, the remaining portion of the boundary can be discovered and an approximation of such boundary indicated by drawing a line through positions 10, 13, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 29, and back to position 1. In the above-described process, system 1020 will record the positions of the tip where sensing of the feature has been performed and the results of such sensing.
Another method that can be used for locating the feature 1030″ on a surface is to scan the probe tip along a spiral path, such as in the manner illustrated in
Thus, in general, a predetermined scan path may be first adopted to locate the approximate location of the feature. Once this has been accomplished, it may be advantageous to stop scanning along such path, and to scan the tip along a different path to find out more information about the feature. The above referenced predetermined path may be a set of substantially parallel scan line segments such as 1062 a in
Instead of scanning the tip along a curved spiral path as in
Instead of scanning the probe tip along parallel paths by starting always from the same edge, the probe tip can also be scanned along a serpentine path 1250 as shown in
The invention of the companion application has been described by reference to preferred embodiments described above. Various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention of the companion application. Thus, the feature can also be detectable by means of its thermal characteristics, such as thermal conductivity by means of a temperature sensor. As another example, while the invention of the companion application has been illustrated by reference to features on the surface of samples, the same is applicable even if the feature is inside the surface as long as characteristics of the feature can be sensed or detected, such as by electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal or other means.
The above section is taken from the companion application.
Instrument 1550 may be controlled by means of the scheme illustrated above in
In order to obtain an overall global profile of a surface, a long scan is performed as shown in
Thus, the feature sensed in reference to
The scanning operation illustrated above in
As shown in
Each of the long scan paths 1612 as well as the short scan paths 1614 may actually comprise a number of scan line segments, such as 1620 shown in
During any time in the scanning process, when the data from the scanning is analyzed in real time, the user may discover that it is desirable to look for a particular feature at or in the vacinity of the surface. In such event, the searching process described above for a feature of a surface may be employed by determining a target area and searching the surface by means of the probe tip within the target area to provide an indication of a feature of interest by detecting the feature. As a result of such searching operation, a scan path may be selected as a function of the indication. For example, if it appears that a recess is discovered in the searching operation, a scan path may be selected that will pass over such recess. As noted above, the searching process may involve scanning the probe tip along substantially parallel search line segments separated by a offset that is preferably less than the expected dimensions of the feature that is being searched. As descibed above, after the approximate position of the feature has been found, it is preferable to scan the tip along another search line segment transverse to the search line segments in the prior scans to locate the center of the feature of interest.
The scan paths, such as paths 1612, 1614, 1620, may comprise scan line segments substantially parallel to one another, as spiral scan segment or serpentine scan line segment such as illustrated in
While the invention has been described above by reference to various embodiments, it will be understood that different changes and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention which is to limited only by the appended claims and their equivalents.
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|U.S. Classification
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Oct 28, 2005
Owner name: KLA-TENCOR CORPORATION, CALIFORNIA
Free format text: MERGER;ASSIGNOR:TENCOR INSTRUMENTS;REEL/FRAME:016955/0968
Effective date: 19971231
|Mar 5, 2010
|Fee payment
Year of fee payment: 4
|Mar 5, 2014
|Fee payment
Year of fee payment: 8


text:
Physiological ecologists have become interested in oxidative balance – i.e. homeostasis with respect to oxidative stress and antioxidant levels – as a way to understand variation in individual fitness (within species) and variation in life history traits (across species) (Monaghan, Metcalfe & Torres 2009). If proper maintenance of oxidative balance is important for health, and if there is variation across individuals, then individuals that fail to maintain this balance may be less healthy and thus less fit; alternatively, individuals may trade-off maintenance of oxidative balance (and thus long-term health) with current reproduction. At an interspecific level, traits such as longevity and pace of life may be associated with physiological strategies along this trade-off continuum. Indeed, many studies have shown relationships between markers of oxidative balance (including free radical levels, antioxidant levels, oxidative damage measures, etc.) and suspected fitness or life-history components such as immune function, development rate, reproduction, and annual survival (Alonso-Alvarez et al. 2007; Cohen et al. 2008b; Hõrak et al. 2007; Wiersma et al. 2004).
In spite of a sound theoretical framework, results to date have been less straightforward than many had anticipated. Many studies have reported patterns of interest, but effects and patterns appear to be species-specific (e.g. Cohen, Hau & Wikelski 2008a), and it is becoming clear that the interpretation of oxidative balance markers and their relevance for fitness and life histories depends on many factors that are difficult to account for simultaneously, including hormone levels, immune function, stress, species, diet, season, habitat, and so forth (Monaghan, Metcalfe & Torres 2009; Costantini & Verhulst 2009). Accordingly, further progress may depend on understanding the complex dynamics of multiple factors simultaneously, a great methodological challenge.
Ecological studies of oxidative balance have been discussed in detail in the previous articles of this issue, but many other fields have also taken an interest in understanding both the mechanisms and implications of free radical damage. Biochemists have helped characterize the key molecules involved and their properties, as well as devise ways to measure them (e.g. Re et al. 1999). Laboratory physiologists and geneticists have used model organisms to show roles and pathways involved (e.g. Gohil et al. 2004). Exercise physiologists have studied how oxidative status affects physical performance and vice versa (Ji, Stratman & Lardy 1988). Ageing scientists have looked into oxidative damage as one of the key physiological mechanisms of the ageing process (Barja 2000). And epidemiologists have examined large-scale consequences for human health of dietary antioxidants and exposure to sources of damage (Miller et al. 2005).
Each of these fields began to study oxidative balance for reasons often unrelated to the other fields – for example, studies of carotenoid pigmentation as a sexually selected signal in birds are probably of limited interest to non-ecologists, and studies of the effects of vitamin supplementation on long-term human health are only of indirect interest to non-epidemiologists. However, progress in each field has resulted in greater awareness of the gaps in our current knowledge, gaps that are often common across fields and unanswerable by each field independently of the others. To properly understand the consequences of carotenoid pigmentation for fitness components, we need to know not only how carotenoids are used, but what the physiological consequences of carotenoid levels are for other aspects of physiology and health, under a variety of conditions. To make sense out of conflicting results from epidemiological studies of supplements, we need to understand what factors are likely to mediate the physiological effects of ingested micronutrients.
In particular, a key shared finding across disciplines has been an inability to generalize results broadly. Vitamin deficiency in rats sometimes causes decreased endurance and sometimes does not (Gohil et al. 1986; Packer et al. 1989). Dietary antioxidants are good for human health in some studies, bad in others (Gey et al. 1991; Miller et al. 2005). Oxidative damage levels inversely correlate with lifespan in some studies but not in others (Morley & Trainor 2001; Navarro et al. 2005). The relationship between oxidative status and immune function differs across bird species (Costantini & Møller 2009). Free radicals may be harmful in some situations, but not in others (de Magalhães & Church 2006). And the shared interpretation has been that there are complex physiological networks of free radicals, antioxidants and repair mechanisms, all regulated or affected by many other factors both internal and external to the organism.
A key goal of all fields has become to understand how these systems work, and how they are affected by factors such as diet, stress, genetics, and species. For this reason, we refer throughout this article to oxidative balance systems rather than to free radicals, oxidative damage, or antioxidants, except when the more specific concepts are appropriate. We use the term oxidative stress to indicate levels of free radical production or damage beyond normal control mechanisms and with potential fitness consequences, i.e. a loss of balance in the direction of too many free radicals. A biochemically more precise definition [such as damage rather than reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels] is difficult without better knowledge of what each measure means in a given context for a given species (see Hõrak & Cohen 2010). We note that fitness strategies may vary, and in some cases sustaining more damage may be a better strategy, but for ease of reference we will discuss fitness consequences of loss of balance, with the implicit assumption that the current versus future reproduction trade-off is being held constant.
The goals of this article are to (i) summarize the general knowledge of oxidative balance generated by several different fields and how it relates to ecology and evolution; and (ii) examine the shared questions and how each field can contribute to a greater comprehensive understanding. In particular, we focus on ecology, epidemiology, ageing studies, and laboratory physiology with model organisms.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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Ambition at Eastmark
New Homes in Mesa
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On this Veteran's Day, we want to thank not only retired military, but active military for their service and let them know we salute them by offering our Heroes Reward program. This provides them with a 1% base price incentive toward the purchase of a new Shea Home in Arizona. This special offer is also […]
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Ask The Experts – Print on Demand
Return to IBPA's Ask the Experts
Topics Discussed Below Include:
Discounts With Ingram
Actual Copyright Date Different Than Amazon's
Printing and Distribution Source for Hardbound Versions
Bookstores and Libraries Ordering POD Books
How Bookstores Know that a Title is POD
Lightning Source POD Pricing for International Sales
Trouble with "Pre-Order" Listing Before Publication Date on Lightning Source
I'm a new author/publisher. I have middle grade and young adult books I plan to market to libraries with Ingram as the distributor, using LSI. My intention was to set the discount between 40 and 50%, as I had thought that was a standard library discount.
However, when I went to set up the account with LSI, I was told that all new publishers are being set up with IngramSpark, which has a set discount of 55%. I got ahold of someone in customer service, and they seem to be saying that if I set it at anything other than 55%, it would be a short discount. Is that accurate? Or am I approaching library sales all wrong?
Answer (12/2013):
Ingram likes to work on a 55% discount. They may not accept a small publisher at any other discount, but if they will allow a short discount on a title through IngramSpark, I'm pretty sure a library won't balk at the cost. Libraries aren't as per unit cost sensitive as retailers since they aren't profit motivated.
We had a library title years ago and set a short discount on it to Ingram. Ingram was happy to handle it and, I'm sure, passed on the short discount to the libraries. The book sold for $195 and was almost exclusively a title for libraries. It sold quite well.
~ Stephen Blake Mettee, is the founder of Quill Driver Books (quilldriverbooks.com) and The Write Thought (TheWriteThought.com <http://thewritethought.com/blog/> ). He serves on the board of IBPA (www.ibpa-online.org) and regularly teaches writing and publishing. During his time at the helm of QDB, Mettee shepherded two titles into Book-of-the-Month Club selections and one onto the New York Times bestseller list.
Once I approve the "proof" from CreateSpace for our paperback version of the book, CreateSpace will mark that date as the publishing date. We need to approve the proof before we can order paperback ARCs for some reviewers. Our official book launch is not until January 28th though, and we will keep Amazon to a "private" setting until then. We looked at other printers, but so far haven't found one that will print a 5.25 X 8, which is the size for our book and cover. Does it matter for selling, copyright, or award application deadlines that the publishing date will be different on Amazon than the actual launch/copyright date?
Answer (12/2013):
There are really great printers that will print 5.25 x 8 and we often see publishers print their ARCs at a digital press which can be more cost effective than CreateSpace and also solves the publication date issue. CreateSpace has some odd trim sizes so you'll likely need a custom quote from a printer rather than a straight online quote request form which may not include 5.25 x 8 as an option. There are two schools of thought on the Amazon pub date and much of that centers around your planned marketing and PR. It is not uncommon for a book to be listed on Amazon prior to an official pub date. In fact, some authors and publishers choose to do this so that they can secure early reviews, feedback and launch an online presences. We don't recommend that the book be available more than a month prior to the pub date if possible.
Another option to consider would be to use proofs as your ARC copies of the book. You can order up to 5 proof copies at a time and can sticker those as ARCs if you'd like. Regardless, you are setting the pub date for your book and sending out promotional materials with that January 28 pub date. If that's announced pub date, stick with it. You are likely to be close enough in timing. Also, be sure to sticker your review copies as ARCs when you send them out.
~ Bethany Brown is the president of The Cadence Group, a design, editorial, marketing and project management provider for the book and publishing industry. To learn more: wwww.thecadencegrp.com; firstname.lastname@example.com
I am producing/publishing at least 2 books for one author and 1 for another. I have selected to use CreateSpace for the paper back and Kindle versions and use their Expanded Distribution for marketing. I may need a printing and distribution source for the hardbound versions, if the author(s) desire hardbound versions. I am not opposed to using one source for all three types of books.
Answer (10/2013):
I'm assuming you're talking about printed versions when saying "hardbound." At this point, you might take a hard look at Lightning Source and what they call Core Source – http://www.ingramcontent.com/pages/digital-asset-management-distribution.aspx and see if that covers your needs. You wouldn't use Create Space in that instance.
~ Stephen Blake Mettee, is the founder of Quill Driver Books (quilldriverbooks.com) and The Write Thought (TheWriteThought.com <http://thewritethought.com/blog/> ). He recently served on the board of IBPA (www.ibpa-online.org) and regularly teaches writing and publishing. During his time at the helm of QDB, Mettee shepherded two titles into Book-of-the-Month Club selections and one onto the New York Times bestseller list.
I'm planning to start a small publishing house, focusing on literary fiction by women. I know that print-on-demand technology would allow me to produce books without a lot of startup capital. And some POD books from small presses are earning literary awards and starred reviews in Publishers Weekly.
On the other hand, I keep reading that brick-and-mortar bookstores and library systems are very unlikely to order POD books (for example, Linda Carlson's July 2010 Independent article "Pitching Books to Indie Stores and Libraries"). Is this still the case, and if so, do you think it's likely to change anytime soon?
Answer (08/2013):
Today, I don't believe the awards care if a book is POD or not.
Indie bookstores want to order from Ingram—the largest wholesaler. If you use Lightning Source which is owned by Ingram (as The Write Thought does) to set up your books as your POD provider, your book will be listed in Ingram's database and available for orders.
The publisher gets to set the discount LS will give resellers—such as Ingram–when they order a copy (We set ours at 50%, but I'm not sure of the best strategy here—might be a research item for IBPA.) and if the book is returnable if the retailer doesn't sell it (we don't allow returns, again this may not be the best strategy.)
I can pretty much guarantee an independent bookstore won't order non-returnable books to put on the shelf, but most or at least the savviest ones will special order a title if their customer requests it.
This doesn't bother me too much since independent bookstores generally don't carry independent publishers' titles unless an independent publisher is large enough to have sales reps who make live sales calls on the store. This is even if the books are available from Ingram and returnable. (Sad, but true.)
BTW, I just read an article that says 44% of book sales happened online last year. I predict it will be over 50% in 2013. This alleviates the problem of not being on bookstore shelves. Discovery of a title happens in other ways today than a customer browsing shelves. Good for independent publishers, bad for independent bookstores.
If you set your books up as POD in LS, they will automatically take care of seeing that they are available on Amazon and B&N.com as regular, in-stock titles. They will do this in other countries too if you allow it. When an order comes it, the book is printed, bound and shipped in something like 24 hours.
I do think libraries, should you get a librarian's attention, will order POD titles from Ingram. Some even order from Amazon. Libraries don't usually care if a book is returnable. They plan on keeping it anyway. The trick is to get the person in charge of collections at a library to notice your book and make the decision to order it.
The same PDF that you supply LS with can be supplied to other printers if you want to order books for, say, back of the room sales or for the author copies. We often find that, even with the discounts an IBPA member gets from LS, it is cheaper to print large quantities elsewhere. (We use BookMobile.com sometimes.)
IBPA members get big discounts on the set up fees LS charges as well as discounts on print runs.
We use a different ISBN for printed copies (so one ISBN for printed copies, one for POD, one for Kindle, and one for e-pub versions) sold outside of the LS-Ingram—mostly through American West Books, a sister company–so we can make them returnable to AWB.
~ Stephen Blake Mettee, is the founder of Quill Driver Books (quilldriverbooks.com) and The Write Thought (TheWriteThought.com <http://thewritethought.com/blog/> ). He serves on the board of IBPA (www.ibpa-online.org) and regularly teaches writing and publishing. During his time at the helm of QDB, Mettee shepherded two titles into Book-of-the-Month Club selections and one onto the New York Times bestseller list.
We're a small publisher who uses Lightning Source as our printer and Ingram as distributor. Bookstores we visit often look us up then say they don't handle POD's, although we have cases of books in stock and they are returnable. Does some data file indicate that a title is a POD? How do they know?
Answer (05/2013):
The answer the question from the publisher is not really black and white –
First, there is no POD/LSI indicator on IPage. POD titles now show a random on hand quantity rather than 100, which was a giveaway. We have worked to make any reference to POD invisible on IPage. However, direct distribution clients of LSI do receive files directly from LSI as part of their service offering so that these accounts can promote availability and speed to market.
~ Nancy Stewart, a 30-year veteran of the book industry, holds the position of lead buyer at Ingram Book Company where she oversees the buying and operations of a wide variety of publishers. Previously she was general manager of Mills Bookstores, an independent bookstore group in Nashville, Tennessee. Nancy is past president of the Women's National Book Association and currently serves as WNBA representative to the United Nations. She has served as volunteer and book sales director for the Southern Festival of Books and president of the Nashville Area Booksellers Association.
I currently have twelve titles in print along with six in the works to be published this year. All are through Lightning Source POD with distribution to US, Australia, UK and EU. All titles are reprints of classic and early books on crafts, trades and industries and all are from my personal library.
My question concerns pricing of books for international sales. Lightning Source requests that the publisher enter a retail price in the currency of the country the title will be sold. Currency exchange rates change all the time. As a small publisher, I don't use any sort of bulk upload of data, instead doing all the data entry and any changes title by title.
Short of checking on exchange rates monthly, is it possible to simply enter the US dollar price under the US section and leave the other country prices blank: will Lightning Source then sell the book to the other countries under which I have signed distribution contracts at whatever the going exchange rate is or will that mess up the works? Before asking my Lightning Source rep, I'ld like to get some idea of the process as at times their answers are a bit on the vague side.
The second part of the question involves Bowker but is similar in context. If add multiple countries but for each enter only a US dollar currency under the retail price, will the seller in the country in question sell at whatever the exchange rate is? From what I can tell from the Bowker website, that is supposed to be what happens but it's really not all that clear.
Answer (04/2013):
In regards to the LSI portion, LSI does not have a currency conversion option, as the operating costs are different from facility to facility. They will see a publishers compensation calculator on the LSI website. Through this tool the publisher is able to enter the manufacturing specifications and experiment with retail price and discount in each available currency to be sure that each title ends up in a positive margin with that country's operating costs. Sales reporting will be provided in the market currency through which the title sold, and the publisher has the option of receiving their payments in market currency or in USD.
For The Bowker part of your question – the conversion is based on the current exchange rate.
~ Janice Schnell is a Content Acquisition Account Executive for Ingram Content Group. Janice joined Ingram in January 2007, and has extensive knowledge of book publishing and offset and print-on-demand book manufacturing and distribution. In addition to Janice's traditional book experience, Janice is well versed in digital content solutions for publishers. Ms. Schnell currently sits on the board of the Independent Book Publishers Association.
I'm a small independent publisher (and IBPA member) and have decided to move forward with Lightning Source for our upcoming release. I've set a pub date for March 2012 (still 5 months away as of this writing). Lightning Source is telling me that since they are POD printers, they won't list my book with their distribution partners "for pre-order" in advance of the pub date… if it's available, it's available now, and if I make it unavailable until the pub date, it will take at least a month to appear (Amazon, Ingram, B&T, B&N, etc.)
I have a very strong marketing campaign. Galleys are already out. The book is already uploaded as an upcoming release with Booklist, Library of Congress, and many other places, with a release date of March 16, 2012.
What would be the best way to go about this situation? I'm concerned because I don't want the book to be "on the streets" before the pub date, but I also don't want to make it inaccessible to the many wholesalers, book stores and hundreds of other channels I've been cultivating in advance of the release!
Answer (11/2011):
It is true that Lightning Source is not set up to take backorders at this time. It is also correct that it takes three to four weeks for the title to appear on other sites – IPage, Amazon, Baker & Taylor, etc. I would like to note, though that the you have done a very good and thorough job of advance work. Having a marketing plan in place, galleys, and listing the book with LOC and Booklist are all good ways of creating demand and potential sales.
I believe the best thing to do is to set this up with LSI as close to the pub date as possible allowing for the 3-4 weeks time needed for Amazon and other accounts to list it – say the third or last week in February. I would not worry about having the book on the streets before pub date. First, it won't be that much before – a few days at most and galleys are already out there. Second, while you have a firm date for the release of the title, it is unlikely that this will be of as much importance to accounts as you may imagine. If your advance marketing has done its work, then accounts will likely order as soon as it appears – or shortly thereafter.
In short, I think you have done just what you should to market and create anticipation for your title. While yes, in the traditional world of publishing ordering in advance is part of the process, keep in mind that in many cases accounts backorder so that they will be sure to get copies in case the publisher does not print enough. It isn't that they really want to wait for the book. There is a great deal to be said for having the book available right now – as yours will be – and never running out.
~ Nancy Stewart, a 30-year veteran of the book industry, holds the position of lead buyer at Ingram Book Company where she oversees the buying and operations of a wide variety of publishers. Previously she was general manager of Mills Bookstores, an independent bookstore group in Nashville, Tennessee. Nancy is past president of the Women's National Book Association and currently serves as WNBA representative to the United Nations. She has served as volunteer and book sales director for the Southern Festival of Books and president of the Nashville Area Booksellers Association.
We hope you will find this program useful, but as with any advice, we recommend that you make sure it fits your specific business needs. IBPA does not specifically endorse or support any particular group or service.
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Rough Ride - Behind the Wheel with a Pro Cyclist
First published in 1990, Rough Ride" is one of the greatest books ever written about the life of a professional athlete. Almost twenty years later Yellow Jersey is publishing an updated edition of this cycling classic with a new foreword by the author which reflects on his life both inside and outside the sport. Paul Kimmage's boyhood dreams were of cycling glory: wearing the yellow jersey cycling the Tour de France becoming a national hero. He knew it wouldn't come easy but he was prepared to put in the graft: he spent his teenage years cycling an average of 400 miles per week. The dedication began to pay off. As an amateur he represented his country and finished sixth in the World Championships. In 1986 he turned professional. That's when reality hit. He soon discovered it wasn't about glory and courage and it wasn't about how much training you put in or how much you wanted to win. It was about gruelling defeats complete and utter exhaustion and it was about drugs.
Shipping charges for this item to United States: $6.43
|$ 6.43


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Make a stylish impression in the Eastland Kelsey slip-on shoe. Accent stitching creates an understated design on the full grain leather upper of this women's closed-back clog. Fully lined with a removable, cushioned footbed the Eastland Kelsey shootie grips the ground with a lightweight polyurethane sole.
- Approx. 2'' heel height
- Contrast stitching details
- Full-grain leather upper
- Leather lining
- Padded collar
- Polyurethane sole
- Removable, cushioned footbed
- Side goring
Delivery and Returns
Estimated delivery date: 3 (based on standard shipping).
We offer free shipping on orders over $99, and free returns and exchanges for up to 30 days.


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Crafted by master carver Don Mintz
Realistic postures with lifelike feather detail
Weighted keel system for authentic movement
Includes 4 drakes and 2 hens
The Pro Series Green Wing Teal Decoys by Tanglefree feature some of the most realistic paint schemes and body positions in the business. Crafted by master carver, Don Mintz, these decoys project realistic postures with lifelike feather detail. The upright drake gives the apperance of a bird moving on the water, while the tucked hen appears very content. The weighted keel system produces authentic-looking movement in the water. The Pro Series Green Wing Teal pack comes with two upright drakes, two skimmer drakes, one upright hen, and one caller hen for a total of six decoys. Length: 15.5".


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Working at FIRE
With offices situated in the Old City section of Philadelphia next to Independence Hall and in the Capitol Hill area of Washington, D.C., FIRE offers two lively working environments with a staff committed to defending student and faculty rights on college campuses across the country. FIRE's working environment promotes a culture in which the employee will receive a well-rounded experience that familiarizes the individual not only with FIRE's activities, but also with the philosophical and legal foundations of FIRE's work. If you're interested in working at FIRE, please see our open positions below.
Psychology Research Fellow
FIRE is seeking a research fellow with an educational background in psychology to conduct research on the justification of censorship as a necessary step to protect mental health. Read more.
History Research Fellow
FIRE is seeking a research fellow with an educational background in both law and history to conduct research on the historical development of laws governing speech and analyze how past calls for censorship have impacted certain social or political movements. Read more.
High School Outreach Fellow
The High School Outreach Fellow will manage FIRE's outreach efforts with high school students and educators through the development of specialized curricula aimed at educating high school students on the foundations of freedom of expression. Read more.
Digital Outreach and Alumni Development Fellow
The Digital Outreach and Alumni Development Fellow will be primarily responsible for implementing digital outreach and awareness campaigns, with a particular emphasis on outreach to university alumni and campaigns encouraging alumni to engage their universities on issues relating to freedom of speech. Read more.
Faculty Outreach Fellow
The Faculty Outreach Fellow will be primarily responsible for expanding FIRE's network of faculty members interested in and concerned for freedom of speech and academic freedom in higher education, and organizing two annual conferences around these topics. Read more.
Archival Fellow
The Archival Fellow will be primarily responsible for cataloging and analyzing data collected from FIRE's archive of submissions from students and faculty members seeking individual assistance. Read more.
Data Analyst
This position will organize a new, national polling effort aimed at uncovering campus attitudes toward student free speech and due process rights on campus. Read more.
Legal and Legislative Policy Advocate
The Legal and Legislative Policy Advocate will work with policymakers nationwide to further FIRE's legislative goals at the state and federal level. Read more.
Legal Research Internship
The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE) is pleased to formally announce a call for applications for its Legal Research Internship. Read more.
Summer Internship Program
FIRE offers an eight-week, paid Summer Internship as part of our efforts to educate students about their rights at colleges and universities. This internship gives current undergraduates the opportunity to assist FIRE in defending civil liberties on campuses all across the country. Read more.


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£50,000 Offers over
Enjoying a well placed location within a desirable pocket of Falkirk with primary and secondary schooling on your doorstep, this immaculately presented two bedroom maisonette flat provides flexible accommodation over two levels.
Internally the subjects on offer comprising of: welcoming reception hallway, bright rear facing lounge and a modern fitted kitchen complete with base and wall mounted units and complementary worktop surfaces. Taking a single flight staircase to the upper accommodation consisting of: two double sized bedrooms both with storage facilities and an attractive three piece family bathroom.
There is good storage integrated throughout the layout of the property which is neutrally and tastefully decorated and is further enhanced by having double glazing and an electric heating system. Externally the property sits within attractive and well-maintained communal gardens which are predominantly laid to lawn with drying green to rear.
Viewing is recommended and can be arranged through the selling agent.
Enjoying a well placed location within a desirable pocket of Falkirk with primary and secondary schooling on your doorstep, this immaculately presented two bedroom maisonette flat provides flexible accommodation over two levels.
Lounge 14'2" x 17'2" (4.32m x 5.23m).
Kitchen 6'11" x 12' (2.1m x 3.66m).
Bedroom 10'6" x 11'1" (3.2m x 3.38m).
Bedroom 14'1" x 10' (4.3m x 3.05m).
Bathroom 7'7" x 6'10" (2.31m x 2.08m).
This house description is based upon information supplied by the owner, or on behalf of the owner. These property particulars are produced in good faith and do not constitute or form part of any contract. s1homes do not take any responsibility for the accuracy of the information contained in this document.
If a property value displays '0', don't worry it just means no properties have been sold in that area during that time.
Sold house price data is supplied to us by the Registers of Scotland, a government department responsible for compiling and maintaining property registers, every month. There can be a delay of up to 3 months from when a property is sold to being recorded with Registers of Scotland. We provide house price data for your information only, we do not accept any liability for any errors. If you have noticed any incorrect information, please contact Registers of Scotland.


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Connubia Calligaris CB/1050 Ice stool is characterized by the aesthetics of the shell, having a diamond effect, through which the designer has recreated the play of transparency and the crystalline formation typical of ice. Is the perfect stool for the kitchen and the dining room, making unique both environments.
Connubia Calligaris CB/1050 Ice stool have structure made of metal chrome, or satin steel. Plastic seat (styrene acrylonitrile) available glossy optic white, neutral transparent, red transparent or red transparent.
Design: Archirivolto
|L 41,5 x P 42,5 x H back 98 H seat 80 cm
|6,7 kg
|Packing volume
|0,21 mc
|Delivery time
|20 days + shipping (2-7 days)
Regular Price: €368.00
Special Price: €276.00 Vat included
Singolo: 276
Totale unformatted: 276
Regular Price: €368.00
Special Price: €276.00 Vat included
Singolo: 276
Totale unformatted: 276
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