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Brief Summary
Range Description
Although Tasmanian wolves (also known as Tasmanian tigers or thylacines) are considered extinct, their original prehistoric range was thought to extend throughout much of mainland Australia and Papua New Guinea. This range has been confirmed through various cave drawings, such as those found by Wright in 1972, and bone collections that have been radiocarbon dated to 180 years before present. Tasmanian wolves are now considered extinct. Thylacines were last known to inhabit Tasmania, where they were hunted to extinction.
Biogeographic Regions: australian (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: island endemic
- Archer, M. 1974. New information about the Quaternary distribution of the thylacine (Marsupialia, Thylacinidae) in Australia. Pp. 43-50 in Walker's Mammals of the World, Vol. 57, 1 Edition. United States: The John Hopkins University Press.
Physical Description
Tasmanian wolves had an overall body length of approximately 1230 to 1950 mm, measuring 990 to 1295 mm from the nose to the base of the tail, which measures an additional 508 to 660 mm. They ranged from 350 to 600 mm tall at the shoulders and weighed from 15 to 30 kg. Males were slightly larger than females.
Tasmanian wolf body structure closely resembles that of eutherian wolves and relatives. However, Tasmanian wolves are marsupials and have a pouch (which is rear opening). Their coat was short and dense and grey or yellow-brown and marked with 13 to 19 dark transverse stripes beginning behind the shoulder blades, gradually increasing in both length and width (Moeller 1968). They also had strong, thick tails (Thomas 1888). They had relatively narrow snouts with, on average, 24 sensory whiskers (Lyne 1959). They had whitish markings around the eyes and on the base of the ears, as well on the area around the upper lip (Le Souef and Burrell 1926). They had strong jaws with 46 teeth specialized for carnivory (Archer 1976c). Their paws were fitted with non-retractable claws that aided in their digitigrade locomotion (Pocock 1926). They were also capable of occasional "sole walking," or bipedal hopping, similar to kangaroos (Gunn 1863). The dental formula was i 4/3, c 1/1, pm 3/3, m 4/4. Tasmanian wolves had long canines, shearing premolars, and grinding molars, all of which are quite similar to those of dogs. In females, the pouch was located by the tail and had a fold of skin covering the four mammae.
Range mass: 15 to 30 kg.
Range length: 1230 to 1950 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; ornamentation
- Archer, M. 1976. The dasyurid dentition and its relationships to that of didelphids, thylacinids, borhyaenids (Marsupicarnivora) and peramelids (Peramelina: Marsupialia). Pp. 39 in S Awramik, W Clemens, R Cowen, J Doyle, P Sadler, eds. University of California publications in Geological Sciences, Vol. 131, 1 Edition. Los Angeles: University of California.
- Gunn, R. 1863. Letter announcing the shipment of living Thylacines, with remarks on their habits. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 31: 103-104.
- Lyne, A. 1959. The systematic and adaptive significance of the vibrissae in the Marsupialia. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 133: 97-133.
- Moeller, H. 1972. Tasmanian Wolf. Pp. 286-293 in B Grzmek, ed. Grizimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 10 (Mammals I, 1 Edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co..
- Paterson, W. 1805. Sydney Gazetter and New South Wales Advertiser. 21 April 1805, 3(112): et. all.
- Pocock, R. 1926. The external characters of Thylacinus, Sarcophilus and some related marsupials. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: London, 1926: 1036-1084.
- Thomas, O. 1888. Catalogue of the Marsupialia and Monotremata in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History). London: British Museum (Natural History).
Habitat and Ecology
- Terrestrial
Although the preferred habitat of Tasmanian wolves was never thoroughly described, remains have been collected throughout Australasian coastal regions. From colonial times until their extinction, Tasmanian wolves were found throughout Tasmania. They were most often seen in hilly country, resting during the day in forest and scrub, and hunt during the afternoon and evening in bordering thickets. Other descriptions suggest Tasmanian wolves were found in forested areas and grasslands. These observations may not represent the native preferences, though, because Tasmanian wolves were actively persecuted during this time and that may have effected their behavior. The last remaining populations were restricted to dense rainforests in Tasmania. Tasmanian wolf lairs were located mainly in hollow logs or rock outcroppings located in hilly areas that were adjacent to open areas, such as grasslands.
Average elevation: 330 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; rainforest ; scrub forest
Wetlands: marsh
Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural ; riparian
- Brandle, E. 1972. Thylacine designs in Arnhem Land rock paintings. Archaeological Physiology of Anthropology Oceania, 7: 24-30.
- Le Souef, A., H. Burrell. 1926. The wild animals of Australasia, embracing the mammalogy of New Guinea and the nearer Pacific Islands. With a chapter on the bats of Australia and New Guinea by Ellis LeG. Troughton. London: George G Harrap.
- Lord, C. 1927. Existing Tasmanian Marsupials. PAP Proclimation of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1927: 17-24.
- Nowak, R., J. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World, 4th Edition. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Trophic Strategy
Some of the earliest data depicts the consumption of echidnas (Troughton 1967) regardless of the difficulty to do so. Australian bushman have discovered Tasmanian wolf dens that were half filled with bones, including those belonging to livestock animals such as calves and sheep. The possibility of these animals being scavenged (although unlikely) still exists. It has been witnessed that in the wild, this marsupial will only eat what it kills, and it never will return to the site of a kill. In captivity Tasmanian wolves ate meat (Gunn 1863). It was also found during the inspection of livestock kills, that Tasmanian wolves would consume only specific parts of the animal. Due to this the myth arose that they preferred to drink blood. However other parts of these animals were consumed, such as liver and kidney fat, nasal tissues, and some muscle tissues. Through various bone samples of Tasmanian wolf dens, its native prey included wallabies, potoroos, and bettongs.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; blood
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Sanguivore )
- Guiler, E., G. Meldrum. 1958. Suspected sheep killing by the Thylacine, Thylacinus cynocephalus. Australian Journal of Science, 20: 214-215.
Tasmanian wolves were the largest marsupial carnivore and were at the top of the food chain. With this position in mind, Tasmanian wolves would keep other prey populations within reasonable limits. One such species is the wallaby (one of the Tasmanian wolves hypothesized food sources), whose populations have risen dramatically.
Of all the marsupial carnivores in the Australasia region, Tasmanian wolves were the largest. It was also one of the most well adapted and the most skilled hunters. With origins dating back to prehistoric times, Tasmanian wolves were considered one of the top predators in the food chain, making predation of this animal unlikely. Regardless, Tasmanian wolves have become classified as extinct due to predation my humans. Through the documentation of government sanctioned bounty hunts and historic personal accounts, a portrait of animal persecution is readily apparent. Through the late 18th century to early 19th century, the mass killing of what we considered to be "pests," claimed nearly its entire population. The competition from human introduced invasive species such as the dingo, and the destruction of natural Tasmanian wolf territories, pushed the animal past its breaking point. This resulted in the extinction of one of Australia's most amazing predatory marsupials.
Known Predators:
- humans (Homo sapiens)
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Life History and Behavior
Although Tasmanian wolves are relatively solitary creatures, vocalizations have been documented when they are disturbed or excited. Gould noted in 1863 that when disturbed, Tasmanian wolves would dash about making short guttural cries close to those of barks. It was noted by Le Souef and Burrell (1926) that when excited they would make a series of husky, coughing barks, with wheezing on the inhale.
The skull of the Tasmanian wolves reveals an enlarged sinus cavity hypothesized to account for its great sense of smell, which is primarily used in hunting. Since these marsupials are semi-nocturnal, the use of sight is a necessity; the quality of its sight however, is another matter. In captivity, the Tasmanian wolves are documented ignoring potential threats (such as zoo personnel) and seeking shelter from the sun regardless of temperature. Its been noted that Tasmanian wolves exhibit vibrissae on its muzzle similar to the placental wolf.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
- Archer, M. 1976. The basicranial region of marsupicarnivores (Marsupialia), inter-relationships of carnivorous marsupials, and the affinities of the insectivorous marsupial peramelids. Pp. 217-322 in S Awarmik, W Clemens, R Cowen, J Doyle, P Sadler, eds. University of California publications in Geological Sciences, Vol. 131, 1 Edition. Los Angeles: University of California.
- Gould, J. 1863. The Thylacine. Mammals of Australia, 1: et al..
- Tate, G. 1947. Results of the Archbold Expeditions. No. 56. On the anatomy and classification of the Dasyuridae (Marsupialia). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 88: 101-155.
Life Expectancy
The lifespan of Tasmanian wolves is largely unknown. The record for Tasmanian wolf longevity in captivity was a female with the approximate age of 12 years and 7 months, spending 9.5 of those years in captivity. Based on individuals in captivity it is estimated that the lifespan of a wild Tasmanian wolf was 8 to 10 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 12.6 (high) years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 6 to 10 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 8 to 12.6 hours.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 9 hours.
- Flower, S. 1931. Contribution to our knowledge of the duration of life in vertebrate animals. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 5: 145-234.
- Renshaw, G. 1938. The Thylacine. Journal of the Society for the Preservation Fauna of Empire, 35: 47-49.
Tasmanian wolves were elusive animals and mating patterns were not well-documented. Guiler (1926) speculated about breeding behaviors based on bounty records. He documented that only one pair of male and female adult Tasmanian wolves were ever captured or killed together. This led Guiler to assume that they only came together for mating and were otherwise solitary. However, it may also indicate monogamy.
Although there is relatively little data on their behavior, Guiler (1961) used bounty records to estimate breeding season. Although "half growns" (and their mothers) were taken during every season, the highest numbers of post pouch young were taken in May, July, August, and September. He estimated that the breeding season lasted approximately 4 months and was separated by a gap of 2 months. It is thought that a female would begin breeding in autumn and could have a second litter of young after the first was weaned. Other sources indicate births may have occurred continously throughout the year but were concentrated in the summer months (December-March). Gestation period is unknown, but it is believed that the young (usually 2-4) stayed in the pouch for about 3 months and remained with the mother for another 6 months.
Breeding interval: Tasmanian wolves may have bred twice each year.
Breeding season: Tasmanian wolves may have had a 4 month long breeding season, although the timing may have been variable.
Range number of offspring: 2 to 4.
Average weaning age: 2 months.
Average time to independence: 6 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous
Tasmanian wolf females invested significantly in their young. They were documented caring for 3 to 4 young carried by the mother in her rear-facing pouch until they were no longer able to fit there. While in the pouch, the young were nursed in the pouch on her 4 teats. Juveniles are thought to remain with their mothers until they were at least half grown.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); extended period of juvenile learning
- Guiler, E. 1961. Breeding Seasons of the Thylacine. J. Mammal, 42: 396-397.
- Gunn, R. 1863. Letter announcing the shipment of living Thylacines, with remarks on their habits. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 31: 103-104.
- Nowak, R., J. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World, 4th Edition. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Thylacinus cynocephalus
The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.
There are 3 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.
Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.
See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Thylacinus cynocephalus
Public Records: 3
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Year Assessed
- 1996Extinct (EX)
- 1994Extinct (Ex)
- 1990Extinct (Ex)
- 1988Extinct (Ex)
- 1986Extinct (Ex)
- 1982Extinct (Ex)
- 1965Very rare and believed to be decreasing in numbers
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: extinct
- Archer, M. 1976. Miocene marsupicarnivores (Marsupialia) from central South Australia, Ankotarinja tirarensis gen. et sp. nov., Keeuna woodburnei gen. et sp. nov., and their significance in terms of early marsupial radiations. Pp. 54-73 in S Awaramik, W Clemens, R Cowen, J Doyle, P Sadler, eds. University of California publications in Geological Sciences, Vol. 131, 1 Edition. Los Angeles: University of California.
Status: Endangered
Date Listed: 06/02/1970
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10)
Where Listed: Entire
Population detail:
Population location: Entire
Listing status: E
For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Thylacinus cynocephalus , see its USFWS Species Profile
Conservation Actions
It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Tasmanian wolves were thought to be the source of many agricultural problems for Australian settlers. Sheep herds were thought to be mutilated by Tasmanian wolves. Humans however have attained minimal personal injury from their encounters with these creatures. Of the injuries on record were bites presumably a result of self-defense.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings); crop pest
Tasmanian wolves were a primary source of income for many trappers during the years of their persecution. There are multiple documented cases of payouts to those able to capture and or kill these creatures. Captured Tasmanian wolves were transported to zoos as far as New York City.
Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; ecotourism ; research and education
The thylacine (/ˈθaɪləsiːn/ THY-lə-seen,[3] or /ˈθaɪləsaɪn/ THY-lə-syn,[4] also /ˈθaɪləsɨn/;[5] binomial name: Thylacinus cynocephalus, Greek for "dog-headed pouched one") was the largest known carnivorous marsupial of modern times. It is commonly known as the Tasmanian tiger (because of its striped lower back) or the Tasmanian wolf.[6] Native to continental Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea, it is believed to have become extinct in the 20th century. It was the last extant member of its family, Thylacinidae; specimens of other members of the family have been found in the fossil record dating back to the early Miocene.
The thylacine had become extremely rare or extinct on the Australian mainland before British settlement of the continent, but it survived on the island of Tasmania along with several other endemic species, including the Tasmanian devil. Intensive hunting encouraged by bounties is generally blamed for its extinction, but other contributing factors may have been disease, the introduction of dogs, and human encroachment into its habitat. Despite its official classification as extinct, sightings are still reported, though none has been conclusively proven.
Surviving evidence suggests that it was a relatively shy, nocturnal creature with the general appearance of a medium-to-large-size dog, except for its stiff tail and abdominal pouch (which was reminiscent of a kangaroo) and a series of dark transverse stripes that radiated from the top of its back (making it look a bit like a tiger).
Like the tigers and wolves of the Northern Hemisphere, from which it obtained two of its common names, the thylacine was an apex predator. As a marsupial, it was not closely related to these placental mammals, but because of convergent evolution it displayed the same general form and adaptations. Its closest living relative is thought to be either the Tasmanian devil or numbat. The thylacine was one of only two marsupials to have a pouch in both sexes (the other being the water opossum). The male thylacine had a pouch that acted as a protective sheath, covering his external reproductive organs while he ran through thick brush. The thylacine has been described as a formidable predator because of its ability to survive and hunt prey in extremely sparsely populated areas.[7]
The thylacine is a candidate for cloning and other molecular science projects due to its recent demise and the existence of several well preserved specimens.[8]
- 1 Evolution
- 2 Discovery and taxonomy
- 3 Description
- 4 Ecology and behaviour
- 5 Extinction
- 6 Modern research and projects
- 7 Cultural references
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 Bibliography
- 11 Further reading
- 12 External links
The modern thylacine first appeared about 4 million years ago. Species of the family Thylacinidae date back to the beginning of the Miocene; since the early 1990s, at least seven fossil species have been uncovered at Riversleigh, part of Lawn Hill National Park in northwest Queensland.[10][11] Dickson's thylacine (Nimbacinus dicksoni) is the oldest of the seven discovered fossil species, dating back to 23 million years ago. This thylacinid was much smaller than its more recent relatives.[12] The largest species, the powerful thylacine (Thylacinus potens) which grew to the size of a wolf, was the only species to survive into the late Miocene.[13] In late Pleistocene and early Holocene times, the modern thylacine was widespread (although never numerous) throughout Australia and New Guinea.[14]
An example of convergent evolution, the thylacine showed many similarities to the members of the dog family, Canidae, of the Northern Hemisphere: sharp teeth, powerful jaws, raised heels and the same general body form. Since the thylacine filled the same ecological niche in Australia as the dog family did elsewhere, it developed many of the same features. Despite this, it is unrelated to any of the Northern Hemisphere predators.[15]
They are easy to tell from a true dog because of the stripes on the back but the skeleton is harder to distinguish. Zoology students at Oxford had to identify 100 zoological specimens as part of the final exam. Word soon got around that, if ever a 'dog' skull was given, it was safe to identify it as Thylacinus on the grounds that anything as obvious as a dog skull had to be a catch. Then one year the examiners, to their credit, double bluffed and put in a real dog skull. The easiest way to tell the difference is by the two prominent holes in the palate bone, which are characteristic of marsupials generally.
Discovery and taxonomy[edit]
Numerous examples of thylacine engravings and rock art have been found dating back to at least 1000 BC.[16] Petroglyph images of the thylacine can be found at the Dampier Rock Art Precinct on the Burrup Peninsula in Western Australia. By the time the first European explorers arrived, the animal was already extinct in mainland Australia and rare in Tasmania. Europeans may have encountered it as far back as 1642 when Abel Tasman first arrived in Tasmania. His shore party reported seeing the footprints of "wild beasts having claws like a Tyger".[17] Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, arriving with the Mascarin in 1772, reported seeing a "tiger cat".[18] Positive identification of the thylacine as the animal encountered cannot be made from this report since the tiger quoll (Dasyurus maculatus) is similarly described. The first definitive encounter was by French explorers on 13 May 1792, as noted by the naturalist Jacques Labillardière, in his journal from the expedition led by D'Entrecasteaux. However, it was not until 1805 that William Paterson, the Lieutenant Governor of Tasmania, sent a detailed description for publication in the Sydney Gazette.[19]
The first detailed scientific description was made by Tasmania's Deputy Surveyor-General, George Harris in 1808, five years after first settlement of the island.[20][21] Harris originally placed the thylacine in the genus Didelphis, which had been created by Linnaeus for the American opossums, describing it as Didelphis cynocephala, the "dog-headed opossum". Recognition that the Australian marsupials were fundamentally different from the known mammal genera led to the establishment of the modern classification scheme, and in 1796, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire created the genus Dasyurus where he placed the thylacine in 1810. To resolve the mixture of Greek and Latin nomenclature, the species name was altered to cynocephalus. In 1824, it was separated out into its own genus, Thylacinus, by Temminck.[22] The common name derives directly from the genus name, originally from the Greek θύλακος (thýlakos), meaning "pouch" or "sack".[23][a]
Several studies support the thylacine as being a basal member of the Dasyuromorphia and the Tasmanian devil as its closest living relative. However, research published in Genome Research in January 2009 suggests the numbat may be more basal than the devil and more closely related to the thylacine. The resulting cladogram follows below:[24]
Descriptions of the thylacine vary, as evidence is restricted to preserved joey specimens, fossil records, skins and skeletal remains, black and white photographs and film of the animal in captivity, and accounts from the field.
Thylacine held the title of Australia's largest predator until about 3500 years ago.[25] The thylacine resembled a large, short-haired dog with a stiff tail which smoothly extended from the body in a way similar to that of a kangaroo. Many European settlers drew direct comparisons with the hyena, because of its unusual stance and general demeanour.[15] Its yellow-brown coat featured 13 to 21 distinctive dark stripes across its back, rump and the base of its tail, which earned the animal the nickname "tiger". The stripes were more pronounced in younger specimens, fading as the animal got older.[26] One of the stripes extended down the outside of the rear thigh. Its body hair was dense and soft, up to 15 mm (0.6 in) in length; in juveniles the tip of the tail had a crest. Its rounded, erect ears were about 8 cm (3.1 in) long and covered with short fur.[27] Colouration varied from light fawn to a dark brown; the belly was cream-coloured.[28]
The mature thylacine ranged from 100 to 130 cm (39 to 51 in) long, plus a tail of around 50 to 65 cm (20 to 26 in).[29] Adults stood about 60 cm (24 in) at the shoulder and weighed 20 to 30 kg (40 to 70 lb).[29] There was slight sexual dimorphism with the males being larger than females on average.[30]
The female thylacine had a pouch with four teats, but unlike many other marsupials, the pouch opened to the rear of its body. Males had a scrotal pouch, unique amongst the Australian marsupials,[31] into which they could withdraw their scrotal sac.[26]
The thylacine was able to open its jaws to an unusual extent: up to 120 degrees.[32] This capability can be seen in part in David Fleay's short black-and-white film sequence of a captive thylacine from 1933. The jaws were muscular but weak and had 46 teeth.[27][33]
Thylacine footprints could be distinguished from other native or introduced animals; unlike foxes, cats, dogs, wombats or Tasmanian devils, thylacines had a very large rear pad and four obvious front pads, arranged in almost a straight line.[34] The hindfeet were similar to the forefeet but had four digits rather than five. Their claws were non-retractable.[26]
The early scientific studies suggested it possessed an acute sense of smell which enabled it to track prey,[34] but analysis of its brain structure revealed that its olfactory bulbs were not well developed. It is likely to have relied on sight and sound when hunting instead.[26] Some observers described it having a strong and distinctive smell, others described a faint, clean, animal odour, and some no odour at all. It is possible that the thylacine, like its relative, the Tasmanian devil, gave off an odour when agitated.[35]
The thylacine was noted as having a stiff and somewhat awkward gait, making it unable to run at high speed. It could also perform a bipedal hop, in a fashion similar to a kangaroo—demonstrated at various times by captive specimens.[26] Guiler speculates that this was used as an accelerated form of motion when the animal became alarmed. The animal was also able to balance on its hind legs and stand upright for brief periods.[36]
Observers of the animal in the wild and in captivity noted that it would growl and hiss when agitated, often accompanied by a threat-yawn. During hunting it would emit a series of rapidly repeated guttural cough-like barks (described as "yip-yap", "cay-yip" or "hop-hop-hop"), probably for communication between the family pack members. It also had a long whining cry, probably for identification at distance, and a low snuffling noise used for communication between family members.[37]
Ecology and behaviour[edit]
Little is known about the behaviour or habitat of the thylacine. A few observations were made of the animal in captivity, but only limited, anecdotal evidence exists of the animal's behaviour in the wild. Most observations were made during the day whereas the thylacine was naturally nocturnal. Those observations, made in the twentieth century, may have been atypical as they were of a species already under the stresses that would soon lead to its extinction. Some behavioural characteristics have been extrapolated from the behaviour of its close relative, the Tasmanian devil.
The thylacine probably preferred the dry eucalyptus forests, wetlands, and grasslands in continental Australia.[34] Indigenous Australian rock paintings indicate that the thylacine lived throughout mainland Australia and New Guinea. Proof of the animal's existence in mainland Australia came from a desiccated carcass that was discovered in a cave in the Nullarbor Plain in Western Australia in 1990; carbon dating revealed it to be around 3,300 years old.[38]
In Tasmania it preferred the woodlands of the midlands and coastal heath, which eventually became the primary focus of British settlers seeking grazing land for their livestock.[39] The striped pattern may have provided camouflage in woodland conditions,[26] but it may have also served for identification purposes.[40] The animal had a typical home range of between 40 and 80 km2 (15 and 31 sq mi).[28] It appears to have kept to its home range without being territorial; groups too large to be a family unit were sometimes observed together.[41]
The thylacine was a nocturnal and crepuscular hunter, spending the daylight hours in small caves or hollow tree trunks in a nest of twigs, bark or fern fronds. It tended to retreat to the hills and forest for shelter during the day and hunted in the open heath at night. Early observers noted that the animal was typically shy and secretive, with awareness of the presence of humans and generally avoiding contact, though it occasionally showed inquisitive traits.[42] At the time, much stigma existed in regard to its "fierce" nature, however this is likely to be due to its perceived threat to agriculture.[43]
There is evidence for at least some year-round breeding (cull records show joeys discovered in the pouch at all times of the year), although the peak breeding season was in winter and spring.[26] They would produce up to four cubs per litter (typically two or three), carrying the young in a pouch for up to three months and protecting them until they were at least half adult size. Early pouch young were hairless and blind, but they had their eyes open and were fully furred by the time they left the pouch.[26] After leaving the pouch, and until they were developed enough to assist, the juveniles would remain in the lair while their mother hunted.[44] Thylacines only once bred successfully in captivity, in Melbourne Zoo in 1899.[45] Their life expectancy in the wild is estimated to have been 5 to 7 years, although captive specimens survived up to 9 years.[34]
Although there are methods that can be used to identify the diet and feeding behavior of thylacine, findings and theories on this subject remain hotly debated.[46] A study published in 2011 yields some insight: "Dental and biogeochemical evidence suggests that T. cynocephalus was a hypercarnivore restricted to eating vertebrate flesh"[46] The thylacine was exclusively carnivorous. Its stomach was muscular, and could distend to allow the animal to eat large amounts of food at one time, probably an adaptation to compensate for long periods when hunting was unsuccessful and food scarce.[26] Analysis of the skeletal frame and observations of it in captivity suggest that it preferred to single out a target animal and pursue that animal until it was exhausted. Some studies conclude that the animal may have hunted in small family groups, with the main group herding prey in the general direction of an individual waiting in ambush.[20] Trappers reported it as an ambush predator.[26]
Little is known of the thylacine's diet and feeding behaviour. Prey is believed to have included kangaroos, wallabies and wombats, birds and small animals such as potoroos and possums. One prey animal may have been the once common Tasmanian Emu.[47] The emu was a large, flightless bird which shared the habitat of the thylacine and was hunted to extinction around 1850, possibly coinciding with the decline in thylacine numbers.[48] Both dingoes and foxes have been noted to hunt the emu on the mainland.[49][50] European settlers believed the thylacine to prey upon farmers' sheep and poultry.[51][52] Throughout the 20th century, the thylacine was often characterised as primarily a blood drinker; according to Robert Paddle, the story's popularity seems to have originated from a single second-hand account heard by Geoffrey Smith (1881–1916)[53][54][55] in a shepherd's hut.[56] In captivity, thylacines were fed a wide variety of foods, including dead rabbits and wallabies as well as beef, mutton, horse, and occasionally poultry.[57] Tasmania's leading naturalist Michael Sharland published an article in 1957 stating that a captive thylacine refused to eat dead wallaby flesh or to kill and eat a live wallaby offered to it, but "ultimately it was persuaded to eat by having the smell of blood from a freshly killed wallaby put before its nose."[58]
A 2011 study by the University of New South Wales using advanced computer modelling indicated that the thylacine had surprisingly feeble jaws. Animals usually take prey close to their own body size, but an adult thylacine of around 30 kilograms (66 lb) was found to be incapable of handling prey much larger than 5 kilograms (11 lb). Researchers believe thylacines only ate small animals such as bandicoots and possums, putting them into direct competition with the Tasmanian devil and the Tiger Quoll. Such specialisation probably made the thylacine susceptible to small disturbances to the ecosystem.[33][59]
Although the living grey wolf is widely seen as the thylacine's counterpart, a recent study proposes that thylacine was more of an ambush predator as opposed to a pursuit predator. In fact, the predatory behaviour of the thylacine was probably closer to ambushing felids than to large pursuit canids. Consequently, at least in terms of the postcranial anatomy, the vernacular name of "Tasmanian tiger" may be more apt than "marsupial wolf".[60]
Extinction from mainland Australia[edit]
The thylacine is likely to have become near-extinct in mainland Australia about 2,000 years ago, and possibly earlier in New Guinea.[61][62] The absolute extinction is attributed to competition from indigenous humans and invasive dingoes. However, doubts exist over the impact of the dingo since the two species would not have been in direct competition with one another as the dingo hunts primarily during the day, whereas it is thought that the thylacine hunted mostly at night. In addition, the thylacine had a more powerful build, which would have given it an advantage in one-on-one encounters.[63] Recent morphological examinations of dingo and thylacine skulls show that although the dingo had a weaker bite, its skull could resist greater stresses, allowing it to pull down larger prey than the thylacine could. The thylacine was also much less versatile in diet than the omnivorous dingo.[64] Their environments clearly overlapped: thylacine subfossil remains have been discovered in proximity to those of dingoes. The adoption of the dingo as a hunting companion by the indigenous peoples would have put the thylacine under increased pressure.[14]
Prideaux et al. (2010) examined the issue of extinction in the late Quaternary period in southwestern Australia. This paper notes that Australia lost 90% or more of its larger terrestrial vertebrates during this time, with the notable exceptions of the kangaroo and the thylacine. The results show that the humans were obviously one of the major factors in the extinction of many species in Australia. But in reality, it was not until the humans had an adverse effect on the environment and brought disease to Australia that their arrival drove the Thylacine to extinction.[65]
Menzies et al. (2012) examined the relationship of the genetic diversity of the thylacines before their extinction. The results of their investigation indicated that the last of the thylacines in Australia, on top of the threats from dingoes, had limited genetic diversity, due to their complete geographic isolation from mainland Australia.[66]
Johnson and Wroe (2003) observed the relationship between the dingo and the extinctions of the Tasmanian devil, the Thylacine, and the Tasmanian native hen and the arrival of humans. The paper observed the obviously competitive relationship between the dingo and the thylacine and the Tasmanian devil, and noted that the dingo may have actually fed on the native hen. Yet, the paper concludes, people ignore the emergence of humans on the continent among all of this. In the end, the competitiveness of the dingo and Thylacine populations led to the extinctions of the Thylacine but the arrival of the humans only further exacerbated this.[67]
Another study brings disease into the debate as a major factor in thylacine's extinction: "Casually collected anecdotal records and early boutity analyses have, at times, prompted the suggestion that disease was a major factor in the extinction of the species, that occurred when the last known specimen died in Hobart Zoo during the night of 7th September, 1936."[68] This study also suggests that were it not for an epidemiological influence, the extinction of thylacine would have been at best prevented, at worst postponed. "The chance of saving the species, through changing public opinion, and the re-establishment of captive breeding, could have been possible. But the marsupi-carnivore disease, with its dramatic effect on individual thylacine longevity and juvenile mortality, came far too soon, and spread far too quickly."[68]
Extinction in Tasmania[edit]
Although the thylacine was extinct on mainland Australia, it survived into the 1930s on the island state of Tasmania. At the time of the first settlement, the heaviest distributions were in the northeast, northwest and north-midland regions of the state.[39] They were rarely sighted during this time but slowly began to be credited with numerous attacks on sheep. This led to the establishment of bounty schemes in an attempt to control their numbers. The Van Diemen's Land Company introduced bounties on the thylacine from as early as 1830, and between 1888 and 1909 the Tasmanian government paid £1 per head. (Current value today, after inflation and introduction of decimal currency: $132.29) for dead adult thylacines and ten shillings for pups. In all they paid out 2,184 bounties, but it is thought that many more thylacines were killed than were claimed for.[34] Its extinction is popularly attributed to these relentless efforts by farmers and bounty hunters.[34] However, it is likely that multiple factors led to its decline and eventual extinction, including competition with wild dogs introduced by European settlers,[70] erosion of its habitat, the concurrent extinction of prey species, and a distemper-like disease that also affected many captive specimens at the time.[28][71] Whatever the reason, the animal had become extremely rare in the wild by the late 1920s. Despite the fact that the thylacine was believed by many to be responsible for attacks on sheep, in 1928 the Tasmanian Advisory Committee for Native Fauna recommended a reserve to protect any remaining thylacines, with potential sites of suitable habitat including the Arthur-Pieman area of western Tasmania.[72]
The last known thylacine to be killed in the wild was shot in 1930 by Wilf Batty, a farmer from Mawbanna, in the northeast of the state. The animal, believed to have been a male, had been seen around Batty's house for several weeks.[73]
"Benjamin" and searches[edit]
The last captive thylacine, later referred to as "Benjamin", was trapped in the Florentine Valley by Elias Churchill in 1933 and sent to the Hobart Zoo where it lived for three years. Frank Darby, who claimed to have been a keeper at Hobart Zoo, suggested "Benjamin" as having been the animal's pet name in a newspaper article of May 1968. However, no documentation exists to suggest that it ever had a pet name, and Alison Reid (de facto curator at the zoo) and Michael Sharland (publicist for the zoo) denied that Frank Darby had ever worked at the zoo or that the name "Benjamin" was ever used for the animal. Darby also appears to be the source for the claim that the last thylacine was a male; photographic evidence suggested it was female.[74] Paddle was unable to uncover any records of any Frank Darby been employed by Beaumaris/Hobart Zoo during the time that Reid or her father were in charge, and noted several inconsistencies in the story Darby told during his interview in 1968.
The gender of the last captive thylacine has been a point of debate since its death at the Beaumaris Zoo in Hobart, Tasmania. Recent detailed examination of a single frame from the historic motion film footage taken by David Fleay in 1933 has confirmed that the thylacine was male. In Fleay's historic film footage of the last captive thylacine, the thylacine is seen seated, walking around the perimeter of its enclosure, yawning (exposing its impressive gape), sniffing the air, scratching itself (in the same manner as would a dog), and lying down. When frame III is enlarged the scrotum can clearly be seen, confirming the thylacine to be male. By enhancing the frame (increasing exposure to 20% and contrast to 45%), the outline of the individual testes is discernable.[75]
The thylacine died on 7 September 1936. It is believed to have died as the result of neglect—locked out of its sheltered sleeping quarters, it was exposed to a rare occurrence of extreme Tasmanian weather: extreme heat during the day and freezing temperatures at night.[76] The thylacine features in the last known motion picture footage of a living specimen: 62 seconds of black-and-white footage showing it pacing backwards and forwards in its enclosure in a clip taken in 1933 by naturalist David Fleay.[77][78] National Threatened Species Day has been held annually since 1996 on 7 September in Australia, to commemorate the death of the last officially recorded thylacine.[79]
Although there had been a conservation movement pressing for the thylacine's protection since 1901, driven in part by the increasing difficulty in obtaining specimens for overseas collections, political difficulties prevented any form of protection coming into force until 1936. Official protection of the species by the Tasmanian government was introduced on 10 July 1936, 59 days before the last known specimen died in captivity.[80]
The results of subsequent searches indicated a strong possibility of the survival of the species in Tasmania into the 1960s. Searches by Dr. Eric Guiler and David Fleay in the northwest of Tasmania found footprints and scats that may have belonged to the animal, heard vocalisations matching the description of those of the thylacine, and collected anecdotal evidence from people reported to have sighted the animal. Despite the searches, no conclusive evidence was found to point to its continued existence in the wild.[15] Between 1967 and 1973 zoologist Jeremy Griffith and dairy farmer James Malley conducted what is regarded as the most intensive search ever carried out, including exhaustive surveys along Tasmania's west coast; installation of automatic camera stations; prompt investigations of claimed sightings; and in 1972 the creation of the Thylacine Expeditionary Research Team with Dr Bob Brown, which concluded without finding any evidence of the thylacine's existence.[81]
A number of ongoing search efforts are currently being undertaken; typically these are self-funded initiatives conducted by thylacine enthusiasts who vary in approach, background knowledge and general modi operandi. Some searchers are 'believers', conducting searches on the basis that they firmly believe the thylacine to be yet alive. Other groups have a more practical and pragmatic view, hoping the thylacine to be extant although understanding the probabilities of its being extinct. The two different view points are important when understanding how each group views potential evidence or proof: the 'believers' group tend to err on the side of interpreting evidence with bias toward the thylacine being extant, while the skeptics will look for more plausible explanations regarding any evidence presented. One such group that is relatively active in producing videos for debate and analysis is the Thylacine Research Unit. This team of scientist conducts frequent expeditions and searches to various parts of Tasmania looking for evidence that the Thylacine is still extant. They frequently receive foot prints from members of the public to analyse and report on. They operate a web site that allows people who have had sightings of Thylacine (past or present) to confidentially report the details.[82]
The Thylacine held the status of endangered species until the 1980s. International standards at the time stated that an animal could not be declared extinct until 50 years had passed without a confirmed record. Since no definitive proof of the thylacine's existence in the wild had been obtained for more than 50 years, it met that official criterion and was declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 1982[2] and by the Tasmanian government in 1986. The species was removed from Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 2013.[83]
Unconfirmed sightings[edit]
The Australian Rare Fauna Research Association reports having 3,800 sightings on file from mainland Australia since the 1936 extinction date,[84] while the Mystery Animal Research Centre of Australia recorded 138 up to 1998, and the Department of Conservation and Land Management recorded 65 in Western Australia over the same period.[42] Independent thylacine researchers Buck and Joan Emburg of Tasmania report 360 Tasmanian and 269 mainland post-extinction 20th century sightings, figures compiled from a number of sources.[85] On the mainland, sightings are most frequently reported in Southern Victoria.[86]
Some sightings have generated a large amount of publicity. In 1973, Gary and Liz Doyle shot ten seconds of 8 mm film showing an unidentified animal running across a South Australian road. Attempts to positively identify the creature as a thylacine have been impossible due to the poor quality of the film.[87] In 1982 a researcher with the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service, Hans Naarding, observed what he believed to be a thylacine for three minutes during the night at a site near Arthur River in northwestern Tasmania. The sighting led to an extensive year-long government-funded search.[88] In 1985, Aboriginal tracker Kevin Cameron produced five photographs which appear to show a digging thylacine, which he stated he took in Western Australia.[89] In January 1995, a Parks and Wildlife officer reported observing a thylacine in the Pyengana region of northeastern Tasmania in the early hours of the morning. Later searches revealed no trace of the animal.[90] In 1997, it was reported that locals and missionaries near Mount Carstensz in Western New Guinea had sighted thylacines.[91][92] The locals had apparently known about them for many years but had not made an official report.[93] In February 2005 Klaus Emmerichs, a German tourist, claimed to have taken digital photographs of a thylacine he saw near the Lake St Clair National Park, but the authenticity of the photographs has not been established.[94] The photos were published in April 2006, fourteen months after the sighting. The photographs, which showed only the back of the animal, were said by those who studied them to be inconclusive as evidence of the thylacine's continued existence.[95] Due to the uncertainty of whether the species is still extant or not, the thylacine is sometimes regarded as a cryptid.[96][97]
In 1983, the American media mogul Ted Turner offered a $100,000 reward for proof of the continued existence of the thylacine.[98]
A letter sent in response to an inquiry by a thylacine-searcher, Murray McAllister, in 2000 indicated that the reward had been withdrawn.[99] In March 2005, Australian news magazine The Bulletin, as part of its 125th anniversary celebrations, offered a $1.25 million reward for the safe capture of a live thylacine. When the offer closed at the end of June 2005 no one had produced any evidence of the animal's existence. An offer of $1.75 million has subsequently been offered by a Tasmanian tour operator, Stewart Malcolm.[95] Trapping is illegal under the terms of the thylacine's protection, so any reward made for its capture is invalid, since a trapping licence would not be issued.[98]
Modern research and projects[edit]
Records of all specimens, many of which are in European collections, are now held in the International Thylacine Specimen Database.
The Australian Museum in Sydney began a cloning project in 1999.[100] The goal was to use genetic material from specimens taken and preserved in the early 20th century to clone new individuals and restore the species from extinction. Several molecular biologists have dismissed the project as a public relations stunt and its chief proponent, Professor Mike Archer, received a 2002 nomination for the Australian Skeptics Bent Spoon Award for "the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudo-scientific piffle."[101]
In late 2002 the researchers had some success as they were able to extract replicable DNA from the specimens.[102] On 15 February 2005, the museum announced that it was stopping the project after tests showed the DNA retrieved from the specimens had been too badly degraded to be usable.[103][104] In May 2005, Professor Michael Archer, the University of New South Wales Dean of Science at the time, former director of the Australian Museum and evolutionary biologist, announced that the project was being restarted by a group of interested universities and a research institute.[95][105]
The International Thylacine Specimen Database was completed in April 2005 and is the culmination of a four-year research project to catalog and digitally photograph, if possible, all known[72][106] surviving thylacine specimen material held within museum, university and private collections. The master records are held by the Zoological Society of London.[2]
In 2008 researchers Andrew J. Pask and Marilyn B. Renfree from the University of Melbourne and Richard R. Behringer from the University of Texas at Austin reported that they managed to restore functionality of a gene Col2A1 enhancer obtained from 100 year-old ethanol-fixed thylacine tissues from museum collections. The genetic material was found working in transgenic mice. The research enhanced hopes of eventually restoring the population of thylacines.[107][108] That same year, another group of researchers successfully sequenced the complete thylacine mitochondrial genome from two museum specimens. Their success suggests that it may be feasible to sequence the complete thylacine nuclear genome from museum specimens. Their results were published in the journal Genome Research in 2009.[24]
Mike Archer spoke about the possibilities of resurrecting the Thylacine and the Gastric Brooding Frog at TED2013.[109]
Stewart Brand spoke at TED2013 about the ethics and possibilities of de-extinction, and made reference to thylacine in his talk.[110]
Cultural references[edit]
The best known illustrations of Thylacinus cynocephalus were those in Gould's The Mammals of Australia (1845–63), often copied since its publication and the most frequently reproduced,[111] and given further exposure by Cascade Brewery's appropriation for its label in 1987.[112] The government of Tasmania published a monochromatic reproduction of the same image in 1934,[113] the author Louisa Anne Meredith also copied it for Tasmanian Friends and Foes (1881).[111]
The thylacine has been used extensively as a symbol of Tasmania. The animal is featured on the official Tasmanian coat of arms.[114] It is used in the official logos of Tourism Tasmania and City of Launceston.[114] It is also used on the University of Tasmania's ceremonial mace and the badge of the submarine HMAS Dechaineux.[114] Since 1998, it has been prominently displayed on Tasmanian vehicle number plates.
The plight of the thylacine was featured in a campaign for The Wilderness Society entitled We used to hunt thylacines. In video games, boomerang-wielding Ty the Tasmanian Tiger is the star of his own trilogy. Characters in the early 1990s cartoon Taz-Mania included the neurotic Wendell T. Wolf, the last surviving Tasmanian wolf. Tiger Tale is a children's book based on an Aboriginal myth about how the thylacine got its stripes. The thylacine character Rolf is featured in the extinction musical Rockford's Rock Opera. The thylacine is the mascot for the Tasmanian cricket team,[114] and has appeared in postage stamps from Australia, Equatorial Guinea, and Micronesia.[115]
The Hunter is a novel by Julia Leigh about an Australian hunter who sets out to find the last thylacine. The novel has been adapted into a 2011 film by the same name directed by Daniel Nettheim, and starring Willem Dafoe.[116] In 2012, a demonic thylacine shapeshifter was introduced as the main antagonist in the #DeadThings series by author Reese Riley.[117]
See also[edit]
- Cryptozoology: the search for animals that have not yet been proven to exist.
- Fauna of Australia
- List of extinct animals of Australia
- ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M, eds. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 23. OCLC 62265494. ISBN 0-801-88221-4.
- ^ a b c McKnight, M. (2008). "Thylacinus cynocephalus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
- ^ Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. 2003. p. 1032. ISBN 978-1-87642-937-9.
- ^ "thylacine". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.
- ^ "thylacine". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 30 May 2009.
- ^ As well as the common alternative names, the thylacine was referred to by a range of other names, which often makes clear identification of the species in historical records difficult. Other names by which it is occasionally identified include marsupial wolf, hyena, zebra wolf, kangaroo wolf, zebra opossum, marsupial tiger, tiger cat, Tasmanian pouched wolf and hyena opossum.
- ^ Paddle (2000)
- ^ True or False? Extinction Is Forever smithsonianmag.com
- ^ Werdelin, L. (1986). "Comparison of Skull Shape in Marsupial and Placental Carnivores". Australian Journal of Zoology 34 (2): 109–117. doi:10.1071/ZO9860109.
- ^ "Riversleigh". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 14 June 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ "Is there a fossil Thylacine?". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 2 June 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ "Lost Kingdoms: Dickson's Thylacine (Nimbacinus dicksoni)". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 19 March 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ "Lost Kingdoms: Powerful Thylacine (Thylacinus potens)". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 25 March 2005. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ a b Johnson, C. N.; Wroe, S. (November 2003). "Causes of extinction of vertebrates during the Holocene of mainland Australia: arrival of the dingo, or human impact?". The Holocene 13 (6): 941–948. doi:10.1191/0959683603hl682fa.
- ^ a b c "Threatened Species: Thylacine – Tasmanian tiger, Thylacinus cynocephalus" (PDF). Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. December 2003. Archived from the original on 2 October 2006. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ Salleh, Anna (15 December 2004). "Rock art shows attempts to save thylacine". ABC Science Online. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ Rembrants. D. (1682) "A short relation out of the journal of Captain Abel Jansen Tasman, upon the discovery of the South Terra incognita; not long since published in the Low Dutch". Philosophical Collections of the Royal Society of London, (6), 179–86. Quoted in Paddle (2000), p. 3.
- ^ Roth, H. L. (1891) "Crozet's Voyage to Tasmania, New Zealand, etc....1771–1772.". London. Truslove and Shirley. Quoted in Paddle (2000), p. 3.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 3.
- ^ a b "Information sheet: Thylacine Thylacinus cynocephalus" (PDF). Victoria Museum. April 2005. Archived from the original on 9 November 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ "Thylacinus cynocephalus (Harris, 1808)". Australian Faunal Directory. ABRS. 9 October 2008.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 5.
- ^ Hoad, T. F., ed. (1986). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-863120-0.
- ^ a b "The mitochondrial genome sequence of the Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus)". Genome Res. 19 (2): 213–20. February 2009. doi:10.1101/gr.082628.108. PMC 2652203. PMID 19139089.
- ^ Letnic, M.; Fillios, M.; Crowther, M. S. (2012). "Could Direct Killing by Larger Dingoes Have Caused the Extinction of the Thylacine from Mainland Australia?". PLoS ONE 7 (5): e34877. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034877.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Dixon, Joan. "Fauna of Australia chap.20 vol.1b" (PDF). Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS). Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ a b "Australia's Thylacine: What did the Thylacine look like?". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 24 October 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ a b c Guiler, Eric (2006). "Profile – Thylacine". Zoology Department, University of Tasmania. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ a b Bryant, Sally and Jackson, Jean; Threatened Species Unit, Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania (1999). Tasmania's Threatened Fauna Handbook. Bryant and Jackson. pp. 190–193. ISBN 978-0-7246-6223-4.
- ^ Jones, Menna (1997). "Character displacement in Australian dasyurid carnivores: size relationships and prey size patterns". Ecology 78 (8): 2569. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[2569:CDIADC]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ The scrotal pouch is almost unique within the marsupials – the only other marsupial species to have this feature is the water opossum, Chironectes minimus which is found in Mexico, Central and South America.
- ^ AFP (21 October 2003). "Extinct Thylacine May Live Again". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
- ^ a b "Tasmanian Tiger's Jaw Was Too Small to Attack Sheep, Study Shows". Science Daily. 1 September 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f "Wildlife of Tasmania: Mammals of Tasmania: Thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger, Thylacinus cynocephalus". Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 49.
- ^ "Tasmanian Tiger". Archives Office of Tasmania. 1930. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 65–66.
- ^ "Mummified thylacine has national message". National Museum of Australia, Canberra. 16 June 2004. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ a b "Australia's Thylacine: Where did the Thylacine live?". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 2 June 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 42–43.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 38–39.
- ^ a b Heberle, G. (1977). "Reports of alleged thylacine sightings in Western Australia" (w). Sunday Telegraph [Sydney]: 46.
- ^ Tasmanian tigers brough to life, Australian Geographic, 24 February 2011.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 60.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 228–231.
- ^ a b Attard, M. R. G.; Chamoli, U.; Ferrara, T. L.; Rogers, T. L.; Wroe, S. (2011). "Skull mechanics and implications for feeding behaviour in a large marsupial carnivore guild: The thylacine, Tasmanian devil and spotted-tailed quoll". Journal of Zoology 285 (4): 292. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00844.x.
- ^ Some writers go further to postulate that the mature thylacine's jaw and bipedal hop were specialised for hunting the emu and either breaking its neck or severing the jugular vein.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 81.
- ^ "Trends in the numbers of red kangaroos and emus on either side of the South Australian dingo fence: evidence for predator regulation?". Wildlife Research 27 (3): 269–276. 2000. doi:10.1071/WR99030.
- ^ "Emu". Retrieved 19 September 2006.
- ^ Based on the lack of reliable first hand accounts, Robert Paddle argues that the predation on sheep and poultry may have been exaggerated, suggesting the thylacine was used as a convenient scapegoat for the mismanagement of the sheep farms, and the image of it as a poultry killer impressed on the public consciousness by a striking photo taken by Henry Burrell in 1921.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 79–138.
- ^ Smith, Geoffrey Watkins (1909) "A Naturalist in Tasmania.". Clarendon Press: Oxford.
- ^ "Smith, Geoffrey Watkins". winchestercollegeatwar.com.
- ^ "September | 2013 | Worldwarzoogardener1939's Blog". wordpress.com.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 29–35.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 96.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 32.
- ^ "Tasmanian tiger was no sheep killer". ABC Science. 1 September 2011.
- ^ Figueirido, B.; Janis, C. M. (2011). "The predatory behaviour of the thylacine: Tasmanian tiger or marsupial wolf?". Biology Letters 7 (6): 937. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0364.
- ^ However reliable accounts of thylacine survival in South Australia (though confined to the 'thinly settled districts' and Flinders Ranges) and New South Wales (Blue Mountains) exist from as late as the 1830s, from both indigenous and European sources.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 23–24.
- ^ "Introducing the Thylacine". The Thylacine Museum. Retrieved 23 May 2007.
- ^ "Tiger's demise: dingo did do it – National – smh.com.au". Sydney Morning Herald. 6 September 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
- ^ Prideaux, Gavin J.; Gully, Grant A.; Couzens, Aidan M. C.; Ayliffe, Linda K.; Jankowski, Nathan R.; Jacobs,, Zenobia; Roberts, Richard G.; Hellstrom, John C.; Gagan, Michael K.; Hatcher, Lindsay M. (December 2010). "Timing and dynamics of Late Pleistocene mammal extinctions in southwestern Australia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (US). doi:10.1073/pnas.1011073107.
- ^ Menzies, Brandon R.; Renfree, Marilyn B.; Heider, Thomas; Mayer, Frieder; Hildebrandt, Thomas B.; Pask, Andrew J. (18 April 2012). "Limited Genetic Diversity Preceded Extinction of the Tasmanian Tiger". PLoS ONE 7 (4). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035433.
- ^ Johnson, CN; Wroe, S. (September 2003). "Causes of Extinction of Vertebrates during the Holocene of Mainland Australia: Arrival of the Dingo, or Human Impact?". The Holocene. doi:10.1191/0959683603hl682fa.
- ^ a b Paddle, R. (2012). "The thylacine's last straw: Epidemic disease in a recent mammalian extinction". Australian Zoologist 36 (1): 75–92. doi:10.7882/az.2012.008.
- ^ Freeman, Carol (June 2005). "Is this picture worth a thousand words? An analysis of Henry Burrell's photograph of a thylacine with a chicken" (PDF). Australian Zoologist 33 (1).
- ^ Boyce, James (2006). "Canine Revolution: The Social and Environmental Impact of the Introduction of the Dog to Tasmania". Environmental History 11 (1). doi:10.1093/envhis/11.1.102.
- ^ Paddle (2000), pp. 202–203.
- ^ a b "Pelt of a thylacine shot in the Pieman River-Zeehan area of Tasmania in 1930: Charles Selby Wilson collection". National Museum of Australia, Canberra. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
- ^ "HISTORY – PERSECUTION – (page 10)". The Thylacine Museum. 2006. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
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- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 195.
- ^ Dayton, Leigh (19 May 2001). "Rough Justice". New Scientist. Retrieved 15 February 2010.
- ^ Fleay was bitten on the buttock whilst shooting the film, having ignored the threat yawn and hissing vocalizations made by the animal.
- ^ "National Threatened Species Day". Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ Paddle (2000), p. 184.
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- ^ Dingoes, the thylacine's possible competitor, are now rare, if not extinct, in Western New Guinea.
- ^ Corbett, L. K. (2004). "Canis lupus ssp. dingo". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
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- ^ "Tourist claims to have snapped Tasmanian tiger". The Sydney Morning Herald. 1 March 2005. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ a b c Dasey, Daniel (15 May 2005). "Researchers revive plan to clone the Tassie tiger". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ Eberhart, George M. (2002). Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology. Santa Barbara, California: Abc-Clio Incorporated. pp. 547–550 (section regarding Thylacine). ISBN 979-1-576-07283-6.
- ^ Coleman, Loren; Clark, Jerome (1999). Cryptozoology A To Z: The Encyclopedia of Loch Monsters, Sasquatch, Chupacabras, and Other Authentic Mysteries of Nature. Touchstone (original edition), Simon & Schuster. pp. 238–239 (section regarding Thylacine). ISBN 978-0-684-85602-5.
- ^ a b Steger, Jason (26 March 2005). "Extinct or not, the story won't die". The Age (Melbourne). Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ McAllister, Murray (2000). "Reward Monies Withdrawn". Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ Leigh, Julia (30 May 2002). "Back from the dead". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ "Tasmanian tiger clone a fantasy: scientist". Melbourne Age. 22 August 2002. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
- ^ "Attempting to make a genomic library of an extinct animal". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ "Museum ditches thylacine cloning project". ABC News Online. 15 February 2005. Archived from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ Smith, Deborah (17 February 2005). "Tassie tiger cloning 'pie-in-the-sky science'". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ Skatssoon, Judy (15 February 2005). "Thylacine cloning project dumped". ABC Science Online. Retrieved 22 November 2006.
- ^ Skins occasionally turn up in private ownership, such as the Wilson skin purchased by the National Museum of Australia in 1987.
- ^ Pask, A. J.; Behringer, R. R.; Renfree, M. B. (2008). "Resurrection of DNA function in vivo from an extinct genome". PLoS ONE 3 (5): e2240. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2240P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002240. PMC 2375112. PMID 18493600.
- ^ Sanderson, Katharine (20 May 2008). "Tasmanian tiger gene lives again". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news.2008.841.
- ^ Archer, Mike (March 2013). ". ted.com.
- ^ Brand, Stewart (February 2013). "Stewart Brand: The dawn of de-extinction. Are you ready?". ted.com.
- ^ a b University Librarian (24 September 2007). "The Exotic Thylacine". Imaging the Thylacine. University of Tasmania. Retrieved 30 April 2009.
- ^ Stephens, Matthew; Williams, Robyn (13 June 2004). "John Gould's place in Australian culture". Ockham's Razor. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 April 2009.
- ^ Government Tourist Bureau, Tasmania. Tasmania: The Wonderland. Hobart: Government Printer, Tasmania, 1934
- ^ a b c d "Imaging the Thylacine". University of Tasmania. 24 September 2007. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
- ^ Burns, Philip R. (6 July 2003). "Thylacine Stamps". Retrieved 21 November 2006.
- ^ "The Hunter". The Hunter. Penguin Books Australia. 19 October 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
- ^ Riley, Reese (13 June 2012). "Thylacine Anttagonist in Hit Novel". Retrieved 6 June 2012.
- Paddle, Robert (2000). The Last Tasmanian Tiger: the History and Extinction of the Thylacine. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53154-2.
Further reading[edit]
- Bailey, C. (2013) Shadow of the Thylacine. Five mile press. ISBN 9781743464854
- Guiler, E. (1985) Thylacine: The Tragedy of the Tasmanian Tiger. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-554603-3
- Guiler, E. & Godard, P. (1998) Tasmanian Tiger: A lesson to be learnt. Abrolhos Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9585791-0-0
- Guiler, E. R. (1961a). "Breeding season of the thylacine". Journal of Mammalogy 42 (3): 396–397. JSTOR 1377040.
- Guiler, E. R. (1961b). "The former distribution and decline of the Thylacine". Australian Journal of Science 23 (7): 207–210.
- Lord, C. (1927). "Existing Tasmanian marsupials". Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 61: 17–24.
- Lowry, D. C. (1967) "Discovery of a Thylacine (Tasmanian Tiger) Carcase in a Cave near Eucla, Western Australia". Helictite.
- Owen, David (2003). Thylacine: the Tragic Tale of the Tasmanian Tiger. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86508-758-0. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
- Pearce, R (1976). "Thylacines in Tasmania". Australian Mammal Society Bulletin 3: 58.
- Sleightholme, S. & Ayliffe, N. (2005) International Thylacine Specimen Database. CD-Rom. Master Copy: Zoological Society, London
- Smith, S. J. (1980) "The Tasmanian Tiger – 1980. A report on an investigation of the current status of thylacine Thylacinus cynocephalus, funded by the World Wildlife Fund Australia". Hobart: National Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania.


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Pork Joint Recipe
Jamie Oliver's proper old-school Sunday roast pork with crackling!
A peppery marmalade glaze gives slow-roasted pork a sweet and sticky attitude you will just love. Jamie Oliver's mouthwatering slow-roasted marmalade pork recipe is ready for the oven in less than 5 minutes!
Newcastle Family Life: Slow Cooker Slimming World Campfire Stew Recipe
Slow Cooker Gammon in Cola - this should be on your "must try in the Slow Cooker" list. Don't be alarmed by the supposed wackiness, Gammon cooked in Cola really works!
Cola ham with maple & mustard glaze - this is bloody lovely, just takes AGES
How to cook a ham in a slow cooker: it's cooked in Coke and then baked in a lovely sticky, aromatic glaze, a great yummy dish that the whole family will enjoy. Perfect served hot or cold.
Cola ham with maple & mustard glaze - BBC good food recipe.
A delicious Christmas recipe from the Hairy Bikers for honey and mustard glazed ham. Perfect to serve a party of 20 or use a smaller joint for a family meal.
An invigoratingly sticky and worryingly moreish spiced ham recipe that should be added to everyone's Christmas repertoire.
The Best Slow Cooker Gammon Recipe - http://www.mytaste.co.uk/r/the-best-slow-cooker-gammon-recipe-8208212.html

subset: commoncrawl


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We have excellent job Opening for General Manager - Human Resources with 10-20 yrs experience.
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Person From Real Estates, Infrastructures / Construction are preferred.
Human Resources Real Estates Recruitment Organisational Development Performance Management Job Opening Training & Development


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Collect Your Records — Preserve Web and Social Media
Content to Withstand any Evidentiary Challenge
- Complete, defensible records of web and social media properties
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How confident are you in your (or your clients) web and social media records?
If an eDiscovery request or order was made on your online content, would you be ready or would you be scrambling to collect the necessary records?
As the world goes increasingly online, lawsuits and criminal cases are requiring more evidence from websites and social media. The courts look at online content as another record, just as valid as any paper record. Therefore, any reasonable litigation preparedness strategy protects these records BEFORE they are needed.
"Social Media & eDiscovery – Collecting Online Conversations for Litigation"
Get your complimentary copy of our new publication featuring Gartner Research.Download Report
In many situations, it'd be impossible to recreate content; it might have been deleted or otherwise altered. Without an ongoing collection process, data can be lost, and any defense that relies on that data thrown out. Even if the records exist, will it be considered authenticated evidence? Are there processes in place that ensure the record is unassailable? Failure to deliver proper records can result in hefty fines, adverse publicity, and ultimately loss of business. Any organization that wants to avoid the risk of missing, incomplete or non-authenticated web and social media records needs to protect themselves with a proper archive.
Website and Social Media Archiving
An accurate and defendable archive is not merely a backup, a version or copy. Many organizations believe that they are covered as they still have the content. But is it in context? Is it exactly as it appeared on the day in question? Is it provable? Can it be authenticated to satisfy the needs of the court? After all, digital information is easy to alter, so without proper safeguards, the validity of the content can be questioned.
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Evidence Capture
Capturing evidence from online sources is easy and affordable using PageFreezer. Using a combination of digital signatures, timestamps, and other technologies, PageFreezer enables you to capture content in evidentiary quality to be used in disputes or litigation. Setting up PageFreezer to capture evidence from websites is easy. Simply log in to PageFreezer's dashboard and select 'Add Website'. Then you name the archive, type in the URL and specify how much of the site you want to capture and how often you want the snapshots to be taken. The sites are automatically crawled and then archived to your account where they can be replayed at any time through any web browser.
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PageFreezer enables law firms, in-house counsel and your clients to access the archives through any web browser for instant 'live' replay. The content is displayed exactly as it would have been seen on the day that the snapshot was taken. All files are stored in their native formats and they are not PDF files or screenshots.
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Hotels near Moscow ZIL Station
Search hotels near Moscow ZIL Station in Moscow
Get Secret Prices on select hotels
These prices aren't available to everyone.
Trending now in Moscow
Hotels within 0.5 miles of Moscow ZIL Station
- Most bookedAZIMUT Moscow Tulskaya Hotel
109 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Most recent review
"Rooms were well appointed but a bit small. It was warm in the room but only 22 degrees outside. We asked about the air conditioning & were told nothing could be done."
A Traveller, Jun 2015, GB
17 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Hotels within 1 mile of Moscow ZIL Station
39 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Most recent review
"The only problem was the bathtub is very slippery, my husband used the provided mat but fallen twice as mat was slippery on the surface too. he had a huge bruise on the inner thigh, do something else about the bathtubs, they might be dangerous and seriously harm somebody. All the rest is perfect..."
A Traveller, Oct 2016, US
Hotels within 2 miles of Moscow ZIL Station
- ibis Moscow PaveletskayaTop-rated for business travelers
209 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Most recent review
"Nice to stay Nearby train and metro station 5 to 10 minutos for centro "
A Traveller, Nov 2016, US
67 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
- Maxima Panorama HotelTop-rated for business travelers
28 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Most recent review
"It was good stay, comfortable bed. On flip side, bad TV, No english speaking staff."
A Traveller, Sep 2016, IN
27 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Most recent review
"I stayed here for an evening while returning home to my home city. It was in an area where I stay every time I travel home, and I am very familiar with the area. The hotel has good amenities and the rooms are quite comfortable. The only issue is that it has no elevator. But thankfully the hotel w..."
A Traveller, Oct 2015, CA
14 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Most recent review
"For the price paid we could not expect more from the hotel. Location is in the middle of nowhere but the transfer to the metro makes it easier. I dont mind that there is not toiletteries or enough towels but i dont like the fact that the rooms are not cleaned daily ( once evey 3 days) . Other tha..."
A Traveller, Jul 2016, US
- Vals HotelNo Guest Reviews yet
4 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
- TatianaNo Guest Reviews yet
3 people looked at this hotel in the last hour
Map of hotels near Moscow ZIL Station
- Red Square
- Crocus Expo Center
- Bolshoi Theatre
- Embassy of the United States of America
- Old Arbat (Stary Arbat)
- St. Basil's Cathedral
- Expocenter Krasnaya Presnya
- Crimean Bridge
- Moscow State University
- All-Russian Exhibition Centre
- Sokolniki Exhibition and Convention Centre
- Russian White House
- Moscow Conservatory
- Luzhniki Stadium
- Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts
- Patriarch's Pond
- Ostankino TV Tower
- Snej.Com All Weather Mountain Skiing Complex
- Megasport Arena
- GUM Department Store
Hotels in Moscow near Moscow ZIL Station
Are you looking for a cheap Moscow ZIL Station hotel, a 5 star Moscow ZIL Station hotel or a family friendly Moscow ZIL Station hotel? You just landed in the best site to find the best deals and offers on the most amazing accommodations for your stay.
When you search for hotels near Moscow ZIL Station with Hotels.com, you need to first check our online map and see the distance you will be from Moscow ZIL Station, Russia.
Our maps are based on hotel search and display areas and neighborhoods of each hotel so you can see how close you are from Moscow ZIL Station and refine your search within Moscow or Russia based on closest public transportation, restaurants and entertainment so you can easily get around the city. All the hotels details page show an option for free or paid onsite parking.
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Make the most out of your family vacation when you book your accommodation with Hotels.com – book your hotel near Moscow ZIL Station, Moscow after reviewing the facilities and amenities listed for each hotel.
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Moscow travel guides
Where to stay in Moscow – a neighborhood guide
Moscow is renowned for its expensive and exclusive hotels. If you're willing to spend over £200 a ni...
Moscow shopping guide – where to go and what to buy
Moscow is a delight for all shopping fans; whether you want to hit the high street stores or browse ...
Where to eat in Moscow – a food and dining guide
The metropolis of Moscow ranks highly when it comes to cuisine choices. Contrary to rumor, there are...


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Maren Tarro
Juárez: Bleeding but Still Breathing
A few miles from New Mexico, the border town is struggling for normalcy amid a drug war, corruption and exodus
By Maren Tarro
Walking through downtown Juárez, only steps from the border, Maria Vargas is unable to conceal her frustration and sadness. Where tourists and shoppers once crowded stalls and stores, heavily armed and masked Mexican troops now patrol. Shopkeepers lean in doorways, wariness at the edges of their eyes, their businesses deserted and hushed. The playful bargaining between customers and store owners is missing, along with the laughter and conversation that once spilled from restaurants and cantinas.
In Other Words
NMSU student uses poetry to fill in the blanks left by sparse reporting on the drug war
By Maren Tarro
Naomi Ruth Estrada, a 27-year-old English major at NMSU, was frustrated with the national media's sparse reporting on Mexico's violent drug war. So she put pen to paper last year to write "Speak a Stupid Brave," a poem using clips from articles she received through "Frontera NorteSur" e-mail updates. "Frontera" is an NMSU-based newsletter focusing on border issues.
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The Saturday Rumpus Essay: Twenty-Three Pieces of the Sunset Bowl
[A]ll over town, pits in the ground stayed pits in the ground. Those cavities were my consolation. For the moment, we were all in the hole. ...more
If you're heading out onto the job for the first time, you'd probably better wait a moment and watch Staplerfahrer Klaus, the most important safety-training video in any language. Matter of fact, it wouldn't hurt to buy the DVD, either....more


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The average cost for a Exhaust Muffler Replacement is between $1289 and $1309. Labor costs are estimated between $70 and $89 while parts are priced between $1219 and $1220. Estimate does not include taxes and fees.
Exhaust Muffler Replacement Cost for Honda Crosstour
Exhaust Muffler Replacement Estimate (National Average)
Validated estimate range for national average.
View Estimate Details
Parts & Labor Breakdown
Labor: $70 - $89
Parts: $1219 - $1220
Estimate does not include taxes and fees.
Last step before receiving your estimate:


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2019 Mercedes-Benz CLS spy shots Spy Shots
36 minutes ago
36 minutes ago
Aston Martin snags top Ferrari engineer Industry
3 hours ago
3 hours ago
First Drives
Auto Shows
Spy Shots
Car Tech
It's never easy to create a new version of something that already exists in a given market. Take, for example, the police car. For decades, the Ford Crown Victoria has been the king of the cop cruiser hill. Unfortunately, the Panther platform was retired, which means no new Crown Vics were on the... read more


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Prices, promotions, styles and availability may vary by store and online.
Action - Semi-Auto
Caliber - .223 Rem./5.56 NATO
Barrel Length - 17-1/2"
Weight - 6.8 Lbs.
Sights -
The design that has stood the test of time and has only improved during the era of AR innovation, the M-15A2 is ArmaLite's semi-automatic civilian version of the famed M16-A2 service rifle. Originated by the desire for a rifle that was durable, reliable, weather resistant, long-lasting and dead on accurate, the A2 design is an outstanding tactical rifle design, excellent for law enforcement, hunting or collecting. The double-lapped and chrome-lined maganese phosphated steel barrel is the basis of ArmaLite's rifles' superb accuracy. The M14 also features an anodized aluminum receiver and a tactical two stage trigger. This rifle has a flat-top receiver, an adjustable stock and comes with a 30-round magazine. Its stock, metal, and bore are all in very good condition.


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Fitness Gift Guide: 6 for $60 and Under!
Give the gift of fitness this holiday season with some of my favorite get-fit goodies that won't break the bank! Inspire someone to move with fun workout gear, read up on the best destination runs, or pick upa fun gadget or two. This list has it all.
](http://blog.self.com/fitness/blogs/freshfitnesstips/assets_c/2010/12/PS1210871-506_F-88911.html)Cold weather gear that looks oh-so-cool!*
Long May You Run*](http://www.amazon.net/)**-($24.99) A book for runner's written by* a runner filled with tips, strategies, can't miss races, and more.
](http://blog.self.com/fitness/blogs/freshfitnesstips/assets_c/2010/12/newpackage-green%20background-89233.html)Boot Tights-($30.00) Socks+Tights=Comfy! Show-off your sexy sculpted post-workout legs while still pampering your feet. Love these!
Enter for a chance to win fun workout gear and more and design your free workout video today--a great at-home workout for the busy holiday season!


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Choosing a health insurance plan is a daunting chore even for me, and I make my living educating consumers about health insurance. I can totally understand why people who don't have a lot of experience with health insurance might just give up and buy the cheapest health insurance plan they can find. However, if your goal is to pay as little as possible in overall health care expenses each year, choosing the cheapest health insurance plan could be a mistake.

Why not just buy the cheapest health insurance plan? After all, lower monthly premiums mean less money coming out of your pocket each month. That should mean it's the cheapest way to go, right? Wrong!

For most people, the total cost of health care expenses includes the cost-sharing expenses associated with using their health insurance as well as the monthly premiums for buying the health insurance. In many health plans, cost-sharing expenses like the deductible, copayments, and coinsurance can add over $6,000 to your annual health care expenses depending on how much health care you need.

In addition, most people have some health care expenses that aren't covered by their current health insurance. These are known as exclusions. For example, if your health insurance doesn't cover acupuncture and you see an acupuncturist, your health plan won't pay for your acupuncture treatments. You would have to pay for those treatments out of your own pocket. The money you spend on exclusions won't even count toward your deductible.

However, if you find a health plan that does offer this benefit, you might save money with that plan even though it's not the cheapest. You would come out ahead because the more expensive plan would pay for your acupuncture treatments.

Total Health Care Expenses = Premiums + Cost-Sharing + Non-Covered Expenses.

When trying to decide which health insurance plan is the cheapest, look at the whole picture of your health care expenses, not just at the monthly premium cost for the health plan.

If you buy the cheapest health insurance plan, you're only looking at part of the equation. By ignoring your cost-sharing expenses and your non-covered health care expenses, you're ignoring two-thirds of the equation. Instead, aim for the lowest overall health care expenses. Along with premiums, take cost-sharing and non-covered expenses into account when you choose a health insurance plan.

Seen in that light, the health plan with the lowest premium is probably not the cheapest overall plan for most people. Unless you're totally healthy and don't expect to use anything other than preventive health care services* for the entire year, you'll do better to include all three parts of the equation when you're deciding which health insurance plan is the cheapest option.

Having trouble including your cost-sharing expenses in the equation because you don't know how to estimate them? Learn how in, "How To Estimate Your Health Insurance Cost-Sharing Expenses."

*Thanks to the Affordable Care Act, ACA-compliant health insurance plans like those sold on government health insurance exchanges must pay for preventive services without requiring cost-sharing like deductibles, copays, or coinsurance from you as long as you stay in-network.


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MORTON UNDER-20s didn't quite do what was expected of them yesterday but Greg hopes more from the Eupen v Patro match tonight.
Greg didn't put up a nap yesterday but he has one for tonight from the Belgian second division and will add a full write-up later so watch the comments section.
Eupen v Patro (7.30pm)
Over 2.5 Eupen team goals
(4-5, Coral)
Greg Browning


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Evan Stripe Duvet Cover & Sham
- Overview
Our Evan bedding's crisp stripes effortlessly coordinate with, and invigorate, the look of other patterns and solids.
- Woven of a 55% linen and 45% cotton blend.
- Reverses to pure cotton with same pattern.
- Duvet features a button closure; sham has an envelope closure.
- Duvet cover, sham, and insert sold separately.
- Our Easy-Care finish ensures that bedding emerges smooth from the dryer.
- Machine wash.
- Imported.
- Dimensions & Care
- Twin: 68" wide x 86" long
- Full, Queen: 88" wide x 92" long
- King, Cal. King: 108" wide x 92" long
- Standard: 26" wide x 20" high
- Euro: 26" square
- King: 36" wide x 20" high
- Flange: 2" wide
- Wash before first use.
- Machine wash cold water, gentle cycle.
- Use only non chlorine bleach when needed.
- Tumble dry low, remove promptly.
- Shipping & Return Info
This is a general shipping item.
Shipping Information
Hassle Free Returns
We take great pride in the quality and craftsmanship of each and every Pottery Barn product and we hope you love your purchase. If for any reason you do not, you have 30 days – or 7 days for all Quick Ship upholstery items – to return your purchase for a full refund or exchange. You can return most non-furniture items to your local Pottery Barn store, free of charge.
Delivery fees are non-refundable and prior purchases are not eligible for a price adjustment. The following items are non-eligible for returns or exchanges:
- Monogrammed items
- Mattresses
- Gift cards
- Special-order items (including made-to-order upholstery and custom order rugs)
- Final Sale items (identified by a price ending in $.X7 or $.X9)
- Items damaged through normal wear and tear.
Questions? See our full Return Policy.


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- Illinois State Systemic Improvement Plan – Phase III
- Illinois State Systemic Improvement Plan – Phase II
Facebook Feed
Families are the heart of early intervention and we have many resources to help families and children thrive.
Jami Louise
"The better able we are to connect and provide parents with support, resources, and guidance, the greater the positive impact on children. Family engagement is an integral component of services provision for all children." Zero to Three
Zero to Three provides research-based resources for families and practitioners supporting infants and toddlers. Follow this link to find resources related to Family Engagement and Family Support. You can find specific information on engaging fathers and strategies to connect families to appropriate services. There is a video series sharing the importance of father involvement from the perspective of fathers, policy makers and researchers. #familyengagementinEI
Spreading the word about the Early Intervention Clearinghouse today at the Health Science Librarians of Illinois conference. So many great resources to share!
Mobile technology has changed many things, including how we interact with young children. Are you for strategies to balance technology use with parenting young children? Check out some ideas here: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161012102648.htm
Plugged-in parenting: How parental smartphone use may affect kids
Parents' use of mobile technology around young children may be causing internal tension, conflicts and negative interactions with their kids, suggests a small qualitative study.


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Distances are calculated in a straight line and may not reflect actual travel distance.
It is important to note that this mortgage calculator is for guidance purposes only. Mortgage lenders have their own affordability criteria therefore it is important you speak to one of our Mortgage Advisers for further information and a more accurate indication of what products may be available to you and what your monthly mortgage payments are likely to be.
This family 3 bedroom property with double garage, garden, kitchen, lounge, dining room and bathroom is ready to move straight into. With gas central heating and off road parking for 2 cars in the double garage this home would suit a growing family or someone looking to invest. Viewing is recommended.
Contact branch for relevant Energy Performance Certificate
With stairs to the first floor.
Double glazed uPVC bay window. Views to the front.
Double glazed uPVC window, radiator, under stair storage.
Double glazed uPVC window, composite work surface with wall and base units, inset sink, space for oven with extractor over.
Double glazed uPVC window, radiator, a built-in wardrobe.
Double glazed uPVC window, radiator.
Double glazed uPVC window, radiator.
Double glazed uPVC window, heated towel rail, low level WC, panelled bath, pedestal wash hand basin, extractor fan.
A well presented long garden with a decking area and some gravelled areas. The garden leads to the double garage.
The double garage is accessed from the road behind the property. The garage has a personal door to the side and timber double doors to the front.
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Showing results for "Soup Bowl". Did you mean Sofa Brown
1401 matching items were found.
Sort By
✔ Free Delivery ✔ 30-Day Replacement Guarantee ✔ Cash on Delivery ✔ Combo Deals.
1401 offers for Soup Bowl across various categories like Furniture, Sofas, Beds, Center & Coffee Tables, Desks & Tables, TV & Entertainment Units, Dressing Tables & Mirrors, Bedside Tables, Wardrobes, Bar & Outdoor, Bean Bags, Dining Chairs & Benches, Storage, Shoe Cabinets, Bookshelf & Bookcases, Dining Tables, Dining Sets, Drawers, Stools, Wall Units, Office Chairs, SINGLE SEATER SOFAS, THREE SEATER SOFAS, SOFA SETS, RECLINERS, NA, Honey brown, Brown and brands like Comfort Couch, Royal Oak, Natural Living, EVOK, VIVE are available.