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Well I'm no scientist or doctor or biologist… but I have been asked, way too many times when teaching the life cycle unit, this question, "Which Came First… The Chicken or the Egg?" If I wasn't able to refer to Genesis 1:24, I definitely wouldn't know the answer… but Learning Resources created an amazing tool to allow our younger students to really see what a 21-day cycle inside the egg would look like.
This Chick Life Cycle Exploration Set by Learning Resources offers each egg as a cross-section so the students can visually see each stage as the chick develops. With this set you can easily develop a unit integrating many subject areas:
Science: Students discover 21-days of development inside the egg. They are able to observe the development and compare to other creatures. They can also make an educated hypothesis for the following day based on what they have seen so far.
Language: With a list of scientific vocabulary included, students are able to study and correlate the words with what they are seeing and learning in the daily cycle.
Writing: Allow the students to write a creative piece as if they were growing in the mind of the chick. This will give you the opportunity as a teacher to teach them about imaginative thinking and writing.
Reading: Read a unit of books based on chickens! Here are some suggestions:
- Chickerella by Mary Jane and Herm Auch
- The Red Hen by Rebecca Emberly and Ed Emberly
- Farm by Elisha Cooper
Field Trip: Who doesn't love a good outing! Besides all the preparation, its always a blast and a great learning experience for your students. After the 21 days are all completed, I would encourage you and your class to go to a farm or local zoo. It'll give them a chance to see the whole unit through and of course… have another perspective on life development!


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The Tanzania Police Force has been commended for establishing a special unit to take care of the safety requirements of diplomatic mission members and other foreign tourists visiting destination Tanzania.
The commendation was given by the Tanzania Tourist Board Managing Director, Dr. Aloyce Nzuki, when the Commanding Officer the Unit, Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP) Mary Nzuki, paid a courtesy call on him to explore ways of co-operation
Introducing herself to the TTB chief executive, ACP Nzuki said that Tanzania Police Force had decided to form that special Unit to ensure that tourists who come to Tanzania enjoy maximum security throughout their stay. "We in the Police Force recognized that it was high time we established the special unit which will be responsible for the security of diplomats and tourists visiting our country".
She noted that her visit that was also to cover other stakeholders was is mainly aimed at learning more about the tourism and hospitality industry and establishing how they could work together for the benefit of the industry and the nation as a whole. She assured the assured Tanzania Tourist Board and other stakeholders of her full support.
Dr. Nzuki said that the Police Force move would make a significant impact on the development of the tourism industry in Tanzania because peace and security are critical factors in attracting more visitors to any destination. "You may be endowed with unique tourist attractions but if there is no peace and security tourists will never come" he pointed out.
ACP Mary Nzuki, formerly the Mtwara Regional Police Commander, was transferred to the Police Headquarters in a recent reshuffle by the Inspector General of Police (IGP) Said Mwema to head the newly established Unit.
Addressing the 2013/2014 Budget Session, the Minister for Home Affairs, Dr Emmanuel Nchimbi, announced that in an effort to reduce crime in the country, the Government had decided to establish special units within the Tanzania Police Force to address security issues pertaining to investment ventures, mining in particular, tourism and environment.
The Mining and Tourism sectors are Tanzania's leading foreign exchange earners. The tourism industry is currently under the stress of illegal hunting that is threatening the elephant population and black rhinos.

subset: commoncrawl


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To buy tickets, call these numbers - 07052985326, 08082295406.
Or purchase your tickets online at Felainlagos.com
You can also get all the info you need about the Broadway play at the website.
News, Events, Entertainment, Lifestyle, Fashion, Beauty, Inspiration and yes... Gossip! *Wink*
|On stage from left - Chimamanda Adichie, Nuhu Ribadu, Dele Momodu and Shekarau
|Victor Moses watching from the bench as Nigeria defeated Ethiopia 4-0 during the African Cup of Nations qualifying match in Abuja on March 27, 2011.
|The latest Nokia phone...the E7
|Pix thanks to Seriously Doughnuts
Something close to what one will call an explosion occurred some minutes ago at the Balmoral Event center in Oregun. We gathered on good authority that the talk of the town event centre had been reduced to ashes as a result of a fire out break.


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It's official...Fred and I are now the proud parents of a 5-week-old dachshund puppy. I'd like to introduce Knox Barksdale Smithwick. He was born on November 1, 2008.
We drove to the Nashville area yesterday and picked him out. We were able to meet his mother and father. His mother is a light, red short hair and his father is a black and tan short hair. Both are miniature dachshunds. He is adorable and I can't wait to bring him home. The bad thing is that we can't bring him home until the 21st of December, but I know that it'll be well worth the wait.


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20 mile radius
Please introduce a postcode to use this feature
Overview This 1 day course covers all the basic aspects of exporting. It is designed for people who may be new to exporting plus experienced business people who may need to keep up with industry...more
Duration: 1 day
Multiple levels
Full time
Professional Qualification
Do you throw an awesome party? Are you super organised and great at multi-tasking? Answer 'yes' and you could make a great event manager! Whether it's an international football match or a school fete – all events need to be...
Anyone who reads the party pages of Hello will have at some point wished they had been invited to some of the fancy parties the rich and famous have held. We can't promise you any invites, or the kind of riches that mean you can hold your own...


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Nursing leaders warned today that the workforce was considering industrial action for the first time in its history because of exasperation at cuts to essential services.
Peter Carter, the chief executive of the Royal College of Nursing (RCN), said nurses were now discussing action of some form. He said it reflected the unparalleled pressures they were under at an unprecedented time of turbulence within the NHS.
"This is what nurses are talking about. It is a symptom of their frustration. They keep being told [by ministers] that the NHS is protected and it isn't. That is just a myth.


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Another title that I've seen where the sum doesn't equal the parts. What went wrong here was bad plot management and character development.
The story itself had a lot of potential for greatness, and in some ways it was great. Sadly due to bad plot management and a poor resolution, that is to say almost none, it just tore down what would have been a good story. Episode transitions were sometimes confusing at best, and outright nonsensical at worst. I never did get the "mini-series" in the show, it seemed like they were trying to go for something and came up short.
The art here was quite good most of the time, the action was fluid and detailed, most of the characters were uniquely drawn, but they had to go with crazy hair colors for some reason. The landscapes were great to look at but the cityscapes just seemed cookie cutter to me.
Once again, nothing in here that made me swoon, as is usually the case since I never really pay much attention to it. Unless something really sticks out in either direction this is a category that's just there.
There were several characters here so I understand that it was hard to do much in the way of character development, and some really did grow and change to some degree. Sadly there were a lot of characters that mostly only managed to annoy me. The male lead was especially confusing since he never seemed to solidify as a particular type but waver from several in any given episode. There were also lot of characters where they didn't tell you anything about them but just seemed to be there as background noise. There was almost no resolution in the interactions so the show really seemed to go nowhere.
Sadly there were just too many issues with this title that I couldn't ignore or overlook, It's worth watching if you have nothing better to do but I still say try to find something more worth your time first. I couldn't help but feel lost half the time because a lot of these characters seemed to have background stories which they didn't share. I suspect this was based on a video game and that's where those stories are. This may be where the show failed as a whole since it didn't take into account that there were non-fans of that game watching without a clue as to what was going on. If I'm wrong, and there was no video game for this title, then the show was an epic failure and even less worth your time. :P
There where supposed to be 3 more seasons of it. But the writer or director not sure witch died so they stopped the series.
I completely agree with you on this. I believe that this anime had alot going for it, but 24 episodes couldn't contain it for them. Plenty of animes can progress wonderfully through a small amount of episodes, but this show presented far to much material to be summed up in a couple of episodes. Perhaps a video game or manga adaptation would be better *shrugs*


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A 15-year old Swedish boy collapsed and went into convulsions after a 24-hour session of the World of Warcraft expansion, Wrath of the Lich King. According to Times Online:
"Doctors told the father that his son's bodily systems had been disrupted by a combination of sleep deprivation, lack of food, and the prolonged period of concentration playing the game."
Unfortunately, politicians and annoying activists will use this story to illustrate the evils of gaming. The focus will be on how this wicked game sent this poor boy into epileptic seizures. The focus should be on what a moron this kid is for neglecting his basic bodily needs and what a crappy father he has for letting him end up in this condition.


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Rowayton Gardeners' holiday fundraising events kick off this year with silent auction bids starting Monday, November 26 – Thursday, November 29 from 10 am – 5 pm in the Board Room at the Rowayton Community Center, 33 Highland Avenue in Rowayton.
Public bidding will continue and conclude at the close of Rowayton Gardeners' Christmas Market on Sat., Dec. 1 from 10 am – 1 pm.
Dozens of diverse items will be presented including day spa treatments, gift certificates for flower arrangements, local restaurant dining, fine culinary items, wine baskets, and coveted tickets to the Westport Playhouse. A beautiful black hat, arm warmers and a circle scarf set arrive from Hat Attack. And pet grooming and pet store supplies are enjoyable features. One popular item includes a Joan Carrutheres Photography Session.
Profits from Rowayton Gardeners Silent Auction and Christmas Market enhance award-winning beautification projects and environmental education underway.


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Dragon Age: Dawn of the Seeker
Dragon Age: Dawn of the Seeker - DVD & Blu-ray
Trailer | TV-MA
In a time of darkness and barbarism, the Chantry has arisen—a religious order seeking to bring stability to a world corrupted by sinister magic. Led by the Divine, the Chantry's Templar warriors ruthlessly restrain the Mages and their magical cabals. But when the Templars fail, the most elite order of the Chantry takes charge—the Seekers!
Official Site: www.funimation.com/shows/dragon-age-dawn-of-the-seekerHide Details


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AUGUSTA — Top Democrats on the state's Health and Human Services Committee on Monday introduced a proposal to cancel the state's $1 million no-bid contract with the controversial consultant Gary Alexander. The bill comes as lawmakers look to fill an estimated $70 million budget hole for fiscal year 2014.
Alexander was hired by Governor Paul LePage to study the state's safety net programs and Medicaid expansion. The first report from Alexander's consulting firm, was a month late, contained seriously flaws, and a $575 million error. As Pennsylvania Department of Public Welfare, Alexander's mismanagement and failed policies cost Pennsylvania taxpayers $7 million and resulted in 89,000 children losing health care.
"This is just one more in a tragic series of management errors from Governor LePage that is costing Maine taxpayers lots of money with little positive outcome," Rep. Richard Farnsworth of Portland, the House Chair of the Health and Human Services Committee. "This kind of mismanagement has got to come to an end and this is where we need to start."
The state has already paid Alexander $185, 040 from federal and state dollars designated to help struggling families who are forced to turn to the state's Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program. The Alexander Group is expected to provide additional reports to lawmakers in the coming months.
Governor LePage is a self-described "turnaround specialist" from the private sector, but his administration has been plagued by mismanagement that has hurt Maine people and the state's economy.
In recent months, the LePage administration lost $20 million in federal funding for Riverview Psychiatric Center by ignoring federal law, squandered $28 million on a "lame duck" contractor for MaineCare transportation services, and is currently under investigation for alleged document shredding at the Maine Centers for Disease Control.
"The Alexander Report fiasco is yet another example of Governor LePage's pattern of mismanagement," said Senator Margaret Craven of Lewiston, the Senate Chair of the Health and Human Services Committee. "His failure to lead and inability to manage are hurting Maine people and Maine's economy."
Maine now ranks 50th among states in private sector job growth since January 2011, according to the Maine Center for Economic Policy's analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics, Regional and State Employment and Unemployment Data.
The bill, "An Act to Cancel the No-Bid Alexander Group Contract to Produce Budget Savings in Fiscal Year 2014," will be referred to committee in the coming weeks.


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And here it is NOW!
Also - at vintage printables, I clicked the picture I wanted, highlighted it and right clicked to copy. Then I pasted it in a Word document(margins set at .5 all around), right clicked again to resize at 10.5 height. Then I dragged the right margin to about 7.45. This allowed the print to fit perfectly in the matting.
So, what do you think?
It's so very RENOVATED!


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A group of Ball State business and telecommunications students have produced a documentary film entitled "Increasing Your Odds: How to Start a Business." The target markets for the film are incubation centers, start-up advisors and academic entrepreneurship programs. The film is designed to help the naïve but aspiring entrepreneur avoid crucial mistakes in developing a business. The content is not highly abstract, specific or theoretical; but emphasizes simple points that academics and practitioners agree are essential to starting a successful business. It is an engaging, entertaining and inspiring documentary.
The film unfolds along the following thematic lines:
"Passionate Commitment." — "Pass the Market Test" — "The Business Plan" — "Implementing the Business Plan" — "Persistence"
The film features a number of successful start-up businesses in various stages of development to dramatically illustrate the abovementioned points. In addition, experts in business start-ups are featured. The companies examined include Big Sky Brewing of Missoula, Montana; Air Robotics LLC of Muncie, Indiana; Blue Bottle Coffee Shop of Muncie, Indiana; Vera Bradley Designs of Ft Wayne, Indiana; Ball Corporation of Broomfield, Colorado and Anheuser-Busch of St Louis, Missouri.
View full trailer from the Ball State University Web site below:


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Hewitt A.J., M.E. Teske and H.W. Thistle. February 2001. 'The Development of the AgDRIFT® Model for Aerial Application from Helicopters and Fixed Wing Aircraft'. Proceedings of the Conference on Pesticide Drift, Canberra, Australia
Potter W.D., W. Bi, D.B. Twardus, H.W. Thistle, M.J. Twery, J. Ghent and M.E. Teske. 2001. 'Handling the Back Calculation Problem in Aerial Spray Models Using a Genetic Algorithm'. Practical Applications of Artificial Intelligence Techniques. Eds. L. Jain and P. DeWilde, Kluwer Publishing, New York, NY.
Schou W.C., B. Richardson, M.E. Teske and H.W. Thistle. 2001. 'SpraySafe Manager 2 - Integration of GIS with an Aerial Herbicide Application Decision Support System'. Paper # 01-1050, American Society of Agriculutral Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
Skyler P. and H. Thistle. August 2001. 'Eleventh Report-National Spray Model and Application Technology Working Group Meeting. FHTET 01-08, Morgantown, WV.
Teske M.E., A.E. Kaufman, H.W. Thistle, A.J. Hewitt and D.L. Valcore. May 2001. 'Droplet Evaporation Corrections for Aerial Spray Drift Modeling'. ILASS Americas, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, Dearborn, MI.
Teske M.E. and H.W. Thistle. 2001. 'Atmospheric Stability Effects in Aircraft Near-Wake Modeling'. Paper # 01-1048, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
Thistle H. and P. Skyler. June 2001. 'Pheromone Placement Tracer Test Experimental Design, 2001'. FHTET-01-11.
Thistle H.W., M.E. Teske and W.D. Potter. 2001. 'The Use of Genetic and Amoeba Algorithms in Combination with a Lagrangian Solver to Simulate Dispersion and Deposition of Droplets Originating in Aircraft Wakes'. Proceedings of the NAFEMS World Congress - Volume 2, NAFEMS Ltd. (National Association for Finite Elements and Standards), Glasgow, UK.
Thistle H.W., M.E. Teske and D.B. Twardus. May 2001. 'Zeroing in on Forest Enemies'. Resource. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Vol. 8 No. 5, pp. 7-8.
Throop W., H. Thistle and R. Beckley. 2001. 'Leaf Area Measurements in Four Forest Canopies Using a Plant Canopy Analyzer and Hemispherical Photography'. Paper 01-8020, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
Trent A., R. Fisher, H. Thistle and R. Babbitt. October, 2000. 'Evaluation of Real-Time Particulate Monitors for Smoke Environments'. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference: Air Pollution from Agricultural Operations, ASAE St. Joseph MI.


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Category Archives: social media
The Spencer S. Eccles Health Sciences Library, in collaboration with six partners, received a grant from the Office of Research on Women's Health (ORWH) and the National Library of Medicine of the NIH to highlight and extend the wealth of resources available from the NIH and its Institutes and Centers on sex and gender differences […]
Predicting disease outbreaks using…Twitter?
While raising ethical concerns, monitoring Twitter and other social media may anticipate disease outbreaks faster than traditional data-gathering methods.
Pitfalls and positives of social media in medicine today
A new study in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) "surveyed the 68 executive directors of all medical and osteopathic boards in the United States and its territories about violations of online professionalism reported to them." Of those that responded, 92% indicated at least one of a list of online professional violations had […]
LIFT Forum: How to Effectively Use YouTube in the Workplace
The Wednesday, April 11, 2012 Library and Information Technology Forum features Jake O'Connor, Program Coordinator, Financial & Business Services, talking about How to Effectively Use YouTube in the Workplace. Please join us in the Spencer F. and Cleone P. Eccles Health Sciences Education Building, Room 3515 B at 12:05-1:00 p.m. for this program. Program Description: […]
Didn't need an app for that
Can't find a good dashboard app? On librarian built one using existing Web 2.0 tools, and shared how it was done.
Keeping Current with Social Media workshop on April 6th
Join us for a "Keeping Current with Social Media" workshop, Friday, 4/6/12
Internet privacy: a growing concern
Internet users want it both ways: quality search results that come from Google and other online services tracking their data, and protection from having online activities tracked.
New report on youth and digital media
Recent Harvard study looks at the information-seeking behaviors of youth ages 18 and under, finding that context and demographics also play a critical role.
Teaching medical students to use social media at John Hopkins U
Dr. Margaret "Meg" Chisolm is an advocate for use of Twitter in demystifying psychiatry, and connecting with patients. She is conducting a pilot study on using it in med school.
Twitter at the State of the Union address
Popular blogger The Librarian in Black (a.k.a. Sarah Houghton) describes her experience about participating in a "State of the Union Tweet-up" in her latest blog post.


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Google Tool Helps Mobile Apps Developers Find, Fix Smartphone Errors
Google adds a "Smartphone errors" tab to its Webmaster Tools panel so developers can find code that isn't working for mobile users.Google knows that if a company's customers can't get to the company's Website using their mobile devices, they can't buy anything from the site. And to fix that very vexing problem, Google has added a new "Smartphone errors" tool to its Webmaster Tools arsenal so that Web developers can find and fix coding errors that would otherwise prevent mobile buyers from reaching their targeted Web pages. The new tool was unveiled in a Dec. 4 post by Pierre Far, a Google Webmaster trends analyst, on the Google Webmaster Central Blog. With mobile buyers becoming more prevalent every day, the new tool will be a lifeline for developers to be sure that mobile buyers can reliably connect with the Websites that they are seeking. "Some smartphone-optimized Websites are misconfigured in that they don't show searchers the information they were seeking," wrote Far. "For example, smartphone users are shown an error page or get redirected to an irrelevant page, but desktop users are shown the content they wanted. Some of these problems, detected by Googlebot as crawl errors, significantly hurt your Website's user experience and are the basis of some of our recently announced ranking changes for smartphone search results." These errant searches are critical for businesses to avoid because smartphone users are an increasingly large revenue source for companies in terms of online sales and customer contact. If those customers can't reach the sites they seek, then Web page developers need to know about the problems in the pages. That's the motivation for the new tool, wrote Far.
"Starting today, you can use the expanded Crawl Errors feature in Webmaster Tools to help identify pages on your sites that show these types of problems," he wrote. "We're introducing a new Smartphone errors tab where we share pages we've identified with errors only found with Googlebot for smartphones."
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[i]Nik Halik paid for his training to be back-up to Richard Garriott although he would not have flown even if Garriott had been disqualified.[/i]
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I. Introduction
This short extract gives you a taste of the personal "Child's Horoscope" by Liz Greene. The small samples taken from various chapters convey an impression of the complete horoscope (18-25 pages) which can be ordered as an E-Horoscope or a bound book in the AstroShop.Most parents long to provide their children with the best they can offer on every level. But what is "the best"? The birth horoscope of a child is a map of patterns and potentials which exist in that child from the moment of birth. Encouragement of these potentials in childhood can help a child to develop greater confidence and hope for a future which is more authentically his or her own, so that greater happiness and fulfillment are possible later in life. II. Your Child's Psychological Type
In this concise chapter Liz Greene describes the child's general temperament and her characteristic approach to life.The rich array of individual abilities and potentials portrayed in J.A.'s birth horoscope is set against the background of an inherent temperament bias which may be partly hereditary but is also the reflection of a mysterious essence which belongs to her alone. This mysterious "something" is already at work within J.A., helping her to develop her personality along the lines which are healthiest and most natural to her. [..] She may willingly agree to this, but it will ultimately build up great resentment within her. Her innate love of harmony and closeness needs to be balanced by a capacity to withstand conflict and separateness. Although J.A. is highly responsive and intuitive about the [...] III. The Characters in the Story
This is one of the most comprehensive chapters of the "Child's Horoscope". This short version touches only on a few of the central characters in your child's personality. The complete report provides a detailed description on 7-9 pages.The tension between the main characters in J.A.'s inner story is the source of energy which provides the impetus for growth, movement and the formation of a healthy individuality. [..] If there are unaired conflicts or unspoken animosities amongst family members, she will feel them and express her distress. But as she gets older she will gradually become more able to recognise the source of such feelings, and her immediate response will be to try to offer [...] [..] But there is likely to be a recurring sense of anxiety in J.A. which is triggered by any difficult undercurrents she senses in others, as well as by any change in the environment which could result in the possibility of isolation. She may become very sulky and moody at [...] Hidden traits [..] A powerful craving for freedom will inevitably rise to the surface if she is too enmeshed in her emotional bonds with others and is not developing her own individuality sufficiently. This impulse to break free is really a hidden strength which needs to be understood and [...] IV. Emotional Needs and Patterns in Relationships
This chapter contains valuable information on the child's basic needs and the relationship with her parents. The complete horoscope covers this chapter on 5-6 pages.Every child has particular ways in which he or she experiences and seeks emotional contact with others, and this may not always accord with other, more dominant personality traits. [..] For this reason one of the greatest challenges of her childhood will be the necessity to grow beyond her fear of fundamental human aloneness. Her refined and empathetic emotional nature can always distinguish between a subtle but genuine feeling of rapport and a flamboyant [...] [..] It is likely that this image is not wholly in the girl's imagination, and that her mother really does have many special qualities which inspire her. J.A.'s mother does not need to strive to be anything more than what she truly is. The more honest the mother can be about [...] V. Fears and Insecurities
Knowing about their child's fears can help parents to react with love and understanding in challenging situations. The child's main fears and insecurities are described on 2-3 pages in the full report.VI. Looking toward the future
Many parents wonder about the future of their child. Every child has her own way to develop her potential. What this means for the individual child is described on 2-3 pages in chapter six of the complete Child's Horoscope.
These small samples from different chapters convey an impression of the Child's Horoscope which comprises 18 - 25 pages. It can be ordered as an E-Horoscope or bound booklet in the Astroshop. Please read a complete sample report (of a different person) to get an overview of the extent of the complete horoscope.You may wish to take a look at the large selection of other reports.


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You purchased this item onView this order
Ecover, Zero, Laundry Powder, 0% Fragrance, 48 oz (1.36 kg) (Discontinued Item)
- You earn loyalty credit for every order you place at iHerb!
- Loyalty credit is equal to 10% of the value of your order, excluding shipping charges.
- Your loyalty credit will be applied towards your next order as soon as your current order has shipped.
- Your loyalty credits are valid for up to 60 days from the date of your last purchase.
Shipping Weight:?3.84 lbs (1.74 kg)Shipping WeightThe Shipping Weight includes the product, protective packaging material and the actual shipping box. In addition, the Shipping Weight may be adjusted for the Dimensional Weight (e.g. length, width & height) of a package. It is important to note that certain types of products (e.g. glass containers, liquids, fragile, refrigerated or ice packed) will often require protective packaging material. As such, these products will reflect a higher Shipping Weight compared to the unprotected product.
- Product Code: ECV-12201
- UPC Code: 728997122016
- Package Quantity: 48 oz (1.36 kg)
- Dimensions: 2.6 x 6.3 x 9 in, 3.25 lbs (1.47 kg)
- 20 = 26 - Toploaders = HE Machine
- h·e
- Formulated for High Efficiency & Standard Machines
- 0% Fragrance
- 0% Optical Brighteners
- 0% Chlorine
- Tough on Dirt
- Plant-Based and Mineral Ingredients
- No Phosphates
- No Dyes or Coloring Agents
- Not Tested on Animals
- Suitable for Septic Tanks
- Biodegradable
Suggested Use
|Medium Loads
|75 ml ± 1/4 cup
|100 ml ± 2/5 cup
|Large Loads or Heavily Soiled Medium Loads
|130 ml ± 1/2 cup
|175 ml ± 3/4 cup
|Heavily Soiled Large Loads
|160 ml ± 2/3 cup
|215 ml ± 4/5 cup
Not suitable for wool and silk
Suitable for colors and white laundry. Wash garment according to manufacturer's instructions. Check for colorfastness. For best results, pour powder into machine as it fills with water then add laundry.
HE - follow machines instruction's for use.
Washing Tips
For woolens and other delicate fabrics use Ecover Delicate Wash. Use Ecover Stain Remover to treat tough stains before washing. Choose the lowest possible washing temperature to reduce your C02 footprint.
Correct dosing reduces the impact of washing on the environment
Caution: Eye irritant. See back panel.
Keep out of reach of children; Eye irritant. In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice. If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately and show packaging.
Zeolite, sodium C12-18 alkyl sulfate, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium silicate, sodium poly asparaginate, fatty acids methyl esters ethoxylates, sodium citrate, sodium sulfate, sodium oleate, aqua, cellulose gum, amylase, subtilisin, trisodium ethylenediamine disuccinate.
Good laundry detergent! Doesn't cause irritation of skin. ผงซักฟอกที่ดี ไม่ก่อให้เกิดการระคายเคืองผิวหนัง ในรัสเซียมีราคาแพงกว่ามาก
I've tried other brands and I want my clothes to be completely clean. This cleans better than traditional detergents. There's no residue left and it gets out all those tough grease stains. I don't even have to pretreat with the stick by Ecover, this powder takes it all away. I need 1/2 cup per load, which makes this powder impractical at this size and price. I will continue to use it because it's the best!
This Laundry powder sprinkled all over my place!
Posted by 5708896055817548321 on Aug 22, 2014
No any inner bag,just a outside carton, washing powder has spread out through the carton's gap! They contaminate my food packaging inside same shipping box, and contamination of my kitchen~~! WILL NEVER BUY IT ANGAIN!!
Posted by 4621853022684336711 on Jan 28, 2014
This Laundry Powder is absolutely unscented (for me it is highly important). And it comes out laundry very good.
cleans well
Posted by 5219788476217161666 on Jan 13, 2014
very pleased with this soap, great to remove chlorine from my swimming suits
Posted by Reviewer3077754 on Jul 10, 2013
I have been using this detergent for over one year now. We have soft well water. I have found that I use less than a 1/4 cup per load in my HE machine. Cleans very well with soft water.
너무 안 녹아요
Posted by 5376501416585632265 on Feb 26, 2013
아이들 빨래용으로 쓰니까 세척력에는 불만이 없는데.. 찬물로 빨면 가루가 안 녹아서 좀 남아있더라구요,. 항상 뜨거운물에 가루 녹여서 세제 부어야하는게 번거롭네요.


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The evolution of community MRSA in Australia lessons for Europe?
Abstract number: 1133_194
Riley T.V., Coombs G.W., O'Brien F., Pearman J.W., Christiansen K., Grubb W.B.
In the early 1980s, epidemic MRSA (EMRSA) appeared on the east coast of Australia. EMRSA were multiply resistant and they became endemic in many large hospitals throughout Australia, except Western Australia (WA). A statewide screening and control policy was implemented in WA following an outbreak of EMRSA in a Perth hospital after the admission of an interstate patient in 1982. This involved screening all patients admitted to hospitals from interstate or overseas and all new staff that had worked outside WA in the previous 12 months. Following screening, patients infected or colonized with MRSA were isolated and treated, while infected or colonized staff were prohibited from contact with patients until the organism was eradicated. In WA, MRSA infection or colonization has been a notifiable condition since 1985. The WA Department of Health electronically flags cases of MRSA, allowing carriers to be identified and isolated on admission to any WA public hospital. In the late 1980s, non-multi-resistant community MRSA emerged in the north of WA. MRSA isolated from patients living in the remote Kimberley region were phenotypically and genotypically different to EMRSA and became known as WAMRSA. During the 1990s, WAMRSA spread to most regions of WA and, by 1997, a significant number of cases of infection and colonization were occurring in the Perth metropolitan area and other Australian states. WAMRSA have the community-associated SCCmec types IV and V that lack transposons, integrated plasmids and other antibiotic resistance genes. Since the screening and control policy was introduced, all MRSA clinical isolates, and those isolated through screening, have been sent to a reference laboratory where their identity was confirmed by standard procedures (mec/nuc PCR), complete antibiotic susceptibility was determined and the isolates typed, using initially PFGE and now MLST. In the 1990s, a different community MRSA was isolated in eastern Australia, frequently from people of Pacific Island decent. These were subsequently identified as Western Samoan Phage Pattern strains, first described in New Zealand, and they can produce PVL. Most Australian community MRSA do not produce PVL, apart from the Queensland clone. Although most Australian community MRSA do not spread when introduced into a hospital environment, some do have the capacity to cause outbreaks. Identifying the reasons for this and ways of identifying outbreak strains remains a challenge for us all.
Session Details
|Session name:
|XXIst ISTH Congress
|Oxford, UK
|Presentation type:
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Sea otter
The sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Adult sea otters typically weigh between 14 and 45 kg (30 and 100 lb), making them the heaviest members of the weasel family, but among the smallest marine mammals. Unlike most marine mammals, the sea otter's primary form of insulation is an exceptionally thick coat of fur, the densest in the animal kingdom. Although it can walk on land, the sea otter lives mostly in the ocean.
The sea otter inhabits offshore environments, where it dives to the sea floor to forage. It preys mostly on marine invertebrates such as sea urchins, various molluscs and crustaceans, and some species of fish. Its foraging and eating habits are noteworthy in several respects. First, its use of rocks to dislodge prey and to open shells makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools. In most of its range, it is a keystone species, controlling sea urchin populations which would otherwise inflict extensive damage to kelp forest ecosystems. Its diet includes prey species that are also valued by humans as food, leading to conflicts between sea otters and fisheries.
Sea otters, whose numbers were once estimated at 150,000–300,000, were hunted extensively for their fur between 1741 and 1911, and the world population fell to 1,000–2,000 individuals living in a fraction of their historic range.[2] A subsequent international ban on hunting, conservation efforts, and reintroduction programs into previously populated areas have contributed to numbers rebounding, and the species now occupies about two-thirds of its former range. The recovery of the sea otter is considered an important success in marine conservation, although populations in the Aleutian Islands and California have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels. For these reasons, the sea otter remains classified as an endangered species.
The first scientific description of the sea otter is contained in the field notes of Georg Steller from 1751, and the species was described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758.[3] Originally named Lutra marina, it underwent numerous name changes before being accepted as Enhydra lutris in 1922.[4] The generic name Enhydra, derives from the Ancient Greek en/εν "in" and hydra/ύδρα "water",[5] meaning "in the water", and the Latin word lutris, meaning "otter".[6] It was formerly sometimes referred to as the "sea beaver",[7] although it is only distantly related to beavers. It is not to be confused with the marine otter, a rare otter species native to the southern west coast of South America. A number of other otter species, while predominantly living in fresh water, are commonly found in marine coastal habitats. The extinct sea mink of northeast North America is another mustelid that had adapted to a marine environment.
The sea otter is the heaviest (the giant otter is longer, but significantly slimmer) member of the family Mustelidae,[8] a diverse group that includes the 13 otter species and terrestrial animals such as weasels, badgers, and minks. It is unique among the mustelids in not making dens or burrows, in having no functional anal scent glands,[9] and in being able to live its entire life without leaving the water.[10] The only member of the genus Enhydra, the sea otter is so different from other mustelid species that, as recently as 1982, some scientists believed it was more closely related to the earless seals.[11] Genetic analysis indicates the sea otter and its closest extant relatives, which include the African speckle-throated otter, European otter, African clawless otter and oriental small-clawed otter, shared an ancestor approximately 5 million years ago (Mya).[12]
Fossil evidence indicates the Enhydra lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately 2 Mya, giving rise to the now-extinct Enhydra macrodonta and the modern sea otter, Enhydra lutris.[4] The sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia, and then spread east to the Aleutian Islands, mainland Alaska, and down the North American coast.[13] In comparison to cetaceans, sirenians, and pinnipeds, which entered the water approximately 50, 40, and 20 Mya, respectively, the sea otter is a relative newcomer to a marine existence.[14] In some respects, though, the sea otter is more fully adapted to water than pinnipeds, which must haul out on land or ice to give birth.[15]
The three recognized subspecies, which vary in body size and in some skull and dental characteristics, are:[8][16]
|Trinomial authority
|Common names
|E. l. lutris
|Linnaeus, 1758
|Common sea otter[17]
Asian sea otter[17]
|The largest subspecies, with a wide skull and short nasal bones[17]
|Kuril Islands to the Commander Islands in the western Pacific Ocean[8]
|gracilis (Bechstein, 1800)
kamtschatica (Dybowski, 1922)
|E. l. nereis
|Merriam, 1904
|Southern sea otter[17]
|Has a narrower skull with a long rostrum and small teeth[17]
|Coast of central California[8]
|E. l. kenyoni[19]
|Wilson, 1991
|Northern sea otter
|Alaska and the Pacific west coast from the Aleutian islands to British Columbia, Washington, and northern Oregon,[17] after being extirpated from southern British Columbia due to overhunting, it has since been reintroduced off Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula.[8]
The reintroduction effort off the Oregon coast was not successful. However, reintroductions in 1969 and 1970 off the Washington coast were very successful and sea otters have been expanding their range since. They have now entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca and can be found almost as far east as Pillar Point. Individuals have even been seen in the San Juan Islands and northern Puget Sound.
Physical characteristics
The sea otter is one of the smallest marine mammal species, but it is the heaviest mustelid.[10] Male sea otters usually weigh 22 to 45 kg (49 to 99 lb) and are 1.2 to 1.5 m (4 to 5 ft) in length, though specimens to 54 kg (119 lb) have been recorded.[20] Females are smaller, weighing 14 to 33 kg (30 to 73 lb) and measuring 1.0 to 1.4 m (3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 7 in) in length.[21] Its baculum is, for the male otter's size, very large, massive and bent upwards, measuring 150 mm (6 in) in length and 15 mm wide (0.6 in) at the base.[22]
Unlike most other marine mammals, the sea otter has no blubber and relies on its exceptionally thick fur to keep warm.[23] With up to 150,000 strands of hair per square centimeter (nearly one million per sq in), its fur is the densest of any animal.[24] The fur consists of long, waterproof guard hairs and short underfur; the guard hairs keep the dense underfur layer dry. Cold water is thus kept completely away from the skin and heat loss is limited.[21] The fur is thick year-round, as it is shed and replaced gradually rather than in a distinct molting season.[25] As the ability of the guard hairs to repel water depends on utmost cleanliness, the sea otter has the ability to reach and groom the fur on any part of its body, taking advantage of its loose skin and an unusually supple skeleton.[26] The coloration of the pelage is usually deep brown with silver-gray speckles, but it can range from yellowish or grayish brown to almost black.[27] In adults, the head, throat, and chest are lighter in color than the rest of the body.[27]
The sea otter displays numerous adaptations to its marine environment. The nostrils and small ears can close.[28] The hind feet, which provide most of its propulsion in swimming, are long, broadly flattened, and fully webbed.[29] The fifth digit on each hind foot is longest, facilitating swimming while on its back, but making walking difficult.[30] The tail is fairly short, thick, slightly flattened, and muscular. The front paws are short with retractable claws, with tough pads on the palms that enable gripping slippery prey.[31]
The sea otter propels itself underwater by moving the rear end of its body, including its tail and hind feet, up and down,[29] and is capable of speeds of up to 9 km/h (5.6 mph).[8] When underwater, its body is long and streamlined, with the short forelimbs pressed closely against the chest.[32] When at the surface, it usually floats on its back and moves by sculling its feet and tail from side to side.[33] At rest, all four limbs can be folded onto the torso to conserve heat, whereas on particularly hot days, the hind feet may be held underwater for cooling.[34] The sea otter's body is highly buoyant because of its large lung capacity – about 2.5 times greater than that of similar-sized land mammals[35] – and the air trapped in its fur. The sea otter walks with a clumsy, rolling gait on land, and can run in a bounding motion.[30]
Long, highly sensitive whiskers and front paws help the sea otter find prey by touch when waters are dark or murky.[10] Researchers have noted when they approach in plain view, sea otters react more rapidly when the wind is blowing towards the animals, indicating the sense of smell is more important than sight as a warning sense.[36] Other observations indicate the sea otter's sense of sight is useful above and below the water, although not as good as that of seals.[37] Its hearing is neither particularly acute nor poor.[38]
An adult's 32 teeth, particularly the molars, are flattened and rounded, designed to crush rather than cut food.[39] Seals and sea otters are the only carnivores with two pairs of lower incisor teeth rather than three;[40] the adult dental formula is [41]
The sea otter has a metabolic rate two or three times that of comparatively sized terrestrial mammals. It must eat an estimated 25 to 38% of its own body weight in food each day to burn the calories necessary to counteract the loss of heat due to the cold water environment.[42][43] Its digestive efficiency is estimated at 80 to 85%,[44] and food is digested and passed in as little as three hours.[23] Most of its need for water is met through food, although, in contrast to most other marine mammals, it also drinks seawater. Its relatively large kidneys enable it to derive fresh water from sea water and excrete concentrated urine.[45]
The sea otter is diurnal. It has a period of foraging and eating in the morning, starting about an hour before sunrise, then rests or sleeps in mid-day.[46] Foraging resumes for a few hours in the afternoon and subsides before sunset, and a third foraging period may occur around midnight.[46] Females with pups appear to be more inclined to feed at night.[46] Observations of the amount of time a sea otter must spend each day foraging range from 24 to 60%, apparently depending on the availability of food in the area.[47]
Sea otters spend much of their time grooming, which consists of cleaning the fur, untangling knots, removing loose fur, rubbing the fur to squeeze out water and introduce air, and blowing air into the fur. To casual observers, it appears as if the animals are scratching, but they are not known to have lice or other parasites in the fur.[48] When eating, sea otters roll in the water frequently, apparently to wash food scraps from their fur.[49]
The sea otter hunts in short dives, often to the sea floor. Although it can hold its breath for up to five minutes,[28] its dives typically last about one minute and no more than four.[21] It is the only marine animal capable of lifting and turning over rocks, which it often does with its front paws when searching for prey.[49] The sea otter may also pluck snails and other organisms from kelp and dig deep into underwater mud for clams.[49] It is the only marine mammal that catches fish with its forepaws rather than with its teeth.[23]
Under each foreleg, the sea otter has a loose pouch of skin that extends across the chest. In this pouch (preferentially the left one), the animal stores collected food to bring to the surface. This pouch also holds a rock, unique to the otter, that is used to break open shellfish and clams.[50] There, the sea otter eats while floating on its back, using its forepaws to tear food apart and bring it to its mouth. It can chew and swallow small mussels with their shells, whereas large mussel shells may be twisted apart.[51] It uses its lower incisor teeth to access the meat in shellfish.[52] To eat large sea urchins, which are mostly covered with spines, the sea otter bites through the underside where the spines are shortest, and licks the soft contents out of the urchin's shell.[51]
The sea otter's use of rocks when hunting and feeding makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools.[53] To open hard shells, it may pound its prey with both paws against a rock on its chest. To pry an abalone off its rock, it hammers the abalone shell using a large stone, with observed rates of 45 blows in 15 seconds.[21] Releasing an abalone, which can cling to rock with a force equal to 4,000 times its own body weight, requires multiple dives.[21]
Social structure
Although each adult and independent juvenile forages alone, sea otters tend to rest together in single-sex groups called rafts. A raft typically contains 10 to 100 animals, with male rafts being larger than female ones.[55] The largest raft ever seen contained over 2000 sea otters. To keep from drifting out to sea when resting and eating, sea otters may wrap themselves in kelp.[56]
A male sea otter is most likely to mate if he maintains a breeding territory in an area that is also favored by females.[57] As autumn is the peak breeding season in most areas, males typically defend their territory only from spring to autumn.[57] During this time, males patrol the boundaries of their territories to exclude other males,[57] although actual fighting is rare.[55] Adult females move freely between male territories, where they outnumber adult males by an average of five to one.[57] Males that do not have territories tend to congregate in large, male-only groups,[57] and swim through female areas when searching for a mate.[58]
The species exhibits a variety of vocal behaviors. The cry of a pup is often compared to that of a seagull.[59] Females coo when they are apparently content; males may grunt instead.[60] Distressed or frightened adults may whistle, hiss, or in extreme circumstances, scream.[59]
Although sea otters can be playful and sociable, they are not considered to be truly social animals.[61] They spend much time alone, and each adult can meet its own needs in terms of hunting, grooming, and defense.[61]
Reproduction and lifecycle
Sea otters are polygynous: males have multiple female partners. However, temporary pair-bonding occurs for a few days between a female in estrus and her mate.[49] Mating takes place in the water and can be rough, the male biting the female on the muzzle – which often leaves scars on the nose – and sometimes holding her head under water.[8][62]
Births occur year-round, with peaks between May and June in northern populations and between January and March in southern populations.[63] Gestation appears to vary from four to twelve months, as the species is capable of delayed implantation followed by four months of pregnancy.[63] In California, sea otters usually breed every year, about twice as often as those in Alaska.[64]
Birth usually takes place in the water and typically produces a single pup weighing 1.4 to 2.3 kg (3 to 5 lb).[65] Twins occur in 2% of births; however, usually only one pup survives.[8] At birth, the eyes are open, ten teeth are visible, and the pup has a thick coat of baby fur.[66] Mothers have been observed to lick and fluff a newborn for hours; after grooming, the pup's fur retains so much air, the pup floats like a cork and cannot dive.[67] The fluffy baby fur is replaced by adult fur after about 13 weeks.[3]
Nursing lasts six to eight months in Californian populations and four to 12 months in Alaska, with the mother beginning to offer bits of prey at one to two months.[69] The milk from a sea otter's two abdominal nipples is rich in fat and more similar to the milk of other marine mammals than to that of other mustelids.[70] A pup, with guidance from its mother, practices swimming and diving for several weeks before it is able to reach the sea floor. Initially, the objects it retrieves are of little food value, such as brightly colored starfish and pebbles.[50] Juveniles are typically independent at six to eight months, but a mother may be forced to abandon a pup if she cannot find enough food for it;[71] at the other extreme, a pup may nurse until it is almost adult size.[65] Pup mortality is high, particularly during an individual's first winter – by one estimate, only 25% of pups survive their first year.[71] Pups born to experienced mothers have the highest survival rates.[72]
Females perform all tasks of feeding and raising offspring, and have occasionally been observed caring for orphaned pups.[73] Much has been written about the level of devotion of sea otter mothers for their pups – a mother gives her infant almost constant attention, cradling it on her chest away from the cold water and attentively grooming its fur.[74] When foraging, she leaves her pup floating on the water, sometimes wrapped in kelp to keep it from floating away;[75] if the pup is not sleeping, it cries loudly until she returns.[76] Mothers have been known to carry their pups for days after the pups' deaths.[68]
Females become sexually mature at around three or four years of age and males at around five; however, males often do not successfully breed until a few years later.[77] A captive male sired offspring at age 19.[65] In the wild, sea otters live to a maximum age of 23 years,[21] with average lifespans of 10–15 years for males and 15–20 years for females.[78] Several captive individuals have lived past 20 years, and a female at the Seattle Aquarium died at the age of 28 years.[79] Sea otters in the wild often develop worn teeth, which may account for their apparently shorter lifespans.[80]
Population and distribution
Sea otters live in coastal waters 15 to 23 meters (50 to 75 ft) deep,[81] and usually stay within a kilometer (⅔ mi) of the shore.[82] They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs.[83] Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt.[84] Their northern range is limited by ice, as sea otters can survive amidst drift ice but not land-fast ice.[85] Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long, and remain there year-round.[86]
The sea otter population is thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000,[7] stretching in an arc across the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja California Peninsula in Mexico. The fur trade that began in the 1740s reduced the sea otter's numbers to an estimated 1,000 to 2,000 members in 13 colonies. In about two-thirds of its former range, the species is at varying levels of recovery, with high population densities in some areas and threatened populations in others. Sea otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, with reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan.[87] Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 sea otters.[3][88][89][90][91]
Currently, the most stable and secure part of the sea otter's range is Russia.[92] Before the 19th century, around 20,000 to 25,000 sea otters lived near the Kuril Islands, with more near Kamchatka and the Commander Islands. After the years of the Great Hunt, the population in these areas, currently part of Russia, was only 750.[88] As of 2004, sea otters have repopulated all of their former habitat in these areas, with an estimated total population of about 27,000. Of these, about 19,000 are at the Kurils, 2000 to 3500 at Kamchatka and another 5000 to 5500 at the Commander Islands.[88] Growth has slowed slightly, suggesting the numbers are reaching carrying capacity.[88]
Alaska is the heartland of the sea otter's range. In 1973, the population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 animals.[93] By 2006, though, the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals.[89] A massive decline in sea otter populations in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change; the cause of this decline is not known, although orca predation is suspected.[94] The sea otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which killed thousands of sea otters in 1989.[49]
British Columbia and Washington
Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the sea otter's range is discontinuous. A remnant population survived off Vancouver Island into the 20th century, but it died out despite the 1911 international protection treaty, with the last sea otter taken near Kyuquot in 1929. From 1969 to 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island. This population expanded to over 3,000 as of 2004, and their range on the island's west coast expanded from Cape Scott in the north to Barkley Sound to the south.[95] In 1989, a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast. It is not known if this colony, which numbered about 300 animals in 2004, was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade.[90]
In 1969 and 1970, 59 sea otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington. Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals, and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point.[3]
In British Columbia and Washington, sea otters are found almost exclusively on the outer coasts. They can swim as close as six feet off shore along the Olympic coast. Reported sightings of sea otters in the San Juan Islands and Puget Sound almost always turn out to be North American river otters, which are commonly seen along the seashore. However, biologists have confirmed isolated sightings of sea otters in these areas since the mid-1990s.[3]
The spring 2007 sea otter survey counted 3,026 sea otters near the central Californian coast, down from an estimated population of 16,000 before the fur trade began.[91][96] California's sea otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern sea otters discovered near Big Sur in 1938;[97] their principal range is now from just south of San Francisco to Santa Barbara County.[96] In the late 1980s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) relocated about 140 Californian sea otters to San Nicolas Island in southern California, in the hope of establishing a reserve population should the mainland be struck by an oil spill. To the surprise of biologists, the San Nicholas population initially shrank as the animals migrated back to the mainland.[98] As of 2005, only 30 sea otters remained at San Nicholas,[99] thriving on the abundant prey around the island.[98] The plan that authorized the translocation program had predicted the carrying capacity would be reached within five to 10 years.
When the FWS implemented the translocation program, it also attempted to implement "zonal management" of the Californian population. To manage the competition between sea otters and fisheries, it declared an "otter-free zone" stretching from Point Conception to the Mexican border. In this zone, only San Nicolas Island was designated as sea otter habitat, and sea otters found elsewhere in the area were supposed to be captured and relocated. These plans were abandoned after it proved impractical to capture the hundreds of otters which ignored regulations and swam into the zone.[100] However, after engaging in a period of public commentary in 2005, the Fish and Wildlife Service has yet to release a formal decision on the issue.[99]
Sea otters were once numerous in San Francisco Bay.[101] Historical records revealed the Russian-American Company snuck Aleuts into San Francisco Bay multiple times, despite the Spanish capturing or shooting them while hunting sea otters in the estuaries of San Jose, San Mateo, San Bruno and around Angel Island.[102] The founder of Fort Ross, Ivan Kuskov, finding otters scarce on his second voyage to Bodega Bay in 1812, sent a party of Aleuts to San Francisco Bay, where they met another Russian party and an American party, and caught 1,160 sea otters in three months.[103] By 1817, sea otters in the area were practically eliminated and the Russians sought permission from the Spanish and the Mexican governments to hunt further and further south of San Francisco.[104] Remnant sea otter populations may have survived in the bay until 1840, when the Rancho Punta de Quentin was granted to Captain John B. R. Cooper, a sea captain from Boston, by Mexican Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado along with a license to hunt sea otters, reportedly then prevalent at the mouth of Corte Madera Creek.[105]
Although the southern sea otter's range has continuously expanded from the remnant population of about 50 individuals in Big Sur since protection in 1911, in the last two years, the otter population and its range have contracted.[106] As of spring 2010, the northern boundary has moved from about Tunitas Creek to a point 2 km southeast of Pigeon Point, and the southern boundary has moved from approximately Coal Oil Point to Gaviota State Park.[107] Recently, a toxin called microcystin, produced by a type of cyanobacteria (Microcystis), seems to be concentrated in the shellfish the otters eat, poisoning them. Cyanobacteria are found in stagnant freshwater enriched with nitrogen and phosphorus from septic tank and agricultural fertilizer runoff, and may be flushed into the ocean when streamflows are high in the rainy season.[108][109] A record number of sea otter carcasses were found on California's coastline in 2010, with increased shark attacks an increasing component of the mortality.[110]
Otters were observed twice in Southern California in 2011, once near Laguna Beach and once at Zuniga Point Jetty, near San Diego. These are the first documented sightings of otters this far south in 30 years.[111]
The last native sea otter in Oregon was probably shot and killed in 1906. In 1970 and 1971, a total of 95 sea otters were transplanted from Amchitka Island, Alaska to the Southern Oregon coast. However, this translocation effort failed and otters soon again disappeared from the state.[112]
In 2004, a lone male sea otter took up residence at Simpson Reef off of Cape Arago for six months. This male is thought to have originated from a colony in Washington, but disappeared after a coastal storm.[113]
The most recent sighting of a sea otter off the Oregon coast took place on 18 February 2009, in Depoe Bay, Oregon. The lone male sea otter could have traveled from either California or Washington.[114]
Sea otters consume over 100 different prey species.[115] In most of its range, the sea otter's diet consists almost exclusively of marine invertebrates, including sea urchins, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other mollusks, crustaceans, and snails.[115] Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets and crabs to giant octopuses.[115] Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, sea otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type.[115] In California, they have been noted to ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across.[116]
In a few northern areas, fish are also eaten. In studies performed at Amchitka Island in the 1960s, where the sea otter population was at carrying capacity, 50% of food found in sea otter stomachs was fish.[117] The fish species were usually bottom-dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms, such as Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus and family Tetraodontidae.[117] However, south of Alaska on the North American coast, fish are a negligible or extremely minor part of the sea otter's diet.[3][118] Contrary to popular depictions, sea otters rarely eat starfish, and any kelp that is consumed apparently passes through the sea otter's system undigested.[119]
The individuals within a particular area often differ in their foraging methods and prey types, and tend to follow the same patterns as their mothers.[120] The diet of local populations also changes over time, as sea otters can significantly deplete populations of highly preferred prey such as large sea urchins, and prey availability is also affected by other factors such as fishing by humans.[3] Sea otters can thoroughly remove abalone from an area except for specimens in deep rock crevices,[121] however, they never completely wipe out a prey species from an area.[122] A 2007 Californian study demonstrated, in areas where food was relatively scarce, a wider variety of prey was consumed. Surprisingly, though, the diets of individuals were more specialized in these areas than in areas where food was plentiful.[98]
As a keystone species
Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species; their presence affects the ecosystem more profoundly than their size and numbers would suggest. They keep the population of certain benthic (sea floor) herbivores, particularly sea urchins, in check. Sea urchins graze on the lower stems of kelp, causing the kelp to drift away and die. Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelp forests leads to profound cascade effects on the marine ecosystem. North Pacific areas that do not have sea otters often turn into urchin barrens, with abundant sea urchins and no kelp forest.[8]
Reintroduction of sea otters to British Columbia has led to a dramatic improvement in the health of coastal ecosystems,[123] and similar changes have been observed as sea otter populations recovered in the Aleutian and Commander Islands and the Big Sur coast of California[124] However, some kelp forest ecosystems in California have also thrived without sea otters, with sea urchin populations apparently controlled by other factors.[124] The role of sea otters in maintaining kelp forests has been observed to be more important in areas of open coast than in more protected bays and estuaries.[124]
In addition to promoting growth of kelp forests, sea otters can also have a profound effect in rocky areas that tend to be dominated by mussel beds. They remove mussels from rocks, liberating space for competitive species and thereby increasing the diversity of species in the area.[124]
Predation of sea otters does occur, although it is not common. Many predators find the otter, with their pungent scent glands, distasteful. Young predators may kill an otter and not eat it. Leading mammalian predators of this species include killer whales and sea lions; bald eagles also prey on pups by snatching them from the water surface.[53] On land, young sea otters may face attack from bears and coyotes. In California, bites from sharks, particularly great white sharks, have been estimated to cause 10% of sea otter deaths and are one of the reasons the population has not expanded further north.[125] The great white shark is believed to be their primary predator, and dead sea otters have been found with injuries from shark bites, although there is no evidence that sharks actually eat them.[125] An exhibit at the San Diego Natural History Museum states that cat feces from urban runoff carries parasites to the ocean and kills sea otters.
Relationship with humans
Fur trade
Sea otters have the thickest fur of any mammal. Their beautiful fur is a main target for many hunters. Archaeological evidence indicates that for thousands of years, indigenous peoples have hunted sea otters for food and fur.[7] Large-scale hunting, part of the Maritime Fur Trade, which would eventually kill approximately one million sea otters, began in the 18th century when hunters and traders began to arrive from all over the world to meet foreign demand for otter pelts, which were one of the world's most valuable types of fur.[7]
In the early 18th century, Russians began to hunt sea otters in the Kuril Islands[7] and sold them to the Chinese at Kyakhta. Russia was also exploring the far northern Pacific at this time, and sent Vitus Bering to map the Arctic coast and find routes from Siberia to North America.[126] In 1741, on his second North Pacific voyage, Bering was shipwrecked off Bering Island in the Commander Islands, where he and many of his crew died.[126] The surviving crew members, which included naturalist Georg Steller, discovered sea otters on the beaches of the island and spent the winter hunting sea otters and gambling with otter pelts.[126] They returned to Siberia, having killed nearly 1,000 sea otters, and were able to command high prices for the pelts.[126] Thus began what is sometimes called the "Great Hunt", which would continue for another hundred years. The Russians found the sea otter far more valuable than the sable skins that had driven and paid for most of their expansion across Siberia. If the sea otter pelts brought back by Bering's survivors had been sold at Kyakhta prices they would have paid for one tenth the cost of Bering's expedition.[127] In 1775 at Okhotsk, sea otter pelts were worth 50–80 rubles as opposed to 2.5 rubles for sable.
Russian fur-hunting expeditions soon depleted the sea otter populations in the Commander Islands, and by 1745, they began to move on to the Aleutian Islands. The Russians initially traded with the Aleuts inhabitants of these islands for otter pelts, but later enslaved the Aleuts, taking women and children hostage and torturing and killing Aleut men to force them to hunt. Many Aleuts were either murdered by the Russians or died from diseases the hunters had introduced.[129] The Aleut population was reduced, by the Russians' own estimate, from 20,000 to 2,000.[130] By the 1760s, the Russians had reached Alaska. In 1799, Emperor Paul I consolidated the rival fur-hunting companies into the Russian-American Company, granting it an imperial charter and protection, and a monopoly over trade rights and territorial acquisition. Under Aleksandr I, the administration of the merchant-controlled company was transferred to the Imperial Navy, largely due to the alarming reports by naval officers of native abuse; in 1818, the indigenous peoples of Alaska were granted civil rights equivalent to a townsman status in the Russian Empire.[131]
Other nations joined in the hunt in the south. Along the coasts of what is now Mexico and California, Spanish explorers bought sea otter pelts from Native Americans and sold them in Asia.[129] In 1778, British explorer Captain James Cook reached Vancouver Island and bought sea otter furs from the First Nations people.[132] When Cook's ship later stopped at a Chinese port, the pelts rapidly sold at high prices, and were soon known as "soft gold". As word spread, people from all over Europe and North America began to arrive in the Pacific Northwest to trade for sea otter furs.[132]
Russian hunting expanded to the south, initiated by American ship captains, who subcontracted Russian supervisors and Aleut hunters [133] in what are now Washington, Oregon, and California. Between 1803 and 1846, 72 American ships were involved in the otter hunt in California, harvesting an estimated 40,000 skins and tails, compared to only 13 ships of the Russian-American Company, which reported 5,696 otter skins taken between 1806 and 1846.[134] In 1812, the Russians founded an agricultural settlement at what is now Fort Ross in northern California, as their southern headquarters.[132] Eventually, sea otter populations became so depleted, commercial hunting was no longer viable. It had stopped the Aleutian Islands, by 1808, as a conservation measure imposed by the Russian-American Company.[135] Further restrictions were ordered by the Company in 1834.[135] When Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, the Alaska population had recovered to over 100,000, but Americans resumed hunting and quickly extirpated the sea otter again.[136] Prices rose as the species became rare. During the 1880s, a pelt brought $105 to $165 in the London market, but by 1903, a pelt could be worth as much as $1,125.[65] In 1911, Russia, Japan, Great Britain (for Canada) and the United States signed the Treaty for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals, imposing a moratorium on the harvesting of sea otters.[137] So few remained, perhaps only 1,000–2,000 individuals in the wild, that many believed the species would become extinct.[3]
Recovery and conservation
During the 20th century, sea otter numbers rebounded in about two-thirds of their historic range, a recovery that is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation.[138] However, the IUCN still lists the sea otter as an endangered species, and describes the significant threats to sea otters as oil pollution, predation by killer whales, poaching, and conflicts with fisheries – sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear.[1] The hunting of sea otters is no longer legal except for limited harvests by indigenous peoples in the United States.[139] Poaching was a serious concern in the Russian Far East immediately after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991; however, it has declined significantly with stricter law enforcement and better economic conditions.[92]
The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills.[53] They are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animals can quickly die from hypothermia.[53] The liver, kidneys, and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming.[53] The Exxon Valdez oil spill of 24 March 1989 killed thousands of sea otters in Prince William Sound, and as of 2006, the lingering oil in the area continues to affect the population.[140] Describing the public sympathy for sea otters that developed from media coverage of the event, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service spokesperson wrote:
As a playful, photogenic, innocent bystander, the sea otter epitomized the role of victim ... cute and frolicsome sea otters suddenly in distress, oiled, frightened, and dying, in a losing battle with the oil.[3]
The small geographic ranges of the sea otter populations in California, Washington, and British Columbia mean a single major spill could be catastrophic for that state or province.[3][43][49] Prevention of oil spills and preparation for the rescue of otters in the event of one are major areas of focus for conservation efforts. Increasing the size and range of sea otter populations would also reduce the risk of an oil spill wiping out a population.[3] However, because of the species' reputation for depleting shellfish resources, advocates for commercial, recreational, and subsistence shellfish harvesting have often opposed allowing the sea otter's range to increase, and there have even been instances of fishermen and others illegally killing them.[141]
In the Aleutian Islands, a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades. In the 1980s, the area was home to an estimated 55,000 to 100,000 sea otters, but the population fell to around 6,000 animals by 2000.[100] The most widely accepted, but still controversial, hypothesis is that killer whales have been eating the otters. The pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in predation, but there has been no direct evidence of orcas preying on sea otters to any significant extent.[94]
Another area of concern is California, where recovery began to fluctuate or decline in the late 1990s.[142] Unusually high mortality rates amongst adult and subadult otters, particularly females, have been reported.[91] Necropsies of dead sea otters indicate diseases, particularly Toxoplasma gondii and acanthocephalan parasite infections, are major causes of sea otter mortality in California.[143] The Toxoplasma gondii parasite, which is often fatal to sea otters, is carried by wild and domestic cats and by opossums, and may be transmitted by domestic cat droppings flushed into the ocean via sewage systems.[143][144] Although disease has clearly contributed to the deaths of many of California's sea otters, it is not known why the California population is apparently more affected by disease than populations in other areas.[143]
Sea otter habitat is preserved through several protected areas in the United States, Russia and Canada. In marine protected areas, polluting activities such as dumping of waste and oil drilling are typically prohibited.[145] An estimated 1,200 sea otters live within the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, and more than 500 live within the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary.[146][147]
Economic impact
Some of the sea otter's preferred prey species, particularly abalone, clams, and crabs, are also food sources for humans. In some areas, massive declines in shellfish harvests have been blamed on the sea otter, and intense public debate has taken place over how to manage the competition between sea otters and humans for seafood.[148]
The debate is complicated because sea otters have sometimes been held responsible for declines of shellfish stocks that were more likely caused by overfishing, disease, pollution, and seismic activity.[49][149] Shellfish declines have also occurred in many parts of the North American Pacific coast that do not have sea otters, and conservationists sometimes note the existence of large concentrations of shellfish on the coast is a recent development resulting from the fur trade's near-extirpation of the sea otter.[149] Although many factors affect shellfish stocks, sea otter predation can deplete a fishery to the point where it is no longer commercially viable.[148] Scientists agree that sea otters and abalone fisheries cannot exist in the same area,[148] and the same is likely true for certain other types of shellfish, as well.[100]
Many facets of the interaction between sea otters and the human economy are not as immediately felt. Sea otters have been credited with contributing to the kelp harvesting industry via their well-known role in controlling sea urchin populations; kelp is used in the production of diverse food and pharmaceutical products.[150] Although human divers harvest red sea urchins both for food and to protect the kelp, sea otters hunt more sea urchin species and are more consistently effective in controlling these populations.[151] The health of the kelp forest ecosystem is significant in nurturing populations of fish, including commercially important fish species.[150] In some areas, sea otters are popular tourist attractions, bringing visitors to local hotels, restaurants, and sea otter-watching expeditions.[150]
Role in human cultures
Left: Aleut sea otter amulet in the form of a mother with pup. Above: Aleut carving of a sea otter hunt on a whalebone spear. Both items are on display at the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersburg. Articles depicting sea otters were considered to have magical properties.[152]
For many maritime indigenous cultures throughout the North Pacific, especially the Ainu in the Kuril Islands, the Koryaks and Itelmen of Kamchatka, the Aleut in the Aleutian Islands, the Haida of Haida Gwaii[153] and a host of tribes on the Pacific coast of North America, the sea otter has played an important role as a cultural, as well as material, resource. In these cultures, many of which have strongly animist traditions full of legends and stories in which many aspects of the natural world are associated with spirits, the sea otter was considered particularly kin to humans. The Nuu-chah-nulth, Haida, and other First Nations of coastal British Columbia used the warm and luxurious pelts as chiefs' regalia. Sea otter pelts were given in potlatches to mark coming-of-age ceremonies, weddings, and funerals.[54] The Aleuts carved sea otter bones for use as ornaments and in games, and used powdered sea otter baculum as a medicine for fever.[154]
Among the Ainu, the otter is portrayed as an occasional messenger between humans and the creator.[155] The sea otter is a recurring figure in Ainu folklore. A major Ainu epic, the Kutune Shirka, tells the tale of wars and struggles over a golden sea otter. Versions of a widespread Aleut legend tell of lovers or despairing women who plunge into the sea and become otters.[156] These links have been associated with the many human-like behavioral features of the sea otter, including apparent playfulness, strong mother-pup bonds and tool use, yielding to ready anthropomorphism.[157] The beginning of commercial exploitation had a great impact on the human, as well as animal, populations the Ainu and Aleuts have been displaced or their numbers are dwindling, while the coastal tribes of North America, where the otter is in any case greatly depleted, no longer rely as intimately on sea mammals for survival.[158]
Since the mid-1970s, the beauty and charisma of the species have gained wide appreciation, and the sea otter has become an icon of environmental conservation.[142] The round, expressive face and soft, furry body of the sea otter are depicted in a wide variety of souvenirs, postcards, clothing, and stuffed toys.[159]
Aquariums and zoos
Sea otters can do well in captivity, and are featured in over 40 public aquariums and zoos.[160] The Seattle Aquarium became the first institution to raise sea otters from conception to adulthood with the birth of Tichuk in 1979, followed by three more pups in the early 1980s.[161] In 2007, a YouTube video of two sea otters holding paws drew 1.5 million viewers in two weeks, and currently has over 17 million views.[162] Filmed five years previously at the Vancouver Aquarium, it was YouTube's most popular animal video at the time, although it has since been surpassed. The lighter-colored otter in the video is Nyac, a survivor of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.[163] Nyac died in September 2008, at the age of 20.[164]
See also
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