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Sastre, José A. MD*; López, Teresa†; Dalmau, María J. MD‡; Cuello, Rafael E.*
From the *Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Clinic, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Salamanca, Salamanca; †Department of Anesthesiology, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Ávila, Ávila; and ‡Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
Accepted for publication May 2, 2013.
Funding: No funding was used for this study.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Address correspondence to José A. Sastre, MD, Department of Anesthesiology, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Salamanca, Paseo de San Vicente, 58-182, Salamanca 37007, Spain. Address e-mail to email@example.com.
During a posterior segmental spinal fusion procedure, a 71-year-old woman developed cardiac and pulmonary embolism characterized by nonsustained ventricular tachycardia during cement injection, rapid and severe hypoxemia, and hemodynamic instability. Management included exploratory cardiotomy under cardiopulmonary bypass and removal of the emboli from the pulmonary vessels. Postoperative recovery was successful, and the patient was discharged without sequelae. We discuss the pathophysiology of bone cement implantation syndrome during spinal fusion, possible causative factors, and treatment alternatives.
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is acrylic cement commonly used to provide increased fixation of orthopedic hardware. Complications of its use are uncommon but include bone cement leakage into the perivertebral venous system from which it may migrate to the right heart and the pulmonary circulation resulting in bone cement implantation syndrome (BCIS). IRB permission was obtained before publishing this report.
A 71-year-old obese (body mass index = 35.41 kg·m−2) woman with hepatitis C underwent posterior segmental fusion from D12 to L2 with titanium screws under general anesthesia to repair a compression fracture at the first vertebra after a car accident. Because bone was osteoporotic, low-viscosity, acrylic, radiopaque osseous cement (Spine Fix®, Teknimed, Vic en Bigorre, France) was used to assist screw fixation. During cement injection through a pedicle, the neurosurgeon observed cement entering the perivertebral vessels on fluoroscopy (Fig. 1) followed rapidly by premature ventricular contractions that were short lived. However, at the end of the procedure, while moving the patient from prone to supine position, hemodynamic instability including runs of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia requiring IV amiodarone and decreasing hemoglobin oxygen desaturation occurred. Because of suspicion of a PMMA embolism, a computed tomography (CT) was performed and confirmed this diagnosis. (Figs. 2 and 3) The patient underwent cardiac surgery to remove the emboli under cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB).
Anesthesia was maintained during surgery with propofol infusion 4 mg·kg−1·h−1, remifentanil 0.1 to 0.5 µg·kg−1·min−1, and intermittent doses of cisatracurium. Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography before instituting CPB demonstrated a dilated right ventricle and a tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion of approximately 14 mm. Her hemodynamic variables were: cardiac index 1.4 L·min−1·m−2 and stroke volume variation 25%, treated with fluid bolus and epinephrine 0.06 µg·kg−1·min−1 resulting in cardiac index and arterial blood pressure increasing to normal. After the onset of CPB, multiple emboli were removed from both pulmonary arteries (Fig. 3). Postoperatively, persistent hypoxemia required gradual separation from mechanical ventilation, and the trachea was extubated on the 6th postoperative day. After discharge from the intensive care unit on the 11th postoperative day, she had an episode of supraventricular tachycardia treated with amiodarone and was discharged from the hospital 16 days after surgery without oxygen but receiving acenocoumarol for 6 months.
Transpedicular cement injection using PMMA to assist fixation of pedicular screws is a common practice when the bone is osteoporotic. Percutaneous injection of bone cement may increase intramedullary pressure, and, thereby, force both marrow contents and cement into the paravertebral venous circulation.
The incidence of BCIS varies with the procedure: 0.8% after pedicle screw augmentation, close to 0.9% after spinal fusions,1 and from 3% to 23% after vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty2; however, recent studies,3 using routine CT, suggest that the incidence after vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty may be as great as 23% to 26%. The intraoperative incidence of death during cemented vertebroplasty or transpedicular screw fixation is unknown, but 1 study has shown an incidence of 0.09% deaths because of cardiorespiratory problems during the introduction of cement in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty.4
Cement accesses the venous system because vertebrae are highly vascularized; moreover, osteoporosis destroys the vertebral body and permits direct shunting of cement fragments to the venous system.
Several risk factors have been implicated in the genesis of the BCIS: (a) patient-related risk factors including increased age, preexisting pulmonary hypertension, bony metastases, and fractures5; (b) factors related to the procedure including insufficient polymerization of the PMMA at the time of the injection, high intramedullary pressure, malposition of the needle,6 overfilling the bone, multilevel application, and lack or misuse of real-time fluoroscopy. Maneuvers that may prevent embolization include injecting the cement with an appropriate viscosity (paste-like consistency) and in bursts rather than continuously, using high-resolution c-arm fluoroscopy and radiopaque cement, injecting contrast to identify a shunt from the needle to the venous system and closing it with gelfoam.
The physiological consequences of embolization are considered the result of both a mechanical effect and mediator release (PMMA microparticles activate the inflammatory anaphylactic cascade, and endothelial permeability is altered with activation of the complement system and liberation of histamine) provoking increased pulmonary vascular tone and shunting of blood that is the most likely cause of hypoxemia and hypocapnia.5,7 The effects on the pulmonary vasculature are usually transient but may be persistent and sometimes manifest as late sequelae.8
BCIS has a wide spectrum of severity, and the degree of embolization correlates poorly with the extent of hypotension or hypoxemia; most patients, even with pulmonary emboli detected by chest radiographs, remain asymptomatic. However, some lethal consequences, including fatal pulmonary embolism, paradoxical cerebral embolism,9 cardiac perforation,10 renal embolism,11 ventricular tachycardia,12 and acute respiratory distress syndrome13 have been reported. When embolism is suspected, the diagnosis can be made by transthoracic echocardiography, which is inexpensive and noninvasive, but CT is the most effective method to confirm diagnosis.
The optimal treatment strategy for pulmonary cement embolism is not clear, although the following decision tree has been suggested.6 Clinical follow-up in the presence of asymptomatic peripheral embolization, anticoagulation with heparin followed by coumadin for 6 months to avoid additional thrombosis (until the foreign body is endothelialized in cases of symptomatic peripheral embolization or in central asymptomatic embolization); however, in the presence of hemodynamic instability (severe respiratory and/or cardiac failure), a percutaneous or surgical removal procedure should be considered. While embolism is rather common in orthopedic surgery, the need to use CPB, as in our patient, is rare, and publications describing the use of cardiac surgery for the removal of acrylic cement are scarce.8,10,12,14
Of particular concern is in patients with a patent foramen ovale (PFO), a clinical entity that is present in approximately 1 of every 4 adults. In this situation, paradoxical embolism can occur spontaneously or secondarily due to the right atrial pressure increase (caused by pulmonary hypertension or accompanying high inflating pressures) that can transiently reverse the normal left-to-right pressure gradient forcing the opening of the PFO. Proof of the prognostic importance is the tripled stroke risk of patients with pulmonary embolism in the presence of a PFO.15 Because of this frequent prevalence of PFO, one might think that preoperative detection and percutaneous closure could decrease the incidence of paradoxical embolism. The screening of a PFO by echocardiography in patients undergoing neurosurgery in the sitting position has been recommended by some authors16; however, there is no well-established recommendation for the systematic use of echocardiography for detecting PFO in patients with fractures. In terms of preoperative risk assessment, the most important initial consideration is whether the patient has a history of embolic events because a history of cryptogenic stroke is an indication for preoperative transesophageal echocardiography.17 Patients with a known PFO >4 mm, atrial septal aneurysm, or spontaneous right-to-left passage of bubble contrast at echocardiography also have been shown to be at significantly higher risk for paradoxic embolism. Two strategies (antithrombotic medications or percutaneous closure) have been used for secondary prevention of embolism in patients with PFO; but, the most effective strategy for the prevention of stroke recurrence in such patients is uncertain, although some experts recommend closure of the PFO to prevent future embolic events before undergoing major orthopedic procedures.18,19 However, the results of prospective studies that have attempted to solve the dilemma about which is the most appropriate therapy in preventing stroke recurrence (Established Current Standard of Care Treatment [RESPECT], Clinical Trial Comparing Percutaneous Closure of the Patent Foramen Ovale Using the Amplatzer PFO Occluder with Medical Treatment in Patients with Cryptogenic Embolism [PC] and Evaluation of the STARFlex Septal Closure System in Patients with a Stroke and/or Transient Ischemic Attack Due to Presumed Paradoxical Embolism through a Patent Foramen Ovale [CLOSURE I]) do not show a significantly lower rate of the primary end points with closure than with medical therapy in the primary intention-to-treat analysis.20 In addition, percutaneous closure of a PFO is not harmless (with adverse events occurred in 21 of 499 patients [4.2%] in the closure group in the RESPECT trial).21 For this reason, there is great uncertainty about which is the best prophylactic measure against embolism in patients with a PFO, and it is not possible to make any specific recommendations with a high level of evidence. However, these trials were not performed in patients anticipating surgery. Because of the increased risk of embolism in orthopedic surgery (especially when acrylic cement is required), a prospective study is needed to define the future role of percutaneous closure of PFOs in this population subgroup.
© 2013 International Anesthesia Research Society
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- Game Details
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Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 News
Displaying 61–75 of 150 articles
Call Of Duty: Modern Warfare 3: The More You Know
X-Play is breaking down the Call of Duty series in time for the launch of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3. In case you're not paying attention, that's today. Get up to date with MW3 and find out why it should be on your radar if it's not. Watch Larger Version | Watch HD Version (function() { var po =...
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 Is Amazon's Bestselling Video Game Pre-Order Ever
In the continuing battle between Activision's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 and EA's Battlefield 3, CoD: MW3 has come out ahead once more as it claims the title of Amazon's bestselling video game pre-order ever. Amazon released the news, adding that apart from being the most pre-ordered game of all time, MW3 is also amongst the top 20...
Call of Duty Elite Guide: Everything You Need To Know About Call Of Duty Elite
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 is here, as is Call of Duty Elite. The stat-tracker/social network developed by Beachhead Studios is currently working through some growing pains, but it promises to offer fans a whole new level of engagement once it's fully up and running. The thing is, I'm not sure how many out there realize it. This is...
Call Of Duty Elite Suffers Early Growing Pains, Connection Issues
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 is officially in stores as of early this morning, and Activision has flipped the switch on Beachhead Studios' stat-tracker/social network, Call of Duty Elite. Unfortunately, that switch is throwing off a few sparks as reports of sign-in woes and incomplete content start to pour in. Beachhead's Chacko Sonny chalks...
Call Of Duty: Modern Warfare 3: The Scores Are In
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 is finally here and along with retail copies of the game, we also have a killer MW3 review to go with it. We dissected the title, covering single player, spec ops and multiplayer. Does this game live up to the hype? "What's really game-changing about the Strike Packages isn't what they offer, but how they...
Call of Duty: Modern Warefare 3 Enemy Intel Item Locations Guide
Are you having trouble collecting all Intel Items during the single player campaign for Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3? G4tv has your back as we deliver our Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 Enemy Intel Item Locations Guide. That's right soldier, we found all 46 enemy Intel items that you will need to collect in order to get the Informant...
Modern Warfare 3: Don't Expect "No Russian" Style Controversy
While the plot details of the single-player campaign for Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 aren't exactly top-secret (there have been very detailed accounts of its plot online since May, and the game has been in players hands since at least last week), officially, we don't know how the game's story will progress, but we can say this: Don't expect...
Modern Warfare 3 Characters And Story Guide: Everything You Need To Know Leading Up To The MW 3 Release
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 hits stores tomorrow. This is not news. It's only going to be the biggest video game launch of 2011. Infinity Ward hooked a legion of players on the Modern Warfare story back in 2007 when the series' World War II setting was abandoned in favor of a more present-day battlefield. If you didn't board the Call of Duty...
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 and The Elder Scrolls 5: Skyrim: This Week's New Releases
PS3 Games - New Releases: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Friday) Get Up And Dance Aliens: Colonial Marines Xbox 360 Games - New Releases: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Friday) Raving Rabbids: Alive and Kicking The Black Eyed Peas...
Modern Warfare 3: No Bans For Early Players
Last week, TheFeed asked the question: "What will happen to you if you play Modern Warfare 3 before its official release?" Today, I have an official answer: If you're playing a legitimate (IE: Not pirated) copy of Modern Warfare 3, you will not be banned from your online account. Xbox LIVE Director of Policy and Enforcement Stephen...
Modern Warfare 3 Live-Action Trailer Teams Up Hill And Worthington
Watch Larger Version | Watch HD Version I'm not sure why this trailer works, but it does. Live-action video game trailers tend to reach for new heights of cheesiness -- to the point that the best ones will embrace that fact (see also: the entire Saints Row: The Third marketing campaign) -- but this new one for Call of Duty: Modern...
Modern Warfare 3 Delivery Truck Robbed In France
People REALLY want to play their Call of Duty. Infinity Ward and Sledgehammer Games' Modern Warfare 3 hits stores tomorrow, but a pair of (presumably French) thieves didn't want to wait that long. Two masked men armed with tear gas and knives relieved a delivery truck of its 6,000 copies of the game yesterday morning in a hijacking that took...
What Happens To You If You Play Call Of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 Early?
Reports are coming in from all over the internet that eagerly awaited FPS Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 is in the hands of some gamers before its official release date of November 8. While it began with piracy reports from last week, since then, it's been reported that some K-Mart stores inadvertently sold copies of the game early for a bit...
Call Of Duty Elite's PC Launch Delayed
PC gamers, prepare for a letdown. You'll be able to play Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 when it arrives next Tuesday just like your console brethren, but you won't be able to take full advantage of the Call of Duty Elite stat-tracker/social network at launch, Beachhead Studios' Chacko Sonny confirms to Activision's Dan Amrich. While Sonny...
Call Of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 Tournaments At Walmart Before Game Is Released
Walmart shoppers will get more than discounts on toilet paper when they stop by their local store on November 7th. Beginning at 8 pm Monday night shoppers will have the chance to participate in CoD: Mordern Warfare 3 tournaments before the game is released. Nearly 3,000 stores will be throwing MW3 tournaments. After you've played a few ...
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subset: commoncrawl


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It would take 10 years of normal exposure to begin to reverse their condition. Some of them won't survive that long.
Captain Picard suggest the Son'a start their own colony but Admiral Dougherty informs him it would take ten years to reverse their condition and some would die before then.


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I felt the Holy Spirits power today.
Discussion in 'Holy Spirit Baptism and Living' started by JesusLovesAll, Jul 10, 2010.


text: Our Rumpi Lounge and Cocktail Bar offers you a relaxing ambience the moment you step in. Cozily located on the Mezzanine floor, this spot also becomes an excellent venue for casual gatherings and private meetings. An extensive selection of hot and cold snacks combined with our famous Afternoon Teas is available throughout the day. In the evenings, enjoy a selection of our premium cocktails to the sound of our live music entertainment.


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Funky Vintage
These two vintage clothing shops are located next door to one another on Hermosa Avenue in Hermosa Beach. I've passed by while driving a hundred times, so my curiosity was piqued and I finally paid them a visit. They are eclectic and funky, but if you have an eye for vintage finds you might just come across something you've been searching for. I only quickly stopped in (without much notice from whoever was working) and took these pics with my iPhone. They are located at 1409 & 1411 Hermosa Avenue in Hermosa Beach. These kind of places are what give the beach cities charm and diversity, which I think is what makes them so great!


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Through its Facebook page, Chevrolet is able to address customer discontent and service related issues proactively. As a result, Action Response Time (ART) to consumer queries stands at about 1.5 hrs with response rate being consistent at 80 – 85%. Chevrolet India aspires to answer customer queries on FB through active engagement (AE) with its growing fans.
Consumer research findings points to Social Media Marketing being the need of the hour. Chevrolet gauges the response has been encouraging in terms of gathering added leads for more business.
The automaker has been busy online connecting and gathering brand feedback apart from hosting activities that fuel existing and potential customer participation online. Notable activities through 2014 thus far include football fans making the most of the Manchester United Trophy Tour in January 2014.
During Auto Expo in Feb, the Button Buddy Application and Auto Expo virtual tour helped reach out to more enthusiasts. Ongoing Chevrolet Fast Moves has helped notify online fans about Chevrolet's activity schedule across cities and eventually leads to the Manchester United jersey reveal on 7th July. To celebrate the day and commemorate the 2014/2015 Manchester United kit unveiling, Chevrolet India will launch Manchester United special editions of Chevrolet SAIL U-VA and Beat.
Chevrolet's involvement with Manchester United surely works in a positive manner by adding a new group of feisty fans into its realm. For Chevrolet India, this is turning into a year wherein football related activities have been higher than ever before.


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Manufacturing Activity Slowed In October On Reduced Inventories
Supply chain networks may have slowed last month, as manufacturing activity in Britain, China, Canada and the U.S. slowed but remained in expansion territory. The Institute for Supply Management's manufacturing index slipped 0.8 points last month to reach 50.8.
Despite flirting with the 50-point mark that distinguishes between an expanding market and a contracting one, the ISM index has managed to stay north of 50 for 27 consecutive months.
According to experts, the decrease was largely in response to producers' scaling back of inventories, as well as general market uncertainty stemming from mounting unemployment in the U.S. and fiscal crises in Europe.
There is no question that manufacturing activity has slowed a bit in response to the weakness that we are seeing out of Europe," Mark Vitner, a senior economist at Wells Fargo Securities told Reuters. "What this report really highlights is that the economy is really still stuck in slow growth mode and we are unlikely to shake that any time soon."
Customs data released last month showed China's trade surplus diminished in September, although not as forcefully as Europe's.
Related Information
- Maintenance, Repair And Operation Add Costs To Supply Chain
- Logistics Experts Should Try To Prevent Illegal Fishing
- Construction Industry Growth In 2014 Is Contingent On Supply Chain Management
- Getting The Right Data Is Vital To Supply Chain Management


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Ron Aiken Hire Adds NFL Experience to Staff
The Oregon Ducks football program has hired Ron Aiken as the defensive line coach. A native of South Carolina, Aiken has been the defensive line coach for the Arizona Cardinals for the last six years following an eight-year stint with the Iowa Hawkeyes. Aiken helped defensive tackle Darnell Dockett to three Pro Bowl selections and is sure to impact the Ducks defensive line.
"This is a great opportunity for me to be at the University of Oregon and to assist with the continuation of the success they have enjoyed here," Aiken said during his introduction. "Wherever I have coached, my goal has always been to do what I can to help win football games. I love teaching the fundamentals of the game as well as coming up with the schemes that will contribute to the development of young men."
Defensive linemen under Ron Aiken have a knack for getting to the quarterback. The Cardinals ranked in the top-16 of the league in quarterback sacks in five of his six campaigns in Phoenix. They were sixth in the NFL in 2009 (43) and seventh in 2011 (42).
"Ron Aiken is an icon in the defensive line community," Oregon Head Coach Mark Helfrich said Friday. "His vast experience – coaching in all phases at the high school, college and pro level – will complement our current staff." Aiken replaces Jerry Azzinaro, who left the team a few weeks ago to follow Chip Kelly in the NFL.
Helfrich seems to have found a coach with Duck-like qualities also, saying, "When speaking with former colleagues and players he coached, three words came up every time: fundamentals, respect and character. We are excited to welcome Ron and his wife, Sheryl, into the Oregon family."
At Iowa, the American Football Coaches Association honored Aiken as the Division I Assistant Coach of the Year in 2002. The Hawkeyes allowed fewer than 100 yards per game on the ground in Aiken's first three seasons and made the postseason every year he was on their sidelines.


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Today, on my way home, my girlfriend started sexting me, telling me that she was waiting at my house. In my rush to get home to see her, I got pulled over and had to be patted down. He found no weapons, but he did find my stiffy. FML
by Username / 10/04/2011 at 8:02pm / United States / Intimacy
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|TNT 2 August – Not the same talking heads
Introduction: Michael Chapman, Program Coordinator B.Design (Architecture), University of Newcastle
Tarsha Finney, Senior Lecturer Architecture and Urbanism, UTS
The first in a series of talks where younger academics are paired and discuss their current research interests. This talk will examine the public role of architects and their engagement with the city. Using recent work and exhibitions, Tarsha and Lee will explore various ways architects have conceived of the agency for architecture in the city, and how that relates to the positions they take.
6pm for 6.30pm sharp, Tuesday 2 August, Tusculum, 3 Manning Street, Potts Point. No parking available.
Click here to download the entire Winter talks calendar.
The Winter Calendar is proudly sponsored by Austral Bricks.


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The trio largely works within medium-tempo vamps, steeped within dark and mysterious musical architectures and uncovering hidden treasures amid subtle hues and high-impact dynamics. With intense call-and-response motifs, the respective band members actively mimic ideas and recoil into airy frameworks, while allowing ample time for soloing activities.
Heberer intersperses traces of Mediterranean folk music along with free-bop, atop the rhythm section's buoyant grooves, with the band apt to hint at melody to parlay a vibe open to interpretation. With the trio operating occasionally in stealth mode, the trumpeter turns up the heat in spots via gnawing, scratching notes and circular phrasings, soaring and dolling out emotively charged choruses to steer an exploratory soundscape on "Lucretia's Legacy/Do I Remember Wrong" that borders on restraint.
The musicians' collective output instills a shadowy glimmer to complement the rather persuasive and intricately developed story lines evidenced throughout HNH.
Track Listing: Screw The Pendulum; Glulan; Paul's Age; Doin' The DO; Prelude And Tomorrow's Problem; Lucretia's Legacy; Do I Remember Wrong; The Tolliver Toll.
Personnel: Joe Hertenstein: drums; Pascal Niggenkemper: bass; Thomas Heberer: quarter-tone trumpet.
About HNH
CD/LP/Track Review
- HNH by Glenn Astarita


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It's raining cats and dogs and they need some help.
Even though Hurricane Joaquin will move off into the Atlantic and not make landfall on the eastern seaboard, it still brought devastating weather to some parts of America.
South Carolina has had over two feet of rain in the past few days and it's caused a great deal of grief across the state.
Some of the most innocent victims of the storm has been the dogs and cats that have found themselves out in the storm, lost without their owners.
Well, the https://www.facebook.com/scpetsSouth Carolina Pets Facebook page has dedicated itself to providing a place where owners could report lost animals and those who found strays could connect with the owners.
As they say in the description:
This page was created to give people a broader audience to post lost & found notices rather just on random stop signs and utility poles in the community. We have often felt the concern of taking a found pet to a local shelter and then wondering if we could have done more to reunite them with their families. We wanted to bridge the gap between families who have missing pets and the benevolent individuals who go out of their way to try and rescue them.
They've already had some success stories!
Hopefully, everyone is staying safe out there.
This man shows what it truly means to be a best friend as he carries his dog through flooded areas of Staten Island, NY.
Cyoot puppehs and funneh goggies: I Has a Hotdog has 'em all!
Yeah, Mr. Fixit thought he could do his own plumbing again.
This is a day ai woan't soon forget. Sigh.
Love LOLcats? Who doesn't?! There are so many more over here!
Breaking News - Lolcat Saves Hooman Frum Stoopy Flud


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A collection of bourgeois villas in an exceptional area. Facing the village of Saint-Tropez, these beautiful properties and their surroundings enjoy direct access to the seafront. Ideally located amidst the sumptuous green scenery of the Golf of Saint-Tropez, the properties boast a freshwater swimming pool, direct beach access, a private port and a helipad. The villas can be rented separately or, in order to take full advantage of such an exceptional setting, they can be rented collectively for a large family holiday, a reception or perhaps a cocktail party. The main villa offers a living-dining room with a chimney, a further dining room, two kitchens, six bedrooms and bathrooms, and a music room. The annex is made up of a bedroom, a living room and a small kitchen. In the second villa there are four bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen and a living room. Finally, the third villa, offers a living room/dining room, two bedrooms and a kitchen. Every room is air-conditioned. There is a garage for four cars, and the private port provides tenants with both boathouse and boat itself. Additionally, within the plot, are several housekeepers' apartments and a caretaker's house. Finally, the swimming pool area offers a generous dining space, a barbecue and an outdoor shower. FT489
The sunlit South of France casts a brilliant glow on the region's abundance. The area known as Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur covers a slice of France with near fairy-tale riches. Within a short drive, one can travel from an Alpine peak, pass lavender fields, vineyards and medieval villages and end up on the glorious Mediterranean coast.Scoprite di più sugli immobili di prestigio a Provenza-Alpi-Costa Azzurra


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Welcome from Delaware!
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Welcome from Delaware!
http://vpnavy01.com/lgdare/pennsylvania.gifWelcome aboard from the great state of Pennsylvania!
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Welcome to the forum from SW Ohio.:wave:
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Thanks everyone! It's great to be here!
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Welcome Aboard and Greetings from Rocky Top Tennessee
Welcome to Defensive Carry from Olympia, WA; in the Great Pacific Northwest!
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Today, I was driving to the local market with my son. We approached a vehicle that looked just like my fiancé's. My son peered out his window and said, "Mommy, daddy's getting kidnapped!" It seems he was being 'kidnapped' by his new girlfriend. FML
by anoymus / 05/30/2009 at 10:37pm / United States (Maryland) / Love
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Laura Hawley Keesler, formerly of Callicoon, NY, and Ponta Gorda, FL, passed away Thursday, June 23, 2011. She was 98.
Born November 22, 1912 in Lookout, PA, she was the daughter of the late Roy Hawley and Lena Rodenberg Hawley. She was married to the late Everett Keesler.
Mrs. Keesler was a member of the United Methodist Church, Tammany Chapter of the Eastern Star, and a former member of the Ladies Auxiliary of Grover Hermann Hospital, all in Callicoon.
She is survived by a son, Arthur E. Keesler and wife Jane of Callicoon Center; daughter Nancy Hankins of Binghamton, NY; 12 grandchildren; 20 great-grandchildren; and three great-great-grandchildren; a sister, Florence Hawley Knapp Sayre of Ponta Gorda; brother Roy Hawley and wife Natlie of Binghamton; and sisters-in-law Lilly Keesler Morgan of Middletown, NY and Joan Dauch Keesler of White Lake, NY.
She is predeceased by a son, James Keesler of Callicoon; daughter Betty Keesler Johnson and husband Robert Johnson of Elkhorn, WI.
Burial will be in the Galilee, PA cemetery at the convenience of the family.


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Slash & Dine – Cover it With Gas and Set it On Fire! It's 'The Burning'
Summer is coming to an end, but we can't possibly let it slide by without talking about one of the best campfire stories out there, The Burning. Out at Camp Blackwood, a group of teenagers decide to play a prank on the camp's caretaker, but it goes terribly wrong. What was supposed to be harmless, […]Read more


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A letter from Elihu Vedder to "Chick" (Caroline Vedder), 1889 Dec. 19
Physical Details: Letter : 5 p. : handwritten, ill. ; 20 cm. by 24 cm., folded to 20 cm. x 12 cm.
Sender: Elihu Vedder (1836-1923)
Recipient: Caroline Rosekrans Vedder
Description: Vedder writes about his time in Egypt, including his observations from a sailing trip on the Nile. Some sketches of landscapes and feathers are interspersed.
Forms part of: Elihu Vedder papers, 1804-1969, bulk 1840-1923
Rights Statement: U.S. public domain
Citation: A letter from Elihu Vedder to "Chick" (Caroline Vedder), 1889 Dec. 19. Elihu Vedder papers, 1804-1969, bulk 1840-1923. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Digital ID: 13018
- Boat travel
- Egypt
View all Image and Media Gallery items from the Elihu Vedder papers


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In my first post of this series, I mentioned pathological narcissism being a pervasive source of anger and hostility between the sexes. Psychologically, narcissism--and it was Freud (1914) who first introduced the term-- is a neurotic self-absorption which, in effect, prevents someone from achieving true intimacy with another. Pathological narcissism is related to narcissistic rage: a furious, reflexive, unrelenting need to repay any perceived slight or insult.
Post-Freudian psychoanalysts like Winnicott, Fromm, Kohut and Kernberg have attributed anger, rage and hostility to an underlying matrix of neurotic narcissism. Neurotic narcissism starts out as normal narcissism, a healthy, natural childhood need for attention and appreciation which, when continually frustrated, becomes fixated and pathological. Neurotic narcissism stems from inadequate, insufficient or traumatic parenting and resulting narcissistic injury, especially prior to five years of age, during what Freud called the pre-Oedipal period. Children at this tender age find any serious lack of attunement and attention--or certainly, any outright abuse, neglect or emotional, if not physical, abandonment--an insult, a psychological injury, a traumatic psychic wound which distorts perceptions of both themselves, the world, and their relationship to it.
When children experience parents or caretakers as unloving, rejecting or hostile, they respond to this narcissistic wounding by creating a shell-like false self--which replaces, protects and conceals the unaccepted, unloved and damaged true self--presenting instead a persona (Jung) based on what they perceive the parents and world want them to be. A great deal of what pathological narcissism in adults disguises is unresolved infantile anger, resentment and rage about not being recognized, accepted, and loved for who we are. This anger--along with feelings of being unlovable and unworthy of love-- is buried beneath the false self. It is repressed, but not forgotten, nor forgiven. Narcissistic rage from the past tends to be re-stimulated by intimate relationships in the present. In romantic relationships, feelings are inevitably re-injured, and the childhood anger suddenly resurfaces--with a vengeance. This is why I write in my book Anger, Madness, and the Daimonic, that intimacy is "the provocateur par excellence of the daimonic."
Freud's original theory of narcissism derives, of course, from the famous Greek myth of Narcissus. Echo, a sweet and lovely nymph, falls madly in love at first sight with the impossibly handsome youth, Narcissus, only to have her hesitant overtures rudely rejected by him. Echo is crushed, and runs away, leaving only her disembodied voice to remember her by. But she's enraged about her love being unreciprocated by the vain, self-absorbed Narcissus. As often happens, her love has now turned to hate. So she appeals to Nemesis, the Greek god of revenge and retribution, to punish Narcissus by causing him to suffer the same excruciating fate of unrequited love. This is not an unfamiliar sentiment in one spurned by someone they love. Sympathetic, Nemesis answers her prayer. Soon after, Narcissus, spying his beautiful reflection in a still pool of water, falls completely in love with his own mirrored image: obviously, an impossible, superficial, unilateral relationship. Unable to turn away for even a moment from the fascinating reflection of his own face, Narcissus, too, eventually withers away and dies of starvation, leaving only a flower--now his namesake--to remember him. The narcissist ultimately starves for love because he or she can never get enough in the present to compensate for the past.
Another myth depicting the bitter, vengeful, destructive quality of neurotic narcissism is the Grimm's fairy tale Little Briar Rose, better known to most Americans as Sleeping Beauty. In that story, Briar Rose is placed under a spell by a narcissistically offended witch, declaring that at the age of fifteen, she will fall into a century-long sleep from which no one will be able to waken her. When on her fifteenth birthday the princess accidentally pricks her finger with a needle, the evil prophesy is fulfilled, and she succumbs to a coma-like slumber. All life around her is also curtailed, except that around her castle, a thick hedge of stiletto-like thorns grows, covering the entire structure.
As the legend of this sleeping beauty spread across the land, suitors from far and wide made valiant efforts to penetrate the thorny briar surrounding the princess, only to be fatally impaled upon it. The grotesque image of these luckless suitors skewered on bloody thorns and suffering an agonizing fate bespeaks the poignant experience of every man or woman who has tried in vain to get closer to a narcissistically prickly person. Such Briar Rose-types (both female and male) are still so unconsciously angry about prior rejections, disappointments and narcissistic injuries that they are simply not psychologically prepared for any real relatedness or true emotional intimacy--despite what they may consciously believe. Sex, of course, may be another matter entirely. Prickly defense mechanisms serve to protect the insecure, vulnerable, narcissistically injured individual, in much the same way real thorns protect a rose's delicate petals: We may successfully fend off (e.g., offend) those persons by whom we might someday be hurt emotionally; but, in so doing, we imprison ourselves within thorny castles of our own creation.
This question of emotional or psychological "readiness" is as central to the story of Briar Rose as it is to the thorny relations between women and men. It takes real courage to create intimate relationships, since we all have our share of protective prickliness through which to navigate. Like much in life, it's all about timing. We can see both the great courage and impeccable timing required to overcome these barriers to intimacy in the happy--well, fairy tale ending--of the story: A brave young prince, undaunted by the grisly lot of her numerous, now dead would-be suitors, decides--against all wise counsel to the contrary--to seek the hand of the sleeping princess as his bride. Fully prepared to aggressively risk life and limb confronting the spiney hedge, he finds instead magnificent flowers which, magically parting for him, provide easy access to the castle. As fate would have it, the hundred-year-spell ended at precisely the moment he arrived on the scene. When he gently kisses the still somnolent princess, she is ready to waken and return to life. And to love. Intimacy--in the deepest sense of allowing another person access into one's well-defended fortress--always involves a conscious choice, a fundamental decision to fully live, to love, to risk. Fate is a factor. Good timing helps. And so does some plain old blind luck.


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Approximately 80 more participants are needed for a multisite, Phase 3 clinical trial comparing laparoscopic-assisted versus conventional surgery in patients with stage IIA, Stage IIIA or stage IIIB rectal cancer.
Eligible participants must have completed their pre-surgery chemotherapy (Xelox™ or fluorouracil-based) and/or pre-surgery radiation therapy within the previous 4 weeks.
Standard medical practice for rectal cancer surgery has been conventional operating techniques, but surgeons at comprehensive cancer centers around the world have been performing and studying outcomes of laparoscopic versus traditional rectal cancer surgery for several years. The evidence so far in most trials shows safety and recurrence rates about equal for both types of surgery; however, it's still too early to compare long-term survival rates.
In this U.S. study, participants will be randomly assigned to receive either conventional surgery or laparoscopic-assisted surgery. During hospitalization for the surgery, patients will be studied for surgical results (e.g., complete surgical removal of the cancer), as well as length of hospital stay and need for pain medication. For a follow-up period of several years, patients will fill out quality-of-life questionnaires (e.g., bowel, stoma, sexual function).
The trial goal is to evaluate whether laparoscopic surgery is as safe and effective as conventional surgery to remove certain stage II and III rectal cancers. Outcomes will be evaluated according to surgical success, quality of life measures, and disease-free survival and/or pelvic recurrence within 2 years, with long-term followup for 5 years.
If you'd like more details about eligibility or participating clinical locations, call Fight Colorectal Cancer's Answer Line at 1-877-427-2111.
Source: ClinicalTrials.gov; American College of Surgeons Surgery News Update Oct. 4 2011 ; "Laparoscopic Surgery for Rectal Cancer: State of the Art," Sept. 27 2010 World Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery


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5 stars
4 stars
3 stars
2 stars
1 star
Other videos put out by Etnies:
In the year of our Lord nineteen ninety five, when everyone's pants hung a little lower and the k-grind was not quite mature, Etnies released a promo called High 5. It basically has about 5-10 tricks by each skater on the team. As soon as one skater is done the next one is on. A lot of street, but a couple vert skaters (Mathias and Darren) appear and that's all you get. The music on High 5 is typical of 90's FM radio, and the filming is quality for 1995.
Before the late 90's proliferation of shoe companies, all of the skaters rode for Etnies. Man, everyone you can think of is in this video--well, almost. Despite the fact that it was produced in 1995, the skating is not that far out of date. Not to mention, the skaters in this video are top notch, both back then and today. The problem is that once you're fired up on one skater, the session is over and someone else comes on. It's all just a tease and you can't get a real good feel for the skaters. Just a clip here and a clip there. The skating is good, but the format sucks.
It seems that with the Etnies lineup for High 5, they could do no wrong. They didn't really, but giving each skater more than 3 or 4 tricks wouldn't have been a bad idea. It's good not to make everyone's part too long, but 14 minutes goes by fast in comparison to other videos. I also realize that Etnies is a shoe company and isn't responsible for selling decks, so High 5 may have had to contain footage which did not appear on any of the videos from the skaters' other sponsors.
Joe Flesci
Featured Skaters:Jean Baptiste
Rich Colwell
Dan Drehobl
Chad Fernandez
Rune Glifberg
Shorty Gonzalez
Marc Johnson
Rodney Jones
Oscar Jordan
Josh Kalis
Eric Koston
Satva Leung
Dave Mayhew
Peter McBride
Richard Mulder
Chad Muska
Darren Navarrette
Tyrone Olson
Tom Penny
Laban Pheidias
Mathias Ringstrom
Chris Senn
Phil Shao
Peter Smolik
Chet Thomas
Jamie Thomas
Mako Urabe
Sound Track:
If you dig the music from High 5, check out the soundtrack for it.


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Ohio State has won six consecutive games to start the season and will look to avoid a let down against the Indiana Hoosiers.
After a convincing 63-38 win over Nebraska, Ohio State has shown to be a powerhouse on offense, especially on the ground.
The Buckeyes have rushers everywhere.
Braxton Miller is turning into a legit superstar, and this Ohio State rushing attack led by the quarterback is practically unstoppable.
The team's success up to this point will feel somewhat tainted if Ohio State were to lose to Indiana.
With that, here are the Buckeyes to watch this weekend on offense.


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Faux Antler Candelabra
- Overview
Our cast-resin candelabra captures the slender, curved forms of natural antlers. Add our boxed tapers to create a warm autumnal display or table centerpiece.
- Small: 15.5" wide x 11" deep x 6" high
- Made of cast resin with zinc alloy metal.
- Elevated so as to allow room for added decoration.
- Dimensions & Care
- Small: 15.5" wide x 11" deep x 6" high
- Small holds 3 taper candles
- Clearance Under Piece: 6"
- Large: 18" wide x 10.5" deep x 7" high
- Large holds 4 taper candles
- Clearance Under Piece: 7")
- Wipe with a soft dry cloth.
- Shipping & Return Info
This is a general shipping item.
Shipping Information
Hassle Free Returns
To make this gift-giving season a little merrier, we are extending our Returns & Exchange Policy. For all items purchased between Oct. 21 and Dec. 24, 2016, you'll have until January 31, 2017 to return the item for a refund of the merchandise value. Just make sure to bring your proof of purchase or gift receipt. Quick Ship upholstery items are excluded from the Extended Holiday Return Policy. You have 7 days to return your Quick Ship upholstery item for a full refund or exchange.
The following items are non-eligible for returns or exchanges:
- Monogrammed items
- Mattresses
- Gift cards
- Made to Order items, including custom rugs and furniture
- Final Sale items (identified by a price ending in $.X7 or $.X9)
- Items damaged through normal wear and tear.
Delivery fees are non-refundable and prior purchases are not eligible for price adjustments.
For more information, view our full Returns & Exchange Policy.


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Perhaps you have seen the Speck plaid Apple iPhone 5 case and wondered if it would be a good case for you to own. While we understand that different iPhone 5 owners prefer different styles, we also understand that many would find these iPhone 5 cases attractive and accommodating.
In fact, we feel so confident that there we won't simply give you one reason to buy one of these cases – we'll give you five.
1. These cases are among some of the most attractive and most chic iPhone 5 cases you will find. The colors and patterns are unique and beautiful. This Apple iPhone 5 case is a sure-fire conversation starter.
2. These cases are slim and include a form-fitting design. One of the advantages to owning an iPhone 5 is having a simple, thinner phone than many competitors offer. Speck realizes the importance of preserving the slimness associated with the iPhone in the cases it creates.
3. The sides of these iPhone 5 plaid cases are reinforced. The extra-strength support as well as the rubbery edges that are shock-absorbing help ensure that your iPhone stays very well protected when it is inside the case. The raised bezel also helps ensure that the screen remains protected from accidental drops.
4. These iPhone 5 cases by Speck are built especially for the iPhone 5. This means that Speck has gone through a sincere and precise process of making sure that each facet of your iPhone 5 – from the screen, to the ports, to the buttons – are all easily accessible and simple to use without needing to remove the case.
5. The quality that is associated with Speck is well-known throughout the smartphone community. You never need to worry about not receiving a quality case when you buy a Speck iPhone 5 plaid case.


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The Pros and Cons of Instagram
Instagram: The Good and the BadBelieve it or not, we think that Instagram may have some positive things to offer the photography community. Because of Instagram, a lot of people are showing a renewed interest in the art of photography. People are trying new techniques and adding dynamic views to otherwise ordinary photos. The best part of Instagram is that the app shows parts of everyday life that can give us insights into our own society. That being said, Instagram has upset some parts of the photography community. Instagram allows every type of photo to be posted, even the ones that are tasteless or poorly composed. Not everyone who creates an Instagram profile is a professional photographer, even though they may state that they are. Instagram is a fun way to share and interact with your followers, just like Facebook or Twitter. It cannot, however, replace the quality of a professional photography session.
Schedule Your Portrait Sessions with Kim Jew Photography in JulyDuring July, schedule your family portrait session at Kim Jew Photography for only $29! Check out all the details at: http://kjphotog.wpengine.com/specials/.
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Help Wanted - Construction - Peoria
Licensed Plumber
Mike Fauser Plumbing
Journeyman Plumber: We currently have an opening for a licensed journeyman plumber who is capable of running new construction as well as service and repair. Medical and dental after 90 days. Competitive wages and retirement! Compensation: Hourly rate. Local company in business over ten years. Immediate opening. Fax resume to 309-697-2060 or email firstname.lastname@example.com
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Jun 28
Licensed Plumber
Mike Fauser Plumbing
TBD by skill
We are currently seeking an apprentice plumber with AT LEAST THREE YEARS EXPERIENCE or a journeyman plumber licensed in Illinois. Please fax resume to 309-697-2060 or email to email@example.com
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Apr 20
Carpenter And Carpentry Laborer
Lakeside Custom Builders, Inc.
A carpenter and a carpentry laborer are needed immediately for a local, quality custom home builder/remodeler.
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Jun 8
Truss Designer
Alexander Components
Job Description: Peoria / Bloomington Champaign based truss manufacturer has an immediate opening for an experienced roof and floor truss designer.
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Apr 23
Skilled Craftsman Needed ASAP
Local Home remodeling company seeks individuals with a wide range of home remodeling experience and skills in all phases of home remodeling. Person should be motivated, confident and detail orientated Must possess strong problem solving skills with knowledge of wood framing, trim carpentry, hard tile installation, drywall hanging And finishing(a Big plus), painting, electrical, some plumbing, etc . . . . . . . . Must have own transportation Retirees welcomed Those who should NOT apply: Twenty somethings with supposed 10-15 yrs experience (sorry but, Not possible) Alcoholics Anyone with issues such as baby momma / daddy drama, court dates, GF / BF issues, etc . . . . Sorry to sound bitter, but just tired of unnecessary BS. Just bring ur skills and positive attitude. Pay will depend on experience and reliability Please respond thru email with your name, age, phone #, and a brief description of your experience and strong points. I will respond quickly to the most interesting individuals.
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Jun 5
Ellis Painting
Interior/exterior painter needed with at least 2 years experience in interior and exterior painting.
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May 12
Safety Coordinator
-Responsible for the safety of all employees, customers, contractors, and visitors on facility property. -Effectively communicate to all employees safety practices and guidelines -Prepare and give powerpoint presentations to upper management on a monthly basis -Develop and Utilize Safety Database for root cause analysis of injuries and near misses -Effectively train new hires and current employees in safety
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Apr 23
Safety Coordinator
Powerpoint presentations to management, create safety awareness, accident reporting, employee training (Forklift, CPR, HazCom, PPE, Bloodborne Pathogens, etc...), lead the safety committee, develop solutions to eliminate hazards, minimize injuries and cost. Opportunity for career advancement within company including benefits and company stock. Become an employee owner and work daily towards increasing your company stock value. Stock has increased in value each of the last 3 years due to the hardwork of our employees.
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Feb 26
Roadway Concrete Foreman
Fred Weber Inc
Industry leading Construction Company is seeking a foreman with a minimum 5 years experience in running/supervising concrete crews.
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Dec 7
Steel Fabricator
The H3 Group, Llc
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Oct 12
Seamless Gutter Installer
Gutter Masters, Inc.
We have an immediate opening for a person who takes pride in their work. The ideal candidate should have some knowledge of seamless gutters, fascia & soffit installation but we are willing to train the right individual. Our company is well established and prides itself in superior quality and service to our customers. A key member of our team has recently retired which created an opening for an individual with the following skills and attributes: ?Takes pride in their work ?Professional appearance and attitude ?Dependable, reliable, punctual & honest ?Strong work ethic ?Valid driver?s license and dependable transportation ?Able to pass criminal background check ?Able to pass drug testing ?No alcohol or drug problems ?No family drama If you cannot pass ALL 9 of the above criteria, please don?t waste our time or yours. If you can, we would like to speak to you about our opportunity with a well respected and constantly growing company. Our offices, showroom and shop are located in Pioneer Park, Peoria, IL. Please submit your resume to: Email: email@example.com Or Fax: 309-693-2558 You can also call our office at: 686-1234
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Sep 19
Facilities Maintenance Staff
Progressive Careers And Housing, Inc.
A state-wide, not for profit agency seeks an experienced general maintenance individual for multiple housing facilities and locations throughout the Peoria Central IL. region. Duties include: HAV, plumbing and roof and siding repairs; and restoration of kitchens, bathrooms and general living areas. Requirements include: St. of IL. drivers license and passing of drug/alcohol and criminal background checks. Preferred candidates will possess HAV and plumbing certification and general contractor experience. Compensation includes competitive wages, health and dental plan, paid time off and 403b plan. We are an EEO organization. Please send a letter or resume with salary requirements to: email@example.com
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Aug 15
Truss Designer
Central Illinois Truss
Peoria / Bloomington based truss manufacturer has an immediate opening for an experienced roof and floor truss designer.
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May 3
Assistant Technical Director
Bradley University
The Department of Theatre Arts at Bradley University is seeking a part-time (20 hours per week) Assistant Technical Director. Responsibilities of the Assistant Technical Director include but are not limited to providing assistance to the Technical Director as needed with duties that include working with design/tech faculty in supervising students to build, finish, install and strike theatre scenery; fabricating and finishing theatre scenery and properties as needed; assisting design/tech faculty in supervising students to hang, cable and focus theatre lighting; training and supervising student employees; maintaining scenery shop equipment and tools and attending technical rehearsals as needed with the possibility of some evening hours. This position is part time based on 20 hours per week scheduled as needed between mid-August to mid-May.
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Sep 17
Truck / Tandem / Semi Driver
Windish Transport Inc
Tandem Dump/ Commodity Tractor Trailer/ Flatbed/ Fuel Haulers wanted. Class A CDL, Clean driving record. Fuel Haulers require haz-mat & proper endorsements. Our company is enrolled in a Random Drug and Alcohol testing program
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Christianity: Details about 'Abrahamic Religion'
In the study of comparative religion, an Abrahamic religion is any of those religions deriving from a common ancient Semitic tradition and traced by their adherents to Abraham ("Father/Leader of many" אַבְרָהָם ابراهيم ), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, and as a prophet in the Qur'an. This forms a large group of related, largely monotheistic religions, generally held to include Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the Bahá'í Faith, and comprises about half of the world's religious adherents.
According to the Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first person to reject idolatry, hence he symbolically appears as the founder of monotheistic religions. In that sense, Abrahamic religion could be simply equated with monotheistic religion, but not all monotheistic religions are Abrahamic. In Islam he is considered as the first monotheist and is often refered to as Ibrahim al-Hanif or Abraham the Monotheist.
The term, desert monotheism, is sometimes used for a similar purpose of comparison in historical contexts, but not for modern faiths.
All the Abrahamic religions are derived to some extent from Judaism as practiced in ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah prior to the Babylonian Exile, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE. Many believe that Judaism in Biblical Israel was renovated and reformed to some extent in the 6th century BCE by Ezra and other priests returning to Israel from the exile. Samaritanism separated from Judaism in the next few centuries.
Christianity originated in Judea, at the end of the 1st century, as a radically reformed branch of Judaism; it spread to ancient Greece and Rome, and from there to most of Europe, Asia, the Americas, and many other parts of the world. Over the centuries, Christianity split into many separate churches and denominations. A major split in the 5th century separated various Oriental Churches from the Catholic church centered in Rome. Other major splits were the East-West Schism in the 11th century, separating the Roman Catholic Church from the Eastern Orthodox Churches; and the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, that gave birth to hundreds of independent Protestant denominations.
Islam originated in the 7th century, in the Arabian cities of Mecca and Medina. Although not a dissident branch of either Judaism or Christianity, it explicitly claimed to be a continuation and replacement for them, and echoed many of their principles. According to the Muslim belief, the Qur'an was the final word of God and its message was that of all the prophets. As an example of the similarities between the faiths, Muslims believe in a version of the story of Genesis and in the lineal descent of the Arabs from Abraham through Ishmael, who was conceived through Abraham's servant Hagar.
The origins of Judaism and the ancestral Abrahamic religion are still obscure. The only source generally agreed by all to be canonical that bears on that question is the Genesis book of the Hebrew Bible, which according to Rabbinic tradition was written by Moses after the Exodus from Egypt, sometime in the 2nd millennium BC. According to Genesis, the principles of Judaism were revealed gradually to a line of patriarchs from Adam to Jacob (also called Israel); however the religion was only established when Moses received the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai, and with the institution of priesthood and temple services.
Archaeologists so far have found no direct evidence to support or refute the Genesis story on the origins of Judaism; in fact, there are no surviving texts of the Hebrew Bible older than the Dead Sea Scrolls (2nd century BC or later). However, archaeology has shown that peoples speaking various Semitic languages and with similar polytheistic religions were living in Canaan and surrounding areas by the 3rd millennium BC. Some of their gods (such as Baal) are mentioned in the Bible, and the supreme god of the Semitic pantheon, El, is believed by some scholars to be the God of the Biblical patriarchs. There exist a number of inscriptions that some scholars believe to confirm the Biblical record, such as the Tel Dan Stele.
One school of thought has argued, however, that monotheism in fact began with Akhenaten, the heretical pharaoh of Egypt in the fourteenth century B.C. But completely eradicated in Egypt after his death, Akhenaten's innovations left no resonance except for their possible survival in the neighboring Israelite monarchy, which began its rule under Egyptian cultural hegemony.
There are six notable figures in the Bible prior to Abraham: Adam and Eve, their two sons Cain and Abel, Enoch, and his great-grandson, Noah, who, according to the story, saved his own family and all animal life in Noah's Ark. It is uncertain if these people left any recorded moral code—with some Christian churches maintaining faith in ancient books like the Book of Enoch—and Genesis mentions the Noahide Laws given by God to the family of Noah. For the most part, these 'patriarchs' serve as good (or bad, in the case of Cain) role models of behavior, without a more specific indication of how one interprets their actions in any religion.
In the Book of Genesis, Abraham is specifically instructed to leave the historical Mesopotamian city of Ur so that God will "make of you a great nation". Burton Visotzky, an ethicist, wrote Genesis of Ethics to explore the detailed implications of these adventures for a modern ethics.
According to the Bible, the patriarch Abraham (or Ibrahim, in Arabic) had eight sons by three wives: one (Ishmael) by his wife's servant Hagar, one (Isaac) by his wife Sarah, and six by another wife Keturah. Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Bahá'u'lláh, and other prominent figures all claim to be descendants of Abraham through one of these sons.
Jews see Abraham as the progenitor of the people of Israel, through his descendants Isaac and Jacob. Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a spiritual ancestor of Jesus, a Jew and the Son of God, through whom God promised to bless all the families of the earth. In addition, Muslims refer to Christians and Jews, among others, as People of the Book ("the Book" symbolizes divine scripture, such as Tanakh and the New Testament), and they are forbidden from taking them as slaves. They see Abraham as one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. Thus Abraham represents for some, a point of commonality whom they seek to emphasize by means of this terminology.
So, rather than being the sole "founding figure", Abraham is more correctly described as the first figure in Genesis who (a) is clearly not of direct divine origin, such as Adam and Eve are claimed to be; (b) is accepted by the three major monotheistic faiths as playing some major role in the founding of their common civilization; and (c) is not claimed as the male genetic forebear of all humans on the Earth (as Noah is, in more literal interpretations).
Islam and Judaism also treat Adam and Noah as minor prophets, and recognize that there were possibly other prophets who are unknown today.
The Supreme Deity
Judaism and Islam visualize God in strictly monotheistic terms as one being; Christianity agrees, but for most Christians, God is at the same time an indivisible Trinity, a view not shared by the other two religions.
Jewish theology is based on the Hebrew Bible, where the nature and commandments of the Jewish Supreme Being are revealed through the writings of Moses (the Torah, known in Christianity as the Pentateuch), and the writings of the prophets, psalmists and other ancient canonized scriptures, together with the Torah known as the Tanakh (known to Christians as the Old Testament). Additionally, it usually has a basis in its Oral Law, as recorded in the Mishnah and Talmud.
This Supreme Being is referred to in the Hebrew Bible in several ways, such as Elohim, Adonai or by the four Hebrew letters "Y-H-V(or W)-H" (the tetragrammaton), which Jews do not pronounce as a word, but which Christians generally recognize as "YAHWEH". The Hebrew words Eloheynu (Our God) and HaShem (The Name), as well as the English names "Lord" and "God", are also used in modern day Judaism. The latter is sometimes written "G-d" in reference to the taboo against pronouncing the tetragrammaton.
The word "Elohim" has the Hebrew plural ending "-īm", which some Biblical scholars have taken as support for the general notion that the ancient Hebrews were polytheists in the time of the patriarchs; however, as the word itself is used with singular verbs, this hypothesis is not accepted by most Jews. Jews point out other words in Hebrew that are used in the same manner according to the rule of Hebrew Grammar, and denotes respect, majesty and deliberation, similar to the royal plural in English and ancient Egyptian, and the use of the plural form "vous" for individuals of higher standing in modern
French. Jewish Biblical scholars and historical commentary on the passage also suggest that Elohim in the plural form points to God in conjunction with the heavenly court, i.e. the angels.
Christians believe that the God worshipped by the faithful Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era has always revealed himself as he did through Jesus Christ; but this was never obvious until the Word of the Lord, the revelation of God, became flesh and dwelt among us (see John 1). Also, despite the fact that the Angel of the Lord spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, it has always been only by the Spirit of God granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive afterward that they had been visited by God himself. After Jesus was raised from the dead—according to Christian scriptures—this ancient Hebrew witness of how God reveals himself as Messiah came to be seen in a very different light. It was then that Jesus' followers began to speak widely of him as God himself (see John 20:28), although this had already been revealed to certain individuals during his Ministry, eg., the Samaritan woman in Shechem, and his closest apostles.
This belief was gradually developed into the modern formulation of the Trinity, which is the doctrine that God is a single holy God (YHWH), but that there is a real threeness in God's single being that has always been evident but not understood. This mysterious threeness has been described as, for want of better terms, hypostases in the Greek language (subsistences), and as "persons" in English. In the traditional Christian conception, God the Father has only ever been revealed through his eternal Word (who was born as Jesus, of the Virgin Mary), and his Spirit (who after the resurrection was given to men, establishing the Christian church).
Trinitarian theology is developed from the Christian Bible (comprised by the Old and New Testaments). As it was further elaborated by the early Church fathers, it was later codified by the Ecumenical councils at Nicea and Chalcedon. Another famous formulation is called the Athanasian Creed. Some Trinitarian churches, however, do not accept the Chalcedon council at all, in part because it claimed to have excommunicated them. These are known as 'non-Chalcedonian', or Oriental Orthodox Churches.
This "trinitarian monotheism" has been rejected by several Christian denominations and Christian-based religions, such as Arianism, Unitarianism, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Strict unitarian Christians believe that God the Father is the only divine being, but the others believe that Jesus is a created deity. Jehovah's Witnesses, for example, do not religiously worship the Logos (Jesus), but they believe that the Father created the worlds by means of the Logos.
Allah is the standard Arabic translation for the word "God." Islamic tradition also describes the 99 Names of God.See also: Islamic concept of God
Muslims believe that the Jewish God is the same as Allah and that Jesus is a divinely inspired prophet, but not a divinity. Thus, both the Torah and New Testament are accepted as divine texts, but Muslims believe them to have been corrupted (both accidentally through errors in transmission and intentionally by Jews and Christians over the years). Muslims revere the Qur'an as the final uncorrupted word of God brought through the last prophet, Muhammad, and Islam is viewed as a final correction of Judaism and Christianity.
Religious scriptures
All these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God — hence sacred and unquestionable — and some which are the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extent that they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.
The sacred scriptures of Judaism are comprised of the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym that stands for Torah, Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). These are also known as the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament in English. These are complemented by and supplemented with various originally oral traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud, and collected rabbinical writings. The Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered holy, down to the last letter: transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error in single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the over 300,000 stylized letters which make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use, hence a Torah scribe is a specialist skill and takes considerable time to write and check.
The sacred scriptures of most Christian sects are the Old Testament, which is largely the same as the Hebrew Bible; and the New Testament, comprising four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus, traditionally attributed to his apostles Matthew and John, and Mark and Luke (the Four Gospels); and several writings by the apostles and early fathers such as Paul. Together these comprise the Christian Bible, which are usually considered to be divinely inspired in some sense. Thus Christians consider the fundamental teachings of the Old Testament, in particular the Ten Commandments, as valid; however they believe that the coming of Jesus as the messiah and savior of mankind as predicted in the Old Testament, and the fact that Jesus was raised Jewish and became a teacher of Judaism, would shed light on the true relationship between God and mankind — by restoring the emphasis of universal love and compassion (as mentioned in the Shema) above the other commandments, by de-emphasising the more "legalistic" and material precepts of rabbinical law (such as the dietary constraints and temple rites). Many Christians believe that the link between Old and New Testaments in the Bible means that Judaism has been superseded by Christianity as the "new Israel" — and some hold that Jesus' teachings described Israel not as a geographic place but as an association with God and promise of salvation in heaven.
The vast majority of Christian religions (generally including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism, but not Restorationism) derive their beliefs from the conclusions reached by the Council of Nicea in 325, in a document known as the Nicene Creed. This describes the beliefs that God (as a Trinity of distinct persons with one substance) became human on earth, born as Jesus pursuant to the Old Testament scriptures, was crucified by humanity, died and was buried, only to be resurrected on the third day, then to rise and enter the Kingdom of Heaven and "sit at the right hand of" God. Christians generally believe that faith in Jesus is the only way to achieve salvation and to enter into heaven, and that salvation is a gift given by the grace of God.
Unlike the Jews and Muslims, Christians generally do not consider a single version of their Bible as holy to the exclusion of the others, and accept good translations and re-translations as being just as valid, in principle, as the original. They recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition only to be set to paper decades after the death of Jesus and his apostles, and that the extant versions are only copies of those originals. Indeed, the version of the Bible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of the word of God) has varied considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Latin Vulgate, the English King James Version, and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at different times. In particular, Christians usually consult the Hebrew version of the Old Testament when preparing new translations, although some believe that the Septuagint should be preferred, as it was the Bible of the early Christian Church, and because they believe its translators probably knew Biblical Hebrew better than any person living today. Not surprisingly, many variant readings of the "Dead Sea Scrolls" are confirmed by the Septuagint — indicating that significant changes to the Masoretic Hebrew text occurred after the Council of Yavneh (90 AD). In the same sense that the Jewish mystics viewed the Torah as something living and existing prior to any written text, so too do Christians view the Bible and Jesus himself as God's "Word" (or logos in Greek), that transcends written documents.
The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individual Christians and councils of Christian leaders. Some Christian churches and denominations consider certain additional writings to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints uses the Old and New Testaments (usually the King James Version of the Bible, often augmented with re-translations made by Joseph Smith), but also believes The Book of Mormon, Pearl of Great Price, the Doctrine and Covenants, and other writings by past and current prophets to be sacred scripture.
Islam's holiest book is the Qur'an, comprised of 114 suras (chapters). However, Muslims also believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms and not the current versions which they believe to be corrupted. According to the Qur'an itself, these were revealed from Allah and through the Archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad on separate occasions, and preserved as such by his disciples, until they were compiled into a single book (not in chronological order) several decades after his death. Generally, the longer suras appear at the beginning
of the Qur'an while the shorter ones appear at the end.
The Qur'an includes several stories from the Jewish Bible (chiefly in Sura 17, "The Children of Israel"), and mentions Jesus many times as a divinely inspired prophet. However the detailed precepts of the Tanakh and of the New Testament are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the new commandments revealed directly by Allah (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Qur'an.
Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Qur'an as uncorrupted and holy to the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Qur'an, as only the original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.
Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an is complemented by the Hadith, a set of books by later authors that record the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic precepts. There is no consensus within Islam on the authority of the Hadith collections, but Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnah: genuine (sahih), fair (hasan), or weak (da'if). Amongst Shia Muslims, no hadith is regarded as Sahih, and hadith in general are only accepted if there is no disagreement with the Qur'an.
By the ninth century, six collections of Hadiths were accepted as reliable to Sunni Muslims. Shia Muslims however, refer to an alternate tradition of authenticated Hadiths.
The Sunni Collections:
The Hadith and the life story of Muhammad (sira) form the Sunnah, a scriptural supplement to the Qur'an. The legal opinions of Islamic jurists (fiqh) provides another source for the daily practice and interpretation of Islamic tradition.
Rastafari movement
Some Rastafari use the King James Version of the Bible as their main scripture, while many others disdain it. A great many nowadays make special efforts to study the Orthodox Amharic version. Rastas often claim that the Bible only has half of God's Word, and that the other half is written in the heart of mankind. The teachings of Marcus Garvey and the Holy Piby are among other important documents, as are the writings and speeches of Emperor Haile Selassie I.
The coming
Main article: Millennialism
In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of an individual who will herald the end of the world, and/or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth. Judaism awaits the coming of the Jewish Messiah (the Jewish concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept in several significant ways despite the same term being applied to both). Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ. Islam awaits both the second coming of Jesus (in order to complete his life and die, since he is said to have been risen alive and not crucified) and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnis in his first incarnation, Shi'as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi). Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes that both Mahdi and Second Coming of Christ were fulfilled in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Rastafari awaits the return of Haile Selassie.
Most Abrahamic religions agree that a human being comprises the body, which dies, and the soul, which need not do so. The soul, capable of remaining alive beyond human death, carries the essence of that person with it, and God will judge that persons life accordingly after they die. The importance of this, the focus on it, and the precise criteria and end result differs between religions.
Reincarnation and transmigration tend not to feature proeminently in Abrahamic religions. Although as a rule they all look to some form of afterlife, Christianity and Islam support a continuation of life, usually viewed as eternal, rather than reincarnation and transmigration which are a return (or repeated returns) to this Earth or some other plane to live a complete new life cycle over again. Kabbalic Judaism, however, accepts the concept of returning in new births through a process called gilgul neshamot, but this is not Torah-derived, and is usually studied only among scholars and mystics within the faith.
Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the World to Come") are quite diverse. This can be attributed to the fact that even though there clearly are traditions in the Hebrew Bible of an afterlife (see Naboth and the Witch of Endor), Judaism focuses on this life and how to lead a holy life to please God, rather than future reward, and its attitude can be mostly summed up by the rabbinical observation that at the start of Genesis God clothed the naked (Adam and Eve), at the end of Deuteronomy He/She buried the dead (Moses), the Children of Israel mourned for 40 days, then got on with their lives.
There is general agreement that there is some sort of reward for the righteous in Gan 'Edhen (the Garden of Eden) and (less agreed upon) punishment in Ge-Hinnom. Popularly it is claimed that the maximum time of punishment for all but the most evil is one year. The mystically inclined also claim the souls (or sparks of souls) may be reincarnated, through Gilgul.
Eternal life is a fundamental concept in Christian theology, and may reasonably be seen as the raison d'être of Christianity as a whole. A theme common to most branches of Christianity is that the purpose of this life is to rely on God's grace for the hope of entering into his intimate presence (usually called "Heaven" or "Paradise"), and conversely, the most serious ("mortal") sins condemn the immortal soul to terrible punishment (called "Hell", "Damnation", and many other names) which is separation from God — for eternity. The requirements for salvation vary by denomination; Martin Luther famously claimed that "faith alone" was required, while many denominations, including the Roman Catholics, believe that good works are also required. Some of the more liberal denominations believe that non-Christians are still eligible for salvation if they live good lives, and some profess a belief in universal salvation—neither faith nor works required.
According to the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds, adherents believe in the Resurrection of the dead, to be followed by Judgement Day, as a prelude to the eternal Kingdom of Heaven described in various Bible books, such as Isaiah.
God's grace and acceptance of His will through faith in Christ conforms the soul to the image of Christ, and prepares the soul for admittance to an eternal state of bliss, close to God ("Heaven", the "Kingdom of God", "Salvation", etc.). Some Christian theologies also admit a purgatory, analogous to the Hebrew Gehenna, where the temporal consequences due for sins are paid in further preparation, before being admitted to Heaven.
The concept of forgiveness is central to Christian thinking and ritual. In many faiths, people can obtain forgiveness for their sins by sincere repentance, accompanied by prayer, good deeds, or physical self-punishment. In the Christian Gospels, forgiveness from God is only obtained through one's own forgiveness of others (Matt. 6:14). In most forms of Christianity, the grace of God is closely connected with the sacraments, beginning with baptism. In Catholic Christianity, the believer is sustained in a state of grace by penance and the other sacraments and means of grace (penitentials, alms, prayer, pilgrimage, etc.) but especially by the Eucharist. Penance in the Roman Catholic conception includes confession of the sin to a priest, who will prescribe prayers as a token of contrition, and as a pattern of obedient faith through which the penitent may earn forgiveness of temporal penalties due to sin. Contrition has at times taken extreme forms of ritual self-punishment and self-deprivation. The Catholic Church also developed a practice of dispensing indulgences, which are gifts of merit from the Church for remission of punishments due for sins (which otherwise must be purged after death, in Purgatory). By Medieval times, indulgences had been used as a monetary incentive, to "purchase salvation" for those who could afford it, and to muster armies for holy war, or otherwise obtain money for the Church. The Protestant Reformation was sparked by a reaction especially against what the Reformers saw as an abuse and aberration, in the Catholic doctrine and practice of indulgences, and the idea that the Church is a treasury of merit which can be given to the penitent to help them progress toward God.
The concepts of afterlife and its eternal salvation or damnation are clearly stated in the New Testament, but are seen by some as only being in an abstract sense. The precise nature of Hell and Heaven has been a major subject of theological speculation, and views have varied enormously among sects and epochs. The very literal "Fire and Brimstone" view expressed in Dante Alighieri's epic poem Divine Comedy (14th century), where Hell is a place of intense and continuous physical suffering, has been a very popular one throughout history.
Christian theology excludes reincarnation, or ghostly appearances by the deceased. While several Christian faiths accept the concept of possession by spirits (see exorcism), these are seen as malignant demons, never as departed souls. However, the Catholic and Orthodox emphasize strongly that the Christian life of departed saints has not ended, but rather has been perfected in the presence of God, and they are addressed in the prayers of the Church as intercessors with God, on behalf of men with the formula, "pray for us". Folk Catholicism is especially abundant with beliefs concerning help and miracles performed by departed saints.
Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey God and commit gross sin. While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described, depending on the sin committed. Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in Paradise. In Islam, Heaven is divided into seven levels (hence the term 'Seventh Heaven'), however the heavens are not equated directly with Paradise. Paradise itself is divided into many levels, as is Hell, with higher levels of Paradise being the reward of those who have been more virtuous, and lower levels of Hell for those who have been more sinful. For example, the highest levels might contain the Prophets, those killed for believing, those who help orphans, and those who never tell a lie (among numerous other categories cited in the Qur'an and Hadith).
Additionally, those who ultimately believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for a time, and then ultimately released into Paradise. The only sin that is beyond repentance, the Qur'an states, is the sin of Shirk (the association God in anyway i.e. claiming that He is equal with anything or worshipping other than Him).
Worship, ceremonies, and religion-related customs differ substantiallybetween the various Abrahamic religions. Among the few similarities are aseven-day cycle in which one day is nominally reserved for worship, prayer,or other religious activities; this custom is related to the Biblical storyof Genesis, where God created the universe in six days, and rested in theseventh. Islam, which has Friday as a day for special congregationalprayers, does not subscribe to the 'resting day' concept.
Jewish men are required to pray three times daily and four times daily on the Sabbath and most Jewish holidays, and five times on Yom Kippur. Before the destruction of the Temple, Jewish priests offered sacrifices there; afterwards, the practice was stopped.
Christianity does not have any sacrificial rites as such, but itsentire theology is based upon the concept of the sacrifice by God of his sonJesus so that his blood might atone for mankind's sins. However, offerings to Christian churches and charity to poor are highly encouraged and take the place of sacrifice. Aditionally, self-sacrifice in the form of lent, penitence and humbleness, in the name of Christ and according to his commandments (cf. Sermon on the Mount), is considered a form of sacrifice that appeals God.
The followers of Islam, Muslims, are supposed to pray five times daily (salat)towards the direction (qibla) of what is considered to be the holiest site in Islam, the Kaaba in Mecca. The abled Muslims are obliged to fast in the month of Ramadan.They are also urged to undertake apilgrimage, known as the Hajj, to Mecca at least once in one'slife. During this pilgrimage, the Muslims spend several days in prayer,repenting and most notably, circumambulating the Kaaba among millions of other Muslims. At the end ofthe Hajj, sheep and other permissible animals are slaughtered tocommemorate the moment when God (Allah) replaced Abraham's (Ibrahim) son, Ishmael witha sheep preventing his sacrifice. The meat from these animals is then distributed around the world toneedy Muslims, neighbors and relatives.
Judaism prescribes circumcision for males as a token symbol of dedication to the religion. Islam recommends this practice as a form of cleanliness. Christianity replaced that custom by a baptism ceremony that varies according to the denomination, but generally includes immersion, aspersion or anointment with water. Because of the decision of the Early Church (Acts 15) that circumcision is not mandatory, it continues to be optional for Christians. Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents have low circumcision rates.
Food restrictions
Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with lawful food being called kosher in Judaism and halaal in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam also prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halaal restrictions can be seen as a subset of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halaal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Catholic Christianity developed ritual prohibitions against the consumption of meat (but not fish) on Fridays, and the Christian calendars prescribe abstinence from some foods at various times of the year; but these customs vary from place to place, and have changed over time, and some sects have nothing comparable. Some Christians oppose the consumption of alchololic beverages, while a few Christians also follow a kosher diet, sometimes identified as a "What Would Jesus Eat?" diet. The Mormon church prohibits the consumption of alcohol, along with "hot drinks", usually interpreted as coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages. Some approaches to faith and practice have developed in sects of Protestantism such as the Seventh-day Adventist Church, which strongly advise against certain foods; and in some cases vegetarianism or veganism is encouraged.
All the Abrahamic religions proscribe homosexual behavior as an abomination, deriving from the Holiness Code of the book of Leviticus and the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah. By the first century, the writings of Philo Judaeus and Flavius Josephus show it in a fully developed form. Thus the condemnation of homosexuality in all three faiths has a single Old Testament source. While all three religions unequivocally condemn male homosexuality, lesbianism is nowhere explicitly mentioned in the Old Testament, the New Testament, or the Qur'an; though some scholars have argued the passage in Romans 1:26, "Their women exchanged natural intercourse for unnatural," is a reference to it.
The enforcement of this prohibition took different forms in each religion. With Leviticus and later Talmudic law, Judaism prescribed the death penalty; however, high legal hurdles, such as previous warning by at least two people and a requirement for at least two witnesses of a homosexual act, made executions extremely rare. Early Christian emperors also advocated the death penalty: Theodosius I ordained death by the sword, and the Byzantine emperor Justinian prescribed in his summary of Roman law the penalty of burning at the stake. Islamic jurists prescribe a death by stoning or crushing with a wall.
Christianity encourages evangelism — convincing others to convert to the religion; many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world.
Forced conversions to Catholicism have been documented at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the Spanish Inquisition; and of the Aztecs by Hernando Cortes. Many Hindutva organizations in India allege that some Christian missionaries in India are converting the illiterate Dalits (the so-called low castes of the Hindus) by "fraudulent means" (sic). Forced conversions are condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially state that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offenses are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief).
Despite accusations and some documented incidents of forced conversions, Islam does not permit forcing someone or repeatedly trying to convince them to convert. Islam does not have missionaries comparable to Christianity, though it does encourage its followers to learn about other religions and to teach others about Islam; one converts to Islam on their own free will. All Muslim countries outlaw religious conversions away from Islam. In several locations in the Qur'an, it is punishable by death. The Qur'an has a chapter (Sura) dealing with non believers (called "Al-Kafiroon")(). In the chapter there is also an often quoted verse (ayat) which reads, "There is no compulsion in religion, the path of guidance stands out clear from error" and . This means that no one is to be compelled into Islam and that the righteous path is distinct from the rest. According to this verse, converts to Islam are ones that see this path.
While Judaism accepts converts, it does not encourage them, and has no missionaries as such. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of seven universal commandments that non-Jews are expected to follow. In this context the Rambam (Rabbi Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers) commented, "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come, if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintanied that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. Most often, converts to Judaism are those who marry Jews; in the United States, the number of such converts is estimated at 10,000-15,000 per year.
See also
Abrahamitische Religion Abrahama religio Aabrahamlik religioon دینهای ابراهیمی Abrahamísk trúarbrögð アブラハムの宗教 아브라함 계통의 종교들 Abrahamitische religie Abrahamittiske religionar Abrahamisk religion Religia abrahamiczna Religião abraâmica Авраамические религии Abrahamic religion Abrahamska religija Abrahamitisk religion Các tôn giáo khởi nguồn từ Abraham 亞伯拉罕諸教


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