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This week's "Here's To Your Health" is a continuation of Steve C's story. Steve is a Vietnam Veteran who sobered up in 1990 and this is his message of hope that no matter who you are, or how far down the scale you've gone, you can climb out of all that and create a new kind of life for yourself by working the Twelve Steps and getting the right kind of help. Steve is living proof you don't have to stay there any longer in that living hell of total alcohol and drug induced despair.
We ended last week's story with...I left Tent City, went to Saigon and stayed drunk for two weeks until my orders arrived. I was sent north to the Central Highlands to a mountain above the town of Dalat. My assigned duty was perimeter guard and at that time, Dalat wasn't a "hot spot. We dug in around our compound and made sand bag bunkers. Besides being a perimeter guard, some of my other duties included re-con patrol; local sweeps; search/seizure and riding gunner on re-supply convoys back and forth from town.
Most of the time, while on convoy duty, we only received sporadic small arms sniper fire. We were allowed to drink as much as we wanted and it didn't take me long to discover drugs. My personal drug of choice was marijuana and my favorite was "Cambodian Red," because it was cured in opium.
After my first tour at Dalat was finished my commanding officer called me in and asked if I would consider "volunteering" for another tour of duty with a raise in rank? I agreed to re-up if he would guarantee that I would be returned to the same base after a stateside leave. I returned to the states for a thirty-day leave and stayed drunk the entire time.
When I arrived back in Vietnam they sent me back to Dalat as promised, but about thirty days later orders came through for me to be moved further north to a place called Quin Nhon. That was in 1968 at the beginning of the Tet Offensive and although I had the same job at Quin Nhon as Dalat, the circumstances were a lot different. We cleared away the jungle for a communications installation at the top of a mountain. We hacked and chopped out an area with machetes in one hand and a gun in the other and while we cleared the jungle I saw cargo planes dropping what I thought was fire retardant. It was sort of rust colored, a dark orange and I later learned that it was called Agent Orange. (An ominous sight, the memory of which was to pray on my mind many years later, when all my children were born, one-by-one, with various serious birth defects.) We laid land mines, strung rolls of barbed wire, dug trenches and bunkers with sand bags around their sides and especially on top. We installed micro-wave dishes, and set up electrical generators for flood lights, radio and television transmitters, for relaying signals from Saigon further north. Two men were assigned to each bunker, one stood guard while the other slept and our mission was, if attacked, we were supposed to prevent that communications facility from being over-ran.
I don't remember the specific date, but I'll never forget that dark night the North Vietnam Army came calling, I was off duty sleeping in my bunk at about 0200 hrs. when all hell broke loose. To be continued...


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Zondervan has delayed a children's biography of author and political pundit Sarah Palin for children. Entitled Speaking Up: the Sarah Palin Story, the book was written by Kim Washburn and scheduled for fall 2010 release.
The AP has the story: "Cheryl Lundberg, Zondervan's director of customer service, said in an e-mail that after 'careful review and discussion,' it was deemed that October was not an 'optimal time' to publish the book. She said no decision had been made on when the book would be printed."
Here's the book's description, now removed from the Zondervan site: "As a child growing up amidst the harsh beauty of Alaska, Sarah Palin sought to find her purpose in life. But this small-town girl never dreamed that God's plan would lead her to become a household name. Feeling called to make a change in the world, Sarah got involved in politics, eventually running for vice president of the United States. Even under constant political pressure, Sarah stood tall. Her steady faith in God kept her strong, along with the love and support of her family. Sarah's story inspires each of us to follow our dreams without compromising our beliefs."
The book was scheduled to be part part of the new ZonderKidz Biography series, which features biographies of everybody from rock star Bono to football star Tim Tebow.


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TravelPod Member ReviewsThe Grapevine Blenheim
A homely place to bed down. Great DVD collection. The best feature is the bikes for rent.
This review is the subjective opinion of a TravelPod member and not of TravelPod.com.
About 90% of the people staying here were long term residents who are working in the local area, so the atmosphere is not the same as a regular backpackers. We felt like we were gate crashing a giant flatshare.
We had a double room in a separate building where we shared the bathroom with another double room. Our room was right next to the bathroom and the walls were paper then. We could hear EVERYTHING, including people brushing their teeth. Some serious noise insulation is needed. The other couple showered at 10.30pm and then were up at 6.30am. The second morning another couple spent an hour in the bathroom from 6.30am.
The kitchen whilst on reflection is well equipped with 3 toasters, 2 kettles, a microwave, rice cooker, a full sized cooker and 2 electric hobs...the place itself was filthy. This was due to everyone who lived there treating it like their own place. Despite the numerous sign everywhere asking people to clean up, wash up and put away, it just didn't happen.
The owner is around during the day and a couple live on site. Apart from seeing the owner a couple of times, we didn't see the staff living on site.
Because everyone goes out to work, breakfast in the kitchen is easier than trying to cook your evening meal. That is when you've wiped an area down to put your stuff.
Wi-fi is $5 for 1 hour or you can use their very antiquated PC whic is $2 for 20 minutes. We tried to use the PC but couldn't get our SD card to fit into the SD card slot and we just couldn't get the CF card reader to recognise my CF card. The owner did kindly refund my $2.
There must be better places to stay in Blenheim than here.
This review is the subjective opinion of a TravelPod member and not of TravelPod.com.
TripAdvisor Reviews The Grapevine Blenheim
Travel Blogs from Blenheim
Blenheim to Picton Ferry
Just a short drive (30 minutes) to Picton and we were nice and early for the ferry so time to go looking in the shops We found a fantastic and unique paua pendant necklace set in silver which Andrew bought me as a memento of our holiday. We dropped off our car – 2721 kms travelled in south island - and checked in (yes, they take the luggag...
heading North
Hokitiki – where the green stone comes from . We pulled in , put the radio on and heard the news , ' An earth quake in Christchurch'
We explored the beach, but really I wanted to find out more. A T.V screen in shop confirmed the worst news . The Cathedral had collapsed and many buildings, trapping people. The pictures were horrifi...
It's all lemonade baby!
Life has dealt Kristen and I lemons lately - in different sizes and forms - and for that reason (along with others such as laziness, lack of time, and a sense of overwhelment because of my total lack of writing)I have neglected with the up keep of my blog.
I am not sure if everyone reading has heard the news, but my Grandma Bennett l...
Oat and A Boat
As much as we didn't want to leave, we left our temporary home at Bridge Valley. We really enjoyed our time there, the friends we made, the work we did, and the awesome weather! We headed east of Nelson to Marlborough and the Queen Charlotte Sound. We met the camp director and his wife there and were kind enough to give us a boat ride! Alt...
And so the camper van experience begins...
After catching the rather choppy 'InterIslander' ferry from Wellington to Picton on the South Island, and picking up the camper van, we made our way to Blenheim for our first evening in said camper van. I think it was a bit of a shock to the system for us all (other than Jon who loves the whole 'back to nature' malarkey and is now completely in ...
Other places to stay in Blenheim
Leeways33 Lansdowne Street, Blenheim | Hostelfrom $15
The Station Backpacker1A Dillons Point Road, Blenheim | Hostelfrom $14


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: Procedures must be developed to ensure that valid informed consent is obtained from participants in HIV vaccine efficacy trials. A prototype informed consent process was evaluated among 4,892 persons at high risk for HIV infection in the HIV Network for Prevention Trials Vaccine Preparedness Study (VPS), a prospective cohort study of HIV seroincidence in eight U.S. metropolitan areas. Twenty percent of VPS participants were selected at random to undergo the prototype informed consent process at VPS month 3. Participants' knowledge of 10 key HIV vaccine trial concepts and willingness to participate in HIV vaccine efficacy trials were assessed and compared at baseline and semiannually thereafter for 18 months. Knowledge of HIV vaccine trial concepts was low at baseline. Participation in the prototype process was associated with substantial and sustained increases in knowledge (relative risks for the 10 items, 1.04-2.26), which were of similar magnitude across HIV risk groups, race/ethnicity, and educational levels. It is recommended that the prototype informed consent process be adopted for future HIV vaccine efficacy trials as well as for clinical trials in other research areas.
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MEMPHIS - Ida Mae Collins, 78, died Wednesday, May 30, 2001.
Services will be at 10 a.m. Friday in First Baptist Church with Tom Posey officiating. Burial will be in Fairview Cemetery by Memphis Funeral Home.
Mrs. Collins married Clyde Collins on March 6, 1946, in Memphis. She was a member of Travis Baptist Church in Memphis.
Survivors include her husband; two daughters, Sandra Springer and Debbie Collins, both of Memphis; three sisters, Leona Burk of Estelline, Oleta Osborn of San Manuel, Ariz., and Iola Muhle of Rising Star; three grandchildren; and four great-grandchildren.
The family suggests memorials be to Crown of Texas Hospice, 1000 S. Jefferson St., Amarillo, TX 79101.
Amarillo Globe-News, May 31, 2001
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Surplus Plutonium Disposition Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announces its intent to modify the scope of the Surplus Plutonium Disposition Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (SPD Supplemental EIS, DOE/EIS–0283–S2) and to conduct additional public scoping. DOE issued its Notice of Intent (NOI) to prepare the SPD Supplemental EIS on March 28, 2007, and issued an Amended NOI on July 19, 2010. DOE now intends to further revise the scope of the SPD Supplemental EIS primarily to add additional alternatives for the disassembly of pits (a nuclear weapons component) and the conversion of plutonium metal originating from pits to feed material for the Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel Fabrication Facility (MFFF), which DOE is constructing at the Savannah River Site (SRS) in South Carolina. Under the proposed new alternatives, DOE would expand or install the essential elements required to provide a pit disassembly and/or conversion capability at one or more of the following locations: Technical Area 55 (TA–55) at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in New Mexico, H–Canyon/HB–Line at SRS, K–Area at SRS, and the MFFF at SRS. In addition, DOE has decided not to analyze an alternative, described in the 2010 Amended NOI, to construct a separate Plutonium Preparation (PuP) capability for non-pit plutonium because the necessary preparation activities are adequately encompassed within the other alternatives.
For more information on this project, see the project webpage: http://energy.gov/node/299815.


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Gallagher's – Northern California's Plumbing,
Heating & Air Conditioning Experts
Call us at 530-737-5112!
We are a plumbing, heating & air conditioning company that has been servicing residential customers for 25 years in Chico, Redding, and nearby cities. When you have a problem with your plumbing, heater or air conditioner, you need a reliable and reputable company that can provide quality service at an affordable price.
We are available for all of your plumbing, heating & air conditioning needs,
contact Gallagher's today.
Why Choose Gallagher's
At Gallagher's Plumbing, Heating & Air Conditioning, it's always about you – your needs, your safety, your family's comfort and real value for your hard-earned money. All heating and air conditioning contractors are not the same.
Reasons For Choosing Gallagher's Plumbing, Heating & Air Conditioning
Well as a representative of our plumber and cooling and heating company, I can tell you over a hundred things that is good about us. But the proof lies with the customer and what the are saying about our plumber service or heating and air service. This plumbing, heating and air company has served, Tehema, Los Molinos, Anderson Plumber Service , Chico, Redding Plumber Service, Red Bluff Plumber Service, Orland Plumber Service, Willows, and Corning Plumber Service in Northern California areas for a long time. Most plumbing companies last about 5 years and then close the doors. No Gallagher Plumber, Heat and Air Services. Honestly that tells it all ! We strive on customer service, strong social skills, knowledgeable and skilled technicians and of course quality control. Our plumbing company not only does everything to code but also has a quality control team that goes behind our plumbers and HVAC techs to make sure our work is done clean and done efficient. See what customers are saying about us and check out our A # Rating on BBB.
- Leave a Review at Gallagher's Plumbing, Heating on our Google Plus
- Check Out Our A + Rating On Better Business Bureau
- Check Out Our Status Of Our Plumbing, Heating & Air Contractors License
- See Our Reviews On Yelp
Quality Service for Over 25 Years
Whatever you need – plumbing, heating & air conditioning, or water purification systems, the work will be performed by one of Gallagher's "Stand Up Guys" – a technician who has undergone relentless training. Our ultimate goal is to serve you and make your experience a pleasant one.
Sacramento Sister Company
"Our Local Plumbing, Heating & Air Conditioner Company Is Here For You 24/7 – Call Today"


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Democratic County legislators gathered this morning to support a policy that would encourage breastfeeding. The goal is to designate a room for breastfeeding and lactating mothers in each building owned, leased or operated by Monroe County. The room would be required to have doors that lock from the inside, electricity and seating. The proposal will be considered on June 25th in a legislature charter committee meeting.
Copyright 2016 Nexstar Broadcasting, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.


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Mrs. Prindable's® Autumn Gourmet Gift Box is full of harvest treats to delight friends, family and loved ones throughout the autumn months ahead! Stroll into your next party with this fashionable fall hatbox decorated with autumn leaves, squash and pumpkins. It holds one Triple Chocolate Petite Apple and one Milk Chocolate Walnut Petite Apple along with assorted exotic Natural Caramels. Crisp, juicy apples are dipped in buttery caramel and then layered with White, Milk and Dark Chocolate or drenched in luxurious Milk Chocolate and rolled in premium walnuts. Our Gift Set offers a taste sensation in every bite.
Your purchase includes a complimentary personalized gift message.
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Its an all star cast for Pradas 2013 S/S campaign
Prada has unveiled its Spring/Summer 2013 campaign and its a veritable whos who of famous faces. Leading the pack are Harvey Keitel, Benicio Del Toro, Aaron Taylor-Johnson and Dane De Haan for the menswear line. Hot on their heels come former and current supermodels, Eva Herzigova, Amber Valetta, Saskia de Braw, Sasha Privovarova and Sung Hee for Pradas womenswear collection.
The four male actors showcase the luxury brands lightweight coats, shirts, pants and sweaters and the shots were taken in black and white by photographer David Sims. According to Prada, the menswear collection is supposed to evoke simplicity, detail and the emergence of a new elegance.
In the womenswear campaign, the clothes are more colorful and feature bold floral prints. Fashion photographer, Steven Meisel is the photographer here and the aim according to Prada is to bring forward each models individual persona and to channel Pradas new take on modern femininity. The colours are bold and accentric with a touch of softness which adds to the feminine concept they are looking for.
All in all, a feast for the eyes and a touch of glamour for the soul. A bold concept pairing actors and models but then again its always been a match made in heaven hasnt it? Thumbs up on a great campaign.
T. J. Mueller


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Today, March 5th, Congressional offices received the following letter from the White House Visitors Office:
ATTN Interested Parties,
Due to staffing reductions resulting from sequestration, we regret to inform you that White House Tours will be canceled effective Saturday, March 9, 2013 until further notice. Unfortunately, we will not be able to reschedule affected tours.
We very much regret having to take this action, particularly during the popular Spring touring season. For updates regarding this situation, please contact the White House Visitors Office 24 Hour Hotline at (202) 456-7041.
White House Visitors Office
Because of this development, all scheduled and requested tours are canceled. The McDermott office will not be handling requests for White House Tours until further notice. We are sorry for the inconvenience and hope to resume accepting requests soon.


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These lightweight, strong and water resistant wallets provide a convenient way to keep all of your essential travel documents, cards, notes and coins organized and safe from the elements. All wallets are lined with RFID-proof fabric to protect against digital theft. Travel Wallets come with a range of internal pockets and card sleeves, gusseted cash pocket, as well as a zippered coin holder. The medium and large size can hold passports.
NOTE: Find in Store Inventory levels are continuously changing. Please contact store to confirm availability is as shown.
- Secure internal YKK™ zippered pocket with divided sections
- Full YKK™ zippered closure keeps contents secure
- Lined with water-resistant Ultra-Sil™ fabric and RFID-proof fabric
- Large size features: Eight card slots, two large sleeves, a pen holder, a zippered coin pouch and an external pocket for boarding pass/itinerary
- Medium size features: Seven card slots, two long sleeves, a pen holder, a zippered coin pouch and an external pocket for boarding pass/itinerary
- Small size features: Four card slots and two separated bank note sleeves
Shipping Info:
- Leaves the warehouse in 1-7 business days depending on order volume.
- Items may be returned within 60 days of the order date to an Atmosphere retail store or an Atmosphere warehouse. Items must be returned unused/unworn and electronics unopened. See Online Return Policy and Return Instructions for more information.
- Note: Shipping restrictions may apply based on location and product size.


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While the Drew Brees contract negotiations and fallout from the findings of the league's investigation into the Saints' alleged bounty program have dominated NFL headlines this offseason, New Orleans' breakout star of 2011, TE Jimmy Graham, quietly has gone about the business of preparing to build on his stellar second season.
Graham, who had 99 catches (third in the league) for 1,310 yards and 11 touchdowns last season, has critiqued his performance — he recently said he left 30 catches "on the table" in '11 — and is looking for ways to improve.
The Saints' focus is on signing Brees to a long-term deal, but Graham is well on his way to earning a big payday. Graham is signed through the 2013 season and is due to make $540,000 in '12 and $575,000 in '13, making him one of the league's top bargains. While rewarding Graham, even with two years left on his deal, might be something the Saints would consider in an average year, it's difficult to envision Graham signing a new deal anytime soon with the team so strapped for cap space.


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Part II: Creating a Seamless Educational Continuum From K-12 Through College and Beyond
Todays extra credit is the second in a two-part series highlighting Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings testimony on lifelong learning before the Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions on Thursday, April 14, 2005. The following is an excerpt from the Secretarys prepared remarks:
This attitude of change extends to higher education. The President, as you know, is seeking the reauthorization of the Higher Education Act. But we want to improve it as well.
For the first time, Pell Grants would be made available year-round, to allow students to learn on their own timetable. And the maximum award would be increased by $100 each of the next five years. An estimated 5.5 million students would benefit.
Our Jobs for the 21st Century Initiative will help community colleges identify and meet the needs of local job providers. It's a bold partnership between the Department of Education and the Department of Labor. As a former Austin Community College employee, I know how hard these institutions work to be responsive to their diverse students and the community.
Portland Community College's Gateway to College program, for instance, helps former dropouts earn a high school diploma, then continue on to certificate or degree programs in their academic or technical field. They understand that you don't have to have a four-year bachelor's or a master's degree to enjoy a successful career and life.
Finally, our reform of the Perkins Vocational Program will ensure that the people it was designed to help have the rigorous background in math and science as well as the technical skills to succeed in the modern workplace. The data that we know—and the facts that you've just heard—tell us that the status quo just isn't working.
As President Bush has said, "If we don't adjust quickly, and if we don't do smart things with the taxpayers' money, we're going to have a shortage of skilled workers and we're no longer going to be on the leading edge of change."
In other words, we cannot just "pour new funds into old federal models." We have to anticipate needs and take steps to meet them.
One of the best ways is through technology. As part of our Adult Education national plan, we're establishing a web-based system to inform adults of programs and activities that help them learn English and math. And we'll offer access to software so they can learn these skills from any computer at any time.
Technology is changing the world faster than our imagination can predict it. Our high schools may be very different places a decade or two from now. The old, regimented "factory"-type model, based on time spent in classrooms, may give way to a new "competency-based" model that measures progress according to what kids have learned, not the date on the calendar.
Such a model would take full advantage of community resources, private sector innovations and the advanced, interactive technologies kids and teachers use at home and school. We already see it in the movement to create "Digital High Schools" and the explosive growth of "Distance Learning." It is a smarter, faster, more student-centric model of learning.
I compare it to tax season—which is on many Americans' mind right now! In the past, you would see lines of cars stretching to the post office at midnight on April 15th. That was the old model. Now sophisticated computer programs like "Turbotax" help us get the job done faster and better.
I have traveled to elementary and secondary schools across the country, from Ohio to California, and closer to home in Annapolis and Richmond. I've spoken with dozens of parents, teachers, principals and administrators. I have not heard many questions about specific federal programs.
I have heard concerns about how well we are preparing young adults to succeed in higher education and the workforce. They understand that we live in a world in which 80 percent of the fastest-growing jobs will require post-secondary education or training.
Reform cannot wait. According to the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, our students lose interest in math and science the further they advance through the educational system.
Meanwhile, Craig Barrett, CEO of Intel, reports that "China and India are expanding their university-level math, science and engineering programs at a pace comparable to the United States after World War II." He adds, "If the world's best engineers are produced in India or Singapore, that is where our companies will go."
In 2001, India graduated nearly one million more students from college than the U.S.; China has six times as many graduates majoring in engineering. Both are now members of the World Trade Organization. If only 10 percent of their population is well-educated, that means 230 million new competitors. Clearly, we're no longer the only economic kid on the block.
This is a time of change and opportunity. But we can take advantage only if we change as well. We must stop being captives of the past and start thinking like competitors and consumers.
President Bush's proposals will help create a seamless educational continuum from K-12 through college and beyond, to serve young students and adults seeking to adapt to the ever-changing global economy.
All Americans need a strong foundation of academic skills in order to fulfill their roles as workers, parents, and citizens. We look forward to working with the Committee and Congress to help make it happen. Thank you.
Note: Part I was featured in the Extra Credit on Friday, April 15, which is available online.
About Extra Credit
NCLB Extra Credit is a regular look at the No Child Left Behind Act, President Bush's landmark education reform initiative passed with bipartisan support in Congress.
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- Latest available (Revised)
- Original (As enacted)
This is the original version (as it was originally enacted).
An Act to transfer to the University Courts the right of presentation or appointment to certain chairs or professorships in the faculties of divinity or theology in the universities of Scotland; to remove restrictions as regards appointment to chairs or professorships in the said universities; to extend the powers of the University Courts of the said universities with regard to the making of ordinances, and for purposes connected therewith.
[16th June 1932]
Be it enactedby the King's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :—
1The right of presentation or appointment to any theological chair in any of the Scottish Universities which, according to the law existing immediately prior to the passing of this Act, was vested in His Majesty or in any body or person other than the University Court shall, subject to the provisions of the immediately succeeding section, be transferred to and vested in the University Court of the university to which the chair belongs.
(1)The powers conferred on the University Court of each of the Scottish Universities by section twenty-one of the Universities (Scotland) Act, 1889 (which confers power on these courts to make, alter or revoke ordinances), shall include power, subject to the provisions of that section, to make and to alter or revoke such ordinances as the University Court think fit:—
(a)constituting a board of nomination composed of representatives elected in equal numbers by the University Court and by or under the authority of the General Assembly or otherwise in such manner as may be agreed on by the University Court and the General Assembly, and ordaining that a vacancy in any theological chair founded prior to the passing of this Act shall be filled by the appointment by the University Court of a person nominated by the aforesaid board if such nomination is agreed to by two-thirds of the whole number of the members of the board, and is intimated to the University Court within twelve months after the occurrence of the vacancy, and that failing such intimation within the said period the University Court may proceed to make an appointment without further consultation with the Board of Nomination;
(b)founding new chairs or professorships in the faculty of divinity or theology where such a course seems desirable in order to provide for the admission, as professors in the university and members of the Senatus and the faculty of divinity, of the holders of professorships in the former United Free Church Colleges, and where the General Assembly guarantees to the satisfaction of the University Court the payment of sufficient annual salaries and sufficient contributions for the purposes of superannuation to or on behalf of the holders of such new chairs or professorships; and ordaining in the case of any such new chair or professorship (i) that appointment thereto shall be made by the University Court on the nomination of the General Assembly or of any commission, board, or other body to whom the General Assembly may delegate its power so to nominate, if such nomination is intimated to the University Court within such period (not exceeding eighteen months after the occurrence of a vacancy in such new chair or professorship) as may be agreed on by the University Court and the General Assembly, (ii) that, if no such nomination shall be so intimated within the aforesaid period, such appointment may be made by the University Court after consultation with the General Assembly or with any such commission, board, or other body, as aforesaid; and (iii) that no provision in any ordinance made by the University Court limiting the tenure of office of any professor by reference to age, or instituting or adopting a system of pensions or superannuation allowances shall, except with his consent, apply to any person who shall be appointed to any such new chair or professorship, and who before such appointment shall have held a chair or professorship in any of the aforesaid colleges;
(c)altering, with the consent of the General Assembly or of any commission, board, or other body to which the General Assembly may delegate the power so to consent, the name of any chair founded in pursuance of this section, or the scope of teaching, duties, and conditions of appointment of the professor, or, with the consent of the General Assembly, abolishing such chair, provided that no such ordinance shall authorise such alteration or abolition, except on the occurrence of a vacancy, or with the consent of the holder of the chair for the time being;
(d)in the case of the University of St. Andrews, separating the Principalship of St. Mary's College in that University from the Primarius Professorship of Divinity in the said College, and making such division of the emoluments attached to the said Principalship and Professorship conjointly prior to such separation, as the University Court may think fit.
(2)Any ordinance made by the University Court of the University of Aberdeen under paragraph (a) of subsection (1) of this section may provide that the nomination board constituted under such ordinance may, in the case of a nomination for the Chair of Systematic Theology in the said University, follow the procedure established by the deed of erection relating to such Chair.
(3)The power to found new chairs or professorships conferred on a University Court by paragraph (b) of subsection (1) of this section shall not be exerciseable after the expiry of seven years from the passing of this Act.
(4)When an ordinance under paragraph (d) of subsection (1) of this section separating the principalship from the professorship therein referred to has come into operation, the right of presentation or appointment to the said principalship and to the said professorship shall be vested in the University Court, subject in the case of the professorship to the provisions of paragraph (a) of the said subsection (1).
(5)Nothing in the foregoing provisions of this section, or of any ordinance made thereunder, shall prejudice any rights reserved to the Free Church of Scotland by the Order entitled "Assembly Records, Libraries, &c," and dated the twenty-ninth day of November, nineteen hundred and nine, made by the Commissioners under the Churches (Scotland) Act, 1905.
3Notwithstanding anything contained in any deed of foundation establishing bursaries or scholarships tenable by students of theology in the former United Free Church Colleges or in any scheme made or approved by the Court of Session or in any scheme under the Educational Endowments (Scotland) Act, 1882, or in any order under the Churches (Scotland) Act, 1905, regarding such bursaries or scholarships, it shall be lawful for the trustees, patrons or administrators under such deed of foundation or under such scheme or order to provide and declare by deed of declaration under their hands that such bursaries or scholarships shall be tenable by students of theology preparing for the Ministry of the Church of Scotland or of the United Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) and attending any Scottish University or a specified Scottish University and such provision and declaration shall be of the like force and effect as if it had been contained in the deed of foundation or in such a scheme or order as aforesaid: Provided that, where by the terms of the deed of foundation or of any such scheme or order as aforesaid any such bursary or scholarship is tenable only by students attending a specified former United Free Church College, no deed of declaration under this section shall, except with the consent of the Church of Scotland given in such way as the General Assembly may appoint, provide or declare that such bursary or scholarship shall be tenable at any university other than that in the burgh in which such college is situated:
Provided also that, where any bursary or scholarship which, in pursuance of a deed of declaration under this section is tenable at a Scottish university, is awarded to a student of theology preparing for the ministry of the United Free Church of Scotland (Continuing), any period not exceeding one year during such student's tenure of the bursary or scholarship which he may spend as a student in the College of the United Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) shall, for the purposes of the said deed of declaration, be deemed to be spent at the university.
4Nothing in this Act contained shall restrict any University Court from entering into agreements with any Christian Church or Association of Christians whereby teachers of theology may be admitted to university status or privileges.
5It shall not be necessary for any person who shall have been, or shall be, elected, presented or provided to the office of principal, professor, regent, master or other office in any of the universities or colleges in Scotland to make and subscribe the acknowledgement or declaration mentioned in an Act passed in the fourth session of the first Parliament held in Scotland by Her Majesty Queen Anne, intituled " Act for securing the Protestant religion and Presbyterian Church Government."
6In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires :—
" General Assembly " means the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland;
" Theological chair " means the chair of any professor who for the time being is included as a professor in the faculty of theology or divinity in any of the Scottish Universities;
" Former United Free Church College " means a college which, prior to the Union of the United Free Church and the Church of Scotland on the second day of October, nineteen hundred and twenty-nine, belonged to and was administered by the United Free Church of Scotland or which was associated with that church, and which since that date has belonged to and been administered by the Church of Scotland or has been associated with that church; and other expressions shall have the like meaning as in the Universities (Scotland) Acts, 1858 to 1922.
(1)This Act shall extend to Scotland only and may be cited as the Universities (Scotland) Act, 1932, and the Universities (Scotland) Acts, 1858 to 1922, and this Act may be cited together as the Universities (Scotland) Acts, 1858 to 1932.
(2)The enactments set forth in the Schedule to this Act shall be repealed to the extent specified in the third column of that Schedule.
|Session and Chapter.
|Short Title.
|Extent of Repeal.
|16 & 17 Vict. c. 89.
|The Universities (Scotland) Act, 1853.
|The whole Act in so far as not already repealed.
|22 & 23 Vict. c. 24.
|The Universities (Scotland) Act, 1859.
|The whole Act in so far as not already repealed.
|5 Edw. 7.c. 12
|The Churches (Scotland) Act, 1905.
|In section five, the words "and from persons appointed to chairs of theology in the Scottish Universities and the Principal of St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, respectively."
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Antigua Men's Baltimore Orioles Elite Polo
NOW: $41.25 (25% off!)
Was: $55.00*
Product Information:
Dress like a pro at the ballpark or on the street in the Antigua® Men's Baltimore Orioles Elite Polo. With a three-button placket, flat knit collar and contrast-colored piping you'll stylishly display your Orioles fandom. This Elite Polo features Desert Dry™ moisture management technology to keep you dry and comfortable. Show that your Orioles pride is in a class of its own in the Antigua® Elite Polo.
- Three-button placket, flat knit collar performance polo
- Embroidered team logo on left chest
- Contrast-colored piping at collar, sleeves and placket
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- Desert Dry™ moisture management technology
- Officially licensed by the MLB®
- Fabric: 100% polyester
- Style: 100542E01045
- Antigua
Country of Origin: VietnamWeb ID: 19331746


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We've been serving content in conjunction with Raz for some time, and in the last 6-10 months Raz has apparently been pursuing
other goals.
That said, I'm very grateful for the time and the concept, and the project continues to this day with most of the same players intact. At their own behest, very few will be mentioned here :-D
You will notice a new format. Due to the unfortunate anti-social behavior
of some, you now need to do a quick Turing test and a selection to get each
We had individual users firing up 500+ simultaneous connections and bogging down the box. I ratholed a few ISP's and eventually got sick of whacking moles.
The new system will likely be a PITA for us, but it's better than letting a greedy few slowly DOS the web server.
Update Mon Sep 3 16:57:10 PDT 2007 - A perfect example of the kind of crap we've been facing.
Partial log Here, full log Here..
Note the number of connections per second this guy is firing up - He's greedy, and we need to be merciful to those who:
A: Apparently don't respect redirects B: Ruthlessly steal from the network C: Are anti-social pricks with fundamental scripting skills.If you have problems with the interface, please send us an email - firstname.lastname@example.com.
Many thanks to Snaggle and 69barracuda for their help in continuing to bring the current WRC season to the eyeballs of hungry North American viewers who cannot see this footage any other way.
- Isaac
** Note - Some viewers have written in, saying that the captcha image is not visible - At least one of those viewers fixed the problem by using Internet Explorer instead of Firefox. *** Please ensure Cookies are enabled for this site *** 2008 WRC Season 2009 WRC Season 2010 WRC Season 2011 WRC Season 2012 WRC Season 2013 WRC Season 2014 WRC Season 2015 WRC Season
Sat Jan 23 08:25:34 PST 2016 WRC 2016 is here! ** NEW ** -Snaggle
|Monte Carlo
|Jan 21
|Feb 11
|Mar 3
|Apr 21
|May 19
|Jun 9
|Jul 1
|Jul 28
|Aug 18
|Sep 8
|Sep 29
|Oct 13
|Oct 27
|Nov 17


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'Intense Fatigue' & 'Extreme Emotional Stress' Caused Chris Brown's Seizure, Says Rep
The seizure that singer Chris Brown suffered late Thursday night was not related to epilepsy, but rather due to fatigue and stress, according to his representative.
Paramedics rushed to Hollywood's Record Plant recording studio around 1 a.m. Friday morning after the singer collapsed.
Brown's rep told UsWeekly.com that the star had a "nonepileptic seizure (NES)," but he refused to go to the hospital. He followed up with a doctor Friday afternoon.
His rep explained: "His doctor tended to him this afternoon (Friday) and attributes the NES to intense fatigue and extreme emotional stress, both due to the continued onslaught of unfounded legal matters and the nonstop negativity."
His official website tells Breezy fans "don't worry" and "he's doing good."
Over the last few years, Brown has been dealing with a lot of legal issues, including a hit-and-run incident on May 21, for which he served time in a Van Nuys, Calif., Jail this week. The singer has also received a lot of flack in the media for his on-again, off-again relationship with Rihanna, whom he beat up prior to the Grammy Awards in 2009.


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The new home of
2 reviews
At the edge of a quiet hamlet in south Champagne, this property is comfortably furnished and adjoins the owner's property although is completely independent. The large garden is ideal to relax in and there is a private sunny area in front of extensive fields. Within walking or cycling distance is the recreational lake in the natural Park of Forest d'Orient where sunbathing, sailing, windsurfing, fishing and swimming are enjoyable. The surrounding forests are a haven for walking, bird watching or biking. Not far away are the Champagne vineyards and the pretty town of Bar-sur-Aube with a large choice of restaurants and markets.
All on ground floor: Hallway leading to separate and well equipped kitchen. Living room with single bed (for child) and French windows. Bedroom with king-size double. Bathroom with shower and double basins. Separate WC with basin
Location: Geraudot village (basic shop in summer, bar restaurant), 1km from golf course, 1.5km from Lac d'Orient (beaches, sailing), 8km from all facilities, 25km E of Troyes (old town, train to Paris).
3 reviews
A champagne-lover's paradise, this renovated house in a charming village offers comfortable, well laid-out accommodation with large bedrooms, each one themed to the grapes that the owners grow at their champagne vineyards. There is a large enclosed garden with lawn and vines to enjoy. Spend time at the owners' champagne vineyard where they will show you around, or visit other champagne cellars in the region and taste the local produce. Visit the Lac d'Orient for watersports, walking, cycling or riding, or visit the lovely medieval town of Troyes, just 45 minutes away, for great shopping and restaurants.
Ground floor: Sunken living/dining room. Kitchen. Shower room. Separate WC. First floor: Double bedroom. Twin bedroom with additional single bed. Separate WC
Location: 300m from centre of Landreville (shops, bars), 10km from Bar-sur-Seine (supermarket, restaurants, bars), 20km from Lac d'Orient (watersports, beach).
0 reviews
Set in a quiet village on the border between Champagne and Burgundy, this stylish, beamed detached property stands in large landscaped grounds and offers a large private heated swimming pool. The spacious interior is really enjoyable for family get togethers, with a well-equipped kitchen and an airy living room with table tennis, snooker table and state of the art home cinema/hi-fi system. Outside is an additional cottage with twin bedroom and shower room. The surrounding area is famous for vineyards such as Chablis and Champagne - both are within easy reach. Nearby are the towns of Auxerre and Troyes, and other famous places to visit in the area include the medieval town of Noyers with its market and the castle of Ancy-le-Franc.
Ground floor: Spacious living room. Small sitting room, single bed. Dining room, tiled floor. Kitchen. Three single bedrooms. Two shower rooms. Separate WC. First floor: Double bedroom, en-suite shower/WC and home cinema/hi-fi system. Study. External stairs to first floor: Double bedroom, en-suite shower/WC. Cottage: Twin bedroom, en-suite shower/WC
Location: 6km E of Germigny (basic shops), 10km E of St. Florentin (all facilities), 27km N of Chablis (restaurants, riding), 31km NE of Auxerre (all facilities, station), 47km SE of Troyes, 50km S of Orient Lakes (sailing, beaches), 200km SE of Paris (accessible by motorway).
Looking for something with a little more?
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cottages.com is the new home of cottages4you (Cottages for You).
cottages.com is a trading name of Wyndham Vacation Rentals (UK) Ltd. Registered in England and Wales.
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This print started out as a baseball card more than twenty years ago. Every aspect of it is designed to preserve the original look and feel of the card, from the printing pattern to the slightly worn edges. In fact, this print started by finding the actual card in our vault and then painstakingly re-mastering it with a team of designers. The authenticity extends to manufacturing; each print is made on high-quality, cotton fine art paper that measures 1/64 inches in thickness. Framed prints feature 2-inch flat wood or metallic frames with high-end, glare-resistant glass. And all prints are officially licensed by MLB and the National Baseball Hall of Fame.
Celebrating his all-star season from 1984, this Topps card is from the 1985 set. While he was an absolute stud with Montreal and eventually entered the Baseball Hall of Fame with a Montreal cap, he continued to have all-star seasons with the Mets until 1988, his final appearance in a Midsummer Classic.
Intellectual Property Notice: © 2013 All Rights Reserved. Topps is a registered trademark of The Topps Company, Inc.


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The Boob Machine: All The Boobs You Could Ever Want To Grab
Mar 16, 2009 | Posted by Lux Alptraum
We enjoy grabbing boobs at every opportunity—but we usually prefer to use our hands, not some scary metal claw. Still, we'd be happy to see one of these boob machines at our arcade. (buzzfeed.com)Tagged in: Straight, photo, Machines, Boobs, Weird
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FFXIV – Coil Turn 5 (Best Run Misfits Group 3) – OT POV
This is group 3 from the Misfits FC of Cactuar. I am doing the off-tank as the paladin as our decked out warrior is taking main-tank. We just started trying T5 last week and we have already come this far. We hope to take it down in the next couple weeks.
*This was streamed on Twitch.tv/gamersciz using Xsplit
As of late I plan to stream most all of my gaming on twitch.tv/gamersciz. Last night my Coil group was learning Turn 5 in Final Fantasy XIV. This is our second week trying to attempt Turn 5. We are obviously still learning but you can tell we are getting much better with the mechanics and collaboration necessary to succeed. We plan to try it again next week in which I will be streaming it again on my Twitch channel. I also tend to play Counter-Strike: Source and Team Fortress 2 often, and I will be streaming most all of those gameplay sessions as well. If you enjoyed this video and would like to see more of Final Fantasy or another game then simply comment below your thoughts and let me know what game you want to see streamed.


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Shannon, from Rocks In My Dryer, emailed me a couple of weeks ago to tell me that she was getting ready to do a "Favorite Things Giveaway" and asked if she could include one of my aprons.
First, I shrieked and clapped my hands and flapped them in front of my face and said in a high pitched whisper to my computer monitor, "MY APRON IS ONE OF HER FAVORITE THINGS!"
Then, I emailed her back and acted all calm and self assured like, "Yes, Shannon, and thank you ever so much for considering my hand made product for your giveaway."
So, friends, this is your opportunity to win one of my oilcloth aprons, but that ain't even all! Leave it to Shannon to put together a Giveaway Palooza like no other!
She has chosen several of her favorite things and compiled them all together – AND – get this, ONE PERSON IS GOING TO WIN THE WHOLE KIT AND CABOODLE!
So, what are you still doing here? Go on, head on over there and sign up! You never know. You could be the next owner of Shannon's favorite apron (plus a whole passel of other stuff)!


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On the beatWritten by Admin
Franklin gets the blues
Popular blues/folk singer Heidi Holton will perform at 8 p.m. Friday, Dec. 9, at The Rathskeller Coffee Haus & Pub in Franklin. Free. www.heidiholton.com.
Joe Cat at Rathskeller
Athens, Georgia singer-songwriter Joe Cat will perform at 8 p.m. Saturday, Dec. 10, at The Rathskeller Coffee Haus & Pub in Franklin. Free.
• The Classic Wineseller (Waynesville) will host the Jingle Bell Bash with Dulci Ellenberger & Kevin Williams Dec. 9, Joe Cruz (piano/pop) Dec. 10 and 17, and James Hammel (pop/jazz) Dec. 16. All events begin at 7 p.m. 828.452.6000 or www.classicwineseller.com.
• Derailed Bar & Lounge (Bryson City) will have music at 7 p.m. on Saturdays. 828.488.8898.
• Innovation Brewing (Sylva) will have an Open Mic night Dec. 7 and 14, a jazz night with the Kittle/Collings Duo Dec. 8 and 15, and Shotgun Gypsies Dec. 17. All events are free and begin at 8 p.m. www.innovation-brewing.com.
• Marianna Black Library (Bryson City) will host a community music jam from 6 to 7:30 p.m. Dec. 15. Anyone with a guitar, banjo, mandolin, fiddle, dulcimer, anything unplugged, are invited to join. Singers are also welcomed to join in or you can just stop by and listen. Free. 828.488.3030.
• No Name Sports Pub (Sylva) will host Glitter Bomb Burlesque with Bob Fleming & The Drunk Girl Chorus Dec. 7, Chris Monteith Karaoke Dec. 9, I Heartbreak (hip-hop) Dec. 10, Alex Culbreth (country/blues) Dec. 16 and John The Revelator & Scott Low (Americana/rock) Dec. 17. Shows are free and begin at 9:30 p.m. www.nonamesportspub.com.
• Oconaluftee Visitors Center (Cherokee) will have an old-time music jam from 1 to 3 p.m. Dec. 17. All skill levels welcomed.
• The Rathskeller Coffee Haus & Pub (Franklin) will host Heidi Holton (blues/folk) Dec. 9 and Joe Cat (singer-songwriter) Dec. 10. All shows are free and begin at 8 p.m. www.rathskellerfranklin.com.
• Sapphire Mountain Brewing Company (Sapphire) will host a jazz brunch with Tyler Kittle & Friends from 11:30 a.m. until 2 p.m. on Sundays. 828.743.0220.
• Satulah Mountain Brewing (Highlands) will host "Hoppy Hour" and an open mic with Jimandi at 5:30 p.m. on Thursdays, "Funky Friday" with Bud Davis at 7 p.m. on Fridays and Isaish Breedlove (Americana) at 7 p.m. on Saturdays. 828.482.9794 or www.satulahmountainbrewing.com.
• The Ugly Dog Pub (Highlands) will host a weekly Appalachian music night from 7:30 to 9:30 p.m. on Wednesdays with Nitrograss. 828.526.8364 or www.theuglydogpub.com.
• The Water'n Hole Bar & Grill (Waynesville) will host Porch 40 (rock/funk) Dec. 10. All shows begin at 9 p.m.
• Western Carolina University (Cullowhee) will host a Woodwind Concert at 4 p.m. Dec. 7, a Brass Ensemble Concert at 5:30 p.m. Dec. 7 and a Faculty Ensemble 7:30 p.m. Dec. 7, all in the Coulter Building. The WCU Honor Band will also be at 3 p.m. Dec. 10 in the Fine & Performing Arts Theatre. www.wcu.edu.


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The martingale strategy
Hello everyone! So today I have included a shot of some of my days trades, and want to explain a betting strategy I am a fan of.. This is the "Martingale" method of trade size amounts.
A martingale is any of a class of betting strategies that originated from and were popular in 18th century France. The simplest of these strategies was designed for a game in which the gambler wins his stake if a coin comes up heads and loses it if the coin comes up tails. The strategy had the gambler double his bet after every loss, so that the first win would recover all previous losses plus win a profit equal to the original stake. The martingale strategy has been applied to roulette as well, as the probability of hitting either red or black is close to 50%.
The idea behind the martingale is a simple one: Double your previous loss until you eventually win, resulting in profit no matter what, as long as you are capable of going the distance of course. So generally speaking, if one is capable of maintaining a 70 percent in the money accuracy rate, and on their worst day they lose 4-5 in a row, as long as they have the funds to make it to the 6th trade they hypothetically would never have a losing day again.
I will admit that the martingale system seems much more fail-safe than it actually is and it can be quite dangerous if not used correctly, as it could quickly compound ones losses. However, I do use a variance of the Martingale system myself, and I am a strong believer that if it is used in the proper manner it can be a quite profitable and fantastic tool for a trader to add to their "trading arsenal" so to speak. My recommendations are to either try it out on a demo account (as one should always do with any new type of trading method) or to start with extremely small bet sizes such as one or two dollars. Remember, each trade is a decision made by that individual trader and the level of success achieved with any method is solely based on the skill level of the user. Have fun and happy trading!


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UPDATE: Perth Glory's ability to cope with the stifling conditions at nib Stadium yesterday gave them a distinct edge on their way to a 2-0 victory over Melbourne Heart, according to opposition coach John Aloisi.
Dean Heffernan's first Glory goal, swept home in the 38th minute, and Billy Mehmet's second of the season, five minutes from the end of normal time, earned the home side a result which lifted them to second place on the A-League table. Adelaide are top, ahead of Glory on goal difference.
Although Aloisi indicated Glory had been good value for their win, he questioned the wisdom of the mid-afternoon kick-off as his players wilted.
"You can't make excuses but it's been quite cool in Melbourne and coming over here and playing at two o'clock in the afternoon, it really affected us," Aloisi said.
"When you get fatigued you start to not think straight and our boys were getting pulled out of position too easily."
Even during the early stages, Glory looked the likely winners.
Driven by the midfield muscle of Jacob Burns and Liam Miller, and the width provided by Heffernan and Scott Jamieson on the left and Josh Risdon and Travis Dodd on the right, Glory were rarely troubled by Heart, who lost midfield architect Fred to an eye injury halfway through the match.
Despite their dominance, coach Ian Ferguson said he was concerned Heart could hit back.
He was relieved when Mehmet glanced home a corner from Miller, who had provided similar service for Heffernan's opener.
"I felt in control for a lot of the game but with one goal in it you always know that Heart are going to be dangerous," Ferguson said.
"We were always a little bit nervous until the second goal went in."
Understandably, Ferguson was less concerned about the impact of Sunday's weather — the mercury nudged 30C — although he, too, felt the game was affected by the heat.
Glory handled it better and got the late sealer after the introduction of Nick Ward and debutants Chris Harold and Adrian Zahra.
There was also an assured performance from centre-back Steve Pantelidis to please Ferguson.
In for the injured Bas van den Brink, Pantelidis had Ferguson looking away when he went into a trademark no-holds-barred tackle with David Williams.
"I was just glad when I opened my eyes that the two players were still standing," Ferguson said.
Heffernan had been first to threaten when he had a shot saved by goalkeeper Clint Bolton and a second attempt blocked on the line by Patrick Gerhardt.
He made sure of his next opportunity when he fired Miller's corner beyond Bolton.
The second goal finally arrived with five minutes of normal time remaining when Mehmet's glancing header found the net after another Miller delivery.


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Are you looking for a specific piece of gear, equipment or clothing? Become a G-gear advisor and have a say in what we make and buy. We are building our own brand and would like to have you as a G-gear Advisor so join us today!


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SEPTEMBER 17 2012 22:53h
PARIS, Sept 17 (Hina) - The visiting Croatian foreign minister Vesna Pusic opened an exhibition of 12 works by internationally renowned Croatian sculptor Ivan Mestrovic at the Rodin Museum in Paris on Monday evening.
The French-English catalogue, prepared for the exhibition, includes letters which sculptors Mestrovic and Auguste Rodin exchanged as well as an essay written by Mestrovic 20 years after Rodin's death.
The exhibition was organised as part of the ongoing Croatia Festival in France and on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the death of the Croatian sculptor.
At the opening ceremony Minister Pusic said that Croatia was always a part of European culture and that it would now also become its political part.
On behalf of the French foreign ministry, the Minister Delegate for French Nationals Abroad, Helene Conway-Mouret, emphasised the fact that Croatia would become the 28th memebr of the European Union on 1 July 2013.
The exhibition will run until 6 January.


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Pathai, Sophiaa,b; Lawn, Stephen D.b,c; Gilbert, Clare E.a; McGuinness, Dagmarad; McGlynn, Lianed; Weiss, Helen A.e; Port, Jenniferd; Christ, Theresad; Barclay, Karend; Wood, Robinb; Bekker, Linda-Gailb; Shiels, Paul G.d
aInternational Centre for Eye Health, Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
bDesmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
cDepartment of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London
dInstitute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
eMRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
Correspondence to Dr Sophia Pathai, International Centre for Eye Health, Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK. Tel: +44 20 7958 8343; fax: +44 20 7958 8325; e-mail: email@example.com
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivitives 3.0 License, where it is permissible to download and share the work provided it is properly cited. The work cannot be changed in any way or used commercially. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0.
Received April 17, 2013
Accepted May 29, 2013
Objectives: Little is known about the impact of HIV infection on biological ageing in sub-Saharan Africa. The study aimed to assess biological ageing in South African HIV-infected adults and HIV-seronegative individuals using two validated biomarkers, telomere length and CDKN2A expression (a mediator of cellular senescence).
Design: A case–control study.
Methods: Two hundred and thirty-six HIV-infected adults aged at least 30 years and 250 age and sex frequency matched HIV-seronegative individuals were recruited from clinics in township communities in Cape Town. Biological ageing was evaluated by measurement of telomere length and CDKN2A expression in peripheral blood leukocytes.
Results: The median ages of the HIV-infected and HIV-seronegative participants were 39 and 40 years, respectively. Among HIV-infected participants, 87.1% were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART), their median CD4+ cell count was 468 cells/μl and 84.3% had undetectable viral load. Both biomarkers were validated against chronological age in HIV-seronegative individuals. Telomere length was significantly shorter in HIV-infected individuals than in HIV-seronegative individuals (mean relative T/S ratio ±SE:0.91 ± 0.007 vs. 1.07 ± 0.008, P < 0.0001). CD2NKA expression was higher in HIV-infected participants than in HIV-seronegative individuals (mean expression: 0.45 ± 0.02 vs. 0.36 ± 0.03, P = 0.003). Socioeconomic factors were not associated with biological ageing in HIV-infected participants. However, in participants on ART with undetectable viral load, biomarker levels indicated greater biological ageing in those with lower current CD4+ cell counts.
Conclusion: Telomere length and CDKN2A expression were both consistent with increased biological ageing in HIV-infected individuals. Prospective studies of the impact of HIV on biological ageing in sub-Saharan Africa are warranted.
HIV-infected individuals are at an increased risk of age-related non-AIDS morbidity and mortality compared with HIV-uninfected persons [1]. It is speculated that HIV-infected individuals may not only be ageing chronologically but also undergoing accelerated biological ageing mediated by increased cellular senescence [2]. Chronological age is an imprecise measure of biological ageing, due to inter-individual differences in rates of ageing. The disconnection between chronological age and lifespan has led to a search for effective and validated biomarkers of ageing (BoA), defined as 'biological parameters of an organism that either alone or in some multivariate composite will better predict functional capability at some late age, than will chronological age' [3].
Data from industrialized countries on the impact of HIV on accelerated ageing may be confounded by differential risk exposure by HIV status to risk factors, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. Moreover, lower socioeconomic status and poor diet are also associated with accelerated biological ageing [4]. Thus, the NIH Office of AIDS Research has highlighted the need for carefully designed studies of HIV and ageing that takes these factors into account [5]. Assessment of biological ageing in HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa may also be influenced by coexisting morbidities, malnutrition, a high prevalence of enteric pathogens and opportunistic coinfections and epigenetic variation [6,7]. Thus, data related to biological ageing and HIV obtained from well resourced settings may not be directly translatable to African populations. However, few data are available from sub-Saharan Africa populations [8] where three million people aged 50 years and older are living with HIV [9]. If premature biological ageing is associated with HIV, then age-related morbidity in HIV-infected individuals is likely to place a significant burden on healthcare systems in sub-Saharan Africa.
Telomeric DNA length is a widely used BoA. Telomeres are nucleoprotein complexes at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. Their DNA component shortens with somatic cell division, and upon reaching a critically short length, a DNA damage signal leads to cell cycle arrest, resulting in replicative senescence [10,11]. Telomere shortening is associated with increasing chronological age, and a wide range of diseases, including cardiovascular disease [12] and renal dysfunction [13]. Telomere attrition is affected by psychosocial confounders, genetics and potentially by nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) [14]. Expression levels of the cell cycle regulator CDKN2A may represent a more robust BoA [15]. CDKN2A acts as a tumour suppressor and maintains cells in a state of growth arrest both in replicative and stress-induced premature senescence. Increasing levels of CDKN2A transcriptional expression occur with increasing age both in solid organs and peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) [16]. In the former, increasing CDKN2A expression correlates directly with decreasing function.
This cross-sectional study conducted in South Africa was undertaken to provide a rapid assessment of whether there was evidence that HIV-infected individuals had advanced biological ageing compared with HIV-seronegative individuals by comparing telomere length and CDKN2A expression.
The study was approved by the Ethics Committees of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, and was adhered to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
HIV-infected individuals aged at least 30 years were enrolled from a community-based HIV treatment centre in Nyanga district in Cape Town [17]. All participants had a confirmed serological diagnosis of HIV and either about to commence antiretroviral therapy (ART; ART-naive) or were already on first-line ART. HIV-seronegative participants were recruited using frequency-matching by sex and 5-year age categories. HIV-seronegative individuals were enrolled from participants confirmed to be HIV-seronegative attending an HIV prevention trials centre (Emavundleni Centre). These two centres were chosen, as attendees were drawn from the same community and therefore likely to have similar sociodemographic characteristics.
Sociodemographic information and medical history were obtained by questioning participants in their first language (Xhosa or English). Data collected included factors known to affect ageing [e.g. indoor/outdoor occupation as a proxy for ultraviolet (UV) exposure]. Clinical information was available relating to current and nadir CD4+ cell counts, peak and current HIV plasma viral load and WHO clinical status. Venous blood was collected at the time of participant interview to measure telomere length and CDKN2A expression in PBL.
DNA was extracted from PBLs using the Maxwell Automated Purification System according to manufacturer's instructions (Promega, Madison, Wisconsin, USA). DNA concentration and purity was quantified by Nanodrop Spectrophotometer (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA). RNA was extracted using Trizol reagent (Invitrogen, Life Technologies, Grand Island, New York, USA) following manufacturer's guidelines. DNA/RNA extraction was performed in Cape Town and samples shipped on dry ice to the University of Glasgow.
Telomere lengths were determined by quantitative PCR (qPCR) following the method of Cawthon [18]. Telomere length determination was performed blindly using a Roche Light Cycler (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA) LC480. Briefly, telomere length analyses were performed in triplicate for each sample, using a single-copy gene amplicon primer set (acidic ribosomal phosphoprotein, 36B4) and a telomere-specific amplicon primer set [19]. Quality control parameters for the amplifications comprised a cut-off of 0.15 for the standard deviation (SD) of the threshold cycle (Ct) for sample replicates. At a SD above 0.15, the sample was reanalysed. The average SD across plates was 0.05. Relative telomere length was estimated from Ct scores using the comparative Ct method after confirming that telomere and control gene assays yielded similar amplification efficiencies. This method determines the ratio of telomere repeat copy number to single copy gene number (T/S) ratio in experimental samples relative to a control sample DNA. This normalized T/S ratio was used as the estimate of relative telomere length (Relative T/S). The interassay variation was assessed by comparing the relative telomere estimates (T/S ratio) estimates across assays for the positive controls, assayed on every assay plate. The average interassay coefficient of variance was 0.6% for telomere length and 0.23% for 36B4, with coefficient of variances comparable to previous data from this laboratory [20,21].
Relative quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to estimate mRNA levels corresponding to the candidate senescence associated gene CDKN2A in line with established methodology [19,22]. Expression levels were measured against a reference hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) housekeeping gene on an ABI Prism(R) 7500 Sequence Detection System. Sequences of human TaqMan Primer/Probe sets were designed by Primer Express algorithm (Applied Biosystems, Austin, Texas, USA). The comparative threshold cycle method (ΔΔCT) [23] was employed to quantify relative gene expression.
Analyses were performed using Stata 12 (Stata Corp, College Station, Texas, USA). Clinical and biochemical data were summarized as the median with interquartile range (IQR) or mean with standard error (SE), as appropriate. Analyses were conducted on log10-transformed values of telomere length and mean CDKN2A expression to satisfy the assumption of normally distributed residuals. Results are displayed back-transformed to the original scale. Univariable analyses were performed to assess the relationships between mean telomere length, CDKN2A expression, HIV status and other clinical/demographic categories. Multivariable linear regression was used to examine the relationships of biomarker expression with HIV status adjusting for confounders identified in the univariable analysis and for a priori defined confounders (age and sex).
Characteristics of the 236 HIV-infected individuals and 250 age/sex frequency matched HIV-seronegative individuals are reported in Table 1. All participants were of African ancestry. Telomere data were available for all participants, and CDKN2A data for 444 participants (91.4%). The majority (75%) of the study population was female. The median age of the HIV-infected population was 39 years (IQR 35–46 years), similar to the HIV-seronegative group (median 40 years (IQR 35–49 years)) (P = 0.17). HIV-infected participants tended to be of higher socioeconomic status and were less likely to smoke or consume alcohol (Table 1). Cases also had a lower mean BMI and were more likely to have current or previous tuberculosis (TB) than HIV-seronegative individuals. Overall, 87.1% of HIV-infected participants were receiving ART and the current CD4+ cell count among these participants was 468 cells/μl (IQR 325–607 cells/μl) and 84.3% had an undetectable viral load (<50 copies/ml). All participants on ART received a regimen that contained an NRTI.
Telomere length and CDKN2A levels were validated against chronological age in HIV-seronegative individuals. As expected, there was a negative association between chronological age and telomere length (Pearson r = −0.13, P = 0.05), and a positive association with CDKN2A expression (r = 0.16, P = 0.02). The relationship between CDKN2A expression and age was similar in men and women. However, for telomere length, age-related attrition was somewhat greater in men than in women, but this difference did not reach statistical significance (r = −0.25 vs. r = −0.09, P-interaction = 0.13).
Telomere length was significantly shorter in HIV-infected individuals than in HIV-seronegative individuals [mean relative T/S ratio (Rel T/S) ± SE: 0.91 ± 0.007 vs. 1.07 ± 0.008, P < 0.0001, Fig. 1a]. Telomere length decreased with chronological age in HIV-infected individuals (r = −0.15, P = 0.03). Mean CDKN2A expression was higher in HIV-infected participants than in HIV-seronegative individuals (0.45 ± 0.02 vs. 0.36 ± 0.03, P = 0.003, Fig. 1b, Table 2), and there was little evidence of correlation between chronological age and CDKN2A expression in HIV-infected individuals (r = 0.09, P = 0.17). No interactions were detected with HIV status when assessing the relationship between biomarkers and chronological age (data not shown).
Among the HIV-infected patients, there was no evidence that either telomere length or CDKN2A expression was associated with ART status (P = 0.71 telomere length; P = 0.80 CDKN2A; Table 2).
Among the 172 participants on ART with viral suppression, current CD4+ cell count was positively associated with telomere length and negatively associated with CDKN2A expression (P-trend = 0.02 telomere length; P-trend = 0.05 CDKN2A; Table 3). There was no evidence of an association between these BoA and CD4+ cell count in patients with detectable viral load (data not shown).
As sociodemographic characteristics may be associated with biological ageing [4,24], we analysed their association with the two BoA, stratified by HIV status (Table 4a,b). HIV-infected participants aged at least 50 years had significantly shorter telomeres than HIV-seronegative individuals in the same age group (mean RelT/S 0.84 vs. 1.01, P = 0.03; Table 4a). There were no significant associations between telomere length and other sociodemographic variables for HIV-infected participants. In HIV-seronegative individuals, an association with alcohol consumption and telomere length was detected, with those who did not consume alcohol and those who consumed more than 1 l/week having the shortest telomere lengths (P = 0.04) (Table 4a). For CDKN2A expression, the only evidence of an association was among HIV-seronegative individuals, in whom CDKN2A expression was higher among those with lower incomes than among those with higher incomes (mean RelT/S 0.39 vs. 0.30, P = 0.03; Table 4b).
Levels of two validated biomarkers of ageing (telomere length and CDKN2A expression) were found to be consistent with increased biological ageing in South African HIV-infected individuals compared with age and sex-matched HIV-seronegative controls. This important finding is supported by our previous observations in this same study population that HIV infection is associated with increased frequency of a frailty phenotype [25], and changes in retinal vessel calibre, lens density and corneal endothelial cells that are consistent with increased biological ageing [26–28]. Among patients receiving ART and in whom plasma viral load was suppressed, the biological ageing estimated by both biomarkers was greatest in those with low current CD4+ cell counts. Although long-term prospective cohort studies will be required to definitively characterize the impact of HIV on biological ageing in sub-Saharan Africa, the combination of these case–control biomarker data and the existing frailty and ocular phenotypic data provide a strong evidence base on which to justify future long-term studies.
Both biomarkers were strongly associated with chronological age in HIV-seronegative individuals, validating their use as BoAs. Reduced telomere length is associated with markers of low socioeconomic status in industrialized countries [4,24]. Lower income was associated with increased CDKN2A expression in HIV-seronegative individuals, but socioeconomic factors were not associated with either BoA in HIV-infected participants. Adjustment for socioeconomic factors did not alter estimates of BoA between HIV-infected participants and HIV-seronegative individuals, suggesting that HIV infection, rather than social deprivation, is the main driver of biological ageing in this population.
Ageing reflects an accumulation of multiple molecular deficits in varying organ systems [29]. Interindividual differences in rates of ageing have prompted the search for informative biomarkers of biological ageing. Measurement of telomere length in PBLs is the standard method of evaluating biological ageing in epidemiological studies, with changes in PBL telomere length in effective synchrony with changes in telomere length in solid organs, thus providing a suitable surrogate for biological age in the whole organism [30,31]. However, there is potential for confounding by methodological and design difference between studies [15]. The number of techniques available for telomere length measurement highlights that no one technique is entirely satisfactory [32]. Southern blotting of terminal restriction fragments, single telomere length analysis (STELA) and real-time qPCR (qPCR) may also be used to assess telomere length in PBLs. We chose to use qPCR, as it is the most suitable methodology for high-throughput analyses [15,33]. Although interassay comparisons are very good (as evidenced by our coefficient of variance of 0.6%), intra-laboratory comparisons can be poor [34]. Logistical and budgetary constraints precluded assessment of telomere length in T-cell subsets, a methodology to address telomere dynamics advocated previously for investigation in the context of HIV infection [35]. Although we acknowledge that this methodology would give a higher resolution data set, the primary aim of this study was to provide preliminary data to inform future work, and assessment of telomere length in PBLs has been the approach used by others in this field [36,37].
In view of these methodological issues, we elected to measure an additional BoA, CDKN2A. CDKN2A expression increases with increasing chronological age in PBLs and solid organs [16,19,22], and it functions as a direct marker of cellular growth arrest [16]. CDKN2A represents a superior BoA to telomere length when judged by the Baker and Sprott criterion [3]. It can be a stronger predictor of function than chronological age and displays less interindividual variation [19,22]. CDKN2A expression was substantially greater in HIV-infected adults than in age-matched HIV-seronegative individuals. As well as functioning as a tumour suppressor, CDKN2A is also a component of stress-induced premature senescence [38], which prevents T-cell replication following acute insult [39]. The decoupling of the relationship between CDKN2A expression and chronological age in HIV-infected individuals is a direct consequence of HIV-associated premature T-cell senescence [2], and lack of further T-cell replication with HIV infection. Nelson et al.[40] found that ART-naive individuals had higher levels of CDKN2A expression than HIV-seronegative individuals, and suggested that active HIV replication accounted for elevated expression. Our data show that with viral suppression and ART, high levels of CDKN2A are still detectable. Thus, high rates of HIV replication are not a prerequisite for continued, elevated expression of this biomarker.
Both biomarkers were significantly associated with current CD4+ cell count in those receiving ART in whom viral load was undetectable. Increased CDKN2A expression was associated with lower CD4+ cell counts, consistent with the finding that CDKN2A expression is inversely related to T-cell replicative capacity [39]. Telomere length was also shorter in participants on ART with lower current CD4+ cell counts. Thus, levels of both BoA suggested that lower current CD4+ cell counts were associated with greater biological ageing. Human telomerase comprises a reverse transcriptase sharing homology with the HIV reverse transcriptase [41]. It is plausible that ART may inhibit its activity, leading to differences in telomere lengths between ART-naive and treated groups. Previous studies have produced inconsistent findings regarding such an association [36,42,43]. Comparison of levels in treated and ART-naive groups in our study did not support this potential mechanism, and furthermore, neither BoA was associated with ART duration. It should, however, be noted that dynamic changes over time in the PBL composition of the blood during ART may account for some of the observed effects, reflecting a potential limitation of using mixed PBLs in this context.
Although we have demonstrated a substantial effect of HIV infection on biological ageing, estimating the magnitude of the effect is challenging. One important reason is because disease states can cause stress-induced premature senescence [38], leading to acute growth arrest (in contrast to gradual replicative senescence). Thus, the 'rate of biological ageing' may not be accurately predicted in HIV infection. In other words, HIV-infected individuals effectively display a biological age observed in older uninfected individuals due to disease-induced stress. Therefore, quantification in terms of an effective biological age difference between infected and uninfected individuals is problematic, as the component of stress-induced premature senescence in infected individuals will be missing in uninfected controls, whereas in turn, replicative senescence may be accelerated due to disease stress. Estimation of telomere length as a function of given chronological age has been quantified [35,44]; however telomere length as an isolated measure at a given age may be imprecise, reflecting psychosocial, genetic and epigenetic confounders. The predictive capability of CDKN2A in determining effective biological age is relatively novel [16], and as CDKN2A expression is related to cellular growth arrest, it may not be subject to similar attrition phenomena [19,22,33]. Future work should involve development of methods to establish quantification of differences in effective biological age in disease states wherein stasis is involved. Any measure of the difference in biological age between HIV-infected and HIV-seronegative individuals will also have to be viewed in a functional context between these two groups, wherein differences in biochemical parameters, such as interleukin-6, CD14 and D-dimer, are also addressed [45]. Inflammation and activation of coagulation pathways are central to the pathophysiology leading to morbidity. Immune activation is a hallmark of chronic HIV infection and may be mediated by several mechanisms: increased pathogen burden as a result of impaired immunity, chronic viral replication of HIV and other viruses (e.g. cytomegalovirus, hepatitis viruses) and microbial translocation of bacterial products across damaged mucosa (e.g. in the gut). These factors may also need to be correlated to biomarkers of ageing to fully elucidate accelerated ageing trajectories in HIV infection.
A key strength of our study is the inclusion of an age and sex-matched control group with a similar sociodemographic profile as the HIV-infected participants. The hypothesis of accelerated ageing in HIV has received criticism due to limitations in characterization of participants, particularly the possibility of differential exposure to potential risk factors between HIV-infected and uninfected populations [46]. As the HIV epidemic in South Africa is generalized and recruitment took place from the same community, the likelihood of differential exposure was minimized. The study design means that 'survivor effects' cannot be excluded. Individuals with poor biological ageing may die earlier; thus, participants comprise survivors with different biological characteristics to nonsurvivors. However, recruitment of individuals from similar socioeconomic backgrounds should have limited potential confounding and survivor effects. The differences in smoking and alcohol consumption between the two groups could be due to HIV-infected participants modifying their smoking and alcohol consumption behaviours in response to lifestyle counselling. However, it is also plausible that the reported differences are due to misclassification, with HIV-infected participants wanting to demonstrate 'healthy behaviour', possibly leading to confounding. We used location of work as a proxy measure of UV exposure, which may also have been confounded by socioeconomic status. The sex composition of participants was three-quarters female, consistent with the characteristics of the clinic cohort from where our participants were enumerated [47], and reflective of the African AIDS epidemic. Lastly, as all our study participants are of African ancestry, our results are only generalizable to the African population.
The AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa is entering a new phase wherein HIV-infected individuals are living longer and may be ageing faster [9,48]. Our data indicate increased biological ageing in HIV-infected individuals compared with HIV-seronegative individuals. The increased number of older HIV-infected individuals in this region, compounded by accelerated biological ageing, may have wide-ranging implications for HIV management. Delivery of healthcare systems integrating HIV treatment and age-related morbidity may be necessary to manage this phase of the epidemic.
In light of these findings, important research questions arise: prospective assessment of biological age in HIV-infected and HIV-seronegative individuals is needed to ascertain whether the accelerated ageing trajectory develops as soon as HIV infection is acquired. Further questions include whether biological age is dependent upon the duration of untreated disease or nadir CD4+ cell count, and if the biological age of the two groups continues to diverge during long-term ART, or rather is modified by ART. Finally, assessment of the relative contributions of HIV and ART towards biological ageing may provide mechanistic insight.
In summary, greater biological age, as determined by shorter telomere length and higher CDKN2A expression, is associated with HIV infection in South Africa. The 'ageing of the HIV epidemic' poses many challenges and these may be amplified by accelerated biological ageing, potentially resulting in important health and social implications for the millions of patients receiving ART in Africa.
The authors wish to thank the staff and patients at the recruitment sites, the Department of Ophthalmology, Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town and DHL (Z.A.) for assistance with sample logistics and transport from Cape Town to Glasgow.
S.P. conceived and designed experiments; undertook clinical data collection; statistical analysis; wrote first draft; did the critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts. S.D.L. designed the experiments; did the critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts. C.G. conceived and designed the experiments; did the critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts. D.M. and L.M. did the laboratory data analysis; critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts. H.W. did the statistical analysis; critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts. J.P. T.C.. and KP carried out the laboratory data analysis. L.G.B. and R.W. did the critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts. P.G.S. conceived and designed the experiments; did the critical revision and provided intellectual input to further drafts.
This work was funded by a Wellcome Trust grant awarded to S.P. (Grant number: 090354/Z/09/Z). S.D.L. is funded by the Wellcome Trust, London (Grant number: 088590). R.W. is supported by IEDEAA, International Epidemiologic Database to Evaluate AIDS (Grant number: 5U01AI069924-02) and CEPAC Cost-Effectiveness of Preventing AIDS Complications 5 (R01AI058736-02).
The funders played no role in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
accelerated ageing; Africa; biomarkers of ageing; CDKN2A; HIV; telomeres
© 2013 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.
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- Secretary Kempthorne Announces $1.3 Million in Grants for Water Conservation Projects in West
Secretary Kempthorne Announces $1.3 Million in Grants for Water Conservation Projects in West
Media Contact: Peter Soeth, (303) 445-3615
Frank Quimby, 202-208-7291
For Release: July 10, 2006
Interior Secretary Dirk Kempthorne has approved $1.3 million in Water 2025 Challenge Grants for water conservation projects across the West. The grants will help fund ten projects in seven states. Including the matching contributions of non-federal partners, the selected projects represent a combined investment of more than $5.6 million in water management improvements.
"The western states are experiencing increasing water supply challenges, and the continuing drought makes these pressures more acute, Kempthorne said. "Chronic water shortages, explosive population growth, over-allocated watersheds, environmental needs and aging water facilities are combining to create the potential for crisis and conflict over water. "Being proactive is the best approach to prevent water conflicts," Kempthorne continued. "These grants will help prevent conflict over the limited water resources in the West by stretching existing supplies and improving aging infrastructure through realistic and cooperative local approaches."
These grants, awarded by the Bureau of Reclamation, fund a variety of projects that will improve the efficient use of existing water supplies through water conservation, efficiency and water market projects. The Challenge Grant Program focuses on meeting the goals identified in Water 2025: Preventing Crises and Conflict in the West.
Water 2025 encourages voluntary water banks and other market-based measures as authorized under state law, promotes the use of new technology for water conservation and efficiency, and removes institutional barriers to increase cooperation and collaboration among federal, state, tribal and private organizations.
In Oregon, for example, the Three Sisters Irrigation District will install 11,300 linear feet of pressurized pipe to replace an existing open canal. The project is estimated to save 750 acre-feet of water per year. (An acre-foot is about 325,851 gallons enough to meet the annual needs of two urban households.)
In South Dakota, the Belle Fourche Irrigation District will line approximately 1,750 feet of the inlet canal and make the saved water available to the district's water bank. The project is estimated to save 1,233 acre-feet of water per year.
The agencies and groups that proposed the ten projects will now work with Reclamation to secure a cooperative agreement and complete regulatory processes. Groundbreaking on the projects is expected by the end of September and they must be completed within two years.
More information on Water 2025 is at www.doi.gov/water2025.
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