text:
Benefit held at UW-L in honor of wounded soldier
Family and friends showed their support for a wounded soldier Saturday.
No Eagle Left Behind was a benefit held in honor of Menomonie native Jason Church.
The 23-year old is a former UW-La Crosse student and football player who was injured while serving with the army in Afghanistan.
Church's vehicle hit a roadside bomb resulting in the loss of both of his legs beneath the knee.
The proceeds of tonight's benefit will go to helping Church pay for medical expenses and rehab.
Church says he feels blessed to have so many people supporting him.
"It really shows you how deep the friendships and how important they are in your life. Not many people can say they're as lucky a man as I am and I truly mean that. To be able to come back here and have all the people who support me like this is tremendous and I can't say enough," said Church.
Church served as a second lieutenant Airborne Ranger in the Army.
Copyright 2013 by WKBT News8000. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


text:
Little known and rarely observed are several water quality initiatives underway in the region. The River Reporter takes a look at what's being done and by whom in this series.
The Scenic Rivers Monitoring Program (SRMP)
For two decades, the SRMP has been underway. A long-standing partnership between the Delaware River Basin Commission (DRBC) and the National Park Service (NPS), the SRMP is responsible for monitoring water quality in the Special Protection Waters (SPW) of the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River (UDSRR), the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area (DWGNRA), and the Lower Delaware Scenic and Recreational River.
These regions cover approximately 200 miles of the non-tidal Delaware River and selected boundary locations within the 6,780 square mile drainage area.
The labor intensive process involves collecting water samples biweekly, Monday through Wednesday at 20 sites on the main stem of the Delaware River and some major tributaries from May through September over varying flow conditions, seasons and times of day. At each site, samples are gathered from the sides and middle of the waterway.
Some of the sites being monitored are at the Barryville and Pond Eddy bridges, Mongaup and Lackawaxen rivers and Shohola Creek. Careful practices are employed to eliminate contamination from site to site or within the lab.
Sample processing begins in the field with notations on water and air temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and conductivity, then continues back at the NPS lab in Milanville, PA later that day. Some samples are delivered to a contracted lab which performs tests for e coli and enterococcus. Other bottles are packed into coolers and shipped overnight to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, PA.
"We're shipping approximately 200 pounds of water for the purpose of evaluating things like nutrients, phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, ortho-phosphate, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, chloride and more," said NPS biologist Jamie Myers.
Samples processed at the NPS lab are evaluated for turbidity and processed utilizing a membrane filtration method to track levels of fecal coliform bacteria. Tests performed in late August showed typical results, but following periods of rain, bacteria levels can reveal substantial increases. "Usually, the river's pretty clean, but during these kinds of run-off events, when the river is high and muddy, you probably don't want to swim in it," said Hamilton as he peered at Petri dishes pocked with fecal coliform bacteria.
As for the cause of the bacterial rise, Hamilton said it's not easy to identify, as there are often multiple sources. "We haven't done a lot of source tracking," said Hamilton. "You have a watershed with a large land base and you get runoff all throughout it. In the past, we've identified problems with sewage treatment plants. Currently, I don't think we have a problem with any one-point-source discharge. It's just land use in general."
Hamilton added that source tracking could be on the horizon, and would require additional funding. "For the most part, the river is pretty clean and good for recreation," said Hamilton.
The long-term effort is funded by the DRBC, which developed the original protocol for the program. NPS units in the UDSRR and the DWGNRA are both participating.
"This program is an anti-degradation program meant to keep tabs on the watershed and the tributaries," said Myers. "We're looking for potential changes in water quality by doing the sampling on such a continuous basis. Because the water quality here is so exceptional, this program was designed to make sure it stays that way."
As for the value of this 20-year data, which is being stored in an EPA database, Hamilton said, "Because of the data that was collected and the existing water quality that was defined for the Delaware River, the DRBC was able to implement special protection waters regulations and they defined an existing water quality that they want to have maintained here. Because we have SPW regulations for the non-tidal Delaware for the entire length of 197 miles, from Hancock to Trenton, the DRBC can step up and exert some authority over natural gas development, water use and disposal to protect water into the future."
A concurrent NPS/United States Geological Survey Upper Delaware study is gathering complementary information to that of the SRMP. Learn more in this ongoing series.

subset: commoncrawl


text: Chill-out kinds Groove Armada are back with a little more glam and twirl than usual. The twosome are ready to release their new album Black Light. This is the first single off of their effort. It's called "I Won't Kneel." After a 3 year hiatus, the band is back with a new sound. They explained: "Black Light and it is going to be the darker side of Groove Armada, which is finally coming out after 12 years."


text:
Mick Shaw - Yes THAT Mick Shaw that kept Jimmy Lowes out of the Leeds side of the mid 90's and contributed to Lowes joining the Bulls. He was a good little player but what happened???
Mick Nanyn - I enjoy watching Nanyn in the lower leagues but he has never cut the mustard at SL level. Stong, good goal kicker he could have achieved more.
Adam Hughes - Another head scratcher but I know he has been ridiculed in the past on here but when ever I saw him he was scoring 80m tries for fun.
Last for now - Karle Hammond - Thought he had it all at one stage, balance, deceptive pace, good passer but didn't he retire at 29? What did happen to him?
Will throw a few more in and some from the Bulls too.
Edited by Mumby Magic, 29 September 2010 - 11:03 AM.


text:
Foundation Fundrasier: Beyond the Book BashSaturday, September 21st142 Throckmorton Theatre7:00 PM Cocktails and Appetizers8:00 PM Program
Join us for the Mill Valley Library's 4th annual Beyond the Book Bash in support of the Mill Valley Public Library. A fantastic evening of entertainment, food, libations and music. Master of Ceremonies Josh Healey will be our host for the evening as he invites acclaimed guests including New York Times best-selling author Mac Barnett, Sundance Fellow Playwright Chinaka Hodge, author Glen David Gold and singer/songwriter James Nash to share their talents and celebrate the Library.
This event is sold out.
Click here to learn more about the Mill Valley Library Foundation.
Click here to follow the Foundation on Facebook and learn about upcoming events.
For questions about the event please email email@example.com.
© 2016 Mill Valley Public Library | 375 Throckmorton Ave | Mill Valley, CA 94941 | (415) 389-4292
Contact the Library | Privacy Policy & Disclaimer | Website developed by Vision Internet


text:
There are so many kinds of dancewear and dance shoes in Thunder Bay! There are yoga pants, unitards, and performance wear – like dance skirts, dance shorts, and even dance hoodies. Different musical styles call for different outfits, of course, and there so many kinds to choose among, you won't know where to start!
If you're going out, you want to be seen. If you're not rocking the right clothes – a sharp suit, a great top, or a rockin' skirt – you're not going to stand out from the crowd. With the right Thunder Bay dancewear or dance shoes, you could meet Mr. Right (or at least Mr. Right Now).
You wouldn't try and dance without the right training, so don't make a fool of yourself by wearing the wrong clothes. Some of the finest dancewear can be bought at specialty stores, but it's much cheaper to find great deals online, even if you can't try the clothes on before you buy. It doesn't matter if a new top isn't exactly perfect – with a pin or two, you will be the hottest thing in the club.
Thunder Bay classifieds, garage sales, cost, free, used, scam, fraud, find, wanted, ads, Thunder Bay want ads, place an ad Thunder Bay, best, cheapest, least expensive, inexpensive, affordable, Thunder Bay buy and sell, local ads, craigslist, cheap, price, prices, yard sales, local, marketplace and backpage.


text:
You have a great idea to start selling the most marvelous widget ever known. You're so sure of your enterprising idea that you decide to go into business for yourself and begin manufacturing said widgets. A few years pass and you're a success. However, lately you've noticed a slump in sales, and you decide that you need a better way of focusing your marketing dollars toward your target audience. How do you do this?
This article introduces a popular and easy-to-use datamining tool called a decision tree that should help you solve your marketing dilemma.
Decision trees are a topic of artificial intelligence. More specifically, they belong to the subfield of machine learning. This is due to their ability to learn--through example--to classify individual records in a data set.
This article will give you a closer look at what decision trees are, and how they can help you in your endeavors to more effectively target your marketing campaign toward your core customers. In so doing, I'll go over a few different uses for decision trees (aside from the aforementioned marketing scenario), and I'll discuss one popular heuristic that can be used during the learning process to create the most effective decision tree. Finally, I'll implement a simple decision tree program using the Python programming language.
If you've ever had any interest in machine learning or artificial intelligence; if you find the idea of writing a program that has the ability to learn simply fascinating; or if you just happen to manufacture the world's best widgets, then this article is for you.
Decision trees fall under the subfield of machine learning within the larger field of artificial intelligence. Decision trees are mainly used for classification purposes, but they are also helpful in uncovering features of data that were previously unrecognizable to the eye. Thus, they can be very useful in datamining activities as well as data classification. They work well in many different areas, from typical business scenarios (such as the widget example described previously) to airplane autopilots and medical diagnoses.
A decision tree is essentially a series of if-then statements, that, when applied to a record in a data set, results in the classification of that record. Therefore, once you've created your decision tree, you will be able to run a data set through the program and get a classification for each individual record within the data set. What this means to you, as a manufacturer of quality widgets, is that the program you create from this article will be able to predict the likelihood of each user, within a data set, purchasing your finely crafted product.
Though the classification of data is the driving force behind creating a decision tree program, it is not what makes a decision tree special. The beauty of decision trees lies in their ability to learn. When finished, you will be able to feed your program a test set of data, and it essentially will learn how to classify future sets of data from the examples.
Hopefully, if I've done my job well enough, you're champing at the bit to start coding. However, before you go any further with your code monkey endeavors, you need a good idea of what a decision tree looks like. It's one of those data structures that is easiest to understand with a good visual representation. Figure 1 contains a graphical depiction of a decision tree.
Figure 1. A decision tree
Notice that it actually is a true tree structure. Because of this, you can use recursive techniques to both create and traverse the decision tree. For that reason, you could use just about any tree representation that you remember from your Data Structures course to represent the decision tree. In this article, though, I'm going to keep everything very simple and create my decision tree out of only Python's built-in dictionary object.
If you recall the example scenario, you are the manufacturer of the world's finest widgets and are currently looking for a way to focus your marketing efforts to more closely entice your target demographic. To do this, you need a set of test data to use to train the decision tree program.
I assume that, being the concerned entrepreneur that you undoubtedly are, you've already gathered plenty of demographic information through, perhaps, anonymous email surveys. Now, what you need to do is organize all this data into a large set of user records. Here is a table containing a sampling of the information you collected during your email survey:
|Marital Status
|will buy
|high school
|won't buy
|will buy
|won't buy
|< 18
|high school
|will buy
|won't buy
|won't buy
|> 55
|will buy
|won't buy
|> 55
|will buy
|will buy
|> 55
|will buy
|< 18
|high school
|won't buy
|will buy
|high school
|will buy
|< 18
|high school
|will buy
|won't buy
|> 55
|high school
|will buy
|> 55
|will buy
|high school
|won't buy
Given the decision tree in Figure 1 and the set of data, it should be somewhat easy to see just how a decision tree can classify records in a data set. Starting with the top node (Age), check the value of the first record in the field matching that of the top node (in this case, 36-55). Then follow the link to the next node in the tree (Marital Status) and repeat the process until you finally reach a leaf node (a node with no children). This leaf node holds the answer to the question of whether the user will buy your product. (In this example, the user will buy, because his marital status is single). It's also quite easy to see that this type of operation lends itself to a recursive process (not necessarily the most efficient way to program, I know--but a very elegant way).
The decision tree in the figure is just one of many decision tree structures you could create to solve the marketing problem. The task of finding the optimal decision tree is an intractable problem. For those of you who have taken an analysis of algorithms course, you no doubt recognize this term. For those of you who haven't had this pleasure (he says, gritting his teeth), essentially what this means is that as the amount of test data used to train the decision tree grows, the amount of time it takes to do so grows as well--exponentially. While it may be nearly impossible to find the smallest (or more fittingly, the shallowest) decision tree in a respectable amount of time, it is possible to find a decision tree that is "small enough" using special heuristics. It is the job of the heuristic you choose to accomplish this task by choosing the "next best" attribute by which to divide the data set according to some predefined criteria. There are many such heuristics (C4.5, C5.0, gain ratio, GINI, and others). However, for this article I've used one of the more popular heuristics for choosing "next best" attributes based on some of the ideas found in information theory. The ID3 (information theoretic) heuristic uses the concept of entropy to calculate which attribute is best to use for dividing the data into subgroups.
The next section quickly covers the basic idea behind how this heuristic works. Don't worry; it's not too much math. Following this discussion, you'll finally get a chance to get your hands dirty by writing the code that will create the decision tree and classify the users in your data set as a "will buy" or "won't buy," thereby making your company instantly more profitable.
Physics uses the term entropy to describe the amount of disorder inherent within a system. In information theory, this term has a similar meaning--it is the measure of the disorder in a set of data. The ID3 heuristic uses this concept to come up with the "next best" attribute in the data set to use as a node, or decision criteria, in the decision tree. Thus, the idea behind the ID3 heuristic is to find the attribute that most lowers the entropy for the data set, thereby reducing the amount of information needed to completely describe each piece of data. Thus, by following this heuristic you will essentially be finding the best attribute to classify the records (according to a reduction in the amount of information needed to describe the remaining data division) in the data set.
Information theory uses the log function with a base of 2 to determine the number of bits necessary to represent a piece of information. If you remember from early math education, the log function finds the exponent in an equation such as
2x = 8. In this equation,
x is equal to
3. The exponent in that equation is easy enough to see, but what about a more difficult example, such as
2x = 8,388,608? By using the logarithm function with a base of 2--
log2 8,388,608--you can find that the exponent
x is equal to 23. Thus you need 23 bits of information to properly represent 8,388,608 different numbers. This is the basic idea behind the entropy measurement in the ID3 algorithm. In other words, you are trying to find the attribute that best reduces the amount of information you need to classify your data.
The first step in this process is getting the "next best" attribute from the set of available attributes. The call to
choose_attribute takes care of this step. The
choose_attribute function uses the heuristic you've chosen for selecting "next best" attributes--in this case, the ID3 heuristic. In fact, the
fitness_func parameter you see in the call to
choose_attribute is a pointer to the
gain function from the ID3 algorithm described in the next section. By passing in a pointer to the
gain function, you've effectively separated the code for choosing the next attribute in the decision tree from the code for assembling the decision tree. This makes it possible, and extremely easy, to switch out the ID3 heuristic and exchange it with other heuristics that you may prefer with only the most minimal amount of change to the code.
The next step is to create a new decision tree containing the attribute returned from the
choose_attribute function as its root node. The only task left after this is to create the subtrees for each of the values in the
best attribute. The
get_values function cycles through each of the records in the data set and returns a list containing the unique values for the chosen attribute.
Finally, the code loops through each of these unique values and creates a subtree for them by making a recursive call to the
create_decision_tree function. The call to
get_examples just returns a list of all the records in the data set that have the value
val for the attribute defined by the
best variable. This list of examples is passed into the
create_decision_tree function along with the list of remaining attributes (minus the currently selected "next best" attribute). The call to
create_decision_tree returns the subtree for the remaining list of attributes and the subset of data passed into it. All that's left is to add each of these subtrees to the current decision tree and return it.
The next step in finding the entropy for the data set is to find the number of bits needed to represent each of the probabilities we calculated in the previous step. This is where you use the logarithm function. For the example above, the number of bits needed to represent the probability of each value occurring in the target attribute is
log2 0.6 = -0.736 for "will buy" and
log2 0.4 = -1.321 for "won't buy."
Now that you have the number of bits needed to represent the probability of each value occurring in the data set, all that's left to do is sum this up and, voilá, you have the entropy for the data set! Right? Not exactly. Before you do this, there is one more step. You need to go through and weight each of these numbers before summing them. To do so, multiply each amount that you found in the previous step by the probability of that value occurring, and then multiply the outcome by -1 to make the number positive. Once you've done this, the summation should look like
(-0.6 * -0.736) + (-0.4 * -1.321) = 0.97. Thus, 0.97 is the entropy for the data set in the table above.
That's all there is to finding the entropy for a set of data. You use the same equation to calculate the entropy for each subset of data in the gain equation, but it is essentially the same process. The only difference is that you will be using a smaller subset of the records within the data set, and you'll also be using an attribute other than the target attribute to calculate the entropy.
The next step in the ID3 heuristic is to calculate the information gain that each attribute affords if it is the next decision criteria in the decision tree. If you understood the first step on calculating the entropy, then this step should be a breeze. Essentially, all you need to do to find the gain for a specific attribute is find the entropy measurement for that attribute using the process described in the last few paragraphs (find the entropy for the subset of data for each value in the chosen attribute and sum them all), and subtract this value from the entropy for the entire data set. The decision tree algorithm follows this process for each attribute in the data set, and the attribute with the highest gain will be the one chosen as the next node in the decision tree.
That's the prose explanation. For those of you a bit more mathematically minded, the equations in Figure 2 and Figure 3 are the entropy and information gain for the data set.
Figure 2. The entropy equation
Figure 3. The information gain equation
Entropy and gain are the only two methods you need in the ID3 module. If you understood the concepts of entropy and information gain, then you understand the final pieces of the puzzle.
Just as a quick note: if you didn't totally understand the section on the ID3 heuristic, don't worry--several good web sites go over the ID3 heuristic in more detail. (One very good site in particular is decisiontrees.net, created by Michael Nashvili.) Also, keep in mind that it's just one of several heuristics that you can use to decide the "next best" node in the decision tree. The most important thing is to understand the inner workings of the decision tree algorithm. In the end, if you don't understand ID3, you can always just plug in another heuristic or create your own.
With most of the preliminary information out of the way, you can now look at the actual decision tree algorithm. The following code listing is the main function used to create your decision tree:
def create_decision_tree(data, attributes, target_attr, fitness_func):
Returns a new decision tree based on the examples given.
data = data[:]
vals = [record[target_attr] for record in data]
default = majority_value(data, target_attr)
# If the dataset is empty or the attributes list is empty, return the
# default value. When checking the attributes list for emptiness, we
# need to subtract 1 to account for the target attribute.
if not data or (len(attributes) - 1) <= 0:
return default
# If all the records in the dataset have the same classification,
# return that classification.
elif vals.count(vals[0]) == len(vals):
return vals[0]
# Choose the next best attribute to best classify our data
best = choose_attribute(data, attributes, target_attr,
# Create a new decision tree/node with the best attribute and an empty
# dictionary object--we'll fill that up next.
tree = {best:{}}
# Create a new decision tree/sub-node for each of the values in the
# best attribute field
for val in get_values(data, best):
# Create a subtree for the current value under the "best" field
subtree = create_decision_tree(
get_examples(data, best, val),
[attr for attr in attributes if attr != best],
# Add the new subtree to the empty dictionary object in our new
# tree/node we just created.
tree[best][val] = subtree
return tree
create_decision_tree function starts off by declaring three variables:
vals, and
default. The first,
data, is just a copy of the data list being passed into the function. The reason I do this is because Python passes all mutable data types, such as dictionaries and lists, by reference. It's a good rule of thumb to make a copy of any of these in order to keep from accidentally altering the original data.
vals is a list of all the values in the target attribute for each record in the data set, and
default holds the default value that is returned from the function when the data set is empty. That is simply the value in the target attribute with the highest frequency, and thus, the best guess for when the decision tree is unable to classify a record.
The next lines are the real nitty-gritty of the algorithm. The algorithm makes use of recursion to create the decision tree, and as such it needs a base case (or, in this case, two base cases) to prevent it from entering an infinite recursive loop. What are the base cases for this algorithm? For starters, if either the
data or
attributes list is empty, then the algorithm has reached a stopping point. The first
if-then statement takes care of this case. If either list is empty, then the algorithm returns a default value. (Actually, for the
attributes list, check to see whether it has only one attribute in it, because the
attributes list also contains the target attribute, which the decision tree never uses; that is what the tree should predict.) It returns the value with the highest frequency in the data set for the target attribute. The only other case to worry about is when the remaining records in the
data list all have the same value for the target attribute, in which case the algorithm returns that value.
Those are the base cases. What about the recursive case? Well, when everything else is normal (that is, the
data and
attributes lists are not empty and the records in the list of data still have multiple values for the target attribute), the algorithm needs to choose the "next best" attribute for classifying the test data and add it to the decision tree. The
choose_attribute function is responsible for picking the "next best" attribute for classifying the records in the test data set. After this, the code creates a new decision tree containing only the newly selected "best" attribute. Then the recursion takes place. In other words, each of the subtrees is created by making a recursive call to the
create_decision_tree function and adding the returned tree to the newly created tree in the last step.
The first step in this process is getting the "next best" attribute from the set of available attributes. The call to
choose_attribute takes care of this step. The next step is to create a new decision tree containing the chosen attribute as the root node. All that remains to do after this is to create the subtrees for each of the values in the
best attribute. The
get_values function cycles through each of the records in the data set and returns a list containing the unique values for the chosen attribute. Next, the code loops through each of these unique values and creates a subtree for them by making a recursive call to the
create_decision_tree function. The call to
get_examples just returns a list of all the records in the data set that have the value
val for the attribute defined by the
best variable. This list of examples passes to the
create_decision_tree function along with the list of remaining attributes (minus the currently selected "next best" attribute). The call to
create_decision_tree will return the subtree for the remaining list of attributes and the subset of data passed into it. All that's left is to add each of these subtrees to the current decision tree and return it.
If you're not used to recursion, this process can seem a bit strange. Take some time to look over the code and make sure that you understand what is happening here. Create a little script to run the function and print out the tree (or, just alter test.py to do so), so you can get a better idea of how it's functioning. It's really a good idea to take your time and make sure you understand what's happening, because many programming problems lend themselves to a recursive solution--you just may be adding a very important tool to your programming arsenal.
That's about all there is to the algorithm; everything else is just helper functions to the main algorithm. Most of the functions should be fairly self-explanatory, with the exception of the ID3 heuristic.
The ID3 heuristic uses the concept of entropy to formulate the gain in information received by choosing a particular attribute to be the next node in the decision tree. Here's the entropy function:
def entropy(data, target_attr):
Calculates the entropy of the given data set for the target attribute.
val_freq = {}
data_entropy = 0.0
# Calculate the frequency of each of the values in the target attr
for record in data:
if (val_freq.has_key(record[target_attr])):
val_freq[record[target_attr]] += 1.0
val_freq[record[target_attr]] = 1.0
# Calculate the entropy of the data for the target attribute
for freq in val_freq.values():
data_entropy += (-freq/len(data)) * math.log(freq/len(data), 2)
return data_entropy
Just like the
create_decision_tree function, the first thing the
entropy function does is create the variables it uses throughout the algorithm. The first is a dictionary object called
val_freq to hold all the values found in the data set passed into this function and the frequency at which each value appears in the data set. The other variable is
data_entropy, which holds the ongoing calculation of the data's entropy value.
The next section of code adds each of the values in the data set to the
val_freq dictionary and calculates the corresponding frequency for each value. It does so by looping through each of the records in the data set and checking the
val_freq dictionary object to see if the current value already resides within it. If it does, it increments the frequency for the current value, otherwise, it adds the current value to the dictionary object and initializes its frequency to 1. The final portion of the code is responsible for actually calculating the entropy measurement (using the equation in Figure 1) with the frequencies stored in the
val_freq dictionary object.
That was easy, wasn't it? That's only the first half of the ID3 heuristic. Now that you know how to calculate the amount of disorder in a set of data, you need to take those calculations and use them to find the amount of information gain you will get by using an attribute in the decision tree. The information gain function is very similar to the entropy function. Here's the code that calculates this measurement:
def gain(data, attr, target_attr):
Calculates the information gain (reduction in entropy) that would
result by splitting the data on the chosen attribute (attr).
val_freq = {}
subset_entropy = 0.0
# Calculate the frequency of each of the values in the target attribute
for record in data:
if (val_freq.has_key(record[attr])):
val_freq[record[attr]] += 1.0
val_freq[record[attr]] = 1.0
# Calculate the sum of the entropy for each subset of records weighted
# by their probability of occuring in the training set.
for val in val_freq.keys():
val_prob = val_freq[val] / sum(val_freq.values())
data_subset = [record for record in data if record[attr] == val]
subset_entropy += val_prob * entropy(data_subset, target_attr)
# Subtract the entropy of the chosen attribute from the entropy of the
# whole data set with respect to the target attribute (and return it)
return (entropy(data, target_attr) - subset_entropy)
Once again, the code starts by calculating the frequency of each of the values in the data set. Following this, it calculates the entropy for the data set with the new division of data derived by using the chosen attribute,
attr, to classify the records in the data set. Subtracting that from the original entropy for the current subset of data set finds the gain in information (or, reduction in disorder, if you prefer to think those terms) that you get by choosing that attribute as the next node in the decision tree.
That is essentially all there is to it. You still need some code that cycles through each attribute and calculates its information gain measure and chooses the best one, but that part of the code should be somewhat obvious; it's just a matter of repeatedly calling the gain function on each attribute and keeping track of the attribute with the best score. That said, I leave it as a challenge for you to look over the rest of the helper functions in the accompanying source code and figure out each one.
Aside from classifying data, decision trees are also useful for discerning patterns in data, commonly referred to as datamining. Just by glancing over the decision tree figure at the beginning of this article, you can quickly pull out a few significant trends in the data you've collected.
The most obvious trend in the data is that young adults (ages 18 to 35) and seniors (55 and older) seem not to buy your widget at all. This could lead you to target only youths (18 and younger) and the middle-aged (36 to 55) with your marketing campaign in an effort to save money, because only consumers from these two groups tend to purchase the widget. On the other hand, it could also lead you to change your marketing strategy altogether to try to convince those reticent customers to buy your product, in the hopes of opening up new sources of revenue.
By looking a little closer at the decision tree, you'll also notice that with youths, income is the largest determinant in their decision to buy your widget. As youths from low-income households tend to buy the widget and those from high-income families tend not to, it may be possible that your product is not trendy enough for higher-income kids. You may want to push the widget into higher-priced, trendier retail stores in an effort to popularize it with higher-income kids and capture a portion of that market. With middle-aged consumers, marital status seems to be the discriminant factor. Because single consumers are more likely to buy your product, perhaps it would be a good idea to stress its utility to both sexes and maybe even point out its usefulness in a family setting, if adding more consumers from the married crowd is important to you.
The main point here is that looking over the data set, even with only 20 records, none of these patterns are easy to find with the naked eye. With hundreds, thousands, or even millions of records in a data set, spotting these trends becomes absolutely impossible. By using the decision tree algorithm, you can not only predict the likelihood of a person buying your product, you can also spot significant patterns in your collected test data that can help you to better mold your marketing practices, and thus infuse your revenue stream with plenty of new customers.
As I stated earlier, the rest of the code is basically just helper functions for the decision tree algorithm. I am hoping they will be fairly self-explanatory. Download the decision tree source code to see the rest of the functions that help create the decision tree.
The tarball contains three separate source code files. If you want to try out the algorithm and see how it works, just uncompress the source and run the test.py file. All it does is create a set of test data (the data you saw earlier in this article) that it uses to create a decision tree. Then it creates another set of sample data whose records it classifies using the decision tree it created with the test data in the first step.
The other two source files are the code for the decision tree algorithm and the ID3 heuristic. The first file, d_tree.py, contains the
create_decision_tree function and all the helper functions associated with it. The second file contains all the code that implements the ID3 heuristic, called, appropriately enough, id3.py. The reason for this division is that the decision tree learning algorithm is a well-established algorithm with little need for change. However, there exist many heuristics that can be used in the choosing of the "next best" attribute, and by placing this code into its own file, you are able to try out other heuristics by just adding another file and including it in place of id3.py in the file that makes the call to the
create_decision_tree function. (In this case, that file is test.py.)
I've had fun running through this first foray into the world of artificial intelligence with you. I hope you've enjoyed this tutorial and had plenty of success in getting your decision tree up and running. If so, and you find yourself thirsting for more AI related topics, such as genetic algorithms, neural networks, and swarm intelligence, then keep your eyes peeled for my next installment in this series on Python AI programming.
Until next time ... I wish you all the best in your programming endeavors.
Christopher Roach recently graduated with a master's in computer science and currently works in Florida as a software engineer at a government communications corporation.
Related Reading
Python Pocket Reference
Return to the Python DevCenter.
Copyright © 2017 O'Reilly Media, Inc.


text:
Chegg.com Acquires CourseRank 1
In our ongoing efforts to save students time and money and help them get smarter, we're thrilled to announce that CourseRank is now a part of Chegg! When we heard about CourseRank, we knew we had to make them a part of Chegg!
For those of you not familiar with the company, CourseRank is a website that streamlines the process of choosing the right courses, and helps students take advantage of the diverse opportunities offered at their university. The website is specifically tailored to each university and provides students with all the information they need to help plan their academic careers and track their progress throughout their courses, and on to the ultimate goal – graduation!
With the addition of CourseRank, Chegg is continuing to help all our customers save time, save money and get smarter!
So, curious about CourseRank? Well, go to www.courserank.com, sign up for free and the first 5,000 will be entered for a chance to win cool prizes!


text:
The family that plays together...
I learned that the parade began 20 years ago with "six people walking down to the corner displaying a flag," and that Dill continues annually to open his home to an ever growing family of friends and neighbors (the crowd was huge!) who flock to his gorgeous property to take part in the festivities. More than 50 classic cars, the Mountain Tones Marching Band and the Sullivan County Soap Box Derby winners joined the vendors, face painters, fire baton dancers and Karate demonstrators, along with entertainment provided by the "Little Sparrow" band and country crooners "Somerville," who took time out of their busy Nashville recording schedule to assist in raising funds for the Livingston Manor Free library in this year's parade, aptly themed "Cars, Crafts and Country."
According to one of the many Dills, patriarch Steve claims that he "won't be doing it again, unless he can get an elephant," since he is tired and has been at it for so long. I may be a new member of this particular family, but don't believe it for a moment. In fact, I've already placed a few calls to some of my circus friends, since I refuse to allow this amazing family tradition to fade away. I don't think this guy means it—his heart is clearly as big as all outdoors. I have a feeling that his kinfolk won't let that happen either, since the family that plays together...
- « first
- ‹ previous
- 1
- 2
- 3


text:
What are some of your goals for improving your health?
Once you identify them, this website can give you specific tips.
John Knowles. Doing Better and Feeling Worse. W.W. Norton & Company: New York. 1977.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [6]
National Center for Health Statistics. Fact Sheet: Actual Causes of Death in the United States, 2000. [7]
Kaiser Family Foundation. Trends and Indicators in the Changing Health Care Marketplace, 2004 Update. [8]
National Coalition on Health Care. US Health Cost Growth. [9]
It's sometimes tough to navigate the healthcare system. It's hard to find a compatible primary provider. Insurance choices are confusing. Hospitals are intimidating. Being sick is scary. But when it comes to your health, you're your own best advocate, so you need to take charge.
Here are five fast facts to help you make the best and appropriate choices to improve your health.
The healthcare system (drugs, providers, and hospitals) affects only about 10% of our health. The remaining 90% of health outcomes is determined by factors over which healthcare providers have little or no control, such as lifestyle choices, social conditions, and the physical environment.
In other words, it's about what you eat and how you deal with stress. It's about choosing to be physically active. Take steps to enhance your own wellbeing [13] and you'll be healthier than if you rely entirely on the healthcare system.
No one's are! Read the headlines: The cost of healthcare and health insurance is rising rapidly. You have probably seen your premiums and out-of-pocket expenses for clinic visits and prescriptions climbing.
Some of the increases are due to choices. Lifestyle-related diseases, such as Type II diabetes caused by obesity, are increasing and driving up costs. The leading causes of disease and death in the United States are due to our behaviors: tobacco use, poor diet, physical inactivity, and alcohol abuse.
As healthcare costs skyrocket, the ability of many people to obtain healthcare is compromised. Approximately 43 million Americans don't have any health insurance at all.
It doesn't help anyone to argue about who is driving up healthcare costs, and what they should do about it. By taking charge of your own health, you can help reduce healthcare costs.
Medical errors can have severe consequences, so you want to do what you can to minimize mistakes.
For example, if you switch providers, you need to make sure that your new doctor or nurse practitioner has all your health records and the information they need to provide safe and effective care.
If you or someone you love goes into hospital, you need to pay attention—are you receiving the correct medication? Have you verified that the correct procedure will be performed before you undergo anesthesia? Are caregivers washing their hands and wearing their gloves?
In addition, health insurance can be complicated, so it is essential to be find out what is covered before you visit a clinic or hospital to avoid unexpected bills.
Are you pleased with your healthcare? Many Americans aren't. They don't feel listened to. They feel rushed. No one offers them a chance to ask questions. This is not surprising given that doctor visits are often less than 15 minutes. However, healthcare is something you pay for. Face it: would you keep patronizing a mechanic or hairdresser or restaurant if you weren't happy with the service?
Of course healthcare is not exactly the same as these services. But it's okay to want to ask questions, express doubt, and really communicate with your healthcare provider. Taking charge of your healthcare will reduce dissatisfaction.
For example, finding good health information can empower you to make better decisions. And if you deliberately choose a provider you trust and take pains to communicate effectively, you will likely experience many benefits.
While our current system excels at treating acute infectious disease and responding to trauma, it is not always as effective in providing preventive healthcare or helping people deal with chronic disease.
Integrative therapies [14] often excel in these areas, as research shows. Therapies and practices such as guided imagery [15], biofeedback [16], or meditation [17] can help reduce the negative impact of stress. Massage can help people relax. Acupuncture [18] is recognized by the National Institutes of Health as effective for postoperative and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and chronic pain.
These are just a few examples. Whether you want to improve your health or expand your treatment options, complementary therapies often offer safe and effective choices.
You are the one who can make the biggest impact on your own health. To maintain or improve your health, you not only need to make good lifestyle choices--you need to get the best healthcare you can.
So think about what you want in your healthcare and go for it. Become intentional, informed, and involved. You will undoubtedly see some personal health benefits. You will also be doing your part to make a better healthcare system for everyone.
Grab the wheel and start navigating!
[1] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/sites/default/files/images/thumbnails/Why%20Take%20Charge.jpg
[2] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/enhance-wellbeing
[3] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/explore-healing-practices
[4] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term29
[5] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/create-healthy-lifestyle/create-goal
[6] http://www.cdc.gov/
[7] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010446?dopt=Abstract
[8] http://www.kff.org/insurance/7031/ti2004-1-1.cfm
[9] http://nchcbeta.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/The-American-Health-Systems-Big-Problem-Cost-2.pdf
[10] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/explore-healing-practices/massage-therapy
[11] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/explore-healing-practices/acupuncture
[12] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/navigate-healthcare-system/personal-health-records
[13] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term45
[14] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term46
[15] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term21
[16] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term7
[17] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term24
[18] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/glossary/3#term4
[19] http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/our-experts/mary-jo-kreitzer-rn-phd


text:
Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.3/81525
- Title
- Quantification of brain phosphodiesterase 4 in rat with (R)-[11C] Rolipram-PET
- Author(s)
- Fujita, Masahiro; Zoghbi, Sami S.; Crescenzo, Matthew S.; Hong, Jinsoo; Musachio, John L.; Lu, Jian-Qiang; Liow, Jeih-San; Seneca, Nicholas; Tipre, Dnyanesh N.; Cropley, Vanessa L.; Imaizumi, Masao; Gee, Antony D.; Seidel, Jurgen; Green, Michael V.; Pike, Victor W.; Innis, Robert B.
- Abstract
- Objective: Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) catabolizes the second messenger 3′, 5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate and may play a critical role in brain diseases. Our aim was to quantify PDE4 in rats with positron emission tomography (PET). Methods: High (n = 6) and low specific activity (SA) (n = 2) higher affinity ((R)-[11C]rolipram) and high SA lower affinity ((S)-[11C]rolipram) (n = 2) enantiomers were intravenously administered to Sprague–Dawley rats. Brain data were acquired using the ATLAS PET scanner and reconstructed using the 3D-ordered subset expectation maximization algorithm. Arterial samples were taken to measure unmetabolized [11C]rolipram. Total distribution volumes (VT′) were calculated using a 1-tissue compartment (1C) and an unconstrained 2-tissue compartment (2C) model. Results: High SA R experiments showed later and greater brain uptake, and slower washout than low SA R and S experiments. In all regions and in all experiments, the 2C model gave significantly better fitting than the 1C model. The poor fitting by the latter caused underestimation of VT′ by 19–31%. The 2C model identified VT′ reasonably well with coefficients of variation less than 10%. VT′ values by this model were 16.4–29.2 mL/cm3 in high SA R, 2.9–3.5 in low SA R, and 3.1–3.7 in S experiments. Conclusions: Specific binding of (R)-[11C]rolipram was accurately measured in living rats. In high SA R experiments, not, vert, similar86% of VT′ was specific binding. Distribution and changes of PDE4 in animal models can now be studied by measuring VT′ of high SA (R)-[11C]rolipram.
- Publication type
- Journal article
- Source
- NeuroImage, Vol. 26, no. 4 (Jul 2005), pp. 1201-1210
- Publication year
- 2005
- FOR Code(s)
- 1103 Clinical Sciences; 1109 Neurosciences; 1702 Cognitive Sciences
- Keyword(s)
- Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; Cyclic AMP; Pharmacokinetics; Phosphodiesterase 4; Plasma metabolites; Positron emission tomography; Rats; Rolipram; Small animal PET
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- 1053-8119
- Publisher URL
- Copyright
- Copyright © 2005 Published by Elsevier Inc.
- Peer reviewed


text:
This website uses cookies to personalize your experience and help us improve content. OK, I understand or read about our cookie policy (English)
I have Norman Security Suite installed on my computer, how do I remove it?
The attached guide will take you through the process of uninstalling Norman Security Suite from your computer.


text:
25 Jul 2011:
Forum: Assessing Obama's
Record on the Environment
When Barack Obama won the presidency in 2008, environmentalists were optimistic that their issues would finally become a priority at the White House. So how is Obama doing?
Yale Environment 360
asked a group of environmentalists and energy experts for their verdicts on the president's performance.
More than 2 ½ years have passed since President Barack Obama took office — a sufficient length of time to assess what he has accomplished, or at least started to accomplish. To gauge his record on the environment,
Yale Environment 360
asked a variety of environmental leaders, writers, and policy experts to answer the following questions: How would you assess President Obama's record on energy and the environment? And what do you consider his major accomplishments and failures in these fields?
In their responses, several common themes emerged. Most felt the president's greatest failures were his tepid support of climate legislation, which ultimately went down to defeat, and his refusal to rally the country to fight global warming. His greatest successes were seen as setting strict vehicle mileage standards and funding energy efficiency and renewable energy projects. And his greatest challenge going forward? A majority of our contributors said it was fending off an all-out assault on environmental policies and regulations from Tea Partyers and other conservatives in Congress.
Bill McKibben
, author, scholar in residence at Middlebury College, and founder of
President Obama hasn't yet caused "the rise of the oceans to begin to slow" or "the planet begin to heal," and since that was his promise, I guess it's been a less-than-stellar record. But of course everything is complicated in Washington by the existence of a know-nothing Congress. He put some decent money into the stimulus plan for green energy, and then he largely seemed to lose interest, punting on the climate legislation before the Senate. I might lose interest too if I knew I'd have to muster 60 votes to overcome Jim Inhofe, or if I faced the prospect of dealing with the silly men and women currently dominating the House of Representatives.
But that's what makes it so sad that he's failed in the places where he had complete control — most notably, he opened a huge chunk of Wyoming to coal mining earlier this year. The decision was the carbon equivalent of opening 300 coal-fired power plants. Why, if we expect Brazil or Indonesia to guard their rainforests, do we get to do this kind of thing?
So we'll get what may be our final first-term read on his thinking this fall, when he decides (all by himself, with no Congressional involvement) whether or not to sign the permit for
the Keystone XL Pipeline from Alberta's tar sands
. Since his most prominent federal climate scientist,
James Hansen
, has stated loudly that further tar sands development will mean it's "essentially game over" for the climate, the stakes couldn't be much clearer. We'll be doing our best to remind him with
large-scale civil disobedience
in August.
David Victor
, professor of political science at the University of California, San Diego and director of the university's Laboratory on International Law and Regulation.
The Obama record is hard to assess because it is still young and because almost everything that relates to energy and environmental issues takes a long time to bear fruit. And any assessment of Obama must begin with reality: His backers assumed he would work miracles, but when he took office they learned he was human. And no human president can fix all of Washington's woes.
The biggest achievement of the Obama administration is likely to be on energy efficiency — especially efficiency for vehicles. The administration has been reworking the system for vehicle efficiency, which the George W Bush administration had tentatively begun. The Obama administration is also
radically raising fuel efficiency standards
at a rate — and perhaps also cost — that will be unprecedented. Since most U.S. oil consumption goes into surface transportation, the effect of these standards, along with the effect of high energy prices, should bend down the curve in U.S. oil consumption and lead to better oil security.
The biggest disappointment is surely on climate change legislation. Many factors killed cap and trade, but a major part of the story was
the failure of leaders
(on the Hill and in the White House) to force decisions before the long, drawn-out debate in the Senate dragged the legislation into gridlock. Absent federal legislation on climate change, the country is left with a patchwork of regulatory approaches — and a faith-based reliance on the rise of natural gas — that isn't a serious substitute for policy strategy.
Among the sleeper issues is energy innovation policy — an area where the Obama administration initially made big strides that were lubricated with stimulus funds. But that progress could be undone by budget troubles. Indeed, almost everything the administration does on almost every topic is likely to be assessed by historians through what happens to the federal budget.
Phil Radford
, executive director of Greenpeace USA.
President Obama's record on the environment and energy policy has been lackluster. He took office promising to lead the fight against global warming, and yet stood silently by as polluters and their lobbyists took over the legislative process. Without the president's leadership, we ended up with a disastrously compromised climate bill in the House, and efforts died in the Senate. Some have noted the president's "bad luck" with energy policy; just weeks after Obama opened our coasts to increased offshore oil drilling,
BP's disaster in the Gulf of Mexico
reminded Americans of the dangers of offshore drilling. And soon after calling for more nuclear power plants, the Fukushima nuclear disaster showed just how dangerous nuclear reactors and their radioactive waste can be. But calling this bad luck misses the point — the inherent risk of catastrophic impacts to the environment and public health is exactly why expanding development of dangerous energy sources is bad policy.
It's not all bleak though. After so many years of lax enforcement, we're encouraged by the EPA's efforts to create meaningful clean air protections. Obama's test will be whether he stands behind those in his administration who are working hard to protect the air we breathe, or caves yet again to the polluter lobbyists that still run so much of Washington. If Obama lets the coal industry and their backers in Congress block the EPA's efforts to protect our communities, our air, and our climate, he will have failed not only in his environmental promises but also in his promise to change the way our government works.
Frances Beinecke
, president of the Natural Resources Defense Council.
President Obama has laid out a clear and compelling vision for our energy future and the need to safeguard our environment and health. He has effectively organized his administration around those goals and worked to gather the national resources needed to achieve them. And there have been historic results. His requirement that new cars get 35.5 miles per gallon by 2016 will save us 1.3 million barrels of oil a day and cut annual carbon emissions by more than 220 million tons. We hope and expect that he will soon require new cars to get close to 60 miles per gallon by 2025. Come September, EPA will propose standards aimed at reducing carbon from our largest emitters: coal-burning power plants. It is essential he continues to provide crucial support to EPA on this issue.
In other areas, especially on energy, we need to see and hear more from the president.
A major disappointment was the failure to enact legislation that would curb climate pollution and spur a new clean-energy economy. After the House passed sweeping climate and energy legislation five months after he took office, Obama could have done more to promote the bill in the Senate. He will have to demonstrate that commitment going forward with concrete administrative actions that meet his pledge in Copenhagen of reducing U.S. emissions by 17 percent by 2020. We also need him to say no to the Keystone XL pipeline proposal. Most of all, since Republicans took the House last November on a wave of Tea Party discontent, we need him to stand strong in the face of the most aggressive assault in a generation on the quality of our air, waters, wildlife and lands.
Andrew Revkin
, author of
The New York Times
"Dot Earth" blog and a fellow at Pace Academy for Applied Environmental Studies at Pace University.
President Obama spent too much political energy
backing the traditional environmental stance
that human-driven global warming was a conventional pollution problem that
could be cleaned up like sewage or smog through regulation
. His vision of the "green jobs" benefits from stimulus spending — focused on near-term, visible work like caulking windows —
was far too truncated
, and he lost the chance to build a broader coalition around making
a sustained energy quest America's new imperative
. That approach could have gained more support and would more accurately reflect the momentous shift that would be required to supply energy to some 9 billion people by mid-century with the fewest regrets.
His greatest achievement has been maintaining the capacity to seek compromise, outside the glare of polarized public discourse, on tough issues
like moving forward with new fuel economy standards
for vehicles. It is that quality that, should he win a second term, provides the prospect for building a sustainable energy future and environment for the country and the planet.
Kenneth Green
, resident scholar in energy and the environment at the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.
First, my values: Like all Americans, I want a healthy environment, and clean energy. I also want to preserve our fundamental values of freedom and responsibility, personal and economic opportunity, and an ever-increasing quality of life. In the context of those latter values, I give the Obama administration poor marks on both energy and environmental policy.
On energy, the administration's drilling/mining moratoria, "clean energy" subsidies, and continued support of corn ethanol have advanced unaffordable and unreliable energy at the expense of abundant, affordable, and reliable conventional alternatives that are, themselves, increasingly clean. On environment, the administration has unwisely allowed the EPA — an agency with a near-perfect record of disregard for the costs of its regulations — to embark on an economically destabilizing regulatory crusade in the middle of an historic economic slump.
Rather than admitting our economic conditions call for caution and preventing aggressive environmental and energy initiatives from making things worse, EPA and the Department of Energy have focused on an ideological agenda laid out in President Obama's candidacy, which talked of making energy prices skyrocket while bankrupting the coal industry. We all want a healthy environment and clean energy. But we also want economic growth, employment opportunity, global competitiveness, and better quality of life. The Obama administration has gone too far in putting the green values of environmental protection ahead of economic values that would put more green in people's pockets.
Mindy Lubber
, president of Ceres, a U.S. coalition of investors, environmental groups, and public interest groups working with companies on sustainability issues.
There's no question President Obama has a vision for a new clean energy economy and is trying to use the tools in his tool kit to get us there. His stimulus package was strongly oriented toward clean energy and energy efficiency programs. He struck a good deal with carmakers on mileage standards through 2016 – and hopefully will stick to his guns on the strongest possible standards for 2017-25, which would be the best deal for consumers in the face of rising gas prices. He uses executive orders to incentivize clean energy, is standing firm in support of the EPA's pollution control mandates, and has highlighted his priorities with many visits to companies driving the transition in everything from solar panels to electric cars to advanced transmissions.
The big disappointment of course has to be last year's failure to move comprehensive energy and climate legislation through the U.S. Senate after it passed the House. As he's doing now in the debt ceiling and budget talks, the president could have intervened personally and earlier by using his bully pulpit to galvanize Americans and policymakers on the urgency and economic imperative for launching the clean energy transition. He also could have better leveraged very strong business and investor support for comprehensive energy and climate policies.
The nature of our entwined energy and environmental crises is quite literally unprecedented in human history. Deniers, skeptics and ideologues may ultimately block larger initiatives even in the face of that reality, but the president would do better to unflinchingly treat this crisis more with the gravity and forceful personal attention it deserves.
Joseph Romm
, senior fellow at the Center for American Progress, where he runs the blog,
Climate Progress
. He is a former acting assistant secretary of energy.
Obama's overall record on energy and the environment deserves an F. Fundamentally he let die our best chance to preserve a livable climate and restore U.S. leadership in clean energy — without a serious fight.
Future generations are thus still headed toward a world of 10 degrees F warming, widespread Dust-Bowl-ification, ever-worsening extreme weather, seas several feet higher and rising several inches a decade, and a hot, acidified ocean filled with ever-worsening dead zones.
It bears repeating that most of the blame for this failure should go to the anti-science, pro-pollution ideologues. They have spread disinformation and poisoned the debate so that is no longer even recognizable. But the growing power of those ideologues is precisely why the country can only contemplate serious environmental or clean energy legislation when we have a Democratic president and large Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress. Obama not only failed to seize this one brief shining moment, but his own inactions have ensured such a moment won't return for a generation. In particular, by failing to defend climate science from the disinformation campaign, he has made it that much harder to develop the political consensus for action.
Obama's great accomplishments are the big boost to the clean energy economy in the stimulus, the boost to fuel economy standards, and the EPA's endangerment finding — although the jury is out on whether that finding will actually lead to any significant change in our emissions trajectory. But these all pale in comparison to the failure to get a climate and clean energy bill and his silence on climate science.
William Reilly
, former administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989-1993, and founding partner of Aqua International Partners, a private equity fund that invests in water and renewable energy. He also co-chaired President Obama's Gulf oil spill commission.
President Obama and the Administration have confronted challenges in responding to climate change, oceans policy, the catastrophe of the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, and in transportation and energy policy. On the oil spill, after a halting start, the president and his administration mobilized an inventive and unprecedentedly large response, which was ultimately effective and a success amid the tragedy. In addition, President Obama has adopted a policy of "marine spatial planning" that will integrate oversight of all the various uses and resources of the seas.
The president wisely used his power with the auto industry to win new fuel economy requirements. These will have serious advantages in reducing CO2 emissions, along with an impact on oil imports and the balance of trade, and will incentivize research on alternative fuels. It is the president's signal environmental achievement, which he is now attempting to build on more ambitiously for a longer timeframe.
A less edifying engagement with climate policy was the White House's deferral to the Congress of the initiative to pass climate legislation. The White House expended much less political capital on climate policy than on health care, and the resulting debacle in Copenhagen was a consequence. The president was brave to attend the conference and secure what he could while playing a bad hand, but the ensuing consensus that an international climate agreement is no longer plausible is the unhappy child of Copenhagen.
The Administration's vigorous and effective Environmental Protection Agency continues, so far without political interference, to promulgate highly ambitious and expensive new rules, such as the regulation on sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide in power plants. The astonishingly short compliance deadline for a rule requiring very large capital investments by power plants can be read as insurance that the rules will be implemented before the election and more likely to withstand attack afterwards. Finally, the priority for investing directly and through loan guarantees in alternative energy has raised the profile and capital for an industry sector that was stalled across much of the country. Although several of the investments have foundered, the impulse to foster a more robust and enduring portfolio of clean energy investments is a credit to the Administration.
Ted Nordhaus and Michael Shellenberger
are, respectively, the president and chairman of The Breakthrough Institute, which is dedicated to modernizing liberal thought in the 21st century. They are the authors of
Breakthrough: From the Death of Environmentalism to the Politics of Possibility
During his State of the Union, the president famously asked, "Shall we surrender to our surroundings, or shall we make our peace with nature and begin to make reparations for the damage we have done to our air, to our land, and to our water?"
President Obama in 2010? No, President Nixon in 1970. Where the Republican president would go on to sign landmark environmental legislation into law, the Democratic one would watch cap-and-trade — and the prospects of a global climate treaty — go down in ignominious defeat. Some insist that had Obama's rhetoric been equally soaring, cap-and-trade would have passed. But Nixon was symptomatic of an era when Americans overwhelmingly favored environmental protection, even if it curbed economic growth. Obama's problem was with his policy agenda, not his rhetoric. The president's own agencies predicted cap-and-trade would increase unemployment. Had Obama instead sought a big, long-term investment in advanced energy technology — like the kind candidate Obama promised in 2008 — he might have succeeded.
Where Obama has succeeded is in rejecting the apocalyptic for the aspirational. While some of his signature stimulus program was wasted on low-wage efficiency jobs, other parts were invested in advanced energy technology and manufacturing. His 2011 State of the Union stressed the critical role innovation plays in driving growth. And he has remained steadfast in his support for nuclear power.
Where the environment was once a bipartisan issue, climate change has made it quintessentially partisan. While Obama's focus on cap-and-trade no doubt polarized the national energy debate, he has since self-corrected to focus on energy technology innovation. Whether or not anti-government Tea Partiers or apocalyptic greens can ever get behind that agenda, Obama has charted a course that holds the potential for Americans to embrace technology and innovation as the key to having both economic growth and environmental protection.
POSTED ON 25 Jul 2011 IN
Business & Innovation
Policy & Politics
Science & Technology
North America
North America
Stumble Upon
Excellent Forum discussion on US President's Performance on Energy and Environment.
The Better Building Initiative, outlined by President Obama in a visit to Penn State University, would incentivize retrofitting with an aim of reducing companies' energy bills by about $40 billion a year is a major policy initiative.
The initiative applies to offices, stores, schools, universities, hospitals, and other commercial and municipal buildings.
Other Policies include American businesses more energy efficient through a series of new initiatives:
• New tax incentives for building efficiency
• More financing opportunities for commercial retrofits
• "Race to Green" for state and municipal governments that streamline regulations and attract private investment for retrofit projects
• The Better Buildings Challenge
• Training the next generation of commercial building technology workers
As the President said, "In an economy that relies so heavily on oil, rising prices at the pump affect everybody."
I personally feel US President's policies and Performance in Energy and Environment fields has been commendable.
Dr.A.Jagadeesh Nellore (AP), India
Wind Energy Expert
E-mail: email@example.com
Posted by Dr.A.Jagadeesh on 25 Jul 2011
Dr. A. Jagadeesh Nellore's comments are exactly correct. President Barack Obama's "... policies and performance in energy and environment fields have been commendable."
President Obama's opposition in the GOP controlled U.S. House of Representatives has been so beholden to billionaire corporation heads and super wealthy individuals that it is absolutely amazing he has been able to get anything at all accomplished.
Posted by Ena Wason on 25 Jul 2011
I think you should have asked some people of color about how Obama has done on environment. They are probably most impacted than anyone on the above list.
Posted by Brentin Mock on 27 Jul 2011
What's missing from all of the above opinions is a concern for land conservation - both in acquisitions and stewardship of public lands as well as private protected areas.
And to bring a fantasy to light, the President could have created a CCC-type work program for the unemployed and brought the fight to invasive species and other environmental insults. There is so much laborious work to do on the ground, in many different habitats. We all-to-easily forget the role of conservation lands in the provision of ecosystem services.
Posted by Ferick on 28 Jul 2011
I would say that one of President Obama's most important environmental achievements has been the appointment of EPA Administrator, Lisa P. Jackson. We can't forget about the many other critical environmental issues that so easily fall through the cracks in such high-altitude discourse.
Many important environmental regulatory initiatives have been undertaken by the EPA in the last 2 1/2 years, thanks to Ms. Jackson, to address the mounting pollution that has been the legacy of previous regulatory rollbacks. In many parts of the country, such as the Gulf Coast, Appalachia, and many of our cities and industrial centers, human health effects from environmental pollution have been largely disproportionate due to these relaxations. We can't forget the important strides the Administration is now making to improve Air and Water quality in ways that improve the environmental health for millions of Americans.
No EPA Administrator to date has championed the issue of Environmental Justice as successfully as Ms. Jackson. I applaud the President for hiring the right person for the right job to lead the EPA.
Posted by Ross Geredien on 28 Jul 2011
Thanks for an interesting forum, which has focused mostly on energy and climate change.
Some other issues are:
1. EPA enforcement of current and pending Ozone standards for cities.
2. Tossing away protections for Wolves under the ESA in the budget agreement last winter. This was a sad precedent.
3. Leading us on the whole issue of Conservation - National Parks, Habitat conservation, Oceans policies and of course, Climate Change and Species Extinctions, the most important issues.
Posted by john roberts on 28 Jul 2011
Obama's record clearly shows the job isn't getting done. Who dares to deny that?
It's going to be a lot harder to deal with the increasing consequences that are developing because it's all business as usual for the dirty energy industry.
Need a name, how about Standard Oil whom was relabeled and re-branded, but it's the same old empire.
The auto industry is milking taxpayers, on purpose by holding back higher fuel mileage fuel efficiency.
A 1973 Ford Pinto got 32 mpg... It's now 2011 and name me any American automobile that is getting more fuel efficiency?
If you ask the question, how many more American automobiles don't even get 32 mpg, the list is huge, almost every American automobiles gets far less fuel efficiency.
The biggest reason here is that the gasoline isn't turned into a vapor before going into the engine. Liquid gasoline does NOT burn, it must be atomized with Oxygen to do that.
Anyone who turns gasoline into a vapor will always get higher fuel efficiency and is exactly why the automobile industry hasn't done it. As they stand to earn more profit to NOT do it.
What do you think the Catalytic converters are used on the exhaust system, to they pump more air to burn the unburned fuel coming out of the engine!!!
This modern design everyone is so proud waste fuel... It's why the US is scared stiff about China wanting to export their low cost automobiles. Even India is selling a 1K automobile now... with higher fuel efficiency.
But, how can both China and India produce what the GREAT America hasn't done? It's called greed folks...
Nobody is talking about the 130 US Nuclear Reactors that will pass on the cost of clean up, storing radioactive waste for the next million years...
What do you think the cost of storing nuclear radioactive waste for the U.S. taxpayer to look after 130 facilities?
If you use clean energy, all this waste can be avoided, both the radioactive waste and the waste of your taxpaying dollars to look after it year after year for the next million years.
Washington (US government) is run by the type of politics who fight over who gets the taxpayer money.
If the Americans want to change that, boycott paying taxes. But wait, they would just print more money, as that is what they been doing and it's passed on to us, as higher inflation.
In conclusion, our economy needs to be reformed, to support our environment in a sustainable method. Dirty energy will NOT do that, but clean energy can and will.
Example, Solar energy has been around for 5 billion years on Earth.... but more importantly, it will continue to be available for the net 5 billion years...
Coal, Petroleum and so called natural gas (it's petroleum gas) is dirty energy that doesn't burn clean. It was just convenient to use being in a concentrated form. But, those natural resources are not sufficient to supply the developing world in the time ahead.
If we delay, we lost the transition time it takes to switch over. Going from 99% dependency on petroleum to NONE at all, as citizens will discover to be without fuel in their automobiles isn't a viable solution.
Obama is leading us into barbarism. He's going backwards, in the wrong direction. Just look at how he has inflated the debt, increased the cost of living, increased the unemployment and increased more Americans on food stamps. Is that what we should call the right stuff?
Posted by Mary Williams on 31 Jul 2011
Obama has been fantastic, actually, in following the dictum, "The right answer to a non-problem is to have the courage to do nothing."
Instead of tired old warhorses it would indeed be refreshing to hear from others on eco-imperialism and the harm to the poor by EPA's Lisa Jackson.
Posted by Lyons Logan on 01 Aug 2011
Speaking from the perspective of an urban ecologist I am very pleased that the administration has reconvened the Environmental Justice Working Group. I strongly support the comments made previously by Ross Geredien, that appointing Lisa Jackson whom has been steadfast in developing solutions for moving forward EJ policies is one of the administrations greatest accomplishments.
In light of urbanization it is likely that other nations will have conflict between policies for nature, industry and society. It is important for us to recognize that we as a nation are beginning to understand how segregation and social justice aren't sustainable for socio-ecological systems at all scales.
Finally, my organization hosted the first ever African American environmentalist conference in Chicago; URBAANE ( Urban Resolutions for Bridging African Americans to Natural Environments). We worked fervently in identifying professionals of color to represent the five core themes of the conference (EJ, environmental education, urban agriculture,
green jobs & green development).
However, we too had difficulty in locating people of color to speak on environmental issues at the local level within the Chicago-metro area. Although we succeeded after much networking, it was apparent that the need for professionals of color within the themes of the conference were not as easy to find and engage as is renowned academics, authors and activists.
It is becoming ever important for fragmented and disconnected socio-ecological disciplines begin diversifying their professional networks so as to move forward as a nation and furthermore create an atmosphere for innovative solutions and policies that aren't antagonistic.
Posted by Kellen Marshall-Gillespie on 03 Aug 2011
We have heard from readers and friends of Yale Environment 360 who have noted the lack of diversity – both in gender and people of color – in the panelists who participated in this forum. The point is well taken by the editors.
Julian Agyeman blogged on this subject:
Posted by Roger Cohn, Editor on 10 Aug 2011
YOU Secretary involving State Hillary Clinton has needed wider global sanctions upon Syria as the government's chaotic crackdown about dissent remains.
Mrs Clinton mentioned China and also India for example could raise pressure for their energy assets.
She said the united states did not need to require Mr Assad for you to stand lower without obtaining the backing of other nations.
Activists claim the internet marketer killed no less than 24 persons on Thursday night and new protests flared following dawn prayers on Friday.
More than 1, 700 people have passed away and 1000s of people include reportedly also been arrested since the uprising up against the the 41-year rule of Leader Bashar al-Assad's family began throughout March.
'Chorus regarding condemnation' ([url=http://tech-mak.pl/]Raper[/url])
This 1 week, Washington added to its active sanctions on Syria simply by including its main industrial bank and mobile phone company, and cautioned that a lot more could stick to.
Posted by greniafrema on 12 Aug 2011
Anyone who turns gasoline into a vapor will always get higher fuel efficiency and is exactly why the automobile industry hasn't done it. As they stand to earn more profit to NOT do it.
Posted by Mark on 20 Aug 2011
Obama like all elected officials are tied to big money including big oil. The pres has opened more doors to tackle these issues than past top leaders. This by no means gives him a passing grade as his department of energy policy has not been presented to the public along with the science, social, and economic issues fully disclosed to the public. This issue taking a back seat in the face of huge financial stresses world wide is still no excuse to not have developed sensible solutions. The ability to present these issues along with solutions phased in over time on all environmental challenges seems to be missing in action. The American people deserve to know how our nation, planet, and resistance to solutions is not focused to serve citizens.
Posted by nancy d wilhite on 14 Nov 2011
Comments have been closed on this feature.
Why Supreme Court's Action
Creates Opportunity on Climate
The U.S. Supreme Court order blocking the Obama administration's Clean Power Plan may have a silver lining: It provides an opportunity for the U.S. to show other nations it has a flexible, multi-faceted approach to cutting emissions.
With Court Action, Obama's
Climate Policies in Jeopardy
The U.S. Supreme Court order blocking President Obama's plan to cut emissions from coal-burning power plants is an unprecedented step and one of the most environmentally harmful decisions ever made by the nation's highest court.
Facing Tough Market at Home,
U.S. Coal Giant Pushes Overseas
With prospects in the U.S. increasingly uncertain, Peabody Energy, the world's largest private coal company, is expanding its operations abroad. But that strategy could carry significant risks, as coal-consuming powerhouses like China are working to reduce their dependence on the fossil fuel.
Forum: How Daring is
Obama's New Climate Plan?
President Obama has unveiled a proposal to combat global warming that would, for the first time, regulate carbon dioxide emissions from all U.S. coal-fired power plants. Yale Environment 360 asked a group of experts to assess the president's climate strategy.
Marines Push to Front Lines in
Renewable Energy Innovation
A backpack that generates electricity? A vest that cools you in a hot tent? As the U.S. military looks to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels, the Marine Corps is leading the way with cutting-edge technology and innovative devices.
MORE IN Forum
Obama's Environmental Legacy:
How Much Can Trump Undo?
Few groups were as shocked and chagrined by Donald Trump's victory as the environmental community. Yale Environment 360 asked environmentalists, academics, and pro-business representatives just how far Trump might roll back President Obama's environmental initiatives.
What Pope Francis Should Say
In His Upcoming UN Address
Pope Francis will speak to the United Nations General Assembly on Sept. 25 about poverty, the environment, and sustainable development. In a Yale Environment 360 forum, seven leading thinkers on the environment and religion describe what they would like to hear the pope say.
Top Climate Scientists Assess
Latest Report from U.N. Panel
Yale Environment 360 asked some leading climate scientists to discuss what they consider to be the most noteworthy or surprising findings in the recently released report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's working group on the physical science of a warming world.
Forum: How Daring is
Obama's New Climate Plan?
President Obama has unveiled a proposal to combat global warming that would, for the first time, regulate carbon dioxide emissions from all U.S. coal-fired power plants. Yale Environment 360 asked a group of experts to assess the president's climate strategy.
Forum: Just How Safe
Is 'Fracking' of Natural Gas?
New technologies for freeing natural gas from underground shale formations have led to a hydraulic fracturing boom across the U.S. that is now spreading to other countries. In a
Yale Environment 360
forum, eight experts discuss whether "fracking" can be done without serious harm to water and air quality and what environmental safeguards may be needed.
Forum: Is Extreme Weather
Linked to Global Warming?
In the past year, the world has seen a large number of extreme weather events, from the Russian heat wave last summer, to the severe flooding in Pakistan, to the recent tornadoes in the U.S. In a
Yale Environment 360
forum, a panel of experts weighs in on whether the wild weather may be tied to increasing global temperatures.
As Copenhagen Talks Near,
What Are Prospects for Success?
For months, hopes that a climate treaty would be signed at the upcoming Copenhagen conference have been raised, then dashed, then raised again. Now, with prospects waning that a binding accord on reducing greenhouse gas emissions can be reached this year, ten environmental leaders and climate experts outline for Yale Environment 360 what they believe can still be accomplished at Copenhagen.
The Waxman-Markey Bill:
A Good Start or a Non-Starter?
As carbon cap-and-trade legislation works it way through Congress, the environmental community is intensely debating whether the Waxman-Markey bill is the best possible compromise or a fatally flawed initiative. Yale Environment 360 asked 11 prominent people in the environmental and energy fields for their views on this controversial legislation.
Putting a Price on Carbon:
An Emissions Cap or a Tax?
The days of freely dumping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere are coming to an end, but how best to price carbon emissions remains in dispute. As the U.S. Congress debates the issue, Yale Environment 360 asked eight experts to discuss the merits of a cap-and-trade system versus a carbon tax.
A Green Agenda for the
President's First 100 Days
Environmentalists – from Bill McKibben and Paul Hawken, to Fred Krupp and Frances Beinecke – offer President Obama their advice on the priorities he should set for the first 100 days of his administration.
RELATED e360 DIGEST ITEMS
08 Dec 2016:
From Obama's Chief Scientist,
Parting Words of Caution on Climate
07 Dec 2016:
Indonesia Bans the Burning
Of Peatland; Will Help Reduce CO2 Emissions
06 Dec 2016:
Google to Power Itself Using
100 Percent Renewable Energy in 2017
05 Dec 2016:
Interview: Unusually Warm Arctic
May Have Impact on Global Weather
02 Dec 2016:
To Fight Air Pollution, Four
Cities Announce Ban on Diesel Cars By 2025
30 Nov 2016:
Soils Could Release 55 Trillion
Kilograms of Carbon By Mid-Century
29 Nov 2016:
This Year's Coral Die-Off on
Great Barrier Reef Was Worst Ever Recorded
23 Nov 2016:
Trump Will Scrap NASA
Climate Research, Senior Adviser Says
22 Nov 2016:
Freakishly Warm Weather
Is Preventing Sea Ice Formation in Arctic
21 Nov 2016:
Canada to Phase Out
Nearly All Coal-Fired Electricity by 2030
Yale Environment 360 is
a publication of the
Yale School of Forestry
& Environmental Studies
SEARCH e360
RSS Feed
Email Updates
Mobile Site
About e360
Submission Guidelines
E360 en Español
Yale Environment 360
articles are now available in Spanish and Portuguese on
, the online educational network.
Visit the site.
e360 Digest
Video Reports
Business & Innovation
Policy & Politics
Pollution & Health
Science & Technology
Antarctica and the Arctic
Central & South America
Middle East
North America
e360 VIDEO
A look at how acidifying oceans could threaten the Dungeness crab, one of the most valuable fisheries on the U.S. West Coast.
Watch the video.
e360 MOBILE
The latest
Environment 360
is now available for mobile devices at
e360 PHOTO ESSAY
An aerial view of why Europe's per capita carbon emissions are less than 50 percent of those in the U.S.
View the photos.
e360 VIDEO
An indigenous tribe's deadly fight to save its ancestral land in the Amazon rainforest from logging.
Learn more.
e360 VIDEO
video series looks at the staggering amount of food wasted in the U.S. – a problem with major human and environmental costs.
Watch the video.
e360 VIDEO
Residents of the Chocó Rainforest in Ecuador are choosing to plant cacao over logging in an effort to slow deforestation.
Watch the video.
e360 VIDEO
Tribal people and ranchers join together to stop a project that would haul coal across their Montana land.
Watch the video.
Centre for Science and Environment
Circle of Blue
Climate Progress
Ecological Internet
Environmental Health News
Environmental News Network
New Scientist
Real Climate
Science Blogs
Scientific American
Yale Climate Connections
© 2008-2015 Yale University |


text:
Stephen Maynard Caliendo, professor of political science, can be heard on WDCB-FM 90.9 at 5 a.m. and 6 p.m. Monday and Tuesday, Oct. 18-19, in a two-part interview with assistant news director Gary Zidek '03 about the role of race in the Chicago mayoral election. Listen live at www.wdcb.org.
Home ›


text:
Hi all,
I have been nursing my daughter almost exclusively for 8 months. She eats some solids and has experienced the occasional bottle of formula. About two months ago she started demonstrating some severe reflux type symptoms. Long story short, we have been to lots of doctors and she has been taking Prevacid for 9 weeks now. The med (which I'm not totally thrilled about giving to her) hasn't shown too many results, so I started talking to other moms about symptoms, etc. One mentioned overactive letdown as a possibility. Are there any other mothers out there with overactive letdown and an older infant? If so how did you make changes and did you see results? Thanks!!


text:
Please wait ...
Show Dad you're nuts about him with this array of fancy nuts and thirst-quenching root beer. He'll enjoy roasted salted mixed nuts, roasted salted almonds with sea salt, roasted salted pistachios, and honey cinnamon almonds. Wash it all down with three great Dad's root beers. It's a sweet and savory treat just for him!
Your purchase includes a complimentary personalized gift message.
Taxes and fees will be calculated at checkout
Due to holiday availability, fees may vary for non-Gold Members.
Discount fees apply, place your order today!
Your selected gift will be delivered on Saturday, May 7th or Sunday, May 8th.
Date not available for delivery.
Please wait while membership information is loading.
Please wait while product is being added to cart
You are now signed into FTD with Facebook! Gold Members: If you do not see the icon or your member benefits, please sign out and sign in again with your FTD account.
We are currently unable to connect to your Facebook account. Please try again.


text:
School Rumble
2nd Semester: It's So Romantic, Harima! Get Published in Zinegama, Harima! Come On, Harima!
Episode 51 | TV-MA
Harima has a few hoops to jump through for his editor before his comic is complete. When Yakumo can't help him out, she sends a very special assistant in her place!
Official Site: www.funimation.com/shows/school-rumbleHide Details


text:
Curry career is over and he knows it. He's a quitter and will not play for a new contract, at this point he'll be broke in two years. If he gets a new contract it will be nothing short of a miracle, I can't wait until Curry is officially gone.
Mozgov is going to get the minutes Curry should be fighting for, and it is for the best. Watching Mozgov play this summer, I can see why the Knicks are rolling the dices on him.


text:
SKINS Men's A400 Sleeveless Compression Top
Product Information:
Train and compete in the SKINS A400 Sleeveless Compression Top and feel a positive impact on performance. Featuring dynamic gradient compression, this top provides improved power with biomechanically placed Memory MX fabric over the spine, scapula, and obliques. Wear under your game shirt or as is for constant compression and unrestricted movement to help posture and breathing during intense, prolonged activity.
- Wear during activity or after to reduce post-exercise muscle soreness and improve performance, posture and breathing
- Unique technology delivers more oxygen-filled blood to active muscles to increase endurance, power, and efficiency
- Dynamic gradient compression boosts blood flow to deliver oxygen to active muscles
- Biomechanically placed Memory MX fabric around the spine, scapula and oblique
- Microfiber construction wicks moisture away from body and regulates temperature
- Permanent antibacterial and antimicrobial fabric
- UPF 50+ UV protection
- Warp-knit construction offers superior compression and durability
- 76% nylon microfiber, 24% spandex
- Care: Hand wash separately with mild soap in cold water. Do not bleach, tumble dry, iron or dry clean.
Country of Origin: ChinaWeb ID: 11338609


text:
NARROWSBURG, NY — The Upper Delaware Council (UDC) shares the sentiments of its Pennsylvania representatives about the PA Department of Environmental Protection's (DEP) proposed policy for on-lot sewage systems in high quality and exceptional value watersheds. The UDC and its members in Wayne and Pike counties say the implementation of the policy would likely decrease land values because the most valuable land—adjacent to lakes and streams—would become unbuildable, undevelopable and unusable for most purposes.
The proposed policy states septic systems cannot be closer than 150 feet from a body of water, or 30 feet from a stream in areas with exceptional value and high-quality waters. There also would be a requirement for underground septic systems to be surrounded by a barrier to prevent the effluent from traveling underground. This would be done to prevent nitrates from getting into the water.
The DEP's proposed policy states that septic systems have been implicated as a cause or contributor of nitrate contamination, especially when installed in high density residential development areas. The UDC says there is no nitrate problem in the area.
"Approximately 95% of Wayne and Pike counties are in a high quality or exceptional value watershed," Jeffrey R. Dexter, chairman of the UDC and Damascus Township supervisors, wrote in a letter to the DEP, noting that a significant number of watersheds are tributaries to the Upper Delaware River. "In general, water quality on the Upper Delaware River is uniformly good to excellent. Its clean waters support outstanding cold-water and warm-water fisheries."
Dexter noted that water-quality monitoring is conducted by several agencies, including the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Delaware River Basin Commission and the National Park Service. "Their data shows an incremental increase in water quality on the Upper Delaware River," the letter says. "This data proves that the current measures to protect the water quality in the river basin are successful."
Nitrate-N is the pollutant of concern in the proposed policy. Dexter wrote that a water-quality study conducted by the USGS in the Delaware River Basin concluded that in streams the concentration of total nitrate had a median of 0.87 milligrams per liter (mg/L). The water quality standard for nitrate in Pennsylvania is 10mg/L, according to the letter. The letter also said the federal standard for nitrate-N levels in drinking water is 10mg/L.
Dexter also wrote that, according to the proposed policy, in Pennsylvania nitrate in groundwater is trending downward overall and this may be related to improved practices in land use and reductions in atmospheric deposition. Dexter wrote, "The fact that the policy acknowledges that 'septic systems generally are not capable of affecting surface waters to the degree where the 10mg/L limit may be threatened…' suggests that there is no justification for the proposed policy."
According to Dexter's letter, "There is a fine line between protection and overregulation. High quality water is the basis for many of the healthy, viable, rural communities in Wayne and Pike counties. The Upper Delaware Council is committed to protecting the water quality in this region, and scientific evidence verifies that current land use practices in Pennsylvania are successfully accomplishing that task."
Dexter further wrote that the UDC sees no benefit in preempting local zoning and land use regulations given the "good to excellent water qualities" in the Upper Delaware watershed.
The DEP has extended the public comment period on the policy and will continue to accept comments through June 3.