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Comprehensive Description
Although most species start as epiphytes or lithophytes, trees can only mature when rooted into nutrient rich soil. Such soils occur in riverine alluvium, termite mounds, and crumbling buildings. Pollination is brought about by symbiotic wasps (Family Agaonidae). The wasps are species specific to their host trees. While figs are produced predominantly in the growing season (Sep-Mar) they may be found at any time of the year, a necessary condition in order to maintain the wasp populations. Individual fig trees bear figs either irregularly or at periods of more or less than twelve months.
Physical Description
Diagnostic Description
Trees or shrubs, erect, scandent, or strangling, that produce abundant milky latex when wounded. Leaves alternate, simple or lobate, coriaceous; petioles short or elongate; stipules deciduous, elongate, forming a conical hood that protects the apical meristem. Flowers unisexual, minute, produced in the interior of an axillary inflorescence, globose or ellipsoid, formed by an enlarged receptacle (syconium); calyx reduced, membranaceous; corolla absent. Staminate flowers with 2 stamens; pistillate flower with a unilocular ovary with one apical ovule. Fruit a syconium formed by an enlarged receptacle, globose or ellipsoid, containing numerous achenes in the interior. A genus of about 800 species, of pantropical distribution.
hypophyllous, colonial Aspidioterus nerii sucks sap of live leaf of Ficus
In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / spot causer
colony of Cercospora dematiaceous anamorph of Cercospora bolleana causes spots on live Ficus
Foodplant / sap sucker
hypophyllous Coccus hesperidum sucks sap of live leaf (near veins) of Ficus
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / pathogen
Fig Mosaic virus infects and damages live, blotched leaf of Ficus
Foodplant / feeds on
Fusarium anamorph of Fusarium urticearum feeds on Ficus
Foodplant / gall
Gynaikothrips ficorum causes gall of live, rolled leaf of Ficus
Foodplant / gall
Heterodera fici causes gall of cysted root of Ficus
Foodplant / feeds on
Phytonemus pallidus feeds on live Ficus
Foodplant / sap sucker
Pseudococcus sucks sap of live green part of Ficus
Foodplant / saprobe
larva of Psilota anthracina is saprobic on sap run of Ficus
Foodplant / sap sucker
Saissetia coffeae sucks sap of live leaf of Ficus
Evolution and Systematics
Functional Adaptations
Functional adaptation
The mutually beneficial relationship between figs and fig wasps is maintained via sanctions for deviating behavior.
"Theory predicts that mutualisms should be vulnerable to invasion by cheaters, yet mutualistic interactions are both ancient and diverse. What prevents one partner from reaping the benefits of the interaction without paying the costs? Using field experiments and observations, we examined factors affecting mutualism stability in six fig tree–fig wasp species pairs. We experimentally compared the fitness of wasps that did or did not perform their most basic mutualistic service, pollination. We found host sanctions that reduced the fitness of non-pollinating wasps in all derived, actively pollinated fig species (where wasps expend time and energy pollinating), but not in the basal, passively pollinated fig species (where wasps do not). We further screened natural populations of pollinators for wasp individuals that did not carry pollen ('cheaters'). Pollen-free wasps occurred only in actively pollinating wasp species, and their prevalence was negatively correlated with the sanction strength of their host species. Combined with previous studies, our findings suggest that (i) mutualisms can show coevolutionary dynamics analogous to those of 'arms races' in overtly antagonistic interactions; (ii) sanctions are critical for long-term mutualism stability when providing benefits to a host is costly, and (iii) there are general principles that help maintain cooperation both within and among species." (Jandér & Herre 2010:1481)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- 2010. Punishment important in plant-pollinator relationship. Science Daily [Internet],
- Jandér KC; Herre EA. 2010. Host sanctions and pollinator cheating in the fig tree–fig wasp mutualism. Proc. R. Soc. B. 277(1687): 1481-1488.
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Statistics of barcoding coverage
Specimen Records:2004
Specimens with Sequences:2199
Specimens with Barcodes:1346
Species With Barcodes:377
Public Records:1373
Public Species:327
Public BINs:0
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus sp.
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus aff.citrifolia-pertusa
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus Espinoza5712
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 2
Species With Barcodes: 1
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus Dejentle
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 2
Species With Barcodes: 1
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus Espinoza5693
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus aff.maxima
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 6
Species With Barcodes: 1
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Ficus Espinoza5694
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1
Barcode data
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Whole plant: Decoction of the latex is used as a wash by the Surinam Tirio to treat general weakness. The Surinam Akuriyo apply the latex to areas of cracked skin on the foot. Stem: Decoction of boiled bark is gargled or drunk by the Surinam Tirio as treatment for coughs. Leaf: Crushed in a cold water infusion by the Surinam Wayana to remedy abdominal aches and general malaise.
A Banyan (also Banian) is a fig that starts its life as an epiphyte (a plant growing on another plant) when its seeds germinate in the cracks and crevices on a host tree (or on structures like buildings and bridges). "Banyan" often refers specifically to the Indian banyan (Ficus benghalensis), which is the national tree of the Republic of India,[1] though the term has been generalized to include all figs that share a characteristic life cycle, and systematically to refer to the subgenus Urostigma.[2]
Like other fig species (including the common edible fig Ficus carica), banyans bear multiple fruit in structures called syncarps. The Ficus syncarp supplies shelter and food for fig wasps and in turn, the trees are dependent on the fig wasps for pollination.
The seeds of banyans are dispersed by fruit-eating birds. The seeds are small, and most banyans grow in forests, so that a plant germinating from a seed that lands on the ground is unlikely to survive. However, many seeds land on branches and stems of trees or on buildings. When those seeds germinate they send roots down towards the ground, and may envelop part of the host tree or building structure, giving banyans the casual name of "strangler fig". The "strangling" growth habit is found in a number of tropical forest species, particularly of the genus Ficus, that compete for light. [3][4][5] Any Ficus species showing this habit may be termed a strangler fig.
The leaves of the banyan tree are large, leathery, glossy green and elliptical in shape. Like most fig-trees, the leaf bud is covered by two large scales. As the leaf develops the scales fall. Young leaves have an attractive reddish tinge.[6]
Older banyan trees are characterized by their aerial prop roots that grow into thick woody trunks which, with age, can become indistinguishable from the main trunk. Old trees can spread out laterally, using these prop roots to cover a wide area. In some species the effect is for the props to develop into a sort of forest covering a considerable area, every trunk connected directly or indirectly to the central trunk. The topology of this structure of interconnection inspired the name of the hierarchical computer network operating system Banyan VINES.
In a banyan that envelops a support tree the mesh of roots growing round the support tree eventually applies very considerable pressure and commonly kills the tree. Such an enveloped dead tree eventually rots away so that the banyan becomes a "columnar tree" with a hollow central core. In jungles such hollows are particularly desirable shelters to many animals.
The name was originally given to F. benghalensis and comes from India where early travellers observed that the shade of the tree was frequented by banias or Indian traders.[7]
In the Gujarati language, banya means "grocer/merchant," not "tree." The Portuguese picked up the word to refer specifically to Hindu merchants and passed it along to the English as early as 1599 with the same meaning. By 1634, English writers began to tell of the banyan tree, a tree under which Hindu merchants would conduct their business. The tree provided a shaded place for a village meeting or for merchants to sell their goods. Eventually "banyan" became the name of the tree itself.
The original banyan, the species F. benghalensis, can grow into a giant tree covering several hectares. Over time, the name became generalized to all strangler figs of the Urostigma subgenus. There are many banyan species, including:
- Ficus microcarpa, which is native from Sri Lanka through New Caledonia and is a significant invasive species elsewhere.
- The Central American banyan (Ficus pertusa) is native to Central America and northern South America, from southern Mexico south to Paraguay.
- The shortleaf fig (Ficus citrifolia) is native to southern Florida, the Caribbean Islands, Central America and South America south to Paraguay. One theory is that the Portuguese name for F. citrofolia, "Os Barbados", gave Barbados its name
- The Florida strangler fig (Ficus aurea) is also native to southern Florida and the Caribbean Islands, and distinguished from the above by its coarser leaf venation.
- The Moreton Bay fig (Ficus macrophylla) and Port Jackson Fig (Ficus rubiginosa) are other related species.
Ornamental value[edit]
Due to the complex structure of the roots and extensive branching, the banyan is extensively used for creating bonsai. Taiwan's oldest living bonsai is a 240-year-old banyan housed in Tainan.[8]
In culture[edit]
Religion and mythology[edit]
Banyan trees figure prominently in several Asian and Pacific religions and myths, including:
- In the Bhagavat Gita Krishna said "There is a banyan tree which has its roots upward and its branches down, and the Vedic hymns are its leaves. One who knows this tree is the knower of the Vedas." (Bg 15.1) Here the material world is described as a tree whose roots are upwards and branches are below. We have experience of a tree whose roots are upward: if one stands on the bank of a river or any reservoir of water, he can see that the trees reflected in the water are upside down. The branches go downward and the roots upward. Similarly, this material world is a reflection of the spiritual world. The material world is but a shadow of reality. In the shadow there is no reality or substantiality, but from the shadow we can understand that there is substance and reality.
- The banyan tree is also considered sacred and is called "Vat Vriksha" (IAST vaṭa vṛkṣa, वट वृक्ष) in Sanskrit, in Telugu known as: 'మర్రి వృక్షము ' ; Marri Vrikshamu and in Tamil known as: 'ஆல மரம்' ; Ala Maram. The god Shiva as Dakshinamurthy is nearly always depicted sitting in silence under the banyan with rishis at his feet. It is thought of as perfectly symbolizing eternal life due to its seemingly unending expansion.
- In modern parlance in the Hindi language, it is known as Bargad, Vatavriksh, and Barh.
- In Buddhism's Pali canon, the banyan (Pali: nigrodha)[9] is referenced numerous times.[10] Typical metaphors allude to the banyan's epiphytic nature, likening the banyan's supplanting of a host tree as comparable to the way sensual desire (kāma) overcomes humans.[11]
- The Lam Tsuen Wishing Trees (林村許願樹) are banyan, and are a popular shrine in Hong Kong. They are located near the Tin Hau Temple in Lam Tsuen.
- In many stories of Philippine mythology, the banyan (locally known as balete or balite) is said to be home to a variety of spirits (diwata and engkanto) and demon-like creatures (among the Visayans, specifically, the dili ingon nato, meaning "those not like us"). Maligno (evil spirits, from Spanish for 'malign') associated with it include the kapre (a giant), duwende (dwarves), and the tikbalang (a creature whose top half is a horse and whose bottom half is human).[12] Children at a young age are taught never to point at a fully mature banyan tree for fear of offending the spirits that dwell within them, most especially when they are new to the place. Filipinos would always utter a respectful word or two to the spirits in the banyan tree when they are near one, walking near or around it to avoid any harm. Nearly every Filipino believes that provoking the spirits in a banyan tree can cause one great harm, illness, misfortune, untold suffering and death.
- In Guam, Chamorro people believe in tales of taotaomona, duendes and other spirits. Taotaomona are spirits of the ancient Chamorro that act as guardians to banyan trees.[13]
- Thimmamma Marrimanu is the name of a Banyan tree in Anantapur district, located about 35 km from town Kadiri in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is present in the Indian Botanical Gardens and is more than 200 years old. It is reported to be the world's biggest tree with a canopy of 19,107 square metres. Its branches spreads over 8 acres, and hence was recorded as the biggest tree in the Guinness Book of World Records in 1989
- One of the largest trees, named the Great Banyan, is found in Kolkata in India. It is said to be more than 250 years old. Another such tree, named Doda Alada Mara, is found in the outskirts of Bangalore. Doda Alada Mara has a spread of around 2.5 acres.[14]
- One of the most famous of banyan trees was planted on the island of Kabirvad in Gujarat. Records show that the Kabirvad tree is more than 300 years old.
- Maui, Hawaii has a Banyan tree planted by William Owen Smith in 1873 in Lahaina's Courthouse Square. It has grown to cover two-thirds of an acre.[14]
- In rural parts of India, many villages and towns have a traffic circle and a community gathering place around a big old banyan tree. At night many people come to sit, relax and chat around it. There is usually a small deity placed and worshipped at its foot.[citation needed]
- Ta Prohm in the Angkor Wat temple complex of Cambodia is well known for the giant banyans that grow up, around and through its walls.
- Several banyans can be found near downtown Hilo, Hawaii. Some of them were planted by celebrities throughout the 20th century and form Banyan Drive.
- Banyans also occur in areas of Australia such as the Daintree rainforest in Queensland's far north. Well known is the Curtain Fig Tree on the Atherton Tablelands.
- The first banyan tree in the continental U.S. was planted by Thomas Alva Edison in Fort Myers, Florida in an attempt with Henry Ford to find a more cost-effective way to produce rubber for car tires. The tree, originally only 4 feet (1.2 m) tall, now covers an acre of land on the estate.
- One large Banyan tree called Kalpabata is there inside the premises of Jagannath Temple of Puri. It is considered sacred by the devotees and is supposed to be more than 500 years old.[15]
- Famous Banyan Tree in Chennai where Theosophical Society[16] is established. Also called as Ala Maram [17]
- A large Banyan tree (Which kind is uncertain by this author) lives in Cypress Gardens, at the Legoland theme park located in Winter Haven, Florida. It was planted in 1939 in a 5-gallon bucket. [18]
- Brian Aldiss, in his novel Hothouse, describes a future Earth where a single huge banyan covers half of the globe, because individual trees discover the ability to join together, as well as drop adventitious roots.
- In Salman Rushdie's novel, The Satanic Verses, the village of Titlipur is built around an enormous banyan tree, whose roots cover an area "half a mile in diameter." The tree is intrinsic to the village with some villagers building shelters in it and others living in the foliage.
- In Arthur C. Clarke's novel, 2010: Odyssey Two, the banyan tree is used several times as a reference to describe a fictional life form native to Europa (moon).
- In The Coral Island R. M. Ballantyne had Jack Martin give a brief but informative description of a banyan tree they found on the island. This description was the first introduction that many British children had to such a concept.
- Cambodian author Vaddey Ratner alludes to a myth about the tree in her 2012 novel "In the Shadow of the Banyan," the story of a child's experience in the horrors of the Cambodian Genocide. [19]
- In The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, in the arena of the 75th Games, the lightning tree is a banyan.
- The Avatar: the Last Airbender episode titled "The Swamp" takes place in a swamp that is actually one organism, the center of which is a giant Banyan-grove tree.
- The Banyan tree is the national Tree of India.
- The Banyan is part of the coat of arms of Indonesia. It is meant to symbolize the unity of Indonesia - one country with many far-flung roots. As a giant tree, it also symbolizes power. Soeharto used it as a logo for his party, the Golongan Karya (Golkar), taking advantage of the deeply rooted belief of his fellow-countrymen and women in the sacred (sakti) nature of the banyan
- The Economist magazine features an opinion column covering topics pertaining to Asia named "Banyan".[20]
- In southern Vanuatu the clearings under banyan trees are used as traditional meeting places. The quarterly newsletter of the British Friends of Vanuatu Society is named Nabanga, after the local word for banyan.[21]
- The Banyan Tree is the name of one of the most fiendishly difficult rooms in the 1984 ZX Spectrum game Jet Set Willy. [22]
- ^ "National Tree". Government of India Official website. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Note usage of "Banyan" versus "banyan" in "Trees with a Difference: The Strangler Figs" PDF (61.0 KiB) by Vidya R. Athreya, Nature Watch, July 1997; also "Aerial-rooting banyan trees", washington.edu
- ^ Zhekun, Zhou & Michael G. Gilbert (2003) Flora of China (Moraceae) 5: 21-73. Harvard.edu
- ^ Serventy, V. 1984. Australian Native Plants. Victoria: Reed Books.
- ^ Light in the rainforest 1992 Tropical topics. Vol 1 No. 5 QLD.gov.au
- ^ The Lovely Plants.
- ^ Yule, Henry, Sir. Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive. New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903.
- ^ Taipei Times, "Small is the old big", September 22, 2005
- ^ T.W. Rhys Davids & William Stede (1921-25), Pali-English Dictionary (Chipstead: Pali Text Society), p. 355, entry "Nigrodha," retrieved 22 November 2008 from University of Chicago.
- ^ See, for instance, the automated search of the SLTP ed. of the Pali Canon for the root "nigrodh" which results in 243 matches, retrieved 22 November 2008 at Bodhgayanews.net.
- ^ See, e.g., SN 46.39, "Trees [Discourse]," trans. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000), Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya (Boston: Wisdom Publications), pp. 1593, 1906 n. 81; and, Sn 2.5 v. 271 or 272 (Fausböll, 1881, p. 46).
- ^ Balete Tree
- ^ Guampdn.com, Ghost stories: Taotaomona, duendes and other spirits inhabit Guam
- ^ a b John R. K. Clark (2001). Hawai'i place names: shores, beaches, and surf sites. University of Hawaii Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8248-2451-8.
- ^ http://www.shreekhetra.com/sriinner.html
- ^ http://www.destinationinfinity.org/2012/01/26/adyar-banyan-tree-theosophical-society-in-chennai/
- ^ http://adayarbanyantree.blogspot.sg/
- ^ http://thevacationgals.com/legoland-florida-the-belle-of-theme-parks/
- ^ http://www.vaddeyratner.com/banyan/
- ^ "In the shade of the banyan tree". The Economist. 8 April 2009.
- ^ http://www.british-friends-of-vanuatu.com/
- ^ http://www.crashonline.org.uk/04/jetset.htm
Ficus (/ˈfaɪkəs/[2][3] or /ˈfiːkəs/[4][5]) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The Common Fig (F. carica) is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region (from Afghanistan to Portugal), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit, also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.
Ficus is a pan-tropical genus of trees, shrubs and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological niches; most are evergreen, but some deciduous species are endemic to areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations.[6] Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and distinctive pollination syndrome, which utilizes wasp species belonging to the Agaonidae family for pollination.
The specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but figs as a group are relatively easy to recognize.[7] Many have aerial roots and a distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The fig fruit is an enclosed inflorescence, sometimes referred to as a syconium, an urn-like structure lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers. The unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, known as fig wasps that enter via ostiole these sub-closed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists.[8] Finally, there are three vegetative traits that together are unique to figs. All figs possess a white to yellowish latex, some in copious quantities; the twig has paired stipules or a circular stipule scar if the stipules have fallen off; and the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins, a feature referred to as "tri-veined".
There are no unambiguous older fossils of Ficus. However, current molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million years old,[8] and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.
Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include the Common Fig, which is a small temperate deciduous tree whose fingered fig leaf is well known in art and iconography; the Weeping Fig (F. benjamina) a hemi-epiphyte with thin tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; the Creeping Fig (F. pumila), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls.
Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alpha diversity. In the tropics, it is quite common to find that Ficus is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia as many as 70 or more species can co-exist.[9] Ficus species richness declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres.[10][11]
Ecology and uses[edit]
Figs are keystone species in many rainforest ecosystems. Their fruit are a key resource for some frugivores including fruit bats, capuchin monkeys, langurs and mangabeys. They are even more important for some birds. Asian barbets, pigeons, hornbills, fig-parrots and bulbuls are examples of taxa that may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (Crow butterflies), the Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus), the Giant Swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes), the Brown Awl (Badamia exclamationis), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma, Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths. The Citrus long-horned beetle (Anoplophora chinensis), for example, has larvae that feed on wood, including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the Sweet Potato Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae).
The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia, F. insipida and F. padifolia) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate (Nahuatl: āmatl). Mutuba (F. natalensis) is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. Pou (F. religiosa) leaves' shape inspired one of the standard kbach rachana, decorative elements in Cambodian architecture. Indian Banyan (F. bengalensis) and the Indian Rubber Plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism.
Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the Common Fig (F. carica) and Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus), were among the first – if not the very first – plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil F. carica figs dated to about 9400–9200 BCE were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). These were a parthenogenesis type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the first known cultivation of grain in the Middle East by many hundreds of years.[12]
Cultural and spiritual significance[edit]
Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the more famous species are the Sacred Fig tree (Pipal, Bodhi, Bo, or Po, Ficus religiosa) and the Banyan Fig (Ficus benghalensis). The oldest living plant of known planting date is a Ficus religiosa tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BCE. The common fig is one of the two sacred trees of Islam, and there is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or At-Tin (سوره تین). In East Asia, figs are important in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. The Buddha is traditionally held to have found bodhi (enlightenment) while meditating under a Sacred Fig (F. religiosa). The same species was Ashvattha, the "world tree" of Hinduism. The Plaksa Pra-sravana was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a Sacred Fig but more probably seems to be a Wavy-leaved Fig (F. infectoria). The Common Fig tree is cited in the Bible, where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit is also included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to the Torah (Deut. 8). Jesus cursed a fig tree for bearing no fruit (Mark 11:12–14). The fig tree was sacred in ancient Cyprus where it was a symbol of fertility.
Fig fruit and reproduction system[edit]
Many fig species are grown for their fruits, though only Ficus carica is cultivated to any extent for this purpose. The fig fruits, important as both food and traditional medicine, contain laxative substances, flavonoids, sugars, vitamins A and C, acids and enzymes. However, figs are skin allergens, and the latex is a serious eye irritant. The fig is a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. The genus Dorstenia, also in the figs family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface. Propagating figs can be done by seeds, cuttings, air-layering or grafting. However, as with any plant, figs grown from seed are not necessarily genetically identical to the parent and are only propagated this way for breeding purposes.
Depending on the species, each fruit can contain up to several hundred to several thousand seeds.[13]
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
|310 kJ (74 kcal)
19 g
|16 g
|Dietary fiber
|3 g
0.3 g
0.8 g
|Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
|1,041 kJ (249 kcal)
64 g
|48 g
|Dietary fiber
|10 g
1 g
3 g
|Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
A fig "fruit" is derived from a specially adapted type of inflorescence (an arrangement of multiple flowers). In this case, it is an involuted, nearly closed receptacle with many small flowers arranged on the inner surface. Thus the actual flowers of the fig are unseen unless the fig is cut open. In Chinese the fig is called wú huā guǒ (simplified Chinese: 无花果; traditional Chinese: 無花果), "fruit without flower".[14] In Bengali, where the Common Fig is called dumur, it is referenced in a proverb: tumi jeno dumurer phool hoe gele ("You have become [invisible like] the dumur flower").
The syconium often has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole) at the outward end that allows access to pollinators. The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps that crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees could not reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit, and has led to a coevolutionary relationship. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be only one of the many tiny matured, seed-bearing gynoecia found inside one fig – if you cut open a fresh fig, individual fruit will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside.
Fig plants can be monoecious (hermaphrodite) or gynodioecious (hermaphrodite and female).[15] Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and therefore have some plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, and other plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers.[16] The long flowers styles tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short styled flowers are accessible for egg laying.[17]
All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like Indian Banyan (F. benghalensis), Weeping Fig (F. benjamina), Indian Rubber Plant (F. elastica), Fiddle-leaved Fig (F. lyrata), Moreton Bay Fig (F. macrophylla), Chinese Banyan (F. microcarpa), Sacred Fig (F. religiosa) and Sycamore Fig (F. sycomorus).[18]
On the other hand the Common Fig (Ficus carica) is a gynodioecious plant, as well as Lofty fig or Clown fig (F. aspera), Roxburgh Fig (F. auriculata), Mistletoe Fig (F. deltoidea), F. pseudopalma, Creeping Fig (F. pumila) and related species.
The hermaphrodite Common Figs are called "inedible figs" or caprifigs; in traditional culture in the Mediterranean region they were considered food for goats (Capra aegagrus). In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "edible figs". Fig wasps grow in Common Fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes (Ficain) inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans.
When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Common Fig[verification needed] caprifigs have three crops per year; edible figs have two. The first (breva)[19] produces small fruits called olynth. Some parthenocarpic cultivars of Common Figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit sterile) in the absence of caprifigs or fig wasps.
Mutualism with the pollinating fig wasps[edit]
There is typically only one species of wasp capable of fertilizing the flowers of each species of fig, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in Hawaii, some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them have been introduced, so only four species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become invasive species. This is an example of mutualism, in which each organism (fig plant and fig wasp) benefit each other, in this case reproductively.
The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution. Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as the correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years.[20] Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades.[8]
Recently, molecular techniques including the combined use of microsatellite markers in combination with mitochondrial sequence analyses have suggested that the one-to-one relationships between figs and their pollinators may not be as strict as once believed[21] The discovery of multiple genetically distinct, cryptic wasp species paired with individual fig species supports this concern, particularly considering that not all cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host shift at some point.[21] These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic introgression or backcrosses indicating limited fitness for hybrids and effective reproductive isolation and speciation.[21]
The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither the number of symbionts nor their evolutionary relationships are necessarily fixed ecologically. Fifty percent of fig species host multiple wasp pollinators thus are not tied inextricably to any single symbiont.[22] On the other hand, species of wasps have been shown to pollinate multiple host fig species[23] While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation.
With 800 species, Ficus is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described.[24] The species currently classified within Ficus were originally split into several genera in the mid-1800s, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when reunited into one genus in 1867. This classification put functionally dioecious species into four subgenera based on floral characters.[25] In 1965, E. J. H. Corner reorganized the genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus Ficus. Monoecious figs were classified within the subgenera Urostigma, Pharmacosycea and Sycomorus.[26]
|Top five fig producers (2012, in tonnes)
|World total
|1.1 million
This traditional classification been called into question by recent phylogenetic studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of the various sections of each subgenus.[8][25][28][29][30] Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only Sycomorus is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies.[8][25][29] Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages.[8][25][28][29][30] One of the two sections of Pharmacosycea, a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes the other section of Pharmacosycea, the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species.[30] These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages isn't as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of Urostigma except for section Urostigma s. s.. The other includes section Urostigma s. s., subgenus Sycomorus, and the species of subgenus Ficus, though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved.[8][30]
Selected species[edit]
- Subgenus Ficus
- Ficus carica L. – common fig
- Ficus daimingshanensis Chang
- Ficus deltoidea Jack – mistletoe fig
- Ficus erecta Thunb. – Japanese fig
- Ficus grossularioides Burman f. - white-leaved fig
- Ficus hirta Vahl
- Ficus neriifolia Sm.
- Ficus palmata Forssk.
- Ficus pandurata Hance
- Ficus ischnopoda Miq.
- Ficus vaccinioides King
- Ficus variolosa Lindl. ex Benth.
- Subgenus Pharmacosycea
- Ficus adhatodifolia Schott
- Ficus apollinaris Dugand
- Ficus carchiana Berg
- Ficus crassiuscula Standl.
- Ficus ecuadorensis Berg
- Ficus dicranostyla Mildbr.
- Ficus gigantosyce Dugand
- Ficus guajavoides Lundell
- Ficus illiberalis Corner
- Ficus insipida Willd.
- Ficus lacunata Kvitvik
- Ficus macbridei Standl.
- Ficus maxima Mill.
- Ficus mutabilis Bureau
- Ficus mutisii Dugand
- Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth
- Ficus obtusiuscula Miq.
- Ficus piresiana Vázquez Avila & Berg
- Ficus pulchella Schott
- Ficus rieberiana Berg
- Ficus tonduzii Standl.
- Ficus yoponensis Desv.
- Subgenus Sycidium
- Ficus andamanica Corner
- Ficus aspera G.Forst.
- Ficus bojeri Baker
- Ficus capreifolia Delile
- Ficus coronata Spin - creek sandpaper fig
- Ficus fraseri Miq. - shiny sandpaper fig
- Ficus fulvopilosa Summerh.
- Ficus godeffroyi Warb. - mati (samoan)
- Ficus greenwoodii Summerh.
- Ficus heterophylla Miq.
- Ficus lateriflora Vahl
- Ficus masonii Baker
- Ficus montana Burm.f. – oakleaf fig
- Ficus opposita Miq. – sweet sandpaper fig
- Ficus scabra G.Forst.
- Ficus tinctoria G.Forst. – dye fig
- Ficus ulmifolia Lam.
- Ficus virgata Blume
- Ficus wassa Roxb.
- Subgenus Sycomorus
- Ficus auriculata Lour. – Roxburgh fig
- Ficus benguetensis Merr.
- Ficus congesta Roxb.
- Ficus dammaropsis Diels – highland breadfruit, kapiak
- Ficus fistulosa Blume
- Ficus hispida L.
- Ficus mauritiana Lam.
- Ficus minahassae Teijsmann & de Vriese
- Ficus mollior Bentham
- Ficus nana Corner
- Ficus nota Merr. – tibig
- Ficus pseudopalma Blanco
- Ficus racemosa L. – cluster fig
- Ficus septica Burm.f. – hauli tree
- Ficus sycomorus L. – sycamore fig
- Ficus variegata Blume
- Subgenus Synoecia
- Ficus barbata Blume = Ficus villosa
- Ficus hederacea Roxb.
- Ficus laevis Blume
- Ficus pantoniana King – climbing fig
- Ficus pumila L. – creeping fig
- Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang (Makino) Corner
- Ficus sarmentosa[31] Sm.
- Subgenus Urostigma
- Ficus abutilifolia Miq.
- Ficus albert-smithii Standl.
- Ficus altissima Blume
- Ficus amazonica Miq.
- Ficus americana Aubl.
- Ficus aripuanensis Berg & Kooy
- Ficus aurea Nutt. - Florida strangler fig
- Ficus beddomei King – thavital
- Ficus benghalensis L. – Indian banyan
- Ficus benjamina L. – weeping fig
- Ficus binnendijkii Miq.
- Ficus bizanae Hutch. & Burtt-Davy
- Ficus blepharophylla Vázquez Avila
- Ficus broadwayi Urb.
- Ficus bubu Warb.
- Ficus burtt-davyi Hutch.
- Ficus calyptroceras Miq.
- Ficus castellviana Dugand
- Ficus catappifolia Kunth & Bouché
- Ficus caulocarpa Miq.
- Ficus citrifolia Mill. – short-leaved fig
- Ficus cordata Thunb.
- Ficus costaricana Miq.
- Ficus cotinifolia Kunth
- Ficus crassipes F.M.Bailey – round-leaved banana fig
- Ficus craterostoma Mildbr. & Burret
- Ficus cyathistipula Warb.
- Ficus dendrocida Kunth
- Ficus destruens F.White
- Ficus drupacea Thunb.
- Ficus elastica Hornem. - Indian rubber plant
- Ficus elasticoides De Wild.
- Ficus enormis Miq.
- Ficus faulkneriana Berg
- Ficus fischeri Mildbr. & Burret
- Ficus glaberrima Blume
- Ficus glumosa Delile
- Ficus gomelleira Kunth & Bouché
- Ficus greiffiana Dugand
- Ficus guianensis Desv.
- Ficus hirsuta Schott
- Ficus ilicina Miq.
- Ficus kerkhovenii Valeton[32] – Johore fig
- Ficus luschnathiana Miq.
- Ficus ingens Miq.
- Ficus krukovii Standl.
- Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham.
- Ficus lapathifolia Miq.
- Ficus lauretana Vázquez Avila
- Ficus lutea Vahl
- Ficus lyrata Warb. – fiddle-leaved fig
- Ficus maclellandii King – Alii fig
- Ficus macrophylla Desf. ex Pers. – Moreton Bay fig
- Ficus mariae Berg, Emygdio & Carauta
- Ficus mathewsii Miq.
- Ficus matiziana Dugand
- Ficus microcarpa L. – Chinese banyan
- Ficus muelleriana Berg
- Ficus natalensis Hochst. – mutuba (Ganda)
- Ficus obliqua G.Forst. – small-leaved fig
- Ficus obtusifolia Kunth
- Ficus pakkensis Standl.
- Ficus pallida Vahl
- Ficus panurensis Standl.
- Ficus pertusa L.f.
- Ficus petiolaris Kunth
- Ficus platypoda Cunn. – desert fig
- Ficus pleurocarpa DC. – banana fig
- Ficus polita Vahl
- Ficus prolixa G.Forst.
- Ficus religiosa L. – sacred fig
- Ficus roraimensis Berg
- Ficus rubiginosa Desf. – Port Jackson fig
- Ficus rumphii Blume
- Ficus salicifolia Vahl – willow-leaved fig
- Ficus sansibarica Warb.
- Ficus saussureana DC.
- Ficus schippii Standl.
- Ficus schultesii Dugand
- Ficus schumacheri Griseb.
- Ficus sphenophylla Standl.
- Ficus stuhlmannii Warb.
- Ficus subpisocarpa Gagnep.
- Ficus subpuberula Corner
- Ficus superba Miq.
- Ficus superba var. henneana (Miq.) Corner
- Ficus tettensis Hutch.
- Ficus thonningii Blume
- Ficus tremula Warb.
- Ficus trichopoda Baker
- Ficus trigona L.f.
- Ficus trigonata L.
- Ficus triradiata Corner – red-stipule fig
- Ficus umbellata Vahl
- Ficus ursina Standl.
- Ficus velutina Willd.
- Ficus verruculosa Warb.
- Ficus virens Aiton – white fig
- Ficus virens var. sublanceolata (Miq.) Corner – sour fig
- Ficus watkinsiana F.M.Bailey – Watkins's fig
- Unknown subgenus
- Ficus arpazusa[33] Carauta and Diaz
- Ficus bibracteata
- Ficus cristobalensis
- Ficus cyclophylla
- Ficus guaranitica[34]
- Ficus mexiae Standl.
- Ficus tsjahela Burm.f.
List of famous fig trees[edit]
- Ashvattha – the world tree of Hinduism, held to be a supernatural F. religiosa
- Bodhi tree – a F. religiosa
- Charybdis Fig Tree of the Odyssey, presumably a F. carica
- Curtain Fig Tree – a F. virens
- Ficus Ruminalis – a F. carica
- Plaksa – another supernatural fig in Hinduism; usually identified as F. religiosa but probably F. infectoria
- Santa Barbara's Moreton Bay Fig Tree – a F. macrophylla
- Sri Maha Bodhi – another F. religiosa, planted in 288 BCE, the oldest human-planted tree on record
- The Great Banyan – a F. benghalensis, a clonal colony and once the largest organism known
- Vidurashwatha – "Vidura's Sacred Fig tree", a village in India named after a famous F. religiosa that until recently stood there
- Wonderboom - the largest fig tree, in Pretoria, South Africa
See also[edit]
- Abraham Mauricio Salazar, famous papel amate artist
- Amphoe Pho Sai and Amphoe Suan Phueng, districts in Thailand named after Ficus species
- Banyan
- Edred John Henry Corner
- Fig Newton (Fig Roll)
- Fig-parrots
- Figs in the Bible
- Figtree, California
- Figtree, New South Wales
- Figtree, Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Figtree, Zimbabwe
- God hates figs
- Jesus cursing the fig tree
- List of fruits
- Mission fig
- Naturopathic medicine
- Nutrition
- Pharmacosycea, a Ficus subgenus
- Phytonutrients
- Pippalada – Atharva-Veda scholar whose name means "Sacred Fig eater"
- Strangler fig
- Zacchaeus
- ^ "Ficus L". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2009-03-11.
- ^ "Ficus" in the American Heritage Dictionary
- ^ "Ficus" in Merriam–Webster
- ^ Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607
- ^ "Ficus" in Collins Dictionary
- ^ Halevy, Abraham H. (1989). Handbook of Flowering Volume 6 of CRC Handbook of Flowering. CRC Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-8493-3916-5. Retrieved 2009-08-25
- ^ Quigley's Plant identification 10:100
- ^ a b c d e f g Rønsted et al. (2005)
- ^ Harrison (2005)
- ^ Van Noort, S.; Van Harten, A. (12-2006)
- ^ Berg, C.C.; Hijmann, M.E.E. (1989)
- ^ Kislev et al. (2006a, b), Lev-Yadun et al. (2006)
- ^ "Figs4fun.com" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-01-05.
- ^ Denisowski (2007)
- ^ "Armstrong, Wayne P. and Steven Disparti. 1998. A key to subgroups of dioecious* (gynodioecious) figs". Waynesword.palomar.edu. 1998-04-04. Retrieved 2012-01-05.
- ^ Friis, Ib; Balslev, Henrik; Selskab, Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes (2005). Plant diversity and complexity patterns: local, regional, and global dimensions:. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. p. 472. ISBN 978-87-7304-304-2. Retrieved 2009-08-21
- ^ Jstor.org
- ^ Berg & Corner (2005)
- ^ Machado et al. (2001)
- ^ a b c Molbo "et al." (2003)
- ^ Molbo et al. (2003)
- ^ Machado et al. (2005)
- ^ Judd, W. S. (2008) Plant Systematics: A phylogenetic approach. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
- ^ a b c d Weiblen, G. D. (2000). Phylogenetic relationships of functionally dioecious Ficus (Moraceae) based on ribosomal DNA sequences and morphology, 87(9), 1342–1357.
- ^ Corner, E. J. H. (1965). "Check-list of Ficus in Asia and Australasia with keys to identification". The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. (digitised, online, via biodiversitylibrary.org) 21 (1): 1–186. Retrieved 5 Feb 2014.
- ^ "Statistics from: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division". UN Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database.
- ^ a b Herre, E.; Machado, C. A.; Bermingham, E.; Nason, J. D.; Windsor, D. M.; McCafferty, S.; Van Houten, W. et al. (1996). "Molecular phylogenies of figs and their pollinator wasps". Journal of Biogeography 23 (4): 521–530. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00014.x.
- ^ a b c Jousselin, E.; Rasplus, J.-Y.; Kjellberg, F. (2003). "Convergence and coevolution in a mutualism: evidence from a molecular phylogeny of Ficus". Evolution; international journal of organic evolution 57 (6): 1255–69. doi:10.1554/02-445.
- ^ a b c d Rønsted, N, Weiblen, G. D., Clement, W. L., Zerega, N. J. C., & Savolainen, V. (2008). Reconstructing the phylogeny of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) to reveal the history of the fig pollination mutualism.
- ^ Wu ,et al., 2003, Flora of China
- ^ "Changitrees". Habitatnews.nus.edu.sg. 2002-09-12. Retrieved 2012-01-05.
- ^ Brazil. Described by Carauta & Diaz (2002): pp.38–39
- ^ Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina: Carauta & Diaz (2002): pp.64–66
- Berg, C.C., Hijmann, M.E.E. (1989). "Chapter 11: Ficus". In: Flora of Tropical East Africa. R.M. Polhill (ed.). pp. 43–86.
- Berg, C. C. & Corner, E. J. H. (2005): Moraceae. In: Flora Malesiana Ser. I, vol. 17, part 2.
- California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. (CRFG) (1996): Fig. Retrieved November 1, 2008.
- Carauta, Pedro; Diaz, Ernani (2002): Figueiras no Brasil. Editora UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro. ISBN 85-7108-250-2
- Condit, Ira J. (1969): Ficus: the exotic species. University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences. 363 pp.
- Denisowski, Paul (2007): Chinese–English Dictionary – Fig. Retrieved November 1, 2008.
- Harrison, Rhett D (2005). "Figs and the diversity of tropical rain forests". BioScience 55 (12): 1053–1064. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[1053:FATDOT]2.0.CO;2.
- Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2006a). "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley". Science 312 (5778): 1372. doi:10.1126/science.1125910. Supporting Online Material
- Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2006b). "Response to Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley"". Science 314 (5806): 1683b. doi:10.1126/science.1133748.
- Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Ne'eman, Gidi; Abbo, Shahal; Flaishman, Moshe A (2006). "Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley"". Science 314 (5806): 1683a. doi:10.1126/science.1132636.
- Lewington, Anna & Parker, Edward (1999): Ancient trees: Trees that live for 1000 years: 192. London, Collins & Brown Limited.
- Rønsted, Nina; Weiblen, George D.; Cook, James M.; Salamin, Nicholas; Machado, Carlos A.; Savoainen, Vincent (2005). "60 million years of co-divergence in the fig-wasp symbiosis". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272 (1581): 2593–2599. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3249.
- Shanahan, M.; Compton, S. G.; So, Samson; Corlett, Richard (2001). "Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review". Biological Reviews 76 (4): 529–572. doi:10.1017/S1464793101005760. Electronic appendices
- Van Noort, Simon; Van Harten, Antonius (2006-12-18). "The species richness of fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Agaonidae, Pteromalidae) in Yemen". Fauna of Arabia (22): 449–472. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ficus.
- Figweb Major reference site for the genus Ficus
- Video: Interaction of figs and fig wasps Multi-award-winning documentary
- Fruits of Warm Climates: Fig
- California Rare Fruit Growers: Fig Fruit Facts
- North American Fruit Explorers: Fig
- BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming
- La Photothèque PH.S., p. 45-47 : Numbers of Ficus pictures
- Wayne's Word: Sex Determination & Life Cycle in Ficus carica
- Figs 4 Fun: The Weird Sex Life of the Fig
- Figs nutritional information
- Video
Thimmamma Marrimanu
Thimmamma Marrimanu is the name of a Banyan tree – marri means banyan and manu means tree in Telugu – in Anantapuramu district, located about 25 km from town Kadiri in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India.[1][2] It has branches spreads over 5 acres[3][4], with a canopy of 19,107 square metres and recorded as the biggest tree in the Guinness Book of World Records in 1989.[5][6][7] A small temple dedicated to Thimmamma lies under the tree. An account of this lady in Telugu kept at the shrine reveals that she was the daughter of a Setti Balija couple Sennakka Venkatappa and Mangamma, born in AD 1394.[citation needed] She was married to a Bala Veerayya who died in 1434, and Thimmamma committed Sati. The banyan tree is believed to have sprouted at the place where she ascended the funeral pyre.[8] The people of this area strongly believe that if a childless couple worship 'Thimmamma' they will have a child the very next year. A big jatara is conducted here on the day of Shivaratri festival when thousands of people flock here to worship 'Thimmamma' on this occasion.[9]
The tree was named after a righteous lady Thimmamma, who served her ailing husband devotedly. It was named 'Thimmamma' in memory of that lady.[10] She later sacrificed herself on her husband's pyre. It is believed that the pole in north-east direction of pyre grew into this tree.
This big tree was first noticed and was explored to the world by Sri Regret Iyer (Sathyanarayana Iyer), freelance journalist & photographer from Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Later he made all efforts to see this large tree canopy enter the Guinness Book of World Records. His name has been included in the Book of World Records in this regard.
See also[edit]
- ^ C. Sudhakar; R. Suguna Kumari (2008). Women and forestry. The Associated Publishers. ISBN 978-81-8429-081-3. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
- ^ Lavanya Vemsani (31 October 2006). Hindu and Jain mythology of Balarāma: change and continuity in an early Indian cult. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-5723-2. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
- ^ http://www.backpacker-backgammon.com/news_banyan_trees.html
- ^ http://www.anantapur.com/travel/thimmamma.html
- ^ Peter Matthews; Michelle Dunkley McCarthy; Mark (CON) Young (October 1993). The Guinness Book of Records 1994. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-2645-6. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
- ^ India today. Living Media India Pvt. Ltd. 1992. p. 53. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
- ^ SAYEED, VIKHAR AHMED. "Arboreal wonder". Frontline (magazine). Retrieved 5 June 2012.
- ^ "Thimmamma Marri Maanu".
- ^ Various. Tourist Guide to Andhra Pradesh. Sura Books. pp. 44–. ISBN 978-81-7478-176-5. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
- ^ Various (2005). Tourist Guide to South India. Sura Books. pp. 295–. ISBN 978-81-7478-175-8. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
Balete tree
Balete tree (also known as Balite or Baliti) are several species of the trees in the Philippines from the genus Ficus that are broadly referred to as balete in the local language. A number of these are known as strangler figs wherein they start upon other trees, later entrapping them entirely and finally killing the host tree. Also called hemiepiphytes, initially, they start as epiphytes or air plants and grow several hanging roots that eventually touch the ground and from then on, encircling and suffocating the host tree. Some of the baletes produce an inferior quality of rubber. The India rubber plant, F. elastica were earlier cultivated to some extent for rubber. Some of the species like tangisang-bayawak or Ficus variegata are large and could probably be utilized for match woods. The woods of species of Ficus are soft, light, and of inferior quality, and the trees usually have ill-formed, short boles.[1]
- F. arayatensis Warb.[2]
- F. balete Merr.[2]
- F. benjamina Linn.[3][4]
- F. benjamina Linn. var. nuda Miq.[5][6]
- F. clusioides Miq.[3]
- F. concinna Miq.[7][8]
- F. elastica Roxb.[1][9]
- F. forstenii Miq.[2][10]
- F. indica Linn.[3][11]
- F. parvifolia Miq.[3]
- F. payapa Blanco[12]
- F. philipinenses Miq.[13]
- F. retusa Linn.[14][15]
- F. stipulosa Miq. Linn.[16]
- F. variegata Blume[1]
Traditional medicine[edit]
In folkloric medicine, the bark of some of the species like F. benjamina, its roots, and leaves boiled in oil can be applied on wounds and bruises. The juice of the bark has a reputation for curing liver diseases. In rheumatic headache the pounded leaves and bark are applied as a poultice.[4]
Ornamental use[edit]
Baletes are planted as graceful trees along avenues in Manila and other large cities in the Philippines, and they are also excellent as shade trees.[4] Several species of the tree are also use for bonsai making in the country.[17][18]
Baletes are used as houseplants;[19] however, it is a source of indoor household allergens which may cause respiratory allergy.[9]
Local folklore[edit]
In some areas of the country, some people believe that balete trees are dwelling places for supernatural beings like kapre or tikbalang. In some places, sorcery rituals are known performed inside the chambers formed by the tree.[20] Also among others, some superstitious folks suggest not bringing in balete as decorative plants inside a house as they allegedly invite ghosts.[9]
Balete Drive in New Manila, Quezon City, named after a gargantuan balete tree that used to stand in the middle of the street, is allegedly one of the most haunted places in the city. The tale of a white lady appears at night hailing cars that drive by have been circulated since the 1950s.[21]
Extreme examples[edit]
- The balete tree inside the OISCA Farm in Lumapao, Canlaon City, Negros Oriental, Philippines is estimated by botanists from Silliman University to be around 1,328 years old. It would take at least 42 men to encircle its trunk. At the heart of this wide tree trunk is a cavity where lizards, bats and many insects have made it their home. With fireflies lighting it at night like a year-round Christmas tree, it is one of the city's main tourist attraction.[23]
- A balete tree locally called "Millenium Tree" in Barangay Quirino, Maria Aurora, Aurora province in the Philippines is claimed to be the largest of its kind in Asia. It is estimated to be about 600+ years old and 60 metres (200 ft) tall with its roots about 10 metres (33 ft) to 15 metres (49 ft) in diameter. It is possible for adult people to squeeze into the center of its root network.[24]
- A 400-year old balete tree in Barangay Campalanas in the town of Lazi, in Siquijor province is believed to be the oldest and the biggest in the province. What is also unusual about this tree is the spring that emanates from the base of the tree and flows straight into a man-made pool.[25]
- ^ a b c Whitford, H.N., Bureau of Forestry. "The Forests of the Philippines, Part 2", p.30. Manila Bureau of Printing, 1911.
- ^ a b c Merritt, Melvin L., Bureau of Forestry. "The Forests of Mindoro", p.42. Manila Bureau of Printing, 1908.
- ^ a b c d Bureau of Insular Affairs. "Compilation of laws and regulations relating to public lands in the Philippine Islands". p.181. Washington Government Printing Office, 1908.
- ^ a b c "Ficus benjamina Linn.". Philippine Bureau of Plant Industry. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ (2011-02-08). "Balete (Ficus benjamina var. nuda)". The Indi Journal. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Ficus benjamina (Linn.) var. nuda (Miq.)". University of Hawaii at Manoa. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ Bonsai King (2009-12-14). "Balete-Ficus concina". Bonsai Kingdom. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Ficus concinna (Miquel)". Flora of China. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ a b c Stuart, Godofredo. "Balete". Philippine Medicinal Plants. Retrieve on 2011-04-25.
- ^ Botany Department (2003-02). "Ficus forstenii". University of Hawaii at Manoa. Retrieved on 2011-04-24.
- ^ "Baleting-baging". Philippine Bureau of Plant Industry. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Ficus Payapa". Philippine Bureau of Plant Industry.Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ Bonsai King (2010-02-19). "Balete-Ficus philipinenses. Bonsai Kingdom. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Marabutan". Philippine Medicinal Plants. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Marabutan". Bureau of Plant Industry. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Balete – Scientific name: Ficus stipulosa Miq. Linn.". Filipino Herbs Healing Wonders. Retrieved on 2011-04-25.
- ^ Bonsai King (2010-02-04). "Bonsai Database". Bonsai Kingdom. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Bonsai in the Philippines". Bonsai in Asia Guidebook. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ Ficus Plants—How to Grow Healthy Ficus Trees
- ^ Brillantes, RC (2009-02-05). "The Mysterious Balete Tree". the green cloud. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Myths Surrounding Balete Drive". Philippine Insider. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
- ^ "Sightseeing - Nature Areas and Beaches". Discover Aurora. Retrieved on 2011-12-29.
- ^ Austria, Kelly (2010-12-07). "The Big Tree of Canlaon City". Follow My Trail. Retrieved on 2011-04-25.
- ^ Gorospe, Marjorie (2011-04-18). "Centuries-old balete tree attracts tourists in Aurora town". Yahoo News Philippines. Retrieved on 2011-04-25.
- ^ Administrator. "The Old Enchanted Tree in Siquijor". Siquijor Tour. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
Common Names
Surinam Akuriyo: ru-e-muh. Surinam Tirio: ru-e, sha-de-gah-nah. Surinam Wayana: nah-te-ah-ra-kan, ah-de-wah-nah.
Another undetermined species of Ficus, known to the Surinam Tirio as "la-pa la-pa", provides bark made into a cold water infusion which is drunk for a very powerful vermifuge. In Guyana, an undetermined species of Ficus known as "kumakaballi fig" provides latex used to make plasters for sprains.
EOL content is automatically assembled from many different content providers. As a result, from time to time you may find pages on EOL that are confusing.
To request an improvement, please leave a comment on the page. Thank you!


text:
Written by: Alek Hidell
Every time I turn on the news, all I hear about is ISIS. I like to think I keep up with things and I'm still kind of bewildered by ISIS. So let me get this straight…Obama keeps with the deadline set by the Bush administration and withdraws troops from Iraq. The American people were sick of war and wanted out. Of course the opposition pitched their usual fit, but the deadline arrived and the troops came home. All of a sudden there is a new terrorist threat, ISIS, who goes around cutting people's heads off and now 70% of the American public support going back to war. This seems a little too convenient to me. This reeks of the intelligence community's touch. I find it amazing that people are so willing to jump back into military conflict after suffering war fatigue for the last decade. The war has achieved nothing tangible for the American people and has only thrown the country into further economic turmoil. Once upon a time war meant a booming economy. Not anymore. The military industrial complex grinds on at the expense of the soldiers who give their lives for an ideal which doesn't appear to be shared by their superiors.
ISIS has been around for a while, but over the years has changed it's name several times. It has been known as the JTJ, the AQI, The Islamic State Iraq, Al-Qaeda in Iraq and ultimately the Islamic State which we in America like to call ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria). So what exactly is ISIS? ISIS is the next wave of boogie men that we as American's are told we must degrade and destroy, or whatever Obama said about them, because if we don't they will surely be responsible for the next 911. Whether or not that is true I don't know. What I do know is that I am absolutely sick to death of fighting wars against ideology. That is ultimately what this war is about. Obama can drop as many bombs on ISIS as he wants but nothing he does will end the IDEA of ISIS. Whether or not you agree with or believe in what ISIS believes in, you cannot dismiss the fact that ISIS and Islamic extremism is an idea. An idea is what gives Anonymous it's strength. Idea's cannot be broken or thrown away into the trash. You know the deal. As long as the idea of ISIS exists, no number of bombs you drop on them will win the war. The air strikes and soon-to-be boots on the ground are nothing more than a stop gap. You can spend years going over the politics of war in the middle east, Islamic fundamentalist extremists and why they seem to want to blow up the world. Ultimately, if I was born into a war torn desert where my people were starving, where disease and despair were prevalent, and where outsiders were sucking up the only natural resource my country had while I squandered my life away in poverty, I'd want to blow shit up too.
Now while the idea of ISIS will not be destroyed by bombs or anything else for that matter, the greatest way to battle an idea is with a better idea. This brings me to OPISIS. Our Anon brothers and sisters around the world have launched a cyber-war against ISIS. Back in June, ISIS hacked an Anonymous Twitter account. I'm sorry but that's like poking the sleeping bear. Anonymous set out to launch it's own war against the new terrorist group airing a video which made it very clear that any country who assists ISIS will suffer the consequences. Anonymous has already committed cyber attacks against Turkish government websites and has put a scare into countries like Syria and Qatar who have recently invested heavily in upgrading their cyber security. What effect will cyber attacks have against ISIS? It is hard to say. One factor which is of concern is, what kind of retaliation will there be from ISIS? ISIS has suspected connections to the Syrian Electronic Army (SEA). If the SEA retaliate against western cyber targets, the outcome could be disastrous. Follow the Anonymous battle against ISIS at #OPISIS.
When I first heard about ISIS, my first thought was that this was some kind of CIA operation on behalf of the military industrial complex designed to get us back into Iraq. I haven't changed my mind. When one traces world events throughout the last 60 years or so, the CIA and the American intelligence community has played a major role in shaping world events. From the attempted coup in Haiti, to the Bay of Pigs, to the Gulf of Tonkin, the CIA have proved their willingness and ability to manipulate world events to further their own agenda, even if that agenda is in direct opposition to the will of the American people. You constantly hear people talking about "the government" and blaming them for all their woes. The one thing that I have come to realize is that there truly are two American governments. There are your elected officials who appear to play the game by the rules, have to get elected, follow procedure, etc. Then there is the American intelligence community. These are the guys who really call the shots. The CIA have a long history of manipulation, especially in the middle east. We created Al-Qaeda and I have no doubt that the CIA helped create what we know today as ISIS. The military industrial complex knew that once we went into Iraq, we would never leave. I applauded Obama for pulling soldiers out of Iraq, but he should have known the powers that be, would never let it go at that. Even Obama answers to the powers that be.
There is no doubt that ISIS poses a great threat to the world. They have no respect for any idea that doesn't fit with theirs. They do not embody the freedom and equality that we hold so dear. If ever there was an idea that needed to be wiped out, it is ISIS. I do not know where this war is going, what our objective is and if it will ever truly end. I do know that while the bombs are dropping, ISIS is still gathering strength and at this moment is within miles of Turkey and their movement is taking them toward Baghdad. I sit here frustrated as I know that the problems we are currently facing were created by my own government. I wish I could close with some powerful words of encouragement but I can't. All I can do is watch and wait and hope that the people in charge make the right decisions as this unending war wages on.
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Anonymous, Edward Snowden & Julian Assange recommends: Protect your PC & mobile devices from hackers and governments + surf and download anonymously
Here is one of them… [*]
[* Moderated: Link removed "Irrelevant link"]
That's not an ISIS flag, that's just the flag of Sharia but they're using it. Doesn't mean that you post it means you're pro-ISIS.
What is a plan to deal with the isis organization?
join the military and go kill
No plan as of yet, America won't step in.
"I know that the problems we are currently facing were created by MY OWN government." With this statement you made it clear that you are American. I would recommend you change that as you are supposed to be anonymous. Regarding the article I would say "Best of Luck." 😀
Dude his names at the top of the article
He has signed it as Alek Hidell so he is probably writing with the voice a pseudonym. Alek Hidell was American so that could explain the my government line.
You have a valid point. Even so it not hard to tell what country some one is from on the internet. And furthermore, Anonymous isn't just one person, it's an organisation consisting of many people from ->around the world<- (thats the important bit).
And u are from the UK (the use of the word "bit" instead of "part" is a dead give away XD
You have a valid point. Even so it not hard to tell what country some one is from on the internet. And furthermore, Anonymous isn't just one person, it's an organisation consisting of many people from ->around the world<- (thats the important bit).
I'm very certain that anonymous will do the right thing to help and destroy the U.S. government through trying to help society and keeping the U.S. on track
isis is a distraction a threat yes but also a distraction but i cant say everything its NOT safe it will be years until you hear from me again IF WE ARE STILL HERE but dont poke at the bee hive if you dont have bee repelent and in this case count the bees first your good but dont get cocky like all the other groups did be a friend to the public not a cyber freak
Best thing I have read today.
It was time someone spit this straight forward ans bluntly! Thank you!
Well written and I could not agree more. The one thing you did not touch on that seems to be a big part of their agenda (from the propaganda ISIS posts) is nothing short of genocide. Though we cannot Kill an idea. I like the idea of treating it like a fire, remove the fuel the fire will go out.
I agree with you a 100% who is arming them … america … starve the fire and it will die …
very ideal what you said but countries like America,survived by selling guns,even to their enemies…money talks and no one cares who suffer or who will suffer..that's the common sense of these people
It is the only point every one know about but nobody say or don't want to say
Is there an OP going on or planned to hack armament factories?
I love the messages you send, now let's see actions! I'd love to join! An even better, if I wasn't a felon, I'd be on the front line! They just don't trust me with a gun! Shit look at those nut balls they trained overseas! Hell, they are worse than felons! Anyway! Get at me! Rob fightingthegoodfight Patterson.
Rob, don't worry about "them" trusting you with a gun. The US Constitution does not permit them to take your guns away. It says "the right to bare arms shall not be infringed" No where does it says "except in the case of felons" Martha Stewart is a felon. She is a rich woman living by herself. What is she supposed to defend herself with- a pot of hot water or a butter knife. This law about felons not being allowed to possess guns is blatantly unconstitutional under the 4th, 9th and 10th amendments and your God given rights to defend yourself. It is being challenged at this very time.
Don't forget about the Dick Law. As G. Gordon Liddy used to say, " I don't own any guns, but my wife has a hell of a gun collection"!
That's a big 10-4, good buddy. It's always been how we roll down here in Tejas. Plus, women are a much better shot.
SUPPORT THOSE M8s they fucking deserve to do shit like that, I support them from the fucking beginning they were opened, no shit sherlock
Wow THIS gives me a new look at all the things in this awesome post. I wish I could do something against ISIS or even stop them but as you said it's not that easy :/
Do these sandmonkey's even have computers? :/ how does anon plan on removing the IDEA behind ISIS?
Easy one: Logic. Reverse engineer their ideas. Then, turn them against themselves. Afterwards they will realize they were betrayed, that their dead pals are not in paradise, an then they turn against their powerhungry masters and false prophets who led them into blasphemy (raping, killing, drugs, any sin Allah can imagine…).
Ha, It appears like the psy ops have reverse engineered this themselves to turn us all against each other.
There's no need for killing. We have all become false prophets looking into the infinite looing glass. History has taught us naught.
I find it fascinating that most operatives, er… terrorists, come from Saudi Arabia and not from Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, etc. Doesn't the U.S. have a cozy little alliance with S.A.? It's as if long ago the leaders of the U.S. got together with the leaders of S.A. and made a little agreement. I must have went down like this. We'll infiltrate your culture that way you can raise fundamental extremists through propaganda and religious dogma. Meanwhile, we'll overthrow democratically elected governments in your region and install our own dictators, eventually declare war on them and destabilize the area. Your fundamentalists will kill thousands by eliminating targets that will be mutually beneficial to both of us; creating a reason for perpetual war. We will spread hate and propaganda and chase these "terrorists" all over the middle east. Think of it! Hundreds of thousands will actually want to go out and kill each other while we sit back and watch. Oh, and Israel is in on it too.
What you say my man is true. But! I live in Saudi Arabia at the moment and I can tell you the goverment doesn't openly support them. They can't because they're people aren't like you might think. Most of the people here are against ISIS because they are commiting sins. So the Saudi goverment has another Agenda for their own people. They do the exact different thing than islamic propaganda. They make people more unrelegious and are extremely pro-U.S. that way it is easier to find the ones who are extreme and do not understand the basics of the religion. These are the ones who will be trained and then send out to start organizations with a lot of money.
The question is WHY WOULD SAUDI ARABIA DO THAT? I can tell you living here for 7 years the goverment isn't a religious one. So what's in for them when they help the U.S. and Israel? Money and power. Easy as that. Saudi arabia is one of the most stable countires in the middle east. They have their big friend USA to support them and buy all their oil. The royal family has more than enough money thanks to these agreements. So I have come to the conslusion: Saudi Arabia is nothing but a "puppet state" for the CIA.
Or could we be the "puppet state" of Saudi Arabia? This perpetual threat crap needs to become a waste of our time. Only a super-power will create the next attack, as they did on that September morning. Since then, most of our rights have been extinguished. Just take care of your family and friends. Keep the government at bay.
It's true. You should watch Harodim, a film by Paul Finelli about Osama and 9/11. No lies in the whole film, just a different perspective.
I agree the thought of ISIS being an idea; a subject most of the public will not understand. However, it is also ignorant for most to think the Government couldn't possibly be behind this. Another 9/11 is bound to happen because the Govenment were the colprates in the first place.
I do agree with your definition and importance of an idea. However, I completely disagree ideas "live forever' or imply never giving up. At one time the basic idea that the world was flat caused trade stagnation, Catholic persecutions, and much noise beyond the laughter. The idea eventually died because it was not a new nor void any longer "idea". This happens continually. Anonymous I follow and joined this site because of your stance and principles on ideas; however, there have been very few I have not supported, but the point is I did not support them which implies I had an opposing view. Acceptable of course or has been within our Republic though those days I firmly believe are in the lay-out room for draining and a new suit for the casket. ISIS is the type of "idea" not original that has been alive since the Jews came out of Egypt, received the Judaic Laws and were immediately flung into centuries of war due an opposing idea. The world entered the fight with the rise of Mohammed and the Koran/Quran. Americans are lazy for they refuse to read, research and make a decision that has not already been made and lectured to them on what so many feared would become the "idiot tube". Now that idea grew and grew into the www. I applaud the work you and all of Anonymous is pledging too; and shall watch closely; for truly you may be the only organization on the planet making "intelligent" war on a clearly defined and very well financed and more to the point, more organized and determined since a man named Hitler lite a match and took over the largest culture of Europe, with just his words! So go to your fight. It is for the same basic reasons our people have been dying there for over 19 years now and it must stop. It is a 'war' un-winnable by a divided, uninformed thus ignorant populace who continue the spoon-feeding of "how does that make you FEEL" rather than What do you KNOW and THINK. Anonymous to me are The Minute Men of this the last days of Republic America. 3 basics things (ideas) must die: entitlement, no responsibility/accountability/and unsustainable debt (deficits really don't matter. May I also suggest 2 more "ideas" the American crave for the most part but have no clue as to the depth of the evil: The Patriot Act and the Amendment of 2012, and the Affordable Care Act, politically known as Obamacare. As to the Patriot Act and the Amendment they join hips in relieving further freedoms from Americans by simply the words, the 'promises' of safety and security (feel the fear building with Ebola?) The AMC Act gives forth the idea that life really should end at 75 ; that is long enough to live or so is the philosophy of the Chief author of Obamacare–but alas poor Nancy never read that even after she passed the bill—and she is over 75–ah but wait, congress exempted themselves did they not. The Federal Government under both Laws and Regulations can call for Marshal Law for any reason he wanted that HE, and he alone, deems a threat to the Homeland. At that moment, habeas corpus is suspended (ended for all purposes), which removes immediately "innocent until proven…", it gives the government to take over all security type military, para-military, State and local security (Armed Forces, National Guards, State Troopers and Cops); they then are empowered to enter your home, business, or bank account completely without your knowledge, consent and no probable cause. They can and will take all food stuffs, clothing, medicine and if weapons, take you to jail without a court hearing (courts suspended remember), no lawyer (a good thing mostly), no phone call to tell family good-bye bec you are off to a prison or a FEMA camp for as long as 14 years or the end of Marshal Law (and in my 68 years I have not seen a Fed program die or diminish–we still have paid TEA Tasters left over from Colony days to ensure tea import qualities. The Patriot Act does exactly the same thing plus the stoppage of all elections. you might consider a hack as to what the Feds could/would do if the Democrats lost both Houses of Congress this Fall and next year ISIS wins more cities and Ebola deaths pass Africa. Should an interesting hack for you. Might help Tim get out of Russia and finally recognized as the hero he was.
That is a great reply to the article !! Ty
By far the greatest response to the article. I found your response better than the article itself- brilliant. Thank you for the good read!
i have 2 wekk i target member isis.. and video to.. i have ipp and mapp location.. so now isis will die
De acuerdo
second target .. the most wanted
https://www.facebook.com/abu.turaab.12 and the list continue
I just want to say i partly do not believe that ISIS are after us … there after out government who have destroyed there country for pay rises and the pure greed of warfare and control. Us as citizens are feeling the full force of what our government do. I for one will stand will peace and only take action when a threat is encountered that effects citizens lives. I suggest ISIS members understand that lives lost is not because of OUR blood-lust but our governments. Attack the cause not us – just robots to the society and corruption in this world.
Your political awareness about the Middle East and Islamic State is flawed. Turkey, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and private donors created the IS monster, not the CIA. If you think you can do something about this, why don't you go ahead and do it? Why do you brag about yourselves and warn your adversaries before you do anything?
To give them a chance to stop. Sometimes its good to have hope that people will change although in this case there is no way that anyone will conquer the middle east in physical or cyber reality. Everything replaces itself
9/11 was an American made attack conveniently a billion dollar insurance policy was taken out on the buildings a moth prior as well as giving bush to go to war with iraq ? Wasn't it Afghanistan were these apparent terrorist came from. Like what the fuck. People need to open there eyes. Look what the cops are doing all over the continent. We're screwed !!!!! Just sayin.
Uh… we were in Afghanistan before Iraq after the events of 9/11. But good job trying to be a smarty-pants.
What is a concerned citizen to do? I support a non-violent offense against ISIS because, like you said, you can't fight an idea with bombs and bullets. So how do we proceed as normal citizens? I'm not a hacker; I don't know what I can do to help fight this idea. I don't have a lot of money to throw at a cause, other than the occasional $1-5 I can afford to donate every few months. How do I help the cause?
This article makes me gleeful. I couldn't have written it better myself, nor would I want to. Accusing the intelligence community of their "world shaping" is something very real, but I personally don't have any kind of defense against such actions; Most of us don't.
It's exciting to see Anonymous choosing such an OP, be it just being sick and tired of how the people of the world are manipulated, or because a member's twitter account was hacked into. I have a family member who served in the military, fighting the so called "war on terrorism" in Afghanistan, and to say this person came back damaged in many ways, body soul, mind, would be a gross understatement. It saddens me that videos of be-headings is all it took for the American public to be up in arms again, despite a decade of protests about a war. Do what you can, and help us and other soldiers all over the world from having to place boots on the ground to be blown up chasing down yet another "terrorist threat".
The syrian government and the SEA have no damn bussines with ISIS what the fuck is wrong with you people!? You should attack America forfunding Isis in the first place ! Assad had been fighting these scum for over 3 years!
After reading this article i van only say 1 thing, Anonymous is just another group made by the US government to attack Syria and the SEA.
I agree with your comment. The SEA fights in these days in Raqqa and in Hasakah against IS. And why nobody talks about Israel and the zionist support for IS, Nusra and other mercenaries?
Just sit back and wait? Id rather not, we shouldn't destroy their ideas, we should try to guide them into an idea that isnt so deadly when someone sees things another way
David icke has quite a solid idea on this new isis war on terror. You should look him up.
Cool starry bra
Please don't belittle anyone's opinion, especially if you can't spell correctly. It just makes you look bad and me for correcting you. "cool story bro"
Yeah I'm sure all your cry baby cyberphagging is gonna stop the bombs and terrorists. You've had 3 years to make stuff better and all you've done is created more headaches, laws, and problems. YOU ARE THE PROBLEM, not your governments.
Well the ISIS is nothing but the creation of America. Keep hacking and you will find nothing except breaking your own head :p :p
I wouldn't get so excited about the fact that IS has beheaded a few people, Saudi Arabia beheads scores of people every year but remains a close ally of the US. IS emerged out of the vacuum created by instability in the Middle East that has been created by the US and its NATO allies, who are seeking to exploit the crisis for their own ends. Turkey, for example, is pleased that IS is attacking the Kurds while further destabilizing the regime in Syria. Ultimately IS would not exist if it were not for the US invasion and occupation of Iraq.
There's a pretty VICE documentary about the Islamic State. It just may change your attitude toward certain things.
kero ser uno de los suyos
I learned from a friend that is in the military that this was has actually been going on for the last 30 years. and it's the only thing keeping us out of hot water with our debt. If the war were to end, any country that we are in debt to will call on it and our economy and all of the US would be in ruin.
You are one of the biggest idiot like do u even have a brain mate? I stand for this but when u say Isis is only blowing shit up and that cause they r angry so that's their reason is bullshit they r commuting genocide on their own people see if we just ignored it then people like you would start saying the government are animals cause they ain't helping to stop this mass murder fuck the round up their own people Muslims and March them off blindfolded to a gully and put a round in the back of their heads it gets that massive at a time that people getting murdered end up falling onto people who were just executed right before them the barrel is still got the smell of burnt blood and hair and gun powder is lingering round the pit from the gun barrel imagine standing blindfolded while a bunch of people u don't know stand around u shouting and shooting and then it hits u that u r about to die not knowing where u are or if your family is safe and then u feel a pain in your head and a loud bang a split second before everything goes black
This is by far one of the best things I have ever read online. ISIS is indeed an idea. And as far as I am concerned, Bill Hicks was correct. "The next revolution will be a revolution of ideas." However, there are good ideas, and there are bad ideas. Although we should all have the freedom to carry out our ideas, we should also have the freedom to prevent bad ideas from progressing. It is about time somebody made a step towards actually stopping this bad idea, and it is about time somebody stood up to the '2 types of governments' in order to make a change. Thank you.
We stand with you against dominion [* "Offisir God Presents: Storm Troopers" ]
[* Moderated: links without content will be removed within 24 hours]
this is bullshit. no confirm from anon yet. need confirmation first.
How would one become aware of this confirmation?
I compliment you on a well written article with facts not fiction. I would like to add to your list two so called wars that the US took part in that once they left the faction they were fighting took over when we we left. Korea did not fully over run but they are still in a state of war. Viet Nam. When the last soldier was off the ground the south welcomed the north and now it is a united country, not a divided one.
That said, if you look at these two they fall right into your article. The fact is that is that if you look at these two they are about the same.
We are always giving weapons to help a cause fight against some foe and then we end up having those same weapons used on us. As a true hippie of the 60's I would have to say "The War Is Over, If You Want It!"
Please keep these articles out there. The ones that protested this stuff are now turning a blind eye to it.
Thank You
What you meant to say was "What I do know is that I am absolutely sick to death of watching/having OTHER PEOPLE fighting wars against ideology." Because let's face it, you haven't been on the front lines, but you are an expert on the conditions on the ground right? Give me a break, don't spew about things you have no clue on
I agree with you yet I would love to see something, perhaps a video, targeted towards ISIS showing how every war for the past 60 years has been perpetuated by this other American government. This would be some kind of a wake up call to ISIS to help them realize they are just playing the fool in this game. Who is funding them and why? There is no greater call in life than to die for ones deity but what if their deity is just some white collard American? It would make me think if I were in their shoes.
How come the ISIS are using American social networks, such as youtube and twitter, and we are unable to track their HQ? I would assume that countries such as USA and Israel would hace traced them by now. Am I missing something?
Better spread Ebola disease to the ISIS.. :)))
Ebola doesn't think or tell the difference between ISIS or NON ISIS, be careful what you wish for.
i was waiting untill anonymous would fight ISIS.
if the SEA took on the AnonHQ team the result wd be 1-0 to the SEA.Those mfs know their shit,and have a moar lateral thinking to problem solving,
My main bugbear in this article is the insistence on calling it ISIS or ISIL.
It's IS:-ISLAMIC STATE.end of.
ISIS=Islamics State of Iraq and Al-Shaam
ISIL=ISLAMIC State of Iraq and the Levant
These last 2 acronyms are no longer in use amongst the military or security services,it seems only the MSM still call them ISIS/ISIL…
@AnonB the reason for this is that the CIA have a large hand in the shady word of tech and terrorist groups,that's one way they wdnt get found…
Also it annoys me that the MSM still refer to the IS as ISIS(ISLAMIC State of Iraq ana al-Shaam),& ISIL (IslamicSgate of Iraq and the Levant).
The correct moniker is IS:-Islamic State.
Help get peaceful people in power. Speak of peace, live peace and do peace.
dont be silly , our gruop live in real world not in internet, go ahead attack us, we have cyber team ,we not afraid
Perkeleen hieno juttu.
So you can't stop people acting upon some idea by killing the
people who believe in that idea, but you can do it by hacking their websites?
باقية و تتمدد
RESPECT, finally someone who will show some action instead of just some words against ISIS, im a proud iraqi muslim and what ISIS is fighting for is definitly not for the islam, because the holy koran don't say go kill the unbelievers or other relegion but it says be peaceful and have respect for them and there god. I hope to see some action against them from the anonymous people!!
The problem is that ISIS is and was created by the CIA…All this muslim trash shit was all created as a major CIA program. You have all been punked!
Why dont we just take out SEA?
Thank you!
Cut the head of the snake and kick Islamic out of our country and any other culture that would like to take innocent lives.
What about the folks behind the scenes THE Khazarians ………..?
Whats the plan guys?
So what is this "better idea"? You really think you can destroy radical Islam with an internet campaign?
According to John McCain, Bush had no timeline for withdrawal of troops … he said the wars could go on for 100 years or even longer as far as he was concerned.
im going to make a report about isis and submit it here
I wonder it: Why anonymous against turkey? What have done turkey? I think Turkey on the right way and anybody prevent us!
Hi, people must know the difference between ISIS and real Islam. ISIS have no religion, they say the are Muslims, but they do nothing related to Islam, they do the opposite.
totally right!
Wow! Interesting article and comments. No plan yet? The Bible says that wars will continue to the end. So that's a given. Islam religion can be traced through Hinduism and all the way back to Ishtar and Set which are Satanic. That would be a force opposing the God of Abraham. I've seen the "end" in a vision. I would tell you to stop trying to "figure it out" because you won't. Every tub sits on it's own bottom. Get yourself in the Ark and in your right position. God has control of those people. He has control of their hearts. Until their hearts change, their minds won't. Commit yourself to prayer but only if you know God or it's wasted effort. Of course we don't like it. Everyone wants freedom and to not be oppressed and love but SO what. You say you want and need these things. They are right there – here and now – available to you IN Christ. No worries – really – no worries if you are where you should be. Stop worring about making the storm get quiet and start resting in the provision you have to sail right on through it. Get your eyes off of ISIS and Ebola and get them fixed on the only one who does know ALL the answers – Jesus (God).
It is quite interesting, the extents that Humans are willing to go to meet their desires.
This is one of the best texts I've ever read!
isis is not a part of islam nor they're muslim. they must be destroyed
Hi, author. Kindly please proofread your (next) article before actually posting it. Re: It's /its ; American's /Americans ; etc
I totally agree with the author as to how isis is a major threat to the world today. These isis terrorists/ ideologists recruit innocent men to fight for them against their very own montherland, like what is happening in France. The major mode isis uses is the internet media to achieve its most senseless ideas.
I would only request Anon members to join hands in putting an end to isis's access to the world via internet.
Good luck !!
Please help Sydney, Anonymous!
The Thing is ISIS have converts now , people turning against there own countries , i'm british and to watch a video of someone proclaiming they will not stop until everyone has suffered. Well that just enrages me to a extent i can not explain.
Anonymous ISIS terrorists to cyber warfare are made
thumbs anonymous
Internet vs Real life . Ok xD
Dear Anonymouse.
Your sitting front of the Computer all days . And you will stop ISIS ?
Who gonna slaught your Heads at real life and not in Internet ? HAHA!
Try to S T O P us when u can. Your fake SIGN "Yes we can do this".
Tomorrow we gonna slaught your heads of you ALL KUFFAR!
dear Anonymous ,
we war against ISIS should start soon , specially on their medias tools.
they are using it just to publish the threat in all over the world.
we tried them , they are cowards in fighting , they are just a stupid people following a stupid ideas from anonymous book.
they owned some internet mind, who are paid well.
the end should start soon….
Abouth weirdos, who go out to war with terrorists as ISIS
I can not understand why all countries allow these
killer to come back to their respective countries for
to stay there to hide until it's time to murder innocent
people again at the behest of ISIS. Why does not take away citizenship
from them immediately, if authorities know that they go out to murder together with terrorists.Why should we let them come back and hide among us ordinary people?
Let them stay with ISIS and hopfully die there also !
what the hell countries who give a shit about their own people!!
I couldn't even finish this poorly understood topic under discussion in this article. To address some of the skewed assumptions and opinions in this article: 1) you speak as if this is only America vs ISIS…I am pretty sure other countries are allied with us such as the UK, France, Egypt, Jordan, Canada, etc. 2) you say this war is about ideology and you can't understand why Americans want to go back to war so quickly… First this war is NOT the same as the war we started in the early 2000s and the main difference is social media, al-queda needed foreign journalist and reporters to visit and interview the extremists in order to get their message out, ISIS has proven that they do not need foreign journalist in the way they are killing them all. Ideology might have atarted this war but vengeance will end it. ISIS doesn't need a news article written, they release youtube videos and other social media to propagate. And this leads to my next point we are so eager to go back to war because the cards completely change after your people watch one of your own beheaded or hanged or burned alive. Its fucking enraging! And i personally want troops on the ground to level every single one of those fuckers. It gets personal when its put right in front of you like that…. I also believe it is an insult to the people who have been hurt by and work hard to stop this cowardly force for you to sit casually behind your computer and assume this is all some play that us dumbass Americans can't see thru. Fuck ISIS!
This article was well written. However, I'm going to have to disagree with your thoughts that ISIS cannot be destroyed through war. It is true that their ideals will never die, but ISIS itself is a group that seeks control. The only way one can destroy ISIS is by fighting both their propaganda, and their soldiers. The America and the rest of the world should be willing to go to war with them. If no one fights ISIS, they won't ever go away. The longer ISIS remains in existence, the stronger it will become. If the world doesn't fight ISIS soon, ISIS will likely remain in power in not only the area it controls now, but probably even more areas. Once they get settled into their own area is when they're going to start doing the big terrorist attacks on other countries.
hack this website http://www.darulhilafe.com/ <——— they are recruit agency for ISIS

subset: commoncrawl


text:
The Catholic Pope, Pope Benedict XVI will today,Monday, 3rd December 2012 join millions of people around the world by opening his own twitter account. The formal announcement is set for a press conference Monday morning at the Vatican with Catholic and twitter officials. A Vatican official disclosed that the pope will be composing the tweets for the new account himself. For the first tweet from the account, the pope will also press the button to send the tweet himself, but after that others will send the tweets on his behalf.
People are guessing that @BenedictusPPXVI will be the account name although @Pope would seem to be fitting as well.


text:
Tire Calculator FREE
Khapa Shapa Inc.
- August 16, 2014
( 982)
Update Notice:
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Update Notice:
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Ideal tool to calculate replacement tyre (tire) size. Compares Stock Tyre / tire diameter, circumference, sidewall height, rim, and width, with that of new tyre (tire) and displays the result in mm, inches, percentage, kmph and mph.
To maintain accurate reading of speedometer and proper function of vehicle, one must always use tyres (tires) that have overall circumference within 3% that of factory fitted tyres (tires). If you are currently in the market for new tyres (tires), this is a must have calculator. It is very important to know what tyre (tire) size, or range of tyre (tire) sizes are suitable for your vehicle.
Update Notice:
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Great for car tires but... There are very few motorcycle tire sizes. I do think the drop downs are nice instead of manual input. And illustration at the bottom doesn't work. That would help a lot of it did especially for those who work in the industry with end customers.
Tire illustrator STILL not working! I use this all the time at work. Comes in very handy when a customer tries arguing lol. Fix the illustrator. Calculations for dimensions are wrong. Tired of waiting for fixes.
Not bad. I was confused at first but it was just my font size causing alignment problems.
Love it I use this app almost every single day because I sell used tires. If a person wants a different size than what they have, this will show them the difference in size and the difference in your speedometer. I loved it so much I updated to the pro
My one and only tire size app I have had this for years on many phones and devices and never had any problem whatsoever
Yes it's amazing Use this thing all the time just wish it did metric to standard....plz
What's New
Updated Google API