text:
Sampoong Department Store collapse
|This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
|5:52 p.m. KST
|June 29, 1995
|Seoul, South Korea
|Structural Overload, Punching Shear
|Non-fatal injuries
|Lee Joon, Lee Han-Sang
|Negligence, Bribery
The Sampoong Department Store collapse (Korean: 삼풍백화점 붕괴 사고) was a structural failure that occurred on June 29, 1995, in the Seocho-gu district of Seoul, South Korea. The collapse is the largest peacetime disaster in South Korean history as 502 people died and 937 were injured. It was the deadliest modern building collapse until the September 11 attacks in New York City, and the deadliest non-terror-related building collapse until the 2013 Savar building collapse near Dhaka, Bangladesh.[1]
In the events leading up to the 1988 Summer Olympics, there was a large development boom in the Seoul area. Because of bans against international construction contractors signing contracts for projects in Seoul, most buildings were being erected by South Korean companies, who typically built the structures quickly because of the large number of projects assigned to them.[2][3]
The Sampoong Group began construction of the Sampoong Department Store in 1987 over a tract of land previously used as a landfill. The building's plans originally called for a residential apartment with four floors, and the apartments were to be built by Woosung Construction.[2][3] Instead, the blueprints were changed to that of a large department store during the building's construction by the future chairman of the building, Lee Joon. This involved cutting away a number of support columns in order to install escalators.[2][3][4][5] When Woosung refused to carry out these changes, Lee ignored their warnings, fired them, and used his own building company to complete construction.[2][3][5] The building was completed in late 1989, and the Sampoong Department Store opened to the public on July 7, 1990, attracting an estimated 40,000 people per day during the building's five years of existence. The store consisted of north and south wings, connected by an atrium.[5]
The completed building was a flat-slab structure, without crossbeams or a steel skeleton, which effectively meant that there was no way to transfer the load across the floors. In order to maximise the floor space, Lee Joon ordered the floor columns to be reduced to be 24 inches (61 cm) thick, instead of the minimum of 31 inches (79 cm) in the original blueprint that was required for the building to stand safely. In addition, each column was 36 feet (11 m) apart to maximize retail space, a decision that also meant that there was more load on each column than there would have been if the columns were closer together.[2]
A fifth floor was originally planned to house a skating rink; it was added later to comply with zoning regulations that prevented the entire building from being used as a department store.[3][5] However, Lee changed the plan for the fifth floor to include eight restaurants instead.[2][3] When a construction company tasked to complete the extension advised that the structure would not support another floor, they were fired, and another company was hired to complete the project. The restaurant floor had a heated concrete base referred to as ondol, which has hot water pipes going through it; the presence of the 4-foot-thick (1.2 m) ondol greatly increased the weight and thickness of the slab.[2][3] As a result of the fifth floor's presence, the columns held up four times the maximum weight that they were supposed to support.[2]
In addition, the building's air conditioning unit was also installed on the roof, creating a 45-tonne (50-ton) load that was four times the design limit. In 1993, the air conditioning units were dragged across the delicate roof, which is where the cracking started.[5] The units were moved over the column 5E from which the most visible cracks in the floor of the fifth level were seen before the collapse. The cracks in the columns worsened because the columns supporting the fifth floor were mismatched with the ones supporting the floors below it.[2][3]
In April 1995, cracks began to appear in the ceiling of the south wing's fifth floor. During this period, the only response by Lee and his management staff involved moving merchandise and stores from the top floor to the basement.
On the morning of June 29, the number of cracks in the area increased dramatically, prompting managers to close the top floor and shut the air conditioning off. The store management failed to shut the building down or issue formal evacuation orders,[2][3] as the number of customers in the building was unusually high, and they did not want to lose the day's revenue. However, the executives themselves left the premises as a precaution.
Civil engineering experts were invited to inspect the structure, with a cursory check revealing that the building was at risk of collapse; the National Geographic Channel documentary programme Seconds From Disaster indicates that the facility's manager was examining the slab in one of the restaurants on the fifth floor, eight hours before the collapse, when, unknowingly, vibration from air conditioning was radiating through the cracks in the concrete columns and the floor opened up.
Five hours before the collapse, the first of several loud bangs was heard emanating from the top floors, as the vibration of the air conditioning caused the cracks in the slabs to widen further. Amid customer reports of vibration, the air conditioning was turned off, but the cracks in the floors had already grown to 10 cm wide.
Around this time as it was realized that collapse of the building was inevitable, and an emergency board meeting was held. The directors suggested to Lee that the customers should be evacuated, but Lee angrily refused to do so, out of concern of revenue losses. However, Lee himself left the building safely before the collapse occurred. Lee did not even inform his own daughter in law, who was one of the employees in the building, of the imminent danger. Lee's daughter in law, Chu Kyung Young, became trapped in the rubble and was only fortuitously rescued days later.
At about 5:00 p.m. Korea Standard Time (UTC+9:00), the fifth floor ceiling began to sink, and store workers blocked customer access to the fifth floor. According to Seconds From Disaster, the store was packed with shoppers 57 minutes before the collapse, but Lee did not close the store or carry out repairs during that time. When the building started to produce cracking sounds at about 5:52 p.m., workers began to sound alarms and evacuate the building, but by then it was too late.
Around 5:52 p.m., the roof gave way, and the air conditioning units crashed through into the already-overloaded fifth floor.[6] The main columns, weakened to allow the insertion of the escalators, collapsed in turn, and the building's south wing pancaked into the basement. Within 20 seconds of the disaster, all of the building's columns in the south wing gave way, trapping more than 1,500 people and killing 502. The disaster resulted in about ₩270 billion (approximately US$216 million) worth of property damage.
Rescue and recovery[edit]
Rescue crews were on the scene within minutes of the disaster, with cranes and other heavy equipment being brought in the next day. However, authorities announced that they would call off the rescue, due to the danger that the unstable remains of the store could come down, and many of the rescuers would be at risk. Massive protests, especially from friends and relatives of those still missing, compelled officials to continue looking for survivors, with the remains of the store being steadied by guide cables. After nearly a week, the focus was on removing the debris, though construction crews were careful to check for victims.
Two days after the collapse, some officials said that anybody who was still in the building must have already died; therefore, further efforts would be made only towards "recovery", not "rescue".[citation needed] This conflicts with the fact that people can survive much longer.[7] Despite the sweltering heat, those who were not rescued in the first few days avoided dehydration by drinking rainwater. The last to be rescued, 19-year-old Park Seung-hyun (박승현; 朴昇賢), was pulled from the wreckage 17 days after the collapse with a few scratches. She said that she heard the sounds of other survivors drowning in the fire department's deflation[clarification needed] water.[citation needed]
There has been a widespread criticism across the country due to the prevalence of looting that occurred at the collapsed building. During the first few hours of the incident, many of the passersby took advantage of the chaos and disorder in order to loot the site of valuable merchandises such as luxury brands and clothing, with some of these incidents being caught on surveillance cameras. Looting also occurred in the abandoned and uncollapsed north wing of the building, where cash registers were targeted as well. Some of the looters even scavenged through the personal belongings of the victims in search of valuable items.
The investigation committee and effort was headed by Professor Lan Chung of Dankook University's engineering school. Shortly after the collapse, leaking gas was suspected as the probable cause because two gas explosions had occurred elsewhere in the city that year. However, fires amid the rubble were from burning automotive gasoline coming from crushed cars parked in the underground garage, whereas a gas explosion would have been significantly larger. In addition, it was widely feared that there had been a terrorist attack, with North Korea as the prime suspect. However, the fact the building collapsed downward with little debris thrown outward ruled out a significant explosion according to U.S. and South Korean experts.
Once the investigation focused on structural failure, it was initially believed the building's poorly-laid foundation, and the fact it was built on unstable ground, led to the failure. Investigation of the rubble revealed that a substandard concrete mix of cement and sea water, and poorly reinforced concrete was used for the ceilings and walls.
Further investigation revealed that the building was built with incorrect application of a technique called "flat slab construction". Reinforced concrete buildings are often built using columns and beams, with the floor slab supported over the full length of the beams. "Flat slab construction" does not use beams, but supports the floor slab directly on the columns. The area of floor around the columns must be reinforced in order to carry the load; even then, if the columns are too narrow, they can punch through the slab. However, examination of the building showed the concrete columns installed were only 60 cm in diameter, below the required 80 cm shown in the plans. Worse still, the number of steel reinforcing bars embedded into the concrete was 8, not the required 16, giving the building only half its needed strength. Steel reinforcements intended to strengthen the concrete floor were placed 10 cm from the top instead of 5 cm, decreasing the structure's strength by about another 20%.
Ironically, one of the changes that contributed to the collapse was the installation of a safety feature. Fire shields were installed around all escalators to prevent the spread of fire from floor to floor, but in order to install them, the builders cut into the support columns, reducing their diameter further. The reduced diameter concentrated the burden on a smaller area of supported slab, leading to an eventual puncturing of the slab. These factors, along with the addition of a fifth floor including restaurants and heavy restaurant equipment, collectively contributed to the building's eventual failure. However, the original building design would have been more than twice as strong as needed to remain erect, and the flawed structure managed to stand for almost five years.
Investigators finally pinpointed the direct cause of the collapse, known as the "trigger" or tipping point, in the building's history. It was revealed that two years before the collapse, the building's three rooftop air-conditioning units had been moved due to noise complaints from neighbours on the east side of the building. The building's managers admitted noticing cracks on the roof during the move, but instead of lifting them with a crane, the units were put on rollers and dragged across the roof, further destabilizing the surface due to each unit's immense weight. Cracks formed in the roof slabs and the main support columns were forced downward; column 5E took a direct hit, forming cracks in the position connected to the fifth-floor restaurants. According to survivor accounts, each time the air conditioners were switched on the vibrations radiated through the cracks, reaching the supporting columns and widening the cracks, over the course of two years. On the day of the tragedy, although the units were shut off, it was too late; the structure had suffered irreversible damage, and the fifth floor slab around column 5E finally gave way.
|This section needs to be updated. (July 2016)
During his interrogation, Lee Joon sparked further controversy by stating that "the collapse not only harmed the customers, but also inflicted great financial damage to [my] company" was his main concern. Lee Joon was charged with criminal negligence and received a prison sentence of ten and a half years.[8] However, Lee's sentence was reduced to seven years on appeal in April 1996. On October 4, 2003, a few days after being released, Lee died of heart failure related to high blood pressure and diabetes.
His son, Lee Han-Sang, the store's president, who is now working for religious causes in Mongolia, received seven years for accidental homicide and corruption.[8] City officials Lee Chung-Woo and Hwang Chol-Min, in charge of overseeing the construction of the building, were also found to have been bribed into concealing the illegal changes and poor construction. As a result, the participating officials, including a former chief administrator of the Seocho-gu district, were also jailed. Other parties sentenced included a number of Sampoong Department Store executives and the company responsible for completing the building.
The settlement involved 3,293 cases, totaling ₩375.8 billion (about $350 million USD). The former chaebol Lee family was stripped of all of their possessions and assets to cover the costs,[citation needed] and as a result, the Sampoong Group was disbanded.
General reaction and nationwide building review[edit]
The initial reaction was enormous public outrage that led to months of demonstration on the streets. The disaster later led to skepticism and fears regarding safety standards on other engineering projects undertaken as South Korea experienced an economic boom during the 1980s and 1990s, and resulted in a review of South Korean safety regulations; the incident also revealed the level of corruption among city officials, who were willing to accept payoffs with little regard for public safety.
Notable survivors[edit]
- Shin Jeong-ah (신정아, 申貞娥; 23, female), rescued after eight hours[9]
- Choe Myeong-seok (최명석, 崔明錫; 20, male), rescued after 11 days (230 hours)
- Yoo Ji-hwan (유지환, 柳智丸; 18, female), rescued after 13 days (285 hours)
- Park Seung-hyun (박승현, 朴勝賢; 19, female), rescued after 17 days (377 hours)[10][11]
The site today[edit]
The remains of the building were demolished shortly after the collapse, and the site later remained vacant up until 2000. The former location of the department store is now home to a luxury apartment complex, Acrovista Apartments, whose construction began in 2001 (but not without complaints from some of the victims' families who wanted a memorial on the site instead) and was completed in 2004.[12]
The Yangjae Citizen's Forest has a sculpture made in memory of the collapse.
- Park Chan-Wook depicted the greed capitalizing on the tragedy in his 1999 short film Judgement.
- The Sampoong Department Store collapse was depicted in the 2006 film, Traces of Love.
- The event was portrayed in a Blueprint for Disaster episode. Seconds from Disaster also covered the catastrophe, as well as its aftereffects on South Korea.[13]
- The series finale of the SBS TV series Giant references the Sampoong Department Store collapse.[14]
- It was an emotional moment for characters in the TV show Reply 1994.[15]
See also[edit]
- ^ "Bangladesh building collapse death toll passes 700". BBC News. 7 May 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Sampoong Department Store". Failures. 1990-07-07. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Wearne, P. (2000). Collapse: When Buildings Fall Down. TV Books. ISBN 978-1-57500-144-9. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ^ "China's weapons of mass construction". The News From Wabu-eup. July 2, 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
- ^ a b c d e Marshall, Colin (2015-05-27). "Learning from Seoul's Sampoong Department Store disaster – a history of cities in 50 buildings, day 44". the Guardian. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ^ Seconds From Disaster indicates that the fifth floor slab and roof were the first to collapse, causing the air conditioning units to fall through the structure
- ^ HowStuffWorks.com mentions cases of people surviving weeks without food and says that "a Japanese hiker [in 2006] survived for 24 days...without food and water".
- ^ a b "Korean store owner, son sentenced for role in collapse". CNN. 27 December 1995. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
- ^ Seo Dong-shin, "Biennale Director Sacked for Academic Forgery", The Korea TimesJuly 12, 2007. Retrieved on March 31, 2008.
- ^ Ilbo, Dong-A (June 25, 2005). "삼풍백화점 참사 10년...당시 생존자 최명석씨 (Sampoong Department Store disaster, 10 years later - survivors)". Naver (in Korean). Retrieved 25 December 2011.
- ^ "역대 국내 대형 매몰사고와 구조사례는 (Rescue cases in Korea for burying accident)". Naver (in Korean). October 13, 2010. Retrieved 13 October 2010.
- ^ Emporis GmbH. "Daesang Acrovista". emporis.com.
- ^ Seconds from Disaster. Season 3, Episode 5.
- ^ "[REVIEW] SBS series "Giant"". hancinema.net. Retrieved 9 December 2010.
- ^ "Answer Me 1994 (Drama - 2013)". Retrieved 30 November 2013.
- Seconds From Disaster: "Superstore Collapse" (September 20, 2006; Season 3, Episode 11).
- Inspection of collapse cause of Sampoong Department Store
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sampoong Department Store collapse.
- The Korea Times: The Dawn of Modern Korea - Collapse of Sampoong Department Store
- South Korean disasters
- A National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) article on the Sampoong Disaster
Coordinates: 37°29′53.94″N 127°0′47.65″E / 37.4983167°N 127.0132361°E


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Changing of the Fog
Seeing with clarity the entire battlespace should, one might assume, remove all unknowns from the calculus of battle. Unfortunately, by putting the battlespace under a microscope, the system-of-systems reveals excessive information. The result is like magnifying the back of your hand; the added detail obscures the familiar and creates uncertainty, confusion, and possibly even fear. Battlespace resolution is not linear, but a continuum. When detail becomes too dense, the fog rolls back in.
This is information overload, a condition made worse by the computer age. There simply is too much for a human being to process.2 Instead, lower-resolution systems, such as computers, must preprocess data for human consumption. Because of the nature of the exercise, these systems are vulnerable to surprise. Outlying cases (e.g., the Inchon landing, the Nazis in the Ardennes, and Pearl Harbor) are pre-excluded because of their statistical improbability. The inexplicable is ignored. When the information harvest is so great, separating the wheat from the chaff becomes a Herculean task. With so much noise, the critical signal all too often is lost.
If the critical detail does come to light, it has cleared only the first hurdle. Raw information is of limited use until it can be synthesized and used to affect operations. Authors Martin Libicki and James Hazlett, for example, highlight the vast difference between access to meteorological information and determining that a particular locus of operation will be fogged in 24 hours hence (a distinction that had relevance during the Falklands campaign). In their words, "the art of operational planning is not acquired automatically with the acquisition of computers." Operational planning requires human intervention and human decision making.
Decision making in an information-rich environment poses unique hazards. Superiors may micromanage, and subordinates—with access to a richer information set—may find it easier to undertake action on their own. The risk of confusion and contention in crisis, when a clear chain of command is most important, is grave.
Confusion also mounts as individuals receive information from multiple sources asynchronously. As conflicting reports drift in, individuals may begin to weigh information according to the order it is received, rather than by the reliability of the source. This is problematic not only because first reports often are wrong but also because individuals receiving the same information but in a different order may form different conclusions. Those conflicting perceptions can have a detrimental effect on decision making.
In an information-rich world, crises no longer occur in isolation. In all but the most sensitive situations, decision makers can assume that the media will be aware of the crisis and have access to analogous information in short order. David Alberts calls this the "fish bowl" environment, and in it decision makers must appear decisive, even if their information still is limited. The fish bowl also can encourage collective decision making. Constructive dialogue and debate normally are beneficial, but the fish bowl can prevent a leader from making a decisive choice from a menu of options. Instead, the decision will coalesce around the "group consensus," to prevent the risks inherent with choice, especially if there are several different perceptions of the actual situation. The least common-denominator decision is rarely the best.
An overabundance of information can cause decisions to be made too quickly, but the opposite also is true. As battlefield commanders and their superiors become accustomed to "near perfect" information, their willingness to delay decisions until "perfection" can be attained increases. Such inactivity will be punished severely in tomorrow's battlespace. Modern McClellans and their armies will suffer greatly at the hands of those who can seize the initiative and take risks that "fish bowl" behavior precludes.
These problems illustrate the pitfalls of decision making in an information-rich world, and they will be compounded in combat by a key factor—the enemy. As a war progresses, the enemy can be expected to impede the flow of information that commanders have learned to value. Evidence suggests that this will not be difficult.
Admiral Owens's "system-of-systems" employs cutting-edge technology that is not likely to trickle down to potential aggressors for several decades, but the current RMA is not dependent on state-of-the-art systems. The fundamental concept is the linking of information to weapons, and the cost of that linkage can be very low. In other words, almost any Mom and Pop threat could participate:
[I]n contrast to earlier RMAs, such as the Nuclear RMA, or the Dreadnought RMA, the entry fee into the Information RMA is low.... most of what goes into the Information RMA can be purchased for only thousands of dollars each in world markets. Imagine what a sophisticated middle income country could do with a few thousand French and/or Russian precision guided munitions (PGMs); a few hundred unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) (from any of 30 countries); digital video cameras; personal computers; cellular switches, phones and pagers; GPS and pseudolite receivers; pocket radars and night vision goggles; plus archived Power-scene maps combining purchased space imagery and topography, all integrated by a few hundred U.S.-trained engineers—a Radio Shack System-of-Systems.
An inventive enemy doesn't even need a PGM or a UAV; an IBM 486 and a modem are enough to wreak havoc. The public and private communication systems that U.S. businesses have come to rely on constitute one gigantic, defenseless, strategic target:
[T]he means exist to cause significant damage and disruption to U.S. public and private information assets, processes, and systems, and to compromise the integrity of vital information .... Such an attack, or the threat of such an attack, could thwart our foreign policy objectives, degrade military performance, result in significant economic loss, and perhaps even undermine the confidence of our citizens in the Government's ability to protect its citizens and interests.
The "beauty" of such an attack is its simplicity. To halt the use of the Internet as a communication medium, an enemy does not have to hack into a computer or destroy information—he just has to deny access to the service. In effect, he creates a massive Internet traffic jam, blocking legitimate use. The attack is easy to mount, difficult to trace, and within the grasp of anyone who has a working knowledge of UNIX and TCP/IP (the main Internet networking protocol). At present, there is no adequate prevention.
One can take little solace from the fact that most military sites—at least in theory—would be immune from such incursions. A prospective enemy has achieved his strategic objectives if he halts even some civilian communication over the Internet. More important, there exist far more destructive means of information warfare.
Computer virus warfare is one of many methods now under development to destroy information flow. These viruses resemble the nuisances that affect personal computers, except that commercial antivirus software won't come to the rescue. Research in the new field of crypto-virology is developing viruses that are polymorphic and self-encrypting. These self-replicating, mutating strains can be used to mount denial-of-service and extortion attacks, where critical information in a system is encrypted and will remain so until a "ransom" is paid to the virus writer. Attempts to remove the virus will render the system useless.
We have yet to see viruses of this type in the wild, but their arrival is simply a matter of time. As information and our reliance on it grow, vulnerability to computer virus warfare and other offensive forms of information warfare (such as high energy radio frequency guns, a poor person's electromagnetic pulse) will only increase. In addition, reliance on commercial, off-the-shelf systems creates other opportunities for security breaches. In a recently reported case, U.S. intelligence officials hacked into European Union computers before negotiations on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade—aided by the fact that parts of the system that controls entry were made by two American firms.
To counteract these serious vulnerabilities, there needs to be an understanding of the problem and a dedication to planning exercises where information systems are degraded—or are not operational at all. Unfortunately, there is no evidence that either is now present. In fact, many of Admiral Owens's comments appear to underestimate the nature of the threat he is facing:
[T]he computer and communications technologies on which the system-of-systems is based are becoming less, not more, susceptible to the various forms of corruption and interference. A race will always exist between those who try to ensure the security of information-based systems and those who seek to overcome their security measures. Yet, the trend favors the defense.
The trend unfortunately does not favor the defense. Virus detection is an intractable problem, which makes it highly unlikely that protection systems predicated on detection will be successful. Viruses, however, are just one of many threats facing Owens's system-of-systems. To knock out a complex system, one does not need to launch a sophisticated, frontal assault; one merely hits the system's weakest link. A real threat is posed by simplistic back-door entry, either by a bored teenage hacker or a hostile aggressor.
Admiral Owens discusses the ability of the system to "gracefully degrade" if attacked. This is system redundancy and the ability of the system-of-systems to function even if one part is incapacitated. In this, the admiral is correct. Any scenario that has the entire system-of-systems destroyed is farfetched. Yet, as commanders become accustomed to information generated by a fully functioning system-of-systems, the importance of war gaming the system in a degraded mode increases. Unfortunately, the results of the few exercises that have occurred to date have not been positive. For things to improve, the mind-set that these systems are invulnerable must change. The Gulf War was a tactical aberration. The next time the United States enters battle the enemy will attack its information flow, and the results may be painful.
The United States should not abandon the system-of-systems. One cannot ignore an RMA and expect to field a viable force. The problems of information overload, decision-making in crisis, and information dependency, however, are real threats that must be addressed. We must take them seriously, and begin to practice scenarios where systems "gracefully degrade."
A Force/Threat Mismatch?
Almost all future-warfare scenarios assume a major theater warfare-level threat, with good reason: information-based warfare works best against industrial-based warfare. Yet, most analysts agree that future threats will be of the low-intensity variety. What then develops is a force-threat mismatch. The United States has high-technology, 21st-century weapons to fight a standoff war when, in fact, we will face modern-day guerrillas and peace-enforcement operations. War games are using new technology to refight Desert Storm, but few are refighting Vietnam to see if technology makes that conflict winnable.
Is this RMA a useful weapon against low-intensity threats? Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell says no:
I've had some people come up to me and brief me about the revolution in military affairs and information warfare and say, "See, we can get rid of divisions and corps and brigades. All we need is a general at SAC headquarters or STRATCOM headquarters in Nebraska and he will have perfect vision of the enemy and perfect targetability of the enemy and we will have weapons with the same level of precision and all we got to do is find the bad guys and drop a bomb on them." And I said, "I'm afraid the world isn't that simple." Because first you have to have a cooperative enemy who is willing to paint himself so that you can see him, and then to stand there long enough to wait for the bomb. In Somalia, for example, I got lots of assurances about how we could find people. They didn't emit. They just didn't emit. I would love to see the RMA go after the Taliban in Afghanistan. It . . . won't work.
To fire a PGM at an enemy, you first need a target. In low-intensity conflict, not only are you lacking a target, in many cases, you also are lacking a clear aggressor. Like the Redcoats of old, this RMA works best against an opponent who marches in a straight line:
Organizational decentralization may not totally destroy the effectiveness of RMA technology, but certainly erodes it. Saddam Hussein's Iraq or the other Third World caricatures of the Soviet Union are perfect opponents for a RMA-type military. Driven by the well-earned paranoia of tyrants, they have highly centralized military forces. This prevents coup d'état, but also limits the chance of military victory against determined advanced states. Future insurgents, terrorists, and narcotraffickers will not be so stupid.
The U.S. military is so focused on one particular type of opponent that defeat may come at the hands of a different antagonist. We are building a technological base and a force structure on the major theater warfare model, when in fact the threats of tomorrow may call for very different strategies and tactics:
A U.S. military configured exclusively for use against subnational or nonmilitary enemies would look very different from the projected Force XXI. Individual units would be small but very flexible, able to deal with enemies with a tremendous range of capabilities, from high-tech niche opponents to low-tech warlord militias. In fact, the entire combat arms component of the Army might be composed of Special Forces.
The challenge is clear. Technology does not move backward, and one ignores an RMA at grave peril. Yet, one cannot apply technology to the most convenient threat at hand. The next war will likely not take place in the tactical heaven of a desert against a stand-up, shoot-me-down enemy, but in the tactical hell of chaos where the enemy will not emit. It is in places like Somalia, Bosnia, and Rwanda, and not in Iraq, where the ultimate success or failure of our forces will be decided.
The U.S. military must tailor technology to the low intensity contingencies of tomorrow, adapting complex weapons to work in chaotic environs. To do nothing risks falling victim to a 21st-century Agincourt.
Mr. Callum is recently graduated from the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University with master's degrees in international relations and public administration. He would like to thank Sean O'Keefe for his support in preparing this paper.


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Antonio has heard of Trojan's services and it's tax time. He tries to tackle the task but he soon gives up and calls for help. Trojan sends Marco over, he did train as an accountant before starting to work for him! Marco arrives just when Antonio was enjoying some porn on his laptop. Marco instantly gets horny; Antonio is exactly the type of man he loves to feel inside him but decides to bide his time; after doing most of the work he calls Antonio over for some explanations about weekend expenditures. He refuses to sneak partying and whores into the accounts but decides to provide a more personal approach and get his hands on the daddy's meat. He gets Antonio's thick meat out and kneels down to worship and feel it down his throat. Antonio enjoys feeding the stud but decides to return the favour before clearing the desk and bending Marco over it to spread his cheeks and get access to his hole. He eats and fingers the smooth hole making it ready for his cock. Marco can't wait to feel Antonio force against his muscle and decides to suck the man some more before presenting his hole to the rock hard cock. Antonio fucks him hard and deep bent over the desk before deciding he wants to see the man bob up and down his cock. Marco sits on it on the sofa until Antonio pushes him off, turns him around and pushes him back on the sofa, on his back and fucks him hard until he makes Marco empty his balls on his chest before getting him back on his knees and shooting his own spunkload on Marco's face and mouth.


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Kill 12 Spiketooth Eels.
If you're going out into the valley, I'd appreciate if you thinned their population a bit. Not everyone here is as well equipped as you - we might not come back with just scratches.
|Spiketooth Eel slain (12)
DescriptionBeen attacked by any of the eels along the ridges yet? If not, you will. They are vicious, bloodthirsty little monsters. They don't seem to show much of any preference in what they're biting.
If you're going out into the valley, I'd appreciate if you thinned their population a bit. Not everyone here is as well equipped as you - we might not come back with just scratches.
Thank you, <class>. There are still much bigger predators we'll have to keep an eye out for, but this will at least give us a bit of peace of mind around the cave.
RewardsYou will receive: 7 80
GainsUpon completion of this quest you will gain:
- 12,320 experience
- 250 reputation with The Earthen Ring
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Crawley Things to Do
The championship has been taking place every year since 1932 and this year's event takes place on Friday 3rd April (it is always on Good Friday). The competition takes place at the Greyhound Inn, Radford Road, Tinsley green and starts at 10 am. Each team consists of 6 players of any age and from anywhere in the world, and is a knock out event with teams trying to win the silver trophy in the final. Basically there are 50 marbles inside a raised circle and players take turns trying to knock them out of the circle with their own marble, and the first team to knock 25 out of the circle is the winner. Recently the German team has been doing very well with 8 championships , beating England's 5 and USA with one solitary title.Add to your Trip Planner
The Jubilee Oak Tree
The High Street in Crawley is one of the older roads in the town with a number of medieval buildings. The centre of the High Street is dominated by the Jubilee Oak Tree. It was planted in 1887 by Lord de Blaquiere of Springfield House to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria and is a magnificent specimen.Add to your Trip Planner
Crawley Hotels35 Hotels in Crawley
1 Reviews
Crawley Hotels
Yotel London Gatwick Airport
I travelled from the Isle of Man to London Gatwick on Sunday 7th September, staying overnight in one...more
Arora International Gatwick
Stayed here for one night following flight into Gatwick, booked it prior to visit following...more
Clarion Hotel And Leisure Centre Gatwick
I've stayed in the Clarion hotel a number of times while travelling to Crawley for work and overall...more
The Gatwick George Hotel
The George is a very old building which was originally probably a mansion type house with stables in...more
Europa Gatwick Hotel
THIS HAS TO BE THE WORST PLACE THAT WE HAVE EVER HAD THE MISFORTUNE OF STAYING AT......CAN'T BELIEVE...more
The Manor House
Crawley is within easy reach of Gatwick Airport and London. Direct trains to Victoria station. It is...more
Ifield Court Hotel
Have stayed here several times when travelling from Gatwick airport as it makes an ideal place for a...more
Premier Inn London Gatwick Airport...
Northway, Gatwick North Terminal, RH6 0PH
Satisfaction: Excellent
Good for: Couples
Premier Inn Gatwick Manor Royal
Fleming Way, Business Quarter, Crawley, RH10 9DF, United Kingdom
Satisfaction: Excellent
Good for: Families
Crawley Restaurants
The Jubilee Oak: Inexpensive Food
Directly opposite the Jubilee Oak is a pub of the same name. It is part of the Wetherspoon chain of pubs and has the usual type of good value food served in these establishments. We both had grilled meals and they were quickly served and were filling.Add to your Trip Planner
Shades Brewery: Good food in an old Gaol
This charming old building has a 400 year history as a brewery/pub. When I first saw it I assumed that the upper walls were wooden shingles, but it turns out they are hanging clay tiles which is evidently a feature of Sussex architecture. The sign outside indicates that at one time it was a jail (gaol) which housed prisoners who would then be tried at the George and hanged in the town square. Gory but picturesque history.
Favorite Dish: The pub has a much more extensive and better menu than many pubs as well as local cask ales. I had a nice dark one, Dark Star, along with pub cooked and hand sliced ham and eggs which were delicious. My wife had a glass of the house red wine with a vegetable cheese bake on a bap and both had salad and chips and mine had peas. We both enjoyed them very much and then shared a dessert which we had never had and that everyone titters about, spotted dick. It is simply a nice sponge cake with currants (hence the spots) served in a sweet cream sauce. Delicious.
The whole meal was about 26 GBP for both of us.Add to your Trip Planner
Don't Forget Insurance
If your current health insurance doesn't cover you while your abroad, you should consider getting international travel insurance just in case something should go wrong.
Crawley Nightlife
Hogshead: Best pub
This is my favourite pub in Crawley. A bit more noisy and not too nice. Who likes 'nice' on a saturday night anyway?Add to your Trip Planner
Crawley Transportation
Trains and taxis
The easiest way I found to get to Crawley is Southern Rail from Victoria. They have very frequent trains, about every half hour during peak periods and the journey takes about 45-50 minutes. Standard class tickets are 13.50 GBP. To get to our hotel was a short taxi ride and the next morning we caught a taxi to Gatwick. This trip was about 15 minutes and cost less than 10 GBP.Add to your Trip Planner
Crawley Off The Beaten Path
The Railway Tavern - The Cure started...
If your a fan of The Cure like me you will know that their first ever gig was in a pub called The Railway Tavern in Crawley. I took a photo of it whilst whizzing by on the train but I was still thrilled to have seen it!Related to:
- Music
- Trains
Cottesmore School
This is the school I worked at for 7 months in 1998. It's such a beautiful building, the lane leading up to it from the village of Pease Pottage is completely covered in rhododendhron bushes. So wonderful in spring!
All around the school are rolling hills, small lakes and a golf course.Add to your Trip Planner
Ask a QuestionGot a question about Crawley? Get an answer from our Location locals and frequent travelers
Instant Answers: Crawley
Get an instant answer from local experts and frequent travelers
- Great room rates
- Crowne Plaza London-Gatwick Airport Crawley
- Hotels.com
- Great room rates
- BLOC Hotel Gatwick Airport Crawley
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Hotel Porta Nuova - Assisi
This hotel offers free WiFi, a rooftop terrace and gift shops/newsstands. Staff are available to provide express check-in and express check-out.
Hotel Porta Nuova - Assisi
Hotel Info: 1-877-214-4288from $49
- Classic Double Room
- Classic Double Room Single Use
- Superior Triple Room
- Superior Double Room
- Family Double Room
Also popular with travelers from the USA
At a glance
Key facts
Hotel size
- This hotel has 17 rooms
- This hotel is arranged over 2 floors
- Check-in time 2:30 PM-11:30 PM
- Check-out time is 11 AM
- Express check-in/out
Required at check in
- Credit card or cash deposit required
- Government-issued photo ID required
- Minimum check-in age is 18
Travelling with others
- Pets allowed (dogs and cats only) *
- Specific rooms only *
- 1 per room (up to 20 kg)
- Free WiFi in public areas
- Free WiFi in rooms
- Self parking (limited) *
Other information
- Smoke-free property
- Resort fee included
In the hotel
- Buffet breakfast (surcharge)
- Room service (during limited hours)
- Front desk (limited hours)
- Concierge services
- Free newspapers in lobby
- Luggage storage
- Year Built 1900
- ATM/banking
- Rooftop terrace
- Television in common areas
- Accessible bathroom
- In-room accessibility
In the room
- In-room climate control (air conditioning)
- Air conditioning
- Minibar
- Individually decorated
- Private bathroom
- Shower only
- Bidet
- Free toiletries
- Hair dryer
- Digital TV channels
- Desk
- Free WiFi
- Phone
- Daily housekeeping
Hotel Porta Nuova - Assisi's small print
Also known as
- Hotel Porta Nuova
- Hotel Porta Nuova Assisi
- Porta Nuova
- Porta Nuova Assisi
All guests, including children, must be present at check-in and show their government-issued photo ID card or passport.
Cash transactions at this property cannot exceed EUR 2999.99, due to national regulations. For further details, please contact the property using information in the booking confirmation.
Pet-friendly rooms can be requested by contacting the property at the number on the booking confirmation.
Only registered guests are allowed in the guestrooms.
This property does not have elevators.
Mandatory fees
The charges below are included in the total price displayed:
- Resort fee
Optional extras
Self parking costs EUR 15.00 per night
Buffet breakfast is offered for an extra charge of EUR . per person (approximately)
Cribs/Infant beds are available for EUR 15 per night
Pets are allowed for an extra charge of EUR . per pet, per stay
We have included all charges provided to us by this hotel. However, charges can vary, for example, based on length of stay or the room you book.


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Go to Admin » Appearance » Widgets » and move Gabfire Widget: Social into that MastheadOverlay zone
By Sara Yasin / 23 November 2012
As a writer, to me words are freedom. They have to be. And writers must have the freedom to explore the extremities of their imagination; to provoke and poke around amidst the dirt and filth of the human condition. If not, drama becomes sanitised, homogenous and dull because it is only borne of fear. A corrosive fear that is the enemy of true creativity. Do what you want to do, not what anyone thinks you should do. Be brave. Be prepared to be hated and vilified, lied about and abused — it really is a great lesson in tolerance. You have the right to share your insides with the outside world. And maybe those who oppose genuine debate and dialogue need to be offended.


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Community Profile
HI, I want to train Neural Network using Bat algorithm
1 Answers
Asked 3 years ago
I want to know how to train and test data using KNN classifier
we cross validate data by 10 fold cross validation.
there a...
what are the main requirement to add new algorithm for NN training
How to train neural network with each iteration of cross validation. Following codes give error
0 Answers
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Once Rob, now Robert, Newman found fame as a member of the show that spawned a thousand catchphrases; The Mary Whitehouse Experience, and went stratospheric in the early '90s as one half of Newman and Baddiel, becoming the first comedy act to sell-out Wembley Arena. He also wrote for the BBC radio classic 'Week Ending' along with a host of contributors who included Ged Parsons, Oleg Stepaniuk, Nick and Roger Saunders, Michael Dines and Bob and Barbara Boulton. Having parted company with Baddiel, Newman now combines writing novels, campaigning against globalisation and performing some of the most informed and incisive political comedy.
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text: Usually when I get that message, it means the app is not compatible with my device. Not all the apps will be compatible. We haven't had access to Google Play in the past so developers were only concentrating on apps for rooters as far as nook devices go and that was a much smaller market than what we will now have. There are still a LOT available to us as many apps go by the android the device is based on.


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This deal has ended.
This 8.5" Boogie Board LCD Sketchbook listed at $49.99, is $26.99 with free shipping from Buy.com. That's the lowest shipped price we could find anywhere on this next-gen sketchbook by $12. It's pressure sensitive and includes a stainless steel stylus. Sales tax is charged in most states.No longer available


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Old World Monkey Classification
A selection of articles related to old world monkey classification.
Original articles from our library related to the Old World Monkey Classification. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Old World Monkey Classification.
- Manifesting World Enlightenment: Part 3
- One of the very best ways to raise personal or group consciousness, is to MANIFEST spiritual Intentions into the environment at large. The projection of love into one's surroundings for instance, results in love being reflected back to the sender, like...
Mind >> World Mind
- Manifesting World Enlightenment: Part 2
- When thoughts are replaced by silence in the mind, perception arises. It is a part of the modern condition wherein the mind of humanity is constantly overwhelmed, by a million considerations and thoughts. In acquiring silence, the mind is enabled to get out...
Mind >> World Mind
- Raising the World Mind (GM10-11)
- Part 1 | Part 2 Part 1 The wise live in accord with natural laws. It is they who understand that the laws of nature are much higher than the laws of man, because breaking them implies penalties far greater than a fine or prison sentence. When a person...
Mind >> World Mind
- Manifesting World Enlightenment: Part 4
- There can be no doubt that the world situation today is grave. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the institutions, governments, and traditional methods of society, have little effectiveness in solving a collective crisis of global proportions. In this...
Mind >> World Mind
- Manifesting World Enlightenment: Part 5
- All things in the universe have at their basis, one fundamental essence which governs their creation, destruction and on-going actions. That singular essence is consciousness, (also known by some as God, or the Unified Field). Everywhere in Nature does...
Mind >> World Mind
- Manifesting World Enlightenment: Part 1
- Amazing things take root and grow, from the minds of the world. Human creations are much more far reaching than mere cities and nations. We are also creators of mental and spiritual manifestations , and these are of world changing scope! Humans are idea and...
Mind >> World Mind
- Pagan Mythology
- Is the traditional story presented as an historical event that serves to illustrate part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon. The mythological beliefs a culture shares gives shape to its actions and choices....
Paganism & Wicca >> Holidays
Old World Monkey Classification is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Old World Monkey Classification books and related discussion.
Suggested News Resources
- The Guardian view on UK drug laws: high time to challenge a failing prohibition
- Conservative politicians don't tend to pay attention to facts and rational evidence when it comes to the drugs industry. They tend to pay .... at the federal level.
- State Department releases last batch of Hillary Clinton's emails
- More than 1,000 of those emails were upgraded to different levels of confidentiality before the U.S. State Department released them, though Clinton maintains that none of the information in those emails was classified at the time.
- Sorry Economists, Your Profession Is Not Science
- As 2016 progresses, they are already lining up to do it all again having never accounted for the real world's complexity outside their mathematically narrowed view. ....
- A world-class Salvador Dali art collection comes to Monterey.
- Spanish artist Salvador Dali, in his room at Hotel Del Monte, puts his "Thought Compression Chamber" over his head. He has just been asked by Samuel F.B.
Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.
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HourlyLess than 30 hrs/week
Entry LevelI am looking for freelancers with the lowest rates
Reports, Essays, Calls, etc.
Could be a permanent position. Just need to have someone do small tasks (5-10 tasks a week) so that I can work on my companies larger tasks.
Could hire you permanently for my company base on how this goes.
Needs to be skilled in; Mathematics, Writing, Science.
After every task you will send it to me to review.
Needs to be well versed in english.
About the Client
United States
Fort Myers 02:20 AM
Jobs Posted
100% Hire Rate, 1 Open Job
Total Spent
6 Hires, 0 Active
Avg Hourly Rate Paid
26 Hours