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Accountable Care Organizations The New Player in the Health-Reform Landscape
- Emily Scott
- 1 years ago
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1 Perspective Gary D. Ahlquist Sanjay B. Saxena, MD Brett L. Spencer, MD Accountable Care Organizations The New Player in the Health-Reform Landscape
2 Contact Information Atlanta Ralph Alewine Partner Chicago Gary D. Ahlquist Senior Partner Brett Spencer, MD Principal Abhishek Gopalka Senior Associate New York Gil Irwin Senior Partner Joyjit Saha Choudhury Principal Szoa Geng Associate San Francisco Curt Bailey Partner Thom Bales Partner Paolo F. Borromeo Principal Sanjay B. Saxena, MD Partner The authors would like to thank Szoa Geng, Abhishek Gopalka, and Phil Lathrop for their valuable contributions to this Perspective. Booz & Company
3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Many payors and providers are considering or actively developing accountable care organizations (ACOs) as a result of their inclusion in the U.S. healthcare reform law. At this early stage, however, the long-term success of the ACO construct is not assured: Its value and longevity will be measured by the ability of ACO partners to drive cost reduction while improving care quality and patient experience. To assist health plans as they consider and pursue ACOs, Booz & Company conducted extensive primary and secondary research, proprie tary economic modeling, and in-depth interviews with academic experts, external vendors, and senior executives of payors and providers. This Perspective reports Booz & Company s findings on the emerging ACO landscape, including: An assessment of the fast-evolving ACO marketplace An analysis of the impact of ACOs on payors and providers, as well as competitive implications Capability recommendations for payors ACOs create both market risks and opportunities for payors. But for payors who are able to provide capabilities that engender accountability to patients, care redesign, and organizational alignment in ACOs, their promise outweighs the risks. These payors will be able to drive urgently needed improvements in medical value, bolster the stability of the private market, and ensure their positions and futures in the shifting healthcare marketplace. Booz & Company 1
4 ACO MARKET ASSESSMENT What does the ACO landscape currently look like? What models and initiatives have appeared in the marketplace? ACO Activity in the U.S. Healthcare Market There is a swelling wave of ACO activity in the U.S. healthcare market in response to the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), which included ACO-related provisions and support for demonstration projects. This activity has been further encouraged by state-led reform initiatives. For example, on February 17, 2011, Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick announced a comprehensive healthcare payment and delivery reform legislation, An Act Improving the Quality of Health Care and Controlling Costs by Reforming Health Systems and Payments, designed to stimulate ACO development and global payment systems. i Stakeholders throughout the U.S. healthcare system are involved in ACOs: Virtually every major payor is either involved in, planning, or seriously considering ACOs. Many health plans are actively helping providers, especially integrated systems and primary care physician (PCP) groups, to form ACOs. Hospitals are cautious but increasingly keen on leading the formation of ACOs to avoid the risk of being left behind. According to HealthLeaders Media s 2011 industry survey, 74 percent of hospital chief executives say that their organizations will be part of an ACO within the next five years. In addition, 16 percent of the respondents believe they already have the components for ACOs in place and 60 percent say they will have ACO components in place within the next five years. ii PCPs are interested in ACOs given their focus on managing across the care continuum with a strong emphasis on primary care. Specialists tend to be more wary, because ACOs encourage the shift of services from specialty to preventive care, as well as rationalize the use of expensive procedures and testing. However, even they are pursuing participation in ACOs to replace lost volume and gain a share of the anticipated savings. According to HealthLeaders Media s 2011 industry survey, 52 percent of physician group leaders said that their organizations will be part of an ACO within the next five years and 20 percent say they already have ACO components in place. iii External vendors, such as McKesson and UnitedHealth Group subsidiary OptumInsight, are focused on assisting providers with the analytics and 2 Booz & Company
5 infrastructure required to organize and operate ACOs. Third-party administrators see a re-emerging role for themselves as medical management is pushed out to providers. The level and breadth of activity suggests that the most fundamental change that ACOs may bring in the healthcare market is a substantial increase in the levels of collaboration among payors and providers. For example, ACOs that involve the full spectrum of care delivery will require greater plan-provider cooperation to pilot new payment models. Even if fee-for-service (FFS) continues to be the primary chassis for provider reimbursement, outcomes-based rate revisions, performance bonuses, and risk sharing will become increasingly prevalent. Payors and providers will also actively collaborate in specific areas, such as care management which is expected to become more integrated with a risk-adjusted, outcomes-based care management fee. Evolving ACO Models ACOs are a new and ambiguous enough construct in the healthcare landscape to have so far eluded formal definition. Essentially, they are collaborative structures populated by a set of provider partners, often in association with one or more payor partners, who agree to deliver coordinated care and meet performance benchmarks for quality and affordability in order to manage the total cost of care for their member populations. ACOs are the latest attempt to generate medical value by combining HMO-like structural components, enhanced information technology, greater financial risks and rewards for providers, and an emphasis on care redesign processes. The nascent ACO sector is still very early in its development and is changing daily. Although there are a plethora of new ACO initiative announcements, most are still in the pre-launch stage, with ongoing discussions on key aspects such as governance, patient attribution, and payment structure. Further, their progress is impeded by a lack of formal finalized guidelines from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). As of this writing, most in-market ACOs had launched operations only in 2010 or were planning to do so in early The ACOs that are currently operational are mostly in the pilot phase and very few have reported results to date, although the results that have been reported show glimmers of promise. While the sector is newly emerging, it is safe to say that most payors and providers are either involved in one or more ACOs or are evaluating the economics and feasibility of participation. Some of these projects are more ambitious, while others are simple rebrandings of existing constructs. On the surface it may seem that there are many ACO variations emerging in the marketplace. However, our research suggests that most ACO efforts fit into one of the three forms described on the following pages. The most fundamental change that ACOs may bring in the healthcare market is a substantial increase in the levels of collaboration among payors and providers. Booz & Company 3
6 Model 1: Adapted Integrated Delivery System These ACOs are organized around existing integrated delivery systems that feature either a single entity that acts as payor and provider or an association of providers with multiple care settings and employed physicians already affiliated with an external payor. Thus, because a complete system is already in place, it is relatively fast and easy for these partners to reorganize into ACOs. In fact, because the ACO concept was in many ways inspired by effective integrated delivery systems, such as Geisinger Health System and Fairview Health Services, ACOs that follow this model have been able to gain a first-mover advantage in the new sector. Adapted integrated delivery system ACOs are typically strongest in the area of organizational alignment that is, the range of partners in the ACO, the parameters that govern their relationships, and the structures and processes that support them. In most cases, significant alignment existed before the ACO initiative began. They are also experienced in the management of medical risk and are comfortable with assuming a portion of the financial risk associated with it. The most common large-scale change that adapted integrated delivery system ACOs have undertaken is the implementation of financial incentives aimed at supporting enhanced accountability for patient outcomes. This is the area in which adapted integrated delivery system ACOs are typically lacking, and it is where participation of payors is most useful. Often, the main role of payors is to provide financial incentives in the form of performance bonuses or shared savings that support these ACOs as they seek to take responsibility of the total cost of care of their patient populations. The provider partners in these ACOs are also looking to payors to provide risk management assessment, data analytics, and, in some cases, disease management. Of course, payors also provide an established patient base. In some cases, the adapted integrated delivery systems in the ACO space have also taken steps to incorporate elements of accountability to patients and care redesign into their operations. Based on our interviews and research, it appears that the leaders of the adapted integrated delivery system ACOs recognize the importance of these two key elements for long-term success and are planning to pursue more fundamental changes in these areas. The following are examples of adapted integrated delivery system ACOs: Norton Healthcare/Humana: The partnership between insurer Humana, Inc. and Norton Healthcare, one of the five participants in the ACO Pilot Project sponsored by The Engelberg Center for Health Care Reform at the Brookings Institution and The Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, is a good example of this model. Norton is an integrated delivery system a not-forprofit hospital and healthcare system that already has a 44 percent market share in its local area. Humana has a base of local employer plans to populate the ACO. Humana initiated this ACO when it began exploring the concept with Because the ACO concept was in many ways inspired by effective integrated delivery systems, ACOs that follow this model have been able to gain a first-mover advantage in the new sector. 4 Booz & Company
7 Brookings-Dartmouth in In early 2010, it announced it would partner with Norton Healthcare, which runs five hospitals and 12 clinics in the Louisville, Ky., area. As is typical in this model, the payment structure of the ACO includes a savings plan that will be shared by the provider, payor, and employers. This initiative used prospective patient attribution (i.e., pre-defined allocation of patients to an ACO) to enroll 10,000 members for pre-existing Humana employer plans. Further, the ACO targeted the following areas for improvement and savings: Preventive screenings, tests, and vaccinations Chronic illnesses management Use of generics Assessment to determine appropriate levels of care The initiative is in its pilot phase and has not yet reported results. However, Humana has stated that it plans to use its experience with this pilot to develop additional ACOs with provider partners in other regions. iv Additional in-market examples of adapted integrated delivery system ACOs include the following initiatives (see Exhibit 1, page 6, for details): Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Illinois and Advocate Health System Monarch Healthcare, HealthCare Partners, and Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield in Los Angeles and Orange County, Calif. Model 2: Virtually Integrated ACOs The second ACO model is composed of multiple providers organizing in association with a payor, who contributes the financial incentives that support collective accountability for patient health outcomes and the technological infrastructure used to connect the disparate providers. There are two variations of this model, which we will describe separately: one in which the providers include mainly PCPs and one in which the provider set includes a broader range of partners including specialists, hospitals, and other care settings. Primary Care Focused Virtually Integrated ACOs: The primary care focused virtually integrated ACO is designed between a payor and care provider(s) with an emphasis on preventive care. Often these initiatives are built on the chassis of a pre-existing patient-centered medical home (PCMH), pre-existing pay-for-performance contracts with physician groups, or other settings with an emphasis on primary care interventions. One strength of these ACOs is ease of governance, because only PCPs and payors are involved. Another strength of the model is its primary care redesign potential, due to its evolution from formats, such as PCMHs, that are characterized by strong care coordination and the extensive use of quality data. The primary weakness of this model derives from the limited range of care settings included in these ACOs. While the primary care focus means a larger slice of the savings for the ACO s primary care providers and payor partners, the overall savings is likely to be smaller because specialists and hospitals have little or no incentive to participate. These initiatives must also devote a good deal of attention to determining how they will align their ACOs with external care settings and in developing a payment infrastructure, which typically already exists in hospitals but not in physician groups. Finally, primary care providers are typically reluctant to undertake financial risk. While many physician groups are signing contracts with Booz & Company 5
8 Exhibit 1 Examples of Adapted Integrated Delivery System ACOs PROVIDER STRUCTURE PATIENT POPULATION PAYMENT STRUCTURE PATIENT ATTRIBUTION GOVERNANCE EARLY RESULTS/ PROGRESS Norton Healthcare Humana Large health care system: five hospitals and 12 clinics in Louisville area 10,000 Humana Participating members Shared savings between provider, payor, and employers Prospective - Participant in the Brookings- Dartmouth ACO Pilot Project - Humana plans to continue developing more ACO models by partnering with providers in other regions - Early stages of implementation - Identified areas of emphasis include: - Targeting improvements in use of preventive screenings, tests, and vaccinations - Better coordination in management of chronic illnesses - Appropriate use of generics - Improved access to appropriate level of care Advocate Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Illinois (BCBSIL) Largest Integrated health system in Illinois, operating 200+ care sites across metropolitan Chicago, including 10 acute care hospitals, two children s hospitals, four Level I trauma centers, a home healthcare company, and a large medical group PPO and HMO Members - Limits on annual FFS rate increases with shared upside savings - Total global risk for HMO products - Shared upside and downside on per member/monthbased medical cost trend for PPO products Prospective Savings measured by Advocate s performance compared to other BCBSIL contracting network providers - Announced on 10/6/ Contract effective from 1/2011 to 12/2013 Monarch HealthCare HealthCare Partners Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield - Monarch Health- PPO members Care: IPA with more in Los Angeles than 2,500 independent, private- Counties and Orange practice physicians - HealthCare Partners: more than 1,200 employed and affiliated PCPs, and more than 3,000 employed and contracted physicians overall - Initially: Shared savings - Some form of global capitation going forward Currently unknown - Participant in the Brookings- Dartmouth ACO Pilot Project - Led by the two physician organizations - Five-year pilot launched in January 2011 Source: Booz & Company research, company press releases, Becker s Hospital Review, Brookings-Dartmouth ACO Learning Network 6 Booz & Company
9 performance-linked bonuses, they are less likely to enter gain-sharing agreements that include downside risk because they control a smaller percentage of total medical costs and do not have the financial wherewithal to withstand potential catastrophic outcomes. Aetna Medicare Advantage: A good example of the primary care focused virtually integrated ACO is Aetna s collaboration with providers in its Medicare Advantage program. Aetna has partnered with 36 primary care practices serving 20,000 of its Medicare Advantage plan members. The pilots, which Aetna began launching in 2007, combine personalized care management with electronic patient and evidence-based treatment information to support participating PCPs. Its payment system includes performance-based incentives for doctors, as well as compensation for the additional time and resources that PCPs devote to the ACO s members. vi Aetna provided significant assistance for care delivery redesign. It used ActiveHealth Management s CareEngine System to identify gaps in patient care and nurse case managers to work with doctors in the primary care practices, assist in coordinating patient care, and help members set up personal health records. Aetna also helped the physician groups coordinate with a range of other providers, from specialists to hospitals to community social services, including government agencies for in-home services, home-delivered meals, and caregiver support. The initiative has been successful. Participating providers are meeting performance goals, such as follow-up office visits within 30 days of discharge and two annual office visits for certain chronic patients. In addition, a September 2010 Commonwealth Fund study showed significant reduction in duplicate/ unnecessary services (members in this pilot consumed 43 percent less acute hospital care in 2010 compared to Medicare recipients not in the pilot). A Health Affairs case study also computed an estimated 22 percent reduction in medical costs due to an increase in hospice election and a reduction of acute care services use, compared to a non-participating control group. Finally, physicians participating in the program discovered time savings for themselves and their office staff. vii Aetna continues to work with a variety of providers to create ACOs based on several models, including for their commercial members. In addition, they are leveraging the capabilities of their ActiveHealth Management subsidiary to assist providers with infrastructural capabilities, such as data management and case management. Additional in-market and announced examples of primary care-focused virtually integrated ACOs include the following initiatives (see Exhibit 2, page 8, for details): Roanoke, Va.-based Carilion Clinic, with payors to be determined Tucson Medical Center and UnitedHealthcare Western States Health Plan Full-Spectrum Virtually Integrated ACOs: The full-spectrum virtually integrated ACO involves collaborations between a payor and a broader spectrum of providers than just PCPs, often including specialists, hospitals, and other community care settings. Often, these initiatives are emerging in markets with progressive providers who do not necessarily want to become fully integrated but want to participate in the shared savings that ACOs promise. In this model, the role of the payor is to provide infrastructure assistance and financial incentives for accountability of performance. Payors also help delineate how payment and shared savings will be distributed among participating providers. The inclusion of a wider range of providers enables more comprehensive and effective care delivery redesign, with associated potential for higher savings. Hospitals, for example, can use a variety of additional levers to increase healthcare value that physician groups typically cannot, such as limits on unnecessary testing, development of OBS (observation) units to avoid admissions, enhanced follow-up, and Booz & Company 7
10 Exhibit 2 Examples of Primary Care Focused Virtually Integrated ACOs PROVIDER STRUCTURE PATIENT POPULATION PAYMENT STRUCTURE PATIENT ATTRIBUTION GOVERNANCE EARLY RESULTS/ PROGRESS Carilion Clinic 600+ physicians in a multi-specialty group practice and eight not-for-profit hospitals 60,000 Medicare patients Shared savings and financial incentives for employed physicians based on cost and quality performance Currently unknown Brookings- Dartmouth to provide technical assistance for pilot set up Anthem, CIGNA, United Healthcare, and Southern Health have expressed interest in partnering UnitedHealthcare Tucson Medical Center - Large medical center and affiliated physician groups - ACO includes about 12 employed physicians and independent physicians Commercial, managed Medicaid, and Medicare FFS patients - Shared savings - PCPs to receive monthly care coordination fee and bonus for performance based on clinical quality factors - Future might include capitation model Retrospective - Based on a PCMH pilot financed by United with major employers such as IBM and Raytheon - United provides data and IT infrastructure - Dartmouth- Brookings provides external manager payment structure design Preliminary results: - 4.5% decline in necessary emergency department visits % drop in unnecessary emergency department visits - Some self-funded employers have expressed interest in joining Aetna Medicare Advantage Aetna-driven ACO model created with 36 participating primary care practices 20,000 Aetna Medicare Advantage members Performance (quality)-linked incentives for facilities and physicians Currently unknown - Uses ActiveHealth s - Aetna began CareEngine System testing in 2007 to identify gaps in - Nearly all participating medical groups patient care - Aetna helped form met performance the care team: targets, including doctor groups follow-up office paired with specialists, hospitals, and days of discharge visits within 30 community social and two office services visits per year for certain chronically ill patients - Reduced acute hospital care by 43% compared to unmanaged Medicare Advantage members, according to a Commonwealth Fund study - Health Affairs study revealed an increase in hospice election and a decrease in acute care services, estimated to reduce medical costs by 22% (compared to control group) Source: Booz & Company research, company press releases, Becker s Hospital Review, Brookings-Dartmouth ACO Learning Network 8 Booz & Company
11 ensuring that all providers have test results readily available. In addition, these initiatives operate along the entire care continuum, enabling them to take greater accountability for overall patient wellness. Finally, hospitals payment, reporting, and IT infrastructure better enables the transition to a fully-functioning ACO, and, typically, they also have the ability to take on greater financial risk than physician groups. However, full-spectrum virtually integrated ACOs face much larger organizational challenges. These include often difficult decisions on leadership structure, process designs to determine payment and savings distribution among participating providers, and design decisions, such as which specialists to include and how leakage will be handled. Further, although these ACOs are willing to assume a higher portion of the risk, few are interested in managing the total cost of care of patient populations. Hill/CHW/BSC: The partnership of San Ramon, Calif.-based Hill Physicians (with 520 MDs), Catholic Healthcare West (with four hospitals), and Blue Shield of California, serving the California Public Employees Retirement System (CalPERS), is another good example of this model. The three partners hospital, physicians, and payor comprise an adapted integrated ACO in the Sacramento area, one of the earliest and most ambitious entrees in the sector. The initiative, the planning for which dates back to 2007, was officially announced in April Prospective enrollment was opened in fall 2009, and approximately 40,000 CalPERS members in the Sacramento region, who were already in the Blue Shield HMO and receiving primary care through Hill, joined the ACO. The pilot was launched in January The partners goals for the pilot include a full range of objectives, including: Reducing the cost of healthcare trend to 0 percent in aggregate for members Building enrollment as a means of increasing the partners market shares Creating a sustainable model for continuous improvement in cost, quality, and service that can be expanded to other geographic markets To achieve these goals, the ACO pilot is employing integrated processes, data, and quality metrics, as well as clinical best practices and member and physician engagement. Further, incentives are aligned so that each partner shares in the savings but is at financial risk if targets are not met. This pilot is one of very few that has announced results, all of which are encouraging, according to executives within the partner organizations. v Results include: Membership growth by more than 2,500 members since open enrollment A 30 percent reduction in re-admissions A reduction in average length of stay by 0.72 day for all admissions A 7.6 percent reduction in ER/ Urgent Care admissions A 15 percent reduction in total bed days Vermont ACO: Another example of the full-spectrum virtually integrated ACO is the Vermont Accountable Care Organization, which is spearheaded by Vermont s Health Care Reform Commission. Its participants include three payors (Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Vermont, MVP Health Care, and CIGNA) and Booz & Company 9
12 provider partners including three community hospitals (Northeastern Vermont Regional Hospital, Southwest Vermont Medical Center, and Springfield Hospital). Other stakeholders include the state hospital association, state medical society, the business community, state health reform staff, the Vermont Department of Health, the state legislature, and the Department of Banking, Insurance, Securities, and Health Care Administration. In 2008, Vermont s Health Care Reform Commission began examining how ACO-like models could be piloted as part of the state s comprehensive health program. With assistance from the Dartmouth-Brookings ACO Learning Network, three pilots are now being implemented across the state. The payors in these pilots are providing financial incentives designed to support collective patient accountability, and a common payor database to determine the allocation of payments among participating providers. Global budgets for each ACO are based on historical trends and adjusted for patient mix, with cost and quality incentives for providers to drive accountability. The level of risk undertaken by providers varies based on their level of sophistication and their degree of integration. Newly formed entities with little experience managing care or risk have entered into shared savings agreements, while more sophisticated providers have taken on more risk in partnerships with two-sided gain sharing, in which providers reimburse payors for a portion of above-target medical expenses but also receive a larger portion of any savings. viii To prevent underutilization of medical services, performance measurement is not only limited to medical expenses but also includes clinical process measures, outcome measures, and patient experience data. Patient attribution in the Vermont ACO pilots follow a retrospective methodology developed by Dartmouth, in which patients primary care physician usage patterns are analyzed. Since primary care physicians are used for patient assignment, they can only participate in one ACO, while specialists and hospitals are allowed to partner with multiple ACOs. The goal of the Vermont pilot program is to achieve delivery system reform based on the development of a true community health system that both improves the health of the population it serves and manages medical costs at a population level, in which providers are required to manage the full continuum of care settings and services for its assigned patients. ix Toward this end, the pilots are using the patient-centered medical home model as the basic building block of care coordination. Community health teams that support approximately 20,000 patients and typically include a nurse care coordinator, mental health staff, and nonclinical community health workers are being developed. The Vermont ACO pilots are expected to become operational in Additional examples of in-market and announced full-spectrum virtually integrated ACOs include the following (see Exhibit 3 for details): CIGNA Healthcare s Collaborative Accountable Care initiative, which includes separate ACOs with providers in various regions of the country, including ProHealth Solutions in Connecticut, Holston Medical Group in Tennessee, and Medical Clinics of North Texas Dartmouth-Hitchcock Health, the largest healthcare provider in New Hampshire, and Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield Model 3: Provider-Led ACOs The third ACO model is formed and led by provider group collectives. These ACOs are typically composed of physicians, with or without hospital participation, and often they substitute payors with third parties that provide support functions, such as middle office operations and claims. Due to the lack of payor involvement in many provider-led ACOs, payment reform is often not a highlight of 10 Booz & Company
13 Exhibit 3 Examples of Full-Spectrum Virtually Integrated ACOs PROVIDER STRUCTURE PATIENT POPULATION PAYMENT STRUCTURE PATIENT ATTRIBUTION GOVERNANCE EARLY RESULTS/ PROGRESS CIGNA Collaborative Accountable Care Large primary care groups, multispecialty groups, and integrated delivery systems of physicians and hospitals Members in all types of products, including PPO - Bonus for meeting performance targets (quality and lower costs) - Eventually expected to move toward two-sided gain sharing Retrospective, based on CIGNA analysis of which PCP last treated the patient - ACO enabled by CIGNA - CIGNA provides claims data and informatics to identify high-risk patients, funds nurses for outreach programs, and produces management reports - Provider practices to determine care redesign opportunities - CIGNA expecting savings from efficiencies - No results available yet Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center (DHMC) Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield - DHMC is New Hampshire s only academic medical center physician group practice, with strong background in ACOs Currently unknown (Anthem members) Dartmouth Hitchcock to manage cost and quality of care Currently unknown Anthem and Dartmouth- Hitchcock to collect and analyze data to identify and implement efficiencies and improvements in healthcare delivery - ACO yet to be implemented - Dartmouth- Hitchcock has earned $13M to date in the Medicare Physician Group Practice Demonstration, the model for ACOs Blue Shield of California (BSC) Catholic Healthcare West (CHW) Hill Physicians - CHW: large hospital system - Hill Physicians: large physician multi-specialty group practice About 40,000 California State employees in Greater Sacramento Shared savings - Prospective - Initiated a program to identify and enroll patients who have gone out of network Hill and CHW are collaborating on alternatives, including pursuing evidence-based approaches to therapy and treatments prior to recommending surgery Early results include: - Added 2,500+ members since open enrollment - 30% reduction in readmissions - Reduction in average length of stay by 0.72 day - 7.6% reduction in ER/Urgent Care admissions - 15% reduction in total bed days Vermont ACO Pilot Three Vermontbased ACO pilots Currently unknown Variable shared savings model based on level of provider s integration and sophistication: - One-sided shared savings (no risk) for new providers - Shared savings with risk for more sophisticated providers Retrospective, using historical patient patterns - Key stakeholders: Vermont s three major commercial insurers, three community hospitals, a tertiary hospital, state hospital association, state medical society, business community, state health reform staff, Vermont Department of Health, the legislature, and the Department of Banking, Insurance, Securities, and Health Care Administration - Pilot created with assistance from Dartmouth- Brookings - Started in 2008 to achieve delivery system reform based on the development of a true community health system that both improves the health of the population it serves and manages medical costs at a population level Source: Booz & Company research, company press releases, Becker s Hospital Review, Brookings-Dartmouth ACO Learning Network Booz & Company 11
14 the structural design. As such, many of these ACOs continue to be built around an FFS chassis, and they are focused on capturing shared savings without necessarily sharing gains with payors. While most of these ACOs are based on contract arrangements among a community of providers, they can also form as the result of acquisition. For instance, in 2010, St. Joseph Mercy Health System acquired IHA, a 150-physician organization in Ann Arbor, Mich., with the express intent of forming an ACO. IHA plans to recruit independent doctors and double in size. x Unsurprisingly, these provider-led ACOs tend to focus more heavily on care delivery improvements than any of the other models. In particular, they seek to coordinate care delivery across multiple provider settings, including aggressive management of the referral process, patient information share, and outcome tracking across the care continuum. This is a major strength of providerled ACOs: Because providers tend to have better insight into care process inefficiencies and physician practice motivators, they can generate the savings needed to compensate for lost revenue and increased effort, and modify behavior accordingly. The main obstacle that provider-led ACOs face is the lack of organizational expertise and bandwidth to engage in functions that traditionally fall within the purview of payors, such as network, medical, and financial risk management. Provider executives leading the charge on provider-led ACOs recognize the challenge of defining the correct patient population for inclusion in an ACO, as well as the challenge of evaluating care outcomes across a system of providers in an actionable manner. Significant organizational efforts in governance and partner selection are thus required for these ACOs to succeed. A few sophisticated provider-led ACOs engage third-party vendors to oversee these important functions, as is the case with United Outstanding Physicians in Michigan. United Outstanding Physicians: United Outstanding Physicians (UOP), a Dearborn, Mich.-based physician organization with approximately 1,000 private and employed physicians, launched its ACO in 2010 in partnership with Automated Benefit Services Inc., a third-party administrator that will process medical claims; Continuum Management Services, an information technology and medical management company; and CIG Corp., a financial and regulatory management company. Under the UOP ACO, physicians are individually responsible for improving the outcomes and affordability of care provided to patients. They are incented through a unique stockbased reimbursement system, with 1,020 shares of stock distributed to 720 physicians. The distribution ratio reveals an emphasis on preventive care and recognizes the greater influence and responsibility of primary care physicians in providing it: 291 primary care physicians were each given two shares of the ACO stock, while specialists were each given one share. The remainder of the 60,000 shares will be available to new physicians or retained by the company. UOP was founded on the basis of strong physician leadership to monitor and improve peer performance and has continually emphasized evidence-based medicine as a tool for improving utilization performance. Physicians who participate in the UOP ACO will have access to electronic prescribing and electronic registry technology to better track their patients. Further, the ACO expects to contract with several hospitals for inpatient care and has approached healthcare systems in its primary service area in western Wayne County, including Oakwood Healthcare, St. Mary Mercy Livonia, Garden City Hospital, Detroit Medical Center, and Henry Ford Wyandotte. Additional in-market and announced examples of provider-led ACOs include the following initiatives (see Exhibit 4 for additional details): Hyannis, Mass.-based Cape Cod Healthcare, Inc. Optimus Healthcare Partners, a joint venture of two independent practice associations in New Jersey: VISTA Health System and Central Jersey Physician Network 12 Booz & Company
15 Exhibit 4 Examples of Provider-Led ACOs PROVIDER STRUCTURE PATIENT POPULATION PAYMENT STRUCTURE PATIENT ATTRIBUTION GOVERNANCE EARLY RESULTS/ PROGRESS United Outstanding Physicians (UOP) Detroit-based physician organization (with more than 1,000 physicians) partnering with several local health systems for inpatient care UOP patients Shared savings; specifics not disclosed Currently unknown - United Outstanding Goal: contract with Physicians will manage the ACO and payors as an ACO Medicaid or private doctors will own it - Designated 1,020 stocks to 720 physicians: PCPs given two shares each - Specialists given one share - Remainder shares kept for new physicians - Contracts signed with: - Third-party administrator that will administer medical claims (Automated Benefit Services) - Medical management company (Continuum Management Services) - Financial management company (CIG Corp) Cape Cod Healthcare Two hospital, Currently unknown physician owned system partnering with local Cape Cod physician community Contract with Caritas Christi Network Services (CCNS), a large Boston-based physician network, to manage patient budgets and healthcare quality Currently unknown - Two organizations to be formed: - Physician Organization (PO): physician-owned, physiciangoverned - Physician-Hospital Organization (PHO): joint venture of the PO and Cape Cod Healthcare system to pursue risk contracts with joint governance - CCNS to contribute ACO knowhow and IT infrastructure - Objectives: to strengthen the working relationships among local physicians and hospitals, and to improve quality, efficiency, and coordination of patient care - Long-term goal: evolve into an ACO Optimus Healthcare Two IPAs: Vista Health (Summit) and Central Jersey Physician Network Currently unknown New compensation models rewarding good outcomes Currently unknown - ACO (Optimus Healthcare Partners) will enroll physicians from combined 650 membership of VISTA and CJPN before expanding to rest of New Jersey - ACO to adopt evidence-based medicine, care coordination, and whole-person orientation Goal: to provide an alternative to hospitals or larger groups for physicians who wish to remain independent Source: Booz & Company research, company press releases, Becker s Hospital Review, Brookings-Dartmouth ACO Learning Network Booz & Company 13
16 STAKEHOLDER IMPACT AND COMPETITIVE IMPLICATIONS OF ACOs What is the potential impact of the ACO construct on the competitive positions of providers and payors? ACO Impact on Providers Provider opportunities: PCPs can derive significant benefits from ACOs due to their role as lynchpins in ACO structural design. This position increases the negotiating power of PCPs relative to specialists, hospitals, and payors. In addition, ACOs create the opportunity for PCPs to gain reimbursement or subsidies for medical management work, which many physicians already do or would like to do but cannot afford to undertake. ACOs offer both volume and margin stabilization opportunities for procedural specialists. Specialists who are facing impending volume declines, driven by more aggressive utilization controls in the post-reform environment, can participate in ACOs to gain new volume. Such participation will also help them stabilize their margins by gaining a share of the ACO savings that would likely accrue with or without their participation. In a time when shifts in the healthcare model will make volume increasingly difficult to generate, ACOs present a valuable opportunity for hospitals to preserve and expand their volume. Hospitals that take leading roles in ACOs can gain market share, enhance their negotiating positions vis-à-vis payors, and develop key capabilities such as data analytics. ACOs can also be used to support the vertical integration efforts of hospitals; they can use them as burning platforms to acquire physician groups and a means of establishing direct contract with self-insured employers, cutting payors out of the process. ACOs represent an opportunity for first-movers and low-cost, high-quality providers to define their brands and build valuable equity in the local market. Such brands will be key to creating and gaining market share in the post-reform era. Finally, over the long term, ACOs can enable providers to streamline their claims processing and eliminate obstacles to reimbursement. This can improve their cash flow and reduce their dependence on revenue-cycle management vendors. Provider risks: The primary ACO risk for providers is that they will lose volume if they cannot successfully position themselves in this emerging market. The ACO market scenario is based on the assumption that the total amount of care delivered to patients will decrease as the quality of care improves. This suggests that there will be a significant amount of 14 Booz & Company
17 unused capacity in the health system (e.g., specialists, inpatient settings). As a result, providers that are late or unsuccessful in pursuing ACOs could potentially lose even more volume as they lose market share to first-movers and low-cost, high-quality providers. Another major potential challenge for providers is the risk that ACOs may not even provide the economic returns necessary to support their participation. For instance, Steven Lieberman, a Brookings Institute visiting scholar, concluded that the shared savings plan in the Brookings-Dartmouth ACO model, which is being piloted in five sites, may be inadequate. Lieberman calculated that the shared savings could constitute a significant portion of the primary care budget, but as little as 2 percent of the total hospital and specialist budget a percentage that may not be enough to compensate them for the revenue reduction from decreased utilization and infrastructure investments associated with ACOs. 11 There are also potential drawbacks in the various ACO payment models. Shared savings is particularly effective as a means to flatten the cost curve in areas with high rates of healthcare inflation. However, in areas that are already relatively efficient or have lower rates of inflation, such saving may not materialize (see Exhibit 5). xii Further, since the U.S. healthcare system is largely built around a volume-based business model, there is a risk that ACOs and their associated care redesign strategies, such as prevention and lifestyle management, could reduce the economic viability of hospitals and large provider groups. Most hospitals are carrying huge fixed cost overhead and we re talking Exhibit 5 Varying Impact of Shared Savings Models IMPACT OF SHARED SAVINGS MODELS IN HIGH-SPENDING VS. LOW-SPENDING REGIONS Healthcare Spending High-Cost, High-Inflation Regions Low-Cost, Low-Inflation Regions Savings Potential No reward for lower spending than other regions if it is higher than previous levels Source: Center for Healthcare Quality & Payment Reform Booz & Company 15
18 about reducing the patient population, said one provider executive. [It s like] asking them to root for a weak flu season as opposed to for a strong one it s a sea change. xiii In an ACO environment, providers will have to shift from a volume-based to a margin-based business model. One reason some ACO pilots have focused on PCPs is that these providers are in some ways better positioned to make this shift due to the fact that they currently provide services such as preventative care and disease management, albeit sub-optimally, with no reimbursement. Hospitals and other large providers will need to actively pursue ways to develop more dynamic modes of operation in which they can scale up or down based on demand and provide the appropriate level of care based on patient needs. Finally, to successfully develop and operate ACOs, providers will need to lead change within the organization and across stakeholders; drive the commitment to reduce costs, improve quality, and accept accountability for results; and identify, invest in, and develop a host of new capabilities required to successfully plan and operate ACOs. Until ACOs are fully defined and their guidelines are established, the full extent of these capabilities is not known. Even when the capabilities are known, providers typically do not possess and have little experience with them (see ACO Capabilities Needed by Providers ). ACO Impact on Payors Payor opportunities: First and foremost, ACOs offer payors an opportunity to reduce medical costs from more efficient utilization, lower unit costs, and improved outcomes. With the increasing willingness of providers to accept two-sided gain sharing, ACOs also offer payors an opportunity to transfer some of the financial risk of care when incurred expenses exceed agreed-upon total cost-of-care amounts. Although payors will continue to bear the burden of insurance risk, providers in ACOs (and especially those in an adapted integrated delivery model) are assuming an increasing share of the clinical risk. Second, although helping to establish ACOs will likely cause payors administrative costs to rise in the short-term, over the long-term, there may be an opportunity to reduce these dramatically. Incremental savings could accrue from consolidated billing based on the collectivization of providers and treatments that currently require separate payments. And eventually, if the shift to global payment is successful, ACOs could help eliminate a major portion of back office functions. Third, ACOs offer payors an opportunity to capture new revenue streams by packaging and selling medical management and reporting capabilities (especially for care delivered outside the ACO network). These include opportunities to create new businesses to assist ACOs with population health management, overall administration, and turnkey solutions. Payor risks: The primary ACO risk for payors relates to their relationships with providers and the associated threat of marginalization in the marketplace. Since payors will compete to contract with ACOs that offer the lowest total cost of care, it will be more difficult for all payors to 16 Booz & Company
19 ACO Capabilities Needed by Providers To successfully develop and operate ACOs, providers will require five broad sets of capabilities. These include: Technological infrastructure capabilities, including tools for outcome measurement and reporting, baseline databases from which to evaluate savings, analytics capable of mining clinical data for care delivery redesign insights, health information technologies supporting electronic medical and patient health records, and claims processing. Risk management capabilities, including population health management and actuarial cost assessments, savings/income distribution infrastructure, and predictive trend analysis and indicators. maintain relationships with low-cost, high-quality providers. This risk could be exacerbated if patient attribution processes and regulations prevent physician groups from aligning with more than one ACO, in which case payors that are unable to secure key partnerships could be cut out of low-cost ACOs or, in cases in which a provider group dominates a specific market, the ACO market itself. Care coordination, support, and wellness capabilities, including integrated care management, care leakage management, patient engagement tools (especially for non-compliant patient populations), and care coordinator/ navigator provisioning. Sales and marketing capabilities, including ACO product development, payor and employer-facing sales force development and management, and promotions and brand management. Finance and business development capabilities, including contract negotiation skills, and compensation design and management. To the extent that ACOs drive quasiprovider consolidation, they are also likely to increase the negotiating leverage of providers. That said, this risk is expected to be countered to some extent by the expansion of government oversight on the part of the Federal Trade Commission and Department of Justice, which will likely monitor rates closely for power abuses associated with provider consolidation. The central role that providers can play in establishing ACOs can also create a risk for payors. Providers who take a lead in ACOs could gain an advantage by, for instance, setting reimbursement standards and dictating the amount of payor infrastructure that is used Booz & Company 17
20 versus outsourced in ACOs. This threat is increased in markets where there is already a substantial level of care delivery integration and payors are poorly positioned to provide the connective tissue for ACOs. However, the worst-case scenario would entail provider-led ACOs disintermediating payors entirely. Large, self-insured employers, for example, could join ACOs directly, obviating the need for payors. If the health insurance exchanges mandated by the reform act are successful and they actively set the terms of benefit packages, they could contract directly with potentially lowest-cost ACOs, leaving out traditional payors. Finally, provider-led ACOs could eliminate external payors by developing or outsourcing their medical management and administration functions, and using alternate payment methodologies. In fact, specialized vendors are already seeking to assist providers with the technological infrastructure, risk-management, and medical management capabilities they will need to operate ACOs (see External Vendors in the ACO Space ). In summary, ACOs represent a new basis of competition for payors and providers. As ACOs gain scale indeed, if they are to successfully gain scale they will accelerate the shift to a healthcare system that runs on a margin-based financial model in which both payors and providers will prosper by becoming ever more collaborative in their drive to improve the quality of care and reduce its total cost. These goals will be supported by a high-quality, cost-effective care delivery model that is patient-centric in its approach (see Exhibit 6). Exhibit 6 Competitive Implications of ACOs THE BASIS OF COMPETITION From To Revenue - Focus on higher volumes in an FFS environment Competition - Payors and providers debating approvals and negotiating contract rates, with general lack of trust Institution-centricity - Limited exchange of data; disjointed patient outreach State-of-the-art care - Marketing differentiation built on newest technology and latest procedure, even if little clinical difference Margin - Focus on higher profitability (e.g., by reducing controllable costs ) Collaboration - Payors and providers working together to create true healthcare value, with mutual skin in the game Patient-centricity - Full transparency; increased patient engagement High quality, cost-effective care - Marketing differentiated on quality of care supported by results at a better price Source: Booz & Company 18 Booz & Company
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Horrid Henry's Krazy Ketchup
Written by Francesca Simon
Illustrated by Tony Ross
Part of the Horrid Henry Series
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Shortlisted for Children's Book Award 2016, Books for Younger Readers category Best-selling Francesca Simon tells four terrific new stories about the worst behaved boy in the world. Children everywhere will sympathise with Henry in the title story as he tries to circumvent his parents' healthy eating regime by swamping everything with ketchup. And they will love how he gets his own back when they introduce a substitute pure version! In other stories, how Henry and his equally horrible friend Rude Ralph outwit the mean babysitter and, how Henry avoids looking after the chicken he is so frightened of, are equally entertaining. ~ Julia Eccleshare
Horrid Henry's Krazy Ketchup by Francesca Simon
The 23rd Horrid Henry storybook containing four brand new stories - including Horrid Henry's Ketchup, Horrid Henry's Chicken, The Revenge of the Bogey Babysitter and Horrid Henry Tells It Like It Is.
Discover the one thing Horrid Henry is scared of, watch out for the return of Rabid Rebecca, find out what happens when Henry makes a film about his family and lots more in the more hilarious and horrid storybook yet.
There are lots of activities, games and more information on your favourite Horrid Henry characters at www.horridhenry.co uk
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96 pages
Interest Age: From 5
Francesca Simon
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Hotels in Colchester
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Hampton Inn Burlington42 Lower Mountain View Dr, Colchester 3.0 out of 5.0
Situated in the mountains, this hotel is within 3 mi (5 km) of Champlain Mill, University of Vermont, and Church Street Marketplace. Saint Michael's Playhouse ...
Holiday Inn Burlington1068 Williston Rd, South Burlington 3.0 out of 5.0
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Cities near Colchester
- Plattsburgh Hotels (18.68 mi)
- Waterbury Hotels (22.01 mi)
- South Burlington Hotels (5.42 mi)
- Westport Hotels (27.18 mi)
- Essex Junction Hotels (4.96 mi)
- Smugglers Notch Hotels (18.81 mi)
- Shelburne Hotels (9.7 mi)
- Colchester Hotels (2.19 mi)
- Keeseville Hotels (17.4 mi)
- Winooski Hotels (2.39 mi)
- Bristol Hotels (28.07 mi)
- Richmond Hotels (12.6 mi)
- Burlington Hotels (4.24 mi)
- Williston Hotels (7.68 mi)
- South Hero Hotels (10.55 mi)
- Charlotte Hotels (15.44 mi)
- Vergennes Hotels (29.25 mi)
- Stowe Hotels (22.01 mi)
- Jericho Hotels (11.27 mi)
- Huntington Hotels (18.93 mi)
Top Points of Interests in Colchester
- University of Vermont Hotels (3.99 mi)
- Waterfront Park Hotels (4.3 mi)
- Church Street Marketplace Hotels (4.05 mi)
- Shelburne Farms Hotels (9.9 mi)
- Shelburne Museum Hotels (11.12 mi)
- Stowe Mountain Resort Hotels (18.87 mi)
- North Beach Hotels (4.48 mi)
- Battery Park Hotels (4.14 mi)
- Grand Isle State Park Hotels (13.32 mi)
- Lake Champlain Hotels (9.07 mi)
- Champlain College Hotels (4.16 mi)
- University Mall Hotels (4.33 mi)
- Essex Outlets Hotels (4.41 mi)
- Burlington Country Club Hotels (4.47 mi)
- Smugglers Notch State Park Hotels (18.34 mi)
- Ausable Chasm Hotels (14.62 mi)
- Alpine Slide Hotels (18.9 mi)
- Underhill State Park Hotels (15.88 mi)
- Saint Michael's College Hotels (2.31 mi)
- Shelburne Vineyard Hotels (11.57 mi)
Recommended Cities For You
- Montreal Hotels
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- Central Vermont- Killington Hotels
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- Ogunquit - Wells Hotels
- Albany Hotels
- Lebanon Hotels
- Hartford Hotels
- Lake George Hotels
- Stowe Hotels
- White Mountains Hotels
- Springfield Hotels
- Orlando Hotels
- Quebec Hotels
- Worcester Hotels
* Prices reflect the lowest "base rate" found over the next 30 days. Rates are subject to change and may not include taxes and fees, hotel service charges, extra person charges, or incidentals, such as room service. All rates are displayed in USD unless otherwise noted. Converted rates are provided for your convenience. They are based on today's exchange rate, but the hotel will charge you in the local currency.


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CHEM 111 - Study guide #2
CHEM 111 - Study guide #2 CHEM 111
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This 12 page Study Guide was uploaded by Selena Blanco on Monday February 22, 2016. The Study Guide belongs to CHEM 111 at New Mexico State University taught by Ramesh Chinnasamy in Spring 2016. Since its upload, it has received 45 views. For similar materials see Chemistry in Chemistry at New Mexico State University.
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Date Created: 02/22/16
March 22, 2016 Exam Study Guide: Ch. 3-4 •surfaces when illuminatedctrons are ejected from charged metal •Wavelength and Frequency are inversely related (reciprocal) • Energy and wavelength are inversely related(reciprocal) • Energy and frequency are directly related • Wavelength (): • Distance from crest to crest or trough to trough, unit: nm (nano meter) • Frequency (): • The number of times a wave passes a point per unit of time -1 (per second, -1), also used in Hertz • (1 Hz = 1 s ) • Amplitude: • The height of the crest or depth of the trough • Black body Radiation: Absorbs light when cold and emit when it is hot.(depends on temperature) • Radiant energy is "quantized" • Having values restricted to whole-number multiples of a specific base value • Quantum = smallest discrete quantity of energy • Photon = a quantum of electromagnetic radiation(tiny packet) • Quantized states: Discrete energy levels (e.g., steps) • Continuum states: Smooth transition between levels (e.g., ramp) • Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein • Phenomenon of light striking a metal surface and producing an electric current (flow of electrons) • Work function () – amount of energy needed to dislodge an electron from the surface of a metal • Bohr theory: Based on Rutherford model of an atom(Recall) and Max Planck's theory of quantized energy • Electrons are revolving around the nucleus in one of orbits • Most negative energy of electron and the addition of energy to dislodge an electron or breaking the attraction between the nucleus and an electron. Energy added should be more than the attraction between electrons and nucleus of an atom. • Electronic states • Energy Level: An allowed state that an electron can occupy in an atom • Ground State: Lowest energy level available to an electron in an atom (n = 1); • Excited State: Any energy state above the ground state, n= 2, 3, 4, 5 etc • Electron Transition: Movement of an electron between energy levels • Strengths: Accurately predicts energy needed to remove an electron from an atom (ionization) • Limitations: Does not account for spectra of multi electron atoms or limited to hydrogen atom • De Broglie (1892–1987): Another evidence for stability of electrons orbiting the nuclei • If electromagnetic radiation behaves as a particle, could a particle in motion, such as an electron, behave as a wave? • Assumed that electron could behave as waves of matter and particles of matter. • Heisenberg uncertainty principle • The principle that one can not simultaneously know the exact position and momentum of an electron • Erwin Schrödinger (1925) • Developed mathematical equations to describe behavior of electron waves; became the basis of quantum mechanics or wave mechanics(provides the probability of finding an electron at any point in the space around nucleus of atom) • Quantum numbers: energy, size, shape, orientation • of orbitals, spin orientation of electrons • Mathematical solutions to wave equations (y ) identified by unique combination of 3 integers called: Quantum Numbers: • Principle quantum number (n); indicates shell and relative size of orbital(s). n = 1, 2, 3,… Like Bohr's n value • Orbitals with same value of n is in the same shell, energy increases with increasing value of n • Angular momentum quantum number (ℓ); defines shape of orbital and subshell. ℓ = 0 →(n – 1), Orbitals with same values of n and l are in same subshell, have same energy • l= 0(s), 1(p), 2(d), 3(f), 4(g) • Magnetic quantum number (m); defines orientation of orbital l around nucleus. m = –ℓl→ + ℓ • Shell: Defined by angular momentum quantum number (l) and magnetic quantum number(m) l • Shell consists of orbitals with same principle quantum number(n) • Atomic orbital: Provides the probability of finding an electron in the space around the nucleus of atom • An orbital with in the same subshell have same principal and angular momentum quantum numbers. • principal quantum number value be never zero • s subshell:1 orbital, p subshell: 3 orbitals, d subshell:5 orbitals • f subshell: 7 orbitals g subshell: 9 orbitals • Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom may have the same set of four quantum numbers • Total number of orbitals =16 • Radial Distribution Plot: • A graphical representation of the probability of finding an electron in a thin spherical layer near the nucleus of an atom • Aufbau Principle: • Method of building electron configurations by adding one electron at a time as atomic number increases • Electron configuration: The distribution of electrons among the orbitals in atom or ion • When adding electrons to an atom: Rules • Electrons always go first to lowest energy orbitals available • Maximum of two electrons per orbital • Orbital Diagram: Depiction of arrangement of electrons in an atom or ion using boxes to represent orbita-s • Up/down arrows to indicate e with +/ – spin • Hund's Rule: • Degenerate orbitals – orbitals of the same energy (e.g., 2p) • Degenerate Orbitals: orbitals sharing the same principal and angular momentum quantum numbers • The lowest energy configuration maximizes the number of unpaired electrons, all of which has same spin, in degenerate orbitals • Core electron: Inner shell electrons, not involved in chemical reaction • Valence Electron: Outer shell electrons, involved in a chemical reaction • Valence shell: Outermost occupied shell of atom • Effective nuclear Charge: The attraction between the electron and nucleus, the positive charge reduced by the extent to which other electrons shield electrons from the nucleus • Chromium, copper do not follow pattern: 2 2 6 2 6 5 1 • 24Cr = 1s 22 2p 2s 3p63d 2s 6 10 1 • 29Cu = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s • Anomalies arise from stability associated with half-filled and completely filled d-subshells • • Formation of Ions: • Gain/loss of valence electrons to achieve stable electron configuration (filled shell) • Cations: + - • Na(g) → Na (g) + e • [He]3s → [Ne] + e - • Anions: - - • Cl(g) + e → Cl (g) • [Ne]3s 3p + e → [Ne]3s 3p = [Ar] 2 6 • Main Group Elements: • Form ions by gain/loss of e to obtain noble gas configuration: 2+ - • Mg → Mg + 2e = [Ne] • O + 2e → O - 2- = [Ne] • Isoelectronic: Describes atoms/ions having identical electron configurations • Na , Mg , O ,F , Ne = 1s 2s 2p 2 2 6 (= [Ne]) + - 2+ 2 2 6 2 6 • K , Cl , Ca , Ar = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (= [Ar]) • Atomic Radius (i.e., covalent radius): Half the distance between identical nuclear centers in a molecule • Metallic Radius: half the distance between nuclear centers in the crystal of a metal • Ionic Radius: Derived from the distance between nuclear centers in ionic crystals • Atomic Radii: • Increase going down a family"Shielding" by inner shell electrons decreases effective nuclear charge (z ) eff • Decrease going across a row • Increased nuclear charge (z) moving across row • Increased attraction for electrons in inner orbitals → atomic size decreases • Recall: Atomic emission spectrum, theories about structure of atom and discrete energy levels in the atom • Ionization Energy: - • Amount of energy needed to remove 1 mole of e from 1 mole of the ground-state atoms or ions in the gas phase (kJ/mole) + - • X(st → X (g) + e (g) + - • 1 Ionization Energy (IE ): Mg1g) → Mg (g) + e = 738 kJ/mol • 2 ndIonization Energy (IE ): M2 (g) → Mg (g) + e =1451 kJ/mol • Note: IE > 2E 1 2+ • Total energy required to make 1 mole of Mg = 2189 kJ/mole • Electron Affinity: • Energy change that occurs when 1 mole of electrons combine with 1 mole of atoms or ions in the gas phase • Cl(g) + e → Cl (g) - EA =1–349 kJ/mol CHAPTER 4 • Types of Chemical Bonds: • Ionic bond: Chemical bond resulting from the electrostatic attraction of a cation for an anion (metals + nonmetals, transition metals + non metals), by transfer of electrons. • Energy associated is electrostatic potential energy: E el ∞ Q x1Q 2 /d • Replacing ∞ by proportionality constant E =2.31x10 el -19J.nm Q 1Q /2 • The net charge ionic compound is zero • Covalent bond: Chemical bond that results from a sharing of outermost electrons (non-metals + non metals or metalloids), sharing of electrons involved, mutual attraction between nucleus & electron • Metallic bond: Chemical bond consisting of the nuclei of metal atoms surrounded by a "sea" of shared electrons (Metals, pool of electron • Coulomb's law • Electrostatic potential energy: The energy of a charged particle based on its position relative to another charged particle; it is directly proportional to the product of the particles and inversely proportional to the distance between them: Coulombic attraction • what is lattice energy? • The energy released when free gas phase ions combine to form one mole of crystalline solid. • Crystal Lattice: Three dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline solid • Binary ionic compounds consist of cations (usually metals) and anions (usually nonmetals), e.g., MgCl , LiCl, 2a S, Li O 2 2 • Cation named first using name of element, Mg = magnesium • Anion named by adding the -ide suffix to the name of the element, Cl = chlorine → chloride • For metals that form cations with different charges, a Roman numeral is added to indicate the charge of the cation. • Polyatomic Ions • Charged group of two or more atoms joined together by covalent bonds Ex: NH 4 cation is most common • Oxoanions • Polyatomic anions containing oxygen in combination with one or more other elements, - - 2- • Examples: acetate (C H O )2 n3tr2te (NO ), carbona3e (CO ), 3 perchlorate (ClO ), 4ulfate (SO ) and 4ulfite (SO ) (See Tabl3- 4.3) • • Binary Acids: Explain ionizable hydrogen atoms • Contain hydrogen and a monoatomic anion (e.g., Cl , S ) - 2- • Most common binary acids are halogen (e.g., HI, HCl, HBr) • Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen iodide • If the these compounds dissolves in water, solution is called as • HI hydro iodic acid, and HCl Hydrochloric acid • Acid names: the prefix "hydro" + the halogen base name + the suffix "ic" + the word acid. • • Gilbert Lewis (1916) • Proposed that atoms form chemical bonds by sharing electrons to acquire electron configuration of a noble gas • Octet Rule : Atoms tend to lose, gain, or share electrons to obtain a set of 8 valence electrons (ns np )2 6 • Lewis Symbols (Dot Structures) • Chemical symbol for an atom surrounded by one or more dots representing valence electrons • A Nonmetal and a Metal: Ionic compounds • Metals lose valence electrons to achieve noble gas electron configuration. • Nonmetal gain electrons to achieve noble gas electron configuration. • Lewis Structures: Molecular Compounds: non-metal +non metal • Pair of electrons shared between two atoms in a covalent bond • Single bond: Two atoms sharing one pair e . Ex. H:H, or H–H (duet), stable like He - • Lone pair: Pair of e that is not shared. Or (lone pairs) • Shared electrons vs unshared pair of electrons Ex H O 2 2 • Double Bond: Two electron pairs shared by two atoms • Represented as a double line ( = ). • Example: O 2 → • Triple Bond: Three electron pairs shared by two atoms • Electronegativity (EN): ability of an atom to attract electrons in a bond to itself. • EN increases from left to right and decreases from top to bottom in the periodic table. • Polar Covalent Bond: Unequal sharing of bonding pair of electrons between atoms, Results in uneven distribution of charge • Bond Polarity: A measure of the extent to which bonding electrons are unequally shared due to differences in electronegativity of the bonded atoms • Polar Bond: Partial negative and positive charges (δ+, δ–) • Direction of polarity indicated by arrow pointing to more negative end of bond, with + sign at positive end • Electronegativity Difference is • Less than 0.4: Non-Polar • Between 0.4-2.0: Polar • Greater than 2.0: ionic • Absorption of energy by atoms: • Absorb radiation if frequency matches ∆E of electron energy levels (Chapter 7) • Absorption of energy by molecules: • Absorb infrared radiation if frequency matches vibrational modes of molecular bonds = infrared active Basis of "greenhouse effect" • Allotropes: Different molecular forms of the same element • Having different physical and chemical properties • Resonance: • When two or more equivalent Lewis structures can be drawn for one compound • Resonance Structures: • Two or more Lewis structures with the same arrangement of atoms but different arrangement of bonding pairs of electrons: • Formal Charge: - • Determined by the difference between the number of valence e - in the free atom and the sum of lone pair + ½ bonding e in a molecule • Formal charge (FC): • FC = (# valence electrons) – - - • [ (# unshared e ) + 1/2(# of e in bonding pairs)] • • Free Radical: Odd-electron molecule with an unpaired e in its - Lewis structure. Very reactive! • Two important things about Expanded Shells • 1. Atoms tend form molecules with stronger electronegative elements (F, O and Cl) • Ex: SO ,42- PO 43- (Home work, try to draw the Lewis structure) • 2. Formation of molecules resulting in smaller formal charges on the atoms: FC for sulfur = 0; FC for fluorine = 0 • Bond Length Depends On: Identity of the atoms, and # of bonds between them • Bond Order: The # of bonds between two atoms • 1 for a single bond • 2 for a double bond • 3 for a triple bond • Bond Energy or Bond strength • The amount of energy required to break the bond between the atoms • Bond energies always positive, energy required to break bond • Bond order and Bond strength or bond energy is directly related • C-C (348 kJ) C=C (614 kJ) C-C triple bond (839 kJ) • Energy needed to break 1 mole of covalent bonds in the gas phase • Breaking bonds consumes energy (+); forming bonds releases energy (-) • Using bond energies to estimate IONIC COMPOUNDS -The metal will always be the first element in the name. The non- metal will always be the last element in the name COVALENT COMPOUNDS -Will only contain non-metals Fluorine (the most electronegative element)
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text:
Chronic inflammatory lung diseases like chronic bronchitis and emphysema are a major global health problem, and the fourth leading cause of death and disability in developed countries, with smoking accounting for 90% of the risk for developing them.
Work by scientists at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) and its Molecular Medicine Partnership Unit (MMPU) with the University of Heidelberg, Germany, has shed new light on the underlying disease process of emphysema using a technique which could in future be adapted for use in diagnosis. The study is published today in Nature Chemical Biology.
The researchers present a new strategy for testing the activity of MMP12, an enzyme known to be involved in the development of emphysema. Emphysema is characterised by the damage and destruction of the alveoli, the tiny air-sacs of the lungs that are crucial for respiration and uptake of oxygen from the air.
Cigarette smoke and other irritants activate immune cells, like macrophages, in the lungs to destroy the foreign material, and chronic exposure causes inflammation. MMP12 is an enzyme secreted by macrophages which usually helps them to break down the extracellular matrix (the complex network of proteins and fibers that surround and support the cells of the body), a process important for normal wound healing. However, over-stimulation of macrophages by irritants leads to build up of excess MMP12, which starts to damage the delicate structure of the small airspaces of the lungs, eventually leading to emphysema.
"We developed a tool which, for the first time, allows us to study MMP12 activity in specific cells, as if we were actually looking inside the lungs," says Carsten Schultz, whose group carried out the research at EMBL.
The researchers designed a special fluorescent probe that essentially allows MMP12 activity in macrophages to be quantified by the amount of fluorescence they take up. Applying this test to samples of lung cells from a mouse model of acute lung inflammation showed that MMP12 activity in macrophages was indeed increased.
Although the study was performed in mice, the researchers hope that in future it will be possible to adapt the test for use in patients. "It would allow us to use MMP12 as a biomarker to monitor disease evolution and the risk of emphysema formation. It could also serve to examine the response to therapeutic interventions in patients with inflammatory lung diseases," says Marcus Mall, group leader at the Children's Hospital at the University of Heidelberg.
The EMBL and University researchers hope that the new testing strategy can be extended to other enzymes involved in lung inflammation and that, with a better picture of the processes underlying these diseases, future treatments could be more specific, reducing the side-effects often caused by broad spectrum treatments.Anna-Lynn Wegener
Anna-Lynn Wegener | EMBL
Further information:
Further reports about: > EMBL > Lung inflammation > MMP12 > Molecular Biology > Molecular Target > chronic bronchitis > emphysema > enzymes > immune cell > lung diseases > macrophages > synthetic biology
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