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Biology II Exam #2 Study Guide
Biology II Exam #2 Study Guide
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This 60 page Study Guide was uploaded by Kiki Shelvin on Wednesday March 9, 2016. The Study Guide belongs to at Texas Christian University taught by Demarest and Luque in Spring 2016. Since its upload, it has received 222 views.
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Biology II Exam #2 Study Guide -Biochemical and molecular information tells us that animals evolved about 700 million years ago -Animals are a relatively new species and they have a lot of morphological diversity and a great distribution of diversity -Due to their form, animals are incredibly diverse whih give us an advantage to survive in ertain environments What makes an animal? -All animals are heterotrophic (by ingestion) -They reproduce sexually -They are eukaryotes -Multicellular -No cell wall (the biggest different that is only true to animals and no other organism on earth -Allows for certain conditions to occur that does not happen in other organisms -Produce collagen (protect our cells) -Share certain developmental similarities, most notably a gastrula stage -Most have a larval stage -Most animals and only animals have Hox genes that regulate the development of bosy form -Animals can displace their entire body from one place to another or move bosy parts *There are exceptions to nearly every criterion for distinguishing animals from other life-forms Cell Structure: With an absence of cell wall, our cells have motility Reproduction and development -Most animals reproduce sexually, with the diploid stage usually dominating the life cyucle -After a sperm fertilizes an egg, the zygote undergoes rapid cell division called cleavage -Cleavage leads to formation of a multicellular, hollow blastula -The blastula undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with different layers of embryonic tissues Animal Body Plans -Some have no symmetry, or they have radial or bilateral symmetry -Sponges are the only animals without true tissues -All other animals have two or three germ layers [ diplobastic (two) and triploblastic (three) ] -Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm -Body cavities are derived from the mesoderm, so its found in most triploblastic animals -There are three classifications of body cavities -Any organisms without symmetry will not have true tissues -Radially symmetric organisms are diploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical are triploblastic Sponges: the most simple animals -Phylum Porifera -Two layers of cells separated by a jelly like matrix, coated over a structural skeleton -No symmetry, nerves, guts, reproductive organs etc -Intracellular digestion (phagocytosis) -Totipotent -stem cells to differentiate into any cell in an organism including embryonic tissue is an important distinguishing quality -Suspension feeders -Have spicules made of calcium carbonate (hard) , silicon dioxide (glass) , or spongin • Multicellular, but just barely: no true tissues, practically colonial except cells can't live on their own – Cells can re-differentiate – Can even filter a sponge through cheesecloth and have it re- assemble on the other side? -It will because of the amoebocytes. It will form another cell • Two key points in sponge biology – Sponges use voltage-gated Ca channels in communication to coordinate this activity – Sponge larvae have sensory cells that allow them to detect and react to environmental stimuli such as light • Other branches of life have some of these features, so what's the big innovation? – Voltage gated Ca channels voltage gated Na channels somewhere along the animal line (but not in sponges) + – Voltage gated Na channels made possible electrically excitable cells: muscle *They are gated meaning that they are not always open -However, the function of the sodium potassium pump is not enough by itself to bring us to resting potential -The pumps require extra energy and an extra ion, so we are adding additional complications -But we keep it in the family, so sometimes potassium will leak out of the cell -The leaky potassium ions help to bring us to resting potential -We need three transport proteins, and we can take the sensory information fro the outside to our muscles Neural action potentials -Signals cause the sodium channels to open -If enough sodium rushes into the cell, it causes depolarization which is the cell becoming more positive therefore the axon hillock is also depolarized -Depolarization results in a wave of opening voltage-gated sodium channels -This means that an action potential is occurring -Depolarization at the axon terminal triggers a release of neurotrnasmitters -This process is very fast -Unmyelinated cells send signals at speeds of about 2 m/s while myelinated cells increase the rate by about 50X due to the salutatory propagation *Know the steps of an actin potential in detail* First the cell must reach threshold or else an action potential will not occur because the strength doesn't change, the frequency does. Once the cell has reached threshold, the sodium channels open causing sodium to flood into the cell causing it to become more positive, depolarize, and once the cell has reached its maximum peak, the sodium channels close and the potassium channels open. When the potassium channels open, it cause the cell to repolarize (become more negative) and during all of this a new action potential cannot occur. Once the cell has reached the refractory period is when another action potential may be fired. During the refractory period, the cell has become hyperpolarized (more negative than it should be) and that's when the potassium channels close and the cell goes back into its resting state Neurons are classified by the direction in which they send information Sensory: they travel from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system Interneuron: they travel between the sensory and motor neurons Motor: they travel away from the central nervous system to muscles and glands **Anything can be an environmental cue** -Heat, touch, electricity, hear, smell, light, etc Sensing and Vision The insulation helps the current conduct farther without dissipating (insulin keeps it from leaking through the membrane) Thus conduction is faster than the actual action potential opening / closing of gated ion channels, which now only happens at Nodes of Ranvier—which is why people refer to it as "skipping" Bigger the diameter the faster the sequence can go through -Sensory receptors provide the animal central nervous system with information about the external and internal environments. Each type of receptor responds to a particular type of stimulus. The three major stimuli are light, chemical, and mechanical. -The ability to detect environment is not new single cell organisms can detect the environment but now we are connecting it to emotion Interneuron firing -Temporal summation: receiving an excitatory neurotransmitter at a synapse kmore frequently heightens the strength and duration of depolarization of that synapse -Makes it more likely for sufficient depolarization to reach the axon hillock and fire the action potential -It can go to the brain or another neuron -You might not notice the input if it's a small amount, but if there is enough, eventually, you will have an action potential -Spatial summation: receiving an excitatory neurotransmitter at multiple synapses similarly heightens the depolarization -Also makes it more likely for sufficient depolarization to reach the axon hillock and fire the action potential -The response is the same, the activations are different -Example: most intensely firing neuron is at the center of the touch contact (point of highest level of stimulus) -Example: mechanoreceptor may excite the central neuron, but inhibit neurons in the surrounding area to help the brain identify the exact point of touch contact -Need to make this an interactive exercise too -The main neuron being affected can pass along the signal with high frequency and inhibit the signal to nearby neurons that also happens in our ears, it's how we can detect sound -#49 in our HW: A neuron can be both inhibitory and excitatory -A neuron can have multiple types of neurotransmitters and the affect on the neurotransmitter is dependent on the receptor of the receiving neuron -It is caused by a temporary depletion of synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters in the synapse, generally produced by persistent high frequency neuronal stimulation. The neurotransmitters are released by the synapse to propagate the signal to the postsynaptic cell. It has also been hypothesized that synaptic fatigue could be a result of postsynaptic receptor desensitization or changes in postsynaptic passive conductance, but recent evidence has suggested that it is primarily a presynaptic phenomenon -Anytime you have way to much signal your neuron will have synaptic fatigue -is an activity-dependent form of short term synaptic plasticity that results in the temporary inability of neurons to fire and therefore transmit an input signal. -It is caused by a temporary depletion of synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters in the synapse, generally produced by persistent high frequency neuronal stimulation. The neurotransmitters are released by the synapse to propagate the signal to the postsynaptic cell. -It has also been hypothesized that synaptic fatigue could be a result of postsynaptic receptor desensitization or changes in postsynaptic passive conductance, but recent evidence has suggested that it is primarily a presynaptic phenomenon. -Mechanism: If stimulation is occurring at a high enough frequency and with enough strength, neurotransmitters will be released at a faster rate than re-uptake can recycle them which will ultimately deplete them until there are no longer readily releasable vesicles and a signal can no longer be transmitted. -Having empty vesicles causes synaptic fatigue the signal is going too fast for the vesicle to catch up, normal mechanisms for over excitaiton Vision -its simplest, the eye incorporates three functions: Light detection -Shading, in the form of dark pigment, for sensing the direction light is coming from Connection to motor structures, for movement in response to light -Euglena: In some organisms, all three of these functions are carried out by just one cell—the single-celled euglena is one example. It has a light-sensitive spot, pigment granules for shading, and motor cilia. This structure, however, isn't considered a true eye. -Most basic eye structure: The most-basic structure that is widely accepted as an eye has just two cells: a photoreceptor that detects light, and a pigment cell that provides shading. The photoreceptor connects to ciliated cells, which engage to move the animal in response to light. The marine ragworm embryo (right) has a two- celled eye—most basic eye structure. The ragworm has cells now and one cell has photoreceptors and the other has the pigments Euglena has a photoreceptor that picks up light and a pigment that blocks light to tell it where the light is coming from and the euglena will move towards the light because it's a photosynthetic organisms however not a true eye…only has protein and a pigment -A true eye is going to detect light and direction and shade it. It is achieve with a two cell system like in the ragworm. The shade is important to se some kind of shape. Not looking at distinct shape can see wide or small The ability to detect light is not new. **Planaria have the next simplest eye -It has a light sensitive spot that turned into a cup to allow for improved directional information -Closing the cup still further improves directionality, eventually even allowing for some imaging ("pinhole camera") -it uses simple photoreceptors and a pigmented epithelium to sense the direction of light -Since there are more cells involed, there are more photoreceptors and pigment cells which allow for better shading, and better shapes but not detailed **Humans have a single lens eye -It has the ability to focus all light to one spot=higher acuity -You can see shading and everything **Insects have a complex eye -This doesn't mean insects see lots of little images better rather it just makes them more pixelated or rounded -really good for seeing movement, and they can see behind them The evolution of the eye has been a subject of significant study, as a distinctive example of an analogous organ present in a wide variety of taxa. Complex, image-forming eyes have evolved independently some 50 to 100 times The eye is both homologous and analogous Opsins can detect light All eyes use opsins in their structures which is different from the lenses Opsins Are a group of light-sensitive proteins found in photoreceptor cells of the retina. Five classical groups of opsins are involved in vision, mediating the conversion of a photon of light into an electrochemical signal, the first step in the visual transduction cascade. Another opsin found in the mammalian retina, melanopsin, is involved in circadian rhythms and pupillary reflex but not in image-forming. Opsins found in prokaryotes, fungi, and plants have similar 3D structure but not amino acid sequence, so probably not related Crystallins Is a water-soluble structural protein found in the lens and the cornea of the eye accounting for the transparency of the structure. The main function of crystallins at least in the lens of the eye is probably to increase the refractive index while not obstructing light. Crystallins seem to have all derived from the same ancestral protein, so not a product of convergent evolution. The crystalins used in the lens appear to have developed independently from vertebrate crystalins, suggesting a homoplasious origin of the lens The eyes formed by invaginating in squids In humans ours comes from the inside out And that is very important in cell organization For the past 140 years, the camera-type cephalopod eye has been compared with the vertebrate eye as an example of convergent evolution, where both types of organisms have independently evolved the camera-eye trait and both share similar functionality. http://www.mapoflife.org/topics/topic_7_Camera-eyes-of-cephalopods/ Squids don't have the same problems we do http://www.mapoflife.org/topics/topic_7_Camera-eyes-of-cephalopods/ Human: lens is warped by ciliary muscles In squids you have the photoreceptors at the beginning and the neurons at the back and for us its opposite…for us our neuron gets hit before it gets to our receptors In vertebrates, we have a blind spot because of this Research on squid eyes shows they can perceive shape, light intensity, and texture, but any details are seriously lacking. Squid have only 20 million receptor cells in their retina, whereas humans have 126 million. Squid have only rods, whereas humans have rods and three types of cones, allowing us to see the whole color spectrum Cartoon is from Wikipedia: In vertebrate eyes, the nerve fibers route before the retina, blocking some light and creating a blind spot where the fibers pass through the retina. In cephalopod eyes, the nerve fibers route behind the retina, and do not block light or disrupt the retina. 4 denotes the vertebrate blind spot. In vertebrates, 1 denotes the retina and 2 the nerve fibers, whereas in cephalopods, it is opposite. 3 is the optic nerve. A blind spot, scotoma, is an obscuration of the visual field. A particular blind spot known as the physiological blind spot, "blind point", or punctum caecum in medical literature, is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of light-detecting photoreceptor cells on the optic disc of the retina where the optic nerve passes through the optic disc. [2Because there are no cells to detect light on the optic disc, the corresponding part of the field of vision is invisible. Some process in our brains interpolates the blind spot based on surrounding detail and information from the other eye, so we do not normally perceive the blind spot. Although all vertebrates have this blind spot, cephalopod eyes, which are only superficially similar, do not. In them, the optic nerve approaches the receptors from behind, so it does not create a break in the retina. The first documented observation of the phenomenon was in the 1660s by Edme Mariotte in France. At the time it was generally thought that the point at which the optic nerve entered the eye should actually be the most sensitive portion of the retina; however, Mariotte's discovery disproved this theory. The blind spot is located about 12–15° temporally and 1.5° below the horizontal and is roughly 7.5° high and 5.5° wide. Müller cells. Recent research has discovered Müller cells in the retina. They are actually like funnels that help carry the light through the retina so it is less distorted. They have the perfect index of refraction to transmit the light with minimum loss and distortion. In vertebrates that are not in cephalopods and it focuses the light. Why the "backwards" mammalian retina? -An adaption for life on land? -Protection against heat from brighter light? -Absorbed light does regenerate heat in the eye, but in the choroid layer that traps stray light behind the retina -It would be better to have the photoreceptors further forward, away frm that rear heat source -Fish have the same kind of inverted retina structure -Terrestrial gastropods have their retinas oriented like cephalopods -Better visual activity? -In general cephalopods appear to be on par with fish and birds; the squid vampyroteuthis infernalis appears to rival humans -Acuity seems to be more a function of photoreceptor density and wiring **Remember that evolution does not have a goal or a purpose. The design only has to be good enough for survival and reproduction -Neither is better nor worse than the other Sensing things: vertebrate vision -Photons of light strike opsin proteins associated with pigments in retinal photoreceptor neurons -Rods: very sensitive to photons= black and white vision -Works well in dim light, but no color information -More abundant on the periphery of our retina: our peripheral vision is more ensitive to light -Cones: less sensitive but repond to certain wavelengths (short, middle, long =blue green red) for color vision -Provides color information but needs 100X more light -Conentrated on the center of our retina: we see color better in the center -Photon impact causes photoreceptor neurons to hyperpolarize rather than depolarize which is backwards compared to other sensory neurons -Retinal is the light-absorbing part of an opsin Rhodopsin is found in rod cells Vertebrate eyes lead to hyperpolarization which is different from every other eye Vertebrate photoreception -Photoreceptors don't fire action potentials: at rest they are intermediately polarized (-35 mV, due to constantly allowing some Na to + leak into the cell) and constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate Molecular mechanism of Vertebrate vision **Amacrine and horizontal cells are both inhibitory interneurons Retinal is the light-absorbing part of an opsin Rhodopsin is found in rod cells Step 1: Photns of light activate opsin pigments in a photoreceptor (rhodopsin or cone opsin) Steps 2-3: The activated receptors activate a G-protein which in tun activates a phosphodiesterase (PDE). Activation of PDE results in reduced levels of cGMP Step 4: Reduced levels of cGMP cause gated channels to close preventing the influx of sodium and calcium ions Step 5: Closing of the sodium channels hyperpolarize the neuron (all the way down to -70 mV) so it turns off completely (stops releasing glutamate) Summary of how vertebrates see 1. Decrease in glutamate either allows (stops blocking) or inhibits (stops exciting) various bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and horizontal cells to fire 2. This serves to integrate the information passed to ganglia which passes the neuron activation pattern on to the brain 3. We see the light Finalizing vision and beginning the nervous system -In the absene of light, the neurotransmitter glutamate is released by a sensory neuron -In the presence of light, glutamate is no longer released by the sensory neuron -In vertebrates, our default is on constantly releasing glutamate and when we see light we turn off and stop releasing glutamate Visual and Neural Adaptations -How does synaptic fatigue impact vision -if neurons are always on and releasing glutamate in the dark, then why donb;t they undergo synaptic fatigue and make us start "seeing" flashes -Firing rate is very low and they release only little glutamate -We should not experience synaptic fatigue because there is always glutamate present -Some synaptic fatigue in vision is possible when we are seeing -Troxler's fading -Afterimages -Causes us to see things that aren't there Troxler's fading and neural Adaptations -Optical illusion affecting visual perception -Stimulus away from the fixation point will fade away and disappear -Peripheral vision most affected due to large receptive fields -Fewer photoreceptors there = each one responsible for a wider field = less likely for jiggling or blinking to result in the recruitment of a different neuron -we have very little cones in the periphery region, there are more rods -The rods detect the light but not the color and also has to do with the distribution of the cones and rods Mechanism of Afterimage -Human eyes have two types of photoreceptor cells: -Rods and cones which are located in the retina of the eye -Rods are sensitive to light and dark -Cones are sensitive to red, green, and blue light and responsible for color vision -When our eyes are exposed to a hue, the rods and cones become fatigued When you stare at yellow and then look to white, you see blue. Why? -Your cones see three colors: red blue and green -That is what you manipulate in photoshop -Your brian interprets the balance between red green and blue to yield the full rainbow of colors -Our cones get tired and the only cone that isn't tired is the one that we see Nervous System -Neurons merely sense and pass impulses -Nervous systems interpret patterns of neuron information and coordinates a response -Receive inputs -Transmit information -Provoke a response Cnidarians and their nervous system -Like sponges, they have two layers of cells divided by a jelly matrix, but they have true tissues (epidermal an endodermal epithelia) with much stronger multicellular organization -They digest extracellularly in a gastric cavity -They have highly specialized cells, including muscle cells and neurons -A diffuse neural network that coordinates the muscle activity: a simple nerve net -Neurons interspersed throughout the body, among all the cells of the body -Simple signal-transmit-response: sensory signal passed into a "cobweb" of interneurons, motor neurons cause muscles to contract -Fairly generic motor responses to stimuli -Since their symmetry is radial, they have a nervous system that just goes all over the place since they are the same all over the place, and it's called a diffuse neural network or a nerve net -each neuron receives information separately -There is no centralized system yet, and they have generic responses that are more reflex like Bilaterian Nervous System -Axons of neurons may be bundled into proper nerves (cables of axons) -The individual neurons are "on and off" but a nerve may be modulated by what fraction of its neurons are firing -Cell bodies of interneurons may group into processing centers called ganglia -Receive inputs from multiple sensory nerves covering the same area -Allow for a more sophisticated response -Nerves and ganglia may further group into a peripheral and central nervous system -Peripheral: the end points of the network -Central: major superhighway (main nerve cord) and processing center (brain) -Reflex circuits: bypass the brain Why cephalization? -Why have the brain and key sensory organs concentrated all together at one end of the body? -why not a more diffuse brain consisting of ganglia distributed all over the body like a neural net? -why not more than one brain? -Why not have eyes all over the body? -Imagine the cost! Producing all of those organs, the computational demands It may simply not be able to develop, but in a way we have aspects of both ***One thing that is not centralized is touch, we feel it all over our bodies The brain and sensory integration -The brain coordinates and interprets multiple inputs into a single cohesive product that makes sense -The brain can be fooled by things that don't seem to make sense or don't fit with past experience -The brains job and evolutionary selective advantage is to help us survive and reproduce, NOT to be an objective, accurate reorder of information -We can perceive and especially remember things very inaccuratlely -McGurk effect -Rubber hand illusion -The finger trick -Our eyes fool what we hear Animal movement -Nerves receive stimuli -Processing centers interpret stimuli and direct an appropriate response -Nerves signal the muscle response -Muscle contraction driven by an action potential, similar to neurons Skeletons and movement -Skeletons anchor muscles and transmit motion -Hydrostatic "skeleton" or hydroskeleton: muscle and water pressure work together for shape, movement -Muscles contract in a ring and/or other directions around a coelom (fluid-filled cavity) -Endoskeleton, exoskeleton: hard structures inside or outside of the body -Bivalves: two hinged shells form the skeleton -Arthropods: have a cuticle and must molt -Mammals, birds, reptiles etc: have cartilage and bones -Within mammal cells, we have collagen helping but we need something better to help our muscles -Hydrostatic skeletons are made out of muscle and water What is homeostasis? -Greek for "standing the same" -Refers to the maintenance of constant interal conditions -Large external fluctuations- small internal fluctuations -Homeostatic processes act at the level of the cell, of the tissue, and an organ, as well as for the organism as a whole -Without homeostasis biological process are disrupted leading to disease and evn death What needs to be regulated? 1. Temperature • The enzymes that control every chemical reaction in our body work best at their optimum temperature. 2. Cell size and number • Proper cell size and number is essential to maintain organ size and function. 3. Ions (pH) • If the right balance of ions is not kept, our cells can become shriveled, swollen or even burst! • Important ions include sodium, potassium, hydrogen and phosphate. 4. Sugar • Having enough glucose for respiration plus adequate stores of glycogen is critical. 5. Urea • This is the waste chemical produced when we digest amino acids in the liver. 6. Water • Important to maintain water levels in blood and lymph fluid. 7. Oxygen and Carbon dioxide Extra carbon dioxide must be removed, otherwise the body becomes too acidic Body Systems and Homeostasis • Nervous System: main homeostatic controller (vertebrates) • Endocrine System: along with NS coordinate homeostasis, sugar • Immune System: health • Circulatory System : nutrients, temperature, O , C2 2 • Respiratory System: O an2 CO 2 • Lymphatic System: water, waste • Digestive System: nutrients • Urinary System: urea, water *Nervous and endocrine systems are regulators and they coordinate homeostasis The circulatory system plays an important role in homeostasis -A major challenge of multicellularity: -Obtaining and distributing all the resources every cell needs -eliminating wastes -the circulatory system rapidly distributes materials throughout the animal body *Cnidarians and flatworms do not have a circulatory system -Their cells are all close to the surface (inner or outer) -Food water etc mix together in a gastrovascular cavity -Nutrients, gases, and water enter and exit cells by diffusion Circulatory system -Network of cylindrical vessels -arteries, veins, capillaries -Pump -heart -Open System -No veins -Ostia (opening) -Only arteries -Closed system -Arteries and veins -Valves -Only veins have valves **Insects have an open circulatory system -They have organs bathed in a hemolyph inside a body cavity (hemocoel) -Heart sloshes it around -Low pressure, transport, and control -Hemolymph doesn't carry blood, only nutients and it's not for transporting gases Closed circulatory system -Circulating fluid remains distinctly separate from the rest of the body -Higher pressure = faster transport rate -Better ability to direct blood to exactly where Its needed -Adjust artery diameter (constrict vs. dilate)—smooth muscle -Supports generally higher activity levels -Higher energy cost Blood vessels • Arteries – Carry blood away from the heart • Arterioles – Small branch of an artery leading into capillaries • Capillaries – Smallest blood vessels • Feed oxygenated blood from arteries to tissues • Feed deoxygenated blood from tissues into the veins • Venule – Moves deoxygenated blood from capillaries to veins • Veins – Carry blood towards the heart What is Countercurrent exchange -A system where exchange takes place between two fluids which are flowing in opposite directions -The property transferred can be heat, gases, and chemical substances -Always happens in vesicles -They are close enough to exchange whatever each one is carrying -The low of one is going in one direction and the flow of the other is going I the opposite direction -A gradient is being established from high pressure to low pressure ***Countercurrent: You maintain the same gradient the entire path of the two vessels. You exchange as much as you can. **The warmest temperature is coming from the arteries but as soon as heat comes in it exchanges with the veins and then it becomes colder as it goes down. The vein is going to bring back blood that is warm not cold since there was already an exchange. Sacrificing the extremities. We are keeping those cold and keeping the inside warm. This is where countercurrent exchange comes in handy 1. Heat exchange 2. Warm arterial blood We don't have a countercurrent exchange in our bodies. We have something similar. When we get cold we constrict our vessels and prevents blood from reaching extremities so if yu try to warm someone too quickly the cold blood can reach your heart Countercurrent exchange to maintain temperature **In countercurrent exchange arteries transfer their heat to nearby veins instead of to the surface environment when blood reached skin surfaces **The circulatory and the respiratory systems can work together to maintain homeostasis **Cellular respiration and gas exchange - Glucose+Oxygen-Carbon dioxide + ATP Animal Respiration -O2 from water or air enters by diffusion to the cells -Thin animal cells achieve respiration by direct contact with the environment -sponges, cnidarians, flatworms -Thicker animals require structures that allow respiration -tracheae -lungs -air sacs -gills Respiration in earthworms -No specialized organ to do respiration -Most, thin and highly vascular skin -Oxygen diffuses across skinbody cavityblood in the dorsal blood in the dorsal blood vessel -The oxygen diffuses into the first layer of the skin and then the oxygen is picked back up by their blood vessels and then carried through the circulatory system then back out -Earthworms are thick so its not immediate Insect respiration -Ventilation -Respiratory apparatus -Spiracle -Trachea -Gas exchange by diffusion or actively pumping air into tubes -Tracheal system delivers oxygen right to the muscle cells, independent of hemolyph flow -Can be very active despite inefficient circulation -Insects, only the muscles are oxygenated completely independent from their circulatory system Lungs -Mammals, reptiles and amphibians have lungs -Only mammals have a diaphragm -All use alveoli and capillaries for gas exchange Air Sacks -Birds have lungs and air sacks -Gas exchange happen in the lungs -undirectional flow of air through the lungs allows all the air flo2wing through the lungs to be fresh air with maximal oxygen to be collected -Going to bring the air to the most posterior sack when breath in Gills -Fish use gills for respiration -Gills collect dissolved O2 from the water and release CO2 -Gas exchange occurs in lamellae -lamellae are super thin cells and they pick up the free oxygen and transport it tp the circulatory system of the fish -Lamellae collapse when you take fish out of water Finalizing Homeostasis and Starting Nourishment Homeostasis Mini-review: • Refers to the maintenance of constant internal conditions • Large external fluctuations → small internal fluctuations • Homeostatic processes act at the level of the cell, the tissue, and the organ, as well as for the organism as a whole • Many factors must be regulated: • Temperature, ions (pH), sugar, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, cell size, etc. • All of the body systems participate in maintaining homeostasis • Nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, lymphatic system, digestive system, urinary system, circulatory system, etc. • Without homeostasis biological process are disrupted leading to disease and even death The Circulatory system plays an important role in homeostasis -A major challenge of multicellularity: -Obtaining and distributing all the resources every cell needs -eliminating wastes -The circulatory system rapidly distributes materials throughout the animal body ***Sponges, cnidarians, and Platyhelminthes do not have a circulatory system. Most invertebrates have an open circulatory system, and some invertebrates and all vertebrates have a closed circulatory system*** -The simplest closed circulatory system is found in fish -The disadvantage of external gills is susceptibility to damage; most fish gills are internal Respiration on land -Advantage is that diffusion is 8,000 times faster on lan than in water -Gives an advantage despite air being thinner (ait is 50X higher percentage O2 but molecules are more dispersed) -Disadvantage: thin respiratory surface can desiccate -One solution: utilize open pores for gas exchange -stomata of plants -spiracles of insects -air sacs can be used to pump air through faster -Another solution: actively pump fresh air in and old air out across a capillary bed =tidal ventilation -babies in the womb get oxygen completely through capillary exchange why cant we breathe water? -Doesn't hold enough oxygen given slower diffusion -Cant move it past our alveoli (water is too thick) A simple circulatory system problem: -Low pressure after the gills mean oxygen can only be delivered to the tissues slowly -How could you solve this? -Some ideas: move the heart over to the other side—low P into gils, high P of oxygenated blood from the gills -May create other problems for example not strong enough flow into the gills? -Put a second heart on the other side (that's what squids do) Vertebrates: closed circulatory system -Single heart with 2-4 chambers -May support a single circuit or multiple circuits -Arteries: carry blood away from the heart -Veins: carry blood back to the heart -Blood is oxygenated via diffusion across a respiratory surface -Thin tissue containing a dense network of capillaries -Blood is deoxygenated via diffusion out of the various body capillaries Mammalian system: 4-chambered heart 2 circuits -Arteries have multiple elastic layers composed of collagen and elastin to handle high pressure pulses -Veins have valves to prevent low pressure backflow -Lymphatic system: returns interspatial plasma to the blood in vertebrates What about cyanosis? -A possible explanation: blood gets darker red = less bright red as it is deoxygenated; less red light reflected = blue light that is always reflected so it becomes more obvious -Veins also seem blue under the skin even though they are not blue tissues -Other condition/imbalances of other pigments can make our tissues seem more blue, red, yellow, or green regardless of their actual "normal" colors Animal Nourishment -Animals are exclusively chemoheterotrophic: obtain both energy and carbon from organic compounds both energy and carbon from organic compounds -Along the way also need to bring in essential amino acids, vitamins, etc, to support their metabolism/growth -Three main fuels for energy: carbohydrates, fats, proteins Kleiber's Law -Max Kleiber, UC Davis -1929: built respiration chambers in order to measure O2 consumption rate as a function of body mass and other variables…metabolic rate vs. mass -1932: found that metabolic rate increases with mass, scaling to the ¾ power: metabolic rate = 70 mass^3/4 -That is, MR is proportional to mass^0.75 -End result: metabolic increase is smaller than mass increase, so larger animals have a lower metabolic rate per gram -Why this relationship? Two main reasons: -A larger animal has a higher percentage of relatively low-maintenance reserve tissue -Both a mouse and an elephant require the same high energy need active organs (heart, kidneys, liver, stomach, etc.), but the elephant has comparably way more metabolically inert filler (fat, muscle, etc.) = less energy use per unit mass overall -Active mass involves higher maintenance costs than does reserve mass -A larger animal has a lower surface area to volume ratio -Less of its mass (fewer of its cells) directly in contact with the external environment = more of its mass insulated from the environment = less energy spent on just maintaining temperature -Boost in inertial aspect of thermal homeostasis Finalizing Nourishment and Waste Management Energy Storage -Energy is extracted from food which then gives us ATP -Small quantity of ATP stored in cells -Energy is stored -Carbohydrates turn into glycogen -Fatty acids into fats -Amino acids into proteins -We don't keep making ATP if we overeat -Our energy is not stored in the form of ATP -Whatever molecules of ATP that we have will be stored or used up and when we run out we start the process again and then excess energy is going to be stored in different ways ***ATP synthesis is highly regulated Nutrition -The ability to rapidly and consistently acquire and take in an energy source has been a significant factor in animal evolution -Example: evolution of the hinged jaw in chordates enabled massive intake of food over a wide variety of food -Different items than filter feeding or suction feeding -Example: Consistent access to high-energy food sources in large amounts may have been a major factor in the evolution of the human brain • Cannot support such a brain without the necessary level of nutrition -Richard wrangham, an arthropologist, studied chimpanzees and he began to eat the same things that they eat, and he said that its hard to eat everything that they eat. They have stronger jaws than us so they can crush harder things -The ability that humans can cook their food is a tremendous evolutionary advancement because if you have a smaller jaw with less musculature, it allows for more space for larger brain which may be the explanation to why humans evolved this way -Animals can move to find nutrients -It has been a tremendous advantage -The hinged jaw is also an adaptation that brings in a lot of advantage and it allows you to eat a lot more quickly ***Lampreys/Agnathans do not have jaws -Hagfish are scavengers, and they scape dead things since thy do not have jaws -Lamprey can attach its teeth to something and can only eat by sucking -They cannot chew and they tend to be parasitic organisms ***Events that we think led to the hinged jaw*** -The gill region of a developing human and a developing shark look the same early on but if we follow the gill arches from an embryo to an adult, we can trace the origins of jaws, ears, larynx, and throat. Bones muscles nerves and arteries all develop inside these gill arches Digestion Overview of Digestion -Digestion breakdown of insoluble molecules into smaller water-soluble molecules -Food is ingested as particles into some sort of a chamber and broken down for enery and materials; waste products are excreted -Basically an exchange of materials with the environment -This broad theme of life is especially evident in the animals Basically: First challenge is to break down the food into soluble pieces Then the next step is absorb it and finally remove the waste -Sponges have intracellular digestion -They eat the same way that an amoeba eats -Sponges aren't different from unicellular organs when it comes to digestion -Cnidaria need enzymes for their digestion -Most animals digestive systems have the same basic plan, though some animals have evolved more specialized structures -Foregut: mouth and stomach -Midgut: small intestine -Hindgut: large intestine and anus -When we get sick to our stomach and we throw up, it's the chyme that we throw up. It tastes bad because there is bile and acid in it -Function of the foregut is to break down food into chime -Once it enters the small intestine the pH lowers, and it begins to neutralize it and its our small intestine where we absorb food -The large intestine reabsorbs water as it concentrates the solid waste that has been left behind -In diarrhea, something is wrong with your large intestine and it can't reabsorb the water causing watery stool and it also has to with ion concentration -The rectum is the final concentrated waste stored for expulsion Cecum and appendix -A pouch with a blind alley off the side: what's up with that? -The cecum is a fermentation chamber for some mammals: harbors bacteria that break down tough to digest fibers etc -It's filled with bacteria and in some animals food is moved to the cecum to be broken down by particular bacteria that live there and it breaks things down a little but more to help with constipation and blockage -The appendix harbors a reservoir of bacteria, and may help with immune function -The cecum and appendix are quite different in different species and depending on the species of animal the cecum and appendix lengthen and shortens -Humans are on the short side -Human<Orangutan<Lemur<Rabbit<Koala<Flying Squirrel -Cows are a foregut fermenter and has a four chambered stomach that harbors gut bacteria to digest plants -Rumen is the fermentation channel in cows -If the animal is a carnivore it has a larger stomach and some carnivores do not have a cecum -Herbivores have a large cecum -The fact that our nutritional evolution has moved faster than the evolution of our digestive system is scientists explanation for why we keep the appendix even though it's a vestigial structure that we can live without -Only bacteria have the ability to break down cellulose Waste Management Soluble wastes and osmotic challenges -Leftover bulk solid food matter is evacuated from the colon -Some undesirable soluble materials make it into the blood stream; metabolic processes in the cells also produce waste byproducts -These must be filtered out of the blood -Example: nitrogenous wastes (from protein and a little from DNA/RNA) can build up and cause problems -Accumulation of nitrogenous waste is toxic for most animals -Also need to manage solute concentrations=osmoregulation -Some soluble waste is going to make it into our blood and how do we deal with that? –osmoregulation Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators -A cell can adjust its internal solute concentration to match that of the surrounding environment to avoid water gain or loss -Mussels: break up proteins into free amino acids = internal solute concentrations up; release them or reincorporate them into proteins = internal solute concentration down -Some sharks: build up urea in their tissues -Organisms with this strategy are called osmoconformers: just conform their own osmolarity to that of their environment -Another strategy is to use mechanisms that actively bring in or expel water vs. ions to maintain an optimal internal solute concentration different from that of the environment -Organisms with this strategy are called osmoregulators Osmoconformers -They are going to keep changing the concentration of solutes based on the outside and just making more of the waste that you want to get rid of so it is in equilibrium with your environment Osmoregulators -They are constantly exchanging the amount of waste with respect to the environment Malpighian tubules -One possible way to get rid of soluble wastes: place some transport proteins in vessel walls to actively transport the waste molecules out of the blood and into the waste stream -Could this work? Sure….in fact it's basically what insects do with their Malpighian tubules -The system works as long as you don't have foreign substances in the body Water and waste management of insects • Insects have an open circulatory system • Key waste products are actively (and selectively) transported from the hemolymph bath into Malphigian tubules; water diffuses in as well • The tubules carry the wastes and water to the gut, where they mix with digested food flowing through • Nitrogenous wastes are converted to uric acid – Accumulation acidifies the rectum, causing the uric acid to precipitate – Once precipitated it's no longer a dissolved solute, which causes the osmolarity of the liquid inside the rectum to fall, which results in net water movement back into the hemolymph = reabsorbed (not lost) • End result: uric acid, feces, and other wastes out…while hardly losing any water at all Water and waste management of planaria -Planaria use a protonephridia • Beating cilia bring interstitial fluid into a tube and out a pore into the environment—taking any waste along with it • Cells lining the tubes actively take up (reabsorb) good molecules, let the dilute wastes go on out • Why this works for them: • They have no circulatory or respiratory system: just use diffusion for gas exchange, with no blood or anything to worry about losing • They need to get rid of lots of water anyway, since they live in freshwater and it's constantly coming in • The tubes just provide a route for the waste to escape out of the body, plenty of fresh water will come in to replace what was lost • They do have the ability to re-absorb some of the useful compounds on the way out, so they don't lose too much good stuff with the bad • Since they don't have a circulatory system its going to go through flame cells and then into the tubules • The protonephridia contains cilia to push fluid out Water and waste management of earthworms -Metenephridia -The coelomic cavity is filled with body fluid -Fluid is drawn by cilia from the coelom into a waste tube, similar to the flatworm -Cells along the waste tube recapture and transport good molecules out of the waste stream -Capillaries are wrapped around the waste tube to collect (reabsorb) those good molecules -The waste units that perform the filtration followed by reabsorption and secretion are called metanephridia -But what if there's a proper closed circulatory system? -Earthworms (annelid): have a closed circulatory system with a coelom -The coelomic cavity is filled with body fluid -Fluid is drawn by cilia from the coelom into a waste tube, similar to the flatworm -Capillaries are wrapped around the waste tube to collect (reabsorb) good molecules transported out by surrounding cells as the waste flows through on its way out -Overall the entire waste units that perform the filtration followed by reabsorption and secretion are called metanephridia Finalizing Waste Management and Starting Reproduction Vertebrate kidneys -what if an organism has a proper closed circulatory system and the organism can't afford to just dump massive amounts of water? -Vertebrate kidneys: the best waste elimination organs -Three main steps: -Filter the blood -Reabsorb the good molecules and water -Excrete everything else -Blood runs into porous capillaries that loop around into a bundle which is the…glomerulus -the glomerulus is a bundle of capillaries in the kidneys that allow water to come out and it is captures by a region called bowman's capsule -water and solutes (good and bad)ooze out of the capillaries under pressure like a soaker hose which = blood filtration -Bowman's capsule oozes out what it catches and drains it into a tube, part of which forms the loop of henle -The tune actively recaptures good molecules and water into surrounding capillaries, and also takes up additional solutes out of the capillaries as needed for additional osmoregulation -1/5 of the fluid that is going through the glomerulus will be collected in the bowmans capsue -we can filter our ions, amino acids, and sugars while blood and immune cells stay behind and we filter wastes like ammonia etc that we have accumulated in our bodies -through osmoregulation you retain nutrients, water, and release what we don't want ***The nephron is the functional unit of a kidney*** -the nephron crosses two regions of the kidney, the lighter region is the cortex and the darker region is the medulla -In some species part of the loop of henle is in the cortex but in most species its going to reach the medulla **Draw the nephron yourself*** (every part of the nephron is covered with capillaries) I. Glomerulus II. Right after bowmans capsule III. Thenin the proximal convoluted tube one of the processes of reabsorption begins…you can see na+ and glucose come out IV. Then you have the loop of henle which is straight V. then goes into another convoluted tube thats called the distal convoluted tube and VI. then you go to the collecting duct Parts will be in yoru cortex and medulla and the fact that it is in different regions is important To the left is the descending loop of henle and the right is the ascending loop of henle The descending loop of henle is only permeable to water and the ascneding loop of henle is only permeable to ions By doing this we can use osmoregulation to do what we want it to do. We leave behond the wastes Most of the ions and salt come out of the ascending loop of henle which makes most o f the medulla very salty making water wasnt to come out of the loop of henle in the descending part We are now able to selectively move the molecles we want through the loops of henle Now the medulla region is collecting both water and ions The descending loop probably has the maximum concetration of ions and in the ascending it has a lower oncentration because we are losing solutes and now its mostly wastes And then we deal with the distal convoluted tube just in case we missed some glucose to get everything out of the wastes and whatever is left is little water and waste products which comes out of the collecting duct After collecting duct it filters to our ureter We have like a million of these nephrons in our kidneys so our blood is thoroughly filtered -The capillaries also have the risk of losing water themselves -All of these processes are highly regulated by hormones The main one is ADH aka vasopressin It's going to prevent the water from coming out -In the absence od ADH the urine will be diluted -Coffee and energy drinks make your urine diluted so youre going to the bathroom alot -Two reasons why you have low blood pressure: Losing blood or low blood pressure -It triggers the release of the hormone renin which triggers an enzyme found in the lungs that releases angiotensin which becomes angiotensin II which tells your arteries to constrict and then go to adrenal glans and when in adrenal glands releases aldosterone which increases salt and water uptake in distal tubule to retain salt and water to bring back into the blood to increase the volume of blood -If youre retaining to much water then you have high blood pressure -Angiotensin works as a tropic hormone in the kidneys and also functions as a normal hormone when in the lungs -Blood pressure is highly associated with the kidneys -Countercurrent exchange in capillaries: Blood also loses water on the way down (diluting the gradient) but water immediately passes back into returning vessel (which needs more water) -Countercurrent exchange can be used for temperature, gas, and water retention -In humans, we only use it for water retention Kidney Variations -Variations I the nephron can happen in the glomerulus or in the loop of henle -In vertebrates like the beavers that are constantly expsed to water the loop of henle stays in the cortex because we're not worried about reabsorbing the water. They urinate quite constantly and is very diluted -In the rabbits, more similar to the oso pressure in humans and does cross into the medulla -Their urine will be a mixture/concentrated type of urine -And animals in dryer environments need to retain as much water as possible so their loops re very long and their urine is very concentrated and don't urinate very often and they probably have toxic levels of urea so they would have another mechanism to neutralize the toxic affects of urea -Urea is toxic to all animals Kidney variations -The kidneys are going to be adapted to the challenges of osmoregulation -Different vertebrates vary the details of the scheme to achieve life in wet conditions vs. dry conditions vs. saltwater vs. freshwater -Example: longer Loops of Henle = greater opportunity for water reabsorption -Example: Fish already eliminate their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia through their gills, so their kidneys mainly help in osmoregulation -Saltwater fish need to hold onto water, so their urine is kept more concentrated (water reabsorbed by Loop) -Freshwater fish need to dump water, so their urine is kept very dilute (Loop kept impermeable to water so it flows on through) -Cartilaginous fish do not have well developed kidneys, but accumulate urea in their tissues to help with osmoregulation… osmoconformers -Example: Reptiles and birds eliminate nitrogenous waste as uric acid, like insects, so they can reabsorb almost all of the water in the final step before eliminating the waste = very good for desert environments Animal Reproduction Sex -Two main costs -Need a mate which leads to slower population growth -Major benefits -genetic diversity -without sex, genetic uniformity is a problem = species are less equipped o survive change more likely to accumulate deleterious mutations -You increase your population very slowly Two fold cost of sex: it takes two to make one…you are not douling the population Sex is the way to go for genetic diversity Different environments Animals can move so our environments can change very quickly so genetic diversity is important because we dont know what we are going to be exposed too -Deep sea anglerfish (melanocetus jonsonii) As soon as the male hatches it looks for a mate. Thats its only purpose in life and it attaches to the female and slowly it decomposes untilt he gonads are left and then she has a sperm bank -Not all insects go through this process but grasshoppers are an example -The female in the ZW system is the one that determines the sex -The haplo-diploid system only deals with ploidy not sex chromosomes -Alligators end up having more males and turtles more females due to global warming -If there is no sex determination: the default is female or hermaphroditic -Social interaction -Sex depends on what other individuals (and their chemical cues) the animals grows up around -some marine worms become male if the larvae encounter a female or otherwise it defaults to female -Some reef fishes develop either as male or female depending on what other sexes are aound them -Some arthropods have their sex determined by infection by Wlbachia bacteria -A is in the absence of infection and some offspring will be female and others male…the dna will be exchanged -B, the wolbachia will preferentially infect females and if a female with wolbachia mates with a male without it, it will reproduce all females with the wolbachia -Wolbachia determines the sex and the health of the offspring, the all females with wolbachia will not get sick -C, the wolbachi selects for a mutation in a male and the mutation allowsd the male to pass DNA to the offspring and some may become males -In some species the adults may switch sides -Frequently observed in tropical reef fish -Females switching to males (from producing egg to sperm) is more common than vice versa -Clownfishes are the more rare case where all develop as male and then the dominant one becomes female -The dominant fish will change from male to female and if the female dies another fish becomes dominant and changes from male to female -Earthworms are all hermaphroditic. They don't have any sex determination -The sperm of the other fertilizes the eggs of anotherand vice versa -They try to stay away from self fertilization -Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis -Parthenogenesis means virgin birth -When they find that there is an imbalance between the sexes like mostly female, they can go through parthenogenesis -As far as we can tell, mammals cannot go through parthenogenesis -The kimono dragon and the hammer head shark do facultative parthenogenesis which means they can switch back and forth between female and male External vs. Internal Fertilization -External fertilization occurs outside the body -Easy oviparity: just lay eggs and shoot sperm on them -Less of a search for mates -Better supports for r-strategists -Really works well in water: on land eggs and sperm cant disperse to find each other, dry out -Usually animals that in the water undergo external fertilization -Usually this process is referring to insects when talking about land animals - R-strategists produce a lot of offspring but they are not going to commit time and effort after those offspring are fertilized "if I make enough, some will survive and I can go be free" -Internal fertilization occurs inside the body -Improved chances of gametes connecting with each other to achieve fertilization -More of a search for mates -Allows for oviparity on land, but the egg needs membranous structures(chorion, amnion…) so as not to dry out, and a mechanism is needed to somehow maintain a conastant incubation temperature etc. -Sets up viviparity: internal fertilization- internal development -Better supports k-strategists -You can have a reduced number of eggs because you have to invest time in them -Chorion and amnion are membranes that are extra protection -Land egg is very different from a water egg ***Amphibians have to lay their eggs in the water. They never have them on land Development -All animals undergo gastrulation except for sponges -It has been identified in them but they don't go through the entire process because they don't have true tissues -Not a true gastrulation but they have a similar structure when forming their different body plans
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text:
MADRID:As usual Real Madrid coach Bernd Schuster refused to get carried away following his team's 7-0 rout of Valladolid on Sunday that took the champions eight points clear in Spain.
With Barcelona dropping two valuable points in Saturday's 1-1 draw against Sevilla Real had the chance to extend their advantage and showed last weekend's 2-0 defeat by Almeria was only a blip.
"It is not normal to win 7-0 and we have to enjoy the games like this because next week will not be so easy," said German Schuster.
"When there is an emergency the team responds and and that is the biggest positive to take from today."
Valladolid felt Real's wrath for the Almeria defeat with the hosts storming into a 5-0 half-time lead courtesy of a Raul brace and goals from Arjen Robben, Julio Baptista and Guti.
Guti and Roysten Drenthe completed the rout in the second half although Real could not challenge their biggest ever win - a 11-2 victory over Elche back in the 1959/60 season.
Goals have been flowing for Real all season with the champions plundering 53 goals in 23 matches and Valencia (5-1), Villarreal (5-0) and Valladolid (7-0) have all been routed.
Barcelona coach Frank Rijkaard says Real are strong favourites for the title but Schuster, who said his Dutch counterpart is playing mind games, claims nothing is certain in football and Barca could produce a miracle run like Real did last season under Fabio Capello.
"Why can't Barcelona do it just like we did? Everything is possible in football, but I'm not worried because I didn't take part in that miracle," said Schuster.
"We want to win the league, which would give us a head start for the future. It's all I want. I'm not concerned about a turn-around. I intend to keep the title in Madrid."
Brazilian Baptista, who scored Real's winner against Barca at Camp Nou, claimed Real were unplayable against Valladolid and said Barcelona would find it tough to turn the title race around.
"I couldn't imagine that the game would be like that," said Baptista.
"We have a week to rest and recharge the batteries but we must also enjoy this because you don't score seven goals very often.
"People are concerned by what Barcelona are doing but we don't have to rely on anyone or fear anyone. They still have to come to the Bernabeu and other difficult grounds where we have already won."
Real have already played Barcelona, Espanyol, Atletico Madrid, Sevilla and Villarreal away and their run-in looks relatively straight forward compared to Barca's.
Real's next match is against Real Betis next weekend before the last 16 Champions League showdown with Roma on February 19.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
|By Kevin Benedict
Article Rating:
|November 19, 2012 06:17 PM EST
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SYS-CON Events announced today that 910Telecom will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. Housed in the classic Denver Gas & Electric Building, 910 15th St., 910Telecom is a carrier-neutral telecom hotel located in the heart of Denver. Adjacent to CenturyLink, AT&T, and Denver Main, 910Telecom offers connectivity to all major carriers, Internet service providers, Internet backbones and ...
Oct. 22, 2016 04:00 PM EDT Reads: 3,578
In his general session at 18th Cloud Expo, Lee Atchison, Principal Cloud Architect and Advocate at New Relic, discussed cloud as a 'better data center' and how it adds new capacity (faster) and improves application availability (redundancy). The cloud is a 'Dynamic Tool for Dynamic Apps' and resource allocation is an integral part of your application architecture, so use only the resources you need and allocate /de-allocate resources on the fly.
Oct. 22, 2016 04:00 PM EDT Reads: 3,645
In the next five to ten years, millions, if not billions of things will become smarter. This smartness goes beyond connected things in our homes like the fridge, thermostat and fancy lighting, and into heavily regulated industries including aerospace, pharmaceutical/medical devices and energy. "Smartness" will embed itself within individual products that are part of our daily lives. We will engage with smart products - learning from them, informing them, and communicating with them. Smart produc...
Oct. 22, 2016 03:45 PM EDT Reads: 1,437
More and more brands have jumped on the IoT bandwagon. We have an excess of wearables – activity trackers, smartwatches, smart glasses and sneakers, and more that track seemingly endless datapoints. However, most consumers have no idea what "IoT" means. Creating more wearables that track data shouldn't be the aim of brands; delivering meaningful, tangible relevance to their users should be. We're in a period in which the IoT pendulum is still swinging. Initially, it swung toward "smart for smar...
Oct. 22, 2016 03:45 PM EDT Reads: 625
In his keynote at 19th Cloud Expo, Sheng Liang, co-founder and CEO of Rancher Labs, will discuss the technological advances and new business opportunities created by the rapid adoption of containers. With the success of Amazon Web Services (AWS) and various open source technologies used to build private clouds, cloud computing has become an essential component of IT strategy. However, users continue to face challenges in implementing clouds, as older technologies evolve and newer ones like Docke...
Oct. 22, 2016 03:30 PM EDT Reads: 2,241
WebRTC sits at the intersection between VoIP and the Web. As such, it poses some interesting challenges for those developing services on top of it, but also for those who need to test and monitor these services. In his session at WebRTC Summit, Tsahi Levent-Levi, co-founder of testRTC, reviewed the various challenges posed by WebRTC when it comes to testing and monitoring and on ways to overcome them.
Oct. 22, 2016 03:00 PM EDT Reads: 3,881
In his keynote at 18th Cloud Expo, Andrew Keys, Co-Founder of ConsenSys Enterprise, provided an overview of the evolution of the Internet and the Database and the future of their combination – the Blockchain. Andrew Keys is Co-Founder of ConsenSys Enterprise. He comes to ConsenSys Enterprise with capital markets, technology and entrepreneurial experience. Previously, he worked for UBS investment bank in equities analysis. Later, he was responsible for the creation and distribution of life sett...
Oct. 22, 2016 02:30 PM EDT Reads: 5,215
SYS-CON Events announced today that Coalfire will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. Coalfire is the trusted leader in cybersecurity risk management and compliance services. Coalfire integrates advisory and technical assessments and recommendations to the corporate directors, executives, boards, and IT organizations for global brands and organizations in the technology, cloud, health...
Oct. 22, 2016 02:15 PM EDT Reads: 1,495
@ThingsExpo has been named the Top 5 Most Influential M2M Brand by Onalytica in the 'Machine to Machine: Top 100 Influencers and Brands.' Onalytica analyzed the online debate on M2M by looking at over 85,000 tweets to provide the most influential individuals and brands that drive the discussion. According to Onalytica the "analysis showed a very engaged community with a lot of interactive tweets. The M2M discussion seems to be more fragmented and driven by some of the major brands present in the...
Oct. 22, 2016 01:45 PM EDT Reads: 11,261
SYS-CON Events announced today that Transparent Cloud Computing (T-Cloud) Consortium will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo®, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. The Transparent Cloud Computing Consortium (T-Cloud Consortium) will conduct research activities into changes in the computing model as a result of collaboration between "device" and "cloud" and the creation of new value and markets through organic data proces...
Oct. 22, 2016 12:45 PM EDT Reads: 1,269
The Internet of Things (IoT), in all its myriad manifestations, has great potential. Much of that potential comes from the evolving data management and analytic (DMA) technologies and processes that allow us to gain insight from all of the IoT data that can be generated and gathered. This potential may never be met as those data sets are tied to specific industry verticals and single markets, with no clear way to use IoT data and sensor analytics to fulfill the hype being given the IoT today.
Oct. 22, 2016 12:45 PM EDT Reads: 2,323
SYS-CON Events announced today that MathFreeOn will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. MathFreeOn is Software as a Service (SaaS) used in Engineering and Math education. Write scripts and solve math problems online. MathFreeOn provides online courses for beginners or amateurs who have difficulties in writing scripts. In accordance with various mathematical topics, there are more tha...
Oct. 22, 2016 12:30 PM EDT Reads: 923
@ThingsExpo has been named the Top 5 Most Influential Internet of Things Brand by Onalytica in the 'The Internet of Things Landscape 2015: Top 100 Individuals and Brands.' Onalytica analyzed Twitter conversations around the #IoT debate to uncover the most influential brands and individuals driving the conversation. Onalytica captured data from 56,224 users. The PageRank based methodology they use to extract influencers on a particular topic (tweets mentioning #InternetofThings or #IoT in this ...
Oct. 22, 2016 11:00 AM EDT Reads: 8,270
SYS-CON Events announced today that SoftNet Solutions will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. SoftNet Solutions specializes in Enterprise Solutions for Hadoop and Big Data. It offers customers the most open, robust, and value-conscious portfolio of solutions, services, and tools for the shortest route to success with Big Data. The unique differentiator is the ability to architect and ...
Oct. 22, 2016 10:15 AM EDT Reads: 587
SYS-CON Events announced today that Niagara Networks will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. Niagara Networks offers the highest port-density systems, and the most complete Next-Generation Network Visibility systems including Network Packet Brokers, Bypass Switches, and Network TAPs.
Oct. 22, 2016 09:30 AM EDT Reads: 1,274
SYS-CON Events announced today that Embotics, the cloud automation company, will exhibit at the 19th International Cloud Expo, which will take place on November 1–3, 2016, at the Santa Clara Convention Center in Santa Clara, CA. Embotics is the cloud automation company for IT organizations and service providers that need to improve provisioning or enable self-service capabilities. With a relentless focus on delivering a premier user experience and unmatched customer support, Embotics is the fas...
Oct. 22, 2016 09:15 AM EDT Reads: 745
In an era of historic innovation fueled by unprecedented access to data and technology, the low cost and risk of entering new markets has leveled the playing field for business. Today, any ambitious innovator can easily introduce a new application or product that can reinvent business models and transform the client experience. In their Day 2 Keynote at 19th Cloud Expo, Mercer Rowe, IBM Vice President of Strategic Alliances, and Raejeanne Skillern, Intel Vice President of Data Center Group and ...
Oct. 22, 2016 09:15 AM EDT Reads: 1,421
Virgil consists of an open-source encryption library, which implements Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) and Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme (ECIES) (including RSA schema), a Key Management API, and a cloud-based Key Management Service (Virgil Keys). The Virgil Keys Service consists of a public key service and a private key escrow service.
Oct. 22, 2016 08:30 AM EDT Reads: 951
Data is the fuel that drives the machine learning algorithmic engines and ultimately provides the business value. In his session at Cloud Expo, Ed Featherston, a director and senior enterprise architect at Collaborative Consulting, will discuss the key considerations around quality, volume, timeliness, and pedigree that must be dealt with in order to properly fuel that engine.
Oct. 22, 2016 08:15 AM EDT Reads: 3,779
Fifty billion connected devices and still no winning protocols standards. HTTP, WebSockets, MQTT, and CoAP seem to be leading in the IoT protocol race at the moment but many more protocols are getting introduced on a regular basis. Each protocol has its pros and cons depending on the nature of the communications. Does there really need to be only one protocol to rule them all? Of course not. In his session at @ThingsExpo, Chris Matthieu, co-founder and CTO of Octoblu, walk you through how Oct...
Oct. 22, 2016 07:45 AM EDT Reads: 3,108


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Intermountain Community Bancorp Stock Charts (NASDAQ:IMCB)
$20 $0.31 (1.57%) IMCB stock closing price Oct 31, 2014 (Closing)
Intermountain Community Bancorp Stock Price Chart
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Note: Interactive Intermountain Community Bancorp stock chart shows the 1 year stock price movement. Compare IMCB stock performance with Nasdaq and S&P 500 index. Compare Intermountain Community Bancorp's PE ratio charts with East West Bancorp, Inc. , FNB Bancorp , MALAGA FINL CORP COM STK NPV , SUNWEST BANK COM USD0.001 & United Security Bancshares
IMCB Stock Vs S&P 500 Index
Intermountain Community Bancorp stock performance: The Intermountain Community Bancorp stock charts shows stock trend against the S&P 500 index. Intermountain Community Bancorp stock price has gone - by -999% in the last 1 year versus the S&P 500 index which has returned 4.32%
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Intermountain Community Bancorp PE ratio chart: The price earnings ratio is a valuation ratio which indicates how much an investor is willing to pay for every dollar of earnings. Intermountain Community Bancorp did not have a positive PE for Nov 04, 2015. A high growth company usually has a high PE ratio as investors are expecting high earnings growth in the future. The PE ratio is calculated as the market value per share (or stock price) divided by the earnings per share (usually LTM EPS).
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Intermountain Community Bancorp revenue chart: Topline or revenue is the income that a company generates by sales of its products or services for a given period. Investors look for stocks whose revenue is growing Quarter on Quarter (or QOQ) or Year over Year (or YOY) as it indicates that the company is growing. IMCB saw an increase of revenue by 10.46% from 2014-Q1 to 2014-Q2.
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Intermountain Community Bancorp earnings per share: A company's earnings per share or EPS is the portion of its net income or profits allocated to each outstanding share of its common stock. Our chart on earnings per share shows the Eps for the last three years, and is a useful measure of profitability, and should be used while doing Intermountain Community Bancorp stock analysis. Intermountain Community Bancorp's EPS registered 0.19M of common stock in the latest quarter of 2014-Q2.
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Intermountain Community Bancorp Stock Articles
IMCB Stock Details
Prev Close* : $19.69
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Florida State shortstop Stephen Drew struck out in the first inning Thursday afternoon at Wake Forest.
That didn't stop him from hitting for the cycle as the Seminoles built a 9-0 lead on thier way to an 11-10 victory in the series opener.
Drew singled to right in the third and led off the fifth with a double to center. He led off the seventh with a solo blast to right.
A three-run rally in the eighth allowed Drew to complete the feat. His two-run triple capped the inning and gave FSU the cushion it needed to withstand the Demon Deacon comeback.
Wake's Brian LeFaivre hit a grand slam in the bottom of the ninth off Tyler Chambliss to make things interesting. But two batters later Chambliss got J.B. Tucker to fly out to the warning track to end the game.
Rhett James (8-2) picked up the win. James went 7.2 innings, striking out three and walking one.
"I've felt really good at the plate the last couple games," said Drew. "I'm just trying to take advantage of every at bat and get good pitches to hit. Hitting for the cycle is not something I was trying to accomplish, it just happened to work out that I hit a ball into the gap for the triple in may last at bat. The most important thing was getting the win. We know that each game from here through the ACC Tournament is important in terms of setting us up for the postseason."


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Structured Diamante Poem
Students review parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and antonyms. Students will brainstorm a list of different parts of speech, study the format of a Diamante poem, and choose their own words to create their own Diamante poem.
1st - 3rd English Language Arts 5 Views 2 Downloads
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Understanding Paragraph Basics
Full of informative, helpful, and accessible activities, a language arts packet is sure to be a valuable part of your writing unit. It's versatile between reading levels and grade levels, and focuses on the most efficient ways for your...
3rd - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
The Word Factory
Here is a clever way to help your 3rd and 4th graders add -ing to verbs. A list of 10 action verbs is given, and learners must adjust the spelling of each verb to accept the -ing ending. This would be an excellent choice for a homework...
3rd - 4th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed
Daily Warm-Ups: Grammar and Usage
If grammar practice is anywhere in your curriculum, you must check out an extensive collection of warm-up activities for language arts! Each page focuses on a different concept, from parts of speech to verbals, and provides review...
3rd - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
Meet Your Neighbor: Action Verbs
Get your kids moving on the first day of school! This action verb activity doesn't have to be used as an ice breaker, but it sure will work as one. Simply place pairs of cards face-side down on the carpet, each with an action verb...
K - 1st English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
What Members Say
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Schecter Omen 6 w/ C 1 Mods
This guitar is no longer for sale (sold on 2008-09-28)
Price : US $112.50
Schecter Omen 6 with ALL NEW electronics! Seymour Duncan SH-4 in the neck and JB-2 in the bridge, coupled with a Sprague orange drop cap, Alpha push-pull colume pot for coil tapping, and just set up Flatwound Chromes make this guitar a machine!!! This guitar is basically a C-1, it has all the same electronics. Almost no fret wear, and only one slight scratch at the base of the neck. Great condition- great deal!!!!!!
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Geometry - Complex Figure
In this geometry activity, 4th graders work with a complex figure. They calculate the length of one line in the figure, find the perimeter, the length of another side, and the surface area of the figure.
4th Math 3 Views 29 Downloads
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Awesome Area - Geometry and Measurement
Break out those math manipulatives, it's time to teach about area! Capturing the engagement of young mathematicians, this three-lesson series supports children with learning how to measure the area of squares, rectangles, and other...
2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable
A Five Day Approach to Using Technology and Manipulatives to Explore Area and Perimeter
Young mathematicians build an understanding of area and perimeter with their own two hands in a series of interactive geometry lessons. Through the use of different math manipulatives, children investigate the properties of rectangles,...
3rd - 6th Math CCSS: Adaptable
Garden Grade 6 Area and Perimeter
Engage young mathematicians in applying their knowledge of area and perimeter with a fun geometry lesson. Through a series of problem solving exercises, children use their math knowledge to design different-sized garden plots that meet...
3rd - 6th Math CCSS: Designed
Backyard Building - Area and Perimeter
Turn young mathematicians into landscape architects with this four-lesson series on area and perimeter. Beginning with a basic introduction to calculating perimeter and area using non-standard units of measurement, this instructional...
2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable
Calculating Perimeter and Area using Architectural Drawings
Take young mathematicians' understanding of geometry into the real world with this upper-elementary math lesson. Given the floor plans of a historic building in Tennessee, students are asked to calculate its area and perimeter as...
4th - 6th Math CCSS: Adaptable
Relating Area and Perimeter in 2-D Objects
Students explore the area and perimeter of two-dimensional shapes. In this measurement lesson, students compare the lengths, widths, perimeter, and area of two-dimensional objects. Students view an interactive presentation and complete a...
4th - 6th Math CCSS: Adaptable
What Members Say
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They've been calling on me in the downtown Jacksonville area for a few months now. I gave them one job to see if they were any better than my usual printer. I was very pleased with their quote (slightly lower than what I've been paying). I was very impressed with their professionalism and on-time delivery (they provided free pickup and delivery). I've since given them more work and everything has been perfect. I recommend using them if you're not happy with your current printer.
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Is Paradigm Construction incorrect or missing key business information? Update your Hotfrog listing today.
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Hotfrog SouthAfrica provides information regarding Paradigm Construction in Cape Town Western Cape. Paradigm Construction is located at 25 Denton St, Cape Town Western Cape 7780 and provides engineering services. Contact them on 021 762 8122.
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94 Pentz Drive Flamingo Vlei Cape Town Western Cape 7441
20 Seabreeze Crescent Noordhoek Cape Town Western Cape 7975
Rooiberg 36 Cape Town Western Cape 7570
1st Floor Convention Towers Cnr Coen Steytler & Heerengracht Avenue Cape Town Western Cape 8001
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