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There is an ideal way to start your workday, and, if you own a smartphone, you're probably not doing it.
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There is an ideal way to start your workday, and, if you own a smartphone, you're probably not doing it.
Susan Taylor's insight:
Upon waking each morning, what is the first thing you reach for? Hopefully, it's your significant other. But for most of us, it's our Smartphone.
Whether it's to "turn off (or snooze) the alarm...check email, Twitter, Facebook or text messages...it's a stressful way to start the day."
You've been through it more times than you'd care to count: As you trying to manage your growing stress throughout the chaos of a busy work day, there's (always!) at least one person who is keeping their cool.
The BioSync Team's curator insight, November 6, 2013 9:09 PM
Learning and practicing personal stress busting habits that keep stress levels under control will make the chaos of life a lot more manageable!
Most of us understand that sleep is crucial to health. Yet night after night we toss and turn, hitting the snooze button when the alarm begins to ring.
craig daniels's insight:
Managing balance becomes almost irrelevant if we are not getting enough sleep. Ask yourself, does it really matter if I spend too much time connected to social media if I'm so sleepy and irritable that I can't see straight.
We all know the answer, of course it matters, but without a good dose of regular sleep it sure seems like it doesn't matter.
The author Brian St. Pierre has cobbled together a comprehensive guide to getting a good nights sleep and getting it on a regular basis. Many of us will find we can be proactive in reclaiming many restful nights of sleep using this well presented (and sort) guide.
Don't believe Woody Allen when he says the brain is his "second most favorite organ." Make it your favorite organ. Treat your brain as the creative, renewing center of your mind.
Susan Taylor's insight:
Frenzied? Harried? Drained? Zapped? That's the way most Americans feel these days. We are way over the top over-stimulated. The cure? Unplug to recharge your brain.
Matthew Edlund, M.D. gives us 8 helpful suggestions:
"Treat your brain as the creative, wondrously renewing center of your mind and it will treat you well." Change your brain...change your life.
Lawrence Lanoff's curator insight, December 29, 2013 4:14 AM
The key to #8 is Enjoy GREAT sex. That's why I'm working on TantraXO this weekend.
No one will be surprised to learn that texting is nearly universal among young adults with cell phones (so, um, all of them?). According to the data, 97 percent of cell phone users under 30 text every day.
craig daniels's insight:
Here are 7 reasons to thinking about before you do anymore texting. I think it could be a larger list but let's start with these reasons, maybe you can think of a few more yourself.
So. have you thought of another reason? How about the food in your lap from missing your mouth...
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The former X Factor judge - dressed in a dark ensemble - appeared at Highbury Magistrates' Court in North London on Monday morning (4 April) in relation to an incident that happened outside a tube station in September 2015.
Tulisa, 27, had been driving a brand new Ferrari on 15 September when it collided with a Saab at a roundabout outside Southgate station just before midnight.
According to BBC News, the singer broke down in tears in court this morning when she admitted being over the legal drinking limit.
She was disqualified from driving for 15 months and told to pay fines and costs of £1,185.
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Mihaela Iuniana Oprescu
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1 Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse (INP Toulouse) Réseaux, Télécommunications, Systèmes et Architecture Mihaela Iuniana Oprescu jeudi 18 octobre 2012 Virtualization and Distribution of the BGP Control Plane Chadi Barakat Abdelhamid Mellouk Philippe Owezarski Ana Rosa Cavalli Damien Magoni Mathématiques Informatique Télécommunications (MITT) Orange Labs & LAAS-CNRS Philippe Owezarski Mickaël Meulle Ana Rosa Cavalli Damien Magoni
3 Acknowledgement I would like to start with a big THANK YOU that goes to Mickaël Meulle for putting up with my ideal quest of revolutionary research and for the unpaid counseling that he offered during the years at R&D. Taking into account the effort he invested, this thesis belongs to him as much as it belongs to me. Things would not have been possible without the support of Philippe Owezarski who decided to take official responsibility for the work conducted during my days in the Orange Labs and the visits at LAAS-CNRS. Going farther back in time, I am indebted to Joël Lattmann who introduced me to the world of virtualization during my first year. Of course, all of this started because of (or maybe I should say thanks to) Sarah Nataf who managed to trick everyone into thinking that I was the right candidate for the PhD subject she and Franck Carmine had decided to put up. It was a pleasure working with people like Steve Uhlig, Cristel Pelsser and Olaf Maennel and they proved to be a priceless support for a young researcher trying to fit into the global picture. I also thank the members of the jury, especially Ana Cavalli and Damien Magoni who wrote overwhelmingly positive reports about my manuscript. My full gratitude goes to the RIV team that offered a really good environment, with people who criticized all possible technical and typography aspects only so that I could improve the work I had taken the courage to present in front of them (which didn t happen very often, I must admit). The biggest encouragement I received was from Bruno Decraene who told me, after reading one of my articles, oh, it s rather well written and the ideas are not completely insane. Being a part of this team was an advantage and I can say that I have learned a lot, especially during the coffee breaks when subjects would range from the ascenseur spatial to the very nitty gritty details of the router testbed and the current debates at the IETF. I would like to point out Fred s disarming cynicism and sometimes funny jokes, Marc s kindness and encouragement (he will always be a chic type, so beware), Sovatha and David s helpfulness when I needed assistance and the seriousness and down-to-earth demeanor of Jean-Luc Lutton. There have been people who showed up along the way, like my sacrificed office mate, Laurent Valeyre and Jaqueline Queiroz with whom I am tied by a special friendly bond. I cannot omit Luiz and Paul a duo of terror, Adrien and Sidali les plus beaux, Liang who cheered us up, or Greg and Benoît who represented rugby and soccer. Let us not forget the apprentices and interns who made me feel better because they were the only category lower than the PhD student: Miriem, Benjamin, Lamia, Thao, Gaurav and Waqas. I am also grateful to the line of PhD students (luckily, now they are all PhDs) who came before me, gave me useful advice about phdcomics.com and talked me into taking light drugs (chocolate, beer and other such substances): Anthony and Zied. A special thought goes to Marc-Olivier (aka Herr Doktor) who not only took the time to actually read this memoir, but also gave me precious ideas about how to make it better. And the one person who managed to keep all the team together was Frank Carmine, who believed in me when I didn t and who has been a tremendous help. The list would not iii
4 be complete without my current colleagues at NAD 1 : Pierre Combescure has been a role model and a father figure to me since I joined the new team and Slim Gara has constantly urged me to finish my PhD and backed me up in this new professional challenge I faced as a new member of his team. Life would be sad without my colleague Antonio Montani Jimenez, an outgoing and optimistic young man, or without Davide Donato who always has a good story. I would also like to express my consideration for Bruno Morvan, Frédéric Thibord, Jean-Pierre Nicolazzi and Christof Schmitz who are all nice fellows and occasional gardeners, Laurence Bathany, Dominique Delisle and Sophie Nachman-Ghnassia who I am sure are impatient about attending the pot de thèse. There is someone who does not fit in any of the above clusters. Jean-Yves Couty is simply too much to handle, but I would like to thank him for the crazy poems and for the times when he would quietly get out of my office and let me be stressed about my work. I am certainly letting out a lot of people who have supported my twisted path in the research world, but I cannot forget my friends Răzvan Stănică, Oana Vlăduț, Robert Guduvan, Miruna Stoicescu and Raluca Maria Indre who successfully finished or who successfully still conduct PhD work themselves. I will always remember the painful question how s your thesis coming along? from Ștefania Roșu, Paula Borțosu, Diana Stoica, Alexandra Pencea and Ioana Mul. The one person who was actually more stressed than I was about this work is Guillaume Gaulon. It will be a great relief for you and I would like to let you know how much I appreciate the hours that you have spent with me doing network debugging and getting simulations to work, but in a researchy way because the network is supposed to oscillate and not work properly. I cannot conclude without thanking my family: my mother Ica, my father Dorel and my brother Bogdan to whom I wish a lean path and good wind for the journey he is on. My best wishes go to the next generations of PhD students who will likely cross the same state of mind as all the previous PhD students. After sleepless nights and long hours when all hope is gone, do not despair... you will always have chocolate! 1. Network Architecture and Design division of France Telecom
5 v
7 Contents 1 Introduction Background Main Research Contributions Publications Routing in the Internet General Background End-to-end communication What is routing? IGP and EGP IP prefixes Routing versus Forwarding The Border Gateway Protocol External BGP and Internal BGP sessions Learning routes in BGP Best Path selection BGP policies Route Servers ibgp architectures Conclusion Flaws and fixes in BGP routing Current BGP Plagues Scalability Correctness vii
8 3.1.3 Path diversity Convergence time and path exploration Management and troubleshooting Routing Platforms to fix ibgp Summary and Remaining Issues The obgp Solution Overview Graph models The IGP graph The ibgp graph The obgp graph Design principles Distributed sub-planes Index of Virtual Prefixes Allocation of prefixes to sub-planes General architecture Network view Sub-plane view Client view Gain through Design Resilient architectures Redundancy and replication The 1:1 redundancy scheme The 1+1 redundancy scheme Failure cases Node failure Site failure Other failures Final considerations Practical obgp 79
9 Table of contents 6.1 The dvirt test platform dvirt Overview dvirt Management Network Virtual Routers and Virtual Ethernets Simulated BGP Network The obgp hub The example of a virtualized PoP Closing remarks Evaluation Sizing rules Table size Number of Sessions Additional equipment Convergence time and correctness Migration scenario Global assessment Conclusion Future Work Version française abrégée 107 Appendix 125 Bibliography 127 ix
11 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background The Internet is a successful experiment that escaped from the lab. In its beginnings it was meant as a research playground for the American army, but the Internet expanded to encompass a few universities, then it opened up to the wide world through the commercial companies that had grasped its potential. Nowadays, its strong impact on the everyday lives of millions of people is undeniable. The Internet supports a very diverse range of traffic types and services while at the same time fostering an increasing number of users and networks. In order for billions of connections and seamless information transfers to be possible, one protocol is in charge of holding it all together: the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). For the many users who need to cross the borders of their local Internet Service Provider, BGP is the universal language allowing all heterogeneous networks to understand each other and be able to relay routing information all the way to foreign destinations. Although on the surface routing seems to be a trivial graph theory problem, BGP was not designed with a mathematical model in mind, but as a set of rules that give network operators the liberty to express routing policies. This means that real-life BGP offers no guarantees of convergence or correctness form the point of view of routing algebras. On the contrary, many additional standards were issued to solve operational problems as they showed up. Additionally, BGP does not rely on a mere shortest path computation, like internal routing protocols running within a network; BGP offers to the engineering teams the tools for manifesting preferences based on economical interest (e.g., following the logic dictated by peering agreements), for avoiding certain Internet market players (e.g., need to circumvent specific networks due to bad quality of the transit service) or for reinforcing political or government-dictated restrictions (e.g., elude crossing certain parts of the world due to highly sensitive traffic, censorship etc.). 1
12 Chapter 1. Introduction The timeline 1 in Fig. 1.1 attempts to show a schematic view of the efforts put into achieving a global consensus and vision of methods for expressing routing policies. The second half of this evolution pictures predominantly the changes brought to BGP in order to sustain the needs in terms of scalability, correctness, resilience and increasingly diverse network services. Figure 1.1 A simplified timeline emphasising BGP policy advancements and the general evolution of the protocol with all its more recent additional features. Since the Internet would get severed if network operators decided to no longer speak the common language, the major changes in architecture have occurred inside the ISP network, mostly affecting internal BGP (ibgp). The introduction of route reflection and AS confederations seems the right answer to the problem of the growing network size and the inherent full mesh of ibgp sessions that become hard to manage in big networks. However, these two options come with a set of flaws of their own such as persistent routing oscillations, deflections, forwarding loops etc. Since various services supported by the Internet are highly sensitive to network outages or degraded quality, both network operators and the research community strive to find solutions and workarounds to cope with the demanding expectations of Internet users. Efforts have been put into investigating new architectures or protocols for achieving scalability [Ballani et al., 2008 ; Sarakbi and Maag, 2010 ; Ben Houidi and Meulle, 2010], formal mathematical models for better understanding the BGP behavior [Feamster et al., 2004b ; Metarouting, 2011 ; Vutukuru et al., 2006], more specific insights on protocol correctness [Griffin and Wilfong, 2002b ; Griffin and Sobrinho, 2005 ; Buob et al., 2007 ; Buob et al., 2008] or loss of route diversity [Uhlig and Tandel, 2006 ; Uhlig and Tandel, 2005] and alternative options for improving it [Pelsser et al., 2008 ; Van den Schrieck and François, 2009 ; Bornhauser et al., 2011]. Some of the proposed solutions rely on sets of constraints applicable to the router configuration or consist of new paradigms such as routing platforms 1. Timeline inspired by Susan Hares presentation 15 years of Policy Routing at NANOG 30 in
13 1.2 Main Research Contributions that work in a more centralized manner [Koponen et al., 2010 ; Pelsser et al., 2009 ; Caesar et al., 2005]. 1.2 Main Research Contributions In this work we tackle both scalability and route diversity issues raised in the context of internal BGP routing, while at the same time optimizing the process of BGP route redistribution within a network. The proposed solution is obgp, an overlay BGP routing platform in charge of collecting all the routes received from the ebgp peers and the internally available routes in order to compute the BGP decision process in a distributed manner. Unlike today s model, when all the routers receive the best routes towards all available destinations, the idea behind obgp is to give a subset of all the routing information to a subset of the routers. These enhanced routers, called obgp nodes, are in charge of computing the best routes on behalf of client routers. Marking a difference with other routing platforms, obgp divides and dispatches the routing data according to a precise mapping, thus reducing the amount of routes on each node. As a consequence, the obgp nodes can perform best route selections in parallel due to the division of the routing information across several routers. The obgp platform, as a single entity, gains higher visibility than the classic network routers, so the routes selected on behalf of the platform s clients are more coherent from a global point of view and more adapted to the client s position in the global topology graph. The contributions of this thesis are outlined as follows: 1. An analysis of current problems that have arisen in BGP internal routing shows that there is still room for improvement when it comes to scalability, correctness and diversity of the propagated routes. Next to a literature survey, Chapter 3 contains an example of the loss of diversity in the case of routes entering the BGP decision process within a real transit network. 2. Chapter 4 presents the obgp concept and how it manages to handle the propagation of Internet destinations with a new routing platform architecture. The sub-plane and virtual prefix notions are introduced, while the final sections articulate the entire obgp model as perceived by the clients and by the nodes carrying the different sub-planes or more generally, at the network level. 3. Operational constraints are taken into account in Chapter 5 where two implementation schemes are detailed. Multiple failure scenarios are investigated and their effects on the routes propagation. Without any major modifications to the existing equipment, a practical deployment is achievable with the help of virtualization techniques and relying on the dvirt platform, as shown in the Chapter Finally, an analytical evaluation of the obgp solution is provided in Chapter 7. The graphs in this chapter allow for a more precise understanding of the tradeoffs involved in the obgp design, emphasizing the different results obtained for small, medium and big network topologies. 3
14 Chapter 1. Introduction 1.3 Publications The full text of publications and the posters can be found online at International conferences 1. Iuniana Oprescu, Mickaël Meulle, Steve Uhlig, Cristel Pelsser, Olaf Maennel, Philippe Owezarski Rethinking ibgp Routing, ACM SIGCOMM (Special Interest Group on Data Communications) poster session, New Delhi, India, August Iuniana Oprescu, Mickaël Meulle, Steve Uhlig, Cristel Pelsser, Olaf Maennel, Philippe Owezarski obgp: an Overlay for a Scalable ibgp Control Plane, IFIP Networking, Valencia, Spain, May Iuniana Oprescu, Mickaël Meulle, Philippe Owezarski dvirt: a Virtualized Infrastructure for Experimenting BGP Routing, IEEE LCN (Local Computer Networks), Bonn, Germany, October Workshop presentations 1. Virtualisation et distribution du plan de contrôle BGP, (in French) Journées automnales ResCom, Lyon, France, November Virtualizarea şi distribuirea planului de control BGP, (in Romanian) Electronica, Telcommunicaţiile şi Teoria Informaţiei în lume şi în ţară, Bucarest, Romania, September Virtualisationdu réseau, (in French) Journées des doctorants du LAAS-CNRS, Toulouse, France, April Patents 1. Qualité de service dans les réseaux virtuels, (in French) INPI Patent No Others 1. Mickaël Meulle, Iuniana Oprescu, Joël Lattmann, Jean-Louis Simon Towards full virtualization of networks? Orange Labs White Paper, October
15 Chapter 2 Routing in the Internet This chapter sets out to introduce a few basic concepts related to the Internet structure and routing protocols, while concentrating more specifically on the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Details are provided about the BGP decision process, emphasizing the differences between a protocol that provides simple routing information and one that can express routing policies. Further on, the reader can discover a brief presentation of the way that networks interconnect in the global Internet, the tiered hierarchy and the different relationships between the domains connected in Internet Exchange Points. Zooming on the way protocols are organized within a specific network, the last paragraphs are about BGP internal architectures: the full mesh of sessions, confederations and route relfection. 2.1 General Background The purpose of the Internet is to allow end users to communicate, despite the fact that there may not be a direct connection between the end points. Nowadays, the Internet is a part of everyday life in the modern culture: it supports a wide range of services such as , web, instant messaging, banking, e-commerce, video on demand, telephony, blogging, social networking and has become a crucial source of information. The Internet has modified the perception we have of computers and information technology in general, making it more accessible at a large scale. It has reshaped the way humans interact and it has strongly influenced communication, being an important vector in events such as the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt or by playing a role in disseminating information in countries where censorship is enforced. The success of the Internet can be easily demonstrated by the extended usage and penetration rates, going as far as 1,987.0% growth between 2000 and 2011 in the Middle East region. On March 31 of 2011, 78.3% of North Americans were using the Internet and 30.2% of the world population was connected [Internet World Stats, 2011]. The Internet started as a common platform that would allow a few American universities to exchange research 5
16 Chapter 2. Routing in the Internet data in the early 1970 s. Facing a continuous growth in the number of users and thus important scalability challenges, the original design and purpose have greatly evolved, leading to what we use today: a worldwide logical network that links a multitude of heterogeneous physical networks. Regular users will often mistake the Internet for the World Wide Web service, imagining that beyond the web browser used for navigation there is a magic cloud that delivers the vast on-line information. The following sections unveil what the actual structure of the Internet is and how it is possible to achieve end-to-end connectivity. 2.2 End-to-end communication To obtain an Internet access, consumers usually resort to an Internet Service Provider (ISP) that produces the technical means such as dial-up or broadband connection, satellite or a Local Area Network (LAN). If Alice is connected to a French ISP and she is trying to reach Bob who is connected to a North American ISP, then she needs her French ISP to be in its turn connected to other carriers that will enable the data to travel all the way to Bob. Figure 2.1 The structure of the Internet: from the end host to the international provider The Internet is in fact a collection of more than 40,000 [Huston, 2011a] different networks called Autonomous Systems (ASes). An AS is a network controlled by a single administrative entity such as an ISP, a university, a commercial enterprise, an organization or a content provider. An AS is not geographically restricted and there is no real one to one correspondence between an ISP and an AS (e.g., France Telecom is in charge of more 6
17 2.2 End-to-end communication than 150 ASes). AS numbers are 16-bit and more recently 32-bit integers assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and they uniquely identify a network with a well defined routing policy. To illustrate the concept, let us take a look at some networks belonging to France Telecom: AS 5511 OpenTransit (OTIP) is the international carrier that offers transit to other ISPs or content providers. The OTIP network is ranked as part of the top 20 networks of the Internet [Meulle, 2007]. AS 3215 Réseau Backbone et Collecte Internet (RBCI) corresponds to the residential network federating the ADSL 1 and FTTH 2 clients of Orange. AS Réseau d Accès des Entreprises à l Internet (RAEI) is dedicated to business services, such as BGP/MPLS IP VPNs 3. ASes are interconnected and hopefully, any to any communication is possible. There are no topology constraints and the construction is typically flat, with no hierarchy, building a web of ASes. How can one manage to find and transmit information between two remote hosts located within two of the 40,000 ASes? This is when routing steps in, allowing users located in different networks to get connected and achieve seamless communication What is routing? IGP and EGP A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how we get there. Jon Postel We know the Domain Name System translates names into addresses. In the same way, routing is in charge of selecting a path in a network to reach a given address. As previously seen, the data packets that cross the Internet from one source to a destination will sometimes travel through several networks. Even within a single ISP s network, there are multiple equipments called routers that are linked together in a topology. This means that information is sent through the network on a hop by hop basis. Routing is the process of computing the next hop that a packet should go through in order to reach the desired destination. Routing can be divided into two categories of protocols that work together to allow for seamless communication across the Internet: Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) used for exchanging routing information within an AS. The IGP is visible only to routers within the AS and it does not have any impact on the neighboring ASes. An operator may choose to use any of the available protocols, the most widely deployed being Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS) [Oran, 1990] or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) [Moy, 1998]. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) in charge of handling network reachability between distinct ASes. The de facto standard in inter-domain routing is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP-4) [Rekhter et al., 2006] and it is the only EGP used in the current 1. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line 2. Fiber To The Home 3. Border Gateway Protocol/Multiprotocol Label Switching Internet Protocol Virtual Private Network 7
18 Chapter 2. Routing in the Internet Internet. It is worthy of mentioning that BGP relies on results provided by the IGP in order to resolve routes within an AS. These two types of protocols allow routing packets to internal destinations done by IGPs and to external destinations in different ASes done by BGP. This hierarchical distinction comes from a need to achieve scalability in the Internet and avoid spreading information about the routing policies, the protocols or the topology of a proprietary AS. Figure 2.2 ASes, Routers, IGPs and EGPs working together IGPs and EGPs have different objectives and resort thus to different methods: an IGP is aware of the entire network topology whereas an EGP hides any detailed information about the internal topology of an AS. As a result, another classification of routing protocols is possible according to the applied algorithms: 8 link-state routing protocols where each router has knowledge of the full network topology and can independently compute routes to any destination within the network. A node participating in a link-state routing protocol can reconstruct the connectivity map thanks to a flooding mechanism: a router propagates information about its links to all the connected neighbors that will further relay it and so on. Link-state protocols define metrics or costs of links and use a shortest path algorithm such as Dijkstra to determine the shortest path to every other node in the graph. distance-vector routing protocols where routers exchange reachability information about destinations (next hop routing) and an associated distance metric. This class of protocols uses algorithms such as Bellman-Ford and Ford-Fulkerson. In this work we concentrate on BGP which is part of the distance-vector family of protocols. Each BGP router sends to the connected neighbors its current routing table or incremental updates when changes are detected in the topology. Further details about the BGP mechanisms are provided in section 2.3.
19 2.2 End-to-end communication IP prefixes The high adoption rates of the Internet are also due to a common protocol stack, namely the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), that has enabled billions of users to technically interconnect. The Internet Protocol Suite is based on a layered architecture, with the Network Layer as a thin waist of the hourglass depicting the communication protocols. The Network Layer mainly consists of the Internet Protocol, defining thus the fundamental addressing namespaces: 32-bit numbers for the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and more recently, 128-bit addresses for Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). To render the binary format readable to humans, the IPv4 address is expressed as decimals going from 0 to 255 separated by dots. A valid IPv4 address looks something like An IPv6 address is conventionally expressed using hexadecimal strings, an example could be 2007:cafe::dead:beef. IP is the primary brick that builds the Internet, allowing to identify and locate hosts in a network with an IP address. Each Internet user enjoys two basic primitives: connectivity and reachability. Connectivity is the property of being able to access the other users and the content of the Internet, whereas reachability is a notion implying that all Internet users and content providers are able to transmit data packets to a given user. To be reachable, a user must be identified by a public IP address that is routable in the Internet. We have previously seen that each host in the Internet has at least one public IP address and that the routers in the core of the network handle the data packets based on their destination address. A router is generally connected to several neighbor routers, it has multiple links and receives multiple routes to a given destination. A Routing Information Base (RIB) is a mapping table between all reachable destinations and the associated neighbor router. If a router has no input about a specific destination in its RIB, it does not know how to handle the routing and the information packet is simply discarded. To avoid losing packets, it is sufficient for each router to be aware of all the destinations in the Internet. Since every end user and also the network equipment is identified by an IP address, does this mean a router must keep a record for each of the almost 4 billion reachable addresses of the Internet? Hopefully not, since it is possible to aggregate multiple contiguous IP addresses into bigger blocks called IP prefixes [Fuller and Li, 2006]. For example, the prefix /24 refers to all the IP addresses starting with the same set of 24 bits: from to There are as many as 400,000 prefixes [Huston, 2011b] seen in the current Internet. It is equally possible to break these blocks of variable size into smaller prefixes. In the case of an IP address contained by two prefixes, a router will prefer the longest prefix match. Confronted with a packet going to destination , if a router has the choice between routing towards /24 and /8, it will select the first route as being the most specific one. A RIB often contains a default route that handles all destinations that do not match any of the existing entries. 9
20 Chapter 2. Routing in the Internet Figure 2.3 Examples of IPv4 prefix (de)aggregation Routing versus Forwarding When a router receives an IP packet, which exit interface to choose towards which neighbor? The answer is stored in a forwarding table or Forwarding Information Base (FIB) that holds a logic correspondence between a destination IP address and a local interface. Based on the available RIB entries, a routing protocol determines the best route and installs it in the FIB. To put it simply, a RIB contains all the routes known by a router and a FIB keeps only the routes in use. Figure 2.4 Network topology Figure 2.5 Forwarding table example destination prefix next hop interface / / / / / An important distinction arises between the process of finding the correct route in a network and the action of placing the bits that enter router interface A on interface B directed towards the right neighbor. There is a fundamental difference between routing and forwarding: routing (control plane of a router) is in charge of computing the path that data packets will take. It is mainly illustrated by routers exchanging intelligence and individually performing a selection algorithm called the decision process. The decision process ranks the entries of the routing table according to specific criteria (e.g., shortest path, link capacity, financial revenue... ) and thus determines one best route that gets installed in 10
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I read the story by Tina called nighttime where she likes to grind on her duvet. When I was younger, my cool aunt gave me some thong knickers which made me feel really horny. My bare bum rubbing my tight school trousers and they were really tight over my puss. In bed at night I would bunch the duvet between my legs and thrust into it, the cool air on my bum cheeks making me feel really sexy. I think I threw a few away as they got really wet and I was scared what mum might say.
Posted by: SoloTouchArchive Author: Tess Age: 14 Posted on: 08 Jan 2008 0 comments
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Impact Products Extended Polywool DusterBrushes & Dusters
52" Length - Polywool - Yellow/Black - View Complete Details
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Impact Products Extended Polywool Duster - Duster with a removable head is perfect for cleaning hard-to-reach areas. Nonallergenic design allows safe use by all users. Polywool is washable to provide long-lasting efficiency. Electrostatically charged material attracts and holds dust, dirt and debris until it's washed. Long handle length eliminates the need for a step stool or bending over to prevent strenuous use.View Product Specs
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Masari Group
Finance & Accounting Staff
Deskripsi Pekerjaan
Requirements :
- Maximum age 30 years of age
- At least Degree in Accounting / Finance
- Having 1 (one) year of experience in the same position, Fresh graduates are welcome to apply
- In depth understanding in banking transaction, cash flow control and petty cash
- Good knowledge of AR, GL, Credit Control and Taxations
- Familiar with Microsoft Dynamic GP will be an added value
- Mature, initiative, hard-working, and able to work under pressure
- Able to speak mandarin is a plus
- Available to work immediately !
Ke halaman yang merekrut lowongan ini
Data pekerjaan
|DKI Jakarta
|Merchandise / Grosir / Eceran
|Masari Group lihat lowongan
Deskripsi Perusahaan
"To be a Pioneer in the world of Luxury Products and Lifestyle in Indonesia"
- Providing a quality product that caters to the specific needs and values of our target niche segments "Value for Money"
- Providing exceptional service to our Customer
- Building synergy within the business to achieve competitive advantage, strong and unique capabilities, low costs, improved process / systems
- Creating a pleasant working atmosphere to increase the sense of kinship between Corporate interests, Employees and Customers
- Motivate
- Attentiveness
- Spirit
- Austerity
- Reliable
- Integrity
Mengapa bergabung dengan kami?
Established in Jakarta 30 years ago, Masari Group is one of Indonesia's leading Luxury Retail Company, with retail locations in Jakarta, Surabaya and Bali, with brands under the Group Company that includes the Hermes Boutique, Plaza Bali duty-free stores, Lanvin boutiques, the Masari multi-brand boutiques, RODO stores, Glow Living Beauty Stores, John Hardy,Petit Bateau boutiques and the newest venture Under Armour. To support our business expansion, we are inviting a highly qualified professionals to fill the position as:
Ke halaman yang merekrut lowongan ini
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Finance And Accounting Manager
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Account Payable Officer - For Developer
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Gag Us Already: Yeezy Was On Hand To Pamper Baby Mama Kimmy Cakes At After Party For Tyler Perry Premiere
Awwwww Kanye loves catering to Kimmy Cakes!
Absence DOES make the heart grow fonder. Kanye West made a cross country trip to be by Kim Kardashian's side on Mar. 16 and treated her "like a queen" at the after party for her new film, Tyler Perry's Temptation, HollywoodLife.com has EXCLUSIVELY learned.
"They were sweet together and mingled well with all us country folk at Tyler's house," a source who was at the party held at Tyler Perry's Atlanta mansion tells HollywoodLife.com exclusively. "They were enjoying themselves. I was surprised by how Kanye was so into Kim. Kanye was treating her like a queen, he was a first class gentleman."
It had been 11 days since the couple had seen each. Kanye reportedly flew in from Europe to be by Kim's side and our source reveals Kanye was definitely making up for lost time.
"He would bring her water and touch her on her neck and rub her back when they were talking to people. They kissed quite a few times and were talking among themselves and to other guests. They were like any other couple who are in love and have a kid on the way," our source tells us.
It was an intimate after party and HollywoodLife.com has learned that despite Tyler having staff to serve guests, Kanye made it a point to take care of Kim personally.
"When she would have an hors d'oeuvre he would take the napkin and hold it for her," the source reveals. "When she sat down on the couch he would hold her hand, make sure she was good and seated, and then he sat down after. Little, simple things like that. He was perfect, an absolute gentleman!
Well isn't that special? Do you love Kanye and Kim as a couple or do you wish they would GO THAT WAY ——>>>?
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I ordered a wedding band with a bit of trepidation, since I was on the internet and knew nothing about the company. I was more than pleasantly surprised...
Ladies Diamond Band S12-9
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Home > News > Study Moves "Superlens" Closer to Reality
January 5th, 2006
Study Moves "Superlens" Closer to Reality
Physicists at Oregon State University have made an important advance towards the creation of a functional "superlens" - an extraordinary optical device that would bend light the opposite direction of that done by any natural material. In theory, a superlens might be able to attain visual resolution at the level of the nanometer.
Oregon State University
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Even though you are hiring movers to transport your possessions you should let the moving crew do their job. However, there are other things you can do to help them do the job more efficiently.
How To Help Your Movers
How much should you tip movers and helpers? Here are some general information on when and how to tip your movers.
How Much to Tip Movers
There are things you can pack into your car to save hassle and money. Here are some smart ways to pack a car and maximize a space.
How To Pack Your Car For a Move
There are some common moving mistakes people make when they move. Find out how you can avoid those mistakes and save money on your move.
Avoid Moving Mistakes
If you decide not to hire professionals and to move yourself, check out this post to find out more about self moving and what you can do about it.
Moving Yourself