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Puttin' On the Ritz
Hang a Ritzy Dancing Couple Mural to give style your next school dance. Giant Murals add a distinctive flair to your decor. Use one or several side-by-side. These 5 feet wide x 11 feet high paper murals go up fast for quick and easy decorating.
Please allow ample time for delivery. Our ship date for this product is noted in your shopping cart. Many items are shipped separately, so please allow extra time for these items to arrive. Shipping charges are based on the value of the merchandise and not the number of shipments. For additional shipping information, please contact our Customer Service Department at (firstname.lastname@example.com or 1-800-314-8794).
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This item was HUGE! I loved it! It was used as a backdrop for a Harlem Nights themed birthday party!!!!
Best Uses
This poster looked great in our all white ballroom. Some greenery, black chair covers-we had a classy NY's Eve party!
Best Uses
We used these for a black tie anniversary event. The room was surrounded by 10'tall windows. We cut these dances out and used them on various windows and added sparking stars on the other windows. It was a nice touch of detail to the room. Very nice quality.
Best Uses
Exactly what we were looking for our NYE's Party Theme.
Best Uses
I was supprised at the quality it can be used again and again.[...] otherwise I love it!
Best Uses
It's a wonderful poster to fill a large area and add to the Roaring 20's Theme. [...]
Best Uses
Used for a 1920's mystery dinner party in main entrance. Great impact. Poster was a little too large but we cropped it down a bit and it was perfect. It was on sale - well worth the price!
They shipped right on time - very quick!
The only downside was that the ink smelled really bad - it needed time to air out. It also smelled a bit like cigarette smoke - very gross.
Do you have questions about this product?
Get answers from real customers and in-house experts with AnswerBox.
Q:What is the height of the actual Image of the couple within the 5'x11' paper? If I were to trim it from head to toes what height is that?
1 answer
A:The approximate image dimensions are 5 feet wide x 8 1/2 feet tall.
Q:How do you get them on the wall? And do they just peel off without taking off the paint? No instructions came with them. They are big and I don't want to mess them up.
1 answer
A:These are not self stick. You will need to tape or tack them to the wall.
Q:how many figures are on the mural
1 answer
A:There is one couple per Ritzy Couple Mural.
Q:What is this made out of? I have pipe and drape decorating walls in banquet hall...how would this be attached to the drape?
1 answer
A:This is made of mural paper. You would need to pin it to a drape to be able to use this in a banquet hall.


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Guiding Light Outreach Ministry
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Police ID woman killed in crashMay 20,2013LYNDON A passenger has been killed in a car accident in northern Vermont after the driver lost control while swerving to avoid a small animal that was crossing the road.
Vermont State Police say 85-year-old Eleanor Machell of Lyndonville was killed Saturday afternoon after a car driven by 76-year-old Gerda Blasczyk of St. Johnsbury went off Route 122 in Lyndon and flipped over, coming to a rest upside down.
Machell, who was wearing a seat belt, was pronounced dead at the scene.MORE IN This Just InBENNINGTON A North Bennington man who had worked as a crossing guard for the Village School of... Full StoryPROCTOR Two women were arrested Monday after allegedly being caught on camera assaulting... Full StoryA Benson man is facing a potential life sentence for allegedly having sex with a sleeping woman. Full Story
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1. It seems like every time my local barista memorizes my drink order, it's time for us to move. I love walking up to the counter and having my drink already made, waiting for me. 2. Speaking of coffee – are all people that work at coffee shops called baristas or is that just at [Read More]
Thinking Out Loud: Third Snow Day
I love snow days just as much as the kids do, BUT we're on snow day #3 (we also had Monday off in honor of MLK, Jr. Day) and I'm getting antsy. I've scrubbed both bathrooms, cleaned the kitchen, dusted the whole apartment, done all the laundry, been to the gym each day, watched countless [Read More]
2014 Mantra: Make it happen.
Earlier this week I attended a BodyPump class and while we were getting our weights set up the instructor asked if anyone made resolutions for the New Year. Just like a class of nervous elementary students, everyone stopped what they were doing, faced the front of the room, and stared at her with a blank [Read More]
Life is just a bowl of cherries.
Well, I definitely was in the minority yesterday with my wish for school today. Unsurprisingly my wish didn't come true – most of the school districts in the DMV (DC/Maryland/Virginia) area, as well as the federal government, are closed today. Oh well, as much as I wish that we were in school, I'm quite comfortable [Read More]
Enjoying the Holidays
I hope that y'all had a wonderful Thanksgiving and Hanukkah if you celebrate! Ryan and I lucked out and enjoyed two Thanksgiving feasts this year because my younger brother accepted a new job at Steamboat Ski Resort so my momma flew out to help him move. According to the resort's website, their motto is "work hard [Read More]
Most Favorite Month
It's been a while and I have oodles upon oodles to update y'all on – life has been busy, things have happened, and I've been changed. The past couple of months have been full of highs and lows, but I'm a firm believer that everything happens for a reason, even if that reason isn't evident [Read More]
ABC's {Survey}
First and foremost, THANK YOU all so much for the congratulatory messages that you've sent me over the past few days 😀 I am over the moon excited to start my new job as the Marketing & Event Coordinator for ZOOMA Women's Race Series. Everyone at my current job has been very understanding and are [Read More]


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This item from Hannah's House Antiques is now in the Shop Backroom.
More from Hannah's House Antiques
Wonderful Old Small Dovetailed Wooden Sliding Lid Box
This sweet old divided box with dovetailed corners and sliding lid measures just over 6 ½" long, 3 ½" wide and just over 2 ¼" tall. The sliding lid works great. The patina on this box is lovely, with beautiful wood grain overall. A wonderful box with two sections inside for your small treasures!
**If you'd like to receive email updates for newly listed and sale items, click on the "Subscribe" link, on the top right side of the page. Fresh antiques are coming in all the time ~ be among the first to see them! Thanks for your interest!
If you were the pending buyer of this item, go to My Account to view, track and check payment for this item.
Hannah's House Antiques
Julie Nichols, Central, IL
Specializing In Country Primitives, Collectibles & Old Advertising Since 1996
~*~Bringing You The Best In Primitives & Collectibles From The Heart of Farm Country ~*~


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** Tickets On Sale To Public June 28 - 10am AEST **
Rainbow Serpent Festival has...
Thank you to the 140,000 of you who came to Manchester for Parklife 2016 from all...
Power duo, Tritonal, has been making massive waves recently. Since their "Untouchable" tour with trio group, Cash Cash, from last year - it seems that Tritonal has just started their dance music domination. This time we see them with a brand new album titled "P...[more]
If you don't know about Nevada yet, get to know. The Swedish producer who has already worked with the likes of David Zowie has just been hit up by Capitol Records to release a 20th anniversary edit of the classic "Return Of The Mack."
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Marco Huck To Retain His WBO Title With Povetkin Bout
By Alexander Pavlov
A few boxers were disapointed to learn that Marco Huck will retain his WBO cruiserweight championship. A few fighters, like mandatory challenger Ola Afolabi, thought Huck was going to vacate the belt or the WBO would possibly strip him of the title. On February 25th in Germany, Huck is moving up in weight to challenge Alexander Povetkin for the WBA's "regular" heavyweight championship.
"Huck came to us requesting the retention of his champion belt, despite the conduct of the fight in another weight division. We want to meet him. In this case, within ten days after the fight with Povetkin, Huck must decide whether he would continue his career at heavyweight or re-enter cruiserweight," the World Boxing Organization said in a statement.
Alexander Pavlov covers boxing for sportbox.ru.
The ring made a mistake then. They vacated Huck's #1 spot so that cunningham hernandez II could be for the ring title. If Huck is already planning to go back down to Cruiser, then they made a mistake.Comment by woo9115 on 01-22-2012
It's frustrating that these so-called sanctioning bodies will allow a boxer to keep his title when instead of defending it in its weightclass; the titlist decides to fight in another weightclass in purse of another title. We saw that with…Post a Comment - View More User Comments (2)


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You can call him Donald Glover, Childish Gambino, or just simply talented. Mr. Glover wears many hats when it comes to entertaining, in just the last 5 years alone he has been highly successful in the paths of acting, rapping, writing, performing stand-up.
'Bino has displayed great versatility over his rap career, from the boasting yet muted Culdesac, to the open and vulnerable yet sweet sounds of Camp, and finally to the brash/broken/sullen tour de force that was because the internet.
Donald broke a six year streak of releasing projects in 2015. On June 19th, 2016, Childish Gambino announced that he would be releasing his next project in September, supposedly titled Pharos.
Currently, he is directing the FX series
Atlanta - where he is also the creator and the lead actor.


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Chicagoland Deck Cleaning & Sealing serves the entire city of Chicago, Illinois area. We have ama... Read More
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V & V Corp. is Chicago's premier general building contractor. We only use quality materials in ou... Read More
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30. Maya General Construction Kitchen & Bathroom Remodelingwww.mayaconstructioninc.com
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Maya Construction is located in Chicago, Illinois. We are a family independently owned and operat... Read More


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Stella McCartney unveils Olympic fashion
Celebrity designers are getting into the Olympics biz.
Stella McCartney, the daughter of Linda and Paul McCartney, unveiled her creations for Britain's Olympians on Thursday. The designs, a guarded secret for months, were modeled by Olympic athletes at a gala event at the Tower of London.
Not surprisingly, perhaps, McCartney used the British flag, the Union Jack, as a design motif, and incorporated technological and fabric improvements.
"The basic message is to unify the team," McCartney told The Associated Press backstage after the show. "The athletes all want to feel like one team. The other big starting point for me was the Union flag, an iconic flag, I think every Briton is so proud of it, but I wanted to look at it in a different way."
Triple jumper Phillips Idowu said it felt great to don the new uniform.
"Looking good is psychologically important but my sprint suit is also technically advanced, so not only do I look good but I also have confidence in the technology," he said.
Britain isn't the only team that has pressed a top designer into duty -- Ralph Lauren is working on some outfits for the U.S. team, and Giorgio Armani is lending his skills to the Italian Olympians.
The Associated Press contributed to this report.
More celebrity news:
Stella McCartney unveils Olympic fashion
Prince Charles makes first visit to Sweden
Mitt Romney set for 'The Tonight Show'
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- Wildfire at Camp Pendleton up to 190 acres
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Additionally Geohazard can be used to immediately send eyewitness reports to an instance of the crowd-mapping platform Ushahidi. These reports, containing geographical information, damage estimations, event description and pictures, can be used to serve a better situation picture of a related event for interested parties.
Geohazard is a BETA version, yet. It has been designed, implemented and tested in a research project. Geohazard is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but without any warranty; without even the implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular use. Feedback and suggestions for improvements are very welcome and can be sent directly via the 'About' menu item. Some, hopefully less important, issues are known already and will be addressed in future versions.
Earthquake data sources: BGS, BMKG, EMSC, GA, GDACS, GFZ, GNS, IPMA, IRIS, KOERI, NOA, NRCan, SGS, USGS
Cyclone data sources: GDACS
Flood data sources:GDACS
Tsunami data sources: NOAA WCATWC, NOAA PTWC Caribbean, NOAA PTWC Hawaii, NOAA PTWC Pacific
Volcano data sources: GNS, USGS
Keywords: earthquake, tsunami, flood, cyclone, volcano, natural hazard, ushahidi, alerts, reports, magnitude, saffir–simpson hurricane wind scale


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T-shirts' Designs
This project received 16 bids from talented freelancers with an average bid price of ₱4064 PHP.Get free quotes for a project like this
Skills Required
Project Budget₱1200 - ₱10000 PHP
Total Bids16
Project Description
It's simple but by the T-shirt's color, the design is well emphasized on its meaning,
the design of this shirts is more on giving the ideas of the words or the colors itself.
Looking to make some money?
- Set your budget and the timeframe
- Outline your proposal
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EVINGTON, Va. — A new device is being touted as a convenient and reliable way to keep Type A school buses from speeding, potentially increasing safety and fuel economy.
InterMotive's Speed Sentinel II, a micro processor-controlled unit for Ford and GM chassis, can be programmed to limit the speed of a bus without limiting the engine.
"Wherever you have it set — maybe 70 — if you need to accelerate to merge onto a freeway, you have full engine output," said Marc Ellison, InterMotive's vice president of sales and marketing. "When you reach 70, it sends a signal to the processor. The pedal can go all the way to the floor, but the vehicle won't go faster."
On newer Type C and D school buses, this type of speed control is a programmable feature in the engine software. Type A buses don't have that feature, but there is at least one aftermarket speed limiter that has been available for some time.
But Brady Childress, director of customer support for Virginia bus dealer Sonny Merryman Inc., said that product hasn't done well in keeping up with engine software, resulting in recurring "check engine" lights. "It's also a pretty large device and is labor intensive to install," Childress said.
InterMotive's product, on the other hand, is compact and uses "plug and play" connectors that plug directly into the vehicle's OEM connectors. This approach reduces the installation time and improves connection reliability.
Ellison said that easy adjustability is one of the key advantages of Speed Sentinel II. (As a side note, Speed Sentinel I was targeted at the emergency response vehicle, taxi and work truck markets but not the school bus market.)
There are two ways to change the speed setting: One is to remove the lid of the module, which is mounted under the dash, and turn a dial. This method takes less than a minute and allows the maximum speed to be set in 5 mph increments from 10 to 80.
The other way is to hook a computer up to the module, which allows the maximum speed to be set in 1 mph increments. This can be done in about two minutes.
Speed Sentinel II has an optional passing mode that allows for a 10-second override of the programmed speed limit. Also, since the device doesn't affect brakes, a vehicle could exceed the set speed when going downhill.
Sonny Merryman Inc. has already installed Speed Sentinel II on a few buses, and Childress said that the device has gotten good responses so far.
"We're very impressed with the product," Childress said. "It has done everything InterMotive said it would do."
Get the latest news and most popular articles from SBF delivered straight to your inbox. Stay on top of the school bus industry and don't miss a thing!


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Review: WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain - WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the PainMay 18, 2004
If you have played any games from the Smackdown! series before than you should know to expect great gameplay and a great season mode, and that's what you get in HCTP (Here Comes the Pain). The grappling system has been revamped, which is a...


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Mariposa Marketplace
5024-B Hwy 140
Mariposa, CA 95338
(209) 966-7377
Open Every Day 10:00 a.m.
7 Days A Week
Monday - Thursday
10am - 6pm
Friday & Saturday
10am - 7pm
Sunday: 10am - 6pm
Anna is on the first floor near the stairs with her hand made bows, tutu's and her new and very popular custom badge holders. Anna has expended her area into Anna's Country Corner accented with country accessories and featuring her wonderful "Snoozies"! Snoozies is a very popular slipper in fun styles for men and women.(Baby Snoozies are in the Baby Dept.)


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2012 Chateau Moncontour Vouvray Demi Sec
Select Quantities
Item #66929
Check Availability »
- Size: 750ml
- Type: White Wine
- Varietal: Chenin Blanc
- Country: France
- Region: Loire
"The color of the wine is fine yellow with a delicate green hue when young, with a floral and intensely aromatic nose typical of excellent Chenin Blanc. The full fruit flavors of green apple evolve to quince and pear on the palate and a finish that shows an excellent balance between acidity, sweetness, and alcohol."
Prices, promotions and availability may vary by store and online.


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Enroll in the Master Samurai Tech Academy and start your journey to becoming a certified Master Samurai Tech!
Sign up below and get immediate access to the courses you want! Read more about our courses here.
See our Pricing Page for details on the bundles.
Enrollment Term
The one-time tuition payment gives you full access to your course(s) and other student benefits for the following terms:
- individual course enrollment = 1 year
- course bundle = 2 years
After that time period is up, you will automatically be enrolled in the monthly course continued enrollment. For a small monthly fee ($5 for individual courses, $10 for a bundle), you will continue to have complete access to your course(s) and other student benefits such as weekly live webinars. This monthly continued enrollment after your initial term is completely optional and can be cancelled at any time.
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Dick Groch, a special assistant to Brewers general manager Doug Melvin and the team's top pro scout, took special interest in one group of pitchers Sunday throwing bullpen sessions together during the morning workout at Maryvale Baseball Park. From left to right, the four pitchers were Mike Fiers, Brandon Kintzler, John Axford and Jim Henderson.
The 'K-Mart Group' Goes to Work
From JSOnline.com
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Joe Robbins/Getty Images


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A family owned and operated business.
James Loesch has been teaching archery since 1986.
James is a Level III instructor certified by USA Archery (USAA).
Lessons are offered:
Monday 5:00 - 8:00
Tuesday - Friday 2:00 - 8:00
Saturday 11:00 - 6:00
James has contributed to 14 NATIONAL CHAMPIONSHIPS since 2011
and has many JUNIOR OLYMPIANS to his credit.
James has been a competitive archer since 1982 winning 13 National Championships himself, including 2 NCAA Championships with Arizona State University. He also holds several State and National records with compound and recurve. James has also represented the United States on international teams.
Whether you have never shot a bow before or you are looking to further your skills, James can help. James' students are recurve shooters, compound shooters, target shooters, and hunters. They range from beginners to multi-national champions.
AGES: As young as 6 years old can give it a try!
Equipment is included in all lessons and classes at no extra cost
if you do not have your own.
Join our email list to receive weekly schedules and information. email@example.com
DRESS CODE: We area family oriented business. Please dress appropriately. Shirt and shoes are required.


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Hi, my name is Mary Gildersleeve. I began designing shortly after teaching myself to knit at the age of 8, primarily because I do not take commands very well and I also could not afford the fancy ...
Hi, my name is Mary Gildersleeve. I began designing shortly after teaching myself to knit at the age of 8, primarily because I do not take commands very well and I also could not afford the fancy yarns back then. Knitting and designing were my constant activities throughout undergrad, grad school and family life until, in 1997, I finally went professional and established By Hand, With Heart ... traditional hand-knit designs with a modern twist. I now create designs for various knitwear outlets (including published designs in Knitters, INKnitters, Cast On), custom knit original designs, and self-publish my own patterns . I maintain a website (www.marygildersleeve.com) where I discuss my work, my findsÃâà(reviewing books and supplies) and suggestions for teaching everyone this age-old art. I particularly love teaching all aspects of knitting ... from beginner to expert, from learning to read charts to designing your own. On most Saturdays, you can find me working at my LYS, Dog House Yarns in Culpeper. I am the exclusive designer for the cashmere-farm, Spring Gate Farm, located in Barboursville, VA.
I earned an MBA from the College of William and Mary (Williamsburg, VA) in 1988 and a BA in Print Journalism from Gonzaga University (Spokane, Washington) in 1983. I continue with my knitting education by attending seminars, voraciously reading all knitting books, magazines, and websites, and constantly honing my practical knitting skills. I was an active member of the Association of Knitwear Designers (which shut down, unfortunately).
I am married, have 5 children (10 to 23 yrs) and keep busy homeschooling, working on the computer, writing articles, and knitting, knitting, knitting in rural Virginia. In 2008, a book I wrote was published "Great Yarns for the Close-Knit Family: over two dozen hand-knit designs inspired by a dozen fantastic family read-alouds"; a year later, another book I wrote hit the bookstores, "In His Image: Nurturing Creativity in the Heart of Your Home" (both are available on Amazon and other book outlets)..
A fun shawlette to remind you of summer at the beach ... a romantic walk along the wet sand ... the moonlit ocean ... the tide slowly receding to leave traces of water behind.
This shawlette starts at the top with a garter-tab, progresses thru alternating stripes of garter and stockinette and ends with a graceful wave-lace pattern.
Blocking makes this shawl pop!
Directions are charted and row-by-row for this shawlette that uses two colors (about 140 yards of each) of fingering-weight fiber; sample used one skein each of Spring Gate Farm's Cashmere Silk Merino blend in Sable and Lapis Lazuli. NOTE: I used most of both skeins so if you tend to knit loosely you might want to increase your yardage.
this design is knit flat starting with a garter tab, progressing to evenly spaced yo's with alternating stripes and then finishes with a wave-lace stitch pattern
design is row-by-row and charted;
there are many ways to wear this shawlette - check out the pictures here and on my website (www.marygildersleeve.com) for some ideas
16sts x 16 rows = 4 inches in garter, blocked


text: A cylindrical resistor element on a circuit board dissipates 0.15 W of power in an environment at 40°C. The resistor is 1.2 cm long, and has a diameter of 0.3 cm. Assuming heat to be transferred uniformly from all surfaces, determine (a) the amount of heat this resistor dissipates during a 24-h period; (b) the heat flux on the surface of the resistor, in W/m2; and (c) the surface temperature of the resistor for a combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient of 9 W/m2 · °C.


text:
Buy Item $12.99 Retail:
Save 32% ($6.00)
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Answers are easy to check with the "check it!" cut-out section of the page; cut out the answers before working the problems, and check your answers when you're done...if an error is found, correct it! Keywords are provided at the beginning of each lesson; sentence completions, crosswords, matching, graphic-type exercises, reading selections, and other types of activities are included. 308 pages, softcover. Grade 3.
|Format: Paperback
Number of Pages: 320
Vendor: Sylvan Learning Publishing
Publication Date: 2009
|Dimensions: 11.00 X 8.50 (inches)
Availability: In Stock


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When two people are laying in a bed under the covers, one person passes gas and puts the covers over the other person head and doesn't let them out until the gases are no longer existent.
Farting under the blanket and putting someone under the covers to smell it. This is a dutch oven, also it keeps you warm.
aaaaaahyiggie가 작성 2009년 05월 24일 (일)
A fart under a blanket (see dutch burner).
That dutch oven smells awful!
defpoint가 작성 2009년 06월 09일 (화)
The dark abyss of bed covers in witch there are insane amounts of ass air waiting to suffocate the next nearest victim.
Man I cooked the craziest dutch oven ever and nearly made my friend pass out. :)
Schiz가 작성 2008년 08월 22일 (금)
The act of farting many times under the covers then making your partner stick his or her head under the blanket.
"After me and ann fucked last night i gave her a brutual dutch oven"
Astabler가 작성 2008년 02월 19일 (화)
While in bed, you fart then pull the covers over the head of whomever is in bed with you. You hold the covers over his or her head until the stink leaves.
Last night in bed, my boyfried pulled a dutch oven on me.
Jenn Jo가 작성 2006년 11월 13일 (월)
To trap the person you sleep with under the covers and fart.
Boy: I got you something
Girl: What ?
Boy: A DUTCH OVEN !
Girl: What ?
Boy: A DUTCH OVEN !
BaeDrivenInsane💋💔🔪🔫가 작성 2015년 03월 13일 (금)
Dutch oven is when you fart under the covers and the smell seeps out to your nose as soon as you lift the covers up. Because the smell is concentrated by the time it gets to you, it's ten times worse (or better, up to you) than it normally would be.
I farted under the covers. This is also known as the act of (or creating a) Dutch oven.
bluthuf가 작성 2013년 11월 28일 (목)


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Vintage collector...my kids claim I'm a hoarder, my husband is afraid we will have to add on to our house...AGAIN:) Antiquing and collecting is hereditary, I grew up with an auction number in my hand!!! I LOVE to share my "treasures"...ask me I probably have it or know where to get it.
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Is Marijuana the Next "Big Tobacco?"March 11, 2016
The number of Americans using marijuana is going up. As some states legalize the drug for medicinal and recreational use, more and more people are trying it, based largely on the assumption that it is non-habit forming. However, a new study shows that is far from the truth. ... Read more
The ABC's of Talking to Children about TragedyFebruary 21, 2014
When a personal, family, or community tragedy befalls us, we often face difficult conversations with our children. Dr. Philip Baese outlines how to talk to kids about these difficult topics. ... Read more


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'Collected Stories' collaboration an uneven read
Neatly arranged nesting dolls - appearing on an upstage table in a Greenwich Village apartment - tell us a lot about the theme and structure of Donald Margulies' "Collected Stories." Under C. Michael Wright's direction, the Milwaukee Chamber Theatre and Madison's Forward Theater Company opened a collaborative production of Margulies' play Friday night.
Author Ruth Steiner (Sarah Day) has lived in that apartment for more than 30 years. Star-struck Lisa Morrison (Laura Frye), the young writer who bursts into Ruth's life in the first scene, is Ruth's latest protégée - another nesting doll aspiring to replicate, on a smaller scale, her master's form. »Read Full Article
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Chapter 2 The Parts of Speech
Reader, please take it easy!
If you are new to sentence analysis, you are about to encounter a hailstorm of terminology. Do not let it batter you. There is no need for you to memorise all in one go. Be content simply with getting a feel for the linguistic concepts they present. Taking it easy in this way, you will be on top of it all by the time you have read to the end of the fourth Chapter.
What are the parts of speech?
'Parts of speech' is the general name for the various syntactic units that perform the sense-making functions of the sentence. They are the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbials (verb, copula, copular verb), and adverbs:
If the function of a word or of a group of words in a sentence is to name, we have a noun, noun phrase or pronoun.
If the function of a word or group of words is to describe a noun, noun phrase or pronounn, we have an adjective or adjective phrase.
If the function of a word or of a group of words is to denote the activity of the subject upon the object, or of the object upon the subject, we have a verb.
If the function of a word or a group of words is to assign a description, definition or location to the subject, we have a copula.
If the function of the complement is to name a characteristic of the subject's act, we have a copular verb or a copular-verb phrase.
If the function of a word or group of words is to describe the time, place, manner, reason for or degree of intensity of the activity denoted by a verb or copular verb, we have an adverb.
Minor parts of speech are the articles and the particles. The articles are the definite article `the' and the indefinite articles `a' and `an'. (Chapter 11 of this work discusses article usage.) The particles are the little words that function as prefixes (indefinite, precondition) and suffixes (happiness, departure), and as prepositions: 'in', 'towards', 'under', etc.). Prepositions are not in themselves parts of speech. Rather, they perform various parts-of-speech functions.
The verbs
Verbs denote the activity that forges the dynamics of the subject-object relationship. The characteristic of the verb sentence is action, either of (i) the subject upon the object, or of (ii) the object upon the subject:
(i) William Adams might well have ignored the spectacle [active voice].
(ii) The spectacle might well have been ignored by him [passive voice].
The copula
The copula is formed from the infinitive 'to be', or from a combination of it with the infinitive 'to have'. The basic forms of the infinitive 'to be' are:
The permutations of the infinitive 'to be' are many. We use them to serve our meaning-making purposes:
am, was, is, are, were, were being, shall/has/had been/will have been, should/might/can be/ought/used to be, etc.
Our meaning-making purposes when we use parts of the infinitive 'to be' are infinite. Here are just two of them:
We were being ignored.
By this time tomorrow, Susan will have been married for a year.
The copula sentence has a complement, not an object
The copula has what we call a 'complement'. It does not have an object. Only the verb sentence has an object.
There are statements (usually of principle, and typically aphorisms) that are copula sentences, but they hide the copula. It is not immediately apparent in this sentence, for instance, that the copula 'is' is hidden:
What goes up must come down.
But it is there, albeit hidden: Quite simply, what in the above sentence has displaced the noun-phrase header that which. (We shall see in a moment that what can be the header of a noun phrase. It cannot, however, be the header of an adjective phrase.)
The complement of this sentence, must come down defines the subject What [That which] goes up. But the copula, is, which connects the subject and the complement by defining it, has been ghosted: it is not visible in this sentence. And the noun-phrase header that which, which logically leads the noun-phrase complement must come down, is also ghosted. Putting back the ghosted copula, the displaced noun-phrase header and the ghosted noun-phrase headers, we have the full meaning-template of this sentence:
What [That which] goes up [is] [that which/what] must come down.
The other upshot of this discussion is that the words goes and come only appear to be verbs in the sentence What goes up must come down. But they are not verbs. They are both parts of the noun phrases What goes up and [What] must come done.
Distinguishing the copula
A part of the infinitive 'to be', or a phrase that consists of several parts of the that infinitive working in combination with parts of the infinitive 'to have, is a copula only when it alone is the element that connects the subject and complement of a sentence. When the parts of the infinitives 'to be' and `to have' occur as the helpers (auxiliaries) of an activity-denoting word, they are either verbs or copular verbs.
It is easy to determine whether the parts of the infinitives 'to be' and 'to have' are copulas or auxiliaries. The determinant is this: If the predicate of the sentence contains an object that acts upon its subject, or upon which the subject acts, then that sentence is a verb sentence. If the predicate contains no object, then the sentence is a copula sentence.
In this sentence:
Mary is constructing the argument to impress John [active voice],
the subject Mary perpetrates the act denoted by the verb is constructing upon the object the argument. In the next sentence:
The argument was constructed by Mary to impress John [passive voice],
the object Mary perpetrates the act denoted by was constructed upon the subject the argument. In both these sentences, the parts of the infinitive 'to be': is and was, are auxiliaries in the verb phrases is constructing and was constructed.
On the other hand, in this sentence:
The argument was impressive
[copula sentence]
no subject nor object is performing any act. Rather, the subject The argument is assigned the description impressive by the copula was. Similarly in:
The argument was constructed to please John
[copula sentence]
the copula was assigns the description constructed to please John to the subject The argument. (Clearly, the subject did not act upon an object in this sentence: there is no object in it. There is instead the predicate adjective constructed to please John: The subject this sentence raises is 'the constructed-to-please-John argument'.)
PS: Some TG analysts will try to argue that was constructed is a verb in this sentence, and to please John is the adverbial phrase of reason that describes it. But this argument founders on the absence from this sentence of a subject that acts upon the object, or an object that acts upon the subject.
The copular verb
There are two kinds of copular verb. One kind is like the copula in that it does not denote activity:
This water tastes good.
The meaning in this sentence is clearly not that the subject the water is perpetrating the act tastes. Obviously, 'water' cannot perpetrate the act 'taste'. Rather, tastes in this context is effectively equi-meaning with 'is', and it is therefore a copular verb. Similarly, in:
That dress felt wet
it is not the subject that dress that did the feeling. Dresses cannot feel. Felt in this sentence is equi-meaning with 'was' or 'seemed to be', and is therefore a copular verb. Like the copula, felt attributes the predicate adjective wet to the subject that dress.
The other kind of copular verb
The other kind of copular verb is like the verb in that it denotes the subject's activity. But it always denotes only the subject's activity. And that activity is never perpetrated upon an object. That is necessarily so because the copular verb does not have an object. Instead, it has a complement that works upon the subject to describe, locate or specify it. In doing this, it is like the copula. In this sentence:
The waiter refused service,
the subject the waiter certainly did not perpetrate the act denoted by refused upon the noun service. Rather, the noun service names the content of the subject's act, refused: So the waiter performed an act of service refusal.
Distinguishing the verb and the copular verb
In this sentence:
The waiter refused to serve the drunkard,
[verb sentence]
the subject the waiter perpetrated an act, denoted by the verb phrase refused to serve, upon the object the drunkard. Clearly then, refused to serve is a verb.
However, in the next sentence, something more complicated happens:
She refused the drunkard permission to enter.
[copular verb sentence]
In this sentence, it might at first seem that the subject she perpetrated an act, denoted by the verb refused, upon the object the drunkard. But She refused the drunkard cannot be said to be the basic sentence of this sentence, for the simple reason that it does not make an independent sense. In fact, for this basic sentence to make sense, the noun phrase permission to enter is needed to name the content of the subject's act refused. So refused has a complement, not an object. It is therefore a copular verb.
But then, someone might argue, is not the drunkard nevertheless the object of the copular verb refused of which the content is named by permission to enter? The obvious answer is that it is not. Once one admits that in this sentence refused is a copular verb of which the content is named by the noun-phrase complement permission to enter, it cannot then be also be a verb. (It has already been established that She refused the drunkard does not make the independent sense required of a basic sentence.) So how to account for the noun the drunkard? Well, that is simple: It names the direction of the subject's act denoted by the copular verb refused.
The reader will recall the following analysis offered in the Chapter 'What is a Sentence':
The boy taught his grandmother Mathematics
The boy taught his grandmother to suck eggs.
[verb sentences]
The subject the boy perpetrated the act denoted by the verb taught on the object, his grandmother. The content of the subject's act is named by the noun Mathematics in the first sentence, and by the infinitive-noun phrase to suck eggs in the second.
That reader might well put this very valid question: Why is 'taught' in this context not also a copular verb, since its content is named by a noun-phrase complement? Yet again, the answer is fairly simple: The basic sentence in this sentence, The boy taught his grandmother makes an independent sense. That basic sentence does not have to import the noun complement to achieve a sense, as was the case in the basic sentence She refused the drunkard permission to enter. (That is, the complement permission to enter had to be 'imported' to inform us of the content of the act refused. But in The boy taught his grandmother, the subject-object relationship is unequivocal.)
No verb is inherently a copular verb.
`Tastes' and `felt' were used as copular verbs in the sentences we discussed above. They were distinguished as copular verbs because, like the copula, they do not denote activity. However, they are verbs in the following sentences because they do denote the activity that the subject perpetrates upon the object (underlined):
He felt the bump on his head.
The employee tastes the food for his master.
[verb sentences]
There are other problematic sentences that look as if they contain a subject and an object, and therefore, a verb. One such sentence is this:
He felt the wind in his hair.
[copular-verb sentence]
The subject He certainly perpetrates the act denoted by felt: he did the feeling. But he did not perpetrate that act upon the wind. (In fact, logically, it is the wind that acted upon him.) The wind is therefore not the object in this sentence. We must conclude that felt is a copular verb because the complement the wind in his hair names the content of the activity (felt) it denotes.
The copular verb and the 'that' - headed noun-phrase complement
There is an awkward copular-verb sentence construction that must be discussed. (The reader will have to referto the concept: `the subjunctive mood'.) Such a construction occurs in this sentence:
I must suggest to her that she cover her windows with curtains.
[copular-verb sentence, subjunctive mood]
The verbial must suggest might at first glance seem to be a verb. In fact it a copular verb. The subject I is not perpetrating the act must suggest upon her. The subject's act is merely the contemplation of the perpetrating of an act of suggesting. So to her is not the object in this sentence. Rather, to her names the direction of the contemplated activity must suggest. And that she cover her windows with curtains names the content of that contemplated activity.
We speak of 'contemplated activity' because there is no actual perpetration of an act in this sentence. Also, the tense of must suggest is indeterminate: it has a present-tense form, but its sense can be either future or present, depending on the meaning it intends to make. (It can be intended to mean either: `my constant thought is to suggest to her that she cover her window ...' or `I shall have to suggest to her that she cover her windows ...'.)
The noun phrase that she cover her windows with curtains names the content of the activity denoted by must suggest. Since the tense of must suggest is indeterminate, its subjunctive mood is presumed by default. Therefore, the noun phrase that names its content must `fit in' with the presumed subjunctive mood by making an explicit subjunctive of the verb-like element in the content-naming noun phrase. So any verb-like element in the content-naming part of the complement must take a subjunctive-mood form.
We can construct the subjunctive mood with a noun phrase headed by `that'. We cannot construct it with a gerund phrase. For that reason it is entirely ungrammatical to give the content-naming noun phrase a gerund form: 'I must suggest to her to cover her windows with curtains'.
You will see the difference in this sentence:
'I shall tell her to cover her windows with curtains'.
[verb sentence]
Here, shall tell is a verb inasmuch as her is its object. And the tense of this verb is clearly `future'. Given this clarity of tense, there is no demand for the subjunctive mood in the phrase that names its content. So the infinitive `to cover' can head the noun phrase that does that naming.
Finally, on the verb/copular verb distinction: The reader should keep in mind that the content of a verb can be named by a complement, even when that verb is a proper verb that has a subject and an object. Such a naming of verb content occurs in the sentence above, in which the subject I perpetrates the act denoted by the verb shall tell upon the object her.
The reader should review the discussion of the verb sentence in the Chapter `What is a Sentence?', where examples of other verb-content naming noun complements are discussed. A basic fact to remember about sentence analysis is this:
A verb always has an object (unless it is a 'subject+verb' sentence, e.g., 'He preaches'). But it can have a complement as well, so long as the basic sentence that contains it makes an independent sense that establishes the subject-object relationship. (Please refer to the section '4. The activity between subject and object is named by the predicate noun complement' in the Chapter 'What is a Sentence?')
A copular verb and a copula can have only a complement (and never an object).
Time present and time past
Are both perhaps present in time future,
And time future contained in the time past.
T S Eliot
The tense of a verb is achieved by the word form that locates it in time. That is also true of the tense of a copula or copular verb. The problem with verb tense is not that its formation is governed by any complex syntax, but rather, it is that approaches to expressing `time/activity' concepts are very diverse. There is, for instance, little similarity in how tense is expressed in Germanic, Slavic and Latin languages. Modes of tense expression in those languages differ from one to another every bit as much as the mode of any of them differs from the English mode.
A vast body of tense terminology exists in Traditional Grammar, but sadly, much of it is nonsensical: `present perfect continuous', `pluperfect', `future perfect conditional', etc. This book proposes that discussion of English tense formation should be thoroughly spring-cleaned, with the intention of consigning its useless terminology to oblivion. To this end, only some tense paradigms are commended here as useful ones.
The tense concepts 'present', 'past', 'future', 'conditional'
'Past', 'present', 'future' and 'conditional' are the indispensable time concepts. They each have several tense forms. Examples of these forms are rendered in bold italics:
I eat fish. He/She eats fish. We/you/they eat fish.
I am eating fish. He/She is eating fish. We/you/they are eating fish.
I ate fish. He/She ate fish. We/you/they ate fish.
I have eaten fish. He/She has eaten fish. We/you/they have eaten fish.
I had eaten fish. He/She/We/You/They had eaten fish.
I/We shall eat fish. He/She/You/They will eat fish.
I/We shall be eating fish. He/She/You/They will be eating fish.
I/We should eat fish if it were safe. You/He or She/They would eat fish if it were safe.
I/we should be eating fish if it were safe. You/He/She/They would be eating fish if it were safe.
Permutations of these structures make all the other tense forms. The particular form we choose depends on the sense we want to make:
I have been eating fish even though I know it is not safe.
He/She might be eating fish despite my rule that forbids it.
He/She might have eaten fish while I was away.
They will have eaten all the fish they bought before I came home.
You would have been eating fish if I had agreed to serve you some.
It is not only tense forms of verbials that locate in time. For instance:
The poor man dies tomorrow
is a sentence that uses the present-tense form dies, yet there is a clear `future time' concept operating in it. That operation is achieved by the adverb `tomorrow'. This adverb is responsible for giving this sentence a `future' aspect.
A verb's tense form can reveal whether the act it denotes is `perfective' (finished) or `imperfective' (unfinished). In this sentence:
He has eaten pies all his life
the act is clearly unfinished, or `imperfective'. That is, the act denoted by 'has eaten' is not a terminated act but a continuing one: He is still eating pies. But then, the same can be said of this sentence:
He had eaten pies all his life.
The auxiliary had does not, of its own strength, give a sentence a perfective aspect. Please note this fact in this compound sentence:
He had eaten pies all his life and was still eating them when we met him.
Since the act had eaten is shown by the subsequent (compound) sentences to be a continuing act, He had eaten pies is for that reason a sentence with an imperfective aspect.
Aspect in the verb sentence
An interesting thing about aspect in a verb sentence is that the terminating adverb of time that conjoins a sentence with the lead sentence determines that the past-tense form `had' is the appropriate auxiliary of the verb in the lead sentence. We might observe this in the following way: There is no terminating adverb of time in the two foregoing sentences. But there is in the next one:
He had eaten pies all his life until we warned him of the possible adverse health consequences of eating them.
Here, until is the terminating adverb that conjoins the sentence we warned him of the possible adverse health consequences of eating them' with the lead sentence he had eaten pies all his life. It is this terminating (and conjoining) adverb of time that enforces the tense form had eaten. It is, therefore, this adverb of time that is primarily responsible for giving this sentence a 'perfective' aspect. In so doing, it insists that 'had' and not `has' is the appropriate auxiliary for the lead sentence. (We cannot possibly say `He has eaten pies until we warned him ...' because we would be proposing a chronologically illogical time concept.)
Aspect in the copula sentence
Aspect in the copula sentence is just as interesting. As in the verb sentence, it is the sentence-compounding and terminating adverb of time that determines when the appropriate copula is `was' and not `is', and when the appropriate auxiliary is `had' and not `has'. In this sentence:
This is the most beautiful flower I have ever seen,
'the most beautiful flower I have ever seen' is, and continues to be, true of the subject This. (Alternately, This represents the most beautiful flower I have ever seen.) So the aspect of this copula sentence is imperfective (i.e. no truth has been made obsolete). Hence the appropriateness of the the present-tense copula is and the present-tense auxiliary have.
On the other hand, in the next sentence:
This was the most beautiful flower I had ever seen before you showed me yours
This again represents the most beautiful flower I had ever seen. But now there is a terminating adverb of time, before, and it compounds the lead sentence this was the most beautiful flower I had ever seen with before you showed me yours. That compounding enforces the past tense 'This was', for 'This is' is no longer true. The possibility of its truth is terminated. A once-true representation of `This' as `the most beautiful flower I have ever seen' has become obsolete. Aspect here is therefore perfective.
Instinct and forming tenses
There is a formidable array of tense terminology, not all of which is even passingly perspicacious. There is no need, therefore, to bother with it. Fortunately, native speakers form tenses more or less instinctively. It is much more important, for the purposes of sentence analysis, to learn to recognise a verbial phrase.
Verbial phrases
Parts of the infinitive `to be', it has already been noted, act either alone as the copula in a sentence, or are aided by auxiliaries that are parts of the infinitive 'to have'. Infinitives themselves can also be parts of a verb phrase:
They had been trying to become friends.
The present participle is the verbial form that ends in -ing. It can itself be part of a verbial phrase, as the sentence above shows. When infinitives and present participles are parts of a verbial phrase, they are always accompanied by at least one auxiliary (rendered in red font below).
The dog is eating.
The dog might have been eating at the time.
The dog had been eating its dinner.
The dog could/would have been eating for some time.
The past participle is the verbial form that ends in -ed or -en or -n:
He should have worked harder.
He might have eaten more.
They had tried hard.
The dog might have been there.
We could/should/might/ought to/ have known about it.
When `not' or an adverb accompanies the verbial phrase:
John will not cook lunch
I can hardly hear you
those words are part of that verbial phrase. This is so for the obvious reason that a verb phrase such as the one in 'I can hear you' denotes an act quite different from the one in 'I can hardly hear you'. It would not be sensible to claim that an adverb or the negative marker `not' is not part of the sense it is responsible for achieving.
Caution about advice
Knowing that the foregoing sorts of formations are the ones capable of constituting a verbial phrases, one is well on the way to being able to recognise one. Indeed, people new to sentence analysis are often advised to `find the verb' in the sentence before them. That, however, is not wonderful advice. For one thing (this was noted in the discussion on distinguishing the verbials (verb, copula and copular verb), words that look as if they are functioning as verbs are not necessarily verbs in the sentence under analysis. A much safer procedure is to determine first of all whether the sentence under examination is a subject/object or a subject/complement sentence.
The moods of verbials are indicative, interrogative, imperative and subjunctive. Apart from `subjunctive', these are not very exciting distinctions. Quite simply:
- the indicative mood makes a statement (this is the mood this book is largely concerned with);
- the interrogative mood asks a question;
- the imperative mood gives an order.
There really is very little point in remembering these terms, since the words `question', `order' and `statement' exist without them as perfectly serviceable terms.
The subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood of a verbial is distinct from its indicative mood (its statement form) in that it is not located in time, and is therefore without tense. It sets a notional, as distinct from a real or a chronological, time.
The 'be' construction of the subjunctive
The `be' construction of the subjunctive mood of a verbial is often suggestive of the eternal, and is used in a mood of adulation:
God be praised.
Colloquially, the 'be' construction accompanies a present-tense, indicative-mood statement:
Be that as it may, I am not changing my mind.
We have a plan, albeit a crude one.
Maybe we can beat them.
They rejected us. So be it.
Blessed be Thy name.
The 'were' construction of the subjunctive
The `were' construction of a verbial's subjunctive mood expresses a wish:
I wish I were a princess,
or a hypothesis:
If he were to ring I should eat my hat.
The more complex `were' construction hypothesises a state of being or activity, and postulates its real-time, imperfective aspect with a conditional-tense verbial in the statement about an expected consequence. (The latter is rendered in bold in this sentence):
Were Mary to move to England, she would miss Australia.
The still more complex `were' construction adds a present-tense consequence:
If I were to read this book on a beach, people would wonder who I am.
Adverbs describe verbs. They describe the time (when), the manner (how), the place (where), the degree of intensity, the direction, and the reason for the activity that the verb denotes. Naturally then, adverbs occur only in verb sentences.
Time ('when')
We arrived early.
The plan was abandoned prematurely.
Three months later, I met a post-trauma psychologist.
Manner ('how')
He spoke slowly .
The rain came teeming down.
We travelled by bus.
They arrived screaming for revenge.
Place ('where'/'in what direction', either physically or psychologically')
This gadget moves upwards.
They watched us in disbelief.
The child talks in her sleep.
Degree of intensity
He hardly spoke at all.
I shall insist vehemently that he give up smoking.
She really likes iced coffee.
They separated because of their political difference.
The reminder was issued out of kindness.
He eats to sustain his energy.
She gossiped about the neighbours.
The teacher spoke against bullying.
The stevedoring company tried to break the power of unions by bringing in foreign workers.
Adverbs often head noun phrases that expound a comparison or a metaphor:
Milton crafts his tale like a pirate plucking gems from a treasure chest.
Where there is a verb there can also be an adverb. There is no verb in copula and copular-verb sentences. There cannot, therefore, be an adverb in copula and copular-verb sentences.
Nouns name people and things and abstractions. They name in single words (singular or plural nouns) and in sequences of words (noun phrases). A name is every bit as much a noun when it names the concepts `will to live' and `nationalism' as it is when it names the person `Mary' or the group `the endangered'. Simply, if the effect of a word or sequence of words is that it names, then that word is a noun and that sequence a noun phrase. (Noun phrases are underlined, and verbials are rendered in italic bold italic font.)
Church leaders have been a powerful influence on public attitudes.
There is no sense at all in trying to claim that the `place' concept implicit in 'on public attitudes' makes it function as an adverb: The only verbial in this sentence is the copula `have been'. A copula cannot, by nature, denote activity. So it makes no sense to say that a phrase in a sentence describes activity when there is no verb in it to denote activity. Rather, the copula has been assigns the definition a powerful influence on public attitudes (two noun phrases) to the subject Church leaders.
Noun Case
At one time in the life of Traditional Grammar, nouns were classified with Latin noun-declension terminology. The two subjective cases were:
Nominative [the subject namer]: John has arrived.
Vocative [the addressee namer]: Mary, John has arrived.
The three predicative cases were:
Accusative [the object namer]: John read the children a story.
Dative [the indirect-object namer]: John read the children a story.
Ablative [the orientation namer]: John is under a cloud. John talked about Philosophy.
The two case that were both nominative [subject namer] and accusative [object namer] were:
Locative [the place namer]: Living in London caused John to appreciate living in Melbourne.
Genitive [the possession indicator]: John's cats' collars are pink. The collars of the cats belonging to John are pink.
Shortage of case namers
A quick count of the broadest categorisation of nouns functions in the complement (see the discussion in the Chapter 'What is a Sentence/Copular-verb model of the basic sentence') will show that the six Latin noun-case names are not enough to name all of them. What case, for instance, might we say that Mathematics is in the sentence 'Mary teaches Mathematics'? Clearly, Mathematics is not accusative [the object namer]: it is not the object in this sentence. (Mary does not perpetrate an act upon Mathematics, nor vice versa. Rather, Mathematics is the noun that names the content of the activity denoted by the verb teaches in this verb + subject sentence.)
This state of being stuck for a case name is the least of our problems. The big one came when, at another time in the life of Traditional Grammar, some linguists giggled into their palms and told us that grammarians, the dopes, are running around giving names to English nouns that are in fact the names of Latin case forms. That gave the kibosh to naming English noun-case functions in the classical manner, until the distinguished linguist Charles Fillmore wrote his Case Grammar in 1962, pointing out that though it is true that modern English nouns do not have case forms, it is also true that they do have case functions. He commended a case-centred grammar and called for much better efforts at naming noun-case functions exhaustively. Today, grammarians by and large still baulk at the prospect of discussing noun case, mostly, one suspects, for fear of those who remember that doing so is supposed to be silly.
The pity of it is that, having turned against noun-case distinctions, Traditional Grammar decided that the old Latin objective-case functions are going to be called `adverbs' in its system of analysis. Now, adverbs describe verbs. Nouns can name the properties of actions they denote. The two functions are quite dissimilar. Traditional Grammar is remiss in having attempted to fudge this. The result of the fudging cannot be anything other than a source of confusion in its system of analysis.
The genitive-case nouns
The genitive-case noun is the only modern English noun that has a case form. It is either the apostrophe before or after a final-letter s, or the 'of/for +noun' construction. Traditional Grammar has settled upon calling this the `possessive case'. This is none too perspicacious a word, for the genitive case names quite a bit more than possession. It names the existence of these relationships between nouns:
the owner and the owned: the girl's doll / the doll of the girl (the girl is an owner; the doll is an owned item.)
The girl's doll is being fixed.
The doll of the girl with brown hair is missing.
the performer and the performance: the boys' cooking/the cooking by the boys/of the boys (the boys are the performers, cooking is the performance.)
The boys' cooking was the main attraction of the show.
The cooking by the boys attracted many viewers.
the custodian and the custody: soldiers' orders/orders of/for soldiers ( the soldiers are custodians; the orders are in their custody).
The soldiers' orders were issued with a warning that they are inviolate.
Orders for soldiers are issued without a sense of fun.
The orders of soldiers are never taken lightly.
valuer and the evaluated: a year's sentence/ a sentence of one year (The valuer `a year' evaluates `sentence' in terms of itself).
The punishment was a year's prison sentence..
A sentence of one year of prison is lenient.
category and the sub-category: a teachers' college/a college for teachers (The category is `college'; the sub-category teachers' describes the category `college'.)
Not everyone who attends teachers' college is committed to teaching.
This college for teachers was opened recently.
One genitive is forced on us by idiom. The idiom itself has an 'of' structure: `for the sake of', `in the name of':
In the name of all that is holy, muzzle that howling dog! For goodness' sake, stop that racket!
For the sake of your children, save your money.
Hold your tongue, for Pete's sake!
(There is a discussion about placing the apostrophe before or after the s, in the Chapter `The Apostrophe and the other Raised Commas'.)
Noun classification
Instead of looking to classifying nouns in terms of their case functions, Traditional Grammar has been busy with a set of appallingly boring, all-too-obvious categories: Proper nouns name people (John Smith, the Prime Minister), places (Melbourne, Victoria, Auburn Road), edifices (the House of Parliament, Westminster Bridge) and visual and literary publications (The Terminator, The Sydney Morning Herald). Common nouns are somehow ordinary nouns: dog, street, people, governments, invitation. Abstract nouns name abstractions: humanity, love, beauty, eagerness, democracy. Collective nouns name class-groups rather that item: flock, pair, gathering, audience. Nouns are said also to have number. That simply means that they are singular (dog, woman, pair) or plural (dogs, women, pairs). And nouns and verbials have agreement, which means that there is a consistency in the singularity or plurality of nouns and verbs that occur in association: John goes; the people go.
Noun & adjective naming units
It is often necessary to include adjectives in a naming sequence: For instance, the noun `publishing' names something other than `literary publishing', and `Australian literary publishing' names something other than `mainstream Australian literary publishing'. In the following sentences, adjectives are rendered in red font, and the naming sequences of which they are a part are underlined:
Recently, the Mulgar Press, a publishing company, was refused Literature Board funding.
Mainstream Australian literary publishing seems to take funding for granted.
It is practical in sentence analysis to call a phrase by the name of the function it performs in a sentence, without our being concerned with how the parts of the phrase itself function upon one another. When a phrase performs a noun function and adjectives are part of its naming function (as in the two sentences above), we call that phrase a noun phrase, because the whole phrase acts as a noun.
'That' & 'what' in the noun phrase
'That' heads the ordinary (not relative) noun phrase. That ordinary noun phrase is italicised in the next set of sentences. The basic sentences are underlined. Its verbial is rendered in bold font.
That there is a long tradition of democracy in this country does not deter his efforts to secure dictatorial powers for himself (verb basic sentence).
His problem is that he cannot disguise his contempt for the will of the majority (copula basic sentence).
'What', too, can head the ordinary (not relative) noun phrase:
What you see is what you get. (copula basic sentence)
What you don't know [is what] won't hurt you. (copula basic sentence)
(See also the discussion in the Chapter `The Simple Sentence'.)
Pronouns simply represent nouns. Unlike most nouns, pronouns retain their case forms. That means that when a pronoun represents a noun that is the subject in a verb sentence, it has a subjective-case form:
I, she, he, we, you, they.
When a pronoun represents a noun that is the object in a verb sentence, it takes the objective-case form:
me, her, him, you, them.
'It' is the neutral pronoun that represents genderless singular nouns. `It' does not have a case form.
Personal pronouns in verb basic sentences
When a sentence raises a subject that is a person and represents it instead of naming it, the representation is done by the personal pronouns: I, she, we, you, they. These pronouns are the subjects in a basic sentence. That is why they are called the 'subjective-case pronouns'. The person or persons who are the objects in the sentence are represented by the personal pronouns: me, her, him, us, them. Hence their name `objective-case pronouns'. `You' has the same form in both its case roles.
She/He loves him/her/me/them/us/you. They spoke to him/her/me/them...
Personal pronouns in the copula basic sentence
There cannot be a subject-object relationship in a copula sentence: There is no object in it. Because personal pronouns in a copula sentence are either the subject or they represent the subject, their forms are always subjective: I, she, he, we, they:
copula complement
I/she who matters more than you/they.
Personal pronouns in the preposition-led phrase
It was perfectly possible in the foregoing discussion to give a logical account of the use of the subjective and objective case forms of personal pronouns . However, no such logical account is available for why we use their OBJECTIVE forms in the prepositional phrase that introduces a sentence, be it a verb, copula or copular-verb one. The only available account, quite simply, is that we just do! (Preposition-led phrases are underlined in the examples below, and the personal pronouns are highlighted in yellow. NB: although 'you' is a personal pronoun, we have not highlighted it, for its subjective and objective form is the same):
subject predicate verb object
Between you and me, the two of us, Mary
copula complement
For him, her, and them, the money
for us.
copular verb
In light of what happened to them, we
caution to all of us.
The reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, themselves, itself, have only objective-case forms, for they feature only as the object in verb basic sentences. Their template of meaning is: 'The subject perpetrated the act denoted by the verb upon the subject (him/herself).'
verb object I cut myself. They rewarded themselves.
The relative pronouns 'who' and 'whom'
These relative pronouns perform special adjectival and nounal functions.
In these sentence, `who' does nothing more than head the adjective phrase that describes a noun. (The sequence it heads is rendered in red font):
The kindergarten is run by an experienced teacher who lives locally [relative adjective phrase].
The man who loves dogs [relative adjective phrase] visited yesterday.
Yet the next sentences show the `who'-headed phrase performing exactly the same function as the noun phrase that names alternately. Like the alternately-naming noun phrase, it is demarcated by commas. The phrases at issue are underlined in the next sentences:
Andrew, who is my son, [relative adjective phrase] does not hold opinions dispassionately.
Andrew, my son, [alternately-naming noun] does not hold opinions dispassionately.
Dr Charles Cooper, who led a discussion on how to create partnerships between industry and research institutions, [relative adjective phrase] said that people should take risks.
Dr Charles Cooper, leader in a discussion on how to create partnerships between industry and research institutions, [relative adjective phrase] said that people should take risks.
'Whom' inevitably leads a relative-adjective phrase:
The man whom Mary married won the jackpot.
This author, whom you know well, will address the meeting.
We talked about the girl whom he had met at the party.
(There is more discussion of `who' and `whom' in the Chapter `The Simple Sentence'. That discussion provides the easy way to never failing to use 'who' and 'whom' correctly.) Relative phrases and the meaning-making comma that demarcates them, or does not demarcate them, are discussed in the Chapter `The Comma'.)
An adjective is any word or phrase that describes a noun. There are two adjective types: 'attributive' and 'predicate'. The ways they describe nouns are markedly different:
Attributive adjectives
An adjective is attributive when it describes a noun in the same part of the sentence (subject or object/complement) as itself. The attributive adjectives in the following sentences are underlined:
The man on the bridge
is eating a green apple. copula complement
was a neat dresser.
Predicate adjectives in the copula sentence
The predicate adjective is a description assigned by the copula from the predicate to the noun subject. In these sentence the predicate adjective 'rich' describes the noun subject `the man', the predicate-adjective phrase `as bad as you say' describes the noun-phrase subject `walking to school', the predicate-adjective `prohibited' describes the noun-subject 'smoking':
complement The man used to be rich. Walking to school was as bad as you say. Smoking is prohibited.
The predicate adjective in the copular-verb sentence
The copular verb is party to the description that a predicate-adjective performs. A template of meaning (i.e. not an alternative natural sentence) characterising this feat of joint description appears alongside each of the following copular-verb sentences (The basic sentence is underlined, the predicate adjective is rendered in red font, and the noun-subject it describes is rendered in green font.):
Military honours come cheap in some countries ([the come-cheap military honours].
The man married young [the young-married man].
He acted angry to intimidate them [the angry-acting he].
The tutor goes easy on hard workers [the goes-easy tutor].
We sit pretty on our fortune [the pretty-sitting we].
A curious thing about predicate adjectives and adverbs
When the predicate adjective is used with any part of the one inherently copular verb (any part of the infinitive 'to become', which is itself a derivative of the infinitive 'to be'), nobody is tempted to make an adverb of it: Nobody will turn 'angry' into 'angrily' in `He became angry'. But when the predicate adjective is used with other copulas, many people are tempted to turn the adjective into an adverb. So 'crisp' in this sentence is often turned into 'crisply, quite wrongly:
The chicken was fried crisply [defective sentence].
No doubt, people do this because they think, wrongly, that 'was fried' is a verb here. But can one fry crisply? Hardly. We can speak crisply, and we can perform some actions crisply (e.g., a salute, a nod, a checking in). But we cannot fry crisply: frying can, with luck, turn out a crisp fowl or, luck having failed us, a crisp steak. But the process of frying cannot, by nature, be crisp. So let us speak logically on this subject:
The chicken was fried crisp [copula sentence].
A description of the verb 'was fried', properly adverbial, occurs only in a sentence where 'was fried' actually is a verb:
The chicken was fried hastily [verb sentence].
'What' cannot be the header of an adjective phrase.
In this defective copula sentence:
Something what I like is a burn upon my bike,
what I like tries to describes the noun Something. But it cannot do that happily, for one of the very few constants (one might even hazard 'rules') in English usage is that 'what' cannot head an adjective phrase: An adjective phrase header can be only 'that' or 'which' or nothing. So:
Something that I like is a burn upon my bike,
Something I like is a burn upon my bike.
For a discussion of 'that' and 'which', please read the relevant section in Chapter 3, The Simple Sentence.
The formations
There is Traditional Grammar terminology to name a variety of formations. Formations are not parts of speech; they are simply formations. All formations perform parts-of-speech functions:
The infinitive
The infinitive is the 'to' base of any verbial, e.g.: to be, to sleep, to try, to fly, to entertain. When an infinitive heads a phrase, that phrase is an infinitive phrase. Infinitives phrases perform as nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs. The sentences that follow will illustrate this. The underlined sequences contain the infinitive phrases. Note that these sequences perform various part-of-speech functions:
To try to do that [noun-phrase subject] is more than a little foolhardy.
That was a dress to beat all dresses [predicate-adjective phrase].
I was trying to renovate [part of a verb phrase] my house.*
She wore the dress to please her grandmother [adverb phrase: reason].
*Identifying the verb phrase when an infinite is part of it often poses problems. Indeed, I recall with dismay a long public argument on this subject with quite a senior grammarian. The sentence under analysis was:
I am trying to paint my house.
That senior grammarian insisted that the verb here is 'am trying', and its object is 'to paint my house'. 'No, no!', I howled. 'We have a verb phrase here that contains an infinitive!' Well, we do. It is 'am trying to paint'.
But first:
'To paint my house' cannot possibly be the object of 'am trying' here. If 'am trying' is all there is to the verb, then it has to be a copular verb, for it denotes no activity of subject on object, nor vice-versa. Then one might try to argue that 'to paint my house' is the complement that somehow clarifies the content of the copular verb 'am trying'. (See the discussion under the leading 'Copular-verb model of the basic sentence', in Chapter 1, 'What is a Sentence?'.) But that argument has to fail, for quite clearly, in the sentence to hand, the subject 'I' is perpetrating an act upon the object 'my house'. So this is unequivocally a verb sentence, not a copular-verb one. An easy demonstration of this fact follows.
Take the sentence:
I am painting my house.
am painting
my house.
My senior grammarian opponent accepted this analysis. But she argued that 'am painting' denotes an activity different from 'am trying to paint'. And there I had her! For, if 'am trying to paint' denotes an activity, then it is a verb phrase. And it does denote an activity, every bit as much as 'am painting' does:
am trying to paint
my house.
It is essential to learn to recognise the verb phrase that includes an infinitive!
The trouble is that some proponents of Traditional Grammar are quite sure that a verb phrase is nothing other than the verb and its auxiliaries: have gone, had been gone, etc. That position has it that a verb phrase is nothing more that a verb and the auxiliaries that determine their tenses. But a verb phrase is in fact much more than that: A verb phrase denotes the activity of the subject upon the object (active voice), or the object upon the subject (passive voice). An activity that derives from the infinitive 'to paint' is 'am panting'. And an activity that derives from the infinitive 'to try to paint' is 'am trying to paint'.
The next sentence has similar construction to that of the one above, inasmuch as it contains a verb phrase:
I like to pack the night before I travel.
Here is its analysis:
like to pack
the night before I travel.
The difference is that the above is a not verb basic sentence in which the subject acts upon the object and vice-versa. Instead, it is a 'subject+verb sentence' in which the verb phrase is described by an adverb of time (when).
The present participle
The present participle is the -ing ended word: playing, speaking, walking, etc. Present participles function as any part of speech. They are underlined in these sentences:
Skiing [noun subject] is what I do best.
I bought some pretty playing [attributive adjective] cards.
Listening to the dawn chorus [header, noun-phrase subject] is an inspiration.
We were playing [part of verb phrase] hockey.
The child ran crying adverb describing the subject's action 'ran' to his mother .
The past participle
The past participle is the -ed and -en ended form of regular verbs: eaten, slapped, etc.. Irregular verbs tend to end with -t: spoilt, hoist, slept. They function as nouns, adjectives and as parts of verb phrases:
The privileged [noun subject] are being too hard on the poor.
Those broken [attributive adjective] promises left him defeated [predicate adjective].
The burglar had eaten [verb phrase] the chocolate cake.
The braggart was hoist [verb phrase] by his own petard.
Gerunds and gerundives
The terms 'gerund' is used for nouns that have an infinitive construction, and the term 'gerundive' for adjectives of that construction. The same is true of nouns and adjectives that have participle constructions. This is an important issue in British, Australian and Canadian spelling: Four infinitives: to advise, to prophesy, to practise and to license retain their s when they function as adjectives. (This is discussed in the Chapter 'The Simple Sentence'.)
Prepositions and the transitive/intransitive verbs
Prepositions are the short pointer words: to, with, by, etc., that attach to a variety of syntactic units. From the point of view of verbs, they are interesting chiefly for the fact that they always accompany intransitive verbs and never transitive verbs:
Transitive verbs: Bob likes/met/prefers/ Susan.
Intransitive verbs: Bob spoke to/ dined with/ voted against Susan.
English verbs are said to be inherently transitive or intransitive. This is not a rule of any kind. Rather, the purport of the activity that a verb denotes is bound by logic to be self-sufficient (transitive) or preposition-dependant (intransitive) verb. An intransitive verb cannot make the transition between itself and its object without the help of a preposition. Clearly, it is logically possible to 'like Susan' (like here is a self-sufficient, or transitive, verb that does not need a preposition). But it is logically impossible to 'spoke Susan'. 'Spoke ' is an intransitive verb and needs a preposition to connect with, or transit to, its object: Hence, 'He spoke to Susan' (intransitive verb), not 'He spoke Susan', and 'He likes Susan' (transitive verb), not 'He likes to Susan'. So 'transitive' and 'intransitive' are the characteristics of verbs and the purposes of their uses:
(i) I met Mary.
(ii) I met with an accident.
In (i) there is a transitive verb, and in (ii) an intransitive verb. The intransitive verb in (i) derives from the infinitive 'to meet'' and means 'engage in a meeting'. The intransitive verb in (ii) derives from the infinitive 'to meet with', which means 'encounter a situation'.
Which preposition we choose to accompany a transitive verb depends of the purpose for which we use a verb. For instance, we choose 'with' to go with 'deal' when we want to say that we have dealings with someone:
I deal with autistic children.
But if we are specifying what 'deal' denotes in our use of it, such as in this sentence:
I deal out punishment as I see fit,
we cause 'deal' to mean 'give out', or 'distribute'.
Proficient speakers of English do not have difficulty with the transitive and intransitive verb usage. The only exception arises with the infinitive 'to meet'. There is a strong contemporary inclination to say 'I met with Mary', especially when the meeting is somehow a formal context, such as in a work place or among adversaries. The idea here is that 'met with' is somehow more democratic than 'met'. But this is not an issue of syntax. It is rather syntax abused by ideological zealotry.
The myth of 'word classes'
There is an unfortunately wide-spread belief that English words are willing to lend themselves to division into 'classes' on ground that they look like nouns, verbs, adverbs or adjectives. They do not lend themselves to that: English words are a classless society. Efforts to pretend that they exist in class-confines inevitably leads to confusion. That is evident in a work that means to teach grammar to primary-school students. (Before the vicious barrage that follows, it is wise to advise the reader that no particular author is under its attack: the work under fire is the output of a government-appointed committee. As with all committee-designed products, this one is no doubt the camel that was meant to be a horse.)
The work proposes the concept 'verb chains', and illustrates it with a text in which certain words are rendered in bold type. Those words, allegedly, form the verb chain. Well, some of them are verbs (was raining, sat, stared); the others are not. And one verb, 'stayed', is not rendered in bold, and it is thus declared not a verb, never mind that it is a verb.
'At playtime it was raining so they stayed in. Mrs Johnson sat at her desk, frowning. She sipped her mug of coffee slowly, taking each sip into her mouth and swilling it around, then sucking it back through her teeth with a sharp intake. Chris stared at his teacher.'
Grammar For Writing, Department for Education and Employment, UK, 2000, p. 35.
(One wonders why frowning was not highlighted too, since every other present-participle that is not functioning as a verb is highlighted along with the verbs.) Given that the idea 'verb chains' is proposed, and that the foregoing text is an illustration of what verb chains are, why were students not told that frowning describes how Mrs Johnson sat, and that swilling it, and sucking it each describe how she sipped? Such information would have achieved a neat illustration of how -ing words attach to verbs to function as adverbs. This would have been firm ground for the further instruction that verbs denote actions, and adverbs describe them.
Grammar for Writing did nothing like that. Instead, it perpetrated the gross error of tagging several adverbs as verbs. Then the concluding paragraph of the text quoted above claims that the adjective phrase for blushing is the verb 'blushing'. (It, too, is highlighted to 'show' that it is a verb):
I could win prizes for blushing, he thought.
Had students been told that for blushing describes the noun prizes, and is therefore an adjective, a nice lot of information about the capacity of some -ing-ending words (the present-participles) to describe nouns and verbs. But none of that happened. Instead, students were enveloped in the obfuscating fog of erroneous parts-of-speech taggings, for no better reason than that somebody somewhere had the nutty idea that -ing words belong to the word class 'verbs'.
This sort of thing is not just an error of mistaking one part of speech for another. It is far more pernicious: Grammar for Writing proposes that present participles are always verbs, or that they are verbs because they are present participles. Not only is this proposition palpably erroneous but it works to knee-cap even the very keenest students' best efforts to understand English syntax.
Farhad Hosseinabadi 31 March 2016
One of the things in English grammar that is driving me crazy is the difference between 'present perfect' and 'present perfect continuous'. Below is my question: What is the difference between a) and b)? Please explain your reasons.
a) Peter, sorry for my slow reply! My computer and telephone have not been working for two days. I apologize for the bad behaviour of both devices.
b) Peter, sorry for my slow reply! My computer and telephone have not worked for two days. I apologize for the bad behaviour of both devices.
Sophie Johnson
Ah, the ridiculous English 'tense' terminology! The very proposition that something can be present and perfect and continuous is a bad joke. For instance: An act is perfective only if it has come to a conclusion. That is not necessarily the case in either of your example sentences: That something has not worked for two days does not entail that it is not working now (nor that it is working now).
There is not a jot of difference in the meaning your two example sentences make: You have here two valid constructions that make exactly the same sense. So the 'tense' terminology that is bothering you cannot justify itself in terms of meaning. (And since it cannot justify itself thus, what is left for it as justification?)
I know that as a TEFL teacher, you are stuck with this inane terminology, and your students are probably made to face exams that take that terminology seriously. (Native students of English have not even heard these terms!) I get around this by telling my ESL students to rely on logic, and fit the basic tense constructions (present, past future conditional), and their auxiliary verbs, into the sense they want to make. So I practise the basic tense constructions with them, and get them to ad lib with the rest. You can do that with TEFL students too. Introduce the silly terminology only once they are used to this thinking. And don't hesitate to tell them that it is silly terminology.
You know, it might not be a bad idea to take this issue up with whatever examining board you deal with. This nonsense should be thrown out of TEFL instruction sooner rather than later.
Max Sims:
I don't believe we can rely on people 'instinctively' using tenses correctly. How many times do you hear 'double perfects' such as "I should have loved to have been there"? And how many people know the difference between "I should have loved to be there" and "I should love to have been there"?
Sophie Johnson:
If I were to come upon 'I should love to have been there' in someone's writing, I'd ask the author whether she meant to say 'I should have loved being there' or 'I should love it if I had been there'. My quarrel with this construction would centre on its failure to construct a clear object or complement. I'd have attributed the ambiguity in the construction to that failure. I cannot see it as an issue of tense-construction.
Max Sims:
I may be old-fashioned, but I can't for the life of me work out how 'on the bridge' is an attribute of the man. The phrase in no way describes him, it locates him, and must therefore be an prepositional phrase. Or locative noun phrase? You almost say as much yourself in Chapter 1 under Copula model of the basic sentence. Here, in the sentence 'He used to be in London', you have 'in London' as a locative noun phrase. If we put the sentences together to make 'The man on the bridge used to be in London', how then are the words in question described?
Sophie Johnson:
The concept `prepositional phrase' makes no sense to me beyond that a phrase can be one that begins with a preposition. And it is as well to remember that a preposition can perform a number of part-of-speech roles.
It is, I think, unequivocal that 'on the bridge' in the sentence: `The man on the bridge used to be in London' either describes or identifies `the man' (nominative case), the subject in this sentence. (There is, of course, the problem of differentiating `naming' and `describing'; ref: Bertrand Russell. I touch on this in my discussion of adjectives and the comma.) It is impossible to call this sequence, which occurs in the subjective part of the sentence, a 'locative noun phrase': the locative case-function is a predicative, not a subjective, function. The locative noun phrase here is 'in London'.


text:
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