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Here is a beautiful solution – the Fendi 941R. The deep, shiny merlot color works well with almost all complexions, complements a vast palette of clothing colors, and – while a fall favorite – works well in all seasons. The shape is a version of a term I coined – an Extreme Feminized Pillowed Rectangle. It has classic rectangle proportions, but sports a nicely shaped arch over the eyebrow, very soft corners, and a flattering lift at the outside edges. Not groundbreaking, but very wearable from casual to dressy.
The wide temples of traditional zyl have been very much in vogue, but many patients complain that they restrict their peripheral vision to the point to where they feel unsafe wearing them. Fendi beautifully solves this fashion dilemma by using a slightly asymmetric open metal box as the frame end piece. Besides adding a touch of elegance, it opens up the sight lines, virtually eliminating the blind spot previously caused by the extra-wide temples.
Speaking of temples, here is where the Fendi 941R really takes the spotlight. A perfectly sized metal plaque of gold on black subtlety and tastefully showcases the inversely mirrored Fendi "F" and should not be a stumbling block for the logo adverse. The piece de resistance are four square cut crystals a few shades lighter than the surrounding zyl. Maybe you've been shying away from bling, not wanting to appear ostentatious; if so, the restrained dazzle of these crystals is exactly what you've been looking for. Not too over-the-top for daytime, not too drab for that gala event.
So what are you waiting for? Run out right quick and order yourself that new pair of glasses to brighten up your holiday season!
Check out my Facebook page at BillGregoryOptician
Follow me on Twitter at @BillGregoryLDO
Copyright 2011 All Rights Reserved


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I use these when I'm going on a long ski tour and I know that it will be cold and windy. I used them on Denali and I've used them all over the lower 48 for those sorts of days. They keep "the goods" nice and comfy.
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I pull these boxers out when the windchill is really freakin' cold and I'm stuck with only lycra and some baselayer pants. Needless to say, having these as an extra layer of protection help keep me from standing under the hand dryer in the lodge bathroom for ten minutes, silently weeping with pain.
They have a snug fit similar to the standard HH Warm Boxers, but the sizing runs true to form with the rest of the HH line, I've found. Not something you'd wear every day but when it's super cold out, I wouldn't want anything else.
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See how LIFA next to skin and merino wool layer on the outside of this baselayer keeps you dry and warm in all conditions.

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Boxer Joe Salas Won A Silver Medal, Blazed A Path For Team USA Latinos
Salas, a 1924 Olympian, was the first Latino to compete for Team USA.
Sports Scene: Sept. 20-26
The U.S. landed three triathletes on the world cup podium, Brady Ellison made history and more.
Brady Ellison Wins Unprecedented Fourth World Cup Final Title
The archer also won his fourth Longines Prize for Precision, remaining the only man to win it.
Angelica Delgado Wins First Grand Prix Medal In First Post-Rio Judo Competition
The 25-year-old made her Olympic debut at the Rio Games last month.
Teamwork, Unity Drove Men's Wheelchair Basketball Team To Long-Sought Gold, presented by Ultimate Software
The team won its first Paralympic gold medal in 28 years last weekend in Rio de Janeiro.
Watch This
BMW Performance of the Day | Men's Wheelchair Rugby USA vs AUS Gold Medal Game
Highlights From Day 11 Of The Rio 2016 Paralympic Games | Presented by Bridgestone
Jessica Long Wins Women's 200m Medley SM8 | 2016 Paralympic Games


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Salmonella's long-term relationship with its host
Host-adapted strains of Salmonella enterica cause systemic infections and have the ability to persist systemically for long periods of time and pose significant public-health problems. Multidrug-resistant S. enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) and nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) are on the increase and are often associated with HIV infection. Chronically infected hosts are often asymptomatic and transmit disease to naïve hosts via fecal shedding of bacteria, thereby serving as a critical reservoir for disease. Salmonella utilizes multiple ways to evade and modulate host innate and adaptive immune responses in order to persist in the presence of a robust immune response. Survival in macrophages and modulation of immune cells migration allow Salmonella to evade various immune responses. The ability of Salmonella to persist depends on a balance between immune responses that lead to the clearance of the pathogen and avoidance of damage to host tissues.
- Salmonella
- persistence
- systemic infection
- chronic carrier
Salmonella are enteric bacteria that are a major cause of infectious diseases throughout the world. These bacteria infect both humans and other animals and are a common cause of zoonotic disease. Salmonella serovars are responsible for human diseases ranging from gastroenteritis to systemic infections. Systemic Salmonella infection is usually host-dependent, and Salmonella enterica servar Typhi (S. Typhi) causes only systemic infection – typhoid fever – in humans.
Salmonella typhi and Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi (S. Paratyphi) are important human pathogens of immense concern to public health and with considerable economic impact. They are endemic in regions of the world where drinking water quality and sewage treatment facilities are poor (House et al., ⇓; Young et al., ⇓) and infections remain difficult to treat by antibiotic therapy because of the increasing frequency of resistant bacteria (Wain et al., ⇓; Kingsley et al., ⇓).
A significant percentage (1–6%) of patients with typhoid become chronic carriers of S. Typhi, as do many people who have never had a clinical history of typhoid fever (Ledingham & Arkwright, ⇓; Stokes & Clarke, ⇓; Levine et al., ⇓). These individuals shed bacteria in their stools and urine for periods of time that range from a year to a lifetime, without any apparent signs of disease (Vogelsang & Boe, ⇓). Typhoid carriers are of special concern from a public-health viewpoint as they are the reservoirs for the spread of infection and disease. Two well-known cases of typhoid carriers are 'Typhoid' Mary Malon who was responsible for the death of 26 people in the US and an unnamed milk carrier in South England in the late 1800s (Mortimer, ⇓). More recent cases have been studied in greater details, showing that typhoid carriers remain an important public-health concern today (Sloan et al., ⇓; Merselis et al., ⇓; Levine et al., ⇓; Lin et al., ⇓).
From the bacterial perspective, the ability of host-adapted strains to cause a persistent infection is important for microbial survival and transmission as these bacteria act as the reservoir. Salmonella typhi is carried for years – even in the presence of an immune response – and chronic carriers of S. typhi have high levels of circulating serum antibodies to the Vi antigen and to flagellar antigens (Bao et al., ⇓; House et al., ⇓). Investigating host–pathogen interactions during the chronic carrier state in salmonellosis should provide insights into bacterial survival mechanisms, as well as provide information that could be used to develop new approaches for the treatment for typhoid and other persistent microbial infections.
Salmonella infection
In natural infection, Salmonella are typically acquired from the environment by oral ingestion of contaminated water/food or by contact with a carrier. Following ingestion in sufficient numbers, a proportion of the inoculum survives the low pH environment of the stomach to enter the small intestine where infection can be established.
There is evidence that some Salmonella have a preference to exploit the microfold (M) cells that are specialized epithelial cells that sample the antigenic content of the gut (Jensen et al., ⇓; Jepson & Clark, ⇓; Halle et al., ⇓). After Salmonella spp. penetrate the epithelial barrier, they preferentially infect phagocytes within the lamina propria. In Salmonella gastroenteritis, the infection is usually self-limiting and does not proceed beyond the lamina propria. However, in host-adapted salmonellosis, such as typhoid fever, Salmonella-infected phagocytes gain access to the lymphatics and bloodstream, allowing the bacteria to spread to the liver and the spleen (Vazquez-Torres et al., ⇓), and can persist in the gall bladder and bone marrow (Sinnott & Teall, ⇓; Wain et al., ⇓; Fig. ⇓).
Recently, S. Typhi was found in biofilms detected on gallstones from 5% of patients enrolled for gallbladder removal in Mexico City (Crawford et al., ⇓). Furthermore, gallstones have been shown to play a significant role in Salmonella persistence, as induced gallstone formation in mice resulted in enhanced fecal shedding and enhanced colonization of gall bladder tissue (Crawford et al., ⇓).
Mouse model of Salmonella persistence
A mouse model of persistent infection is characterized by sporadic excretion of bacteria in stools and long-term carriage of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) in low numbers within classical granulomatous lesions, which arise in the spleen, liver, and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN; Monack et al., ⇓). The data obtained from studies using persistently infected mice indicate that the most common site of chronic carriage of S. Typhimurium is the MLNs. Indeed, this is often the only site from which viable Salmonella can be recovered. Interestingly, surgical removal of the MLN results in increased numbers of S. Typhimurium bacteria reaching systemic sites early after infection, suggesting that the MLN provide a vital barrier, shielding systemic compartment dissemination of S. Typhimurium (Voedisch et al., ⇓; Griffin & McSorley, ⇓).
The genetic background of the mouse strains plays a pivotal role in determining Salmonella persistence (Hormaeche, ⇓). Nramp1 is a genetic locus originally identified as being a critical factor in host defense against intracellular pathogens including Leishmania, Mycobacteria, and Salmonella. The Nramp1 gene codes for an ion transporter and is expressed primarily in macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). Commonly used mouse strains such as C57BL/6 carry two point mutations (G105A, G169D) resulting in increased susceptibility to intracellular pathogens (Vidal et al., ⇓; Govoni et al., ⇓). As a result, chronic infection models in C57BL/6 mice require attenuated Salmonella strains. A commonly used strain is the Salmonella auxotrophic mutant aroAaroD which is unable to make the required aromatic amino acids such as p-amino benzoic acid. These amino acids cannot be obtained from mammalian tissue, and as a result, this strain is avirulent in mice. A paper describing this attenuated strain as a live vaccine was first published in 1980 (Hoiseth & Stocker, ⇓). Since then, it has been used to study the adaptive immune response to Salmonella in an intravenous model of infection (Salazar-Gonzalez et al., ⇓; Srinivasan et al., ⇓; Jackson et al., ⇓).
Wild-type or virulent S. Typhimurium strains only produce a chronic infection in Nramp1wt/wt mice or their F1 hybrids (Monack et al., ⇓; Johanns et al., ⇓). Oral inoculation of up to 108 CFU of wild-type S. Typhimurium results in a chronic infection where bacteria can be found in the MLN up to 1 year postinoculation (Monack et al., ⇓). Table ⇓ details the Nramp1 status of some commonly used mouse strains (Vidal et al., ⇓; Malo et al., ⇓; Govoni et al., ⇓). Figure ⇓ outlines the different Salmonella infection models and the relative bacterial loads in the spleen and highlights the utility of the Nramp1 wild-type mice for studying host–pathogen interactions during long-term Salmonella infections. Possible mechanisms underlying the importance of Nramp1 to persistence are discussed later in this review.
|Mouse strain
|Nramp1 status
|Nramp1 mt/mt
|Nramp1 mt/mt
|Nramp1 wt/wt
|Nramp1 wt/wt
|Nramp1 wt/wt
|129 SvJ
|Nramp1 wt/wt
Mt, mutated allele; wt, wild-type allele.
Salmonella Typhi infection in people is often accompanied by diarrheal symptoms that have typically been difficult to model in mice. In a mouse model of infection with S. Typhimurium, antibiotic treatment before infection results in increased occurrence of diarrheal symptoms including gut inflammation and increased gastrointestinal bacterial burden in both the chronic model (Lawley et al., ⇓) and the acute infection model (Barthel et al., ⇓; Endt et al., ⇓). In addition, Salmonella has been found in the gastrointestinal tract and systemic sites following infection of antibiotic-treated mice (Barthel et al., ⇓).
Finally, we should consider the humanized mouse model of S. Typhi infection (Song et al., ⇓) where Rag2−/−Υc−/− mice are irradiated at birth and engrafted with human fetal liver stem cells. Infection with S. Typhi results in a chronic infection with the human cells mounting both an innate and adaptive immune response. One month postinoculation, S. Typhi was found in the spleen, liver, and more variably, in the gall bladder. Within these tissues, the bacteria were mainly found in the human hematopoietic (CD45+) cells (Song et al., ⇓). While this model might be useful for testing Salmonella vaccines, the inability of human cytokines to act on mouse tissue resulted in a lack of systemic pathology associated with chronic infection.
In addition, these models have been used to study the role of Salmonella effectors. A chronic infection state is beneficial to the bacteria as it ensures a long-lasting niche and subsequent transmission to a new host. Salmonella plays an active role in the establishment of such a hospitable environment. The bacteria manipulate the host responses through the secretion of effector proteins into the host cells. These effectors can stimulate or repress signaling cascades, sense the intracellular environment, and modify this environment in order to establish an intracellular niche.
Salmonella factors that contribute to persistent infection
The Salmonella factors that contribute to this pathogen's virulence have been extensively studied and reviewed elsewhere (Haraga et al., ⇓; Ibarra & Steele-Mortimer, ⇓; McGhie et al., ⇓; Valdez et al., ⇓; Table ⇓); however, it is unclear which of these or other bacterial factors are required specifically for persistent Salmonella infection. Much effort has been concentrated on the secreted effector proteins that depend on the type III secretion systems encoded by Salmonella pathogenicity islands 1 and 2 (SPI1 and SPI2, respectively), and yet the extent to which these pathogenicity islands actually contribute to persistent infection remains uncertain. Clearly, a variety of Salmonella factors that are independent of SPI1 and SPI2 also play significant roles in persistent infection. Therefore, we will discuss both SPI1- and SPI2-dependent and independent factors that have been reported to play a role during the persistent phase of Salmonella infection. Because much of the work investigating persistent Salmonella infection has utilized S. Typhimurium, this section of the review will concentrate on the bacterial factors from this serovar (Table ⇓).
↵Wild-type S. Typhimurium strains were used for all persistence models unless noted otherwise.
↵'Screen only' denotes S. Typhimurium factors whose evidence for contribution to persistent Salmonella infection in 129X1/SvJ mice is limited to negative selection in the Salmonella persistence screen (Erickson & Detweiler, ⇓).
SPI1 and SPI2
The pathogenicity islands SPI1 and SPI2 encode two distinct type III secretion systems that each translocates a specific group of bacterial effector proteins into host cells. SPI1-dependent translocation of bacterial invasion factors into host epithelial cells enables S. Typhimurium to penetrate the small intestines and Peyer's patches (Galan, ⇓), accomplishing an initial step of S. Typhimurium dissemination from the gastrointestinal tract to host systemic sites (including the MLN, spleen, liver, and bone marrow). In order to search for Salmonella factors that contribute to later stages of infection (persistent infection), a negative selection screen was undertaken by our group (Lawley et al., ⇓) utilizing a transposon-mutagenized library of S. Typhimurium and the Nramp1r wild-type mouse strain 129X1/SvJ (Lawley et al., ⇓). Although the mice were inoculated intraparatoneally (IP) instead of orogastrically (a route that bypasses the significant bottleneck that occurs during dissemination from the gastrointestinal tract to systemic sites (Meynell & Stocker, ⇓; Mecsas et al., ⇓), the screen revealed that SPI1 was necessary to sustain a persistent infection for at least 1 month postinfection (Lawley et al., ⇓). The SPI1 genes confirmed to be required for persistent infection in this study included the invasion and translocation effectors SipB, SipC, and SipD (Lawley et al., ⇓); however, it is possible that additional SPI1 effectors also could contribute to persistent infection. In light of the fact that S. Typhimurium is extruded from dying cells in the epithelia throughout an infection (Knodler et al., ⇓), it is likely that the ability of S. Typhimurium to continuously re-invade epithelial tissues is necessary to sustain a persistent infection. In support of this notion, SPI1 is also required for a persistently infected mouse to transmit S. Typhimurium to naïve cage mates (Lawley et al., ⇓).
During a persistent Salmonella infection, the bacteria survive within a privileged niche inside of the Salmonella containing vacuole (SCV) within phagocytes such as macrophages (Monack et al., ⇓, b). Recently, Detweiler and colleagues showed that during persistent infection, S. Typhimurium preferentially grows inside of hemophagocytic cells, a specific macrophage subtype (Silva-Herzog & Detweiler, ⇓). Survival inside of these cells required both SPI1 and SPI2 (Silva-Herzog & Detweiler, ⇓). SPI2 is expressed by intracellular S. Typhimurium contained within the SCV and is required to translocate a group of bacterial effectors into the host cell cytosol in order to maintain intracellular survival (Jones & Falkow, ⇓; Ochman et al., ⇓; Cirillo et al., ⇓; Hensel et al., ⇓). In addition, the Salmonella persistence screen described above also identified several SPI2 transposon mutants, indicating these SPI2 mutants were not able to establish a persistent infection (Lawley et al., ⇓). Most of these mutants were required at both early (1 week postinfection) and late (2–4 weeks postinfection) stages of infection, which is expected of bacterial factors required for intracellular survival. However, two SPI2-dependent effectors, SseK2 and SseI (SrfH), were unique, in that they were only required for late (persistent) stages of infection (Lawley et al., ⇓). Although SseI is not required for intracellular survival of S. Typhimurium, SseI is continuously required to maintain a persistent infection in mice (McLaughlin et al., ⇓). Instead of directly supporting intracellular survival of Salmonella, SseI translocation into phagocytes suppresses the ability of these cells to adhere (Worley et al., ⇓) and migrate efficiently, thereby disrupting their ability to effectively communicate with other cells of the host's immune system (McLaughlin et al., ⇓). SseI inhibits migration in part by associating with the host protein IQGAP1, an important regulator of the cytoskeleton and cell migration (McLaughlin et al., ⇓; Kim et al., ⇓, b). Although phagocyte carriage of intracellular S. Typhimurium from the gastrointestinal tract to systemic sites is required for establishing a systemic infection (Bogunovic et al., ⇓; Voedisch et al., ⇓), these results show that the speed of such dissemination may influence the host's adaptive immune response in such a way that controls whether a persistent Salmonella infection is permitted to occur. Indeed, mice infected with sseI mutant S. Typhimurium had increased numbers of DC and CD4+ T cells in the their spleens 12 days postinfection as compared to mice infected with wild-type S. Typhimurium (McLaughlin et al., ⇓). Although SseK2 contributes to virulence during the early stages of infection of 129/svlmJ mice (Brown et al., ⇓), the function of SseK2 (as well as other SPI2-dependent factors) during persistent Salmonella infection remains unknown and is the subject of future studies. SPI2 is also required for the transmission of S. Typhimurium from persistently infected mice to naïve cage mates (Lawley et al., ⇓). While both SPI1 and SPI2 certainly contribute to persistent S. Typhimurium infection, it should also be noted that SPI1 and SPI2 are not absolutely required to establish a persistent infection at systemic sites because SPI1- and SPI2-defective mutants of S. Typhimurium (sipB and ssaV, respectively) still colonize and persist in systemic tissues, albeit at lower levels (Lawley et al., ⇓).
Salmonella factors required for intestinal persistence
Sustained colonization of the gastrointestinal tract is another important aspect of persistent Salmonella infection because it is necessary for live bacteria to be passed in the feces and eventually transmitted to other potential hosts (Lawley et al., ⇓). Using the CBA mouse strain (Nrampr, S. Typhimurium-resistant), several Salmonella adherence factors were shown to be important for intestinal persistence of S. Typhimurium. Baumler and colleagues discovered that the fibronectin-binding factors ShdA (Kingsley et al., ⇓, ⇓, ⇓, b) and MisL (Dorsey et al., ⇓) both contribute significantly to persistence in the gastrointestinal tract and fecal shedding of live bacteria. This group later showed that several fimbrial operons (encoding outer surface structures with possible adhesive functions), including lpf, bcf, stb, stc, std, and sth, were also required for long-term intestinal carriage and fecal shedding (Weening et al., ⇓). In the Salmonella persistence screen described above, several genes from these operons were negatively selected, including stcC, stcD, sthA, bcfD, stbD, and stdA (bolded genes were negatively selected in both screen replicates), indicating a link between intestinal persistence and systemic persistence (Lawley et al., ⇓). For example, the antivirulence modulator ZirTS is expressed only by S. Typhimurium colonizing the gastrointestinal tract (as well as in the feces of persistently infected mice), and such expression negatively impacts systemic colonization in Nramp1r mice (Gal-Mor et al., ⇓). How ZirTS expression affects systemic persistence requires further investigation.
Salmonella Typhimurium factors that protect against host-derived antimicrobial peptides also contribute to persistent Salmonella infection. For example, Alegado & Tan (⇓) recently showed that several Salmonella factors were required for S. Typhimurium carriage in the intestines of Caenorhabditis elegans, including SPI2, pSLT (virulence plasmid), and PhoPQ (a sensor/kinase system that senses antimicrobial peptides (Bader et al., ⇓), acidic pH (Bearson et al., ⇓), and changes in metal cation concentration (Groisman et al., ⇓). The PhoPQ regulon encompasses genes that protect against antimicrobial peptides such as polymixin B, C18G, and CRAMP, such as pgtE and mig-14 (Guina et al., ⇓; Brodsky et al., ⇓; Alegado & Tan, ⇓). PgtE, a modifier of the bacterial outer surface membrane (Guina et al., ⇓), was also identified in one of the Salmonella persistence screens carried out by Lawley et al. (⇓). Mig-14 (Brodsky et al., ⇓), along with several other Salmonella factors providing resistance toward antimicrobial peptides [VirK (Detweiler et al., ⇓), RcsC (Detweiler et al., ⇓; Erickson & Detweiler, ⇓), and YdeI (Erickson & Detweiler, ⇓)], also contribute to persistent Salmonella infection. These results demonstrate that Salmonella resistance toward antimicrobial peptides of the host immune response is critical for Salmonella to maintain a persistent infection.
Salmonella factors coping with oxidative and nitrosative stress
During a persistent Salmonella infection, bacteria are predominantly found within the SCV inside of immune cells such as macrophages (Monack et al., ⇓, b). In addition to antimicrobial peptides, these cells produce reactive oxygen species (ROS, including superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS, including nitric oxide and peroxynitrite) in order to control the invading pathogen (Vazquez-Torres & Fang, ⇓). In fact, Nramp1r mice that are deficient in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) cannot be persistently infected with Salmonella and die during the acute phase (Mastroeni et al., ⇓, b).
Thus, several S. Typhimurium factors that specifically cope with ROS and RNS also contribute to the ability of Salmonella to persist within the host. sodC1 (superoxide dismutase) encodes an enzyme required for the detoxification of superoxide anion and is required for S. Typhimurium virulence in vivo (Fang et al., ⇓; Krishnakumar et al., ⇓). This sodC1 gene was also identified in the negative selection screen described previously (Lawley et al., ⇓). In addition, a superoxide-sensitive mutant of S. Typhimurium (sspJ) is attenuated at systemic sites (including the MLN and liver) 19 days postinfection (van Diepen et al., ⇓). hmp (flavohemoglobin) catalyzes the detoxification of nitric oxide and is required to maintain a persistent Salmonella infection in mice 98 days postinfection (Bang et al., ⇓). Finally, SPI2 has been shown to play a role in spatially distancing the SCV from producers of ROS (NADPH oxidase) and RNS (iNOS) (Vazquez-Torres et al., ⇓, b, Gallois et al., ⇓; Chakravortty et al., ⇓), although the significance of this particular function of SPI2 during a persistent infection needs more investigation (Aussel et al., ⇓).
Ion transport and metabolism
Nramp1 encodes a phagocyte-specific metal cation transporter (such as Mn2+ and Fe2+) that localizes to the SCV and extrudes essential metal ions away from the bacteria creating a more hostile environment within the SCV (Boyer et al., ⇓; Courville et al., ⇓). Correspondingly, the Salmonella metal ion transporters, MntH, SitABCD, and FeoB were shown to be required for intracellular replication and virulence in Nramp1r mice (Boyer et al., ⇓; Zaharik et al., ⇓). Whether these transporters specifically contribute to persistent infection requires further testing in Salmonella persistence mouse models.
In addition to manganese and iron, magnesium and zinc are critical for intracellular Salmonella growth and the zinc transporter ZnuABC is necessary for virulence in Nramp1r mice (Ammendola et al., ⇓). Salmonella Typhimurium has three transporters for magnesium (MgtA, MgtB, and CorA), all of which are important for virulence in mice (Blanc-Potard & Groisman, ⇓; Boyer et al., ⇓; Papp-Wallace et al., ⇓). mgtC, a gene within the same operon as mgtB, is also required for virulence in Nramp1r mice and was identified in both replicates of the Salmonella persistence screen described above (Blanc-Potard & Groisman, ⇓; Gunzel et al., ⇓; Lawley et al., ⇓). However, the exact biochemical activity of MgtC remains elusive (Gunzel et al., ⇓).
Alternatively, certain metabolic pathways have increased importance during persistent Salmonella infection. Isocitrate lyase (AceA) catalyzes the first step in the glyoxylate shunt pathway, enabling the bacteria to utilize fatty acids as a carbon source. AceA is required specifically during the persistent stage of Salmonella infection. The aceA mutant is attenuated by 12 days postinfection and becomes more attenuated at later time points, demonstrating that Salmonella becomes increasingly dependent on fatty acid metabolism during a persistent infection (Fang et al., ⇓).
The equilibrium of a chronic carrier state resides in the balance between the capacity of the bacteria to overcome the host responses, and the strength of the immune system and its ability to clear the bacteria. Salmonella is able to take advantage of different cell types of the immune system to ensure its intracellular replication and dissemination throughout the body.
Immune response to Salmonella persistence
When a pathogenic microorganism first infects its host, there is usually a dramatic activation of the innate and adaptive immune responses, which can result in disease symptoms. If the pathogen and the host survive this initial interaction, the adaptive immune system usually clears the invading offender. However, some pathogenic bacteria are capable of maintaining infections in mammalian hosts even in the presence of inflammation, specific antimicrobial mechanisms, and a robust adaptive immune response, and can therefore be described as giving rise to persistent infection (Young et al., ⇓; Rhen et al., ⇓; Monack et al., ⇓, b). The persistence of the bacteria after a normal infection implies that an 'immune status-quo' has been established after the acute response.
The host as well as the bacteria adopts various mechanisms, which bring about an 'immune equilibrium'. Pathogens have acquired many mechanisms such as antigenic variation (Saunders, ⇓; Reeves, ⇓) and antigenic imitation, inhibition of synthesis of host proteins, inactivation of humoral immune components, and hiding in sites inaccessible to the immune system to avoid immune recognition and ensure their multiplication, survival, and persistence in the host even in the presence of an active immune response (Young et al., ⇓). These responses can therefore be described as giving rise to persistent infections (Balaram et al., ⇓).
Role of macrophages in S. Typhimurium persistence
For Salmonella, as for many other facultative intracellular pathogens, the key to a successful infection lies in the outcome of their encounter with the host's macrophages. Salmonella can escape killing by these phagocytes and survive and multiply within them, giving rise to chronic infections.
It has been well established that macrophages serve as host cells for Salmonella in vitro or in acute infection models (Fields et al., ⇓; Groisman & Saier, ⇓; Gulig et al., ⇓). Similarly, persistent Salmonella reside within MOMA-2+ macrophages of chronically infected mice (Monack, 2004). The fate of macrophages that are persistently infected with Salmonella is not known, nor is it clear how the bacteria infect new host cells over time. It is possible that bacteria persist within macrophages for the lifetime of the host cell and then infect a new macrophage. However, S. Typhimurium is able to induce host cell death in vivo (Richter-Dahlfors et al., ⇓; Monack et al., ⇓), providing a potential mechanism by which Salmonella can escape from an infected cell to infect neighboring cells.
In a similar model of chronic infection, Salmonella was found within hemophagocytic macrophages, cells that have engulfed white and red blood cells. In vitro assays showed that these cells might represent a survival niche for Salmonella (Nix et al., ⇓). However, it is not clear whether these cells are actively targeted by bacteria or whether the presence of Salmonella is owing to the engulfment of previously infected cells. Interestingly, studies of the intracellular replication of Salmonella revealed that the vast majority of infected cells contain very few intracellular organisms (Sheppard et al., ⇓; Monack et al., ⇓). It appears that active repression of growth rate by a bacteria-directed mechanism may be critical for Salmonella virulence (Tierrez & García-del Portillo, ⇓). More recently, a study suggested that Salmonella enters a dormant-like stage upon entry into macrophages (Helaine et al., ⇓). These studies are in line with the average number of bacterial cells found within macrophages (3–4) in a chronic infection model (Monack et al., ⇓). However, the replicative state of Salmonella in persistently infected cells remains to be elucidated.
Intracellular trafficking of the Salmonella phagosome and the interactions between the bacteria and host factors have been analyzed in epithelial cell models or in tissue culture macrophages from susceptible mice (Haraga et al., ⇓). However, the trafficking and gene expression patterns of persistent intracellular Salmonella have not yet been investigated. About 80% of the bacteria present in persistently infected MLN are found within MOMA-2 expressing macrophages (Monack et al., ⇓). The remaining 20% could be extracellular or in unidentified cells. Other in vivo models using susceptible mouse strains have shown that Salmonella colonizes predominantly macrophages in the liver and CD18+ cells (macrophages and/or DCs) in the blood (Richter-Dahlfors et al., ⇓; Vazquez-Torres & Fang, ⇓). Phagocytes also account for the majority of cells containing intracellular bacteria in the spleen (Salcedo et al., ⇓). Infection of neutrophils and DCs by Salmonella has also been documented in spleen and MLN (Dunlap et al., ⇓; Yrlid et al., ⇓; Cheminay et al., ⇓) in acute models of infection.
Dendritic cells
DCs are involved in the dissemination of the bacteria from the intestine to the systemic organs. Salmonella-infected DCs are able to migrate to lymphoid tissue, as shown in an adoptive transfer mouse model (Zhao et al., ⇓). CD103+ CD11b+ DCs are the main DC population that transports Salmonella from the intestinal tract to the MLN early after infection, and the migration of infected DCs is partially dependent on Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) and the chemokine receptor CCR7 (Bogunovic et al., ⇓; Uematsu & Akira, ⇓; Voedisch et al., ⇓). DC migration does not appear to be necessary for Salmonella dissemination from the MLN to systemic organs (Voedisch et al., ⇓). However, these observations have been made only 2 days after infection in a susceptible mouse model, which limits the conclusions one can make regarding DC-dependent Salmonella dissemination during chronic infections, especially because Salmonella is usually not detected in MLN from resistant mice until 4–5 days postinfection (unpublished data from our group). In fact, our group showed that DC migration was regulated by the Salmonella SPI2 effector SseI. SseI plays a role in blocking the migration of host immune cells and consequently attenuates the host's ability to clear systemic bacteria (McLaughlin et al., ⇓).
DCs are also involved in antigen presentation to T cells. Uptake of Salmonella by DC and the activation of DC immune functions, including antigen presentation, are regulated by Salmonella LPS and bacterial effectors from both SPI1 and 2 T3SS (Halici et al., ⇓; Zenk et al., ⇓; Bueno et al., ⇓). Moreover, the reduced intracellular proliferation of Salmonella within DCs limits antigen presentation and thus the development of a rapid T-cell response (Albaghdadi et al., ⇓). The limited intracellular replication and the control of T-cell responses, through antigen presentation, are likely to be important factors for the establishment of a persistent infection, as they allow survival of both the host and the bacteria. Interestingly, a subset of infected DCs can migrate from the lamina propria into the intestinal lumen (Arques et al., ⇓). This finding could be important regarding the chronic infection model, as this migration pattern could be involved in the continuous presence of Salmonella in the gut lumen. This hallmark of the chronic infection model is related to the shedding of bacteria in stools of infected mice, which is thought to be responsible for the transmission of Salmonella to other animals (Lawley et al., ⇓).
Adaptive immune response to Salmonella chronic infection
The initial invasion of gut-associated lymphoid tissues by Salmonella induces a massive inflammatory response, characterized by the recruitment of neutrophils, DCs, inflammatory monocytes, and macrophages (Halle et al., ⇓; Rydstrom & Wick, ⇓). All of these cell types are important for containing the initial bacterial invasion and thus play a role in the establishment of a persistent infection (Griffin & McSorley, ⇓). These early events, as well as the cells and molecules involved have been extensively studied with regard to the acute phase of infection; however, the potential role of these cell types in the immune status of bacterial carriers is scarce (Balaram et al., ⇓).
The magnitude and duration of an immune response are modulated by the production of cytokines. CD4 T-helper (Th) cells play a central role in the production of cytokines during Salmonella infection. The most important signal for T-cell helper differentiation is the cytokine profile present at the time of T-cell stimulation. For example, a Th1 profile is induced by the IL-12 family and interferon, whereas a Th2 profile is induced by IL-10 and IL-4. Th1 is typically seen as pro-inflammatory and as inducing intracellular antimicrobial killing mechanisms, while Th2 is regarded as anti-inflammatory and responsible for the response to helminthes, allergies, and low dose antigens. The potential role of these immune profiles during persistent Salmonella infections has been studied in several mouse models of chronic infection.
The establishment of a persistent infection can be divided into two phases. First, an early resistance phase during which the immune system works to reduce the number of invading bacteria and has been characterized by a high Th1 and a low Th2 responses. Indeed, TNF-α, IL-12, IFN-g, and nitric oxide (NO) derivatives are all required for the control of Salmonella growth by the infected host in the acute stage of the infection (Butler & Girard, ⇓; Trinchieri, ⇓; Mastroeni, ⇓; Mizuno et al., ⇓; Netea et al., ⇓; Stoycheva & Murdjeva, ⇓; Sashinami et al., ⇓). In addition, Blackwell et al. (⇓) demonstrate that there is an in vivo bias toward the development of a Th1 response in mice bearing the wild-type Nramp1 allele, while a Th2 response is elicited in Nramp1 mutant mice. Because Nramp1 mutant mice are susceptible to Salmonella infection, this finding underscores the importance of a Th1 response in the resistance to the acute phase of Salmonella infection. This resistance phase is crucial in setting the equilibrium between the immune response and the bacteria that will allow for the establishment of the long-term infection state.
The second step is the maintenance of this equilibrium. Although this stage may require lower Th1 response than in the early phase, IFN-γ still plays an important role in maintaining the equilibrium, as injection of an anti-IFN-γ antibody into mice persistently infected with S. Typhimurium led to the reactivation of an acute infection (Monack, 2004). In addition, persistence of Salmonella Clp-XP-deficient bacteria in Balb/c mice required IFN-γ and TNF-α (Yamamoto et al., ⇓). Furthermore, T-bet-deficient mice that did not generate IFN-γ-producing CD4 T cells had higher bacterial loads in spleens compared to WT mice and eventually succumbed to infection with attenuated Salmonella (Ravindran et al., ⇓). Interestingly, the T-bet-deficient mice survived the first 3 weeks of infection, which correlated with significantly higher bacterial levels compared to WT mice at 3 weeks after infection. This would suggest a role for T-bet-dependent IFN-γ production in the persistence phase of an infection, rather than in the early response to the bacterial invasion.
The balance between Th1 and Th2 levels is likely to be critical for the maintenance of a persistent microbial infection. Various studies have suggested that the pathogenesis and persistence of various chronic bacterial, viral, or parasite infections involve a Th1 to Th2 cytokine switch (Fitzgerald, ⇓; Becker, ⇓). Mice persistently infected with Salmonella have high antibody titers, which is consistent with a Th2-biased immune response (Monack, 2004). In addition, a Th2 response is generally associated with a higher bacterial load. In support of this, mice exposed to lead (Pb), which leads to a Th2-skewed immune response, have significantly higher bacterial burdens compared to control mice (Fernandez-Cabezudo et al., ⇓). In addition, co-infection by Salmonella and Schistosoma, which induces a Th2-skewed host immune response (Sacco et al., ⇓; Wynn et al., ⇓; Schramm & Haas, ⇓), increased Salmonella growth and prolonged the duration of Salmonella infection (Rocha et al., ⇓; Njunda & Oyerinde, ⇓; Bouree et al., ⇓; Muniz-Junqueira et al., ⇓). However, surprisingly, a study of mice deficient for Nramp1 and infected with a sublethal dose of Salmonella showed a reduced bacterial load was associated with a higher Th2 response (Caron, ⇓). Taken together, these findings suggest that the cytokine profiles differ in acute infection compared to persistent Salmonella infections. It appears that a Th1 response is beneficial for the clearance of a high load of bacteria and at the same time conducive for the persistence of low bacterial load. Thus, the Th1/Th2 balance appears to be critical in maintaining an exquisite equilibrium between pathogen survival and host clearance mechanisms.
In addition to Th1 and Th2 T cells, there has been a great deal of interest recently in the role of Th17-producing T cells in the control of Salmonella infections. Th17 cells are defined as a distinct lineage from Th1 and Th2 cells and are characterized by the expression of cytokines such as IL-17A and F, IL-22, and IL-26. IL-17A and IL-22 are induced during some Salmonella infections, and recent work in mice, calves, and the macaque has suggested that these cells are critical for controlling local invasion by Salmonella (Raffatellu et al., ⇓; Godinez et al., ⇓; Liu et al., ⇓). However, a recent study suggested that IL-17 may not be as important for the inflammatory response to S. Typhimurium in the gut (Songhet et al., ⇓). In addition, a recent study indicated that IL-17A-producing cells had a limited role in the maintenance of the protective immunity against Salmonella (Schulz et al., ⇓). Thus, more studies are necessary to fully address the potential role of Th17 T cells during persistent Salmonella infection. Finally, the role of another subset of effector CD4 T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), has been studied in a chronic model of Salmonella infection. The Tregs suppressive potency modulates the effectiveness Th1 responses during the course of Salmonella infection and thus influences the progression of persistent infection (Johanns et al., ⇓).
B cells
Resolution of a primary S. Typhimurium infection in mice is a combination of innate and T-cell-mediated effects with a less significant role for B cells and antibodies, because B cell-deficient mice can clear infection. However, the Th1 response these mice develop is transient, and they are not protected from re-infection with a virulent strain (Mastroeni et al., ⇓, b; Mastroeni, ⇓). In a model of susceptible mice persistently infected with an attenuated Salmonella strain, B cells were shown to contribute to the early phase of T-cell programing via a MyD88-dependent mechanism and are required in a BCR-dependent process for the development of the memory T-cell response (Barr et al., ⇓). Thus, TLR activation of B cells optimizes the generation of the primary Th1 response, a process that does not require Ag presentation, but relies on B cell cytokine secretion. Thus, BCR recognition and B cell Ag presentation are an absolute requirement for the development of Th1 memory cells and hence, protective immunity to Salmonella (Barr et al., ⇓).
What is the role of the indigenous intestinal microbiota during Salmonella persistence? The interactions between the gut microbiota and the immune response are under intense study because of the effects of this relationship with the health of an individual. The microbiota has been shown to play an important role in the host susceptibility to acute Salmonella infection (Bohnhoff et al., ⇓; Collins & Carter, ⇓; Stecher et al., ⇓; Sekirov et al., ⇓). In chronically infected mice, the microbiota is required to lower the bacterial load in the gut and thus lower the fecal shedding of the bacteria. This effect seems to be because of the microbiota itself rather than by a microbiota-induced mucosal response (Endt et al., ⇓).
Human chronic infection
Chronically infected individuals shed bacteria in their stools and urine for periods of time that range from a year to a lifetime, without any apparent signs of disease (Vogelsang & Boe, ⇓). Typhoid carriers are of special concern from a public-health viewpoint as they are the reservoirs for the spread of infection and disease.
An association of chronic typhoid carriage and carcinoma of the gallbladder was first reported by Axelrod et al. (⇓). Welton et al. (⇓) observed increased incidence of cancer of the hepatobiliary system in typhoid carriers; this was later confirmed by other studies (Mellemgaard & Gaarslev, ⇓; el-Zayadi et al., ⇓). Metabolites (mutagens and inflammation inducers) and toxins produced by the multiplying bacteria present in the gallbladder have been suggested as the causes of the mutational changes (Nath et al., ⇓).
What is the immune state of human typhoid carriers? Optimal operation of IL-12- and IFNγ-dependent immunity and T-cell function appears to be essential for the eradication of Salmonella from reservoirs within the reticuloendothelial system (Mastroeni et al., ⇓; Dougan et al., ⇓). However, the human carrier state could be associated with an incapacity to develop an effective immune response (Thompson et al., ⇓), although further studies of patients with typhoid are needed to confirm this observation. Chronic carriers likely have genetic or other more transient differences (e.g. disruption of indigenous intestinal microbiota) that predispose them to an immune state that allows for the establishment of this 'equilibrized' state. This response can be efficient enough to survive the acute peak of infection but too weak to allow the eradication of the bacteria from the organism.
As of today, very few studies have been conducted on chronic Salmonella infections, despite the relevance of this problem for human health. As a consequence, very little is known about the biology of a persistent infection. For example, the mechanisms involved in the transmission of bacteria from a carrier to naïve host remain very poorly understood.
One of the difficulties of such studies stems from the genetic background of the mice used for persistent studies, which carry the Nramp1 wild-type (WT) allele. The most widely used mouse strains (namely C57BL/6 and Balb/c) have a mutated Nramp1 allele. As a consequence, suboptimal models have been developed using Salmonella mutant strains, or sublethal doses of the bacteria. In addition, few genetic studies can be conducted using Nramp1 WT mice, as a limited number of knockout strains are available. This issue might be overcome in the near future with the development of C57/BL6 strains carrying the wild-type version of Nramp1 (Arpaia et al., ⇓). This resistant mouse strain will enable the study of the role of many genes in Salmonella persistence.
The functions of Salmonella effector proteins have primarily been analyzed in acute models of infection. However, the roles of many known effector proteins remain unclear. The study of these proteins in the context of a long-term infection may reveal their functions. The few studies conducted thus far have already challenged the classical views of the roles of SPI1 and SPI2 effectors. Moreover, some effectors may have a specific role during Salmonella chronic infection and thus remain unidentified. It is likely that many unknown virulence factors will be revealed with deeper analyses of Salmonella persistence. In addition, this model will shed new light on the biology of Salmonella–host interactions. The discovery of new virulence factors, or new functions of known factors, will likely reveal new molecular interactions with the host cell. It will be especially interesting to study these interactions in macrophages and DC as Salmonella has been shown to reside within these two cell types during the course of a persistent infection. These studies may reveal how Salmonella manipulates phagocytic cells in order to maintain a balance between replication and activation of danger signals.
The S. Typhimurium persistent mouse model of infection will lead to an increased understanding of the interplay between bacterial pathogens and the immune system. The Th1/Th2 balance is crucial for the maintenance of bacterial persistence and the survival of the host, as a strong Th1 response leads to the clearance of the bacteria, while Th2 skewing leads to susceptibility and death of the host. But how the equilibrium is reached and maintained remains unclear. It will be particularly interesting to understand whether bacterial virulence factors influence or manipulate the Th1/Th2 balance. Likewise, some host factors may play a role in bacterial persistence by favoring the long-term carriage of Salmonella. Identifying bacterial and host factors will likely lead to the identification of new drug targets, which could be relevant for the treatments for other chronic bacterial infections, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Editor: Christoph Dehio
- © 2012 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.


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The US agribusiness secures a global, nonexclusive licensing agreement from the Broad Institute to use the gene-editing technology for agricultural applications.
Behavior Brief
May 15, 2012|
A round-up of recent discoveries in behavior research
May 15, 2012|
A round-up of recent discoveries in behavior research
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Programs that provide sustainable certification for fisheries may be too generous with their accreditation.
May 10, 2012|
Floating pools of plastic debris in the Pacific offer more surfaces for marine insects to lay eggs.
May 1, 2012|
A new brown tree snake control strategy takes to the skies as scientists scatter toxic rodents over Guam's forest canopy.
April 26, 2012|
A population of neurons in pigeon brains encodes direction, intensity, and polarity of the Earth's magnetic field.
April 19, 2012|
Living cells escaping from Antarctic glaciers could speed global warming and affect marine life.
April 17, 2012|
Satellites are used to count the number of penguins living in Antarctica.
April 11, 2012|
A giraffe's spots can give away its years.
April 10, 2012|
Social insect soldiers not only protect the colony from insect invasions; some also secrete strong antifungal compounds to kill microscopic enemies.
April 9, 2012|
Yet another study demonstrates that how pesticides might be related to the collapse of wild bee colonies.


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Mass Effect 2
If that does not work then you are scoobied.
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the location of the game has changed on Origin.
old: C:\Program Files (x86)\mass effect 2
new folder: C:\Program Files (x86)\origin games\mass effect 2.
enable the console is the best solution.
I hope there is something we can do.
Is there any way to get an "origin" trainer for the latest version of Mass Effect 2? How much does making a trainer cost? I play this game a lot along with the rest of the series and would be willing to help fund it. I just like playing for the story though, not so much the challenge which is why I love your trainers so much!
I hope there is something we can do.
Two posts above yours, PWiz says that there won't be a trainer for the Origin version. If you don't want to buy the Steam version and want to play solely for the story (minus the challenge), I suggest playing on casual.
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Arnold Plotnick, DVM |
Posted: October 2, 2009, 3 a.m. EDT
Q: I have a 14-year-old cat who has been diagnosed with hyperthyroidism. However; she can't keep her pill down and won't allow me to put a drop in her ear. Is there a natural (homemade remedy) for her problem?
A: Hyperthyroidism is the most common glandular disorder of cats. Typically, it is seen in older cats. Hyperthyroidism can be managed medically with a drug called methimazole. The drug comes in tablet form; however, it can be prepared in liquid form by a compounding pharmacy, as well as a gel that can be smeared on the inside of the ear. Some cats do experience gastrointestinal upset when given the pill. In these cases, you should at least give the liquid form a try. Many cats that experience GI upset from the pill will be able to handle the medication if it is liquefied. Compounding pharmacies can add flavor to the liquid, such as tuna or chicken, making it more palatable. The liquid can be squirted directly into the cat's mouth, or onto the food. For cats that cannot handle any oral form of the drug, a gel form of the drug can be smeared on the inside of the ear. Most cats will let you rub this ointment on the ear. I'm surprised that your cat won't let you do this.
The best option for treatment, however, is radioactive iodine treatment. Your cat can be given an injection of radioactive iodine under the skin. The iodine travels through the bloodstream to the overactive thyroid gland and fixes the problem. The advantage is that it is curative. The disadvantage is that it is a bit pricey (approximately $1,400 - $1,800), and the cat has to stay at the veterinary facility for a few days until the radioactivity level of the urine and feces have decreased to an acceptable level. You may have to consider this option if your cat won't tolerate any form of the medication.
I do not know of any natural remedies for hyperthyroidism, and I would be highly skeptical of any natural product that claims to treat hyperthyroidism.
If you insist on trying a natural remedy, however, you need to confirm the efficacy of the drug by checking your cat's thyroid hormone level after using the remedy for two weeks. If the thyroid hormone level has not returned to the normal range, then the so-called remedy is not working, regardless of what the label claims. Do not use your own subjective assessment of your cat's clinical signs to assess the efficacy. If a product claims to treat hyperthyroidism, then the thyroid hormone level will return to normal once you start giving the medication.
Carolyn Glendale, AZ
Good article. I am siding with the veterinarian on this. It is important that you follow the vet's advice for your cat's health. I know of a friend that gives the liquid form that is flavored and the cat seems to prefer it.
Janet Bethlehem, PA
good article thanks
Evelyn Beamsville, ON
Buddy was allergic to the gel but took the pill fine.
Karen Standish, ME
I am lucky my cat who is 18 takes her medication in a gel paste called Energel! She likes the taste of it. I also have crushed the pill in tuna!
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Today's guest post is written by Elissa Freeman.
Embracing social media is something the Olympic movement knew it had to do.
With this medium moving at warp speed in popularity since the 2008 Beijing Games, and gaining considerable speed during Vancouver 2010, industry veterans knew that Twitter, Facebook, and Pinterest would have their own podium finishes at London 2012.
But true to form with any emerging and not widely understood entity, the ugly side of social media has reared its head in world record time.
Here it is, only day five and the victims are already piling up:
- Two athletes have been kicked out for racist tweets;
- The Hollywood correspondent for the London-based Independent newspaper had his Twitter account frozen over criticism of the U.S. host broadcaster;
- Crazed fans have used Twitter to threaten competitors;
- U.S. Olympic soccer goalkeeper Hope Solo has openly lambasted NBC analyst Brandi Chastain about her on-air coverage;
- Real-time results are being tweeted hours before U.S. broadcast rights holders show the actual coverage; and
- Viewers are flooding Twitter and Facebook with their dismay.
Should we be surprised? Not in the slightest. Welcome to the new 'freedom of speech' folks! Citizen journalism at its finest – unfettered, unscripted, and, in some cases, unusual. And yes, for some, this is going to take getting used to. We always hear about armchair quarterbacks…well, now we get to hear from them.
The London 2012 Olympics are proving to be the perfect test scenario of intense, global social media. This has resulted in an ad-hoc campaign of sorts, except there isn't one client, there was never a creative brief, and what has ensued is an organic and fresh approach to reporting.
On the upside? Anyone can follow any athlete and truly feel a part of their Olympic journey as they tweet and Instagram away thoughts and pictures of their own special moments.
As social media watchers, we can study engagement, reaction, and trouble-shooting from a number of different angles. We can look at it from the sport, corporate or media outlet side. The positive and the negative of mass interaction.
It is incumbent upon PR/social media/marketing pros to learn from what went right and what went terribly wrong. We have a prime opportunity to take our respective industries to another level and provide even better advice to our clients or organizations.
Hopefully, relevant and appropriate metrics will be shared. New communities of social media engagers will emerge. New or improved platforms will be developed.
Yes, the Olympics only happen every four years. But for those of us who are in a position to help grow and revolutionize our industries, the timing is perfect.
What's your opinion of how social media is shaping the Olympics? What effect do you think it will have on your industry?
Elissa Freeman is a self-confessed pop culture junkie, and a 20+ year PR veteran who was recently named one of twitter's Top 52 PR pros. You can follow her on Twitter at elissaPR.
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36 Comments on "Social Media: The New Olympic Sport"
In my view, the biggest issue here is the old gatekeepers (i.e. NBC) refuse to acknowledge the fact that social media trumps their broadcasting rights. If I want to watch an event live that NBC isn't covering, I just direct my browser to the BBC's feed. The idea that there's only one source of information just doesn't play anymore. That's the big lesson here for comms professionals. Don't assume you can control any given situation once it's "in the open". Forecast as best as you can what the issues will be, and then adapt to what they end up becoming.
So true, Matt. Large organizations like NBC are still operating by the same broadcast formula: take the best of the day, package it up, and hope that nobody has paid attention until prime time to watch. There's got to be a better way…
@ElissaFreeman I really think they need to assume that everyone knows the results. Turn your evening broadcasts into "SportsCenter" essentially. You can show longer periods of the competitions, or the ENTIRE competition if you want, just don't assume that no one has seen or heard about it. Having commentators break down what happened afterwards would be incredibly interesting to me.
@MattLaCasse hey that's what you get when you don't want to invest in keeping your viewers…if you're not going to go live during the Games and rely on your tried and true prime time formula…at some point you've got to realize you need to make a change!
@sueyoungmedia The point you raise about the hashtag is a good one – I think every mega organization lives in fear of the awkward/damaging hashtag. This is something where strategically most companies are wandering in the social media wilderness…
@Marcellini I heard an interesting comment the other day on the radio: the IOC was pleased the athletes were tweeting away – but they didn't want them to share video – as the international broadcast rights holders get first dibs. Now, if an athlete shares some video, of his/her race, then posts it to their blog, facebook page etc…AND they win a gold medal…then what? Will the IOC strip them of their medal for flouting regulations? This will be an interesting scenario to watch…stay tuned!
@sharonhnanny I hear you! Citizen journalism has its ugly side, that's for sure. But in the quest for honest commentary, versus the overly messaged, sanitized stuff we're used to getting from the media…we obviously are taking the bad with the good.
@magriebler @bradmarley I do have to say I too have been appalled by some of NBC's commentator's questions…many of which are cringe-worthy. I suppose in the quest to ask something other than: "so what does winning a gold medal feel like?" they go for the over-wrought.
@magriebler I haven't heard complaints about the actual commentary. Only the tape delay and spoiler issues. And I didn't watch much of the gymnastics, so I can't say I agree. But if they were making inappropriate comments, I have to think (hope?) their broadcast rights will be reconsidered in 2016.
@bradmarley Or at least get better commentators! I can only hope.
@bradmarley There is definitely some truth to what you say. Some use social media as a platform behind which they can hide – so they feel they can say what they want without repercussion. Also, it's not that I sympathize with NBC…it's just that if you're not going to pay the full broadcast fee or invest in providing your viewers with live coverage – they're not left with much of a choice.
@ginidietrich @elissapr @LisaHoffmann I think this really shines a light on how we are as a species too. Good, but still some work to do.
@EdwardTerry @ginidietrich @lisahoffmann interesting perspective! SM seems to give people the license to break all the rules.
@elissapr @ginidietrich @lisahoffmann SM gives us transparency. Rule breakers have always been there, but now they are sooo visible.
[…] on the Rise [spiral16] B2B & Twitter [Social Media Today] Social Media: The New Olympic Sport [Spin Sucks] by dan | posted August 1, 2012 | in Morning Announcements tagged Advertising, B2B, Blogs, Content, […]
@lauwhitehouse thank you for the RT of my guest post!
@elissapr Thoughtful. And beware. Just becasue you have a POV doesn't mean it is journalism. Employ skepticism & RT & MT with care. #SMchat
@RajSooknanan Hmmm…I like that idea Raj…! But I do like the way you present the 'glass half full' POV plus the notion of athlete as citizen journalist. AFter all, who could provide the most realistic, on-the-ground reporting from the Olympics than the athletes themselves??
It's been an interesting week, for sure! RT @ginidietrich Social Media: The New Olympic Sport http://t.co/10jVfrit via @elissapr
I think with better planning and more integration so much more could be achieved, more community involvement, more discussion aggregation, like you mention it's a way for people to connect with the athletes and the games, and with more effort to nurture and enable these connections everyone could get so much more out of it.
You're so right! I think many left social media to grow organizcally during the Games and didn't need a strategy. Clearly, that's not the case. Now there's a big learning!!
What do you think about social media at @London2012? RT @elissapr Is social media the new #Olympic #sport? http://t.co/koYmgSvl
@elissapr Cheers, and congrats! Nice post. @spinsucks
@ElissaFreeman I have nothing of great value to add, but did want to say I think your article makes some great points, and I've loved some of the comments below (especally by @MattLaCasse ). Thanks for such a well-written riff on a great topic, one which I believe is simply a magnified version of what is happening in journalism as we speak.
@ynagai22 Thanks for sharing, have a great upcoming weekend 🙂
@brasonja Always a pleasure Boris – glad we met:). Have a great weekend!
[…] not sure Twitter needed to apologize over this, but it's been interesting to follow. Social Media: The New Olympic Sport — Olympic Humor — Happiest Olympic Worker 2012 | Enjoy this Delightful […]
[…] not sure Twitter needed to apologize over this, but it's been interesting to follow. Social Media: The New Olympic Sport — Olympic Humor — Happiest Olympic Worker 2012 | Enjoy this Delightful […]
@ginidietrich @elissapr #Easily include a familiar Facebook Like button within your emails#


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DJ | Remix Producer | Turntablist
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Known as one of the most technical and diverse DJ by many, DJ Eazy B can always guarantee to adapt and deliver the hype and energy on today's most prominent dance floors.
Recent & Notable Affiliations: Amber Rose, Miguel, 50 Cent +More
Email: [email protected]
All Social Networks: @djeazyb
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You can get it here.


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Showing 97-131 of 131 items found in Shopping
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Peoria RiverFront Farmers Market
Peoria's RiverFront Market features Illinois grown produce, local meats, cheeses, fresh breads, herbs, and flowers, plus a great selection of local art including jewelry, pottery, wood-turned items,candles, and much more. Only products grown or made in Illinois will be sold at our market. We are located in the Water Street parking lot (300 SW Water St), between Liberty and Harrison Streets, and also in the Liberty Park area. Plenty of free parking is available in surrounding lots and streets. Watch for new vendors, more entertainment, and lots of fun in the 2014 season!
The Farm includes 23 theme gardens, a rustic shop in the barn featuring herbal gifts and supplies, picnics, hayrides and a greenhouse.
Pittsfield's Main Street Farmer's Market, featuring fresh, local products and produce, is a true summer treat! Enjoy this farmer's market June through September.
Open August through November, come visit our farm this fall to share in our rustic culture and enjoy a taste of the season. Many varieties of apples to taste. Also available, in season, are raspberries, pumpkins, home-made goodies, and our famous apple cider donuts. Take a horse drawn ride out to the orchard to pick your own apples too. Family tradition starts here! There's a petting zoo too.
CITY:Poplar Grove
A Hundred Acres Orchard and Market
A fun-filled orchard featuring apples, berries, melons. The indoor market is filled with jams, jellies, sauces, dips, salsas, candy and homemade "take n bake" pies. Also unique is the Krazy Kernel Kettle Korn, produced right in Princeton! Specialty cheeses, such as Antonella, Buffalo Wing Jack, and Tomato Basil Yellow Cheddar are also available. Pair these cheeses with some of the wines that are sold in the new wine shop, or enjoy your purchase on the newly constructed outdoor patio area. The Cider Mill banquet room has been expanded to accommodate 200 guests, so plan your wedding, reception, party, or reunion here!
Choose and cut your own Christmas tree here. On weekends, caboose rides help transport your tree out of the Enchanted Forest.
Mill Creek Farms' season begins in mid-April with asparagus, mid-May though June for strawberries, early July through August for sweet corn, tomatoes, and green beans, and October for pumpkins. Pumpkin picking, a corn maze and hay rides are offered weekends in October. Support local farming and fun with family or friends!
At Patyk's Farm Market and Greenhouse, you will experience a true "working farm." Freshly harvested, homegrown produce, handmade milk soap, farm fresh eggs, friendly farm animals, and beautiful flowers can be found on our little mom and pop farm. A growing variety of produce is harvested from our fields. Even the expertly crafted, decorative gourds that we display, courtesy of Outta My Gourd, were originally grown on our Hebron Prairie soil! We compliment our products only with the tastiest apples from Haf's Road Apple Orchard and the sweetest berries and peaches from Michigan. May 1st is always opening day for our greenhouse, which will be overflowing with colorful, blossoming annuals and perennials, sweet scented herbs, and ready-for-your-garden vegetable plants. Gorgeous hanging baskets are the perfect gift for Mother's Day or any other celebratory occasion! We're located on East Illinois Route 173 just 3 miles west of Route 12 in Richmond or 4 miles east of Route 47 in Hebron. Look for the big red barn and Patyk's welcoming entrance. Whether you're out for a drive in the country, antiquing in Richmond or Hebron, enjoying Lake Geneva, apple picking at a nearby orchard, or just looking for a genuine, honest to goodness small farm visit, stop by Patyk's Farm Market and Greenhouse. We'd love to get to know you!
Stop by and pick your own blueberries and red raspberries.
The Rockford City Market features local growers and vendors who sell natural products and unique retail items, live music, demonstrations and kid's activities. Enjoy the fun Fridays from 3:30-8:30 p.m. (3:30-7:30 p.m. after Labor Day). Located on Water Street in Downtown Rockford.
This fresh water shrimp (prawn) farm offers agricultural tours and harvest festivals in the fall. Prawn, catfish and hushpuppies are available for purchase.
Offers locally grown strawberries, Mirai sweet corn, potatoes, cabbage, cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, green beans, turnips, melons and zucchini. Open mid June to mid October, Monday through Friday 9am to 6pm and Saturday 9am to 3pm. Closed on Sundays.
Open Air Market located outside of County Market on West Route 16. Purchase local produce, flowers, and baked goods along with homemade products such as wood carvings, metal flowers, signs, and more. Tuesdays from 3-5:30 pm.
Goebbert's Pumpkin Farm and Garden Center
Fall: festival with haunted house, corn maze, farm animals, and more. Spring/Summer: large selection of annuals, perennials, vegetable plants, trees, shrubs, aquatic plants, roses, planters, and gourmet food items. Admission is free - cost for some activities.
CITY:South Barrington
Town Center Marketplace - variety of fresh vegetables, fruits, herbs, oils, organic nutritional supplements, fresh baked pies and more. Sa 9AM-2PM.
CITY:South Holland
Central Illinois' most unique farm market. Wagon rides, playground, corn maze, farm animals, Apple Express train. Farm market filled with unique gifts, fresh produce and specialty foods such as jams, salsas, soups, etc. The large bakery provides an assortment of fresh baked goods and a great lunch on weekdays. Lunch served on weekends in September and October from The Old Market Eatery.
Richardson Adventure Farm and Corn Maze
Home of the World's Largest Corn Maze! Theres lots to do for all ages -- slides, pedal carts, jumping pillows, a carousel, wagon rides, pig races, and a 50 tall observation tower. For an additional charge, there are pumpkins of all shapes and colors, a train ride, petting zoo, zipline, zorbing, concessions, fresh donuts, fudge, kettle corn, and more! There are 2 kids game trails where parents can take their kids into the big maze, and not get lost! Or, find all of the checkpoints and earn a beautiful, full color certificate. Open until 11pm on Fridays and Saturdays for corn-mazing at night and sitting around a campfire with hot chocolate! Reserve a campfire spot as a base camp for your group!
CITY:Spring Grove
The Old Capitol Farmers Market, Springfield's longest-running and most popular Farmers Market in beautiful downtown Springfield, takes place Wednesdays from 3-6:30 pm and Saturdays from 8 a - 12:30 pm between May and October. 60+ local product and products vendors, music, cooking demonstrations, community groups, + companion shopping and dining hours in the downtown district. Accepting SNAP & LINK. Click the link to find out which vendors are at the Market: http://maps.managemymarket.com/2342 Check out our easy-to-use product search to see which of your favorite products are in season and available!
Stroll downtown Springfield and check out shops that carry everything from Lincoln souvenirs to one-of-a-kind jewelry and fresh-made fudge. Downtown is also host to many events and festivals throughout the year.
Open Air Market outside of Community Building. The market has local produce, flowers, & baked goods. As well as homemade products such as wood carving, local honey, and more. Thursdays from 4:30-6 pm
Open year-round and offering annual and perennial flowers, mums, fall decor, pumpkins, squash, and fall treats. Known also for the 7 acre corn maze, haunted maze and mind twisted maze. School tours and groups welcome. Christmas trees and wreaths offered in winter months.
This roadside produce stand offers asparagus, radishes, eggplant and sweet corn.
Stop at this roadside spot and pick your own strawberries.
Johnson's Pumpkin Stand & Corn Maze
Our farm is not a large scale operation but we are a family run operation that does its best to provide you the customer with a good product and a friendly smile when you come for a visit. We offer 12 acres of mazes, fall decorations, and pumpkins and gourdes galore! So gather up the kids, find some friends and venture out to Sycamore Illinois and start some great memories! (Opens Sept. 23)
Grassroots Outdoor Community Market
New local outdoor market featuring locally grown farm produce, meat, eggs, honey, baked goods, gourmet oils, essential oils, body care products, arts, crafts, and much more! With a wide selection of gluten-free, organic, vegan and natural goods. Grassroots Juicery & Cafe will be open and serving smoothies, juices, wraps, soups, salads, teas and more, so you can have lunch while enjoying the market. Serving the Illinois cities of Sycamore, DeKalb, Cortland, Maple Park, Malta, Genoa, and surrounding communities. We are hosting this new Sunday market outside in our parking lot. The market will be open 9 am to 1 pm on these dates: 5/22, 6/12, 6/26, 7/10, 7/24, 8/14, 8/28, 9/11, 9/25, and 10/9.
Visit the Farmers market every Saturday for the best selection of fruits, vegetables, and fresh flowers. Along with a variety of business vendors including jewelry, clothing, food products, and much more! Sat. 7:30AM-12PM.
CITY:Tinley Park
Pick your own strawberries in season, and buy fall apples, Indian corn, pumpkins and gourds. Providing locally grown fruit since 1925.
Kleiss Produce Farm and Country Market
This Champaign-Urbana area farmer's market sells in-season vegetables, melons, pumpkins and fruits.
Our small family-run business is celebrating over 20 years of bringing your family the delights of the autumn harvest. Apple picking is a great way to spend a crisp autumn day with friends and family. We planted our first 100 apple trees in 1996. Since then we have planted an additional 1900 trees.
Join thousands of residents and visitors during Market season and connect with growers at Urbana's Market at the Square. Choose locally-raised foods and treasure-hunt among the art and craft vendor booths. Gather information about local non-profits, schools and other community groups on our Community Row. Catch up with friends, take in a set from local performers, and enjoy the public square atmosphere the Market has to offer. Saturday morning at Urbana's Market at the Square is one of our city's signature institutions. It's a great way to kick off your weekend! Open May through November.
This u-pick orchard features 14 varieties of apples, plus rhubarb and raspberries. The Homestead's store is located in a century-old horse barn, stocked with homemade honey, candles, dried flowers, dried apple chips and more.
This seasonal orchard offers more than 80 varieties of apples and pears. We will be opening on Saturday, September 10th! As always, we will be open on Saturdays and Sunday from 10-5 during the season unless otherwise noted. Please check here or on Facebook before you come! Days and hours may change due to weather or the current status of the ripe crop.
For over 50 years, Oney's Tree Farm has been the place where family Christmas traditions begin with a hunt for the perfect tree across the rolling hills. Precut and trees to plant are also available. Owned and operated by the Peterson family, the farm offers free horse-drawn wagon rides and visits with Mrs. Claus in her North Pole house. The 1904 barn turns into a magical gift shop, bakery and hot lunch spot with the Peterson grandchildren working alongside family and friends. Custom fresh wreaths, garland and centerpieces, created by Grandma Dawn Peterson, are also available. Open the day after Thanksgiving and daily through mid-December from 9:00 a.m. 4:00 p.m. Oney's also sells homegrown trees, shrubs and perennials to the public in April and May. Tap into the Peterson family's decades of experience by bringing pictures and measurements of the landscape space for custom design services. Open spring and fall from 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.
All Seasons Apple Orchard is a u-pick apple orchard located in Woodstock, the county seat of McHenry County in Northern Illinois. We have more than 11,000 apple trees and 12 varieties of apples, including Honey crisp and the Asian pear. We also have a pick your own pumpkin patch (pumpkin picking), with six different varieties of pumpkins for your decorating and baking needs. Starting Labor Day Weekend, explore our 10 acre Corn Maze with 3 miles of pathways and 2 bridges. Spend time in our petting zoo, country farm market, or indoor grill restaurant which offers seasonal favorites like homemade apple donuts, apple cider, caramel apples, local honey and much more! At All Seasons Orchard, the hay ride (wagon ride) will take you on a tour through our beautiful orchards and is essential to a complete fall season experience! In our 20th year, we continue our commitment to producing the best apples in Illinois for you and your family!
The Yorkville Farmer's Market offers farm grown veggies, baked goods, fresh roasted coffee and more! Saturday mornings June through October.


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Mixing Mastering Engineer Electronic Dance Music
This project received 45 bids from talented freelancers with an average bid price of €147 EUR.Get free quotes for a project like this
Skills Required
Project Budget€30 - €250 EUR
Total Bids45
Project Description
Hello Freelancer,
I'm looking for a mixing and mastering engineer to work on my music.
I'll will send you stems in .wav and I'll need back a .wav of the final track mixed and mastered.
You must be familiar with Electronic Dance Music and if also familiar with Ableton Live and Logic would be even better (because I could send you the whole project)
Please quote in your bid your request for a mixing & mastering session on a single track (around 5 mins lenght)
Please include also links to your previous works and if you have any qualification, certificates…
If I think you could be the right candidate, I'll test your skills, sending you stems of a 1min track and you should return it mixed and mastered in .wav
If I'll like your work there's will be plenty of new work for you
I need mixing and mastering engineers NO music producers NO djs…
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- Get paid for your work
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Located in Pattaya (Pattaya Beach Road), The Mark Land Boutique Hotel is minutes from Tiffany's Show and Art in Paradise. This hotel is within close proximity of Pattaya International Hospital and Central Center Pattaya.
Make yourself at home in one of the 50 air-conditioned rooms featuring refrigerators and LCD televisions. Rooms have private balconies. Complimentary wireless Internet access keeps you connected, and cable programming is available for your entertainment. Private bathrooms with showers feature complimentary toiletries and hair dryers.
Take advantage of recreation opportunities including an outdoor pool and a fitness center. Additional features at this hotel include complimentary wireless Internet access and tour/ticket assistance.
Enjoy a meal at a restaurant, or stay in and take advantage of the hotel's room service (during limited hours).
Business, Other Amenities
Featured amenities include a 24-hour front desk and an elevator (lift).


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Vandersteen Audio 2Ce loudspeaker Sidebar 2: System du jour
Sidebar 2: System du jour
Associated equipment used with the 2Ce included the Rowland Consummate preamp, C.E.C. CD transport and PS Audio Ultralink D/A processor, and Aragon 4004 power amplifier. The Hafler 9500 power amplifier was also used extensively. The loudspeaker cables were Symo (bi-wiring was used exclusively). The preamp-to-power-amp interconnect was Cardas Hexlink, the processor-to-preamp interconnect was TARA Labs RSC Master. The source material was primarily CD.


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To the editor:
I listened to FBI director James Comey give a damning and negative report on Hillary Clinton's actions regarding emails. Then, at the conclusion, he did not recommend any charges. What?
It seems even someone such as Comey can be corrupted by those in power. Even our pledge concludes with "and justice for all." Blind justice in our society does not exist and we are beating our hollow chests in thinking so. Our judges are heavily influenced by votes, career influences and money.
Thanks go out to the many NC 4th of July Festival volunteers who serve throughout the year to plan and coordinate various activities and events.
Thanks also go to all corporate partners without whose financial support the festival could not be staged. A special thank you to the growing number of individual, family and small business patriots who responded to our call for support. To the Southport business community, a very special thank you for your cooperation, support and enthusiastic participation.
By Bobby R. Etheridge
Guest Columnist
The U.S. Department of Agriculture Farm Service Agency requires farmers and ranchers participating in our programs to submit an annual report on all cropland use on their farms. Crop insurance agents for providers approved by the USDA Risk Management Agency also require these reports to ensure accuracy with your premiums and when you file claims.
Yet for years, farmers and ranchers have entered the same basic common information from their acreage reports at these two different places.
By Rep. Frank Iler
Last week in the North Carolina House of Representatives we passed the 2016-17 state budget, we had a flurry of state and local bills that passed and some that didn't, and we adjourned the session for 2016.
The other day, as I was getting ready for work and feeding my three cats their breakfast, I heard an extraordinary volume of chatter outside my front door.
I wasn't alarmed, because it sounded to me like the barn swallows who make their summer home in my neighborhood just had a lot to say that morning, and I went about my business.
The town of Sunset Beach has hired a lobbyist to fight Senate Bill 875, the local bill that de-annexes Palm Cove and two other properties. Citizens have amassed thousands of signatures opposing that bill.
While these are worthy efforts, I submit that as matters stand now, the effort to thwart Senate Bill 875 should focus on just one man: Rep. Frank Iler.
Most of us grew up with beliefs, or norms, we knew who we were, and why we voted for the party or man we backed. Your family voted for Southern values, voted Union, or voted with the farms. There were coalitions that made up each party, and we voted with our coalition.
Taking David Stuart's real estate signage without so much as a courtesy call seems to be one more example of the arrogant and overbearing attitude of the Sunset Beach Town Council and the administrative policies it has developed. It further exemplifies why de-annexation requests have appeared.
Insensitivity to the needs of the business community flies in the face of good development. The entrepreneur, finding a hostile environment, takes his risk capital elsewhere.
Copyright © 2016
The Brunswick Beacon is your source for local news, sports, events and information in Brunswick County, North Carolina and surrounding areas.


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Production Category: Modeling
Production Sub Category: ANY
Submission Start Date: 12/09/2015 12:00 AM (Eastern Standard Time)
Submission End Date: 01/23/2016 12:00 AM (Eastern Standard Time)
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self-publishing of tens of thousands of audition postings each month, subject only
to the Virdition Terms of Use and audition posting guidelines. Users may flag postings
they believe to be in violation of Virdition guidelines, by clicking on one of the flagging
links found on each posting:
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Audition/Casting: inland empire 92301, California
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Production/Shooting: inland empire 92301, California
Any fees to be paid by talent?: N/A
Our company would like to do a modeling shoot with people who are comfortable modeling swimwear. You can see our site at Ballsybabe.net to check out our swimwear. We will be screening as we get your information. Please email one full body picture preferably in a swimsuit and I will contact. This is only for serious people interested in Modeling Swimwear only. We are a legitimate business located in the city of Rancho Cucamonga. This will be a paid shoot. Thank you.
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5th SGI Tour of Homes A Huge Success!
The fifth St. George Island Tour of Homes was held on February 13, 2016, and was once again a huge success.
About 700 participants visited the seven lovely homes along with the St. George Plantation Clubhouse and the Cape St. George Lighthouse and Keeper's House.
Proceeds from the SGI Tour of Homes go toward maintenance and enhancement of the Cape St. George Lighthouse, the Keeper's House Museum, and St. George Lighthouse Park.
Many thanks to the homeowners who so generously opened their homes, to the Sponsors and Supporters for their contributions, and to the more than 130 volunteers who worked so hard to make the Tour a success!


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Date: 1934
Description: The members of Hangar 13, a group of Beloit youth organized to build and race model airplanes. Conrad Hansen, their organizer, is standing at left in the b...
Date: 1950 ca.
Description: Middle College building, Beloit College.
Description: Interior view of a corner of the parlor and the doorway to the conservatory.
Date: 1950-11-04
Description: Roy "Colonel" Burks catches a pass from quarterback John Coatta in front of end Tilden Meyers (#84) during the football game between Wisconsin and Purdue a...
Date: 1967 ca.
Description: Photographic postcard view of Fraternity Row at Beloit College.
Date: 1949
Description: This map of the Beloit College Campus is a pictorial depiction of the layout of campus including buildings and students depicted as Shmoos (popular cartoon...
Date: 1955 ca.
Description: Exterior view of an unidentified residence.
Date: 1978-06-22
Description: View of carnival with a water tower in the background. There are trailers, and a carousel is on the left. Carts selling food like popcorn and sausage are p...
Date: 1931-04-17
Description: Interior of the First National Bank of Edgerton, with customers and tellers in cages.
Date: 1915 ca.
Description: Third Wisconsin Civil War veterans' reunion, posed on the lawn in front of the Beloit Public Library.
Date: 1900 ca.
Description: Oval-framed view of the industrial area along the Rock River.
Date: 1933-07-19
Description: Garden of Ralph Warner's "The House Next Door," aka the Lovejoy-Duncan House, 11219 N. Webster Street.
Date: 1924
Description: This map of Janesville was distrusted by the Fifield Lumber Company and features labeled streets, the Rock River, and Fifield Lumber Company buildings in r...
Date: 1979-11-18
Description: An electrical box on a wooden pole is in the center foreground. Behind it is a street, and on the other side of the street is a Phillips 66 service station...
Date: 1980-04-16
Description: View from across street of a rectangular dilapidated building featuring arched windows. A billboard for H. Dan Wright Insurance is under the fire escape.
Description: Trolley car driving along Grand Avenue, with people walking on the sidewalks next to storefronts.
Date: 1956
Description: View of dining room table with fireplace and mirror in background.
Description: Safety Patrol training class at a rural Rock County school.
Date: 1912
Description: Exterior view of the Norwegian Lutheran Church with steeple. The church has arched stained glass windows in the front and on the sides, and is surrounded b...
Date: 1936 ca.
Description: Birthplace of Carrie Jacobs Bond.
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SEO Expert Needed
This project was awarded to cybersolutionvw for $3 USD / hour.Get free quotes for a project like this
Awarded to:
Skills Required
Project Budget$2 - $8 USD / hour
Total Bids4
Project Description
I need a SEO expert to help me work on my Blog and perform my SEO activities as will be instructed.
You will schedule all my posts as directed and carry out the SEO / Link building daily using my available
Any negligence of my job will result to termination of contract.
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