text:
This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue?
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
"This page left intentionally blank."
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
Clark W. Gellings, P.E.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gellings, Clark W. The smart grid : enabling energy efficiency and demand response / Clark W. Gellings. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-10: 0-88173-623-6 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-88173-624-4 (electronic) ISBN-13: 978-1-4398-1574-8 (Taylor & Francis distribution : alk. paper) 1. Electric power distribution--Energy conservation. 2. Electric power-Conservation. 3. Electric utilities--Energy conservation. I. Title. TK3091.G448 2009 621.319--dc22
The smart grid : enabling energy efficiency and demand response / Clark W. Gellings. ©2009 by The Fairmont Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865 http://www.fairmontpress.com Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 23-25 Blades Court Deodar Road London SW15 2NU, UK E-mail: email@example.com
Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 10: 0-88173-623-6 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.) 13: 978-1-4398-1574-8 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
1 2 WHAT IS THE SMART GRID? ............................................................ 1 What is a Smart Grid? .............................................................................. 1 The Smart Grid Enables the ElectriNetSM............................................. 2 Local Energy Networks ........................................................................... 4 Electric Transportation ............................................................................. 5 Low-Carbon Central Generation............................................................ 6 What Should Be the Attributes of the Smart Grid? ............................. 6 Why Do We Need a Smart Grid? ........................................................... 7 Is the Smart Grid a "Green Grid"? ....................................................... 12 Alternative Views of a Smart Grid. ...................................................... 14 Capgemini's Vision (www.capgemini.com/energy ) ................ 14 IBM's Vision (www.ibm.com/iibv) .............................................. 16 IntelliGridSM (www.epri-intelligrid.com).................................... 17 The Modern Grid Strategy (www.netw.doe.gov) ....................... 19 GridWise™ (www.electricdistribution.ctc.com) ......................... 19 General Electric Vision (www.gepower.com) ............................. 19 Distribution Vision 2010 (DV2010) ............................................... 21 UK SuperGen Initiative (www.supergen-networks.org.uk) ..... 21 Hydro Quebec Automation Initiative .......................................... 22 The Galvin Initiative (www.galvinpower.org)............................ 22 Electricite de France (EDF) Power-Strada ................................... 23 European Union Smart Grid (www.smartgrids.eu) ................... 23 ELECTRIC ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN POWER PRODUCTION & DELIVERY ............................................ 27 Introduction............................................................................................. 27 Power Plant Electricity Use ................................................................... 28 Lighting .................................................................................................... 29 Maintenance Issues ......................................................................... 31 Space Conditioning and Domestic Water Heating ............................ 32 Building Infiltration ........................................................................ 35 Motors ...................................................................................................... 37 EPRI Demonstrations ............................................................................. 40 Efficiency in Power Delivery ................................................................ 43 Conservation Voltage Reduction .......................................................... 43 v
....................................................................................................................................................... 54 Financial Impacts of Energy Efficiency ........ 79 Design Criteria ......................... 58 Renewed Interest ....................... 78 Defining the Perfect Electric Energy Service System ..................................................................................................... 88 Nodes of Innovation .......................... 84 Advantages of the Building Integrated Power System & Relevant Nodes of Innovation ................................................................................ 67 Energy Efficiency Potential in the U........................................................... 80 Overview of the Perfect Power System Configurations ........... 87 Fully Integrated Power System: The Smart Grid .......................... 53 Is Energy Efficiency Cost-Effective? ............................................................................................................... 60 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions .............................................. 3 4 5 Distribution Transformer Efficiency ............................................. 82 Building Integrated Power Systems .. DC Power: An Historical Perspective ............. 53 Energy Efficiency ............................................................................................................ 55 A Renewed Mandate .................... 84 Distributed Power Systems ................... 46 ELECTRIC END-USE ENERGY EFFICIENCY ............ 53 Defining Electric End-use Energy Efficiency .... 93 AC vs............................... 93 Transformers transform the power delivery system ................ 87 Advantages of the Distributed Power System & Relevant Nodes of Innovation ..............................................................................................................S........................................................................................... 55 How Desirable Is Energy Efficiency?....................................................................................................... 65 United Nations Foundation Estimates .... 95 vi . 65 IEA Estimates ................................................ 61 What Can Be Accomplished? .. 56 Drivers of Energy Efficiency .................................................. 80 Path to the Perfect Power System ................................................................................... 81 Advantages of the Perfect Device-Level Power System and Relevant Nodes of Innovation ....................................................................................................................... 71 USING A SMART GRID TO EVOLVE THE PERFECT POWER SYSTEM . .......... 88 DC DISTRIBUTION & THE SMART GRID ........................... 81 Device–Level Power System ......... 77 The Galvin Vision—A Perfect Power System .
.... 127 Power Market Tools .............................................................................................. 131 Smart Energy Efficient End-Use Devices ......................................................................... 127 Technology Innovation in Electricity Use .............................................................. 132 Smart Distributed Energy Resources .......... 109 THE INTELLIGRIDSM ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SMART GRID .......................................... 119 Fast Simulation and Modeling ........ 116 Visualizing the Power System in Real Time .. 109 Potential Future Work and Research ............................... 116 Increasing System Capacity ................................................................................. 101 Data Centers and Information Technology (IT) Loads ..... 118 Barriers to Achieving This Vision........ 105 Your Future Neighborhood .............. 117 A Smart Grid Vision Based on the IntelliGridSM Architecture .............................................................................................................................................................. 113 Launching the IntelliGridSM .... 126 Distributed Energy Resources and Storage Development & Integration............................................. 117 Enabling (Enhanced) Connectivity to Consumers ................................................................................................................ 6 7 Centralization dictates AC instead of DC ............................................................................... 116 Enabling a Self-Healing Grid ................................................ 128 The Consumer Portal ....... 101 Equipment Compatibility ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 114 The IntelliGridSM Today ........................................................... 132 Advanced Whole-Building Control Systems ...... 128 THE SMART GRID –ENABLING DEMAND RESPONSE— THE DYNAMIC ENERGY SYSTEMS CONCEPT ................................ 126 Power Electronics-Based Controllers ..... 119 Communication Architecture: The Foundation of the IntelliGridSM .................................. 113 Introduction.......... 133 vii .............................................................. ........... 122 Open Communication Architecture for Distributed Energy Resources in Advanced Automation ....................... 116 Relieving Bottlenecks ....... 125 Automation: The Heart of the IntelliGridSM ..................................... 124 Enabling Technologies ................... 98 Powering Equipment and Appliances with DC ................................................... 96 Benefits and Drivers of DC Power Delivery Systems ............................
............................................ 167 Entertainment ....................... 8 9 Integrated Communications Architecture .................................... 148 Key Characteristics of Smart Energy-Efficient End-use Devices and Distributed Energy Resources (Together Referred to as "Smart Devices")................................................................... 151 Key Features of a Dynamic Energy Management System................. 166 Communication ................... 174 National Level...................................................................................................... 143 Distributed Energy Resources ................................................. 164 Consumer Interface ............................... 175 viii ........................................... 163 Reliability.............................. 144 How is Dynamic Energy Management Different?......................................................................................... 165 Appliances That Talk to Each Other ............................... 169 Markets ................................................................................................ 169 Remote Consumer-Site Vicinity Monitoring ................................................................................................................................................ 142 Current Limitations and Scope for Dynamic Energy Management........... 150 Key Characteristics of Advanced Whole-building Control Systems .... 162 What Are the Generic Features of the EnergyPortSM? ......... 146 Overview of a Dynamic Energy Management System Operation From an Integrated Perspective ..................................................... 169 Network Communications Management ... 169 POLICIES & PROGRAMS TO ENCOURAGE END-USE ENERGY EFFICIENCY ................................... 141 Role of Technology in Demand Response ................................................. 163 Safety ............................................ 174 Multi-National Level ....................... 164 Decentralized Operation ................................................................................................................................................... 138 Demand Response.................................................................................. 171 Policies and Programs in Action ....................................................................... 151 THE ENERGYPORTSM AS PART OF THE SMART GRID .......................... 166 Safety ............................................................................... 162 Simplify Building Systems .............................. 155 What is the EnergyPortSM? ................................................................................................................................................... 133 Energy Management Today ............ 134 Demand-side Management............................................
........................... 226 Hyper-efficient Appliances .... 10 11 State Level ........ 211 The Implementation Process ............................................................................... 185 MARKET IMPLEMENTATION ............. 199 Trade Ally Cooperation .................... 229 Data Center Energy Efficiency ................. 210 Program Logistics.. 198 Direct Customer Contact ............................ 194 Factors Influencing Customer Acceptance and Response ........................................................................................... 224 Domestic Water Heating ....................................................................... 228 Hyper-Efficient Residential Appliances ............................................................ 230 ix ............................................................................................................. 184 Energy Efficiency Challenges in the Middle East and North Africa ................................................................................ 206 Program Planning...................... 224 Indoor Air Quality................................................... 189 The Market Planning Framework .................................................... 216 Management Concerns ........................................................................................ 217 EFFICIENT ELECTRIC END-USE TECHNOLOGY ALTERNATIVES................................................ 195 Customer Satisfaction .... 226 Ductless Residential Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners .......................... 213 Monitoring Program Validity .............................................................. 230 Industrial............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 229 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Street and Area Lighting...................................................................................................... 221 Lighting................................................ 221 Existing Technologies... 210 Program Management ............................. 227 Variable Refrigerant Flow Air Conditionings ...... 227 Heat Pump Water Heating ......................................... 205 Direct Incentives ..................................................................................................... 212 Monitoring and Evaluation ........... 183 Corporate Level ........................................................................................................................ 202 Alternative Pricing ................................................................................................................... 182 City Level............................... 222 Space Conditioning ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 201 Advertising and Promotion .................................... 215 Data and Information Requirements ...............
. 259 General Information Requirements .................... 230 Motors ........................................................................................................ 231 Electrical Supply......................................................................................................... 240 Infrared Process Heat ...................................... 241 Merits of Electrotechnologies Beyond Energy Efficiency ....................................................................... 231 Drive Train ................................................................................................................................ 237 Electrotechnologies ............................................................................. 258 DEMAND-SIDE EVALUATION ............. 235 Thermal Energy Storage ..................................................... 245 Introduction................... 254 How Do I Select Those Alternatives That Are Most Beneficial? .................... 12 13 Motors and Drives....... 262 x .................... 233 Process Heating .......................................... 245 What is Demand-side Planning?................. 254 What Type of Demand-side Activities Should Providers Pursue?........................................................ 248 Selecting Alternatives ............................................................................................................................................................ 238 Residential Sector ..................... 233 Equipment Retrofit and Replacement ........................................... 234 Cogeneration .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 261 System Context ........................................................................... 240 Efficiency Advantages of Electric Process Heat Systems .................................................... 250 The Utility Planning Process .... 250 How Can Demand-side Activities Help Achieve Its Objective? .............................................................................. 240 Electric Arc Furnaces .. 247 Why Consider the Demand Side? ...... 240 Dielectric Process Heat .................................................................................................. 239 Industrial Sector ............................................................................................................................................. 239 Induction Process Heating ................................................................................. 250 Demand Response & Energy Efficiency .............................................................................. 259 Levels of Analysis .................................................... 236 Industrial Energy Management Programs . 238 Commercial Sector ...................................................................................... 249 Issues Critical to the Demand-side ........................................ 237 Manufacturing Processes ............... 242 DEMAND-SIDE PLANNING .......................................
.......................... 284 Monitoring and Evaluation Programs............................................................................................... 297 xi ................................................ 264 What Changes in the Load Shape Can Be Expected By Implementing Demand-side Alternatives? ......................................................................................................................... 282 Data and Information Requirements ...................................................................... 265 Program Interaction .. 276 The Implementation Process................. 272 Customer Adoption Techniques........... 273 What is the Best Way to Implement Selected Demand-side Programs? ................................ 275 Program Planning .......... 281 Issues in Program Monitoring and Evaluation .............. 270 Consumer & Market Research ............................................................................................. 276 Program Logistics.................................................. 279 How Should Monitoring and Evaluation of the Performance of Demand-side Programs and Activities Be Best Achieved? ......................................... 263 Non-monetary Benefits & Costs ...................................................... 267 How Can Adoption of Demand-side Alternatives Be Forecasted and Promoted? .......................................................................................................................................................... 286 Appendix—ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ....... 284 How Do I Get Started in Addressing Demand-side Planning Issues as They Relate to My Utility? .......................................... 263 Cost/Benefit Analysis .................................................. 262 Data Requirements .................................................................. 283 Management Concerns .............................. 289 Index ............................. 268 Estimating Future Market Demand & Customer Participation Rates ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 280 Monitoring and Evaluation Approaches ......................................................................................... Transferability .................. 275 Program Management .... 282 Monitoring Program Validity .............................................. 275 Program Implementation Issues ... 267 Dynamic Systems .......................................................................................................................................
" ."This page left intentionally blank.
Definitions ADA ANSI ASDs CCS CEIDS CFL CH4 CHP CO2 CPP CVR DA DC DER DG DOE DR DSE DSM E2I EDF EMCS EMS EPRI FAC FD FERC FSM GE GT GTO-PWM HLA HP HPS Advanced Distribution Automation American National Standards Institute Adjustable Speed Drives Carbon Capture and Storage The Consortium for Electric Infrastructure to Support a Digital Society Compact Fluorescent Lamps Methane Combined Heat and Power Carbon Dioxide Critical Peak Period Conservation Voltage Reduction Distribution Automation Direct Current Distributed Energy Resources Distributed Generation U.S. Department of Energy Demand Response Distribution System Efficiency Demand-side Management Electricity Innovation Institute Electricite de France Energy Management Control System Energy Management System Electric Power Research Institute TAC Transmission Systems Forced Draft Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Fast Simulation and Modeling General Electric Gas Turbine Gate Turn-Off Thyrister Pulse-width Modulated High-Level Architecture Horsepower High-Pressure Sodium xiii .
Ventilation and Air Conditioning Induced Draft International Energy Agency Integrated Energy and Communications Architecture Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Intelligent Network Agents Internet Protocol Independent System Operators Information Technology Intelligent Universal Transformer Kilohertz Kilowatt hour Load Commutated Inverter Light-Emitting Diode Light-Emitting Diode Street and Area Lighting Modern Grid Strategy Metal Halide Megahertz Megawatt Megawatt Hour National Ambient Air Quality Standards National Electrical Manufacturers Association North American Electric Reliability Council National Energy Technology Laboratory New Source Review Personal Digital Assistants Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Phaser Measurement Units Photovoltaics Radio Frequency Return on Investment Regional Transmission Organizations Self-Healing Grid Switched Mode Power Supply Security Quality Reliability and Availability Thermal Energy Storage Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol xiv . HPWHs HRSG HVAC ID IEA IECSA IEEE INAs IP ISOs IT IUT KHz kWh LCI LED LEDSAL MGS MH MHz MW MWh NAAQS NEMA NERC NETL NSR PDAs PHEVs PMUs PV RF ROI RTOs SHG SMPS SQRA TES TCP/IP Heat Pump Water Heaters Heat Recovery Steam Generator Heating.
TOU TWh UML UPS V VFD BRF WAMs WEO Time of Use Terawatt Hour Unified Modeling Language Uninterruptible Power Supply Voltage Variable Frequency Drive Variable Refrigerant Flow Wide Area Monitoring System World Energy Outlook xv .
"This page left intentionally blank." .
computational ability and control in some form to enhance the overall functionality of the electric power delivery system. 20 seconds is still not real time when one considers that the electromagnetic pulse moves at nearly the speed of light. This. minimal electronic communication and almost no electronic control. In brief. a smart grid is the use of sensors. there has been enormous improvements in productivity. It still remains less than ideal—for example. and environmental performance. distributed resources and consumer end uses toward goals which ensure reliability and optimize or minimize the use of energy. cables. continually adjusting. communications and computational ability. has increased over time. almost all other industries in the western world have modernized themselves with the use of sensors. It consists of wires. communicating. exercising control and through feedback. In the last 25 years. Actually. the electric power delivery system is almost entirely a mechanical system. and contain cost. this permits several functions which allow optimization—in combination—of the use of bulk generation and storage." However. towers. 1 . For a power system. the industry initiated the use of computers to monitor and offer some control of the power system. see the condition of the power system with a 20-second delay. power system area operators can. For these other industries. Sometime in the 1960s. Industry suppliers refer to this as "real time. communications.Chapter 1 What is the Smart Grid? WHAT IS A SMART GRID? The electric power system delivery has often been cited as the greatest and most complex machine ever built. transformers and circuit breakers—all bolted together in some fashion. with only modest use of sensors. efficiency. applying intelligence. coupled with a modest use of sensors. transmission. mitigate environmental impact. A dumb system becomes smart by sensing. quality of products and services. at best. manage assets. distribution.
complex. Examples of competitive transactions include settlements for demand response participation. Realizing the ElectriNet SM depends on developing the IntelliGridSM (see Chapter 6) communications architecture to enable connectivity between each element of the ElectriNetSM with requirements for developing agent-based software systems. This next-generation electrical infrastructure. and physical transactions between the several members of the electricity value chain that supplement or replaces the vertically integrated utility. At the same time. and physical transactions necessary to assure Figure 1-1. the move towards more competitive electricity markets requires a much more sophisticated infrastructure for supporting myriad informational. and interactive network of power systems. the ElectriNetSM. telecommunications. energy trading. which can facilitate the informational. and electronic commerce applications. Action Framework—Four Evolving Infrastructures . as well as enable the ability to manage competitive transactions resulting from competitive service offerings that emerge in the restructured utility environment. will provide for seamless integration/interoperability of the many disparate systems and components. the Internet. local energy networks and electric transportation (see Figure 1). financial. The ElectriNetSM recognizes the evolution of the power system into a highly interconnected. information reporting and notification. financial. and bidding capacity into ancillary service markets.2 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response THE SMART GRID ENABLES THE ELECTRINETSM The ElectriNetSM is the guiding concept for marrying the smart grid with low-carbon central generation.
the semantic web. including analysis and response to electrical grid contingencies. The goals of the architecture are to allow for interoperability and flexibility to facilitate and enable competitive transactions to occur. pricing. There are a large number of operational services along this value chain for delivering electricity to customers. In addition. the architectural requirements will be designed to support multiple operational criteria. This perspective is based on combining distributed computing technologies such as web services. Much of the existing focus has been on the supply side to enable competitive wholesale transactions resulting in trading floors for energy and capacity sales. as well as promoting open and non-discriminatory access to the transmission grid. and intelligent agents. taking into account the core concepts of interoperability and support for multiple operational criteria (business rules). continues when the energy is delivered through the highvoltage transmission networks. the value chain proceeds as follows: It starts at the fuel/energy source. A new energy value chain is emerging as a result of new technologies. efficiency. the consumption or demand side of electricity deserves special attention. The purpose of this architecture is to provide a resource that can serve as a road map to understanding. and other market/system conditions. security. proceeds to the power generator. new players. and new regulatory environments that encourage competitive markets. In the case of electricity. The ElectriNetSM provides a new perspective on how to manage transactions given the nature of the existing and emerging distributed. Changes in technology and the resulting economics have now disrupted that traditional value chain and stimulated the adoption of . applying and building next-generation agent-based software systems applied to electricity value chain transactional systems. Interoperability can be enabled by the use of open communication protocols. In this new energy value chain. and finally is delivered to end-use customers for consumption. continues when the electricity is stepped down to a lower voltage onto medium-voltage distribution networks. Developing an architecture allows future developers to access this framework as a resource or design pattern for developing distributed software applications. and stability of power systems operating in competitive electricity markets.What is the Smart Grid? 3 adequate reliability. heterogeneous communications and control network. Flexibility can be provided by the specification of user-defined business rules which capture the unique needs of various service offerings.
A whole class of service offerings which have similar requirements include those related to customer billing. energy information. energy information. Delivering these services will require a communications architecture that is open. highly scalable. and a range of value-added services are emerging (e. a whole new area of energy services and transactions has sprung up around the demand side of the value chain. transmission companies. It could consist of a collection of reusable software agents and associated hardware specifications that will interoperate within the many interfaces and devices on the power system/market infrastructure. etc).4 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response distributed energy resources (DER). and enabling physical and financial transactions. energy audits. automating business processes. management of customer equipment. The proposed architecture is designed to enable communication and decision making between distributed system nodes and parties. and energy market operators. Many of these service offerings share similar requirements for integrating disparate systems. on-line meter reading. procurement. but some key examples are distributed generation and storage and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). The architecture is intended to be used to develop software that can supplement the existing power distribution/market network communication infrastructure. because of competition and deregulation. distribution companies. real-time pricing.g. while taking into account the specific business and technical requirements of many industry players such as energy users. the combination allows for the operation of a power . In addition. bill management.. The use of software agents allows the ability for communication and cooperation among system nodes. LOCAL ENERGY NETWORKS The local energy network facilitates the functionality of the ElectriNetSM. These distribution resources can take many forms. One of these new energy services is demand response (DR) which enables load and other DER resources to provide capacity into the bulk power system in response to grid contingencies and market pricing signals. and sufficiently flexible and adaptable to meet the changing business needs of suppliers and customers. Overall. DR is an example of an energy service which requires the interaction and integration of multiple-party business systems and physical assets resulting in both physical and financial transactions. energy service companies.
energy sources and a power distribution infrastructure are integrated at the local level. enhance the quality of life and improve economic productivity Local energy networks increase the independence. and then integrate local energy networks to the smart grid. challenges . a commercial building. And PHEVs draw only about 1. the availability of both a controllable load and controllable on-site electrical storage can have a profound impact on the electrical systems. secure. plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). therefore.4-2 kW of power while charging—about what a dishwasher draws. PHEV development can build on more than a decade of experience with conventional hybrids such as the Toyota Prius and Ford Escape. or a residential neighborhood. a campus of buildings. flexibility and intelligence for optimization of energy use and energy management at the local level.What is the Smart Grid? 5 system that is self-sensing. As PHEVs begin to proliferate. it is able to meet consumer needs at a reasonable cost with minimal resource utilization and minimal environmental impact and. Local energy networks. As such. convenience. appearance. which use a battery and electric motor to augment the power of an internal combustion engine. This could be an industrial facility. in the near-term. The primary challenges to widespread use of PHEVs. ELECTRIC TRANSPORTATION The next building block of the ElectriNetSM is electric transportation—particularly electric vehicles and. environmentally friendly service and cost control. PHEVs add the ability to charge the battery using low-cost. To this blend of technologies. off-peak electricity from the grid—allowing a vehicle to run on the equivalent of 75¢ per gallon or better at today's electricity price. Localized energy networks can accommodate increasing consumer demands for independence. Local area networks are interconnected with different localized systems to take advantage of power generation and storage through the smart grid enabling complete integration of the power system across wide areas. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles represent the most promising approach to introducing the significant use of electricity as transportation fuel. self-correcting and self-healing and is able to sustain failure of individual components without interrupting service.
Those related to central generation must include an expanded use of renewable energy.6 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response that will require direct utility involvement to overcome. The ElectriNetSM facilitates the inclusion of multiple centralized generation sources linked through high-voltage networks. Optimal use of bulk power generation and storage in combination with distributed resources and controllable/dispatchable consumer loads to assure lowest cost. solar-photovoltaics (PV) and biomass. • . Successful implementation of the ElectriNetSM assumes successful achievement of performance and deployment targets associated with several advanced technologies as a basis for estimating CO2 emissions reduction potential. solar-thermal. include specification of the local energy network and development of a mass market to lower battery costs. The complete integration of the power system across wide areas must include the availability of central generation and large-scale central storage. WHAT SHOULD BE THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE SMART GRID? In order for the smart grid to enable the ElectriNetSM. LOW-CARBON CENTRAL GENERATION An essential element of the ElectriNetSM is low-carbon central generation. the following attributes would need to be addressed: • • Absolute reliability of supply. advanced coal power plants operating at substantially higher temperatures and pressures. as well as deployment of advanced light water nuclear reactors. and wide-scale use of CO2 capture and storage after 2020. The design implies full flexibility to transport power over long distances to optimize generation resources and the ability to deliver the power to load centers in the most efficient manner possible coupled with the strong backbone. particularly wind. continued use of the existing nuclear fleet through life extension. Minimal environmental impact of electricity production and delivery.
yet only 15% of new transmission capacity was added. In the period from 1988 to 1998. delivery system (transmission and distribution) is largely based upon technology developed in the 1940s and 1950s and installed over the next 30 to 50 years. Assuring optimal power quality for all consumers who require it. Under deregulation of wholesale power transactions. and industrial consumers. the North American power delivery system was laid out in cohesive local electrical zones. both traditional utilities and independent power producers. The U. Resiliency of supply and delivery from physical and cyber attacks and major natural phenomena (e. maintenance and performance issues that contributed to the August 14.g. Monitoring of all critical components of the power system to enable automated maintenance and outage prevention.S. grew by 30%.S. According to a North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) reliability assessment. hurricanes. For example. a number of improvements to the system could minimize the potential threat and severity of any future outages. commercial.What is the Smart Grid? • 7 Reduction in electricity used in the generation of electricity and an increase in the efficiency of the power delivery system and in the efficiency and effectiveness of end uses. electricity demand in the U. earthquakes. For example. • • • WHY DO WE NEED A SMART GRID? The nation's power delivery system is being stressed in new ways for which it was not designed. demand is expected to grow . 2003 outage. This can stress the transmission system far beyond the limits for which it was designed and built. were encouraged to transfer electricity outside of the original service areas to respond to market needs and opportunities.). while there may have been specific operational. electricity generators. The original design of the power delivery system renders some areas of the United States particularly vulnerable. These constraints can be resolved but they require investment and innovation in the use of power delivery technologies.. etc. Power plants were located so as to serve the utility's local residential. tsunamis.
8 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response 20% during the 10 years from 2002 to 2011 while less than 5% in new transmission capacity is planned. Specifically. Many of these technologies are ready for wide deployment now. A lot has been done to mitigate the potential for blackouts—particularly in the effort to provide new technologies that can help make electricity more reliable. 1. the use of advanced software for state estimation (modeling 2. Build new generation and transmission facilities in coordination with each other. large wind and solar resources are located far from population centers. on a regional basis. Regional transmission organizations (RTOs) and independent system operators (ISOs) should be given the responsibility and necessary authority to carry out a program of coordinated expansion planning. in order to sustain an increasingly high-tech economy which is based. . generators will be tempted to build new plants where local prices are high—and then oppose construction of new power lines that could bring in cheaper power. key element of the grid must be "observable"—either through direct monitoring or computerized estimation. However. Without such coordination. Substantial new transmission must be built to add these resources to the nation's generation portfolio. Meanwhile. This has resulted in significantly increased transmission congestion—effectively. bottlenecks in the flow of wholesale power—which increases the level of stress on the system. six steps should be taken to accelerate the formation of a smart grid and to enable the expansion of renewable generation and to reduce the risk of having regional blackouts—which will surely come if these steps aren't taken. the number of wholesale transactions each day has grown by roughly 400% since 1998. For an RTO or ISO to operate a large regional power system. in part. Wide-area monitoring systems (WAMS) employing phaser measurement units (PMUs) are now being applied to provide direct measurements. Expanding transmission and applying new technologies will require a great deal of cooperation between government and industry. while others are only now entering demonstrations. on the use of power-sensitive equipment. Implement technologies necessary for wide-area grid operations. the nation is increasingly embracing the use of renewable power generation. In addition. In addition.
which can help operators mitigate problems when they arise. Some areas have already employed more constrained operation. Information systems and procedures need to be updated. 4. using advanced technologies. Problems over time provide a warning that this standard will be tarnished unless steps are taken to ensure even higher levels of reliability for the future. System operators also need to be trained more thoroughly in grid restoration and "black starts" (bootstrapping recovery after a blackout).What is the Smart Grid? 9 the probable status of grid elements that aren't monitored directly) should become mandatory. Complex data communications underlies power system operations. The electric power industry has long presented to the world a gold standard of reliability in power system operations. in return for price breaks. Consumers also need to be provided with ways to curb demand automatically. as needed. Clear lines of authority are needed to handle emergencies effectively. The whole question of how to set protective relays in order to prevent the "cascade" of an outage across a whole region also needs to be reexamined. So should the expanded use of security assessment software. 6. Grid operations must be coordinated more closely with power market operations. and the procedures for their use should also be fundamentally revised. Improve emergency operations. The common practice of operating power systems under conditions (so-called "N-l contingencies") that security assessment software indicates might lead to blackouts should be reconsidered. Specifically. Many of these systems need upgrading. as should the type of operations planning that sets up such conditions. in order not only to minimize the risk of more blackouts but also prevent the type of price spikes experienced already in areas like California. prices must be determined according to market rules established to ensure that power flows are handled more cost-efficiently and transmission congestion is avoided. 5. especially during an emergency. Otherwise. such as New York State. the costs associated with poor system reliability could significantly dam- . 3.
upgrading control centers.S. enhanced voltage support. and updating protection schemes and relays.10 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response age the world economy as a whole. These functionalities are as follows: Visualizing the Power System in Real Time This attribute would deploy advanced sensors more broadly throughout the system on all critical components. Increasing System Capacity This functionality embodies a generally straight-forward effort to build or reinforce capacity particularly in the high-voltage system. In addition to increasing capacity as described above. . This would include building more transmission circuits. These sensors would be integrated with a real-time communications system through an integrated electric and communications system architecture. this functionality includes increasing power flow. bringing substations and lines up to NERC N-l (or higher) criteria. functional and resilient power delivery system is needed. and at the same time. The overall system is being called a smart grid. In a digital age when consumers demand higher quality. This functionality would also require technology deployment to manage fault currents. the smart grid is an advanced system that will increase the productivity resulting from the use of electricity. Under this definition. to eliminate many/most of the bottlenecks that currently limit a truly functional wholesale market and to assure system stability. providing and allowing the operation of the electrical system on a dynamic basis. adequate investment in the nation's electric infrastructure is critical. Relieving Bottlenecks This functionality allows the U. making improvements on data infrastructure. more reliable power and long-distance power trades place unprecedented demands on the system. The development and deployment of a more robust. This conceptual design of the smart grid addresses five functionalities which should be part of the power system of tomorrow. The data would need to be managed through a fast simulation and modeling computational ability and presented in a visual form in order for system operators to respond and administer. create the backbone application of new technologies far into the future.
These functionalities will facilitate achievement of the following goals: • Physical and information assets that are protected from man-made and natural threats.g. "digital-grade" power needed by a growing number of critical electricity end-uses. • • • . including low-cost. one which involves services related to electricity (e.g.g. To enable this functionality will require wide-scale deployment of power electronic devices such as power electronic circuit breakers and flexible AC transmission technologies (FACTS). promoting development.. implementation. added billing information or real-time pricing). and use of clean distributed energy resources and efficient combined heat and power technologies. price-smart" electricity-related consumer and business services. and stimulating the development." Extremely reliable delivery of the high-quality. and use of energy efficient equipment and systems.What is the Smart Grid? 11 Enabling a Self-healing System Once the functionalities discussed above are in place.. and the third involves what are more generally thought of as communications services (e. home security or appliance monitoring). This enhancement creates three new areas of functionality: one which relates directly to electricity services (e. These technologies will then provide for integration with an advanced control architecture to enable a self-healing system. Minimized environmental and societal impact by improving use of the existing infrastructure. Enabling (Enhanced) Connectivity to Consumers The functionalities described above assume the integration of a communications system throughout much of the power system enhancing connectivity to the ultimate consumers. data services).. implementation. that stimulate the economy and offer consumers greater control over energy usage and expenses. Availability of a wide range of "always-on. then it is possible to consider controlling the system in real time. and a power delivery infrastructure that can be quickly restored in the event of attack or a disruption: a "selfhealing grid. high-value energy services.
as summarized in Figure 1-2. based on these seven mechanisms. increased economic growth rates. and (5) enhanced energy efficiency program measurement and verification capabilities. (3) enhanced demand response and load control. There are other smart grid improvements which were not part of this analysis. first-order estimates of CO2 emissions reductions impacts were quantified for two mechanisms not tied to energy savings: (1) facilitation of expanded integration of intermittent renewable resources and (2) facilitation of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) market penetration. As part of EPRI's Energy Efficiency Initiative. is estimated as 60 to 211 million metric tons of CO2 per year in 2030. in an effort to curb global climate change and its potentially deleterious implications for mankind. principally carbon dioxide (CO2). a first-order quantification of energy savings and carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions reduction impacts of a smart grid infrastructure was developed. GDP). (2) distribution voltage control. A smart grid has the potential to benefit the environment. In addition. First-order estimates of energy savings and CO2 emission reduction impacts were quantified for five applications enabled by a smart grid: (1) continuous commissioning for commercial buildings. Table 1-1 summarizes the energy savings potentials and corresponding values of avoided CO2 emissions for each of the seven selected .12 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Improved productivity growth rates. utilities and the nation as a whole in numerous ways. plus other dividends. utilities are struggling to address a new societal and existing or possible future regulatory obligation—mitigating emissions of greenhouse gases. The emissions reduction impact of a smart grid. (4) direct feedback on energy usage. IS THE SMART GRID A "GREEN GRID?" Today. and decreased electricity intensity (ratio of electricity use to gross domestic product. such as a reduction in losses in electricity used in electricity generation and reduced losses by improved area voltage control and other T&D system improvements. consumers. The benefits include the mechanisms for enhanced reliability and power quality as well as energy savings and carbon emission reductions discussed in this book.
the environmental value of a U. Low-end and high-end values are included to show the ranges of savings. smart grid is equivalent to converting 14 to 50 million cars into zero-emission vehicles each year.What is the Smart Grid? 13 Figure 1-2. . On this basis." June 2008). mechanisms in the target year of 2030.* *Based on an average mid-size sized car driven 12. All of the mechanisms combined have the potential to yield energy savings of 56-203 billion kWh and to reduce annual carbon emissions by 60-211 million metric tons (Tg) CO2.513 lbs CO2 per car.000 miles per year. or ~ 4.S. "The Green Grid.25 tons CO2 per car. 2002)." Figure 5: Average CO2 Emissions Rates by Vehicle Type. Summary of Potential Smart Grid Benefits (Source: EPRI Report 1016905. Average emissions from Climate Change: Measuring the Carbon Intensity of Sales and Profits. ~ 8.
there are a variety of architectures. "The Green Grid." June 2008).000 pilots of some kind are underway today with nearly 1. Unfortunately. technologies and configurations already proposed or under formation for what can be described as smart grids. Figure 1-3 details the summary of energy-savings and carbon-reduction mechanisms enabled by a smart grid. Some examples of smart grid visions are as follows: Capgemini's Vision (www. many of these are not very smart and are limited in scope. Such a complex machine with so many technology options at hand to improve its functionality is bound to facilitate a variety of broad definitions.14 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 1-1.000 of them over 10 years old. Smart Grid Energy Savings and Avoided CO2 Emissions Summary (2030) ((Source: EPRI Report 1016905.com/energy) Capgemini believes that in order to make meaningful progress toward addressing the current grid challenges and delivering on the future grid characteristics.capgemini. More than 7. As a result. ALTERNATIVE VIEWS OF A SMART GRID It is no surprise that there is no one definition of the smart grid. utilities should focus on four main activities: .
What is the Smart Grid? Figure 1-3. Summary of Energy-Savings and Carbon-Reduction Mechanisms Enabled by a Smart Grid (EPRI 1016905. 2008) 15 .
4. IBM believes that the smart grid will be manifested by a steady progression toward a "Participatory Network.900 energy consumers and nearly 100 industry executives across the globe. IBM's vision believes this includes: • Preparing for an environment in which customers are more active participants. and a stark departure from a decades-old value chain. . and consumer energy management tools. Capgemini believes that these activities fall into both real-time and non-real-time categories as follows: "Real-time functions include operational and monitoring activities like load balancing. Rebuilding the grid to support bi-directional power flow and transfer of power from substation to substation: This is to enable the information that is collected and analyzed to be acted on." IBM's Vision (www. detection of energized downed lines. maximization of customer satisfaction. Monitor/manage/act: In the operational world. distributed generation. strategic planning. 3. log or take action. evolving industry models." a technology ecosystem comprising a wide variety of intelligent network-connected devices.16 1. IBM believes that it reveals major changes that are underway including a more heterogeneous consumer base. Analysis/forecasting: The data that is gathered should be analyzed—for operational and business purposes.com/iibv) IBM's vision is taken from the consumer's perspective and is based on a survey of 1. data that comes from the grid hardware will trigger a predefined process that will inform. and regulatory reporting. Non-real-time functions include the integration of existing and new utility databases so operational data can be fused with financial and other data to support asset utilization maximization and life cycle management. The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Gather data: Data should be collected from many sources on the grid. 2. and high impedance faults and faults in underground cables.ibm.
clean generating technologies. network automation and analytics. They fund and manage research and development (R&D) dedicated to implementing the concepts of the IntelliGridSM. more cost-effective computing and open standards have become more prevalent. Technology costs have generally decreased as lower-cost communications.epri-intelligrid. Climate change concerns have invigorated research and capacity investments in small. The . sensors and distributed generation. from a technological perspective. and deciding which role(s) to play in the industry's evolving value chain. in the near term. manufactures and representatives of the public sector.) Partners are utilities. The frequency and extent of blackouts are driving consumers.What is the Smart Grid? • 17 Capitalizing on new sources of real-time customer and operational information. IntelliGridSM (www. They believe that these technologies respond to the following interests: • The combination of energy price increases and consumers' increased sense of responsibility for the impact of their energy usage on the environment. Better understanding and serving an increasingly heterogeneous customer base. • To make these improvements. The objective: The convergence of greater consumer choice and rapid advances in the communications. • • • IBM sees smart meters. politicians and regulators alike to demand assessment and upgrade of the industry's aging network infrastructure. computing and electronics industries is influencing a similar change in the power industry.com) A consortium was created by EPRI to help the energy industry pave the way to IntelliGridSM—the architecture of the smart grid of the future. and distributed generation driving the most industry changes. (See Chapter 6 for a more complete description. IBM believes that utilities will deploy advanced energy technologies such as smart metering.
18 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 1-4. Smart Grid Concept. EPRI Illustration (Source: EPRI IntelliGridSM Program). .
empowered by sensors. DOE's Electric Distribution Program addresses the critical technology area—distributed sensors. General Electric Vision (www. which is leading a national effort to help modernize and expand America's electric delivery system to ensure economic and national security.ctc. MGS is working on a framework that enables utilities. intelligence.S.What is the Smart Grid? 19 growing knowledge-based economy requires a digital power delivery system that links information technology with energy delivery. The Modern Grid Strategy (www. communication techniques. DOE's Electric Distribution Program operates the Electric Distribution Transformation (EDT) Program and the GridWiseFM Initiative.electricdistribution. control and information technologies to enable GridWiseTM operations of all distribution systems and components for interoperability and seamless integration.gepower.gov) The U.com) General Electric (GE) sees the smart grid "as a family of network control systems and asset-management tools. which defines technology pathways to achieving the Grid 2030 Vision. . The MGS is fostering the development of a common. both within the U.doe. modern power grid. communication. Department of Energy (DOE) National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) is the manager of the Modern Grid Strategy (MGS). smart controls. researchers and other stakeholders to form partnerships and overcome barriers.com) The Electric Distribution Program of DOE supports distribution grid modernization. and distributed energy resources—identified in the National Electric Delivery Technologies Roadmap. and associated standards are used throughout the electric grid to provide value and choices to electricity consumers. through development and use of advanced sensor.netl.S. GridWise™ (www. Department of Energy Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability (OE). The term GridWiseTM denotes the operating principle of a modernized electric infrastructure framework where open but secure system architecture. MGS also supports demonstrations of systems of key technologies that can serve as the foundation for an integrated. consumers. national vision among grid stakeholders. vendors.
For operations managers—GE anticipates a reduction in the frequency and impact of outages with improved real-time knowledge of grid status. easing systems integration and support. It also allows for a more timely response to outages. Smart homes that make savings practical and ease facets of everyday life." They envision "A grid that's smarter for all of us" which could experience improvements for utilities. regulators. and businesses. . Some major elements GE believes will be included are: • • • Distributed generation working seamlessly with current assets. For customer service (call center) functions—Calls can be anticipated when an outage has occurred. making systems more responsive to customers. control costs and strengthen reliability. Demand response that really knows demand and optimizes response. calls can be resolved faster. It's what the smart grid enables that makes the difference. • For utility executives—GE believes the potential for dramatic energy productivity gains could improve service.20 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response communication pathways and information tools. Accurate. • • • • GE believes that the smart grid doesn't look all that different from today's grid—on the surface. speeding power restoration. For chief information technology officers—GE sees the smart grid as based on open-standard software and communication protocols. For maintenance and engineering professionals- GE believes more can be done with less. allowing delivery of accurate information and a reduction of callbacks. queue times and staffing levels. instead of simply maintaining it. real-time and actionable knowledge of grid status enables a shift from time-based to needbased maintenance. Armed with answers. and focuses resources on improving service.
Seven work packages (WP) have been designed to tackle specific issues. and a distribution automation system controller incorporating dynamic voltage control. Several new technologies are being deployed in DV2010 including the use of smart devices to enable enhanced protection. accelerated protection and demonstration of a high-reliability network. loss reduction and asset optimization. the use of a local automation controller. Upgraded network operations Enhanced power quality and security Efficiency gains. there is a need to develop a market and regulatory environment that creates the right commercial drivers to encourage sustainable energy generation and use. so you need less and lose less. there are engineering problems created by embedding renewable energy sources into a distribution network. • • • • • WP1: System-Wide Reliability and Security WP2: Decentralized Operation and control WP3: Demand-side Participation WP4: Micro-Grids WP5: Foresight . It is a collaboration of six utilities started by WeEnergies to conduct research and development to advance technology for the distribution industry to achieve major reliability improvements.org. economic and social acceptability aspects. These problems need to be solved for the medium-term UK government targets for renewable energy and for the long-term trans-national aspirations for sustainable energy use and climate change. UK SuperGen Initiative (www. Each work package contains a mixture of engineering. The DV2010 projects include advanced feeder automation.supergen-networks. primary network reconfiguration. and second.What is the Smart Grid? • • • • Plug-in vehicles that give back to the grid. In this context.uk) The consortium faces two broad challenges over two timescales. First. medium term is 2010 to 2020 and long term is circa 2020 to 2050. 21 Distribution Vision 2010 (DV2010) DV2010 focuses on distribution reliability improvement.
increase reliability (SAIDI. power electronics that fundamentally increase reliability. combined heat and power (CHP) and renewable energy as essential assets. seeks to define and achieve the perfect power system. in so doing. commercial and residential applications. This smart modernization of electric energy supply and service would directly empower consumers and. the electric energy system includes all elements in the chain of technologies and processes for electricity production. This initiative identified the most important asset in resolving the growing electricity cost/quality dilemma and its negative reliability. In the context of this Initiative. this initiative. Integration of technologies and functionalities is the key to success by reducing costs. functionalities. SAIFI). which began in March 2005. technologies) to reduce cost. It assumes that some of the gains of the advanced distribution system designs can be measured. under all conditions. a consumer-focused electric energy system that never fails. controllability and functionality. They include the seamless convergence of electricity and telecommunications service. productivity and value implications as technology-based innovation that disrupts the status-quo. and high-power quality microgrids that utilize distributed generation. delivery and use across the broadest possible spectrum of industrial. The absolute quality of this system means that it meets. These innovation opportunities begin with the consumer. convenience and choice will be met. Robert Galvin believes that this will indeed result in the lowest cost system. This focus on the consumer interface also reflects the relatively intractable nature of the highly regulated bulk power infrastructure that . revitalize the electricity enterprise for the 21st century.22 • • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response WP6: System Evolution WP7: Outreach Hydro Quebec Automation Initiative Hydro Quebec's Automation Initiative is based on what they refer to as "advanced distribution system designs " and is intended to be implemented in a structured way (activities.galvinpower. every consumer's expectations for service confidence. That is. The Galvin Initiative (www.org) With the inspiration and sponsorship of Robert Galvin (former CEO of Motorola) and his family. and increase customer satisfaction. Hydro Quebec believes that utilities and customers must have a common vision of advanced distribution system designs through standards to reach cost reduction.
the fundamental limitations to quality perfection in today's centralized and highly integrated U. Refer to Chapter 4 for a more complete description of the Galvin Electricity Initiative. The four generic system configurations identified by this initiative are (1) device-level (portable) systems. This initiative defined a set of four generic electric energy system configurations that have the potential to achieve perfection. Their vision is: .S. it has identified a series of technology challenges intended to: • Build a vision for the long-term research program for the EDF group." It defines it as integrating distributed energy resources with dispersed intelligence and advanced automation. in a phased manner. which serve a highly mobile digital society. including interconnection with local power distribution systems. To accomplish this objective. • Help the decision-making process in providing strategic highlights. They also provide a variety of new avenues for engagement by entrepreneurial business innovators. Each candidate configuration reflects a distinct level of electric energy system independence/interconnection from the consumer perspective. electric power system. In so doing. • Maintain the right balance between short- and long-term activities. together with the corresponding innovation opportunities that are essential to their success.eu) The European Union has initiated a smart grid effort. European Union Smart Grid (www.smartgrids. • Offer a better visibility and understanding of their activities. and (4) integrated centralized systems.What is the Smart Grid? 23 now dominates U.S. which fully engage the nation's bulk power supply network. electric energy supply and service. Electricite de France (EDF) Power-Strada EDF proposes to "invent the smart grid. these configurations address. (3) distributed systems. which focus on modular facilities serving individual consumer premises and end-use devices. (2) building integrated systems. These configurations should be considered as a complementary series rather than as competing systems. which extend the focus to local independent microgrids.
24 • • • • • • • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response To overcome the limits on the development of distributed generation and storage. energy trading and load management are conducted including development of planning and design tools to ensure reliable and cost-effective integration of DG components in regional and local grids and creation of Internet-based information systems for improved communication. To provide accessibility for all the users to a liberalized market. Investigations on .dispower. members states and national regulators need to define the right incentives scheme applied both to network operators and consumers to promote the implementation of smart grids utilizing available technology and late-stage R&D products and applications. Assessments of impacts to consumers by s. It includes preparation of safety and quality standards in DG networks and investigations on quality improvements and requirements by decentralized inverters and generation systems. The European Union is undertaking various activities to overcome barriers to the development of European smart grids. Dispower Project (www. energy management and trading. This must be coupled with the development of a common market model and conditions to be applied to the electricity sector throughout the EU by national governments and regulators. To face the increased complexity of power system operation. The EU should provide directives. The European Union has initiated a cluster of seven research projects centered primarily on enabling the integration of distributed generation (especially renewables) into the European power system.org) The Dispower Project is an elaboration of strategies and concepts for grid stability and system control in distributed generation (DG) networks. To engage consumers interest. To enable demand-side participation. European standardization bodies must define common technical requirements supporting smart grids. To ensure interoperability and security of supply. Several of them are described in the following sections. To reduce the impact of environmental consequences of electricity production and delivery. They believe that a clear and stable regulatory framework stimulating the development of smart grids is needed.
isolation and islanded operation are part of the work scope. Objectives include improvement and adaptation of test facilities and performance of experiments for further development of DG components. CONCLUSION While no one definition of the smart grid prevails. It includes development and demonstration of control strategies that will ensure the operation and management of microgrids is able to meet the customer requirements and technical constraints (regarding voltage and frequency) and is delivering power in the most efficient.ntua.ece. The project managers intend to simulate and demonstrate microgrid operation on laboratory models. and successful dissemination and implementation of concepts and components for an improved integration of DG technologies in different European electrical network environments.What is the Smart Grid? 25 contract and tariff issues regarding energy trading and wheeling.gr) The MicroGrids Project is a study of the design and operation of microgrids so that increased penetration of renewable energies and other micro sources including fuel cells. reliable and economic way. as well as design and planning tools. reliability and economic benefits from their operation. they will deploy microgrids on actual distribution feeders operating in Greece. and ancillary services are part of the analysis. This involves determination of the economic and environmental benefits of the microgrid operation and proposal of systematic methods and tools to quantify these benefits and to propose appropriate regulatory measures. it can be concluded that the smart grid may more appropriately be named the .power. Finally. micro-turbines and CHP emissions will be achieved and CO2 emissions reduced. The definition of appropriate protection and grounding policies that will assure safety of operation and capability of fault detection. control systems.microgrids. MicroGrids Project (www. Portugal and France quantifying via simulation the environmental. as well as identification of the needs and development of telecommunication infrastructures and communication protocols required to operate such systems (this investigation will include consideration of the possibility of exploiting the power wires as physical links for communication purposes).
Some of these improvements advocate incremental change. . and improves the quality of life. But all collectively envision a system which improves the environment.© IBM 2007. June 2008. EPRI Report 1016905. Plugging in the Consumer: Innovating Utility Business Models for the Future. References The Green Grid." A variety of approaches are presented in this chapter—all of which have a common theme of improving the overall functionality of the power delivery system. enhances the value of electricity. Publication G510-7872-00.26 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response "smarter grid. some only focus on one element of automation.
therefore. One element of the smart grid that relates to the efficient production of electricity has to do with condition monitoring and assessment. theoretical models and comparable plant performance. practitioners and others interested in energy efficiency are questioning whether the scope of end-use energy efficiency should be broadened to electric uses in power delivery systems and in power plants.Chapter 2 Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery INTRODUCTION As interest in electric energy efficiency increases. A few plant operators have centralized data collection and monitoring. Each of these are directly related to an informed view of the smart grid. In condition monitoring and assessment. The objectives are to optimize performance and manage maintenance. The concept of the expanded use of sensor. these two aspects of efficiency are only briefly mentioned in any of the smart grid initiatives currently in play. Power delivery system improvements could include use of efficient transformers and better voltage and reactive power control. communications and 27 . sensors and communications are used to monitor plant performance and to correlate that performance to historic data. Interestingly. Efficiency advocates are questioning whether investments made within power delivery systems and power plants to reduce electricity demand may be as advantageous as those made in end-use efforts with consumers. Power plant improvements in electricity consumption could include methods to improve overall efficiency. Most plants have some form of condition monitoring. among others. increasing the heat rate (decreasing Btu input per kWh output) of the power plant. A number of power plant operators subscribe to commercial data services which enable comparisons of individual plant performers to a central database.
Pumping and fan applications consume a large portion of on-site energy and are. the smart grid concepts are the catalyzing element. Both pumps and fans are well suited for adjustable speed drives (ASDs) to regulate air and fluid flow and to operate at optimum efficiency. When less energy is consumed within the plant. heating. food service. but a few studies have indicated that typically 5 to 7% of electric energy produced in steam power plants (coal. generating capacity is released to sell to consumers without changing the rating of the . As such. communications and office equipment). air conditioning. POWER PLANT ELECTRICITY USE Electricity is used in power plants in several ways. Both pumps and fans must be regulated with throttling valves and dampers to respond to generator loading and climatic conditions. fans and conveyors. these are largely enabled by the smart grid. and even less in hydro power and wind. Each of these provide opportunities to apply cost-effective electric energy-efficient technologies to reduce overall electricity use in power production. Less is used in combustion turbine power plants. However. Other uses include information technology (computers. Again. and control. a key opportunity. Controlling motor drives and monitoring their condition requires sensors. ventilation. Much of that electricity use is in electric motor-driven fans and pumps. gas and nuclear) is used on-site to enable electricity generation. communications. through delivery to end use. but there are a number of other uses ranging from lighting to space conditioning and digital devices. building lighting. environmental treatment of waste streams. Again. This chapter focuses on the unique aspects of power production and delivery related to efficiency. The principal use is in powering motors which drive pumps. a truly smart grid will include extending this concept all the way from power production. domestic water heating. Running pumps and fans with adjustable speed drives yields substantial energy savings over regulating fluid or air flow with valves and dampers. the dominance of electricity use is in motors. biomass. Data are sketchy and limited. and select use of electric immersion heating to augment power production. therefore.28 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response computational ability is part of the smart grid concept.
the cost of power generated is reduced. In addition. the point of contention is around whether these efficiency modifications are considered to be "major" modifications. POWER PLANT LIGHTING Lighting has a high potential for technology improvement to enhance its functionality in power plants. plant owners are reluctant to open the entire plant operations to scrutiny for the sake of the on-site electricity savings. metal halide and other high-intensity discharge lighting. New metal halide systems could substantially improve lighting and reduce energy requirements. At present. As a result. Major stationary sources of air pollution and major modifications to major stationary sources are required by the Clean Air Act to obtain an air pollution permit before commencing construction. many older plants still use mercury or older metal halide lighting systems. The result is that improvements which would have resulted in efficiency improvements and emissions improvements are not aggressively pursued. this is not well defined. As such.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 29 generator. Offices. In existing plants where these actions may be considered. automation. However. . aesthetics. laboratories and control rooms in power plants largely tend to incorporate higher-efficiency fluorescent lighting. light quality. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are emerging in many places such as in exit signs and indicator panels. implementing various actions to reduce on-site electricity consumption in power plants is "included" in NSR applications in new plant construction or where plant upgrades are planned. The process is called new source review (NSR) and is required whether the major source or modification is planned for an area where the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) are exceeded (nonattainment areas) or an area where air quality is acceptable (attainment and unclassifiable areas). while the boiler house and turbine halls often employ high-pressure sodium. convenience and form factor. Potential areas for lighting improvement include energy efficiency. regulatory agencies have considered even "minor" changes in plant configurations to be major modifications. On occasion. longevity. This reduces total energy requirements and corresponding CO2 and other emissions. turbine or boiler.
converting 20 to 30% of electricity into light. *Lighting efficacy is the ratio of light output of the lamp in lumens to the input power in watts. while a two-lamp F32T8 fixture (i. The savings is attributable to the lower wattage lamps as well as the considerably more efficient ballast. . day lighting. the integration of controls is an extension of the smart grid. or even practically. Now T8 or even newer T5 electronic ballast systems are the standard for new construction and retrofits. possible. and the ability of the controls (if any) to adjust the light level as parameters such as occupancy. One example of a significant increase in efficiency in power plant offices is illustrated in the transition from T12 (1. Typical incandescent bulbs produce only 10 to 23 lumens per watt.5-inch diameter) fluorescent lamps with magnetic ballasts to T8 (1-inch diameter) fluorescent lamps with electronic ballasts. The overall efficiency of the system depends on the efficacy* of the light source (measured in lumens of light output per watt of input power). efficacy is a more meaningful measure of the lamp output than efficiency (which is the ratio of the useful energy delivered to the energy input). considerable effort has been focused on improving lighting efficiency. Again.30 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Lighting system efficiency is a function of several factors. Much of the artificial lighting in place today is considerably less efficient than theoretically. security and personal preference dictate..e. Efficiency is maximized as the performance of each of these factors is optimized.5-inch diameter. The efficiency improvement. which is an electricity savings of 28%. depending on the fixture is roughly 20 to 40% or even more. however. such as indirect lighting. Next generation T5 (5/8-inch diameter) fluorescent lamps continue to improve lighting efficiency and can replace conventional lamps in certain applications. Conventional incandescent lamps are a good example of this—roughly 95% of the electricity entering an incandescent lamp is rejected as heat. the effectiveness of the fixture in delivering the generated light to the area it is desired. and research continues. a two-lamp F34T12 fixture (i.. Conventional fluorescent lighting systems offer a substantial efficiency improvement over incandescent lamps. In the lighting industry. a fixture with two 1-inch diameter. 70 to 80% of the input energy is still rejected as heat. 32 W lamps) with electronic ballast requires only 59 W. Historically. 34 W lamps) with standard magnetic ballast requires 82 W. For example.e. a fixture with two 1. This transition began to occur in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
etc. will collectively act to improve overall lighting efficiency. which is an important step in lighting calculation and design.g..000 hours. For example. with greater life expectancies in lamps. Lamp lumen depreciation is a partial factor in determining the maintenance (light loss) factor. The change in lumen output is often referred to as lumen maintenance. Furthermore. Future lighting technologies may be able to achieve useful life expectancies of four million hours. Maintenance Issues Developers are continually striving to improve the longevity of lamps.. Newer technologies improve the lumen maintenance factor. Table 2-1 lists the lighting technologies which may be considered for application in power plants so as to reduce energy consumption. monitoring and indicator lighting. The illumination output from LEDs slowly diminishes over time. convenience. the inconvenience of frequent lamp changes precluded lighting in certain applications.). However. Lighting technologies of particular interest to applications in power plants must exhibit improvements in one or more of the attributes required to meet evolving plant operator needs and expectations (e. light quality. may start to outweigh the maintenance and cost issues that were formerly a barrier. improved outside plant area lighting. etc. a typical fluorescent lamp's lifetime is 8.g. albeit at a reduced light level. *Useful life refers to the life the lamp operates at an acceptable light level. Previously. for an indefinite amount of time. efficiency. . there will likely be an increase in the number of applications employing lighting. coupled with lover energy requirements. while LEDs recently launched have a useful life* of 50. longevity.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 31 Increased penetration of high-efficiency lighting systems that combine efficacious light sources with fixtures that effectively direct light where it is desired. automation. Lamps also suffer from creeping old age—the longer the lamp burns. aesthetics. coupled with automated controls to dim or turn the lighting on and off as needed. The end of an LED's useful life occurs when it no longer provides adequate illumination for the task.000 hours or more—a six-fold increase in comparison to the fluorescent lamp. however. the LED will continue to operate. the benefit of illumination in newer applications (e. the fewer lumens per watt it produces.). form factor.
humidifiers. pumps and emerging devices such as microwave water heaters. electricity runs electric resistance water heaters. In space conditioning. Spaces that are either too hot or too cold make it more difficult for individuals to carry out tasks. the primary function is to heat. When properly designed. heat pump water heaters.32 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 2-1. Domestic water heating is also essential for the comfort and well-being of workers. pumps. Such environments can also lead to adverse health effects in occupants. food preparation and in laboratories. laundry. List of Lighting Technologies Applicable for Power Plant Energy Efficiency Improvement ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— POWER PLANT SPACE CONDITIONING AND DOMESTIC WATER HEATING High-Pressure Sodium Highintensity Discharge Lamps T-5 Fluorescent Lamps Metal Halide High-intensity Discharge Lamps Induction Lamps Multi-photon Emitting Phosphor Fluorescent Lighting Space conditioning and domestic water heating are other two technology application areas which use considerable electricity in power plants. air conditioners. Electricity also powers the various controls used to operate space-conditioning equipment. chillers. humidify and provide air mixing and ventilating. dehumidify. electricity drives devices such as fans. Hot water is used for a variety of daily functions. Electricity is used in a variety of ways in space conditioning and domestic water heating (Smith. 2008). The majority of space-conditioning electricity use in power plants is attributed to cool- . space-conditioning systems afford the worker a healthy environment that enables productivity and a sense of well-being. cool. To this end. including bathing. In water heating. Power plant space-conditioning systems may implement packaged roof-top or ground-mounted units. Workers in offices and laboratories require space conditioning to create comfortable environments in which to work. or a central plant. cooling towers. resistance heaters. dehumidifiers. heat pumps and electric boilers. et al.
Great strides have been made in the last few decades to improve the efficiency of space conditioning and water heating equipment. 2001. Heat pumps can also be used for water heating and in integrated systems that combine water heating and space conditioning. in the 65.3 (Smith. as the greater efficiency is achieved with larger heat exchange surface.8 to 9. These systems store hot water in a tank until it is needed.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 33 ing equipment rather than heating equipment. HSPF values for commercially available heat pumps are 6. each rated at 2 to 6 kW depending on tank size. since they account for the majority of electricity use in these spaces. absorption chillers or central chiller plants are used. Newer systems generate hot water on demand. For example. Improvements in the efficiency of space cooling systems have a large impact on electricity use in power plants with significant office and laboratory space.S. Larger commercial-scale air-conditioning systems are often rated with energy-efficiency ratio (EER) and integrated part-load value (IPLV) parameters. more efficient motors. For very large office buildings associated with power plants. These are used for cooling approximately two-thirds of the air-conditioned spaces in U. Though the volume of space that is mechanically cooled is on the rise. and so on. direct-expansion systems. power plants. even though the current federal standard is 10. The heating performance of a heat pump is measured by the heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF).. which is equal to the number Btus of heat added per watt-hour of electricity input. Much of the progress in space cooling efficiency is due to federal standards that dictate the minimum efficiency of new air-conditioning systems. 2008). Manufacturers sell systems with a broad range of efficiencies. Table 2-2 lists the minimum federal standards for largerscale units (>65. corresponding increases in electricity consumption have been tempered by efficiency improvements in air-conditioning systems and improvement in building thermal integrity. either single-package systems or split systems.000 Btu per hour capacity range. The most common space conditioning systems for power plants are of the unitary type. et al. The most notable advancements have been in space cooling equipment—largely in vapor compression cooling. it is possible to buy units with an EER as high as 12. Units with high EERs are typically more expensive.0 and higher for the most efficient .000 to 135. Conventional electric water heating systems generally have one or two immersion heaters.000 Btu per hour) as of October 29.5. One of the most efficient space-conditioning devices is the heat pump.
The compressor maintains a pressure difference between the evaporator and condenser.34 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— systems.000 9. the minimum SEER values have been increased from 10.3 Equipment Size (Btu/hour) EER IPLV Table 2-2. The refrigerant vapor then leaves the evaporator and flows to the compressor. substantial efficiency improvements are possible by replacing older equipment. In addition. In the compressor.8 to a new minimum value of 7.0 to 13. boils.2 9.000 to <240. The vapor compression refrigeration cycle expands.000 9.7 135. First. Values of 10.5 9. the vapor releases the heat it absorbed in the evaporator and the heat added by the compressor. Finally. Chillers are used in central space-conditioning systems to generate cooling and then typically distribute the cooling with chilled water to air-handling or fan-coil units.0 to 14. Standards for Commercial-scale Air-conditioning Systems. high-temperature vapor and low-pressure. The cooling performance of heat pumps is measured with the SEER value (as is used for air conditioners).000 10. This is accomplished either via a water-cooled or an air-cooled condenser. in the condenser.000 to <760.4 240. the evaporator coils absorb heat from the building's chilled water loop that runs through the evaporator. Second. Many existing older units have SEERs of 6 to 7. and it becomes a liquid again.000 and larger 9. Therefore.000 to <135. the liquid refrigerant flows from the condenser to the expansion valve. 2001 . and the refrigerant flows between high-pressure.8. low-temperature liquid. and re-condenses the refrigerant. the pressure and the temperature of the vapor increase before the vapor can be condensed by relatively warm water or air. New federal standards took effect in 2006 which raised the HSPF for heat pumps from the 1992 minimum value of 6.5 and higher are typical for the most efficient systems. Chillers are essentially packaged vapor compression systems. 760. The refrigeration system is closed. which reduces the liquid pressure before it enters the evaporator. or roughly half the new minimum requirement. compresses.0 (same as for air conditioners). This heat causes the liquid to expand and become a vapor.7 65.
5 to 2. Newer systems produce hot water on demand. the load on the chiller is variable. Cooling towers have the advantage of rejecting heat to a lower temperature heat sink because the water approaches the ambient wet-bulb temperature while air-cooled units are limited to the dry-bulb temperature.7 to 0. and 1. improvements in chiller efficiency can have a large impact of electricity use.3 kW or more per ton of cooling.85 for oil units. In full-load applications. which are more common. The efficiency of water heaters is measured with a quantity called the energy factor (EF). air-cooled chillers require about 1 to 1.8 for natural gas units. Chiller efficiency is specified in units of kW per ton of cooling.5 to 0. air-cooled chillers have a higher condensing temperature. 2005). They can also be desirable in areas of the country where water is scarce and/or water and water treatment costs are high since they do not depend on water for cooling. which lowers the efficiency of the chiller. baseline chillers). For part-load applications. Building Infiltration A major cause of energy loss in space conditioning is due to air entering or leaving a conditioned space (Global Energy Partners.g. As a result.7 to 9. 0. 2008). Higher EF values equate to more efficient water heaters. and use of the part-load efficiency is a more meaningful measure of performance. Therefore. eliminating the storage tank and its associated losses.. In full-load applications. It is normally quoted based on the loading application—either full-load or part-load.5 for electric resistance heaters. the load on the chiller is high and relatively constant (e.9 kW per ton. et al. Typical EF values range from about 0. Some chillers use air-cooled condensers.. The choice of both the compressor and the condenser affects the overall efficiency of the chiller. The heat loss is proportional to the temperature difference between the tank and its surroundings. . and the full-load efficiency is used to measure performance.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 35 Chillers are often the largest single user of electricity in a large office space-conditioning system.4 to 0. Air-cooled condensers are sometimes used because they require much less maintenance than cooling towers and have lower installation costs. Since there are no flame or stack losses in electric units.0 for heat pump water heaters (Smith. while water-cooled chillers usually require between 0. but most large units operate with evaporative cooling towers. the major factor affecting the efficiency of electric water heaters is the standby loss incurred through the tank walls and from piping. 0.
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). natural. Standards vary. and unintentional air transfer toward the outside is referred to as exfiltration. (1995 was the last year than CFC refrigerants could be legally manufactured in . however. leaky duct work. There are often hot spots and cold spots. infiltration is often used to imply air leakage both into and out of a conditioned space. Caution must be exercised to provide adequate ventilation. foam insulation. and holes drilled in framing members for plumbing. Tight spaces often require mechanical ventilation to ensure good air quality. However. Infiltration results from temperature and pressure differences between the inside and outside of a conditioned space caused by wind. or adjacent to the conditioned space). traditional space-cooling technologies rely on vapor compression cycles that use ozone-depleting refrigerants. depending on the type of occupancy. Studies show employees find that onethird to one-half of office buildings are too cold or too warm (Kempton. et al. To combat infiltration and reduce energy losses from heating and cooling systems. Occupants find themselves dressing for winter during the summer to prevent being too cold from an over-active cooling system. Major sources of air leakage are plenum bypasses (paths within walls that connect conditioned spaces with unconditioned spaces above. floors and so on.36 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Unintentional air transfer toward the inside is referred to as infiltration. For example." The temperatures are also variable throughout a given building. windows. 1992). These refrigerants are being phased out. electrical and HVAC equipment. In addition. caulking. Air can infiltrate through numerous cracks and spaces created during building construction. doors and gaps between ceilings. In a poorly "sealed" building. or taking off layers of clothing during the winter because the heating system seems to be running "full blast. ducts. Complaints about the temperature from occupants of office spaces in plants are all too common. humidity is typically not controlled effectively. tapes and other seals can be used. convection and other forces. such as those associated with electrical outlets. window and door frames. Sealing ducts in the building is also important to prevent the escape of heated or cooled air. wraps.. Environmental pressures are changing the form of space conditioning and water heating devices. nor is the level of indoor air contaminants. walls. and this is the terminology used here. pipes. infiltration of cold or hot air will increase heating or cooling energy use.
ASDs increase plant availability and flexibility through improved process control and reduce emissions and maintenance costs.. In gas turbine power plants. . circulation water pumps as well as forced draft (FD) and induced draft (ID) fans. boiler heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) feedwater pumps and cooling water pumps.) The Kyoto Protocol is driving the adoption of environmentally friendly space-cooling technologies in several countries around the world. Table 2-3 lists the technologies that should be considered when assessing electric energy improvements for conditioned spaces in power plants. Electricity is an efficient source of energy that is very clean at the point of use. MOTORS Processes driven by electric motors typically consume 80% of the electricity used in electricity production. cooling water. magnetic refrigeration and thermotunneling). It can be used to drive heat pumps for space conditioning and for domestic water heating. Implementing electric adjustable speed drives (ASDs) on motors in power plants improves the heat rate by increasing the efficiency of these processes. most notably in Japan and Scandinavia. is required.g. a continuous control of the processes and equipment such as centrifugal fans and pumps. As the demand for electrical energy varies. they can also be used for gas turbine (GT) starters. Space-heating and water-heating systems that rely on the combustion of fossil fuels are also being replaced by cleaner alternatives. Processes driven by pumps or fans are usually controlled mechanically with inlet guide vanes. throttling valves or hydraulic couplings. It can also be applied to novel heating devices such as microwave water heaters. Due to these varying conditions. In the future. drives for gas booster compressors. HCFC refrigerants will be produced until 2030. the required flow of a fan or a pump varies due to changes in ambient conditions or fuel properties. ASDs can be used in power plants for boiler feedwater. space-cooling systems will increasingly rely on environmentally friendly "natural" refrigerants (one possible alternative is CO2) or they may use entirely new space-cooling technologies (e.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 37 most of the industrialized world.
38 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 2-3. List of Space Conditioning and Domestic Water Heating Technologies .
the energy bill can be reduced by as much as 60%. 12-pulse output configuration.ABB. A small reduction in speed correlates to a large reduction in the energy consumption. three U. With electric adjustable speed drives. The modified LCI system has the simplicity afforded by a rectifier and inverter using the same components. The modified LCI inverter.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 39 The motors are driven at a fixed speed making it practically impossible to achieve the optimal process efficiency over a control range. according to ABB (www. A pump or a fan running at half speed consumes one-eighth of the energy compared to one running at full speed. Since pumps and fans typically run at partial mechanical load. This saves energy. and can be used in a full regenerative braking mode. designed technologies have survived the rigors of competition. The DC link diverter circuit provides for inverter commutation when the output filter capacitor can no longer provide excitation to the induction motor to allow LCI operations.com). The current-source system has been shown to have a number of excellent features. by employing adjustable speed drives (inverter technologies) on centrifugal pumps and fans instead of throttling or using inlet guide vanes. They are as follows: • • • Current-source inverter Modified load commutated inverter (modified LCI) Current-source gate turn-off thyristor-pulse-width modulated (GTO-PWM) Of these three. This system has been packaged with water cooling of the power electronics to sim- . substantial energy savings can be achieved by controlling motor speed with adjustable speed drives. another form of current-source technology. has provided an economic ASD system that has shown the power production industry that it can reduce fuel costs in many motor applications with electronic speed control. decreases CO2 and other emissions from electricity production and minimizes operating costs. For example. changing the mechanical output of the system is achieved by changing the motor speed.S. it has no output filter capacitor requirement. It has good harmonic control when used in a 12-pulse input. the latter two are still being successfully sold for large motors (2000 HP and larger). Although a number of ASD technologies have been found to exist commercially for large motors.
1990). During this time. rapid advances had been made in the technology of ASDs for large induction motors. Among the lessons learned in this work were the following: . Water cooling is important for many power plant applications where the air is contaminated with coal or ash dust. Current and voltage wave shapes were recorded and means were established to determine ASD efficiency. Power measurements were made to verify power savings and economics. Vector control has also been introduced to allow separation of motor flux control and motor current control to allow the control of torque separately from voltage. These tests occurred over a five-year period. thus eliminating the control valve or inlet vanes and the power losses associated with these devices. The principal gains arose from new schemes for commutating the inverter. Several ASD cooling systems and enclosures were evaluated in the course of the test program. In the period of the field tests. ranging from 600 HP to 9000 HP. EPRI DEMONSTRATIONS EPRI has conducted research programs to study the application of high-power adjustable speed drives (ASDs) to auxiliary motors of electric generating stations (EPRI CU-9614. PWM stands for pulse-width modulated—a technique for creating low harmonic content AC waveforms. Four utilities participated in field tests of these large ASDs on boiler feed pumps and forced draft fans.40 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response plify the overall cooling system. Harmonics were measured at the input and output of the ASD. Motor vibrations were measured over the speed range. GTO stands for gate turn-off thyristors. These field test projects use the existing power plant squirrel cage induction motors. The power electronics equipment additions allowed control of feedwater flow or air flow directly by motor speed. modified load-commutated inverters and the current-source GTO-PWM inverters were installed in over 200 installations nationwide. These field tests yielded a wealth on the application of this technology to large power plant induction motors. The test program observed the performance of the equipment operating with and without ASD control.
Several improvements in ASDs that have developed directly from operating experience have contributed to improved overall system reliability: — An input transformer is now used on all large ASD installations to control common-mode voltage. a preferred configuration for a power plant-specific ASD has evolved.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery • • 41 The potential for operating cost savings by controlling process flow with motor speed is real. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system for clean power to the ASD control system to eliminate adverse effects from voltage spikes. and interruptions on ASD performance. Reliability of large ASDs is not an issue. dusty environment of power plants. dips. This configuration has the following features: • • Input transformer to control input harmonics and line-to-ground voltage at the motor. — Available control systems have proven to provide trouble-free service. like thyristors and GTOs. — Shaft torsional resonance caused by interaction of the ASD output capacitor filter and the motor winding is now understood and can be controlled either by eliminating harmful output harmonics with the GTO-PWM ASD or a 12-pulse inverter or by separating the electrical and mechanical resonance frequencies with an output reactor. — Power electronic devices. • • • The preferred configuration for a large power plant induction motor ASD is shown in Figure 2-1. Water-cooled thyristors to simplify cooling of the ASD in the often hot. Ground between inverter and motor to control line-to-ground voltage at the motor used in combination with input transformer. have proven to be robust and reliable when correctly applied. Utilizing the information gained from these tests. . GTO thyristor inverter to control harmonics to the motor in order to eliminate shaft torsional resonance.
Grounding of ASD system to stabilize DC link voltage and eliminate motor over-voltage.42 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 2-1. Different housings. . different rectifier arrangements. and preferred ASD application procedures have been identified. the application of adjustable speed drive to large induction motors is still a relatively new technology. Utility-specific ASD The lessons learned in EPRI field test installations and from several other recent utility installations of induction motor ASDs have contributed to a concept for a second-generation ASD specifically for power plants. However. Features of the power plant-specific ASD are as follows: • • Use of input transformer for 12-pulse or 18-pulse converter. different cooling systems. Preferred Configuration for Large Power Plant ASD There have been remarkable advances in power electronics control of large induction motors in power plant applications. and different inverter technologies have been analyzed.
feeders incorporate the necessary technologies to tightly control voltage in this fashion. EFFICIENCY IN POWER DELIVERY The improvement in the power delivery system (electric transmission and distribution) through the use of smart grid technologies can provide significant opportunities to improve energy efficiency in the electric power value chain. data from many utilities clearly prove that tighter voltage control reduces energy consumption. Control of or elimination of resonance between output filter and motor. only 7.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery • • • 43 Built-in design tolerance for bus voltage swings. This concept is called conservation voltage reduction (CVR). a number of utilities have applied the concept of conservation voltage reduction (CVR) to control distribution voltage and reduce end-use energy consumption without adverse effects. At the same time. the U. Despite considerable utility research on this subject in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result. On the distribution system. across all sectors of the economy. On the customer side of the meter.S. the opportunities for improving energy efficiency are many and varied. Water-cooled thyristors for simplified and more effective cooling.5% of U. evidence suggests that utilities may be able to achieve dramatic energy and demand savings by operating distribution feeders at the lower end of acceptable service ranges through smart grid applications.S. The transmission and distribution system is responsible for 7% of electricity losses. CONSERVATION VOLTAGE REDUCTION On the distribution system. By some estimates. . few recent studies have examined this potential and the means to attain it. DOE estimates that these standards will reduce transformer losses and operating costs by 9 to 26%. spikes and interruptions. Department of Energy (DOE) recently issued a final rule (October 2007) that mandates efficiency standards for various types of distribution transformers beginning in 2010.
Distribution system efficiency (DSE) refers to a range of electric utility measures designed to modify the voltage delivered to end-use customers to a range lower than or tighter than the ANSI standard C84. meaning that the CVR factor will be greater than 1. based on equal weighting of 13 utility CVR factors. The CVR factor differs from utility to utility and circuit to circuit based on each circuit's unique load characteristics.0. lowering voltage decreases load. and most appliances are designed to operate at no less than 110 V of delivered voltage. Empirical data from utilities across the United States suggests that CVR factors range from 0. Utilities generally regard 114 V as the lowest acceptable service voltage to customers under normal conditions.S. One key characteristic that determines the effectiveness of voltage regulation for load reduction is the amount of resistive versus reactive load in a given circuit. In general. the governing U. power use still varies directly with the voltage for resistive loads. 120-V nominal service voltage (as measured at the customer meter). resistive loads respond directly with voltage changes—lower voltages result in reduced power consumption. act as resistors and predominantly draw real power. ." which is defined as the percentage reduction in power resulting from a 1% reduction in voltage. which specifies a preferred range of +/– 5%.8). in aggregate. Despite this phenomenon. Utilities tend to maintain the average voltage above 120 V to provide a larger safety margin during periods of unusually high loads. power use in an individual resistive load is proportional to the square of the voltage.-based.0 as long as the load is on. standard is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard C84. over a large number of loads by keeping heater elements "on" for longer periods to maintain temperatures. may even slightly exceed 1. "CVR Factor. In fact.1.S. or 114-126 V. and in some cases. Resistive loads.44 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response For a typical U. and thereby saves energy. as well as to maximize revenue from electricity sales. As a result.4 to 1. such as electric resistance space and water heaters and incandescent lamps. is the metric most often used to gauge the effectiveness of voltage reduction as a load reduction or energy savings tool. since a 4-volt decrease is typically assumed from the customer meter to the plug.1.0. However. EPRI recently completed a calculation of the mean CVR factor (0. automatic controls on resistive loads such as space and water heaters usually reduce this impact.
A more common practice is use of voltage reduction as an operational strategy related to the "operating reserve margin. typically containing significant inductance (also known as inductive loads). therefore. Some utility engineers believe that certain loads draw more current at lower voltage levels and that. Apart from some regional pockets of activity. Reducing voltages to these loads does not always linearly reduce power consumption and can even have the opposite effect. which draw both real and inductive-reactive power. especially if customer equipment voltages fall below industry guidelines. The most fundamental barrier to the consideration and adoption of voltage reduction for energy conservation objectives is technical skepticism over the link between voltage reduction and load reduction." This allows utilities to reduce voltage by 5% during critical peak periods (CPP) while remaining within preferred voltage standards. while this inverse relationship may hold true for certain types of loads.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 45 Figure 2-2. utilities have not embraced voltage reduction as a means of energy conservation. This effect is most pronounced for industrial customers with large induction motor loads. However. (Global Energy Partners. lower voltage does not necessarily result in reduced loads. 2005) Reactive loads. and compressors. particularly for those that include adjustable speed drive mechanisms. include motors. data from many utilities clearly prove that most loads do consume less power at lower . pumps.1 Preferred Service Voltage Standard for 120-V Systems. Distribution System Efficiency (DSE) in the Context of the ANSI C84.
if lower voltages result in perceptibly dimmer lights. Utilities also note that voltage regulation reduces power consumption. CVR promises to deliver energy more efficiently to end users. for example. which could cause life support and radiology equipment to fail. For example. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY Developments in transformer technology and construction can also improve the efficiency of power distribution.46 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response voltages within acceptable operating ranges. Another cause for the utilities' concern is the increased risk of customer complaints stemming from lower voltage. Utilities cite several other reasons for skepticism about the potential effectiveness of voltage reduction. Utilities also regard their service territories and load characteristics as unique and tend not to share information about distribution voltage practices. Electronic devices such as computers and certain medical equipment are very sensitive even to minor voltage drops. Long feeder lines present another problem for utilities serving rural areas. negating the expected energy savings. In order to reduce these complaints. where occasional voltage drops below 114 V result in increased customer complaints. customers might simply switch to higher wattage bulbs. Provided that it can overcome its several obstacles. which poses an economic barrier for the companies. many utilities plan to reduce voltages only during system emergencies or for just a few peak days during the year. it is hard-pressed to justify the economics of more stringent voltage regulation. Because most of the United States is not presently capacityconstrained. A "take-back effect" hypothesizes that voltage reductions will be only temporary because customers will adjust their usage based on perceived changes to the effect on end-use. Even short feeder lines where customers have long secondary feeders result in large perceived voltage drops. If a utility does not face peak capacity constraints or is unable to re-sell capacity on the wholesale market. Three classes of single-phase and three-phase transformers are in common use on today's . utilities need to invest in additional equipment such as capacitors or rework secondary systems to shorten the secondary conductors.
with losses of only about 0. power distribution can exceed 3%. Liquid-filled transformers are the most efficient. 2005). Winding loss is a function of the resistance of the winding material—copper or aluminum—and varies with the load.S. Conventional transformers use aluminum winding and are designed to operate at .S. Winding losses occur when supplying power to a connected load. and liquid-immersed transformers for inputs of up to 2. due to a higher first cost than conventional transformers.S. and China.S. dry-type transformers for inputs less than or equal to 600 volts. low-voltage. Core losses result from the magnetizing and de-magnetizing of the transformer core during normal operation. 2002).500 kVA. dry-type transformers are rated at 35% of full load. India. Following the standard U. but occur whenever the core is energized (Fetters. or Europe. Amorphous core transformers have not been widely adopted in the U. test procedure TP-1 adopted by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) in 1996. and the other two transformer types are rated at 50% of full load.500 volts. they do not vary with load. Not all transformer classes exhibit the same levels of losses. Environmental Protection Agency's Energy Star unit estimates that about 61 billion kWh/year of that power loss could be saved by using higher efficiency transformers (Global Energy Partners.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 47 distribution systems: low-voltage. However. The U. even a small amount of loss multiplied by the more than 25 million installed distribution transformers accounts for the largest single point of energy loss on power distribution systems. Aggregate transformer losses in U. Furthermore. the price differential is declining as silicon steel prices increase. demand is increasing rapidly in countries such as Japan. dry-type transformers for inputs of 601-34. Transformer efficiency is rated as a percentage when tested at a specified load. Transformer Core and Winding Losses Transformer losses consist of two types: core (or "no-load") losses and winding losses (also called "coil" or "load" losses). Amorphous core transformers can reduce these core losses by as much as 80% compared with conventional materials (see Figure 2-3). or 140 billion kWh/ year. medium-voltage. while medium-size dry-type transformer losses total about 5% and small dry-type unit losses equal about 2%. While transformers are generally very efficient.25%.
reducing the size of the core. the associated core losses. In most cases. dry-type distribution transformers. 2007. Newer high-efficiency transformers use copper winding. DOE also concludes that the economic impacts on utilities of the new efficiency standards are positive. Source: Metglas. Department of Energy (DOE) issued a final rule governing distribution transformer efficiency. The standards apply to liquid-immersed and medium-voltage. the standards range between TSL-4 (minimum lifecycle cost) and TSL-5 (maximum energy savings with no change in lifecycle cost) (see Figure 2-4) (Federal Register. regardless of which core material is used. temperatures up to 150°C/270°F above ambient. 2007). and the standards it mandates will be applicable beginning on January 1.48 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 2-3. overall transformer efficiency is lowest under light load. Hence. The effective date of the new rule is November 13. and highest at rated load. The final rule notes that these levels are achievable using existing designs of distribution transformers. 2010. the U. These new mandatory efficiency levels range higher than existing NEMA TP-1 standards (represented in the rulemaking process as TSL-1). Transformer Efficiency with Amorphous Metal Core Compared with Conventional Steel Core.S. 2007. and the operating temperatures to 80°C or 115°C (145°F to 207°F) above ambient. It points out in the final rule that . New Transformer Efficiency Standards On October 12.
the initial costs for medium-voltage. but that operating costs (and electrical losses) will decrease by 15 to 23%." Advanced Transformer Technology The intelligent universal transformer (IUT). Existing NEMA standards are represented by TSL1 on this graph. DOE concludes that the standards are "technologically feasible and economically justified. 2007). The potential efficiencies of amorphous core transformers are at the high end of achievable efficiencies. which is equivalent to 80% of the emissions of all light vehicles in the U. This energy savings will decrease CO2 emissions by about 238 million tons. is an advanced power electronic system concept that would entirely replace conventional distribution transformers. while new DOE transformer efficiency standards range between TSL2—TSL3 and TSL4—TSL5 for transformers of varying voltages.S. but higher efficiency off-peak. and will result in significant energy savings (Federal Register. for one year.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 49 Figure 2-4. DOE projects that the standards will save about 2. but the corresponding losses and operating costs will decrease by 9 to 26%. They are expected to perform with less total loss (higher overall efficiency) over a daily load cycle. dry-type transformers will rise by 3 to 13%.74 quads of energy from 2010-2038. IUTs have a flat efficiency characteristic with a somewhat lower efficiency peak. currently in the very early stages of development. which is equivalent to the energy that 27 million homes consume in one year. initial costs of liquid-immersed transformers will rise by 6 to 12%. Hence. . Similarly. On a national level.
IUTs also eliminate secondary power faults. the device would eliminate power quality problems and convert loads to sinusoidal and unity power factor. As such. Component costs for IUTs are steadily falling. An IUT is a solid-state transformer. similar to the power supply in a desktop computer. reliability.50 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response The IUT would also provide numerous system operating benefits and added functionality relative to conventional transformers. and communication and control capabilities are put in place to operate the system. the IUT contains none of the hazardous liquid dielectrics found in conventional transformers. ADA is concerned with complete automation of all the controllable equipment and functions in the distribution system to improve strategic system operation. output ports for dc power and alternative ac frequencies. compared with components in standard transformers. and use optional functions (prioritized by sponsors) such as voltage regulation. At the same time. . The result is added functionality and improved performance. relative to today's system operations. as opposed to simple incremental improvements to DA. and interface with distributed generation. which are steadily rising in price. both in new installations and to replace aging units. avoiding the hazards and costs of spills. In total. Advanced Distribution Automation (ADA) The IUT is one component in a broader strategy called advanced distribution automation (ADA). IUTs can replace conventional distribution transformers. IUTs can replace larger inventory requirements of many conventional transformers at different rating levels. and have very low no-load losses. supply DC offset loads. Because the modules of IUT systems can be configured for several rating levels. with active development and testing. which would enhance the efficiency of the entire distribution grid. Utilities can use IUTs as distribution system monitoring nodes to support system operations and advanced automation. models could be available within only a few years. The various distribution system components are made interoperable in ADA. ADA will be a revolutionary change to distribution system infrastructure. While IUTs currently exist only in the laboratory. configuring to supply three-phase power from a single-phase circuit. Traditional DA enables automated control of basic distribution circuit switching functions. ADA is distinct from traditional distribution automation (DA). and cost.
October 12.Electric Energy Efficiency in Power Production & Delivery 51 While there are numerous areas where R&D advances are needed to realize ADA. report number E05-139. Global Energy Partners. April 23. Program Manager. Vol. reduce emissions from power production. Final Rule. Integration of smart metering concepts that would enable consumers and utilities to maximize the benefits of night-time recharging of plug-in electric vehicles. and improve reliability in the frontend of the electricity value chain. May 18. communications and computational ability can be effectively used to reduce energy consumption. Development of advanced tools to improve construction. 197. LLC. 2007. Concepts of functionality employing sensors. EPRI Report CU-6914. John L. Samotyj. Fetters. troubleshooting and repair. References Retrofitting Utility Power Plant Motors for Adjustable Speed: Field Test Program.g. 2005. and control systems. Market Progress Evaluation Report. 2002. sensor and monitoring systems. electronic/electrical technology development such as intelligent electronic devices (e. No. 58189. CONCLUSION The smart grid as a concept must extend from power production through delivery to end-use. Federal Register. Additional areas where significant development is required to achieve the objectives and the vision of ADA include: • • • • Development of an integrated distribution system with storage and distributed generation. 1. optimized radial and networked configurations). 10 CFR Part 431.. . 72. M. Development and demonstration of a five-wire distribution system..e. open and standardized communication architecture. five key areas include (Federal Register. Transformer Efficiency.. 2007): system topologies (i. Distribution Efficiency Initiative. the IUT).J. December 1990. Energy Conservation Program for Commercial Equipment: Distribution Transformers Energy Conservation Standards. Electric Power Research Institute. No.
Lafayette. "Introduction." in CRC Handbook of Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy.52 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Smith. CA: 2005. Parmenter. vol. Goswami. and L. "Electrical Energy Management in Buildings.B.Y. W. 171-176. Kempton. C. LLC. edited by F. no. and K." Energy and Buildings. Kreith and D. 18.E.. 1285-4-04. pp. Indoor Environmental Quality in Energy Efficient Homes: Marketing Tools for Utility Representatives. . Global Energy Partners. Lutzenhiser. 3 (1992). 2008.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY Demand-side planning includes many load-shape-change activities including energy storage.Chapter 3 Electric End-use Energy Efficiency DEFINING ELECTRIC END-USE ENERGY EFFICIENCY A debate has raged for decades in the electric utility industry. Increasing costs. controllable sources of capacity and energy such as long-term contracts or power plants. Demand-side planning involves those utility activities designed to influence customer use of electricity in ways that will produce desired changes in the utility's load shape. centering on the issue of electric end-use energy efficiency as an alternative to traditional supply sources and to using fossil fuels at the point of end use. changes in the pattern and magnitude of a utility's load. In particular. Energy efficiency as an alternative to traditional supply sources is no longer a debatable issue in the electric utility industry. Energy efficiency involves a deliberate effort on behalf of the utility to promote change in the load shape (amount or pattern) by the customer through such hardwarerelated actions as improved building-thermal integrity coupled with increased appliance efficiencies through such non-hardware-related actions as altered consumer utilization patterns. it is the focus on the smart grid that enables this revival of interest. and concerns about global warming have caused utility managers to consider demand-side activities. The utility industry is deeply rooted in the need for traditional. the use of efficient electric end-use applications to displace fossil fuels has again surfaced as an essential part of an overall end-use efficiency strategy. as well as through the 53 . As this debate has matured. That debate now seems to be coming to closure. regulatory encouragement. interruptible loads. and energy efficiency. dispersed generation. that is. customer load control.
* they often mean it. as well as to address global warming concerns and provide economic stability and national security. LLC. energy efficiency is the simplest option and the most rewarding in the near term with regard to benefits to the energy supplier and the energy consumer. Those supplying goods and services would have great difficulty embracing a role that involved spending time and money to convince customers that using fewer of their goods and services would be in the customer's best interest. However. While energy efficiency does seem somewhat inconsistent with the electricity "business" mission of selling energy. Parmenter and Cecilia Arzbacher of Global Energy Partners. This reflects a desire to take a more holistic view of their customers' welfare. The electric sector has come to realize that a variety of energy sources and demand-side alternatives are necessary to maintain that standard of living. It has taken the world several decades to realize fully that energy is not an infinite resource. Many individuals involved in the electric utility industry are uncomfortable when talking about energy efficiency. Energy efficiency has the capability of saving all forms of non-renewable energy resources. along with societal needs. these days. Gellings and Patricia Hurtado. it may be beneficial for the supplier as well as for its customers and certainly for the environment. They are in the energy business and are dedicated to delivering kWh to consumers. when utilities talk energy efficiency. IS ENERGY EFFICIENCY COST-EFFECTIVE? But is it really cost-effective? Does it cost the consumer less in the long run? *Based in part on material prepared by Clark W. Kelly E. Certainly few for-profit companies would readily embrace aggressive programs to decrease sales of their own products.54 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response adoption of electric end-uses which displace fossil fuels while coincidentally reducing overall energy use and emissions. The energy industry has also come to realize that among all the measures that can be used as resources in meeting energy demand. The illusion of infinite resources has supported and sustained a high standard of living. . and many are convinced that they are doing so for good reasons.
etc. generation mix. The overall economics will vary due to variations in weather. and/or invoking change in the customer's behavior. prices. etc. An additional economic benefit which is evolving entails using energy efficiency as a CO2 credit. capacity reserves. however. Since end-use activities can impact a variety of costs. This can have huge impacts where efficient electric technologies displace inefficient gas or oil technologies. evaluation usually is accomplished by a modeling technique that separately simulates the price of electricity to the average customer and to those participating in programs. financial capability. Wholesale market capacity\. the adoption of electric technologies which replace gas or oil end use. each energy efficiency activity must be evaluated in light of capacity alternatives. one useful criteria which can be used is the impact on total costs. fuel costs. On some systems. fuel mix and capacity pur- . direct incentives. Among these are the fuel mix. In many cases. When a system benefit is not achieved to offset the cost of energy efficiency. environmental impacts and other energy efficiency options that are available.Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 55 The question of whether energy efficiency is cost-effective depends on both the type of energy efficiency program under consideration and on the utility's characteristics. and the potential CO2 reductions from programs from the market participants in the region. the result may be higher costs. In evaluating the benefits and costs of demand-side activities. load characteristics. FINANCIAL IMPACTS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY Dealing with energy efficient technologies involves promoting the adoption of efficiency end-use technologies. Costs and savings include a broad variety of items such as marketing. Energy efficiency programs and/or activities are utility-specific. Each must be evaluated on the basis of economics as applied to a particular utility. HOW DESIRABLE IS ENERGY EFFICIENCY? The desirability of embracing energy efficiency from an industry participant perspective depends on many factors. advertising and promotion. these form the greatest costs of an energy efficiency program. energy efficiency may be the cheapest source of energy.
nuclear. It the marginal fuel is oil or gas for both on- and off-peak periods. especially if the region's ability to build new capacity is limited. wind or hydropower. capacity (especially new capacity involving advanced coal or nuclear) may be cheaper than energy efficiency. and utilization. Since most regions are experiencing growth. A critical capacity situation provides a strong motive for interest in energy efficiency. A RENEWED MANDATE The 1970s and 1980s showed great strides in the rate of improvement of end-use electric energy efficiency. For small changes in sales. For distribution utilities without generation assets who are billed for capacity based on an inverted rate. On the other hand. and utilization technologies . where capacity is adequate or the ability to build new capacity is feasible. Energy efficiency may. neither of these options can be in place at the pace of energy efficiency.56 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response chases are the largest determinants of the marginal cost impacts of loadshape modification. if stocks are selling below book value and the regulatory commission is not allowing an adequate rate of return. benefit stakeholders by deferring the need for new capital. then energy efficiency will offer great potential for cost reduction. processes. The result was a notable increase in the efficiency of these production. However. it is logical to argue that the service provider could afford to use this difference (marginal less average) to promote or finance energy efficiency. the marginal benefits may exceed costs for energy efficiency programs. it would be logical to approximate the cost of potential decreased units of energy by equating them to the marginal cost of supply additional increments of energy. In the case of investor-owned utilities. delivery. and novel methods of energy supply. delivery. then other types of energy efficiency such as those involving load shifting. each new sale of stock hurts the existing shareholders. will be desirable. Inflationary pressures in many cases are forcing the marginal cost of electrical energy to exceed the average cost. therefore. The oil embargos of the 1970s were a wake up call to much of the world that led to significant policy efforts to curb wasteful energy use and to develop and promote new energy efficient technologies. If the fuel mix is such that off-peak marginal energy is produced by coal.
This awareness has effected changes particularly in highly organized industrialized countries. Many factors have contributed to this deceleration. the uncertainty in the availability of fossil fuels to meet tomorrow's energy needs. Policy makers and energy companies are well-positioned to develop strategies for meeting growing and changing energy needs of the public through energy efficiency. The increase in worldwide energy use that goes hand-in-hand with population growth and development has made it necessary to develop new technologies that can accomplish a given task with less energy. policies and programs. energy efficiency is ready to make a resurgence with a new generation of technologies.Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 57 and systems and a companion decrease in the energy intensity of enduse devices and processes. with some regions experiencing lesser rates of improvement than others. This discrepancy in efficiency improvement rates since the 1970s is an example of the unrealized potential of energy efficiency. Since the 1990s. The increasing demand for electricity. in essence. Degradation to the environment from energy related causes has resulted in a significant international movement to protect the environment and its inhabitants. the development of efficiency programs by utilities and government organizations. History has demonstrated how the traditional drivers for energy efficiency have impacted worldwide energy consumption. This and other additional efficiency "resources" have yet to be fully tapped. and use of energy and develop cost-effective ways to implement renewable energy sources. greenhouse gas emissions—combine to create a renewed urgency for energy efficiency gains. Spurred on by both traditional and renewed drivers. but. and the implementation of policies as a whole in the last one-and-a-half decades have not been as effective in furthering energy efficiency as in the 1970s and 1980s—the consequence of which is greater per-capita global demand for energy today than would have been required had efficiency gains kept up with the previous momentum. The threats to national security that result from dependence on non-domestic energy resources have resulted in policy efforts to maximize the use of domestic . The awareness of limited fossil fuel resources has created an impetus to improve the efficient production. improvement in technology. the global rate of efficiency improvement has slowed relative to the previous decades. delivery. and concerns over the environmental impacts resulting from the combustion of those fuels—in particular. which reduced the global rate of increase in energy consumption.
The primary reason is that the population is growing at an exponential rate. Increasing Worldwide Demand for Energy The overall energy consumption of the world is increasing as a result of two main reasons. and utilization. The relevance of each of these four factors is summarized as follows.58 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response resources. Indeed. Worldwide energy consumption is growing due to population growth and increased energy use per capita in both developed and developing countries. This awareness is now heightened in the face of renewed drivers related to energy supply constraints. 3. Fossil fuel resources are finite. conversion. the population increases by about three people every second—for every five people born. At this rate. Since 1960. and global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. it is estimated that the population will reach 9 billion by 2042. 4. due in part to increased family planning throughout the world. 2. DRIVERS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY The primary reasons to increase worldwide energy efficiency can be grouped into four main factors: 1. There is an increasing perception that the environment is suffering as a result of resource extraction. The United Nations predicts that population growth will slow down and stabilize over the next century.6 billion. increasing fuel costs. the world population has increased from 3. What does this mean for energy consumption? Each new person will need a share . two people die. A dependence on non-domestic energy supplies compromises national security for many nations. and the cost to extract and utilize these resources in an environmentally-benign manner is becoming increasingly expensive.0 billion to 6. there has been a growing awareness of the value of a very important national and international resource—energy efficiency. Even with a slowdown.
There is a potential for significantly more useful energy to be extracted from nuclear reserves if the controversy surrounding nuclear power—in particular. National Security Fossil fuel resources are not evenly divided throughout the world.Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 59 of the world's energy resources. The exact quantity of fossil fuel resources is under constant debate. Renewable resources have always been important and will increasingly be important in the future. their success will depend on the level to which they implement efficient technologies and practices. . However. energy use per capita is increasing in both developed and developing countries. the use of breeder reactors and the disposal of radioactive waste—is resolved. It also buys time for the future development of alternative resources. but at the current time they are relatively uneconomical to produce and utilize. further technical advancements are needed to improve the cost-effectiveness of replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy forms. In addition. the one point that cannot be disputed is that the expense to extract fossil fuels will become increasingly cost prohibitive as the supplies become more dilute and less available. although. The fuels that were once considered to be readily available and cheap are now becoming scarce and expensive. In addition. Finite Resources Much of the world depends on a finite supply of fossil fuels to meet their energy needs. Unconventional hydrocarbons (in particular. This application of nuclear fuels could extend resource availability by several hundred years or longer. For example. Energy efficiency is a relatively quick and effective way to minimize depletion of resources. Other finite resources include nuclear fuels and unconventional hydrocarbons. Some estimates predict that fossil fuels will only be viable as an energy source for one more century. the perceived environmental impacts of fossil fuel combustion may be another limiting factor to their continued use. As countries become more industrialized. The quantity of nuclear fuel resources for use in conventional light water reactors is thought to be less than fossil fuel reserves. China is currently experiencing the most significant growth in energy demand due to both economic development and population growth. hydrogen) will likely be another resource of the future.
national security. The Environment The environment appears to be experiencing damage as a direct result of industrialization and fossil fuel consumption. limited resources. Gaseous and particulate emissions from power generation plants and many industrial processes impact the atmosphere at increasing rates. and improved energy efficiency. exposure to air pollutants is hazardous to humans and other living species. and can cause a variety of health effects. History has shown that energy efficiency works. This is evidenced by continued tensions with the Middle East. and efforts that promote the development of energy efficient technologies and practices are effective alternatives to efforts that focus on the construction of new power . Several Eastern European countries are currently undergoing transition. oil spills from tankers can be disastrous to the marine and coastal environments. resources for the two predominant energy sources. implementation of non-polluting renewable energy forms. RENEWED INTEREST The above considerations—population growth. run the risk of compromising national security. In addition. Moreover. Effective energy efficiency programs can reduce a country's reliance on non-domestic energy sources. petroleum and natural gas. and environmental degradation—are all important considerations that point to the need for improved energy efficiency. increased air pollution control measures. increased energy use per capita in developing countries. which can in turn improve national security and stabilize energy prices. Countries that rely on fuel imports from other. Effects to the environment include the destruction of forests in Central Europe by acid rain and potential climate change due to rising greenhouse gas levels. Many of the countries in the Middle East are politically unstable. potentially less stable governments. increased costs associated with extracting and converting less accessible energy forms. For example. The environment will greatly benefit from minimized use of environmentally hazardous energy forms. waste management.60 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response In fact. are concentrated in the Middle East and in Eastern European countries. the extraction and transportation of fossil fuels can result in environmental damage.
and advanced coal). the point is to show that reducing greenhouse gas emissions is. one of a number of motivations that support a global imperative to improve energy efficiency.g..Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 61 plants and on the discovery and procurement of additional finite energy supplies. nuclear power. human-caused) forcing of climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions and others voicing out that there is insufficient reason to believe that recent climate change is not part of a natural cycle. in fact. (Section 5 discusses a new concept for marketing programs that integrates energy efficiency and demand response. concerns that the environment is suffering. .) Addressing the second issue has resulted in a world-wide movement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in hopes of arresting the pace of climate change. In terms of alternatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions The debate continues with some providing evidence they allege proves the anthropogenic (i. Rather. greater use of renewables. The current energy state is in some ways very much like the state during the 1973 oil embargo. which also include: • Alteration of the power generation mix (e.e. energy efficiency has provided more "capacity" since the Arab oil embargo of 1973 than any efforts to increase the development of new resources. the worldwide demand for energy is still growing. Addressing the first issue has led to a proliferation of new demand response pilots and programs. In fact. experts believe that energy efficiency leads the list of a portfolio of strategies. It is not the point of this paper to get involved in the debate of whether or not anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are linked to climate change. in the United States. and of course. and 2) the greater concern that there may be a link between climate change and energy-related greenhouse gas emissions.. The following subsection illustrates how energy efficiency is an important component in the portfolio of strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. there are still concerns over reducing dependence on foreign energy supplies from politically unstable regions. Two of major differences seen today are 1) the increased cognizance that supplying peak loads in capacity constrained areas is very expensive. Many geographic regions have been experiencing rate shocks.
Agriculture 6. etc. and aircraft. Energy supply and delivery 2. For the energy supply and delivery category.. wind-power. Renewables are in the form of hydro-power. renewables. fuel switching.62 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Fuel substitution (i. industrial processes. Forestation.) of these modes of transport. Carbon capture and storage (CCS). geothermal energy. Measures particularly applicable to road transport include employing refrigerants with low global warm- . and cost of the mitigation alternatives across the seven categories presented in Table 3-1 vary widely. the most important mitigation alternatives consist of improvements in the efficiency of generation. implementation ease. Forestry 7. passenger loading. rail transport. transmission. Carbon capture and storage is general envisioned to be used in conjunction with gas- and coal-fired power plants. factors related to transport scheduling. The transport category includes strategies related to improving the fuel efficiency of on-road vehicles. and advanced coal technologies in the energy supply mix. The technical maturity..g. Buildings 4. and transportation). and Improvements in the energy efficiency of end-use devices and electricity generation. bio-energy. It also includes improving the operational efficiency (e. greater proportions of nuclear energy. solar-thermal. and carbon capture and storage. replacing existing use of greenhouse-gasintensive fuels with cleaner energy forms in electricity generation. and solar photovoltaic. Much focus has been placed on road transport because of its large share of mobile emissions. • • • Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies can be grouped into the seven main categories responsible for anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions: 1. transmission and distribution. and distribution. Transportation 3. Waste Table 3-1 summarizes some of the primary strategies by sector. Industry 5. marine vessels.e.
Potential Strategies to Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Metz. et al.. 2007) Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 63 .Table 3-1.
recycling. using bio-fuels. Encouraging modal shifting from less to more efficient modes of transport is another alternative. In addition. wastewater management. energy recovery (e. landfill practice improvements.g. space cooling. use of renewables. The industrial category consists of measures to improve the efficiency of facilities and processes. and controlling other (non-CO2) greenhouse gas emissions. Forestry strategies are aimed at either reducing emissions from sources or increasing removals by sinks. fuel switching. and generation and use of anaerobic digester gas. For example. There are numerous potential energy efficiency measures ranging from those that address the building envelope to those that address systems such as lighting. Emission avoidance methods consist of controlled composting. and reuse. livestock. site-level carbon density. The development and use of biofuels is a cross-cutting mitigation strategy that also relates to energy supply. Mitigation alternatives for the agriculture sector pertain to energy efficiency improvements and land. hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles. and appliances. the use of anaerobic digesters in manure management practices is also applicable to the general category of waste management. combined heat and power). and controlling non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions. and manure management. increasing off-site carbon stocks in wood products. refrigeration. and waste minimization. with some of the work taking into account the economic and market potentials and some of the work focusing just on the technical potential. The category of waste management is comprised of technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as well as to avoid emissions.. fuel switching. Specific alternatives include maintaining or increasing forest area. EPRI has analyzed . or electric vehicles. bio-energy. Mitigation strategies for residential and commercial buildings fall into three general areas: energy efficiency of buildings and systems. and fuel substitution. waste minimization. plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. ventilation. or switching to hybrid vehicles. advanced incineration. space heating. expanded sanitation coverage. recycling and use of scrap materials. Emission reduction approaches include recovery and utilization of methane (CH4). water heating. and/or landscape level carbon density.64 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ing potential. Carbon capture and storage is also potentially feasible for large industrial facilities. Several recent studies have estimated the potential of these strategies in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
electricity sector. A considerable amount of work has been undertaken in recent years to assess the energy efficiency potential. specifically. Several recent studies have attempted to estimate the potential for energy efficiency improvements. Results indicate that energy efficiency gains have the potential to contribute significantly to meeting future energy requirements in a relatively cost-effective and easily-deployable manner. others count on expected technological advances (i.e. Many of the projections assume that mechanisms to remove technical. the International Energy Agency (IEA) discusses two potential scenarios for the world's energy future: the reference scenario and the alternative policy scenario (International Energy Outlook. 2006). Some of the approaches rely on technologies that are already available.Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 65 several of these mitigation opportunities to assess the technical potential for future carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions reductions. sustainable manner. emerging technologies).S. The following subsections summarize some recent estimates of the future potential of energy efficiency. Many of them can be deployed faster and at lower cost than supply-side options such as new clean central power stations. near-term options for meeting future energy requirements. and market barriers will be in place. The reference scenario accounts for all government energy and climate policies and measures enacted or adopted as of the middle of 2006 in the projection of future energy . and still others depend on accelerated technological developments or technology "leaps" to make alternatives viable. WHAT CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED? Energy efficient end-use technologies and practices are some of the most cost-effective.com). within the scope of the U. EPRI refers to this work as the "PRISM" analysis (see www. with a focus on electricity use. Energy efficiency is also environmentally-responsible. economic.. the costs associated with energy efficiency efforts have been compared with the costs of other strategies for meeting future energy needs in a clean. IEA ESTIMATES In their World Energy Outlook 2006 (WEO). In addition.epri.
the electricity demand is estimated to increase by a factor of 1. measures. The alternative policy scenario on the other hand accounts for all energy and climate policies and measures currently being considered. In general.376 TWh). therefore. compared with the electricity demand in 2004 (14. Its projections. the global electricity demand (final consumption of electricity) in 2030 is estimated to be 12% lower in the Alternative policy scenarios (24.0 for the reference scenario. and/or new technologies. Most . Relative to the reference scenario. energy efficiency improvements in the Alternative policy scenarios correspond to a global rate of decrease in energy intensity (energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product) of 2. In terms of electricity use. the Alternative policy scenarios not take into account technologies that have yet to be commercialized. Breakthrough technologies are not included.672 TWh) than in the reference scenario (28. Two-thirds of the improvements come from energy efficiency in residential and commercial buildings (more efficient appliances. Much of this improvement over the reference scenario is in developing and transition economies where there is more potential for energy efficiency improvements.1% per year over 2004 to 2030 for the Alternative policy scenarios compared with 1. The latter scenario is associated with significantly lower energy use and a greater share of less carbon-intensive energy sources. which is a little less than China's 2004 installed capacity. rather it looks at the potential for greater improvement and increased and faster penetration of existing technologies compared to the reference scenario. However. the policies and measures included in the Alternative policy scenarios paint a cleaner energy picture. and sustenance of the oil and gas supplies within net energy-importing countries. Still. etc. depict what is potentially possible in terms of reaching energy goals if we act right away to implement a set of policies and measures under consideration as of 2006.7% per year in the reference scenario. lighting.093 TWh) mainly due to greater energy efficiency improvements (see Table 3 2). air conditioning. The types of new measures included in the alternative policy scenario include further improvements in energy efficiency.66 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response use patterns through 2030. This scenario does not take into account any future policies.) and one-third comes from improvements in the efficiency of industrial processes.7 by 2030 for the Alternative policy scenarios and by a factor of 2. greater reliance on non-fossil fuels. The savings in residential and commercial buildings alone equates to avoiding 412 GW of new capacity.
Japan.376 TWh ———————————————————————————————— Electricity demand is the final consumption of electricity. and Latin America. (UN Foundation. China leads with a savings of 814 TWh relative to the reference scenario. Russia. Italy. Comparison of Worldwide Electricity Demand in 2030 Projected by the WEO Reference Scenario and the Alternative Policy Scenario ———————————————————————————————— 2004 Electricity Demand 2030 Electricity Scenario) 2030 Electricity Difference between and Alternative Reference Policy Scenarios in 2030 3. France: 2006. Denmark. the rate of energy efficiency improvement averaged 2% per year between 1973 and 1990 and then declined to an average of 0. Finland. The largest percentage reductions relative to the reference scenario take place in Brazil. Paris. In terms of the actual quantity of electricity savings. UNITED NATIONS FOUNDATION ESTIMATES In a 2007 report. Germany. as well as to other developing countries *The historic energy efficiency improvement rates quoted apply to a group of 14 IEA countries: Austria.421 TWh (12%) Demand (Reference Demand (Alternative Policy Scenario) ———————————————————————————————— 14. The plan entails "doubling" the global historic rate of energy efficiency improvement to 2. specifically. and the United States]). Japan. the European Union. and South Africa). Canada. Sweden.672 TWh Table 3-3 compares the electricity demand in 2030 of the two scenarios for selected regions.5% per year by G8 countries between 2012 and 2030. .Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 67 of the increase in electricity demand is expected to be in developing countries. Norway. China. the Netherlands.) (International Energy Agency. and the United States. 2006)* The plan also calls for G8 countries to reach out to +5 nations (Brazil.093 TWh 24. Mexico. Germany. (For reference. the United Nations Foundation makes a more ambitious plan of action to improve energy efficiency. China. 2007 and [G8 countries include Canada. Source: World Energy Outlook 2006. 28. France. France. International Energy Agency.9% per year between 1990 and 2004. India. the United Kingdom. the United Kingdom. Italy. Table 3-2. New Zealand.
2006) 68 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Electricity demand is the final consumption of electricity. Paris. France: 2006. International Energy Agency. . Comparison of Electricity Demand in 2030 Projected by the WEO Reference Scenario and the Alternative Policy Scenario.Table 3-3. Selected Regions (International Energy Agency. Source: World Energy Outlook 2006.
The G8 countries represent 46% of global energy consumption and are economically best positioned to lead the way in addressing efficiency improvements that can then be followed by the developing countries. For example.9 trillion in new energy supply by G8 countries ($3 trillion globally).S. Comparison of Annual Energy Efficiency Improvement Rates (UN Foundation.5% with rates assumed in the IEA's Reference and Alternative Policy Scenarios.5% per year an investment of $2. If accomplished. Figure 3-1 compares the United Nations Foundation rate of 2. .3 trillion would be required by the G8 countries ($3. the G8+5 account for roughly 70% of global primary energy use. The rate of energy efficiency improvement proposed in the United Nations Foundation report is more aggressive than energy efficiency improvement rates referenced in other recent energy projection studies.2 trillion on a global basis) relative to the IEA's reference scenario. Together. this rate of energy efficiency improvement would lower G8 total energy demand in 2030 by 22% relative to the IEA's reference scenario and would return energy use to close to 2004 values for these countries.Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 69 to help them attain efficiency goals. The economics of the United Nations Foundation plan are favorable. The report estimates that to improve the rate of energy efficiency to a level of 2. the net incremental investment required would be $400 bil- Figure 3-1. This level of energy efficiency would avoid $1. 2007) Energy Efficiency Potential in the U. Therefore.
improved lighting *The forecasted total electricity use for 2010 is 4155 TWh according to Annual Energy Outlook 2006.5% of the forecasted electricity use for 2010. Department of Energy. Residential sector energy efficiency programs target high efficiency air conditioners that exceed current federal standards. It also reflects the maximum achievable potential at each cost level.70 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response lion by G8 countries ($200 billion globally). Table 3-4 displays the potential energy efficiency impacts pertaining to annual energy reduction in the year 2010.* Significant impacts are associated with energy efficiency programs in the residential. which is equivalent to 5. Energy Information Administration. In addition to global-scale estimates. A fifth of the potential is likely to be realized in the residential sector. various entities have conducted assessments of the potential for energy efficiency at the country or regional level. DC: February 2006. commercial. Therefore. EPRI along with Global Energy Partners and The Keystone Center recently estimated the potential for end-use electric energy efficiency to yield energy savings and peak demand reductions (Gellings. 2006 and Keystone. ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) programs. energy security. For example. et al. improved building shell measures. other quantifiable benefits such as reduced consumer energy bills help to pay back this relatively low investment in roughly three-to-five years (not including the value of climate change mitigation. With Projections to 2030. Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting.). The total energy savings potential in 2010 is estimated to be close to 230 TWh.S. According to United Nations Foundation estimates. A significant potential is likely to be achieved through improvements in end-use devices and enforcement of higher standards in new construction. (Note: in this context. . U. the realistic achievable potential would likely be less. 2003). it provides savings relative to a reference state of no energy efficiency program activity.. energy efficiency programs target high efficiency heating. etc. The analysis eliminated effects of energy efficiency programs currently underway or likely to occur according to historical trends. The commercial sector is likely to offer the highest potential for energy saving opportunities (almost 50% of the total achievable potential is likely to be realized from the commercial sector). Washington. For this sector.) The results of the study are summarized in the following paragraphs. and industrial sectors. and efficient lighting and appliances. energy efficiency policies and programs are assumed to encompass traditional energy efficiency measures as well as demand response efforts.
U. et al. 2006) Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 71 .. End-Use Electric Energy Savings Potential in 2010 (TWh) Note EE is Energy Efficiency (Gellings.Table 3-4.S.
savings of approximately 150 TWh are achievable for a cost of $0. Typical efficiency improve*The forecasted total electricity capacity for 2010 is 988.20/kWh.72 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response systems and high efficiency equipment such as refrigeration and motors. The curve is constructed by building up the savings from potential energy efficiency measures beginning with low-cost measures and continuing upward to high-cost measures. Residential sector peak summer demand impacts are represented by direct load control programs and energy efficiency programs. The commercial sector is forecasted to have the highest contribution to peak demand reductions (almost 42% of total demand reduction). savings of nearly 210 TWh can be achieved for less than about $0. Commercial sector peak summer demand impacts are represented by demand curtailment programs that serve to reduce loads during peak demand periods through the use of automated load control devices and energy efficiency programs.05/kWh. With Projections to 2030. which yield the majority of the impacts mainly resulting from HVAC and lighting programs. Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting. The remaining 30% of the potential is likely to be achieved from the industrial sector where energy efficiency programs target premium efficiency motors and efficiency improvements in manufacturing processes. Washington. as well as lighting improvements. . In addition. Table 3-5 displays the impacts pertaining to peak summer demand reductions for the year 2010. Analysis results show that savings of nearly 40 TWh can be achieved at a cost of less than $0.S. The low-cost portion of the supply curve offers many potential low-cost options for improving efficiency. The supply curve shows the cost per kWh saved versus the amount of energy savings achievable at each level of cost. peak summer demand impacts are driven primarily by demand curtailment programs and energy efficiency programs targeting motors and process uses. Similarly. A very large part of this potential is likely to be realized from new construction activities.5% of the forecasted total electricity capacity for 2010. Department of Energy. Figure 3-2 is an energy efficiency supply curve constructed for this analysis. The industrial sector demand reduction potential is close to that of commercial sector. U. which is equivalent to 7. Energy Information Administration.10/kWh or less.4 GW according to Annual Energy Outlook 2006. DC: February 2006. the residential sector is likely to contribute a fifth to the overall demand reduction impact.* Similar to energy savings.
2006) Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 73 . et al. U..S.Table 3-5. Peak Summer Demand Reduction Potential in 2010 (GW) Note EE is Energy Efficiency (Gellings.
05/kWh. additional energy savings include commercial lighting improvements and efficiency improvements in industrial motors and drives as well as electro-technologies. and HVAC tune-ups and maintenance. 2006) ments include removal of outdated appliances.. Examples of peak demand savings opportunities that are available for less than $200/kW include audits and weatherization of residential building shells.74 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 3-2. The assessment shows that there is a substantial amount of cost- . Supply Curve for U. All these technologies can be deployed for a cost of less than $0. Here.10/kWh. Other technologies that can be deployed at a cost of $200/kW to $400/kW include direct load control for residential air conditioning. For a cost of $0. End-Use Electric Energy Savings. the appropriate metric is the cost of peak demand in units of $/kW.S. advanced commercial (building-integrated) cooling and refrigeration systems. weatherization of the building shell. A similar analysis can be used to estimate the costs for reducing peak demand (Figure 3-3). instead of $/kWh. and time based tariffs for commercial and industrial customers. residential lighting improvements. 2010 (Gellings. et al. and residential applications. commercial.05/kWh to $0. commercial building tune-ups and maintenance. advanced refrigeration in commercial buildings. and advanced lighting systems for industrial.
November 1982. and effective policies and programs at the international and local levels as well as extensive improvements in technology. Each of these efforts is part of what should be considered as an overall approach to deploying a smart grid. 2006) effective energy efficiency potential still achievable in the U. The opportunity for savings is highest in the residential and commercial sectors and is somewhat lower in the industrial sector. et al. Supply Curve for U. Gellings. January 1981. C. "Demand-side Planning.W.S. References Testimony of C. 2010 (Gellings. State of New Jersey—Board of Public Utilities—Appendix II. CONCLUSION Improving energy efficiency will require deliberate. Group II Load Management Studies. concerted.W. Peak Demand Reduction. All of the studies summarized here require that specific sets of policies and programs be implemented in order to maximize the potential for energy efficiency improvement.S..Electric End-use Energy Efficiency 75 Figure 3-3. ." Edison Electric Institute Executive Symposium for Customer Service and Marketing Personnel. Gellings.
. Bosch.. United Kingdom and New York.S. B. Final Report. Cambridge University Press. France: 200 Gellings. and Ghosh. R. Energy Use in the New Millennium: Trends in IEA Countries. Issue 9. Realizing the Potential of Energy Efficiency. C. D. P. International Energy Agency.. Paris. USA: 2007. Paris. and Measures for G8 Countries." The Electricity Journal. NY. A. Cambridge. Wikler. Policies. DC: 2007. Washington. "Assessment of U.W.76 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response "Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. G. 19. Vol. Targets. L. The Keystone Center. . World Energy Outlook 2006. November 2006. International Energy Agency. CO: May 2003. Meyer (eds)." Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. United Nations Foundation. R. R. Metz. Davidson. The Keystone Dialogue on Global Climate Change. O. Electric End-Use Energy Efficiency Potential. Dave. France: 2006.
has continued to deteriorate. remain based on technologies that have been largely unchanged for 50 years. mechanically controlled and monitored by reactive computer simulation that is often 50 times slower than its operational movements. cables and conductors. After electric utilities and power systems were created out of the need to supply arc lamps and electric streetcars in urban areas. In addition. 77 . it is largely comprised of simple parts—transformers. Throughout this expansion. the electrical system. The world's electricity infrastructure. There are now more perturbations in the quality of power than ever before. consisting of various sources of generation. And *The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of Kurt E. even while on. a set of transmission networks and a variety of distribution systems. has evolved through time. But mostly the power system engineer's thinking is mired by two anchors: the existing system and the view that technical solutions regarding power systems are bounded by central generation on one end and the meter at the consumer's facility at the other. the quality of that service. the systems grew as true demand for electricity grew and as development spread. While some sensors have been added. For example. has consistently been without power for 100 to 200 minutes or more each year. on average in most developed countries. and to a certain extent its design criteria.Chapter 4 Using a Smart Grid to Evolve The Perfect Power System* Much has been written about optimizing power systems. Improvements are continually suggested and evaluated—some eventually implemented. As a result. and of the support of the Galvin Electricity Initiative to this section. over the last ten years every consumer. Yeager. the power system is bolted together. Albeit the most complex machine ever built. circuit breakers. President Emeritus of the Electric Power Research Institute. electric service reliability to homes and businesses is far less than perfect.
Traditional power system planners and practitioners will find this perfection concept hard to embrace. based on the consumer's perspective. former CEO of Motorola and an industry icon. Perfection. Inc. Indeed to achieve perfection in electric energy service. refrigeration and the many other applications. to determine the path to the perfect system. must be the design principle. environmentally friendly devices practicable and integrate them into building and processing systems that allow perfection to extend to the point of end-use. So what if you could start with an absolutely clean sheet of paper—what if there was no power system and we could design one—a smart grid—using the best existing and evolving technology? This chapter takes precisely that perspective. and capable of challenging the best minds in the industry. the founders of Motorola Corporation have enabled researchers to develop a powerful vision. convenience and choice in the services provided so as to delight the consumer. motive power. appliances and systems which convert electricity into heat. Delivering perfect electric energy service seems nearly impossible and appears inherently expensive—an impractical notion to those constrained by the conventional wisdom of the power sector. THE GALVIN VISION—A PERFECT POWER SYSTEM The design of the perfect power system must start with the consumer's needs and provide absolute confidence. but a Perfect Power System unleashing self-organizing entrepreneurs whose innovations will greatly increase the value of electricity in the 21st century. Bob Galvin. .. one that is unconventional.78 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response this at a time when consumers are increasingly using digital devices as society moves toward a knowledge-based economy. crystallized the framework that was to be developed by clarifying that: "My vision is not power system based on requirements being driven by future customer needs for end-use technologies. engineers need to deploy the most efficient. In a project sponsored by the Galvin Electricity Initiative. Even less perfection is evident in the end-uses of the system—the energy consuming devices. light.
but also accommodate increasing consumer demands for independence. he defined a clear and unambiguous measure of value— "the system does not fail." To define the path to a perfect electric energy service system. environmentally friendly systems and cost control. in concert with the vision and inspiration of Bob Galvin.Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System 79 Further. pride. Dispersed perfect systems respond to consumer's demand for perfection. it provides elements of perfection that enable. the research team identified four potential system Configurations associated with this path to the Perfect Power System: • • • • Perfect Device-level Power Building Integrated Power Distributed Power Fully Integrated Power: A Smart Grid This path started with the notion that increasingly consumers expect greater performance from end-use devices and appliances. Not only does enhanced performance of end-use devices improve the value of electricity. Dispersed systems or building integrated power systems can in turn be interconnected to form distributed perfect systems. but also once perfection at this level is defined. the Galvin Initiative research team. in turn. Once distributed perfect systems are achieved. The research team used this broad array of technology development opportunities to establish general design criteria for the perfect power system. Defining the Perfect Electric Energy Service System The research team used panels of energy experts to define a perfect electric energy service system in terms of what it would accomplish: The Perfect Power System will ensure absolute and universal availability of energy in the quantity and quality necessary to meet every consumer's needs. and any definition of a perfect system has to be considered from the . The focus of the system is on the service it provides to the energy users. As a result. appearance. This established the groundwork for subsequent tasks and the eventual development of the possible system configurations and associated nodes of innovation. literally took a "clean sheet of paper" to the challenge of absolutely meeting the criteria of perfection. they can be integrated with technologies that enable a fully integrated perfect power system to exist. a dispersed perfect system.
In order to provide service perfection to all energy users. key technologies are . In turn. Path to the Perfect Power System Now that the basic specifications and criteria for the perfect power system have been articulated. 5. and usefulness) Enhance the quality of life and improve economic productivity • Design Criteria The design criteria that would be employed to meet these performance specifications must address the following key power system components or parameters: 1. such as illumination. comfortable space conditioning (heating or cooling). They are the point of interface with the energy user and the mechanism by which the energy user receives the desired service. 6. self-correcting. and self-healing Sustain failure of individual components without interrupting service Be able to focus on regional. It is also important to recognize that nodes of innovation are required to enable and achieve perfection. and entertainment. secure. specific area needs Be able to meet consumer needs at a reasonable cost with minimal resource utilization and minimal environmental impact (consumer needs include functionality. self-sensing. hot water.80 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response perspective of the energy users. End-Use Energy Service Devices System Configuration and Asset Management System Monitoring and Control Resource Adequacy Operations Storage Communications The end-use devices are the starting point in the design of the perfect power system. 3. 7. 4. portability. the perfect power system must meet the following overarching goals: • • • • Be smart. 2. we can now focus on the various potentially perfect power system configurations envisioned by the Galvin Initiative.
and intelligence for optimization of energy use and energy management at the local level. Localized perfect systems can also accommodate increasing consumer demands for independence. flexibility. Local systems can in turn be integrated into distributed perfect systems.Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System 81 the basic building blocks needed to achieve the necessary innovative functionality advancements. in turn. these potential system configuration stages build on each other starting from a portable power system connected to other portable power systems which then can evolve into a building integrated power system. in turn be interconnected and integrated with technologies that ultimately enable a fully integrated perfect power system. This scenario takes advan- . environmentally friendly service and cost control. a localized perfect system. appearance. and quality or service value improvements to be attained. convenience. DEVICE–LEVEL POWER SYSTEM The first level of development for the perfect power system is what we will call the "device-level" power system. it provides elements of perfection that enable. but each stage logically evolves to the next stage based on the efficiencies. Not only does portability enable a highly mobile digital society. In effect. Each of these configurations can essentially be considered a possible structure for the perfect power system in its own right. This path started with the notion that increasingly consumers expect perfection in the end-use devices and appliances they have. OVERVIEW OF THE PERFECT POWER SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS The basic philosophy in developing the perfect power system is first to increase the independence. Distributed perfect systems can. a distributed power system and eventually to a fully integrated power system as reflected in Figure 4-2. Figure 4-1 summarizes each of these system configuration stages. and then to integrate local systems as necessary or justified for delivering perfect power supply and services. but also once perfection in portability is defined.
Path to the Perfect Power System (www. . not dependent on a massive power delivery and generation infrastructure that has many possible failure scenarios. Advantages of the Perfect Device-level Power System and Relevant Nodes of Innovation The perfect device-level power system has many advantages: • The reliability and derivative quality of equipment and processes is determined locally and is.82 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 4-1.org) tage of advancements in advanced technologies including nanotechnology.galvinpower. therefore. This scenario has only modest needs for communication between different parts of the system as it essentially represents the capability of end-use technologies to operate in an isolated state and on their own with extremely convenient means of charging their storage systems from appropriate local energy sources. sensors and advanced materials. biosciences.
is ideal for developing systems and remote power requirements) but is also applicable to systems that are already developed (to take advantage of the existing infrastructure as an energy source for the device-level systems). The system is not dependent on any existing infrastructure (and. storage. There are tremendous opportunities for energy savings through local optimization of powering requirements and miniaturization of technologies.org) • It is the most flexible system configuration. therefore.galvinpower. Innovations in end-use technologies.Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System 83 Figure 4-2. can be utilized immediately without significant issues of control and integration with the power delivery system. Renewables (solar.. etc. wind. The Perfect Electric Energy System—System Configurations and Nodes of Innovation (www. other sources) can easily be integrated locally as an energy source for the device-level power systems. • • • .
This illustrates various portable devices and inductive charging as elements of portable power. Advantages of the Building Integrated Power System & Relevant Nodes of Innovation Integration at the local level provides a number of advantages over device-level power systems (at the cost of additional infrastructure and communication requirements needed for this integration): • Energy availability can be optimized across a larger variety of energy sources. • • One conceptual graphic for a building integrated power system is shown in Figure 4-4. The DC powered house combines many of the nodes of innovation required in the device-level power system and combines them into a single isolated power system such as a house or office complex. Still allows for local control and management of reliability at the local level. a commercial building. a campus of buildings. power) than is possible with the portable system. or a residential neighborhood.84 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Eventually device-level power systems may need to be connected to building integrated or distributed power systems for bulk energy supply. energy sources and a power distribution infrastructure are integrated at the local level. An example of a device-level power system is provided in Figure 4-3. BUILDING INTEGRATED POWER SYSTEMS The "building integrated" power system is the next level of integration after the device-level power systems. Creates an infrastructure for more optimum management of overall energy requirements (heating. In this scenario. This could be an industrial facility. resulting in improved economics of power generation. . cooling.
org) .Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System 85 Figure 4-3. Device-level Power (www.galvinpower.
galvinpower. Building Integrated (Localized) Power (www.org) .86 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 4-4.
This additional flexibility is enhanced by a use of communications. and reliability and power quality management technologies. This system still has limited needs for extensive power delivery grid infrastructures. The main communications and control is still expected to be localized. Advantages of the Distributed Power System & Relevant Nodes of Innovation The main advantage of the distributed configuration is that it provides for additional flexibility in power generation and storage solutions. and the energy management can be optimized at the local level. but also considering the availability of power from other sources besides the local systems. In this configuration. control hierarchy and computational ability. as well as centralized technologies. these power quality and reliability technologies will receive priority at the local . importance of the energy to different devices and systems. etc. A real-time system can optimize both energy and reliability through the interconnection of the local systems. The structure also can result in improved reliability by allowing for energy supply alternatives. storage systems availability. Additionally. These more centralized systems can incorporate both generation and storage systems. availability of central generation and storage. society costs of different sources of generation. The concept of the distributed system is to optimize performance locally without complete dependence on the bulk power system infrastructure (this maximizes reliability). but being able to take advantage of the overall infrastructure to optimize energy efficiency and energy use. energy performance can be optimized through a market structure where appropriate values are placed on all-important quantities (reliability. reliability and power quality will be assured through technologies in individual devices and local systems. This naturally results in an increase in infrastructure complexity.). Like distributed generation. but interconnection of local systems allows sharing of generation and storage capabilities over wider areas for more efficient energy management.Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System DISTRIBUTED POWER SYSTEMS 87 The distributed power system involves interconnection of different localized systems to take advantage of power generation and storage that can support multiple local systems.
The design implies full flexibility to transport power over long distances to optimize generation resources and the ability to deliver the power to load centers in the most efficient manner possible coupled with the strong backbone. These nodes can include the evolution of entirely new end-use devices. although the opportunity for DER to be included in the optimization is inherent in the design. reliability and performance. NODES OF INNOVATION In addition to outlining the conceptual development of plausible perfect power system configurations it is equally important to identify "nodes of innovation" that are essential and contribute to the development of the perfect system configuration. building systems. The primary difference between this configuration and the distributed power configuration is the inclusion of a centralized generation sources and the possibly more modest use of distributed energy resources (DER). The Galvin Research Team selected the following nodes of in- . communications and computational ability that provides for an optimal power system that is self healing and will not fail. sensors. Figure 4-5 provides a visual representation of a distributed configuration that integrates renewable and fuel cell technologies. Figure 4-6 provides a simple diagram of a fully integrated perfect power system which integrates power electronics.88 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response level in this scenario with the added ability to export services or take advantage of some centralized services as appropriate to optimize overall performance. FULLY INTEGRATED POWER SYSTEM: THE SMART GRID The final level of development involves a configuration that enables the complete integration of the power system across wide areas into a smart grid. plus any number of possible electric power systems technologies and configurations. The DC distribution described in the localized system still provides a foundation for implementation of local technologies for improved quality. the proliferation of existing devices now available—but having limited market penetration today.
org) . Distributed Power (www.galvinpower.Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System 89 Figure 4-5.
galvinpower. Fully Integrated Power (www.org) .90 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 4-6.
For more information on the perfect power system visit the Galvin Electricity Initiative Website at www. Power system engineers continue to debate the best approach to optimizing existing electric infrastructures in the developed world and planning and deploying new infrastructures in developing countries. analyze and operate bulk . These nodes can be most enhanced by certain elements of related technologies that may be part of those nodes.org.galvinelectricity. The eight critical nodes of innovation identified include: • • • • • • • Communications Computational Ability Distributed Generation Power Electronics and Controls Energy Storage Building Systems Efficient Appliances and Devices Sensors The reader should note that there are a substantial number of key technologies that appear to have the greatest probability of advancing one or more of the candidate Perfect Systems. Starting from the beginning.Using a Smart Grid to Evolve the Perfect Power System 91 novation that will be critical for developing the perfect electric energy systems described in the previous section. CONCLUSION This chapter lays out possible configurations that may lead researchers and practitioners to stimulate thinking about evolving improved power systems resulting in a smart grid. None of the perfect system configurations are capable of being deployed today without the evolution of one or more nodes of innovation being enhanced. engineers are taught to design. dispersed or distributed configurations. Typically this debate is mired in a mental framework that evolves from the traditional electric industry. It was this belief that once those systems had evolved. Future work is needed to study those technologies that may be essential to portable. the perfect fully integrated configuration would literally self-organize.
galvinpower. www. (www. 2005. Naturally. this approach is reinforced as graduate engineers enter industry.org). 2005. The result may well be the evolution of new systems—or it may be the augmentation of existing systems. . References Phase I Report: The Path to the Perfect Power System. This chapter offers an entirely new approach.org.92 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response power systems. galvinpower. Phase I Report: Technology Mapping. Scanning and Foresight. By taking a clean sheet of paper and approaching the design from a consumer perspective it is possible to unleash innovation and offer substantive improvement in quality and reliability. Time will tell.
DC POWER: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Early power systems developed by Thomas Edison generated and delivered direct current (DC).. and then returns to zero once more. the AC power provided to a home outlet has a frequency of 60 cycles per second.S. This pioneering system. 93 . usually flat. Any device that relies on batteries—a flashlight.Chapter 5 DC Distribution & the Smart Grid Thomas Edison's nineteenth-century electric distribution system relied on direct current (DC) power generation. from a positive to a negative pole. most notably that power typically could not be practically transmitted beyond a distance of about one mile. largely because in the 19th century. Direct current (DC) is a continuous flow of electricity in one direction through a wire or conductor. builds up to a maximum in the opposite direction. for example. lightning. DC power generation was limited to a relatively low voltage potential and DC power could not be transmitted beyond a mile. and the rate at which it repeats is called the frequency of the current. sited near the load. It flows from a high to a low potential. Alternating current (AC) is electricity that changes direction at regular intervals. the hertz being a unit equal to one cycle per second. DC power systems had many limitations. repeats. It builds to a maximum voltage in one direction. in a battery. turned out to be impractical and uneconomical. a laptop computer—operates on direct current. Direct current is created by generators such as fuel cells or photovoltaic cells. or cycle. DC voltage appears as a straight line. however. and batteries. This is expressed as 60 hertz (Hz). or the load had to be brought close to the generator. delivery. In the U. However. This complete sequence. Edison's power plants had to be local affairs. decreases to zero. a portable CD player. and by static electricity. AC VS. and use. When represented graphically.
They are unnecessary as they are dangerous.S. With DC systems. which he claimed would be dangerous because of the high voltage at which power would need to be transmitted over long distances. "My personal desire would be to prohibit entirely the use of alternating currents. Alternating current can be produced by large generators. and the voltage of alternating current can be stepped up or down for transmission and delivery. Edison fought vociferously against the use of alternating currentbased systems. Jr.—which included royalties from his patents on direct current systems—was to deploy relatively small scale. an economically and physically impractical approach. because changing the voltage of DC current was extremely inefficient. power had to be generated close to where it was used. If the local plant failed. The distance limitation of direct current and the difficulties of changing voltages proved critical factors in abandoning DC systems in favor of those based on AC. delivery of power with direct current in Edison's time meant that separate electric lines had to be installed to supply power to appliances and equipment of different voltages. Another limitation was that DC current incurred considerable power losses. 1889. This resulted in problematic reliability and economics.." —Thomas Edison. individual DC plants to serve small areas—such as the Pearl Street Station. He also electrocuted numerous cats and dogs procured from neighborhood boys. who also worked for Westinghouse— proved to be far superior technically and economically. The voltage of AC could be stepped up or decreased to enable long distance power transmission and distribution to end-use equipment.94 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Moreover. Scientific American He even went so far as to demonstrate the danger of AC by using it to electrocute a Coney Island elephant named Topsy who had killed three men. But despite proving that alternating current could be an effective means of electrocuting these hapless creatures. its superiority to DC for transmission and distribution was compelling. But George Westinghouse's polyphase alternating current (AC) power system—invented by Nikola Tesla and used with transformers developed by William Stanley. the entire system . Edison's concept for electrification of the U. which powered a part of New York City's financial district.
and therefore made alternating current essential. lighting a string of thirty series-connected 100-volt incandescent lamps. Wires were run from his "central" generating station along Main Street in Great Barrington. If one area's power were out because of a problem at the generator. Transformers that could efficiently adjust voltage levels in different parts of the system and help minimize the inherent power losses associated with long-distance distribution were a critical enabling technology that led to today's AC-dominated power distribution system. A total of twenty . According to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) History Center. In addition. Another major driver was the desire to make use of hydroelectric power sources located far from urban load centers. fastened to the elm trees that lined that thoroughfare. and then stepping the voltage back down to 500-volts.DC Distribution & The Smart Grid 95 was down. the voltage can be stepped up to high levels so that electricity can be distributed over long distances at low currents. Engineers wanted to Interconnect systems to improve reliability and overcome the economic limitations of DC electrical systems. then the adjacent town would be available to pick up the load. a greater diversity of load was obtained. Transformers Transform the Power Delivery System By using transformers. which made long distance transmission essential. Transformers do not work with DC power. Stanley first demonstrated the potential of transformers to enable AC transmission at Main Street in Great Barrington. A total of six step-down transformers were located in the basements of some Main Street buildings to lower the distribution to 100-volts. and hence with low losses.58¢ per kWh. Massachusetts. He demonstrated their ability to both raise and lower voltage by stepping up the 500-volt output of a Siemens generator to 3000-volts. Effective transformers were first demonstrated in 1886 by William Stanley of the Westinghouse Company. And because initial power systems were devoted to lighting loads and systems only generated power at times of high usage. which would improve load factor and enable more economical operation of the generation plants. the cost of energy was high—often more than $1 per kWh when adjusted for inflation to present dollars (2005)—compared to an average cost for residential electricity today of 8. by interconnecting isolated systems.
Centralization Dictates AC Instead of DC Other factors led to the preference for AC power transmission instead of DC power delivery—most notably a desire for large-area grids relying on centralized power plant. Similar alternating current systems that use transformers eventually replaced Thomas Edison's direct current systems. In the 25 years following the construction of the Niagara Falls Power Station. such as hydroelectric dams.96 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response business establishments were then lighted using incandescent lamps. Niagara Falls represented a showplace of a very different sort. Here electrical engineers were confronted with one of the great technical challenges of the age—how to harness the enormous power latent in Niagara's thundering waters and make it available for useful work. whether it should be direct or alternating current. The success of the giant polyphase alternating current generators made clear the directions that electric power technology would take in the new century. Having a transmission and distribution system that could provide hydro-electricity to cities or to remotely located industries such as gold or silver mines in the Rocky Mountains was also an economic imperative. Stanley's installation in Great Barrington was the first such system to include all of the basic features of large electric power systems as they still exist more than one hundred years later. Stanley's demonstration of raising the generator voltage to 3000volts and then back down again was exactly the same concept as employed in present day power systems where a "generator step-up" transformer is used to raise the system voltage to a very high level for long distance transmission. but on development of polyphase alternating current generators per the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). and then "large substation" transformers are used to lower the voltage to some intermediate level for local distribution. various technological innovations and other factors led away from the early small-scale DC systems. and toward systems based upon increasingly larger-scale central-station plants interconnected via . as engineers and financiers argued about whether electricity could be relied on to transmit large amounts of power the 20 miles to Buffalo and. Such development relied not only on transformers. Years of study and heated debate preceded the start-up of the first Niagara Falls Power Station in the summer of 1895. if so.
and why AC originally prevailed. Now cities and towns could be interconnected. the government also played a role in development of centralized power systems and thus reliance on AC transmission. alternating current (AC) distribution was far superior for the needs of a robust electrical infrastructure. and deliver electricity in the form of alternating current. And Nikola Tesla's invention of a relatively simple AC induction motor meant end users needed AC. and by the 1970s.S. During this period. transmit. Facilities such as data centers. Several converging factors have spurred the recent interest in DC power delivery. AC won out. no one is advocating a wholesale change of the infrastructure from AC to DC. and today utilities generate. Public policy and legislation encouraged the movement to larger centralized systems. or building sub-systems may find a compelling value proposition in using DC power. Edison could not overcome the shortcomings of his DC system. and so relatively large amounts of power could be transmitted efficiently over long distances. transmission voltages as high as 150 kV were being introduced. But a new debate is arising over AC versus DC: should DC power delivery systems displace or augment the AC distribution system in buildings or other small.DC Distribution & The Smart Grid 97 transmission lines that carried alternating current. distributed applications? Edison's original vision for a system that has DC generation. the voltage of AC could be stepped up with relatively simple transformer devices for distance transmission and subsequently stepped down for delivery to appliances and equipment in the home or factory. and end-use loads may come to fruition—at least for some types of installations. campus-like groups of buildings. As a result. Although high-voltage direct current (HVDC) is now a viable means of long-distance power transmission and is used in nearly a 100 applications worldwide. power delivery. (See the section AC versus DC: An Historical Perspective for more on the attributes of AC and DC power. as this would be wildly impractical. and power could be shared between areas. which could be generated at large central plants for high-voltage bulk delivery over long distances.) Despite a vigorous campaign against the adoption of alternating current. was through large centralized power systems. One of the most important is that an increasing number . In addition to technical and market forces. Unlike DC power. more than 95% of all electric power being sold in the U.
The power supplies that convert high-voltage AC power into the low-voltage DC power needed by the electronic equipment used in commercial buildings and data centers typically operate at roughly 65% to 75% efficiency. Another factor is that new distributed resources such as solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays and fuel cells produce DC power. longer-lived system components. equipment operates on DC. the specter of several potential benefits are driving newfound interest in DC power delivery systems: Increasingly. and other electronic device. Eliminating the need for multiple conversions could potentially prevent energy losses of up to 35%. As one specialty electronics manufacturer put it. computer system power supply. deployment of DC power delivery systems as part of AC/DC "hybrid" buildings—or as a DC power micro-grid "island" that can operate independently of the bulk power grid—could enhance the reliability and security of the electric power system. the rest from stepping down DC voltage in DC to DC conversions. in part. In a larger context. So why not a DC power distribution system as well? Why not eliminate the equipment that converts DC power to AC for distribution.98 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response of microprocessor-based electronic devices use DC power internally. Building electrical systems are fed with AC that is converted to DC at every fluorescent ballast. BENEFITS AND DRIVERS OF DC POWER DELIVERY SYSTEMS Due. All microprocessors require direct current and many devices operate internally on DC power since it can be precisely regulated for sensitive components. and lower operating costs." AC-DC conversions within these devices waste power. to the interest in the smart grid. and batteries and other technologies store it. "DC is the blood of electronics. . then back again to DC at the appliance? Advocates point to greater efficiency and reliability from a DC power delivery system. Less waste heat and a less complicated conversion system could also potentially translate into lower maintenance requirements. converted inside the device from standard AC supply. meaning that 25 to 35% of all the energy consumed is wasted. About half the losses are from AC to DC conversions. requiring conversion from AC sources.
enhancing efficiency and reliability and system cost-effectiveness. Other devices can also be suited to DC output. and commercial fleets. so charging them with electricity from solar photovoltaic arrays and other distributed sources could reduce reliance on gasoline. Many distributed generation sources such as photovoltaic cells and fuel cells— and advanced energy storage systems (batteries. These batteries store DC power. This again helps avoid unnecessary conversions between AC and DC. One of the most promising potential applications of DC power delivery is in data centers. such as microturbines and wind turbines. DC power delivery could potentially enhance energy efficiency in data centers. the millions of AC to DC conversions necessitated for the operation of electronics extract a huge energy loss penalty. and ultra capacitors) produce energy in the form of DC power. Considered in aggregate. Distributed generation systems produce DC power. flywheels. EPRI Solutions estimated that the total lifecycle cost of PV energy for certain DC applications could be reduced by more than 25% compared to using a conventional DC to AC approach—assuming that the specific end-use applications are carefully selected. which also results in power losses during conversion. which have . For instance. transit buses. so optimization of designs with DC power delivery may help spur adoption and efficient operation. an increasing number of portable gadgets such as cell phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs) require an AC-DC adapter. enhancing security and emergency preparedness. Plug-in hybrid vehicles can go greater distances on electricity than today's hybrids since they have larger batteries. Storage devices such as batteries. Likewise.DC Distribution & The Smart Grid 99 Simply getting rid of the losses from AC to DC conversion could reduce energy losses by about 10 to 20%. Even hybrid vehicles such as the Toyota Prius could serve as DC generators in emergencies with the right equipment to connect them to the electrical system. flywheels and capacitors store and deliver DC power. a pressing need. The energy losses entailed in converting DC to AC power for distribution could be eliminated with DC power delivery.2 The costs of new distributed generation such as PV arrays are still high. DC power could help power hybrid automobiles.
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
densely packed racks of servers that use DC power. In such centers, AC is converted to DC at the uninterruptible power supply, to facilitate storage, then is converted again to push out to the servers, and is converted one more time to DC at each individual server. These conversions waste power and generate considerable heat, which must be removed by air conditioning systems, resulting in high electricity costs. In a 10–15 megawatt (MW) data center, as much as 2–3 MW may be lost because of power conversions. As these centers install ever more dense configurations of server racks, DC power delivery systems may be a means to reduce skyrocketing power needs. Improved inverters and power electronics allow DC power to be converted easily and efficiently to AC power and to different voltage levels. Component improvements enable greater efficiency than in the past, and improve the economics of hybrid AC/DC systems. Although improved electronics also enhance AC-only systems, such enabling technology makes the DC power delivery option feasible as well. The evolution of central power architecture in computers and other equipment simplifies DC power delivery systems. At present, delivering DC to a computer requires input at multiple voltages to satisfy the power needs of various internal components (RAM, processor, etc.) Development of a central power architecture, now underway, will enable input of one standardized DC voltage at the port, streamlining delivery system design. DC power delivery may enhance micro-grid system integration, operation, and performance. A number of attributes make DC power delivery appealing for use in micro-grids. With DC distribution, solidstate switching can quickly interrupt faults, making for better reliability and power quality. If tied into the AC transmission system, a DC power micro-grid makes it easy to avoid back-feeding surplus generation and fault contributions into the bulk utility system (by the use of a rectifier that only allows one-way power flow). In addition, in a low-voltage DC system, such as would be suitable for a home or group of homes, a line of a given voltage rating can transmit much more DC power than AC power. Of course, while DC circuits are widely used in energy-consuming devices and appliances, DC power delivery systems are not commonplace, and therefore face the obstacles any new system design or
DC Distribution & The Smart Grid
technology must overcome. For any of the benefits outlined above to be realized, testing, development, and demonstration are needed to determine the true potential and market readiness of DC power delivery. POWERING EQUIPMENT AND APPLIANCES WITH DC Many energy-consuming devices and appliances operate internally on DC power, in part because DC can be precisely regulated for sensitive components. An increasing number of devices consume DC, including computers, lighting ballasts, televisions, and set top boxes. Moreover, if motors for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) are operated by variable frequency drives (VFD), which have internal DC buses, then HVAC systems that use VFDs could operate on DC power. Numerous portable devices like cell phones and PDAs also require an AC-DC adapter. As discussed above, by some estimates the AC-DC conversions for these devices waste up to 20% of the total power consumed. Equipment Compatibility EPRI Solutions examined the compatibility of some common devices with DC power delivery in 2002: • • • • • • Switched mode power supplies, including those for computers (lab test) Fluorescent lighting with electronic ballasts Compact fluorescent lamps (lab test) Electric baseboard and water heating units Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) Adjustable speed motor drives
These devices represent a large percentage of the electric load, and EPRI Solutions' preliminary assessments show that each could be potentially powered by a DC supply. Although additional testing is needed to determine the effect of DC power on the long-term operation of such equipment, results do indicate the feasibility of delivering DC power to these devices. Switched-mode Power Supply (SMPS)—Switched-mode power supply (SMPS) technology is used to convert AC 120 V/60 Hz into the
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
DC power used internally by many electronic devices. At the most basic level, an SMPS is a high frequency DC-DC converter. Many opportunities exist to use DC power with SMPS-equipped equipment since SMPS technology is found in many electronic devices including desktop computers, laptop computers with power adapters, fluorescent lighting ballasts, television sets, fax machines, photocopiers, and video equipment. Although AC input voltage is specified for most of the electronic devices that have SMPS, in some cases, this equipment can operate with DC power without any modification whatsoever. Also, in many instances, the location on the SMPS where AC is normally fed could be replaced with DC. Power Supplies for Desktop and Laptop Units—According to research on power supply efficiency sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the California Energy Commission, as of 2004, there were nearly 2.5 billion electrical products containing power supplies in use in the U.S., with about 400 to 500 million new power supplies sold each year. The total amount of electricity that flowed through these power supplies in 2004 was more than 207 billion kWh, or about 6% of the national electric bill. Researchers determined that more efficient designs could save an expected 15 to 20% of that energy. That amount represents 32 billion kWh/year, or a savings of $2.5 billion. If powered by DC, conversion losses could be reduced and significant savings achieved. EPRI Solutions conducted tests to assess the ability of two standard SMPS-type computer power supplies to operate on DC; a 250 watt ATX type typically used for desktop computers, and a portable plug-in power module for laptop computers. In both cases, tests revealed that the power supplies would operate properly when supplied with DC power of the right magnitude, although no tests were done to determine power supply operation and performance when connected to the computer loads. For the desktop computer power supply, sufficient output was provided when supplied with 150 V of DC or greater. For the laptop SMPS unit, 30 V DC was required to "turn on" the output, which begins at 19.79 V and continues at that output unless DC supply drops to 20 volts DC or below. Fluorescent Lighting with Electronic Ballasts—The key to DC operation of fluorescent lights lies in the use of electronic ballasts. The ballast is used to initiate discharge and regulate current flow in the
DC Distribution & The Smart Grid
lamp. Modern electronic ballasts function in much the same manner as a switched-mode power supply thus making it potentially possible to operate them from a DC supply. Virtually all new office lighting systems use electronic ballasts, which are more efficient and capable of powering various lights at lower costs. Only older installations are likely to have the less-efficient magnetic ballasts in place. For electronically ballasted applications, several manufacturers make ballasts rated for DC. Lighting systems could be retrofitted with DC-rated ballast units for DC operation. All light switches and upstream protection in line with DC current flow would also need to be rated for DC. Compact Fluorescent Lamps—Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) are energy-efficient alternatives to the common incandescent bulb. A new 20-watt compact fluorescent lamp gives the same light output as a standard 75-watt incandescent light bulb, and also offers an average operating life 6 to 10 times longer. A compact fluorescent lamp has two parts: a small, folded gas-filled tube and a built-in electronic ballast. As with the fluorescent tubes used in commercial lighting, the electronic ballast enables DC operation of CFLs. EPRI Solutions' testing of a 20-watt CFL unit with DC power supply revealed that while the CFL could operate on DC power, it required a much higher DC input voltage. With AC supply, the CFL provided constant light at 63 V, but with DC supply, 164.4 V DC was required. After speaking with CFL manufacturers, EPRI Solutions researchers determined that the CFL used a voltage doubling circuit on the input to the electronic ballast. However, the voltage doubling circuit does not operate on DC voltage. Hence, the DC voltage must be twice the magnitude of the AC voltage to compensate for the non-functioning doubling circuit. This resulting over-voltage on the capacitors could result in shortened lamp life, depending on the ratings of certain input elements in the circuit. The reduction in lamp life is unknown. Additional research is needed to determine whether the energy savings over the life of the lamp would compensate for the increased cost due to premature lamp failure. Electric Baseboard and Water Heating—DC voltage can be used to run almost any device utilizing an electric heating element, including resistive baseboard and electric water heaters. In these applications,
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
electrical current flowing in a heating element produces heat due to resistance. The chief concern of using DC in such applications is not in the heating element itself, but in the contactors, switches, and circuit breakers used for such circuits. Since DC is more difficult to interrupt, the interrupting devices must be capable of clearing any faults that develop. There are no DC equivalents to ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), which are commonplace electrical devices used in AC systems to prevent electric shock. Uninterruptible Power Systems—Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) are excellent candidates for DC power support. A UPS is composed of an inverter, a high-speed static switch, various controls, and battery energy storage. The functional objective of the UPS is to provide high reliability and power quality for connected loads that may be susceptible to voltage sags or short duration power interruptions. Most UPS systems have anywhere from a few minutes up to about 30 minutes of battery storage. For larger UPS units (>30 kVA), it is typical to have a backup generator that starts and picks up load a few minutes after the utility power is interrupted, which, today, is lower cost than having several hours of battery energy storage onsite. Since a UPS has an inverter and an internal DC bus, it already has many of the elements needed to operate with DC energy. Variable speed motors—Motors are very important electrical devices, and represent a significant portion of power use in the U.S. In industry, for instance, approximately two-thirds of the electricity use is attributable to motors. Most AC motor loads still use the same basic technology as the Tesla induction motor. These omnipresent motors convert AC power for applications such as air handling, air compression, refrigeration, airconditioning, ventilation fans, pumping, machine tools, and more. A workhorse of modern society, these motors can only operate with AC power. In fact, if subjected to DC power, an AC motor could burn up quickly. In addition, without alternating current, the magnetic vectors produced in the induction motor powered with DC would not be conducive to rotation and the motor would stall—so an induction motor simply will not operate directly on DC power. But DC can be used if a variable frequency drive is part of the system. A variable frequency drive allows for adjusting the motor speed, rather than operating it either on or off. By varying the frequency of
DC Distribution & The Smart Grid
power over a wide range, motor speed can be adjusted to best match the mechanical process, such as circulating air with a fan. This ability to adjust speed can translate into significant energy savings, as a CEO for a major manufacturer explains: Since a variable frequency drive converts 60 Hz power to DC and then converts the DC to variable frequency AC that is fed to the motor, a DC supply can be readily accommodated, further increasing energy efficiency. Greater adoption of energy-efficient variable speed motors, now underway for heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems and other applications, represents a greater opportunity for deploying DC power. In addition, several manufacturers now offer DC variable frequency drives for solar-powered water and irrigation pumps. DATA CENTERS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) LOADS One of the nearest-term applications for DC power delivery systems is data centers, or "server farms." These facilities are strong candidates for DC power delivery due to: (1) the availability of products that could enable near-term implementation; and (2) an economic imperative to increase energy efficiency and power reliability. A data center may consist of thousands of racks housing multiple servers and computing devices. The density of these servers keeps increasing, wasting power and generating heat with multiple AC to DC conversions. The need to provide more and more power to new blade server technology and other high-density computing devices has made reducing electricity costs a pressing goal within the data center industry. Multiple approaches are under consideration to increase energy efficiency, including a multi-core approach, with cores running at reduced speed, and software that enables managers to run multiple operating system images on a single machine. However, one of the more intriguing options is DC power delivery. In fact, a data-center industry group formed in late 2005 with support from the California Energy Commission through the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is exploring the challenge of determining how DC power delivery systems can reduce energy needs and enhance the performance of data centers.
To calculate energy savings estimates for different design configurations or using different assumptions. 3. Square D/Schneider Electric. Nextek Power. which requires multiple AC-DC-AC conversions.106 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Headed by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and implemented by EPRI Solutions and Ecos Consulting. EDG2. Universal Electric Corp. and others are participating and contributing to the project. However. can have an overall system efficiency lower than 50%. Table 5-1 shows one estimate from EPRI. EYP Mission Critical. Numerous Silicon Valley giants including Intel. SatCon Power Systems. Cingular Wireless. Hewlett-Packard. Dranetz-BMI. Sun Microsystems. NTT Facilities. the California Energy Commission (CEC) and the California Institute for Energy Efficiency (CIEE) for a DC demonstration project at a Sun Microsystems facility in Newark. Inc. 2. Dupont Fabros. California. available at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory website (http:// . Liebert Corporation.. and Verizon Wireless. How much energy and money could be saved by eliminating these multiple conversions? Field performance data are yet to be documented. including Alindeska Electrical Contractors. Pentadyne. Morrison Hershfield Corporation.5 million annually by using a DC power delivery system. preliminary estimates of energy savings indicate that about 20% savings could be realized by changing from AC-based powering architecture to DC-based powering architecture for a rack of servers. SBC Global. Cisco. CCG Facility Integration. The objectives of the demonstration are to show: 1. Efficiency gains from the elimination of multiple conversion steps in the delivery of DC power to server hardware. which indicates that a typical data center of 1.000 racks could save $3. the group has obtained funding from the Public Interest Energy Research (PIER). TDI Power. Baldwin Technologies. The existing AC-based powering architecture in a data center. visit an Excel-based calculator. The level of functionality and computing performance when compared to similarly configured and operated servers and racks containing AC power supplies.. RTKL. How DC-powered servers and server racks can be built and operated from existing components.
gains in reliability from DC power (not shown in this table) would not be achieved. If a best-in-class AC system is compared to a DC best-in-class system.DC Distribution & The Smart Grid 107 Table 5-1a. the savings from use of DC power would be reduced. Overall cooling system efficiency = 1.200 Watts/ton. Energy savings estimate for one rack of servers with high-efficiency power conversion *The efficiencies for the AC system are based on typical. number of 1U servers per rack = 40 Table 5-1b. project life = 4 years. Only energy-related savings are considered. yearly energy savings might be about $873 rather than $3428. discount rate = 6%. rather than best-in-class systems. other savings such as size and heat sink cost not considered. However. For instance. Assumptions .4 GHz Xeon processor based 1U server rack 1U = TK Energy cost = 12¢/kWh. Calculations are based on typical power budget for a dual 2.
These estimated benefits are based on vendor claims. Intel has estimated that power consumption can be reduced by about 10%. which employs off-theshelf equipment available from several manufacturers. Server reliability may be increased by as much as 27%. The benefits and estimated performance improvements include the following: • • • • • • • • • A lower number of components are needed.lbl. and voltage-matched DC systems can inherently be coupled together. DC power distribution delivery is modular and flexible. Baldwin's DC power system is being demonstrated at the Pentadyne Power facility in Chatsworth. No down-stream static or transfer switches are required. leading to lower maintenance costs and greater reliability. so systems can grow with load requirements. Less heat would therefore be generated. DC distribution eliminates harmonics. which does system design. California. For example. lowering the cooling load of the facility. Management software and controls are available. and others have projected even higher reductions. Busways with double end-feed features allow for redundant DC sources at critical loads. Grounding is simplified.108 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response hightech. rated performance of components. as well as improvements that Baldwin anticipates will derive from its own DC power delivery system design. Other benefits of a DC power delivery system are also possible.gov/DC-server-arch-tool. including: • Rectifiers that convert utility- or generator-supplied AC power to DC (500 VDC) . DC distribution eliminates power factor concern. Baldwin Technologies.html). has promoted benefits of a DC power delivery system for data centers.
.DC Distribution & The Smart Grid • 109 Energy storage. equipment throughout the entire house could be powered by DC. One includes stand-alone systems that can operate full time as off-the-grid "islands. DC power distribution systems may also help overcome constraints in the development of new transmission capacity that are beginning to impact the power industry." independent of the bulk power supply system. or even a hybrid automobile. In fact. with utility-supplied power as well as building-based generators such as a solar array. 24V. can charge a host of portable appliances. DC systems can operate selected loads or critical subsystems. POTENTIAL FUTURE WORK AND RESEARCH Technology advances suggest that there are significant opportunities for certain DC-based applications. reliability. power quality.) as required by server equipment • • YOUR FUTURE NEIGHBORHOOD Adding DC power delivery systems to our homes. What might a future with DC power delivery look like? A number of options are available. 48V. or commercial facilities offers the potential for improvements in energy-delivery efficiency. But many obstacles must . etc. but rather a flywheelbased system that can provide power to a 500 VDC bus if AC sources are lost Equipment racks with DC distribution entailing connectors that enable feeding power from two separate 500 VDC sources for redundancy DC to DC converters for conversion of 500 VDC power to lowvoltage DC (e. as shown in Figure 5-2. and promising benefits in terms of energy savings and increased reliability. Or a DC charging "rail" such as the kitchen countertop shown in Figure 5-1. in this case not batteries. Hybrid buildings are also possible. 5V. and cost of operation as compared to traditional power systems. such as computers and lights.g. fuel cell. office buildings. energy storage device.
can DC power systems enable use of plug-in hybrid vehicles. Additional research. Demonstrations with Manufacturers are Called For—Even though electronic devices ultimately operate on DC. and do not typically have ports for DC power delivery. enabling people to charge portable electronics using an inductive charging pad fed by rooftop solar cells Figure 5-1. development and demonstration are needed to make DC systems viable. A DC-powered inductive charging system (www. and reliable power delivery between such vehicles and either energy sources or loads are needed.galvinpower. we discuss some of the barriers and research needs presented by DC power delivery systems. they have been designed with internal conversion systems to change AC to DC. which may become tomorrow's mobile "mini" power plants? Systems that will accommodate efficient. for example. The Business Case for DC Power Delivery is Not Yet Clear—Will potential operating cost savings be sufficient to warrant initial capital investment for early adopters? For what applications? To what extent will DC play into new power delivery infrastructure investments? How.org) be overcome.110 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Tomorrow's homes may be blissfully cord free. Whether DC power systems are a practical option must be assessed. Below. Most Equipment is Not Yet Plug Ready. Although some specific products are available to . safe.
including rectifiers. a compelling business case is necessary before product designers and manufacturers will alter their products and add DC power ports—or make other changes to their equipment. appliances throughout the house could be DC powered.galvinpower.org) accept DC power—such as DC fluorescent lighting ballasts. Measured data on potential energy savings. storage systems. However. AC 60-Hz power still must be supplied. the benefits of DC power delivery. or server rack distribution systems—for most loads. such as energy efficiency. More Field Testing and Performance Measurements are Required—Several manufacturers have developed components that enable DC power delivery in data centers. and rack distribution systems. A possible DC power system for tomorrow's home (www. DC to DC converters. based on vendor claims and rated performance of various components. To document potential and expand markets. For Data Center Applications. Figure 5-2. such as variable frequency drives. as well as other performance metrics such as power reli- . Since the electronics market is highly competitive and has relatively low profit margins. have only been estimated.DC Distribution & The Smart Grid 111 From the kitchen inductive charger to the PC to the air conditioner. additional demonstrations are needed with equipment that holds promise for use with DC power delivery.
which requires investment in product development.112 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ability and power quality. retailers. Further. DC power switches and interrupters employing semiconductors or other technology are needed for DC delivery systems. buyers. maintenance needs. CONCLUSION As the smart grid evolves. it may be appropriate to rethink the wider use of DC power distribution in buildings. it is more difficult to interrupt the flow of DC power.org. system integration. installers. 2005. References DC Power Production. Therefore. techniques for controlling transients. and users want to mitigate risk and cost. Installation. professional training—and time. Galvin Electricity Initiative: Transforming Electric Service Reliability and Value for the 21st Century. www.galvinpower. June 2006. Designers. Delivery and Utilization: An EPRI White Paper. and when an air gap is required. require additional investigation and testing—as does research for grounding and balancing DC. the lifetime of converters. The Electric Power Research Institute. Also to be addressed are when and where solid-state switches need to be applied. Safety and Protection Standards and Equipment Need to be Developed—Since DC power does not cycle to a current "zero" 120 times per second like 60 Hz AC current does. and other factors are required. technicians. such as spikes from lightning strikes. Standard Practices for Design. and Maintenance Need to be Established in the Marketplace—Adoption of any new technology or design procedures can represent a significant hurdle. .
INTRODUCTION The nation's power delivery system is being stressed in new ways for which it was not designed. "the current power infrastructure is as incompatible with the future as horse trails were to automobiles. coordinated effort the present power delivery system and market structure can be enhanced and augmented to meet the challenge it faces—evolving into an IntelliGridSM. the implementation of modern and self-generation. However. Without accelerated investment and careful policy analysis.Chapter 6 The IntelliGridSM Architecture For the Smart Grid The challenge before the energy industry remains formidable. for. maintenance and performance issues that contributed to the August 14. And it highlights one of the most fundamental of electric functions: getting electricity from the point of generation to the point of use. Power delivery has been part of the utility industry for so long that it is hard to imagine that this process has not already been optimized. as stated in the July 2001 issue of Wired magazine. today's electricity infrastructure is inadequate to meet rising consumer needs and expectations. For example. Simply stated. The 2003 blackout in the Northeast reminds us that electricity is indeed essential to our well-being. the onset of competitive power markets. 2003 outage. public/private. a number of improvements to the 113 . and the saturation of existing transmission and distribution capacity. the power delivery function is changing and growing more complex with the exciting requirements of the digital economy." But with an aggressive. while there may have been specific operational. the vulnerabilities already present in today's power system will continue to degrade.
including the effects of: • Reactive power reserves in the region. To assure that the science and technology would be available to address the infrastructure needs. A sharp decline in critical infrastructure investment over the last decade has already left portions of the electric power system vulnerable to poor power quality service interruptions and market dislocations. such as motors. • • LAUNCHING THE INTELLIGRIDSM As previously stated. air conditioning. Power flow patterns over the entire region. rigorous investigation. Substantial system upgrades are needed just to bring service back to the level of reliability and quality already required and expected by consumers. It was called the Consortium for Electric Infrastructure to Support a Digital Society (CEIDS) and hoped to build public/ private partnerships to meet the energy needs of tomorrow's society. Reactive power is the additional power required for maintaining voltage stability when serving certain kinds of energy consuming devices and appliances. and to allow markets to function efficiently so that consumers can realize the promised benefit of industry restructuring. coupled with issues of coordination.114 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response system could minimize the potential threat and severity of any future outages. in 2001 the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Electricity Innovation Institute (E2I) initiated an ambitious program. It was the CEIDS effort that formed the foundation for most all smart grid efforts to follow. today's electricity infrastructure is inadequate to meet rising consumer needs and expectations. and fluorescent lights. New power flows resulting from changing geographic patterns of consumer demand and the installation of new power plants. This effort essentially launched the smart grid concept—albeit not using that label. . EPRI's study of the outage was performed during a three-week period immediately following and identified several areas that need further. control and communications of power system activities on a regional basis.
The main driving force behind efforts to increase competition in both wholesale and retail power markets was the need to make inexpensive electricity more widely available—in particular. fuel cells. industry restructuring has not yet provided adequate financial incentives for utilities to make the investments necessary to maintain—much less improve—power delivery quality and reliability. to reduce regional price inequities. conventional power plants. reliable electricity to meet the energy needs of the digital society. In addition. CEIDS believed it could enable such a transformation and ushered the direction for building future infrastructure needed.. quality. business savvy and technical excellence by attracting players from the electric utility industry. but over the next 20 years. the effects of deregulation are being seen in the wholesale market. reliability and availability required. the average real price of electricity in the U. CEIDS was guided by the following key principles: • Vision: To develop the science and technology that will ensure an adequate supply of high-quality. manufacturers and end users as well as federal and state agencies. Neither will the ultimate customers themselves find traditional utility solutions satisfactory or optimal in supplying the ever-increasing reliability and quality of electric power they demand. In order to achieve this.g. . microturbines) to interface devices to end-use equipment and circuit boards. new technology is needed if society is to leverage the ever-expanding opportunities of communications and electric utilities' natural connectivity to consumers to revolutionize both the role of a rapidly changing industry and the way consumers may be connected to electricity markets of the future.S. however. Already. quality and reliability on a collision course. At the same time. with both prices and price differentials declining rapidly. Simply "gold plating" the present delivery system would not be a feasible way to provide the level of security. The effect on retail markets will come more slowly. is expected to fall by 10% for residential customers and 14% for industrial customers. CEIDS believes that meeting the energy requirements of society will require applying a combination of advanced technologies—from generating devices (e. CEIDS initiated the creation of new levels of social expectations.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 115 The CEIDS consortium believed that the restructuring and rise of the digital economy have set electricity price.
These sensors would be integrated with a real-time communications system through an Integrated Electric and Simulation and Modeling computational ability and presented in a visual form in order for system operators to respond and administer. This would include building more transmission circuits. CEIDS later morphed into the IntelliGridSM and the Electricity Innovation Institute was absorbed into EPRI. as described above. making improvements on data infrastructure. Increasing System Capacity This functionality embodies a generally straightforward effort to build or reinforce capacity particularly in the high-voltage system. and updating protection schemes and relays. to eliminate many/most of the bottlenecks that currently limit a truly functional wholesale market and to assure system stability. Relieving Bottlenecks This functionality allows the U. bringing substations and lines up to NERC N-1 criteria. The consortium survives and prospers more than ever with over 50 collaborative partners. upgrading control centers.116 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Mission: CEIDS provides the science and technology that will power a digital economy and integrate energy users and markets through a unique collaboration of public. THE INTELLIGRIDSM TODAY The IntelliGridSM remains on course to provide the architecture for the smart grid by addressing five functionalities in the power system of today. In addition to increasing capacity.S. providing and allowing the operation of the electrical . this functionality includes increasing power flow. enhanced voltage support. These functionalities are consistent with those outlined in Chapter 1. and include the following: Visualizing the Power System in Real Time This attribute would deploy advanced sensors more broadly throughout the system on all critical components. private and governmental stakeholders.
outage and emergency services. and network intelligence to flow back and forth through a seamless two-way portal. This enhancement will allow three new areas of functionality: one which relates directly to electricity services (e. Enabling a Self-healing Grid Once the functionalities discussed above are in place.g.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 117 system on a dynamic basis. The EnergyPortSM is the consumer gateway now constrained by the meter. connectivity to the ultimate consumers can be enhanced with communications. service calls. then it is possible to consider controlling the system in real time. data services). The IntelliGridSM architecture includes a bold new concept called the EnergyPortSM (see Chapter 8). added billing information of real-time pricing). home security or appliance monitoring). This functionality would also require technology deployment to manage fault currents. communications. Once that system is present. and the third involves what are more generally thought of as communications services (e. The EnergyPortSM is the linchpin technology that leads to a fully functioning retail electricity marketplace with consumers responding (through microprocessor agents) to price signals. and diagnostics Improved building and appliance standards • ..g. These technologies will then provide the integration with an advanced control architecture to enable a self-healing system.g. allowing price signals. one which involves services related to electricity (e. Specific capabilities of the EnergyPortSM can include the following: • • Pricing and billing processes that would support real-time pricing Value-added services such as billing inquiries.. power quality monitoring. To enable this functionality will require wide-scale deployment of power electronic devices such as power electronic circuit breakers and flexible AC transmission technologies. decisions.. Enabling (Enhanced) Connectivity to Consumers The functionalities described above assume the integration of a communication system throughout much of the power system.
demand response. "digital-grade" power needed by a growing number of critical electricity end uses. increased economic growth • • • • . and stimulating the development. price-smart" electricity-related consumer and business services. implementation. high-value energy services that stimulate the economy and offer consumers greater control over energy usage and expenses. and a power delivery infrastructure that can be quickly restored in the event of attack or a disruption: A "selfhealing grid." Extremely reliable delivery of the high-quality. Availability of a wide range of "always-on. and use of energy-efficient equipment and systems. and use of clean distributed energy resources and efficient combined heat and power technologies. promoting development.118 • • • • • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Consumer energy management through sophisticated on-site energy management systems Easy "plug and play" connection of distributed energy resources Improved real-time system operations including dispatch. and loss identification Improved short-term load forecasting Improved long-term planning A SMART GRID VISION BASED ON THE INTELLIGRIDSM ARCHITECTURE The IntelliGridSM will enable achievement of the following goals: • Physical and information assets that are protected from man-made and natural threats. Minimized environmental and societal impact by improving use of the existing infrastructure. including low-cost. implementation. Improve productivity growth rates.
and intentional physical and cyber attack. standardized communica- . BARRIERS TO ACHIEVING THIS VISION To achieve this vision of the power delivery system and electricity markets. Under continued stress. This infrastructure is not being expanded or enhanced to meet the demands of wholesale competition in the electric power industry. • • • • Communication Architecture: The Foundation of the IntelliGridSM To realize the vision of the IntelliGridSM. The present electric power delivery infrastructure was not designed to meet. natural disasters. and does not facilitate connectivity between consumers and markets. commercial buildings. quality. security. GDP). reliability and availability (SQRA) needed for economic prosperity. offices. Investment in expansion and maintenance of this infrastructure is lagging.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 119 rates. industrial facilities and vehicles. nor does it facilitate enormous business opportunities in retail electricity/information services. the needs of a digital society—a society that relies on microprocessor-based devices in home. accelerated public/private research. the present infrastructure cannot support levels of power. and decreased electricity intensity (ratio of electricity use to gross domestic product. while electricity demand grows and will continue to grow. design and development (RD&D). The infrastructure does not adequately accommodate emerging beneficial technologies including distributed energy resources and energy storage. investment and careful policy analysis are needed to overcome the following barriers and vulnerabilities: • • The existing power delivery infrastructure is vulnerable to human error. and is unable to meet.
Power system security has also been recognized as crucial in the increasingly digital economy. enhance the performance of enduse digital devices that consumers employ.com/. new and expanded applications will be needed to respond to the increased pressures for managing power system reliability as market forces push the system to its limits. and embedded computing technologies. including intermediate steps from vertical operations to restructures operations. and enable consumer connectivity. and consumers demanding high quality will actively participate in power system operations. but not limited to.120 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response tions architecture must first be developed and overlaid on today's power delivery system. their information needs can be identified. more stakeholders. These were the initial steps in developing the IntelliGridSM: to define clearly the scope of the requirements of the power system functions and to identify all the roles of the stakeholders. In the future. These business models will establish a set of working relationships between industry entities in the present and the future. support deployment of technologies that increase the control and capacity of power delivery systems. These were then included in an Integrated Energy and Communications System Architecture. data networking. but not be limited to. There are many power system applications and a large number of potential stakeholders who already participate in power system operations.epri. Several technical elements will constitute this infrastructure including. DR owners selling energy and ancillary services into the electricity marketplace. The key is to identify and categorize all of these elements so that their requirements can be understood. the following: . thereby revolutionizing the value of consumer services. IECSA will enable the automated monitoring and control of power delivery systems in real time. This "Integrated Energy and Communications System Architecture" (IECSA) will be an open standards-based systems architecture for a data communications and distributed computing infrastructure. and eventually synergies among these information needs can be determined. The business models will include. such as customers responding to real-time process. Note that the IntelliGridSM Architecture is free to anyone and can be downloaded from EPRI's web site at http://intelligrid. One of the most powerful methodologies for identifying and organizing the pieces in this puzzle is to develop business models that identify a strawman set of entities and address the key interactions between these entities. communications over a wide variety of physical media. At the same time.
including optimal operations under normal conditions. including coordinate volt/var control. outage management. transmission maintenance operations. as well as interaction with the foreseen operation of intelligent end-use subsystems and loads within the customer's facility. power system scheduling. In other words. and outage scheduling and data maintenance. .The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid • 121 Market operations. including automated meter reading (ARM). short-term operations planning. DR monitoring and control by non-utility stakeholders. These business models will be analyzed and used to define the initial process boundaries for subsequent tasks. Distribution operations. microgrid management and DR maintenance management. emergency control operations. Transmission operations. automated distribution operation analysis. including participation of DR in market operations. and coordination of wind farms. Distributed resources at the distribution level. generation maintenance scheduling. Business process diagrams will be used to illustrate the more complex interactions. Customer services. and support of distribution system operations. power restoration. including energy transactions. • • • • • The scope of IECSA architecture encompasses the power system from the generator to the end-use load. fault location/isolation. meter management. and in-building services and services using communications with end-use loads within customer facilities. time-of-use and real-time pricing. prevention of harmful contingencies. metering. Generation at the transmission level. including automatic generation control. emergency power system management. feeder reconfiguration. This means the IECSA architecture includes the distributed computing environments in in-building environments. power quality monitoring. congestion management. aggregation for market participation. settlements and auditing. DR management. the IECSA architecture extends as far as the electric energy extends to do useful work.
122 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response The business models include the issues surrounding RTO/ISO operations and the seams issues between entities serving restructured as well as vertical markets. . then the industry's computational capability must be enhanced. as well as business entities anticipated to participate in a fully restructured electric and energy service industry. but not limited to. common carrier services and the provision of access network technologies to customers. while continually optimizing its own performance. These business models would address the application of new communications technologies that exhibit self-healing capabilities similar to that proposed for the power system Fast Simulation and Modeling Once the IECSA begins to be deployed. This new architecture will provide a framework for fundamentally changing system functionality as required in the future. This includes business operations that span across domains such as customer participation in ancillary service functions as well as self-healing grid functionality. In order to enable the functionality of the power delivery system. Standard documentation languages such as unified modeling language (UML). The intent here is to make the resulting information useful for the various stakeholder groups. high-level architecture (HLA). Creating a SHG will require the judicious use of numerous intelligent sensors and communication devices that will be integrated with power system control through a new architecture that is being developed by CEIDS. a capability which allows fast simulation and modeling (FSM) will need to evolve in order to assure the mathematical underpinning and look-ahead capability for a self-healing grid (SHG)—one capable of automatically anticipating and responding to power system disturbances. and others are incorporated as appropriate. look-ahead simulations and thus be able to avoid previously unforeseen disturbances. The FSM project will augment these capabilities in three ways: • Provide faster-than-real-time. The business models also included key communications business models that could provide either common services or private network infrastructures to support the power industry through the IECSA architecture. Business entities include vertical utilities. The business models for communications include generic communications business functions that may have roles in the ultimate implementation of the IECSA including.
having such improved modeling capability will also enable planners to better determine the effects of various market designs or policy changes on power system reliability. the FSM project will focus on the following three areas: • Multi-resolution Modeling. make decisions about local control functions (such as switching a protective relay). Because most control agents on today's power systems are simply programmed to respond to disturbances in pre-determined ways—for example. instead of the benefit of one circuit or one device. coordinate the control functions of the INAs for overall system benefit. The next step in creating a SHG will involve addition of intelligent network agents (INAs) that gather and communicate system data. and coordinate such decisions with overall system requirements. As discussed later. in turn. beginning in • . The new simulation tools developed in the FSM project will help prevent such cascading effects by creating better system models that use real-time data coming from INAs over a wide area and. The recent western states power "crisis" dramatically illustrated how untested policies and market dynamics can affect power system reliability. This effort will be conducted in parallel with the previous project. To reach these goals. This off-line modeling activity will be the focus of work during the first two years of the project. Integrate market. New modeling capabilities will be developed that provide much faster analysis of system conditions and offer operators the ability to "zoom" in or out to visualize parts of a system with lower or higher degrees of resolution.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid • • 123 Perform what-if analyses for large-region power systems from both operations and planning points of view. The new modeling capabilities being developed in this project will allow planners and policymakers to simulate the effects of their activities before actually putting them into practice. by switching off a relay at a certain voltage—the activity may actually make an incipient problem worse and contribute to a cascading outage. Modeling of Market and Policy Impacts on Reliability. policy and risk analyses into system models and quantify their effects on system security and reliability.
control centers. This work will begin in the third year and continue through the end of the project. integrated models have been thoroughly tested off-line. Unified integration architecture is the key enabler to successfully and inexpensively deploying advanced functions. they will be validated and enhanced using real-time data from major power systems. The IECSA is required to integrate customer interaction. and business systems. feeders.124 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response the first year. substation. The IECSA must also provide a scalable and cohesive way to access resources across the wide spectrum of applications while at the same time providing the means to filter out unwanted data. energy trading. The concepts and functions defined in the IECSA will support the development and deployment of distributed applications that reach to and across a great number of applications and stakeholders. power system monitoring and control. Open Communication Architecture for Distributed Energy Resources in Advanced Automation A subset of the work on an Integrated Energy and Communications System Architecture is the development of an open communication architecture for distributed energy resources (DER) in advanced distribution automation (ADA) or DER/ADA architecture. The DER/ADA Architecture Project will develop the object models for integration of specific DER types into the open communication architecture that is being developed through the companion CEIDS project know as the Integrated Energy and Communication Systems Architecture (IECSA) Project. The focus of this project is to identify and propose potential solutions for enterprise and industry-wide architectural issues that will arise from the high levels of integration and management foreseen by this project. This architecture must be robust enough to meet the numerous disparate requirements for power system operations and be flexible enough to handle changing needs. and then integrated with the multi-resolution system models. the DER/ADA Architecture . It will reach across customers. Full integration with on-line network control functions and INAs will be left to a follow-on project. and energy traders. • Validation of Integrated Models with Real-Time Data. Whereas the IECSA Project is concerned with the broad requirements for the architecture. Once the new.
for the remainder of this chapter. Key benefits that will be derived from the object model development in this project and from the broader open architecture development in the IECSA Project include: • Increasing the functionality and value of DER in distribution system operations. piece of the whole—object models for DER devices. It is important to note that the term DER has various definitions and is used ambiguously in different situations. load management. EPRI has developed the following list of critical enabling technologies that are needed to move toward realizing IntelliGridSM: • • • • Automation: the heart of the IntelliGridSM Distributed energy resources and storage development and integration Power electronics-based controllers Power market tools . object models will also be needed for other DER types besides distributed generation and storage.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 125 Project is focused on a very specific. Growing the market for DER equipment vendors. Another term. and other technologies involved in electricity supply. combined heat and power. Providing a large market to communication and control equipment providers for sale of their products to help build the infrastructure. Hence. both in stand-alone (off-grid) applications and in applications involving interconnection with power distribution systems. which benefits both the utility and the consumer of electricity. • • ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES In addition to the IECSA foundation. is similarly used in an ambiguous manner. The broadest use of the term includes distributed generation. but very important. Eventually. distributed resources (DR). DER is used for brevity to denote distributed generation and storage. storage.
consumers will tie into this smart power delivery system. To a consumer. which can automatically adjust home thermostat settings via a smart consumer portal. decisions. The resulting fully functioning retail marketplace will offer consumers a wide range of services. To a distribution system operator. self-optimizing smart power delivery system that automatically anticipates and quickly responds to disturbances to minimize their impact. real-time power quality monitoring. home automation services.e. automation means a self-healing. automation may mean automatic "islanding" of a distribution feeder with local distributed energy resources in an emergency. Automation: The Heart of the IntelliGridSM Automation will playa key role in providing high levels of power SQRA throughout the electricity value chain of the near future. These challenges include the needs to strengthen the . Each of these technologies calls for either continued emphasis or initiation of efforts soon in order to meet the energy needs of society in the next 20 years and beyond.126 • • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Technology innovation in electricity use The Consumer Portal These technologies are synergistic (i. and network intelligence to efficiently flow back and forth between consumer and service provider in real time. To a power system operator. automation may mean receiving hourly electricity price signals. and much more. they support realization of multiple aspects of the vision).. communications. Aspects of some of these enabling technologies are under development today. Through a two-way consumer portal that replaces today's electric meter. This smart power delivery system will also enable a revolution in consumer services via sophisticated retail markets. minimizing or eliminating power disruptions altogether. including premium power options. This will allow price signals. Distributed Energy Resources and Storage Development & Integration Small power generation and storage devices distributed throughout—and seamlessly integrated with—the power delivery system ("distributed energy resources") and bulk storage technologies offer potential solutions to several challenges that the electric power industry currently faces.
by eliminating power bottlenecks. open access to data is essential. consumers need help devising ways they can participate profitably in markets by providing dispatchable or curtailable electric loads. for example. Power Electronics-based Controllers Power electronics-based controllers. On distribution systems. Hence. To enable the efficient operation of both wholesale and retail markets. almost all electricity today must be used at the instant it is produced. offer control of the power delivery system with the speed and accuracy of a microprocessor. voltage flicker. Power Market Tools To accommodate changes in retail power markets worldwide. For example.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 127 power delivery infrastructure. However. And market participants critically need new ways to manage financial risk. service providers need a new methodology for the design of retail service programs for electricity consumers. facilitate efficient planning for expansion of the power delivery infrastructure. extend the market reach of competitive power generation. unlike other commodities. At the same time. various impediments stand in the way of widespread realization of these benefits. based on solid-state devices. higher-SQRA power. A key challenge for distributed generation and storage technologies. These controllers allow utilities and power system operators to direct power along specific corridors—meaning that the physical flow of power can be aligned with commercial power transactions. and provide consumers lower-cost. rapid. and then dispatching them so that they can contribute to overall reliability and power quality. power electronics-based controllers can increase power transfer capacity by up to 50% and. especially by providing reserves. . converter-based power electronics technology can also help solve power quality problems such as voltage sags. and connect consumers to markets. In many instances. market-based mechanisms are needed that offer incentives to market participants in ways that benefit all stakeholders. Both distributed storage and bulk storage technologies address the inefficiencies inherent in the fact that. but at a power level 500 million times higher. effectively allocate risk. and harmonics. facilitate provision of a range of services to consumers. is to develop ways of seamlessly integrating these devices into the power delivery system. provide high-quality power.
This could include data management. power market simulation tools are needed to help stakeholders establish equitable power markets. Improved energy-use efficiencies also provide environmental benefits. and network access based on consumer systems . The portal would sit between consumers "in-building" communications network and wide area "access" networks. secure and managed communications between consumers equipment and energy service and/or communications entities.S. real-time pricing. enhance U. reduce the U. and provide other benefits. The Consumer Portal Once communications and electricity infrastructures are integrated. In the U.S.128 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response development of data and communications standards for emerging markets is needed. detailed billing and consumption information. realizing the ability to connect electricity consumers more fully with electronic communications will depend on evolving a consumer portal to function as a "front door" to consumers and their intelligent equipment. for example. The portal would enable two-way. trade deficit. wide area communications and distributed computing. Development and adoption of technologies in the following areas are needed: • • • • Industrial electrotechnologies and motor systems Improvement in indoor air quality Advanced lighting Automated electronic equipment recycling processes In addition. to test the viability of various wholesale and retail power market design options before they are put into practice. It would perform the work closely related to "routers" and "gateways" with added management features to enable energy industry networked applications including expanded choice. the growth in GDP over the past 50 years has been accompanied by improvements in energy intensity and labor productivity.S. GDP. Further. Technology Innovation in Electricity Use Technology innovation in electricity use is a cornerstone of global economic progress. widespread use of electric transportation solutions—including hybrid and fuel cell vehicles—will reduce petroleum consumption.. reduce emissions.
government and regulatory agencies. technology companies. universities. and other interested parties throughout the world need to contribute to refining the vision and evolving the needed technology. CONCLUSION The participation of energy companies.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 129 consisting of in-building networks and networked equipment which integrate building energy management. . and demand response capability with utility distribution operations. distributed energy resources. public advocacy organizations. Only through collaboration can the resources and commitment be marshaled to enable the IntelliGridSM. associations.
"This page left intentionally blank." .
This is accomplished through an integrated system comprised of smart end-use devices and distributed energy resources with highly advanced controls and communications capabilities that enable dynamic management of the system as a whole. and distributed energy resource programs and merges them in an integrated framework that simultaneously addresses permanent energy savings. 4. Dynamic energy management consists of four main components: 1. demand response. 2. 3. It offers a "no-regrets" alternative to program implementers.Chapter 7 The Smart Grid— Enabling Demand Response— The Dynamic Energy Systems Concept Dynamic energy systems provide the infrastructure to use the smart grid to enable demand response through dynamic energy management systems. Smart energy efficient end-use devices Smart distributed energy resources Advanced whole-building control systems Integrated communications architecture These components act as building blocks of the dynamic energy management concept. The components build upon each other and inter131 . This simultaneous implementation of measures sets this approach apart from conventional energy use management and eliminates any inherent inefficiencies that may otherwise arise from a piecemeal deployment strategy. It incorporates the conventional energy use management principles represented in demand-side management. permanent demand reductions. Dynamic energy management is an innovative approach to managing load at the demand-side. and temporary peak load reductions.
utility constraints. available incentives and other variables such as weather and building occupancy. automated and capable of learning. micro-turbines and fuel cells that provide power alone or in conjunction with the grid. The result is an infrastructure comprised of individual elements that are capable of working in unison to optimize operation of the integrated system based on consumer requirements. space conditioning. • . and industrial process equipment with the highest energy efficiencies technically and economically feasible. one example is a high-efficiency. end-user or other authorized entity. The components and how they potentially interplay will be covered in greater detail later in this white paper. lighting. diesel engines. Devices that represent an evolution from static devices to dynamic devices with advancements in distributed intelligence. The following bullet points summarize the predominant characteristics of each of these three components. Thermal energy storage systems that allow for load shaping. highly energy-efficient. Internet protocol (IP) addressable appliance that can be controlled by external signals from the utility. • • • SMART DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES • On-site generation devices such as photovoltaics. On-site electric energy storage devices such as batteries and fly wheels.132 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response act with one another to contribute to an infrastructure that is dynamic. SMART ENERGY EFFICIENT END-USE DEVICES • Appliances. Intelligent end-use devices equipped with embedded features allowing for two-way communications and automated control. fully integrated.
lighting. Devices that are dynamically controlled such that excess power is sold back to the grid. individual controls that are mutually compatible with a whole-building control system.. ADVANCED WHOLE-BUILDING CONTROL SYSTEMS • Control systems that optimize the performance of end-use devices and distributed energy resources based on operational requirements. • • • • INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS ARCHITECTURE • Allow automated control of end-use devices and distributed energy resources in response to various signals such as pricing or emergency demand reduction signals from the utility. they can send data (such as carbon dioxide concentration in a particular room) to an external source and they can accept commands from an external source (such as management of space conditioning system operation based on forecasted outside air temperature). security. etc. enduser or other authorized entity. distributed energy resources. examples include automatic dimming of lights when daylighting conditions allow or reducing outdoor ventilation during periods of low occupancy. appliances. Local. Controls that allow for two-way communications. temporary demand reductions or power quality. day-ahead . Controls that ensure end-use devices only operate as needed. user preferences and external signals from the utility. for example. space conditioning.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid • • 133 Devices that are dynamically controlled to supply baseload. peak shaving. can all be controlled by a central unit. for example. Controls that have the ability to learn from past experience and apply that knowledge to future events.
other external alerts (e. a facility manager could shut down the building systems from an off-site location during an unscheduled building closure.134 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response weather forecasts.. One of the key enabling characteristics of the Dynamic Energy Management framework would be a smart grid. Communications systems that have an open architecture to enable interoperability and communications among devices. a signal could be sent to shut down the outdoor ventilation systems in the building in the event of a chemical attack in the area). controls and demand response strategies are coupled with on-site energy sources to serve as an additional energy "resource" for the utility. and distributed energy resources such as solar photovoltaics. distributed energy resources and/or control systems to send operational data to external parties (e. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TODAY Current practice in the implementation phase of energy use management consists of several elements used alone or in combination to . automated controls with data management capabilities.g.g.S. an energy management system (EMS).g. A dynamic energy management system is likely to have a much larger impact on a building's electricity consumption and demand than just implementing energy efficiency and/or demand response on their own. the distributed energy resources can also feed excess power back to the grid. In this example. and end-user signals (e. energy-efficient devices.. Thus. • Allow the end-use devices. wind turbines and other on-site generation and storage systems. The building is equipped with smart energy-efficient end-use devices. Example 7-1 illustrates this point for an office building in the U. advanced meters that communicate directly with utilities). • Figure 7-1 shows an example of the dynamic energy management infrastructure applied to a generic building.. there are two-way communications via the Internet as well as via the power line. Not only do all of these elements contribute to the utility's supply-side by reducing building demand. The following subsection describes a recent assessment that quantifies the energy savings potential associated with a smart grid.
demand and/or materials. Energy audits and/or reviews of historical energy use characteristics to identify problem areas. Replacement or retrofit of existing end-use devices or processes with energy-efficient devices to reduce energy use. 3. . This may also include fuel switching (e. material recovery/waste reduction. from thermal processes to electrotechnologies).The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 135 Figure 7-1. The Dynamic Energy Management Infrastructure Applied to a Generic Building effect a change in energy use characteristics at a given site. demand and/or materials as well as to improve productivity. heat recovery. etc. 2. Load shaping strategies such as thermal energy storage which shifts load to off-peak periods. the elements can be divided into seven main categories: 1.g.. This includes housekeeping and maintenance measures. energy cascading. Improvements to the operation and maintenance of existing enduse devices and processes to reduce energy use. 4. In general.
Installation of controls to turn end-use devices "on/off" or "up/ down" as required or desired to reduce energy use and/or demand. Source: Dynamic Energy Management. . Demand response strategies to reduce peak demand temporarily. 6. (Continued) 5. Use of distributed energy resources to replace or reduce dependence on electricity from the grid.136 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Example 7-1. EPRI. CA: 2007. This includes local controls and building energy management systems. Palo Alto. Dynamic Energy Management Applied to a Hypothetical Office Building. 7.
The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid Example 7-1. (Cont'd) 137 (Continued) .
Utility programs falling under the umbrella of demand-side management include load management. the first five elements are conventionally considered to be encompassed in demand-side management programs. with the types of measures implemented being a strong function of the programs and incentives offered by implementers to program participants. Economic evaluations are also a key component to energy use management programs to quantify expected costs.. implementers of various energy use programs solicit participants. i. Oftentimes. however. All of these elements fall within the framework of demand-side management in its broadest sense. (Cont'd) In some cases. the end-user takes the initiative to employ one or more of the elements listed above. while the last two elements are often considered separately and fall within demand response and distributed energy resource programs. implementation and monitoring of those utility activities designed to influence customer use of electricity in ways that will produce desired changes in the utility's load shape. payback periods and returns on investment. new uses. The elements are typically applied separately or in a piecemeal fashion. changes in the time pattern and magnitude of a utility's load. Demand-side Management "Demand-side management is the planning. Specifically. However." EPRI coined the term demand-side management in the early 1980s and continued to popularize the term through a series of more than 100 articles since that time including the five volume set Demand-side Man- .138 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Example 7-1. respectively. savings. typical practice compartmentalizes the elements into three main types of programs.e. electrification. customer generation and adjustments in market share. The current practices within each of these three conventional categories are discussed next. strategic conservation.
S. etc. Any program intended to influence the customer's use of energy is considered demand-side management. In other words. Demand-side management identifies how customers will respond.. In general. Demand-side management will be evaluated against non-demand-side management alternatives. Normative programs ("we ought to do this") do not bring about the desired • • • . it must result in reductions in average rates. Demand-side management is even more encompassing than the above definition implies.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 139 agement which is widely recognized as a definitive and practical source of information on the demand-side management process.). because it includes the management of all forms of energy at the demand side. demand-side management embraces the following critical aspects of energy planning: • Demand-side management will influence customer use. not just electricity. During its peak of activity. While activities nationally have slowed since then. In addition. such as generating units. and peak load reductions were stated in thousands of MW. the program must further the achievement of selected objectives (i. demand-side management continues to influence the demand for electricity. annual demand-side management expenditures in the U. The concept also requires that selected demand-side management programs further these objectives to at least as great an extent as non-demand-side management alternatives. improvements in customer satisfaction.e. government organizations. Demand-side management must achieve selected objectives. energy savings were measured in billions of kWh. groups other than just electric utilities (including natural gas suppliers. Demand-side management is pragmatically oriented. purchased power or supply-side storage devices. achievement of reliability targets. it requires that demand-side management alternatives be compared to supply-side alternatives. were measured in billions of dollars. To constitute a desired load shape change. non-profit groups and private parties) implement demand-side management programs. It is at this stage of evaluation that demand-side management becomes part of the integrated resource planning process.
systems and controls enabling load shaping (such as thermal energy storage devices). Finally. the two-way communications fundamental to the dynamic feature of dynamic energy management were not available during the inception of the demand-side management concept. demand-side management mainly results in the implementation of four main types of components in conventional implementation.140 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response change. Thus. It can even be considered to encompass most of the essence of dynamic energy management. However. This implies an evaluation process that examines the value of programs according to how they influence costs and benefits throughout the day. week. despite its broad definition. a water-heating . this definition of demand-side management focuses upon the load shape. These components include (1) energy-efficient end-use devices (which includes modification to existing devices and processes as well as new energy-efficient devices and processes). it embodies all of the seven elements (listed previously) that are associated with current practice in energy use management. this is generally not employed to a great extent). encompassing all actions that meet the critical aspects of energy planning listed above. and (4) the potential for communications between the end-user and an external party (however. (2) additional equipment. demand-side management does not inherently prescribe that the elements be implemented simultaneously as does dynamic energy management. In addition. and so they serve to update the demand-side management vision. Oftentimes. the term demand-side management is extremely broad in its original intent. In addition. demand-side management encompasses a process that identifies how customers will respond. not how they should respond. month and year. an energy-efficient lighting program may offer incentives for conversion from T-12 lamps and magnetic ballasts to T-8 lamps and electronic ballasts. Moreover. the components are implemented separately rather than simultaneously. Thus. that will happen") are required. (3) standard control systems to turn end-use devices "on/off" or "up/down" as required or desired. • Demand-side management value is influenced by load shape. positive efforts ("if we do this. but it may not offer incentives for lighting controls or other measures. Furthermore. For example.
nationally. Time-based rates include time-of-use rates. . for example. capacity market programs. Incentive-based demand response includes direct load control. The vast majority of this resource potential is associated with incentivebased demand response.S. Demand Response Demand response (DR) refers to mechanisms to manage the demand from customers in response to supply conditions.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 141 program may offer incentives specifically for conversion from gas to electric water heaters or to heat pump water heaters. However. critical-peak pricing. All of these measures positively affect both the energy companies and the customers to some extent. interruptible/curtailable rates. and the various programs under each category can be designed to achieve complementary goals. These two broad categories of demand response are highly interconnected. having electricity customers reduce their consumption at critical times or in response to market prices. Still other programs offer incentives for whole-building energy savings. Demand response can broadly be of two types—incentive-based demand response and time-based rates. primarily due to the tight supply conditions in certain regions of the country that have created a need for resources that can be quickly deployed. if a building-wide program incorporating a variety of measures coupled with a dynamic link between the end-use devices. A range of time-based rates is currently offered directly to retail customers with the objective of promoting customer demand response based on price signals. controllers and energy suppliers were undertaken. This represented approximately 5% of the total U. and real-time pricing. the total potential demand response resource contribution from existing programs is estimated to be about 37. This is where dynamic demand-side management. demand bidding/buyback programs. Incentive-based demand response programs offer payments for customers to reduce their electricity usage during periods of system need or stress and are triggered either for reliability or economic reasons. regardless of how the savings are achieved. projected electricity demand for summer 2006. and ancillary services market programs. According to a recent Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) study.500 MW. There has been a recent upsurge in interest and activity in demand response. emergency demand response programs. or the term EPRI has defined—dynamic energy management—comes to play. the benefits would be optimized.
communication pathways to notify customers of real-time pricing conditions. as well as emergency load curtailment events.142 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DEMAND RESPONSE Technology plays a key role in enabling demand response. and which facilitate automation of load control strategies at the end-use level. analyze load curtailment performance relative to baseline usage. telecommunication and metering all increase the opportunity for end-users to monitor and adjust their electricity consumption in coordination with electricity market conditions. Demand reduction strategies that are optimized to meet differing high-price or electric system emergency scenarios. and provide diagnostics to facility operators on potential loads to target for curtailment. Multiple. The future growth of the demand response market capability depends on the cost. • • • • • Advancements in technologies regarding control systems. Load controllers and building energy management control systems (EMCS) that are optimized for demand response. user-friendly. potential generation shortages. Developing these alternatives and incorporating them into the marketplace is increasingly becoming a reality and should provide in- . functionality and degree of process automation of technologies that enable demand response. Enabling technologies for demand response include: • Interval meters with two-way communications capability which allow customer utility bills to reflect their actual usage pattern and provide customers with continuous access to their energy use data. Energy information tools that enable real-time or near-real-time access to interval load data. Additionally. On-site generation equipment used either for emergency backup or to meet primary power needs of a facility. distributed generation is an important source of supply when traditional supply sources become scarce.
is for utilities and customers to have common architecture for demand responserelated activities. Integrated architectures require the implementation of common protocols used in today's Internet technology. and to enhance the utilization of this program. CURRENT LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE FOR DYNAMIC ENERGY MANAGEMENT Currently. raising air-conditioning set points.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 143 creased demand-side responsiveness in the future. Demand response functions are often applied to standard end-use devices. These technologies are used to reduce energy use (by dimming lights. Also. Utilities or other energy service providers have not yet implemented for the most part the full functionalities associated with the enabling technologies due to a number of technological. Several vendors are selling proprietary hardware and software services for building energy management controls and systems. etc.) in response to peak electricity demand emergencies and/or prices. EIS/EMCS and utility-sponsored AMR programs. This results in demand response programs falling far short of the anticipated potential benefits associated with an integrated strategy to manage load. the demand response enabling technologies have limitations in terms of system scaling and interoperation with other similar systems that impair their ability to be scaled up to serve the entire industry. regulatory and economic barriers. A service area that is growing rapidly is associated with automated meter reading (AMR) and advanced metering technologies. Customers are often offered individual demand response programs instead of a single service offering comprised of dif- . Demand responsive control systems integrate the controls for the distributed (demand-responsive) energy system with electronic communication and metering technology to facilitate one-way or two-way communication between utility and customer equipment. the individual demand response-enabling technology components discussed here are oftentimes implemented in a piecemeal fashion without integration of the different technology components. Customers are also investing in sophisticated energy information systems (EISs) and EMCSs—especially Internet-based controls for their facilities. with local control systems and one-way or basic two-way communications. One way to drive the costs down for demand response.
very rarely are energy service providers talking about integrating energy efficiency and demand response into a single offering. 2. Energy efficiency can reduce load significantly. and even demand-side management and demand response. energy storage. The focus here is building-level distributed energy resources since they can be considered a demand-side energy alternative. Distributed Energy Resources In their most general sense. To supply stand-alone power and/or heat (e. from market transformation programs (appliances and building codes) to immediate resource acquisition programs (rebates and performance contracting) help to lower system peaks.g.. Customers often do not connect their participation in energy efficiency programs with demand response. Furthermore. or they can be applied at the building level. . To augment power from the grid (e. including the generation of heat and power.. the current scope of distributed energy resources will include energy generation and storage technologies. power quality. (Thermal energy storage was encompassed within demand-side management. 3.) Distributed energy resources can be applied at the utility-scale where they feed into the distribution system. The principal purposes of distributed energy resources are: 1. even if peak reduction is not the primary program goal.144 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ferent options to manage their electricity load. combined heat and power. because they do not understand that reducing their peak usage changes the system load profile and makes the electricity system more efficient.g. which ultimately results in a low level of the potential being realized. Virtually all energy efficiency programs. for remote locations). to minimize power purchases). and the storage of electricity. distributed energy resources include technologies for distributed generation (non-renewable and renewable). To reduce transmission and distribution losses by placing power and energy sources closer to loads. Since demand-side management and demand response have been treated separately herein. and the load reductions occur over many hours of the load shape and for many days of the year.
military installations. to reduce peak demand costs and/or to enable participation in demand reduction programs). Some are still in the research and development stage. zinc-bromine.) . nickel-cadmium. vanadium redox.g.. diesel and gas reciprocating engines and gas turbines are well-established distributed generation technologies for large commercial and industrial buildings. airports.g. reliability and security (e.g. To reduce capital cost of transmission facility construction. sodium-sulfur. large office towers. polymer electrolyte membrane) Batteries (e. hotels.g. phosphoric acid.. To guarantee power quality. solid oxide) Superconducting magnetic energy storage Flywheel energy storage Ultracapacitors for storage 5. For example. hospitals. lead acid.. large information processing centers. Some distributed energy resource technologies include: Solar photovoltaics Reciprocating engines Stirling engines Combustion turbines Microturbines Wind turbines Fuel cells (e. for critical operations and processes). lithium ion. nickel-metal hydride. molten carbonate. • • • • • • • • • • • Some of these technologies are significantly more established and implemented than others. 6. The vast majority of these units are installed to serve as backup generators for sensitive loads (such as special manufacturing facilities. 145 To provide peak shaving or load leveling (e.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 4. etc..
The term energy strategy reflects the idea of accumulating energy in some form and then supplying it when needed. At present. as well as water reservoirs behind hydroelectric dams. Backup power systems such as small-scale UPS devices are also widely utilized. and an integrated communications architecture to dynamically manage energy at the end-use location. MP3 players. We refer to this concept here as dynamic energy management. networked package that fully utilizes smart energy-efficient end-use devices. gas and uranium. energy storage encompasses fuels such as coal. or 10% of total capacity ordered. Figure 7-2 illustrates the additional potential for functionality offered by dynamic energy management relative to conventional energy management practices. In its broadest sense. This concept is sometimes called electric energy storage to distinguish is from other types of energy storage. It trans- . we find these in our computer. advanced wholebuilding control systems. and controllably releasing it for use at another time. there is increasing use of portable power storage devices. the demand for units for continuous or peaking use has also been increasing.146 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response for which long-duration energy supply failures would have catastrophic consequences. typical demand response strategies. or "cool" storage (chilled water in tanks) or hot water. Moreover. gaming systems. Engines and turbines currently account for most of the distributed generation capacity being installed—approximately 20 GW in the year 2000. electric energy storage in building-level distributed energy storage is most commonly associated with batteries that are used in conjunction with non-continuous power generators such as wind turbines and photovoltaic systems. etc. HOW IS DYNAMIC ENERGY MANAGEMENT DIFFERENT? There is significant potential to increase the functionality of typical demand-side management measures. all of which allow the controlled accumulation and release of energy. mobile phone. While nearly half of the capacity was ordered for standby use. But the term energy storage is often used to refer specifically to the capability of storing electrical energy that has already been generated. These batteries are charged during periods of excess generation and then are discharged during periods of insufficient generation. and typical implementation of building-level distributed energy resources by combining them in a cohesive.
building-wide controls that are mutually compatible and capable of learning. It transforms the local. It transforms the standard distributed energy resources associated with typical practice into smart. it transforms the basic communications associated with typical demand response and typical distributed energy resources into an advanced integrated two-way communication architecture that network the end-use devices. and temporary peak load reductions. Next. This section briefly outlines the operation of a dynamic energy management system from an integrated systems perspective. (b) smart distributed energy resources. distributed energy resources. standard controls associated with conventional energy management into advanced.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 147 forms the energy-efficient end-use devices and processes associated with typical demand-side management into smart. whole-system or networked perspective that simultaneously addresses permanent energy savings. and (d) integrated communi- Figure 7-2. and control systems with each other and with the utility or other external entities to dynamically manage and optimize energy use. highly energy-efficient end-use devices and processes. it specifies some of the characteristics that individual components of a dynamic energy management system are likely to embody. permanent demand reductions. Additional Potential of Dynamic Energy Management Beyond Current Practice in Energy Use Management . environmentally friendly on-site energy resources that are leveraged to their maximum potential to benefit the end-user. As discussed previously. the utility and the environment. a dynamic energy management system is a demand-side energy resource that integrates energy efficiency and load management from a dynamic. These components include (a) smart efficient end-use devices. Finally. (c) advanced whole-building control systems.
diesel generators and fuel cells. In addition to electric end-use devices. At the end. etc. thereby giving the energy service provider direct access and control to these devices. the smart devices equipped with the responsive controls automatically respond to the external signals and optimize entire system performance. some of the key features of a dynamic energy management system that are likely to facilitate implementation and user adoption are discussed. advanced meters with communications infrastructure will be required. say within . time of the year. a dynamic energy management system would also include distributed energy resources such as solar photovoltaic systems. Depending on the hourly electricity price or other external parameters and based on the pre-programmed control strategy. OVERVIEW OF A DYNAMIC ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OPERATION FROM AN INTEGRATED PERSPECTIVE A dynamic energy management system is comprised of highly efficient end-use devices. The energy-efficient end-use devices along with distributed energy resources are together referred to here as "smart devices. external weather forecasts." These smart devices have a built-in programmable response and control strategy. This marks an emergence from static to dynamic end-use devices with advancements in distributed intelligence. emergency events. consumer habits and preferences. etc. whereby users are able to program the device performance and set optimal performance levels based on a variety of external parameters such as external ambient conditions. The performances of these distributed energy resources are also programmed to operate in an integrated manner with end-use devices at the facility so as to be able to optimize overall system performance.148 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response cations architecture. equipped with advanced controls and communications capabilities that enable them to dynamically communicate with external signals and to adjust their performance in response to these signals. The devices are able to communicate with a variety of external signals such as electricity prices. This will enable the energy service provider to connect the electric meter and end-use devices in the building to the Internet. For communication with external signals received from the energy service provider or with other external signals.
g. and automatically deploy specific control strategies to optimize system operation and avoid high-energy costs. In a fully automated system. copiers and fax machines) direct control is probably not practical. Furthermore. if an occupant attempts to lower the temperature set point at a time when electricity is expensive. Even though the system is able to control multiple devices. HVAC). Networking among devices allows internal communications and interactions among devices.. The fact that the occupant confirmed that a lower set point was desired even though it would be costly to achieve becomes part of the learning . red-yellow-green signals) that tell occupants when the time is propitious to run these appliances. appliance use and power consumption may allow for targeted control and be able to deliver predictable behavior and energy cost to the occupants. the control and communications technology listens to an external signal. they are enabled to respond to curtailment requests or high-energy prices from the energy service provider. to the very physical. For devices that are indirectly controlled. while for others (e. and then initiates a pre-programmed control strategy without human intervention. outside weather conditions. Information on different parameters such as temperatures throughout the building. For the dynamic energy management system to operate autonomously in response to electricity price or other external signals. The control devices have real-time control algorithms in their gateway devices and automatically control without manual operation. The response strategy of each individual smart device is networked and interacts with the response strategies of other devices in the system so as to be able to optimize entire "system" performance. it must be capable of very abstract decision making. For example. such as turning an air conditioner on or off. ranging from determining the best cost vs.g. For example.. user preference may be to control some devices directly (e. occupancy.. comfort tradeoff for current conditions.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 149 the user "comfort range" to minimize electricity costs. The system should be able to execute a fully automated control strategy with override provisions. an intelligent dynamic energy management system will contain learning functionalities with learning logic and artificial intelligence in order to be able to learn from prior experiences and incorporate these lessons into future response strategies. a confirmation will be required for the action to take effect.g. the actuation of response could be occupant-assisted through signaling the occupant via some kind of notification methods (e.
Distributed energy resources with intelligent controls are able to synchronize their operation with end-use devices in order to optimize system performance. Smart devices are equipped with highly advanced controls and communications capabilities. Smart devices embedded with microprocessors will allow incorporation of diagnostic features within these devices based on critical operating variables and enable them to undertake corrective actions. neural networks) to improve on future performance based on past performance experience. These devices have "learning logic" built into them (artificial intelligence. occupant habits. They are also enabled to automatically feed back power to the grid based on overall system conditions. • • • • • • . and on parameters such as building cool-down and heat-up rates. KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF SMART ENERGY-EFFICIENT END-USE DEVICES AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES (TOGETHER REFERRED TO AS "SMART DEVICES") • Smart devices are comprised of very high-efficiency end-use devices and a variety of distributed energy resources (discussed in earlier sections). It is desirable to have TCP/IP5 communication protocol so that the system can be set up and managed using common network management tools. outside temperature and seasonal variables. Smart devices contain microchips that have IP addresses that enable external control of these devices directly from the Internet or through a gateway. The measure of success for the learning functionality is that occupants override the system less over time.150 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response process. Communications features for these devices need to be set up based on "open architecture" to enable interoperability.
They should have the ability to use custom business logic that is applicable to their own operations. if desired. in response to high electricity price signals. . while others may want some advanced warning via pager or cell phone and the ability to opt out. For example. some may choose to allow remote realtime sheds.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ADVANCED WHOLE-BUILDING CONTROL SYSTEMS 151 Advanced whole-building control systems will need to incorporate the following functionalities: • • • • • • • • Receiving and processing information from sensors Sending actuation signals for control of devices Learning physical characteristics of the building from sensor information Managing time-of-day profiles Displaying system status to occupants Obtaining command signals and overrides from occupants Learning the preferences and patterns of the occupants Receiving and displaying external signals. Customer flexibility must be built into any stateof-the-art system. KEY FEATURES OF A DYNAMIC ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The key features of a dynamic energy management system can be summarized as follows: Incorporate End-User Flexibility—Customers should have numerous options about how they can participate in a dynamic energy management system. such as price information from the utility Advanced energy management and control system (preferably web-based) is likely to be an enabling technology.
telephone line or wireless communications.152 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Simplicity of Operation Will Be a Key Features—For easy user adoption of a dynamic energy management system. and that seamless communication and control activity can occur. In addition. the performance of IT equipment (e. The public Internet and private corporate LAN/WANs are ideal platforms for controls and communications due to their ubiquity. the user interface for the system will have to be concise and intuitive for non-technical people.g.. It will need to behave autonomously based on effective initial defaults and machine learning. The use of existing IT technology in such systems wherever possible is an important way to keep costs low. routers. This strategy maximizes the performance. while minimizing the installation and maintenance costs. Leverage on Standard IT Platforms vis-à-vis Building Custom Systems—One of the most important ways to keep costs low will be to leverage existing trends in technology.) continues to improve and equipment prices continue to drop. "Open Systems" Architecture and Universal Gateways Essential for Integrating System Operation—An important concept in the dynamic energy management system architecture is that the layers of protocols across all the systems are common. monitoring and controlling different devices from a central location or from anywhere in the network can be done only if a universal gateway is used. Integration With Existing Building Energy Management Systems Essential—It will be advantageous for state-of-the-art dynamic energy management systems to have tight integration with any existing EMCS and EIS and enterprise networks within buildings. distribution and availability of the building data. Communication between devices and the Internet is accomplished through standard communications pathways including Ethernet. especially in large commercial buildings. firewalls. etc. The system will need to work right out of the box with no programming requirement. Also. An "open system" architecture is essential in integrating the system operation. In systems in which EMCSs and EISs are highly integrated with enterprise . Dynamic energy management systems based on standard IT platforms will also tend to be more scalable and secure than special-purpose systems developed specifically for the purpose.
"Demand Response Enabling Technology Development. Demand-side Management: Volumes 1-5. Nortel). Center for the Built Environment. July 23. In other words.. The most robust and least costly systems should have no more than one enterprise network protocol and one control network protocol. Unlike proprietary systems. Assessment of Demand Response and Advanced Metering—Staff Report. University of California.g. Low-Cost Systems—A state-of-the-art dynamic energy management system would have a flat architecture in which there are a minimum number of layers of control network protocols between the front-end HMI (Human Machine Interface) and final control and monitoring elements such as actuators and sensors. 1984-1988. Communication using the TCP/IP protocol will ensure that the system can be set up and managed using common network management tools. Overview and Reports from the Four Project Groups. EPRI. References Gellings. a device from one company (e. et al. CA. the smart grid must enable connectivity with customers in a dynamic systems concept. "Open Standards" and "Interoperability" are Key Characteristics—For flexibility and future proofing. CONCLUSION In addition to the other features mentioned in this book. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) as developed by the Advance Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and may be used over Ethernet networks and . state-of-the-art dynamic energy management systems should use open standards wherever possible." Report to CEC Public Interest Energy Research (PIER) Program. Dimensions of Demand Response: Capturing Customer Based Resources in New England's Power Systems and Markets—Report and Recommendations of the New England Demand Response Initiative.g.. truly open systems are interoperable. Cisco) will easily and naturally reside on a network with products from other companies (e. FERC Docket AD062-000.. Berkeley. Arens. Clark W. E.. April 4. August 2006. managing the flow of information is greatly simplified. 2006. Phase I Report: June 2003-November 2005.The IntelligridSM Architecture for the Smart Grid 153 networks and the Internet. Palo Alto. 2003. Flat Architecture Essential for Robust.
Various DDC system manufacturers have incorporated access via the Internet through an IP address specific to the DDC system. IntelliGrid Architecture Report: Volume I Interim User Guidelines and Recommendations. Electric Power Research Institute. December 2005. Report 1012160. Fast Simulation and Modeling. Electricity Technology Roadmap: Meeting the Challenges of the 21st Century: 2003 Summary and Synthesis. Report 1016259. June 2004. Report 1010929. . December 2007. Electric Power Research Institute. Use of this communications industry standard allows DDC network configurations consisting of off-the-shelf communication devices such as bridges. Electric Power Research Institute.154 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response the Internet. routers and hubs.
" Electricity is often taken for granted. they increasingly demand higher levels of reliability. Many more customers would be interested in an automated system which would automatically monitor prices and system conditions and adjust individual building. or other electricityrelated services. However. then signaling customers appropri155 . In addition. If customers and their appliances have the ability to make consumption decisions.Chapter 8 The EnergyPortSM as Part of the Smart Grid Electricity consumers are changing. They do not have information on the time. options to purchase under alternative tariffs. Information and control are the key to enabling customers to manage their electricity costs. risk-averse industry into an innovative. The only information they receive is a month or more after they consume the energy. Nor do they have information on time-varying prices. efficiency and environmental performance. While a segment of today's customers may be willing to undergo the inconvenience of monitoring the electricity market in real-time and adjusting the operation of appliances and devices to minimize costs—that segment is in a minority. price-driven incentives will encourage customers to use electricity more judiciously—using less and managing peak demand. process and appliance systems to respond. Consumers do actually have unlimited control over their electricity use. Electric systems increasingly are controlled by customer response and will be aided by real-time pricing and "dynamic systems. If the systems are in place. they lack the will and the means to enable that control. but it is the building block which fuels the digital economy. real-time creative industry. Their behavior is increasingly driven by real-time management of electricity. The digital world is enabling a potential shift which could enable the electricity enterprise to shift from a commodity-based. pattern and amount of their usage.
standardization. ventila- . This would enable the electricity enterprise to operate more economically. These dynamic systems will allow the entire electricity infrastructure to respond to demand changes. wireless and wired internet protocol (IP) addressable. Customers routinely make investments in home and commercial electronics for reasons other than managing electricity—heating. Demonstration programs confirm that customers do not want to spend a great deal of time managing their energy use. Advanced metering can be adapted to provide customers with more information and allow the customer to start making decisions. As a result. but some segments want to know more about electricity consumption patterns. reduce the needs for energy overall. the principal incentives lie with a potential change in the regulatory compact. many new firms offer new customer-centric products and services. This may create a "market pull" which could fuel the need for regulators to adopt new regulatory arrangements which will allow utilities to invest in advanced metering infrastructure and energy efficiency. While some of the incentives to engage with customers exist now. and how it is distributed and utilized. and encourage investment. Most utilities have the opportunity to replace today's mechanical electric meters with a smart metering infrastructure that is capable of providing the customer with information using advanced meters to reduce costs and enhance services. allow for much more efficient decisions on where electricity is generated. utilities have limited incentive to minimize distribution throughput. lowers costs. In addition. However. able to offer comparable compensation to stakeholders for investments in most demand-response programs and in any energy efficiency programs. however.. web connectivity). especially during peak periods.156 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ately—particularly that peak prices are higher than off-peak prices—will result in a change in consumer behavior. investor-owned electric utilities are able to deliver effective and economic electricity energy. load-serving entities do have an incentive to reduce peak demand since the production and purchase of electricity at those key times. In most jurisdictions. low-cost sensors make precise. security. They are not.g. There is evidence to suggest that the combination of ubiquitous low-cost communications. in many cases. real-time and on-demand electricity management a low-cost increment to investments already being made to serve other needs (e. will improve the environment.
The "customer side of the meter" is perceived as someone else's problem. The system of regulation has served us well and established the basis for building the electricity enterprise. Electricity is produced by one or more forms of energy and then delivered to customers. the availability of end-use energy consuming devices and their control of those devices. . and communications computational ability and customer-enabled energy management control becomes ubiquitous.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 157 tion and air conditioning (HVAC) control. home entertainment. It has performed extraordinarily well. In fact. It relies on top-down planning. As the world drives to become increasingly digital. transmission and distribution to serve customers interior need for electricity. It is not designed to enable "utilities" to invest on "both sides of the meter" to ensure the entire production-delivery-utilization chain is optimized. the adaptation of advanced electricity management will become an integrated part of the entire electricity value chain. the compact created then did not include the entire electricity value chain. an independent merchant generation business dominated the supply business. In electricity. Over the next decade. security. it is very command and control. In the evolution of the electric utility industry. its focus is on the regulatory compact and the utilization of assets in generation. research has shown that consumers do not choose the most optimal or most efficient appliances or devices. As sensors and information technology networks become more common. The assumption is made that consumers will make the right decision regarding prices. In recent years. The traditional view of that system ignores the ultimate conversion of electricity into useful energy service. the shift to distributed resources could be an evolutionary event. decisions and operational control. By its nature. It is a centralized supply-driven industry built around a philosophy of cost recovery. It is interesting to note that in many industries there has been a transformation to distributed systems. and other services. they do not necessarily participate in demand-side management programs. the electricity industry is an anomaly. and their control of appliances and devices is varied. Therefore. the cost of retrofitting existing buildings will decline and new buildings will be designed to accommodate control and implementation of dynamic systems. the utility industry remains a highly asset incentivized industry. Unfortunately.
158 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response The modestly successful effort of the 80s and the 90s to create a demand-side management (DSM) structure has impacted the industry's shift to a customer-centric approach. Early efforts at energy efficiency received bad press because of poor design. transmission and distribution capacity to meet their consumers' demand for electricity. Unfortunately. and unsatisfactory monitoring. the reduction in consumer acceptance and response of demand-response programs is cited as evidence. they were often not doing so using open IP protocols. The Department of Energy estimates a one-third decline. there is a greater willingness to look at demandresponse and energy efficiency efforts. This would unleash innovation in electricity retail space. and a lack of experience in joint venturing and teaming with retailers. and other customer-related services. utilities and other electric service providers have had bad experiences investing in customer-related technologies such as telecommunications. imperfect pricing. both due to their reluctance to engage with customers and a resistance to investment in any technologies that reduce kilowatt hour sales. Unfortunately. . even though those programs have been an overall success. the regulatory compact given to electric utilities encourages them to build adequate generation. Surveys have revealed that there is near universal agreement that working with electric utilities is difficult. Utilities remain cautious about energy efficiency and demand response.. In most states in the U. get involved in hardware and services to customers. internet technologies. awkward administration. even with regulatory incentives. home and building security services. They receive a return on that investment subject to limits also adjudicated by the state commissions. With higher energy prices. Signs exist that this so-called "compact" may be renegotiated. The result is that today. lack of communications infrastructure and of common protocols. few consumers of electricity are incented to or able to manage their electricity demand—they have no price signals. Yet this willingness may still not provide sufficient sustainable incentives to make the necessary changes in consumer behavior. To the extent that some utilities were investing in a communications network. These uncertainties have created a resistance to any new investment in the customer side of the value chain. They cite uncertain DSM results.S.
In addition. The segment of the population willing to engage in energy management will grow as more are convinced as to how this is in their enlightened self interest. this status may evolve. Through electricity portals. and marginal pricing which sets prices high enough to stimulate innovation and the penetration of new technologies. especially IP-based and inexpensive sensors. However. heavier reliance on high-quality electricity in home-entertainments backup and standby devices. it will allow for more efficient decisions regarding where elec- . The electricity industry is moving toward an intersection where higher electricity and fuel prices and changes in electricity rates are aligning with dramatic advances in real-time internet protocol (IP)-based wireless communication. It may mean setting a few controls on a "master controller" so as to have a brain automate the purchase decision for the consumer. Engaging in control over one's electricity destiny may not mean sitting in front of a PC all day. Many will not be engaged in the heavenly pursuit of managing the operation of their energy-consuming devices and appliance and the building they are resident in. there is the potential to piggyback on the "computer revolution" to build on infrastructure and cultural affinities incrementally. the power system will be able to respond to demand changes. As a result. and no portals or interfaces that allow them to see how they are using electricity.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 159 no choice among usage profiles that reflect their social and economic views. The question is whether today's incumbent electric utilities will leverage this opportunity or leave it to third parties. There is some evidence to indicate that a segment of electricity consumers will want to exercise control of their electricity use—if the technologies were present which facilitated that control. It is possible to imagine a future where virtually all electricity-using devices incorporate sensors that manage the pattern and amount of consumption of the consumer. emerging mass market in residential wireless sensor management. These include IT advances. With the evolution of web-enabled energy management and cheap. these advanced systems will allow interactive control in response to signals for utilities and other providers. This may include the capability to interface with the energy management systems resident in industrial facilities and large commercial buildings. customers will be able to program energy management capabilities. ubiquitous communications (wired and wireless).
and a return to a lower. Some researchers believe that within 10 years the penetration of new technology will be underway as an increment to the current trends in home and business automation which will allow rapid deployment of electricity-related management technology.e. The price of electricity in most markets is based on a combination of long-term and short-term markets. In the future. The daily variation ranges from lower demand overnight. environmentally friendly system which will encourage investments in perfect power systems. Typically. In short. And furthermore. Tomorrow's power system will incorporate electric energy storage capacity and a micro-grid orientation that will allow consumers demand to be managed at the substation- and-below-level to maximize the power system. There is evidence to suggest that a segment of electricity consumers will take advantage of the ability to manage their electricity once that ability is enabled. To some extent. electricity costs vary— sometimes appreciably. These technologies will create the potential for radically changing the electricity system from a supply-side system to a high-reliability "perfect" demand-driven incentive industry. The short-term purchases are made on the basis of a variety of market-based exchanges. less artificial illumination is required on bright days.160 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response tricity should be generated and how it is distributed. The demand for electricity varies daily and seasonally. This includes enabling consumers to be aware of the variability in electricity demand and price. they are also caused by daylight and weather. a high-demand period in the late afternoon and early evening. The result will be a more economical. etc. There will be significant variations in deployment.. these patterns are based on household schedules. The long-term purchases are negotiated and set by contracts. It is essential that structural incentives are put in place to supersede today's utility opposition and reticence to consumer programs. In part. Meanwhile over these periods of usage. no incentive to modify either the pattern or amount of demand. moderate demand in the evening. the prices individual consumers pay bear little or no relation to the actual cost of providing power in any given hour. wholesale . it is possible that a significant portion of new generation could be built locally utilizing various distributed and renewable resources. Yet the consumer has no knowledge of those variations. Consumers cause this pattern of demand due to their use of energyconsuming devices and appliances. i. more air conditioning on hot days. a rise in demand in the morning to a moderate period through the day.
the focus is shifting to the question of the symbiosis of pricing and technology. This can range from energy management systems in buildings that enable consumers to see the amount of power used by each function performed in the building to appliances that can be automated to change behavior based on changes in the retail price of electricity. Active demand response to price signals inherently acts to moderate strains on the entire system. . In conjunction with time-varying pricing signals enabled by a dynamic system. The consequences of this disconnect between cost and consumption yields inappropriate investments in generation and transmission. or let the supplier control demand through switching. These same technological developments also give consumers a tool for managing their energy use in automated ways. However. but the customer does not feel the affects of those prices until they receive their bill some weeks later. they see no connection between their behavior and the cost of electricity. Dynamic systems allow the reduction of peak-period consumption reducing the likelihood of transmission congestion and generation shortages. As a result. better asset utilization and reduced needs for additional generation and transmission investment. Dynamic systems empower consumers and enable them to control their electricity choices with more granularity and precision. use default profiles. Customers can make their own pricing decisions. Dynamic systems and the digital technology that enables them are synergistic. This arrangement could be radically modified by the implementation of a dynamic system—a system which would communicate the price of electricity and enable consumers to respond to those price signals. Dynamic systems can yield lower wholesale electricity prices. Consumers have no incentive to change their consumption as the cost of producing electricity changes. Dynamic systems harness the recent enhancements in information technology. the ability of customers to choose and to control their electricity consumption using digital technology is at the core of transforming the electric power system. Dynamic systems can enable a diverse and consumerfocused set of value-added services. The evidence of the past 20 years suggests that electricity consumers will respond to time varying prices.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 161 electricity is sold at a combination of fixed and marginal costs. Increased reliability is one particularly valuable benefit of implementing dynamic systems.
The EnergyPortSM is a device or set of devices that enable intelligent equipment within consumer facilities to communicate seamlessly with remote systems over wide-area networks. WHAT IS THE ENERGYPORTSM? The EnergyPortSM is part "portal. narrow access points. In fact. Competition for the business of customers would drive innovation in end-use technologies. The EnergyPortSM can perform the functions of a communications gateway that physically and logically inter-connects a wide-area access network with a consumer's local network. data processing. comfort." part "gateway." and part "smart electric meter. The EnergyPort would facilitate consumer engagement with such dynamic systems. WHAT ARE THE GENERIC FEATURES OF THE ENERGYPORTSM? The EnergyPortSM may benefit consumers in seven ways: safety. and meter is the traditional electric utility interface with its customers limited to measuring consumption. induces entrepreneurs to provide products and services the consumers demand. communications. The EnergyPortSM provides a view into consumer facilities and carries the definition further to include communications with energy management systems and even end-use subsystems and equipment. . security. and storage. The ability for consumers to be informed about their electricity behavior creates incentives to seek out novel products and services that better enable them to manage their own energy choices and make decisions that better meet their needs." To date. gateway often refers to specific.162 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response One of the most important benefits of dynamic systems are their ability to unleash innovation. the term "portal" is experiencing growing use in reference to internet-based web servers that provide a web-based view into enterprise-wide activities. the term portal has been narrowly defined as relating to communications data hubs. energy management. It is envisioned that the EnergyPortSM will have locally available computing resources to support local monitoring. convenience. in turn. management. and entertainment. This incentive.
doorbells. The EnergyPortSM System is an enabling system that handles the distribution and control of electric energy and other energy sources as well as all kinds of communications. thermostat. an appliance must be plugged in and it must actually request power through a small communication chip it will contain. Any of the old. Because the outlet is effectively "dead. In such a "closed-loop" system when an appliance is plugged in. and others. It also provides an estimate of the appliance's energy consumption. Before energy can be fed to any type of outlet. no energy is available at the outlet. intercom. stereos or speakers into a universal outlet that will link them to each other and to the services they require. audio and video distribution. will be simplified. Three approaches will be available: (1) They can be integrated and consolidated into one hybrid cable. video. In the EnergyPortSM. its communications chip supplies an appliance identification to the system (much like the bar code does at the grocery store). conventional appliances consumers may wish to use in the EnergyPortSM System will be immediately usable with the system.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 163 Simplify Building Systems Today's buildings use separate systems for ethernet. power. toasters. That cable will run to every convenience outlet in the building and provide all the power. or (2) power line carrier signals will be superimposed over the buildings power lines. No longer will they have to run separate lines for security systems or intercoms. DVDs. A microprocessor will identify each appliance to the EnergyPortSM. telephones. VCRs. TVs. radios. fax machines. and lets the system . and the like … some wireless and others often in separate wiring systems. Unless that happens. or telephone. and control capabilities the building owner will need at any convenience outlet in the building. security wiring. No longer will consumers have to search for special jacks for audio. cable TV. telephone. Safety The EnergyPortSM System can enable the distribution of electric energy far more safely through the use of a "closed-loop" system. or (3) radio networks will send signals displacing all but the basic electrical wiring." the probability of electrical shock or fire hazards are substantially reduced. The use of such a universal outlet will not preclude the use of any conventional appliance. The EnergyPortSM System can plug printers. communications. those systems.
or gas cogeneration systems. an uninterruptible power supply can be enabled based on a storage device. or ground-fault condition. short. or it might be a poorly made plug connection or a short.164 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response know the appliance's status—is it on or off. Depending on the sizing of the alternate power source. Regardless. Thus. . Another advantage of the EnergyPortSM system that can come into play when there's a power outage is the integration with alternate power sources. Decentralized Operation The EnergyPortSM System is not a computer-controlled building in the sense that there's a single personal computer running things. energy flow is immediately shutdown. to carry out its operations. the consumer remains safe and secure because the energy flow has been shutdown … and will not be able to start again until the proper conditions exist. it could be an overload. but in some home situations. The EnergyPortSM uses distributed intelligence. cooking or lighting. it could continue any timing operations necessary. consumers don't have the president making every decision or doing every task. or distributed control. In order to keep these devices alive when the main power fails. a standby generator. Much like good management in a business organization. is it in proper working order. it could be critical. Reliability The EnergyPortSM could offer even more to consumers in the event of an outage. The reasons for this are efficiency and reliability. or refrigerator. There could be several parts of the system that use powered control devices. Not only is this capability convenient. decisions and actions are carried out most efficiently at the lowest levels possible. Reasons for interruption might include unplugging the appliance or shutting it off. such as the freezer. This storage system could allow the system to keep intact any instructions programmed in. Now if that monitoring signal is interrupted or terminated. and it could provide the necessary minimum power for security and alarm systems. Only then is energy allowed to flow through the outlet to the appliance. And then its use is continually monitored by the system. such as photovoltaics. the EnergyPortSM will immediately switch over to the appropriate source. the EnergyPortSM System could provide the power necessary for selection of operations.
And their use can be very helpful in the EnergyPortSM System. the reliability of the entire building energy and communication system is integrated. such as display panels. If the furniture was rearranged or it was more convenient to run operations differently. Now it is simply sending a signal to the system. that switch can be assigned to control anyone of a range of desirable applications. Sensors are just another kind of switch.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 165 In the EnergyPortSM System. there is a proliferation of appliances. infrared remote control devices. Everything in tomorrow's buildings will be controlled by signals… whatever device can send the appropriate signal can be used to control whatever the consumer chooses. most problems can be isolated and kept from affecting other operations because of distributed control. they can be used to determine unauthorized entry. time. to set the timing of an operation. another for the DVD or VCR. The same is true for a multitude of other devices. color. For example. contrast. video touch screens. or even vice recognition devices. However. the assignment would simply be changed. For example. and still another for the alarm clock. Keeping it simple is a basic premise of the EnergyPortSM. the house would not have to be rewired. one of the neat things about EnergyPortSM control is that whatever the consumer uses to control operations or timing. telephone keypads. or the TV. music. you might use one procedure for the washing machine. consumers may be able to select to control the lights. the living room might be set up to have the table lamp controlled by either the telephone or a wall switch. temperature. from switch or panel display. No longer is the switch on the wall physically opening and closing the path of power to an outlet or fixture. So when there's a failure of any one component. and channel. and occupants can decide what response should be made. each with its own set of instructions. Consumer Interface Consumers will interact with the EnergyPortSM in a variety of ways. Therefore. In this case. In homes today. turn on all . To control the TV. It might be to light up the outside at night. another for the microwave. they only have to learn one basic set of instructions. For example. perhaps these options now become available: beyond just simple on/off. The floor lamp might be assigned to an occupancy detector as well as another wall switch. access to control the volume.
set the security alarms. why should the lights be turned on in a room that already has enough light coming in the window on a bright day? Or why should the lights come on if no one's in the room at all? The EnergyPortSM can enable remote control whether by a switch or telephone keypad or the like. and call the police of an emergency monitoring service for assistance. from room to room without having to fumble and stumble for a light switch. During the day. Such a unit in the EnergyPortSM System can make life better for all of us. Here. . or the baby. sound an alarm. The same can be done for power tools in the workshop. Safety Safety has a high priority among consumers. or a sophisticated sewing machine. Here. it could prevent a char-broiled steak for dinner from becoming charcoal.166 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response the interior lights. Still another form of safety comes when consumers can be kept from making mistakes … such as leaving the range burner on. turn off all the lights. simply lock out the use of the range until parents return. In the EnergyPortSM. Voice recognition devices are becoming increasingly reliable and affordable. The EnergyPortSM would monitor safety. an expensive stereo system. and turn the thermostat to its set-back position. Consumers could carry the laundry. Another form of safety comes when we can prevent dangerous things from happening … as in the case of a young person who arrives home from school before his/her parents have returned. For example. Appliances That Talk to Each Other One of the most exciting forms of control made possible by the EnergyPortSM comes through appliance-to-appliance communication. for example. the ringing of the telephone or doorbell would cause the vacuum cleaner to shutdown so a consumer could hear and respond. but particularly for the elderly or infirmed who might not be able to exercise other forms of control. Those same sensors can do double duty. Telephone control can come in handy when unexpected events cause a change in plans. To keep the student from playing Betty Crocker in an unsupervised situation. sensors can also work interactively. when consumers are at home. This can come in very hand in order to issue one command from the comfort of one's bed at night to lock the doors. they might simply determine an individual's presence so that they can light their way from room to room.
Another kind of convenience comes when consumers are visited with a permanent or temporary disability or simply a change in the way they will be using their home or building. of course. what rooms are occupied. Should a particular product or control device be needed for a period of time. the system can be reconfigured to control a lamp regardless of location. the convenience of being able to plug in whatever kind of sensor can meet the consumer's needs into an outlet conveniently located anywhere significantly reduces costs and adds a great deal to the safety and security of the home or business. Whether it be to coordinate all the items . The use of sensors in a building need not involve cumbersome extra wiring or complications. all this information can be called out immediately to the fire department or emergency monitoring service so they can respond promptly and appropriately to the problem. For example. Communication Essential to the EnergyPortSM are the deployment of advanced communications capabilities. telephone. is something to always be mindful of. an extension cord has to be run to control it if the consumer decided to place it elsewhere. or stereo when they choose to rearrange the furniture. extensions for power. The EnergyPortSM will enable consumers to set different temperature and humidity levels in different areas of their buildings. cable TV. the occupants can be alerted. With the EnergyPortSM System. they simply go out and purchase or rent the EnergyPortSM component to meet their needs.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 167 Fire. In addition. No longer will consumers have to run unsightly. for example. while it remains comfortably warmer for guests in the living or dining room. Comfort is a key factor in deploying the EnergyPortSM System. and sometimes unsafe. and flash the lights showing the safest pathway to exit the home. the EnergyPortSM provides the convenience of being able to plug in any appliance anywhere in the home. Should one break out in a building enabled by the IntelliGridSM. keep the temperature cooler in a room where Thanksgiving dinner is being prepared. Indeed. Right now. Meanwhile. told where the location of the fire is. if a particular light switch is wired to a particular outlet where there is a table lamp. And why heat the bedrooms during that time just to keep guests' coats warm? The EnergyPortSM System will allow separate zones or rooms of the home to be conditioned to suit specific needs at any time of the night or day.
or clothes water at the right temperature at the right time. They'll simply want to make some preliminary decisions about how they'll spend that energy dollar for different degrees of efficiency. No longer does heat have to be used for the worst-case situation. Or. It will help building owners and operators decide when to use heating and cooling systems based on whether or not anyone's occupying the space. many consumers are not inclined to use such information. might have a cost the consumer more money or caused a bigger problem. Many will want to take advantage of "realtime" pricing structures likely to be introduced by more and more utilities around the country.168 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response on the menu for a particular meal so that they all are finished at the same time for dinner … or simply to use the telephone as an intercom to keep you from running or shouting to one another throughout the building. Now consumers can have their shower water. In "closed-loop" control. Also. or what the cost of energy is at a particular time. A problem. the consumer can save money . so you can respond appropriately. perhaps. dish water. what rooms are occupied. Not only can the EnergyPortSM System relay diagnostic problems from appliances. the communications chip in each appliance was described as also providing energy consumption information for that appliance to the system. just keep building owners apprised of its status or maintenance requirements. By so doing. time of day. That estimate can be broken down appliance by appliance. that if undetected. Perhaps the capability of placing a small video camera in the nursery will give a consumer more peace of mind when the babysitter is down in the family room munching popcorn and watching TV … or being alerted to a problem in one of the appliances in a building. Why spend the money to maintain a constant temperature when a particular level of hot water is only required at certain times. Of course. it can also let building owners know if the system itself is suffering any problems. duration of use. The EnergyPortSM can help consumers manage the use of energy more effectively. This is a much sought-after feature that places the consumer in control of how energy expenses are managed. comfort and convenience. there can be different water temperatures for different needs. The feature enables the building owner to call up a printout or display of his estimated energy use whenever wanted. Heating water is one of the more costly uses of energy. and cost of use.
outage detection. Entertainment Entertainment is an additional benefit of the EnergyPortSM. electric. and other functions that can support the provision of reliable digital quality power for the future. it can mean significant savings without sacrifice. Such monitoring capabilities could be extended to other parameters such as security. Because each building can be linked to the utility company. Someone can listen to punk rock in the rec room. gas and water operations support. for the consumer. but not limited to. Another help to both the utilities and the consumer comes from what the EnergyPortSM can do when power must be restored after an outage. the utility can restore full power sooner to affected consumers … and the consumer doesn't have to be without power for as long as he might have been. This means the utility doesn't have to wait until it has enough power available to handle the huge start-up current demand that's called for when power is restored all at once. Therefore. the utility can now selectively restore the power to appliances in the home. microclimate weather.The EnergyportSM as Part of the Smart Grid 169 by time-shifting their use of energy. The EnergyPortSM can enable one central audio source to provide a selection of music to several different rooms of the home. quality-of-service monitoring. Markets One of the greatest values of the EnergyPortSM can be to enable consumers to effectively respond to electric energy market dynamics and . while teenagers can be soothed by Beethoven in the bedroom … or vice versa! Network Communications Management The EnergyPortSM can support both the applications that are dependent on internetworking as well as the functions necessary to manage the networks and connected devices. It may be as simple as cycling the air-conditioner to save energy during the cooling season. For the utility companies. and home energy. the EnergyPortSM System enables demand-side load management. Remote Consumer-Site Vicinity Monitoring The EnergyPortSM can support local data monitoring to support a variety of applications including.
A Bold Vision for T&D. Carnegie Mellon University. December 2004. CONCLUSION The smart grid would be the glue which enables the ElectriNetSM to stick together. . Within the local energy network. References EnergyPortSM Features—Opening a Gateway to the World. Communicating market pricing to consumer-owned energy management systems and intelligent end-use equipment will greatly help to close the gap between consumers and market pricing for electricity. some form of portal would be needed to enable the ultimate connectivity—that to the consumer. It would connect Low-Carbon Central Station Generation to local energy networks and to electric transportation. Gellings.170 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response real-time pricing.W. Today's metering doesn't enable consumers to respond to prices that vary hourly or even more frequently. C.
Parmenter and Cecilia Arzbaeher of Global Energy Partners. The effectiveness of specific policies and programs will be a function of their design. LLC. stringency. etc. Table 9-1 lists a variety of policy- and program-instruments that have been used successfully and have the potential to yield significant energy efficiency improvements. Appropriate strategic plans need to be devised. and monitoring of policies and programs is required by international government bodies and organizations. There are many proven instruments for achieving energy efficiency results. Specific instruments include subsidies *Based in part on material prepared by Clark W. and level of implementation. Some are regulation-driven and others are market-driven. high level leadership in the development. state governments. city governments. Gellings and Patricia Hurtado. 171 . corporations. gaining the cooperation and dedication of individual energy end-users will be essential to produce the magnitude of response necessary to achieve targets for energy savings. Ultimately. The table organizes the energy efficiency instruments into five categories: • • • • • General Energy supply & delivery Industry (including agriculture and waste management) Buildings Transport The general category includes policies and programs that broadly apply to the economy as a whole.Chapter 9 Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency* In order to maximize energy efficiency improvements. national governments. energy companies. Kelly E. regional coalitions. and realistic but aggressive targets need to be established. implementation.
Meyer (eds). 3. and Measures for G8 Countries. O. USA: 2007. Metz. R. Targets. France: 2007. Realizing the Potential of Energy Efficiency. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A. R. Davidson. Cambridge. Bosch. United Kingdom and New York. R. NY. P. International Energy Agency. Dave. DC: 2007.Table 9-1. Examples of Policies and Programs for Achieving Energy Efficiency Improvements 172 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Sources: 1. Energy Use in the New Millennium: Trends in IEA Countries. 2. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. L. United Nations Foundation. Policies. Paris. Washington. B. . Cambridge University Press.
greater use of combined heat and power. Some of the policies and programs extend to the agriculture and waste management categories. reduced subsidies for fossil fuel.. The concept of tradable certificates for energy efficiency is analogous to approaches taken for green certificates and CO2 trading. public information and education to increase awareness (such as via mailings. reduced natural gas flaring to prevent waste of valuable resources and to reduce emissions. and facilities (e. direct contact.). pumps. leadership in procurement of energy-efficient equipment. labeling and certification programs. media. vehicles. Some of the potential actions are development of minimum standards of efficiency for fossil-fuel-fired power generation. tax incentives. and benchmarking of energy efficiency. negotiated improvement targets. public goods charges to fund energy efficiency programs. advanced lighting initiatives aimed at phasing out inefficient lighting and promoting energy efficient lighting and advanced controls. energy performance contracting. innovative rate structures including those that decouple profits from sales to encourage energy efficiency. carbon tax. voluntary and negotiated agreements. incentives. in which an energy service company pays the capitals costs of the energy efficiency measures and is paid back by the energy savings. There are many policy and program opportunities in the buildings category. tax incentives. education and . boilers. and introduction of tradable certificates for energy savings. targets of meeting a larger portion of future electricity demand with energy efficiency.g. and trade allies. incentives for private sector investment. but applies to energy savings and meeting energy efficiency targets. The energy supply & delivery category encompasses actions directed at energy companies. grants. energy management systems. subsidies. and loans. improved power supply and delivery infrastructure (including development of a "smart grid"). etc.Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency 173 for research and development. minimum standards of energy efficiency for key types of equipment including motors. by government or high-profile corporations). energy efficiency obligations and quotas. carbon charges. research initiatives. implementation of demand-side management programs. Some of the main opportunities include stronger building codes and appliance standards. The industry category consists of energy efficiency instruments such as strategic energy management. process-specific energy efficient technologies. and compressors. leadership in procurement of energy efficient buildings.
infrastructure planning to optimize routes. POLICIES AND PROGRAMS IN ACTION The following sub-sections present nine examples of the types of energy efficiency policies and programs currently underway at the multi-national. and corporate levels.. greater allowances for telecommuting. The most successful policies and programs. mass transit improvements to make it more desirable to the general public. and schedules. plug-in hybrid electric vehicles). the International Energy Agency (IEA) proposed that all countries harmonize energy policies to reduce standby power to 1 Watt or less per device in all products by 2010. Policy and program instruments applicable to the transport category relate to vehicle and fuel efficiency as well as to shifting transportation modes. supporting a market exporting energy efficient technologies. routes. are likely to be those that address energy requirements for economic development while simultaneously considering environmental impacts and costs. fuel. Further. city. Specific instruments are improved fuel economy. traffic flows and general efficiency. making investments in the human and institutional resources required by the countries to maximize efficiency. In addition to the policies and programs listed in the table. 2007). mode switching to more efficient forms of transport.g. particularly for developing countries. the United Nations Foundation report suggests establishing loan guarantee funds for investments in efficiency. mandatory fuel efficiency standards. state. there are also potential policies related to aiding transition and developing nations. taxes on vehicle purchases. Examples 9-2 to 9-6 are national-level examples. national. but that each . Example 9-8 is a citylevel example. Example 9-1 is a multi-national-level example. mandatory audits and energy management requirements. and minimizing the trade of inefficient or lesserefficient technologies (UN Foundation. Example 9-7 is a state-level example. advanced vehicle design and new technologies (e. Multi-National Level In 1999. and Example 9-9 is a corporate-level example. the IEA proposed that all countries adopt the same definition and test procedure. and detailed billing. and parking. and leadership in procurement of energy-efficient vehicles.174 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response information. For example.
Indeed. Canada. Korea.. IEA estimates standby power use could be reduced by as much as 60 to 80%. To date. Paris. International Energy Agency.S. or products with special features such as medical devices. The primary lesson learned from the 1-Watt Initiative is that it is difficult and expensive to target policies towards individual devices. and China are considering regulations. M. this procedure is specified and used extensively. 2. Japan and California are currently the only two regions that have adopted regulations. the IEA now proposes a uniform approach to standby power requirements in all products. the total power use of all devices drawing standby power is substantial because of the current and even higher expected proliferation of devices. The voluntary Code of Conduct in Europe has been expanded to cover standby power in external power supplies. For example. Australia. 2007. Presentation. there have been several accomplishments related to the 1-Watt Initiative: The G8 has committed to promoting the 1-Watt Initiative. Berlin. and broadband modems. Enova is funded from a . As a result. May. Ellis. standby requirements increasingly are part of wider energy efficiency regulations. However. Standby Power and the IEA. France: April 2007. Korea and the U. it is estimated that worldwide standby power currently accounts for 480 TWh each year. typically ranging from 0.. Today.Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency 175 country use measures and policies appropriate to its own circumstances. Many countries around the world use voluntary endorsement labels. New Zealand. the U. have implemented government procurement. National Level: Norway In 2002. This would apply to all products with the exception of products already regulated by an efficiency standard with a test procedure that captures standby power use.S." Fact Sheet. An internationally sanctioned test procedure for standby power was adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 62301) in 2005. set-top boxes. International Energy Agency.5 to 10 Watts per device. Sources: 1. While the standby power use for most small devices is relatively small. the Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and Energy (MPE) established an energy efficiency agency: Enova. Standby Power Use and the IEA "1-Watt Plan.
The goal of Enova is to achieve reductions in energy use of 12 TWh by 2010. However. if the energy savings are not met. K. Enova provides investment aid.) Enova uses a standard net present value approach to assess the profitability of a project. Enge. Sandbakk. (In Norwegian). or 26% of total aggregated energy savings. Total supply and use of energy. Enova's mission is to promote energy efficiency and renewable energy generation in a consistent and comprehensive manner in Norway. For example. Enova's savings goal of 12 TWh represents ~5% of total energy use in Norway). the grants have some obligations attached. . Similarly.3 TWh/year. Holmen. the amount of the grant still remains the same. Enova's results and activities in 2006. Enova had contractual agreements for an aggregated savings of 8. These grants may cover as much as 40% of the investments costs. Sources: 1. Contractual agreements associated with industrial energy efficiency projects accounted for 2. if the actual investment costs are higher than the estimated investment costs or the energy savings exceed the estimated energy savings. Specifically. The lower the investment aid per unit of energy saved. Numerous companies use the results from the energy efficiency projects to promote their commitment to corporate social responsibility. 3. 1997-2006. and M. Statistisk Centralbyra. Enova: 2007. The results from the Norwegian energy efficiency investment model are promising. S. (Total net energy use in Norway was 222 TWh in 2006. 2. the aid is reduced proportionally.2 TWh/year. Enova primarily relies on improvements in industrial energy efficiency to achieve its goal. Its 2007 budget is $200 million. the inherent incentives for a company to signal high investment costs and high energy savings are somewhat reduced. As a result.176 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response levy on the electricity distribution tariffs. On the other hand. White Plains. if the actual investment costs are lower than the estimated investment costs. Thus. 2007 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry. or grants. 2007. By the end of 2006. parts or all of the investment aid may have to be returned.. The main criterion used by Enova for selecting energy efficiency projects is the project's investment aid per unit of energy saved. New York: July 24-27. Investment Aid and Contract Bound Energy Savings: Experiences from Norway. (The maximum of 40% is imposed by state guidelines. either through improved end-use energy efficiency or increased production of renewable energy. Statistics Norway. the more likely the aid will be granted. to industry.
The goal of the TNA is to identify various technology development and transfer programs that can potentially reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to the country's sustainable development. The CFL promotion policies have been sustainable and self-financing. Energy for Sustainable Development: Energy Policy Options for Africa. Top priority end-use technologies identified include replacing incandescent lamps with Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) and boiler efficiency enhancements. and received major funding shortly thereafter from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and technical support from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in the U. One substantial barrier to increased end-use energy efficiency in Africa is the great need for education. Some African countries have endeavored to re-orient its energyefficiency initiatives to include both supply-side energy production and demand-side end-use. installation task forces.S. . it is typically more cost-effective and optimal from a sustainable perspective to improve demand-side energy efficiency. Sources: 1. new renewable energy production is popular. $10 million to the Ghana economy. For example. One case-in-point is Ghana. which is important in many supply-limited regions of Africa. As a result. while educating industry and business personal in efficient energy end-use involves hundreds to thousands of people per MW capacity. The CFL deployment has also resulted in a reduction of 6% in Ghana's electricity demand. However. It is easier to educate people on the supply-side than on the demand-side. Ghana submitted a Technology Needs Assessment (TNA) report to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2003. Since the assessment. Ghana has experienced a dramatic increase in the use of CFLs primarily as a result of changes in the country's import tariffs. Educating people on the supply-side typically involves one paid person for each 1 MW. and sales through retail stores. This also makes energy supply available to more customers.S. educating end-users in good energy practice is a major task of national proportions.Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency 177 National Level: Ghana African countries primarily focus on energy-efficient and sustainable supply-side energy initiatives. It is estimated the new CFL market has added U. UN-ENERGY/ Africa: 2007. The figure increases to tens of thousands of consumers per MW capacity if the domestic and general public is included.
Energy certificates are going to be required for all new and existing buildings.178 2. If the landlord of a property does not modernize the property and. Since combating climate change is of great importance in German energy policy. The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Stern. National Level: Germany Increased energy efficiency in both energy supply and end-use are critical to the success of Germany's ambitious plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2020. the heating costs are high. There will also be a motorway toll charge for trucks based on their CO2 emissions. as a result. UK: 2007. State subsidies are available to anyone that renovates a house or an apartment in an energy-efficient manner. N. German energy companies will receive 15% fewer emissions allowances to stimulate innovations in energy-efficient power plant technology.H. Germany currently presides over both the Council of the European Union and the G8. the tenant will be allowed a rent reduction. Cambridge.5% to 25% by 2020. Energy producers are required to increase efficiency by 3% each year. and for new energy-efficient windows. Cambridge University Press. Starting in 2008. ——————— aIn comparison. replacement of inefficient heating systems. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. highly efficient gas and coal power plants with carbon capture and storage and the increased use of combined heat and power plants. the European Union has committed to a reduction of 30% in greenhouse . A few examples are provided below. Germany has made climate and energy central themes of its presidencies of both the European Union and the G8. There will be increased support for a tenant's rights related to energy efficiency. A motor vehicle tax that is calculated on the basis of CO2 emissions rather than the size of the vehicle will be introduced soon in Germany. primarily through the use of modern.. For example.a Therefore a variety of energy efficiency policies affecting the supply-side and the demand-side are being implemented or will be introduced in the near future. For example. Germany aims to increase the share of combined heat and power in its electricity generation from 12. subsidies are available for insulation. these certificates will show the building's current energy use and what energy efficiency measures are available.
The aggregated goal for the 1000 enterprises is to achieve energy savings of 2. National Level: China China's Five Year Plan for 2005-2010 established an ambitious goal of reducing energy intensity.8 Quads) by 2010. defined as energy use per unit of gross domestic product (GDP).S. Department of Energy (DOE) and NDRC recently signed a memorandum of understanding concerning .8%. Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety.5% from 2005 to 2010. Since then. Taking Action Against Global Warming: An Overview of German Climate Policy. and the chemical industry (~15%). To address this barrier. As a result. 2007. the participants have been requested to conduct energy audits and develop energy actions plans. the U. many have found this task difficult because of the lack of qualified energy auditing personnel.Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency 179 gas emissions by 2020 in the case of an international agreement.9 EJ (or 2." Herald Tribune.7 EJ in 2004. representing about half of the total. However. China has created the Top-1000 Energy-Consuming Enterprises program which sets energy-saving targets for the 1000 largest energy-consuming enterprises in China. July 4. and to 20% in any event. The goal assumes an average annual GDP growth rate of 7. achieving the 20% energy intensity target by 2010 will require a reduction of China's energy use of 19 EJ (or 18 Quads). by 20% between 2005 and 2010. 2. Sources: 1. Steel and chemical industries account for the majority of enterprises included in the program. followed by the petroleum/petrochemical industry (~15%). both GDP and energy use have been growing faster recently (close to 10% each). The steel and iron industries also account for ~40% of total energy used by the 1000 enterprises. This translates into an average reduction of 4% per year. "Merkel confronts German energy industry with radical policy overhaul. September 2007. which represents a third of China's total energy use and close to half of China's industrial energy use. China's National Development and Reform Commission (NRDC) determined energy savings targets for each enterprise. Over the summer of 2006. Federal Ministry for the Environment. However. To realize the 20% energy intensity reduction goal. thus energy use can only increase at an annual growth rate of 2. NRDC also held training workshops in the fall of 2006 for all of the enterprises. These 1000 enterprises used 19.
2. National Level: Japan Japan has been a world leader in implementing energy efficiency measures. Press Release. This is due to reductions in the energy intensity of industrial processes. September 14. DOE energy experts will identify energy-saving opportunities and provide information on U. U. Additionally. and transportation sectors. buildings. they have one of the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per gross domestic product (GDP) in the world. 2007.. fired heaters. As part of the energy audits. "Constraining Energy Consumption of China's Largest Industrial Enterprises Through the Top-1000 Energy-Consuming Enterprise Program.S.180 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response industrial energy efficiency cooperation. Representative achievements for each of these sectors are summarized below. Current energy use is at 1970 levels even though the sector has experienced large economic growth. Xuejun. Japan's 1979 Rational Use of Energy law and its subsequent amendments cover various energy efficiency programs and policies that span the industrial.S. Department of Energy. New York. Department of Energy. U. U. and W. 2007.S. Price. As a result. Industry Energy efficiency achievements in Japan's industrial sector have been significant. and combined heat and power units. DOE plans to identify potential demonstrations for energy-efficient boilers. industry restructuring. L. Sources: 1. Specific energy efficiency efforts include a requirement for medium and large factories to appoint energy conservation . efforts are still underway to reduce the intensity of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in the industrial sector because it accounts for nearly half of Japan's energy use. The first phase of this effort involves a team of DOE-assembled industrial energy efficiency experts along with a similar team assembled by NRDC to conduct energy audits jointly at 8-12 enterprises from the "Top 1000" program. DOE to Conduct Energy Efficiency Audits on up to 12 Facilities. equipment suppliers that can assist in implementing improvements. 3. signed in San Francisco. and energy savings in industrial facilities. 2007." 2007 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry. July 24-27. Memorandum of Understanding between the Department of Energy of the United States of America and the National Development and Reform Commission of the People's Republic of China Concerning Industrial Energy Efficiency Cooperation. September 12.S. White Plains. Despite improvements. and China Sign Agreement to Increase Industrial Energy Efficiency.
an Energy-Efficient Product Retailer Assessment System was introduced in 2003 to tract and evaluate sales efforts. 150 stores were considered active promoters of energy-efficient products. Buildings Though the energy efficiency of appliances has steadily improved. energy use in Japan's buildings sector continues to rise due to increased proliferation of electronic devices. as well as a requirement for them to submit energy conservation plans and reports detailing energy consumption. As a result of the Top Runner Program. Incentives are also offered to encourage integrated heat and electricity management at plants and office buildings. Transportation To reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector. growing population. In addition. in 1997. For example. Japan established a procurement policy in April 2001 to encourage government entities to purchase energy-efficient end-use equipment for offices and public buildings. To set an example for consumers. Japan introduced an Energy-Savings Labeling System in August 2000 to inform customers on the energy use characteristics of end-use devices. To address this problem. and has set a goal of reducing CO2 emissions in the year 2010 to below 1990 levels for targeted industrial businesses. Another effort relates to a Voluntary Action Plan introduced by the Japan Business Federation. and the desire for more conveniences.Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency 181 administrators. Japan has created Top Runner standards for fuel efficiency in passen- . The standards are continuously reevaluated. Japan has established the Top Runner Program to develop high energy efficiency standards for electrical appliances and devices. the energy efficiency of many end-use appliances and devices has increased substantially. the efficiency of air conditioners improved by about 40% in 2004 relative to 1997. The plan encourages voluntary energy efficiency actions by industry. For each type of appliance. This program specifies standards that are equal to or higher than the best available products on the market. As of the first of the year. Procurement efforts by the government help to create markets for new technologies and to increase market penetration of the products. To help encourage the sales of energy efficient devices. Nippon Keidanren. the program sets a mandatory efficiency requirement for manufacturers and importers to achieve by a specified target year.
the government offers incentives for hybrid vehicles in the form of tax breaks. Source: Edahiro. The Statewide Residential Lighting Program was designed in response to the 2001 energy crisis experienced in California. One type provided rebates to manufacturers to lower wholesale costs.S. The program was implemented by PG&E. 5.932 fixtures. In addition." JFS Newsletter. Southern California Edison (SCE). Progress was tracked by using data on the number of products delivered by manufacturers and retailer sales information. The purpose of the 2002 Statewide Residential Lighting Program was to encourage greater penetration of energy efficient lamps and fixtures in the residential sector. and 50 ceil- . The program consisted of two types of incentives. In all. and complete fixtures. SCE. torchieres. The products covered included compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). In addition. Sep. Many of these programs are implemented by the state's three large investor-owned electric utilities: Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E). municipal utilities are implementing a variety of programs. and SDG&E. One representative example of California's achievements is the California Statewide Residential Lighting Program. The government also offers subsidies for vehicles equipped with an automatic feature to reduce idling. J. and low-interest loans. either together or separately.182 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ger vehicles. 6. including the Statewide Residential Lighting Program and other energy efficiency and demand response efforts.502. the government requires that energy-conservation plans and reports be submitted. Many pilots and fullscale programs were initiated in subsequent years to address capacity limitations. Each utility had in-house management responsibilities. 24. and San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E). which was first offered in 2002. The other type provided instant rebates to consumers at the point-of-sale. There are a large number of effective energy efficiency programs currently in place in California. "An Overview of Efforts in Japan to Boost Energy Efficiency. subsidies.736 torchieres. State Level California is one of the leading States in terms of energy efficiency in the U.. The program leveraged relationships with manufacturers and retailers established in previous lighting programs. For shippers and large transportation businesses. 2007.518 lamps. ceiling fans.
Y. Berkeley.000 apartment units. waste reduction. telecommunications. of commercial and institutional space.E. New residential and commercial state energy codes. New York. This goal was achieved. R1—Residential Lighting Best Practices Report. edited by F.ft. National Energy Efficiency Best Practices Study. energy efficiency. The 1979 energy policy included the establishment of an Energy Office and an Energy Commission. energy supply. Parmenter. Goswami. Similar lighting programs have been offered in the years since 2002. and 21. . and K. Reduction in per capita household energy use by 9%. transportation. Portland adopted the first local energy plan in the U.S. In 1979. This equates to a reduction in emissions of about 100 thousand metric tons of CO2 per year. C. "Demand-side Management. City Level The city of Portland.W. The estimated program accomplishments were 162. the city created the City Energy Challenge Program to reduce city energy costs by $1 million by 2000.. and transportation sectors) by 2010. Quantum Consulting Inc.4 Million. has been an international leader on community-based energy policy for almost three decades. Specifically. The 1990 Energy Policy contained about 90 goals for city operations. The energy savings currently equal $2 million per year or more than 15% of the city energy bill.4 MW in demand savings. Gellings. NY: 2007. The total program cost was $9. In 1990. The overall goal set in the 1990 Energy Policy is to increase energy efficiency by 10% in all sectors of the city (including the residential.888 MWh in energy savings. CRC Press. 2. and recycling. commercial." in Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Portland adopted a new energy policy that included extensive research and broad community participation of more than 50 public and private groups and associations. industrial. A few examples of Portland's energy policy successes include: Energy efficiency improvements in more than 40 million sq. Sources: 1. CA: Dec. Portland's successful implementation of the energy policy is primarily a result of the city first focusing on its internal buildings and facilities. as a response to the OPEC Oil Embargo.Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency 183 ing fans with bulbs were rebated during the 2002 program year.. 2004. and the energy costs have been reduced further. Oregon. Kreith and D. Vol. Weatherization in more than 22.
on a per-capita basis. Corporate Level In late 2006.000 singlefamily homes. Additionally. Retrofit of all red. http://www. A Wal-Mart staffer asked what difference it would make if the incandescent lamps in all ceiling fans on display in every Wal-Mart store were converted to CFLs. sewer emergency investigation trucks. all it will take for Wal-Mart to meet its goal is for one customer out of every 60 that enter the store to buy a CFL. and flashing amber traffic signals to light emitting diodes (LEDs).S. The energy savings would be equivalent to that used by 450. city to adopt a strategy to reduce emissions. Portland's greenhouse gas emissions have fallen by 12.000 cars off the road. According to Wal-Mart. that is nearly 130. Oregon. if achieved. Portland's goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 10% below 1990 levels by 2010. Its goal is to sell one CFL to each of its 100 million customers during the year. green. Source: Official website of City of Portland.230 stores and 40 lamps per store. Attaining its goal of selling 100 million CFLs by the end of 2007 may not be too difficult. Wal-Mart officials began talking about ways CFLs could help their customers save money. including water quality monitoring stations.portlandonline. But. In late 2005. the decision to go . and Use of a wide range of solar-powered equipment and fleet. once the numbers were verified. About 20 million metric tons of greenhouse gases would be eliminated—comparable to taking 700. its goal would save its customers as much as $3 billion in electricity costs over the life of the CFLs. A typical Wal-Mart store has 10 models of ceiling fans on display. Considering that 90% of Americans live within fifteen miles of a Wal-Mart store and there are 6. With 3.5% since 1993 when Portland became the first U.com/.184 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Increased bicycle and transit transportation. parking meter repair trucks.000 lamp conversions.6 billion customer visits to Wal-Mart stores each year. and multi-space smart parking meters. At first there was skepticism when it was estimated that changing out those lamps would save nearly $6 million in electric bills annually. Wal-Mart announced its campaign to sell 100 million CFLs by the end of 2007 at its Wal-Mart and Sam's Club stores. each with four lamps.
Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency
ahead was quickly made. Wal-Mart's CFL goals are just part of its overall sustainability program. The program goals include: Being supplied by 100% renewable energy; Creating zero waste; and Selling products that sustain the earth's resources and environment. Towards that end, Wal-Mart opened the first two stores in a series of high-efficiency stores that will use 20% less energy than their typical Supercenter. One store opened on January 19, 2007 in Kansas City, MO, and the other opened on March 14, 2007 in Rockton, IL. Wal-Mart also has two living laboratories (located in Aurora, CO, and McKinney, TX) where they demonstrate and test new energy efficient technologies. Sources:
1. 2. www.walmartfacts.com, accessed 2007. "Wal-Mart Continues to Change the Retail World—One CFL at a Time," Power Tools, Winter 2006-2007, Vol. 4, No. 4, Global Energy Partners, LLC, Lafayette, CA: 2007.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY CHALLENGES IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA The region encompassing the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) was a focus of the IEA's World Energy Outlook 2005 (International Energy Agency, 2005). This region has a high potential for energy efficiency gains on both the demand-side and the supply-side. A large share of their end-use devices as well as electricity generation capacity is less efficient than in OECD countries. One of the primary challenges to demand-side energy efficiency is the structure of the energy market. This region is characterized by some of the lowest energy prices in the world. Much of the electricity supplied is heavily subsidized. Electricity rates are particularly under-priced in Iran, Egypt, and countries in the Persian Gulf. In some areas, significant quantities of electricity are lost due to illegal connections despite the low energy costs; in other cases, customers' non-payment of bills is a problem. The low rates present an obstacle to market-driven improvements in end-use energy efficiency. While, in many cases, energy price increases often result in a greater consumer demand for energy-efficient technologies, this price incentive is lacking in the MENA region. Moreover, the approach of raising rates to generate the incentive to purchase
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
energy-efficient technologies (or some type of price reform) would be challenging to implement in the MENA region due to the low income level of many of the customers. Two of the primary areas of opportunities for end-use energy efficiency improvement are space cooling and desalination. Demands for air conditioning are growing, and the space cooling efficiency in much of the region is below that of the world average. District cooling is one alternative currently receiving significant attention; however penetration is still low (due to the lack of incentive). The region is also home to the largest desalination capacity in the world and the demand for fresh water is expected to triple in some countries such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait by 2030. Improving the efficiency of desalination processes and combining desalination with power generation are other methods to address energy efficiency. One of the challenges of combined water and power is the mismatch between the electricity demand, which is higher in the summer than in the winter, and the water demand, which is relatively constant. The power generation efficiency in this region is also on-average significantly lower than in OECD countries. For example, gas-fired plants have average efficiencies of ~33% compared with 43% in OECD and oil-fired plants have average efficiencies of ~34% compared with 42% in OECD. The MENA region often expands capacity with lowerfirst-cost, less efficient supply-side technologies because of the availability of inexpensive fuel. As a result, opportunities to improve supply-side efficiency are substantial. There is a growing need for supply-side investments to meet increasing electricity demand, which is projected to increase by 3.4% per year through 2030. Some of this investment could potentially be offset cost-effectively by energy efficiency improvements on both the supply-side and the demand-side. Such improvements would also free up resources for export. The challenge is overcoming the barriers. CONCLUSION There is a renewed interest in energy efficiency due to increasing worldwide demand for energy, availability constraints, environmental issues, and economic considerations. Energy efficiency supports sustainable development, energy security, environmental stewardship, and
Policies & Programs to Encourage End-use Energy Efficiency
saves money for both energy suppliers and energy end-users. Energyefficiency measures can begin right away to free up additional supply and to defer the construction of new generation capacity. Energy efficiency is environmentally friendly and cost-effective relative to building new capacity. Much of the technology to enhance energy efficiency is here, yet it is underutilized. Fully implementing all feasible available technology has the potential to make significant improvements in energy efficiency. Nevertheless, additional research and technology innovations will be required to accelerate energy-efficiency improvements in order to meet the expected worldwide growth in energy demand. We already have the experience to develop new technologies and to implement energy-efficiency policies and programs. The oil embargos of the 1970s proved that significant change along these lines is possible with concerted efforts. This book describes a variety of proven tools at our disposal to meet this renewed mandate for energy efficiency, including policies and programs, market implementation methods, and energy-efficient technologies. References
Realizing the Potential of Energy Efficiency, Targets, Policies, and Measures for G8 Countries, United Nations Foundation, Washington, DC: 2007. World Energy Outlook 2005: Middle East and North Africa Insights, International Energy Agency, Paris, France: 2005.
"This page left intentionally blank."
Chapter 10
Market Implementation
For voluntary energy efficiency and demand response programs, such as those that might be offered by energy service companies, the success of the program in meeting targets for energy efficiency greatly depends on the level of market penetration achieved. (Note: in this discussion paper, energy efficiency programs are assumed to encompass traditional energy efficiency programs as well as demand response programs.) Planners can select from a variety of methods for influencing consumer adoption and acceptance of voluntary energy efficiency programs. The methods can be broadly classified in six categories. Table 10 1 lists examples for each category of market implementation method. The categories include: • Consumer Education: Many energy suppliers and governments have relied on some form of consumer education to promote general awareness of programs. Brochures, bill inserts, information packets, clearinghouses, educational curricula, and direct mailings are widely used. Consumer education is the most basic of the market implementation methods available and should be used in conjunction with one or more other market implementation method for maximum effectiveness. Direct Consumer Contact: Direct consumer contact techniques refer to face-to-face communication between the consumer and an energy supplier or government representative to encourage greater consumer acceptance of programs. Energy suppliers have for some time employed marketing and consumer service representatives to provide advice on appliance choice and operation, sizing of heating/cooling systems, lighting design, and even home economics. Direct consumer contact can be accomplished through energy audits, specific program services (e.g., equipment servicing), store fronts where information and devices are 189
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response displayed, workshops, exhibits, on-site inspection, etc. A major advantage of these methods is that they allow the implementer to obtain feedback from the consumer, thus providing an opportunity to identify and respond to major consumer concerns. They also enable more personalized marketing, and can be useful in communicating interest in and concern for controlling energy costs.
Trade Ally Cooperation: Trade ally cooperation and support can contribute significantly to the success of many energy efficiency programs. A trade ally is defined as any organization that can influence the transactions between the supplier and its consumers or between implementers and consumers. Key trade ally groups include home builders and contractors, local chapters of professional societies, technology/product trade groups, trade associations, and associations representing wholesalers and retailers of appliances and energy-consuming devices. Depending on the type of trade ally organization, a wide range of services are performed, including development of standards and procedures, technology transfer, training, certification, marketing/sales, installation, maintenance, and repair. Generally, if trade ally groups believe that energy efficiency programs will help them (or at least not hinder their business), they will likely support the program. Advertising and Promotion: Energy suppliers and government energy entities have used a variety of advertising and promotional techniques. Advertising uses various media to communicate a message to consumers in order to inform or persuade them. Advertising media applicable to energy efficiency programs include radio, television, magazines, newspapers, outdoor advertising, and point-of-purchase advertising. Promotion usually includes activities to support advertising, such as press releases, personal selling, displays, demonstrations, coupons, and contest/awards. Some prefer the use of newspapers or the Internet; others have found television advertising to be more effective. Alternative Pricing: Pricing as a market-influencing factor generally performs three functions: (1) transfers to producers and consumers information regarding the cost or value of products and
Examples of Market Implementation Methods for Energy Efficiency Programs (Gellings. through innovative schemes can be an important implementation technique for utilities promoting demand-side options. rate incentives for . and (3) determines who can afford how much of a product. Alternative pricing. For example. 2007) services being provided..Market Implementation 191 Table 10-1. (2) provides incentives to use the most efficient production and consumption methods. These three functions are closely interrelated. et al.
Figure 10-1 from EOLSS illustrates the customer characteristics. or very heavily. increasing the rate of return) to make the investment more attractive. buyback programs. multiple marketing methods are used to promote energy efficiency programs. seasonal rates. and low-interest or no-interest loans.192 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response encouraging specific patterns of utilization of electricity can often be combined with other strategies (e. to increase customer acceptance of the demand-side alternative being promoted. subsidized. so that the implementer can provide the incentives as it receives the benefits. taking into account the customer characteristics. Typically. and allow the collection of valuable empirical performance data. rebates. planners and policy makers can augment or mitigate the external influences. and government entities have successfully used many of these marketing strategies. Energy suppliers. A major advantage of alternative pricing programs over some other types of implementation techniques is that the supplier has little or no cash outlay. but over a period of years..e. promotional rates. The consumer receives a financial incentive. Incentives also reduce consumer resistance to options without proven performance histories or options that involve extensive modifications to the building or the consumer's lifestyle. but can expedite consumer recruitment. Pricing structures include time-of-use rates. inverted rates.g. etc. variable service levels. off-peak rates. One additional type of direct incentive is the offer of free. Direct incentives include cash grants. direct incentives) to achieve electric utility demand-side management goals. equipment installation or maintenance in exchange for participation. • Direct Incentives: Direct incentives are used to increase short-term market penetration of a cost control/consumer option by reducing the net cash outlay required for equipment purchase or by reducing the payback period (i. thereby obtaining the desired customer response. By selecting the appropriate mix of market implementation methods. Such arrangements may cost the supplier more than the direct benefits from the energy or demand impact.. billing credits. utilities. implementation programs. Demand response programs incorporate alternative pricing strategies. and other external influences that affect three major customer decisions: .
Factors Influencing Customer Acceptance and Response The Market Planning Framework • • • Fuel/appliance choice Appliance/equipment efficiency Appliance/equipment utilization The selection of the appropriate market implementation method should be made in the context of an overall market planning framework. illustrated in Figure 10-2. and other customer characteristics (from consumer research). • . Technology Evaluation—based on the applicability of available technologies for the relevant end uses and load shape objectives. are: • Market Segmentation—based on the load shape modification objectives. Elements to consider in selecting the appropriate marketing mix. the market can be broken into smaller homogenous units so that specific customer classes are targeted.Market Implementation 193 Figure 10-1. information on customer end uses and appliance saturation.
Market Implementation Plan—based on the selection of the market implementation methods. Selection of Market Implementation Methods—based on the above analyses and estimates of potential customer acceptance and response. • Market Share Analysis—based on estimates of customer acceptance.194 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Figure 10-2. Market Planning Framework the alternative technologies are evaluated and the profitability of specific appliances assessed. an implementation plan is developed to define and execute the demand-side programs. the appropriate mix of implementation method is evaluated and selected. • • . the proportion of the total potential market that can be served competitively is estimated.
Such barriers may include: • • • • • • • Low return on investment (ROI) High first cost Lack of knowledge/awareness Lack of interest/motivation Decrease in comfort/convenience Limited product availability Perceived risk FACTORS INFLUENCING CUSTOMER ACCEPTANCE AND RESPONSE A second important aspect is the stage of "buyer readiness. if the customer acceptance is constrained by one or more barriers. Consumer research can identify where customers are in their decision process.Market Implementation • 195 Monitoring and Evaluation—the results of implementation are monitored and evaluated to provide relevant information to improve future programs. and what attributes and benefits are perceived for any given option? . If a technology offers significant benefits to the customer. the market implementation methods should be designed to overcome these barriers. However. there is little or no perceived risk. depending on the customer characteristics and the technologies/end uses being addressed by the demand-side alternative. and the customer is aware of the technology and has a favorable attitude toward it. The methods used for market segmentation and target marketing can vary. The stage that a customer is in will have a bearing on the appropriateness of the market implementation method used. the technology is likely to be well accepted with little need to intervene in the marketplace." Customers generally move through various stages toward a purchase decision. Key questions to consider are: • • Do customers perceive a need to control the cost of energy and are they aware of alternative demand-side technologies? Where do customers go to search for more information and guidance on alternatives.
Service after the sale is extremely important and represents a form of marketing. As a program is accepted and increases its market share. In addition. and advertising/promotion. communicating to customers in advertising/promotion programs should be considered. Incentive programs for trade allies may also be a consideration. word of mouth becomes an increasingly important source of customer awareness and interest. a point of purchase and cooperative advertising program with trade allies should be considered. comfort. stage of buyer readiness. Answers to these questions are important in formulating a market implementation program. If first costs are not an obstacle. some of which may be interrelated. Segmenting demand-side markets by end use. emphasis can be placed on the use of customer education.196 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response How much interest is there in participating in a demand-side program. direct customer contact. and cost-competitive technology options. then financial incentives for a particular demand-side technology may be a key consideration. If results of market research indicate that customers in the awareness and interest phase prefer reliability. the use of direct incentives is appropriate. Table 10-3 illustrates applicability to stages of buyer readiness. Identifying satisfied or unsatisfied customers is useful in terms of evaluating future market implementation methods. perceived . To influence customer awareness and interest. It must be re-emphasized that market segments can be defined using a number of criteria. A final aspect of the buying process is customer satisfaction. if a significant source of information and influence is found to come from trade ally groups during the stage of customer purchase of replacement or new equipment. If the results of consumer research indicate that customers in the purchase/adoption phase use a high implicit discount rate and that first costs are a barrier. bit lowering energy bills is a motivating factor. and how can customers be influenced to move toward participation? What specific attributes and benefits must customers perceive in order to accept a particular demand-side technology? How satisfied are customers who participated in a previous demand-side program? • • Table 10-2 lists the applicability of Market Implementation Methods to overcome barriers to acceptance.
Market Implementation 197 Table 10-2. Note that the applicability. and other socio-demographic factors can suggest the appropriateness of alternative market implementation methods. Applicability of Market Implementation Methods to Stage of Buyer Readiness barriers to acceptance. and disadvantages of the methods discussed here. as compared to different types of demand-side . advantages. Applicability of Market Implementation Methods to Overcome Barriers to Customer Acceptance Table 10-3.
and direct mailings are widely used. Provide customers other information of general interest. Brochures. An increasing number of energy suppliers and governments provide booklets or information packets describing available demand-side programs. Detachable forms are frequently provided for customers seeking to request services or obtain more information about a program. Customer Satisfaction Many energy suppliers and governments have relied on some form of customer education to promote general customer awareness of programs. • • • • • Whenever a new program is introduced. Advertising/ promotion campaigns can also be used to influence customer awareness and acceptance of demand-side programs (see discussion of advertising and promotion below). If a program is new. information packets. . Increase the perceived value of service to the customer. Typically. and influence customer decisions to participate in a program. vary significantly. or changes are made in an existing program. planners and policymakers select a mix of the methods most suitable to the relevant demand-side options. educational curricula. Customer education is the most basic of the market implementation methods available and can be used to: • Inform customers about products/services being offered and their benefits. Inform customers of the eligibility requirements for program participation. Increase the customer's knowledge of factors influencing energy purchase decisions. Some have also established clearinghouses or toll-free telephone numbers to provide inquiry and referral services to consumers regarding demand-side technologies and programs. Generally improve customer relations. bill inserts.198 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response programs. increasing the general level of customer awareness is an important first step in encouraging market response. clearinghouses. an implementation needs to notify its customers.
Others focus on methods to reduce energy costs. building envelope improvements. heat pumps and thermal storage). sizing of heating/cooling systems. and renewable energy . Direct Customer Contact Direct customer contact techniques refer to face-to-face communication between the customer and an energy supplier or government representative to encourage greater customer acceptance of programs. as well as information on demand-side programs and customer eligibility.Market Implementation 199 Customer education has the widest applicability to demand-side measures. implementers also provide do-it-yourself guides on home energy audits. weatherization.. benefits. and cost from $70 to $200 to complete. The major advantage of customer education techniques is that they typically provide a more subtle form of marketing. Energy Audits Are particularly useful for identifying heating/air conditioning system improvements. Program Services Involve activities undertaken to support specific demand-side measures including heat pumps. and costs. Before customers can decide whether or not to participate in a program. Energy suppliers have for some time employed marketing and customer service representatives to provide advice on appliance choice and operation. and meter reading. home weatherization. its eligibility requirements. they must have information on the program. Customer education techniques should be used in conjunction with one or more other market implementation methods for maximum effectiveness. and the applicability of renewable resource measures. They provide an excellent opportunity for suppliers to interact with customers and sell demand-side options. Energy audits may last from 30 minutes to 3 hours.g. Some education brochures describe the operation benefits and costs of demand-side technologies (e. Energy audits also provide a useful service in obtaining customers feedback and responding to customer concerns. Customer education programs seek to increase customer awareness and interest in demand-side programs. water heating improvements. lighting design. and even home economics. with the potential to influence customer attitudes and purchase decisions. Typically.
A major advantage of these methods is that they allow the implementer to obtain feedback from the consumer. Exhibits/Displays Useful for large public showings. including home energy conservation. appliances. including conferences.200 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response resources. Direct customer contact methods are applicable to a wide range of demand-side options. Exhibits can be used to promote greater customer awareness of technologies. contractors or trade allies. Also. Those can be provided by government employees. Other issues relative to direct customer contact are: • Scheduling requirements and the need for responding to customer concerns in a timely and effective manner. . Inspection Typically includes an on-site review of the quality of materials and workmanship associated with the installation of demand-side measures. or large showrooms. and other demand-side technologies. Examples of such programs include equipment servicing and analyses of customer options. Inspections offer the implementer additional opportunities to promote demand-side options. third-party financing. fairs. Direct customer contact methods are labor-intensive and may require a significant commitment of staff and other resources. energy-efficient appliances. specialized training of personnel may be required. Mobile displays or designed "showcase" buildings can also be used. thus providing an opportunity to identify and respond to major customer concerns. energy suppliers. They also enable more personalized marketing and can be useful in communicating interest in and concern for controlling energy costs. Store Fronts A business area where energy information is made available and appliances and devices are displayed to citizens and consumers. Workshops/Energy Clinics Special one- or two-day sessions that may cover a variety of topics. These inspections are frequently related to compliance with safety or code requirements and manufacturer specifications. and devices through direct contact.
American Society of Heating.S. Depending on the type of trade ally organization. trade allies may significantly influence the customer's fuel and appliance choice. Possible opposition of local contractors/installers to direct installation programs. Key trade ally groups include home builders and contractors. trade ally . trade associations (e.. local chapters of professional societies (e. A trade ally is defined as any organization that can influence the transactions between the supplier and its customers or between implementers and consumers.g. the U. and/or the appliance or equipment efficiency. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers. therefore. American Institute of Architects. Trade allies can.. and associations representing wholesalers and retailers of appliances and energy consuming devices. and The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers).Market Implementation • 201 Potential constraints arising from the need for field service personnel to implement direct customer contact programs in addition to either other duties. including: • • • • • • Development of standards and procedures Technology transfer Training Certification Marketing/sales Installation. In performing these diverse services. technology/product trade groups (e. local chapters of the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute and the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers). "Fair trade" concerns related to contractor certification for audits or installation. Liability issues related to inspection and installation programs. and repair.g. assist in developing and implementing demand-side programs. For example..S. • • • Trade Ally Cooperation Trade ally cooperation and support can contribute significantly to the success of many demand-side programs. U.g. a wide range of services are performed. The Illuminating Engineering Society. local plumbing and electrical contractor associations). maintenance.
Wholesalers and retailers are particularly valuable in providing cooperative advertising. They can also provide valuable market data on technology sales and shipments. Advertising uses various . and supplying information on consumer purchase patterns. Builders are generally concerned about reducing first costs and. may resist more expensive building design and appliances. and consumer response information that is useful in the design of utility programs. implementers must be willing to compromise and accommodate concerns and questions of allies related to product availability. Trade ally groups can be extremely useful in promoting a variety of demand-side measures. therefore. Generally. training needs. To obtain the greatest benefit from trade ally cooperation. they will likely support the program. and comparison. etc. In addition. trade allies can provide technical. if trade ally groups believe that DSM programs will help them (or at least not hinder their business). certification requirements. Installation and service contractors often influence the sale of a demand-side technology. and whether an energy supplier promotional campaign will conflict with their peak service periods. Trade ally groups can also help reduce implementation costs. Also. Demand-side management programs are less likely to face concerns related to fair trade if the programs are co-sponsored with trade allies. Implementers will avoid much controversy and possible legal challenges by recruiting trade allies as partners in demand-side programs. manufacturers and retailers prefer to be informed at least six months in advance of an implementer's intentions to promote end-use devices or appliances. reimbursement of expenses. arranging sales inventory. paperwork. Plumbing and electrical contractors are concerned about the installation and serviceability of heating and cooling equipment. logistical. so that they can have sufficient stocks on hand to meet consumer demand. and are responsible for its proper installation and service. Advertising and Promotion Energy suppliers and government energy entities have used a variety of advertising and promotional techniques. Considerable opposition may result if the program competes directly with trade ally businesses. sizing. cooperative advertising/promotion.202 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response groups can provide valuable information on major technical considerations and assist in the development of standards for operating performance.
lower cost. outdoor advertising and point-of-purchase advertising. Newspaper Advertising Newspaper advertising offers a number of advantages. Other promotional techniques used have been awards. A number of innovative radio and TV spots have been developed to promote demand-side measures. flexibility in the length and type of com- . and color preprints). merchandising and advertising design services. personal selling. Similar to customer education methods. coupons. intensive coverage within a community. Some prefer the use of newspapers based on consumer research that found this medium to be the major source of customer awareness of demand-side programs.Market Implementation 203 media to communicate a message to customers in order to inform or persuade them. newspapers. relatively longer usage in homes. jingles. associated prestige of the magazine. hasty reading of articles and ads. specialized zone/area coverage for major metropolitan areas. energy-efficient home logos. displays. and residential home energy rating systems. target marketing (by placing ads in certain sections of newspapers). Readership data from magazines can help a utility decide whether magazine advertising is appropriate. such as press releases. and humorous conversations.. These have included appealing slogans. Others have found television advertising to be more effective. magazines. advertising and promotion have widespread applicability. limited lead time in placing advertisements. and relatively poor reproduction. television. including frequency of use. and specialized campaigns (e. to name a few. A major disadvantage of magazine advertising is the inflexibility compared to spot radio and newspaper advertising.g. inserts. Promotion usually includes activities to support advertising. demonstrations. and support services provided to advertisers. including flexibility in geographical coverage. Disadvantages of newspapers include their relatively short life in the home. Advertising media applicable to demand-side programs include radio. Specialized regional editions of national magazines and local urban magazines offer the advantages of market sensitivity. as compared to magazines. Radio The use of radio also offers a number of advantages. and contest/awards.
limited longevity. in subways. There are also some limitations associated with the use of radio. Point-of-purchase displays used include appliance stickers. point-of-purchase displays are becoming very important. and in transportation stations. and the lack of selectivity. Some media may be more useful than others in terms of moving . and models of appliance operation. and indoor displays. Point-of-purchase displays are oftentimes designed to be consistent with the advertising themes used in other media. high production and broadcast costs. The messages must be simple and easy to comprehend. including fragmented coverage. Posters are useful in high pedestrian traffic areas or in places where a large audience exists. and possible negative aesthetic impacts. Point-of-purchase advertising can cover such topics as product features. The use of point-of-purchase displays in trade ally cooperative advertising should be seriously considered. Disadvantages of television include the fleeting nature of messages. the limited effectiveness. Rather obvious limitations of outdoor advertising are the brevity of the advertising message. Point of Purchase Promotion Given the increasing trend toward self-service in retail outlets. Billboards consist of multiple poster sheets and are particularly useful in large open vehicular and pedestrian traffic areas. the fleeting nature of the message. and mobility. counter top. window. Smaller posters may be located on buses. and service/maintenance options. audience selectivity. limited advance planning. The major advantage of point-of-purchase advertising is the relatively low cost and the proximity of the advertising message to the point of possible purchase. Outdoor Advertising There are also various types of outdoor advertising that can be used.204 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response munication. The advantages of outdoor advertising are the ability to reach large numbers of customers at a low cost. and the limited data on listener characteristics and market share as compared to television advertising. Television The mass appeal of television is common knowledge and is illustrated by the large expenditures on television advertising. which reaches a very large audience. brand/service loyalty financing. utility marketing programs.
g. Therefore. For example. load management. Careful consideration must also be given to the need for statements regarding product liability and warranties (express or implied) in advertising demand-side technologies. Various pricing structures are more or less well-suited to different types of demand-side options. storage heating and cooling.. energy and demand control. time-of-use rates may be generally offered or tied to specific technologies (e. . For gas utilities.Market Implementation 205 customers from the "awareness" stage to the "adoption" stage in purchasing a product or service. conservation. through innovative schemes can be an important implementation technique for utilities promoting demand-side options. etc. off-peaking water heating). a multi-faceted and carefully scheduled advertising/promotional campaign is worthy of consideration as part of any demand-side management program plan. direct incentives) to achieve electric utility demand-side management goals. They can be useful for thermal storage.g. An important issue is the extent to which government or state regulatory authorities limit various types of advertising. Seasonal rates similarly can be used with high-efficiency options. For utilities. Provides incentives to use the most efficient production and consumption methods.. Advertising and promotion may be limited to those that encourage safety. These three functions are closely interrelated. Some demand-side management technologies may or may not fall within the definition of allowable advertising. Alternative pricing. Determines who can afford how much of a product. Alternative Pricing Pricing as a market-influencing factor generally performs three functions: • • • Transfers to producers and consumers information regarding the cost or value of products and services being provided. inverted rates used to encourage building envelope and high-efficiency equipment options. rate incentives for encouraging specific patterns of utilization of electricity can often be combined with other strategies (e. and some efficient equipment options.
depending on the characteristics of the customer.e. is the cost of metering. Promotional rates can be used to encourage economic development in an area. such rates do not lower the customer's purchase cost.206 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response For both gas and electric utilities. considerable similarity exists in customer response patterns across several. as do some other implementation techniques. One potential disadvantage with some alternative pricing schemes. and off-peak rates can be particularly applicable to thermal storage and water heating options. so that the implementer can provide the incentives as it receives the benefits. variable service levels can be offered on a voluntary basis as an incentive to reduce demand at certain times of the day. A major advantage of alternative pricing programs over some other types of implementation techniques is that the supplier has little or no cash outlay. In addition. increasing the rate of return) to make the investment more attractive. Incentives also reduce customer resistance to options without proven . such as time-of-use rates and rates involving demand charges. For example. The customer receives a financial incentive. Households typically reduce the share of peak usage in weekday summer use by 3 to 9 percentage points (from 50 to 47-41%) in response to a 4:1 TOU rate. such as rebates. geographically-diverse areas. and the specific rate structures. Customer education relative to the rate structure and related terminology may also be needed. but over a period of years. the demandside programs.. which can sometimes amount to several hundred dollars per installation. Customer acceptance and response to alternative rate structures will vary. The degree of customer response is influenced by appliance ownership and climatic conditions. Note also that detailed information regarding cost of service and load shapes is needed to design and implement rates to promote demand-side options. • Direct Incentives Direct incentives are used to increase short-term market penetration of a cost-control/customer option by reducing the net cash outlay required for equipment purchase or by reducing the payback period (i. research on customer response to electric time-of-use rates indicates that: • • On average.
Market Implementation 207 performance histories or options that involve extensive modifications to the building or the customer's lifestyle. Rebates Similar to cash grants. The implementer generally estimates the expected average first-year energy . While this list is not necessarily all-inclusive (variations and combinations of these incentives are often employed). They have been most often used with building envelope options and with efficient equipment and appliance options. Buyback Programs These are special incentives that reflect supplier cost savings resulting from the implementations of a mix of cost-control options. Such arrangements may cost the supplier more than the direct benefits from the energy or demand impact. but can expedite customer recruitment. The individual categories of direct incentives include: • • • • • Cash grants Rebates Buyback programs Billing credits Low-interest or no-interest loans Each category is briefly detailed below. and allow the collection of valuable empirical performance data. or can be set simply at a level designed to encourage widespread customer response. One additional type of direct incentive is the offer of free. Cash Grants These are payments usually one-time sums made to consumers who adopt one or more cost control options. Rebate levels are generally set in proportion to the relative benefits of the option to the supplier or implementer. it indicates the more common forms of direct incentives for large-scale customer adoption. or very heavily subsidized. equipment installation or maintenance in exchange for participation. either as original equipment or as a replacement for an existing device. Amounts may be tied to levels of energy or demand reduction or energy efficiency. rebates are normally single payments made to consumers who install a specific option.
can often allow consumers to pur- . Billing credits have most often been used with energy and demand control options. The carrying costs to utilities of low-interest or no-interest loans can be great. Sometimes. The supplier or implementer in effect "buys back" a portion of the consumer's investment. often increase the number of consumers willing to invest in these options. This amount is then normally paid to the customer's installation contractor as a purchase price subsidy. and then determines its value based on differences between average and marginal costs or other cost criteria. They can often be used in combination to produce increased customer acceptance. however. Low-interest loans.208 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response use change (and any corresponding demand change) for a particular option through testing or analysis. Various types of direct incentives are applicable to many of the cost control/customer options in each of the major option categories. as can the recordkeeping requirements. Rebate and cash grant programs have been praised by some for their administrative simplicity relative to loans. Reduced interest loans. Rebates and grants have an added advantage to the consumer because they significantly lower first costs for new major appliances or other option purchases. for the purchase and installation of specific high-efficiency options. heat pumps. efficient equipment and appliance. and ceramic storage heaters. Low-interest or No-interest Loans These are loans offered at below-market interest rates. Billing Credits These are credits applied to a customer's energy bill in return for installing a particular option. and are generally offered in proportion to the size of the connected load being controlled. Direct Incentives and Demand-side Technologies Direct incentives are being used in a large number of demand-side management programs to encourage customer participation. by allowing home buyers and consumers to finance such expensive items as whole-house insulation. They are frequently used to promote the use of high-initial-cost options in the building envelope. and thermal storage categories. low-interest loan programs are co-funded by the energy supplier and government or public agencies. or without interest. Buybacks are most often used with building envelope options.
and administrative costs can be lower than those for loan programs.e.. Initial cash outlays are minimal. and must understand the overall cost-effectiveness of implementing the option. Billing credits can allow the supplier to provide a substantial total incentive to the customer but in small annual amounts over a protracted period. Thus.g. The consumer must be able to afford the initial purchase. implementers should be aware of potential fair trade or antitrust concerns. If an implementer establishes rational criteria for dealing with trade allies. Both customer acceptance and response to direct incentive programs.. discussions with trade allies. • • . and potential benefits and costs of these programs.Market Implementation 209 chase higher-priced options than they would otherwise with only a partial rebate. however. an implementation plan should be formulated. The Market Implementation Plans Once careful consideration has been given to evaluating alternatives and the appropriate implementation methods have been selected. if the option produces sufficient benefit. the added costs of the financing program may be justified. and procurement of the necessary support materials. Experience with direct programs indicates that participants in such programs are generally middle- to upper-class households. adheres to those criteria. Measurable program goals (e. the nature of the technology being promoted. Pre-program logistical planning (i. energy/demand sales or savings and customer contact quotas)—program goals should be well defined and measurable. training and equipment/facility procurement)—adequate time must be reserved for employee training. it is likely that the legality of incentives will not be challenged. and the characteristics of the customer. This plan should contain: • Program objectives/general purpose—objectives of the market implementation plan must be communicated to all program personnel. depend on the nature and size of the incentive. In developing direct incentive programs. then there will probably be no concern about fair trade law violations. and uses sound business practices. If the program is structured so that trade allies support it and also stand to gain from it.
Managing such widespread activities requires a complete understanding and consensus of program objectives and clear lines of . • • • PROGRAM PLANNING As with any sophisticated program.210 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Program implementation procedures—it is a good idea to develop a program implementation flow chart and manual for all key program personnel. For example. Program budget/accounting—program cost accounting should be adequately addressed. Actual program implementation can be checked against the plan and major variances reviewed as they occur. A program logic chart can be used to identify the program implementation process from the point of customer response to program completion. decision points. measurable. Program Management The implementation process involves many different functional entities. The careful planning that characterizes other energy supply operations should carry over to the implementation of demand-side programs. Careful management is required to ensure efficient implementation. The variety of activities and functional groups involved in implementing demand-side programs further accentuates the need for proper planning. such as meeting customer eligibility requirements. in a direct load control program. The plan includes a set of carefully defined. a demand-side program should begin with an implementation plan. The programs are expensive and prudent planning will help assure program efficiency and effectiveness. Monitoring and evaluation procedures—develop a program evaluation plan in advance of program implementation that provides sufficiently for program data collection and recordkeeping and offers suitable feedback on program performance. and obtainable goals. device installation. completing credit applications. and post-inspection can be defined. Management controls—management and program controls must be carefully defined and a customer communication program should be developed and integrated with the demand-side program.
Some of these technology alternatives can be installed. the exquisite input data and the reporting of key performance indicators must be carefully included. the use of incentives necessitates close monitoring of program costs. A customer adoption plan that coordinates the use of mass media and other advertising and promotional activities (such as bill inserts and direct mail) should be carefully integrated into the implementation program. and training requirements. Ongoing program management is also extremely important.Market Implementation 211 functional authority and accountability. monitoring employee productivity and quality assurance should be addressed. developing quality assurance programs. . In the equipment selection process. used or marketed by the energy supplier as part of the demand-side management (DSM) program. facilities. equipment. The need for cost accounting. and developing an installation and maintenance schedule. For whatever reason. Program Logistics Program support includes staffing. It is always important to establish good rapport with customers. A program implementation manual is a useful tool to provide program personnel with necessary policy and procedure guidelines. The sample list of functional responsibilities in an implementation program gives an indication of the activities that may be included in such a manual. establishing an appropriate customer adoption program. Many demand-side management programs include installing a specific piece of equipment or hardware that will alter energy use to benefit both the customer and the supplier. The special issues related to such DSM programs involving supplier owned and installed equipment include selecting the proper equipment or hardware. Consumer concerns should be addressed at all levels of program design and implementation. if periodic status reports are required. Selecting the Proper Equipment or Hardware Implementers need to evaluate a variety of conflicting factors if they are specifying the functional requirements for equipment or hardware. changes in demand-side technology (such as improvements in the efficiencies of space heating and cooling equipment) and evolving supplier needs (such as automation of the gas or electric utility's distribution system) should be evaluated.
In most cases. calculations concerning reliability and maintenance. The implementation process takes place in several stages. Developing an Installation and Maintenance Schedule Many expenses are involved in the installation. a high-level. installing and operating an energy supply system that is all the steps associated with "implementing" a supply-side program takes years of planning and scheduling. .212 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Establishing an Appropriate Implementation Program Some programs are better suited to promote the installation of certain demand-side technology alternatives. and this requires the careful coordination of all parties. The Implementation Process Developing. An equally rigorous approach is needed to implement the demand-side alternatives. expanding to systemwide implementation. The selected implementation marketing measures should be compatible with any technology alternative that is part of the demand-side program. As a first step. The stages may include forming an implementation project team. Implementing demand-side programs involves many functional elements. There are many actors involved in the implementation process. In the example of electric direct load control program. and strict construction scheduling. completing a pilot experiment and demonstration. a mix of implementation techniques will be used. because pilot programs can be used to resolve program problems before system-wide implementation takes place. rigorous analytic modeling. implementers can improve customer and utility system performance by considering quality assurance in the implementation program. This "time-phased" process tends to reduce the magnitude of the implementation problem. and finally. and careful coordination is required. maintenance. Identifying Quality Assurance Consideration Because of the possible large number of dispersed devices. and repair of the numerous devices that are included in a demand-side program. Efficient scheduling of equipment ordering and installation is helpful in reducing unnecessary program delays. failures may be attributed either to malfunctions of the devices or to the communication links. Operating costs can be reduced by developing prudent scheduling policies for limited crew resources.
Monitoring and evaluation programs can also serve as a primary source of information on customer behavior and system impacts. project team goals and time frame. Pilot experiments can be a useful interim step toward making a decision to undertake a major program. two questions need to be addressed: • • Was the program implemented as planned? Did the program achieve its objectives? The first question may be fairly easy to answer once a routine monitoring system has been adopted. and program administration requirements. and with the overall control and responsibility for the implementation process. there is a need to monitor demand-side alternatives. customer acceptance. When the limited information is available on prior demand-side program experiences. and scheduled milestones can help determine whether the demand-side management program has been imple- . a pilot experiment may precede the program. Pilot experiments may be limited either to a sub-region or to a sample of consumers throughout an area. including a written scope of responsibility. and provide management with the means of examining demand-side programs as they develop. foster advanced planning and organization within a demand-side program. If the pilot experiment proves cost-effective. then the implementers may consider initiating the full-scale program. After the pilot experiment is completed. MONITORING AND EVALUATION Just as there is need to monitor the performance of supply-side alternatives. It is important for implementers to establish clear directives for the project team. additional effort must be given to refining the training. The ultimate goal of the monitoring program is to identify deviations from expected performance and to improve both existing and planned demand-side programs. In monitoring the performance of demand-side management programs.Market Implementation 213 demand-side management project team should be created with representation from the various departments and organizations. staffing. Tracking and review of program costs. marketing.
demand-side program objectives can be best characterized in terms of load shape changes. Thus. an assessment of program success must begin with measuring the impact of the program on load shapes. Experimental—Use of comparisons and control groups to determine relative program effects on participants or nonparticipants. To assess load shape impacts requires the careful definition of a reference baseline against which load shapes with a demand-side management alternative can be judged. services offered. it is useful to incorporate both in program design. Information such as the cost per unit of service. Recordkeeping and reporting systems can be helpful in completing descriptive evaluations. the frequency of demand-side equipment installation. in terms of both administrative procedure and target population characteristics. however.214 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response mented as planned. is not adequate for systematically assessing the load shape impacts of the demand-side program. • The two monitoring approaches tend to address different sets of concerns. As noted previously. can be useful in assessing the relative success of a demand-side management program. In monitoring and evaluating demand-side programs. therefore. two common approaches can be taken: • Descriptive—Basic monitoring that includes documentation of program costs. the reference baseline might be the existing forecast with appropriate adjustment to reflect the short-term conditions in the . or both. implementers should be aware of basic program performance indicators. activities completed. The second question can be much more difficult to answer. acceptance rates. The reference baseline reflects those load shape changes that are "naturally occurring"—that is. With a descriptive approach. the type of participants (single family households or other demographic groups). and the number of customer complaints. In some cases. those changes unrelated to the demand-side program itself. and characteristics of program participants. this measurement can be difficult because other factors unrelated to the demand-side program can have a significant impact on customer loads. The descriptive evaluation. However.
Market Implementation 215 service area. The energy consumption and hourly demand of program participants could also be measured before they joined the program to provide a "before" and "after" comparison. Confounding influences refer to non-program-related changes that may increase or decrease the impact of a demand-side program. Randomization refers to the degree to which the participating customer sample truly represents the total customer population involved in the demand-side program. of course. including not only appliance stock data but also such information as family size. work schedules. that group must have characteristics similar to those of the participants. Similarly. If a "before" reference is used. it is often necessary to adjust data for subsequent changes in the customer's appliance or equipment stock and its usage. It can also refer to the degree of bias involved in assigning customers to the experimental and control groups. Threats to monitoring program validity usually fall into two categories: problems associated with randomization and problems associates with confounding influences. This. income. If the reference point is a group of nonparticipants. and age of head of household. In other cases. External validity is the ability to generalize experimental results to the entire population. Adding an extra appliance (such as a window air conditioner) can more than offset any reductions in energy use resulting from an electric weatherization program. In some . controlled water heating may reduce peak load for a sample of participants. for example. but there is no guarantee that all customers will react in a similar fashion. For example. requires a great deal of information on both groups to allow for proper matching. The "before" situation must be clearly characterized so that appropriate impact of the program can be measured. from retirement or from the second spouse joining the labor force. Monitoring Program Validity Monitoring programs strive to achieve two types of validity: internal and external. the effect of an electric direct load control of a central storage water heater can be altered by changes in a customer's living pattern resulting. Internal validity is the ability to accurately measure the effect of the demand-side management program on the participant group itself. the reference might be a control group of customers not participating in the program.
and analyzing data in the monitoring and evaluation program. and satisfaction is very important in evaluating the overall success of a program. Sources of evaluation data include program records. and plant openings and closings. and field surveys. Data and Information Requirements Data and information requirements involve the entire process of collecting. motivations for participating. including weather. • • In addition. telephone surveys are to complete field surveys. information on participant characteristics. inflation. changes in personal income. validating. The cost of data collection is likely to be the most expensive part of the evaluation study.216 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response cases. There are a number of reasons for this: • Some information is needed on a "before" and "after"" program initiation basis. utility metering. If the "before" data are inadequate. managing. The data must be valid (measure what it is supposed to measure) and reliable (the same results would occur if repeated. Some data collections take considerable time. Data collection costs can be reduced with proper advance planning and by having sufficient recordkeeping and reporting systems. The information-gathering mechanisms may already be in place at many utilities. awareness of the program. Monitoring the effect of the demand-side alternative throughout the program allows for adjustments and modifications to the program. energy bills. the effect of these non-program-related changes can be greater than the effect of the demand-side program. The expertise gained in conducting these activities is helpful in considering the development of a monitoring program. additional data must be collected before the start of the program. . Load research programs and customer surveys have long been used to collect data for forecasting an planning. Typically. particularly if metering of consumer electric or gas end uses has to be performed. The list of potential sources of confounding influences is extensive. The data collection system should be designed before the implementation of the demand-side program itself. within an acceptable margin of error).
P. Recognizing that monitoring and evaluation programs can be dateintensive and time-consuming. and program feedback." EPRI Journal. Some of the most important hurdles that must be overcome in the management of a monitoring program include: • Assuring sufficient advanced planning to develop and implement the monitoring and evaluation program in conjunction with the demand-side activity. October 1983. and Economic Analyses. Westview Press). EPRI RDS 94 (RP 1613). EA-2512 (RP 1211-2).. Report No. prepared for Electric Power Research Institute. Utility Promotion of Investment in Energy Efficiency: Engineering. Alliance to Save Energy.C. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute.Market Implementation 217 Management Concerns Monitoring and evaluation programs require careful management attention. Gupta. August 1983.) Forecasting U. Faruqui. 1985. coordinate. Volume 8.S. Organizing and reporting the results of the evaluation program to provide management with a clear understanding of these results. Commend building types. November 1983. Number 8. Demand-side Planning Cost/Benefit Analysis. Electricity Demand (Boulder. July 1982. Wharton.. • • • • Monitoring and evaluation programs can be organized in four stages: pre-evaluation planning. Inc. Cambridge Systematics." in Adela Bolet (ed. Boston Pacific Company. A. References Decision Focus. Establishing clear lines of responsibility and accountability for program formulation and direction. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. "Ten Propositions in Modeling Industrial Electricity Demand. Legal. Developing a strong organizational commitment to adequately plan. CO. the COMMEND Planning System: National and Regional Data . Residential End-Use Energy Planning System (REEPS). evaluation design. evaluation program costs must be kept in balance with benefits. "Cooling Commercial Buildings with Off-Peak Power. Report No. and fund monitoring programs. evaluation design implementation. therefore. September 1986. Office Productivity Tools for the Information Economy: Possible Effects on Electricity Consumption. and J. Inc.
D. J. EM-2649 (RP 1940-1). Decision Focus. Vol. The PG and E Energy Expo. Eco-Energy Associates.W. Chirtensen Associates. EPRI EA-2904 (RP 2050-8). C. Vol. March 1986. EPRI EA/EM-3597. March 1979. "Load Management Implementation Issues. Inc. Vol. Decision Focus. EPRI EA/EM-3597. David C. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Demand-side Management Vol. Linda Finley. 1: Overview of Key Issues. New Jersey. Integrated Analysis of Load Shapes and Energy Storage. Washington." in James L. Inc..." . forthcoming 1984. EA-970 (RP 1108). Limaye. November 1982. Inc.) Strategic Planning and Management for Electric Utilities.. March 1983. March 1984. EM 3529). Electric Utility Conservation Programs: Assessment of Implementation Experience (RP 2050-11) and 1983 Survey of Utility End-Use Projects (EPRI Report No. Electric Power Research Institute. 4 Project 2381-4 Final Report. July 1983. Rohmund. Consumer Selection of End-Use Devices and Systems. Report No. 1981 Survey of Utility Load Management Conservation and Solar End-Use Projects. Prentice-Hall. Issues in Implementing a Load Management Program for Direct Load Control. November 1983. Electric Utility Rate Design Study. October 1983. Electric Power Research Institute Working Paper.. Jersey Central Power and Light Company and Todd Davis. EPRI EM-4486. EPRI EA/EM-3597. "Market Planning for Electric Utilities. presentation made at the EPRI Seminar on "Planning and Assessment of Load Management.. Inc. Customer's Attitudes and Customers' Response to Load Management.218 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response and Analysis. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Gellings. Synergic Resources Corporation.C. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Pradeep C.. May 1982.. Identifying Commercial Industrial Market Segments for Utility Demand-side Programs. Energy Utilization Systems. Gayle Lloyd. Report No. Hopkins. Demand-side Management Vol. Report No. 3 Project 2381-4 Final Report. Decision Focus. Inc. Gellings and D. The Marketing Plan (New York: The Conference Board. EPRI Project RP 1956. 3: Technology Alternatives and Market Implementation Methods. December 1983. Lauritis R. EPRI EA 2396 (RP 1485). Inc. Clark W. Report No. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Load Management Strategy Testing Model. Energy Management Associates." Paper Presented at Energy Technology Conference. EPRI Reports prepared by Synergic Resources Corporation. Plummer (ed. 2: Evaluation of Alternatives. Survey of Innovative Rate Structures. Cost/Benefits Analysis of Demand-side Planning Alternatives. Pp. 2 Project 2381-4 Final Report.S. EPRI SIA82-419-6. McMenamin and I. 4: Commercial Markets and Programs. and Ahmad Faruqui. EPRI RP2381-5. Published by Electric Power Research Institute. Report No. Demand-side Management Vol. Electricity Use in the Commercial Sector: Insights from EPRI Research. April 1966. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI EA/EM-3597. Opportunities in Thermal Storage R&D. Vol.. EPRI EURDS 94 (RP 1613). Inc. Demand-side Planning Cost/Benefit Analysis. RP 2547. Strategic Implications of Demand-side Planning." December. Residential Response to Time-of-Use Rates. 1981). Report No. 1982.R. forthcoming. Inc. 1 Project 2381-4 Final Report. Decision Focus.. EPRI RDS 94 (RP 1613). Demand-side Management Vol. Gupta. Published by Electric Power Research Institute. EM-3159-SR. EBASCO Services. EPRI Project. 27-28 and 38-39.
November 7. Stephen Braithwait. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Department of Energy.S. Survey of Utility Commercial Sector Activities. "Demand-side Management. February 1983. Resource Planning Associates. 1985. Energy Consumption Survey Data for COMMEND buildings. edited by Craig Smith. U. 1985). October 1985. September 1981. EPRI EA-2702 (RP 2045-2). 439-447. 5-4. EPRI P-2799-SR. Berkeley. . Parmenter. p. April. CRC Press. EPRI EM-4142. ORNL-5795. edited by F. Electric Utility Sponsored Conservation Programs: An Assessment of Implementation Mechanisms (forthcoming). Goswami. Published by Electric Power Research Institute. 1981 Conservation and Load Management: Volume II Measurement (1981 Page 2-VIII-I). 1980). Report No. Electric Power Research Institute. 1986 Statistical Year Book. Synergic Resources Corporation. Inc.E. 1983 Survey of Utility End-Use Projects. 1979 Nonresidential Buildings. vol. A Guide for Utility Planners. published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Electric Power Research Institute. C. October 1982. Kreith and D. 1983. Coughlin. pp. and K. Southern California Edison Company. Gellings. Conference Proceedings. Inc. EA-4267. RP 2050-11. Analysis. Pradeep Gupta." in Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Electric Power Research Institute. Kuliasha. 1985. EPRI has also recently funded a project on "Identifying Consumer Research Techniques for Electric Utilities" (RP 1537). p. January 1983. US DL 85-478. 1983. Todd Davis and Peter Turnbull (New York Pergamon Press. Report EM-3529-1984 (RP 1940-8).S.Y.. New Orleans. Department of Labor. Methods for Analyzing the Market Penetration of End-Use Technologies: A Guide for Utility Planners. California. 1984.." from the Utility Resource Planning Conference sponsored by the University of California-Berkeley. Methods for Analyzing the Market Penetration of End-Use Technologies.S. 2. Competitive Strategy (New York Free Press. Energy Information Administration. 1983—1987 Research and Development Program Plan published by the Electric Power Research Institute. September 13. Inc. "Understanding Commercial Fuel and Equipment Choice Decisions. Michael Porter. NY: 2007. Published by Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Residential Load Forecasting: Integrating End Use and Econometric Methods. February 28. New York. U. 1985. U.Market Implementation 219 M. Department of Energy. Robert M. Mathematical Sciences Northwest.A. "Load Forecasting. October 1982. July 1985. Non-residential Buildings Energy Consumption Survey: Characteristics of Commercial Buildings. Reference Manual of Data Sources for Load Forecasting. and Implementation. 57. State Energy Date Report. Marketing Demand-side Programs to Improve Load Factor. College of Engineering." Meeting Energy Challenges: The Great PG&E Energy Expo. Utility Controlled Customer Side Thermal Energy Storage Tests: Cool Storage. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Edison Electric Institute. EPRI EA-2008 (RP 1478-1).W. EPRI EA-2702 (RP 2045-2). Synergic Resources Corporation. Paper presented at Utility Conservation Programs: Planning.
"This page left intentionally blank." .
Such accelerated advancements require focused research initiatives. Maximization of the energy efficiency potential also means that some of the basic science will need to evolve. There is a second category of electric end-use technologies that is covered in this chapter.Chapter 11 Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives* There are numerous electric energy efficient technologies commercially available.galvinpower. Many of these technologies are already in use. Some advancements will occur naturally. 221 . It then identifies some emerging technologies as well as some research needs. This second group is typically referred to as electrotechnologies. but in order to achieve the maximum potential for energy efficiency. LLC on the Impacts of Electrotechnologies—all managed and directed by the author. It involves those technologies which have the potential to displace end-use applications of fossil fuel while reducing overall energy use and CO2 emissions. Some have been established for several decades (e. fluorescent *This chapter benefits from several related efforts. including work from Phase One.g. accelerated advancements are needed.org) and the second includes work done by EPRI staff and Global Energy Partners.. Task 2 of the Galvin Electricity Initiative (www. In addition. This section lists representative technologies that are commercially available for buildings and industry. EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES Many technologies capable of improving energy efficiency exist today. but increasing their market penetration has the potential to yield significant improvements in worldwide energy efficiency. advancements in these technologies as well as commercialization of emerging technologies will act to further energy efficiency improvements.
cooling. electrolysis. and general.. boilers. and 6 TO 7% of total electricity consumption in manufacturing facilities. lighting controls). food and agriculture. Figure 11-1 lists examples of technologies for buildings and industry. appliances. however. white LED task lighting).g. facilitates information transfer. The industry technologies are divided into the end-use areas of motors. Some of the technologies listed (particularly for industry) are electrotechnology alternatives to thermal equipment. and allows for visual entertainment. provides safety. Artificial lighting is now ubiquitous to nearly every aspect of our life. Worldwide. lighting. artificial illumination is often the first use that newly electrified communities embrace.S. waste treatment. heating. nearly onequarter of total electricity consumption in commercial buildings. and general. but could still benefit from increased penetration (e. air and water treatment. In developing nations. Because of its significance to society—both in terms . The table is meant to serve as a representative list of technology alternatives. The majority of the technologies listed consume less energy than conventional alternatives. In many cases they are more energy efficient than conventional thermal alternatives.222 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response lamps).g. artificial illumination is estimated to demand 20 to 25% of all electric energy in developed countries. and should not be considered a complete listing. Lighting Artificial illumination is essential to society. The advent of electric lighting drastically transformed modern society's use of artificial illumination. Existing end-use technologies which may be deployed in offices and similar commercial applications associated with power plants are also discussed in Chapter 2. others are new to the market-place (e... membrane separation. In the U. depending on the generation mix of the utility supply and distribution to end-users. The buildings technologies are broken down into categories of building shell. they can result in overall emissions reductions. in some cases they may use more energy. process heating. still others have been available for a while. cooling and heating. enhances beauty. lighting systems currently account for about one-tenth of total electricity consumption in residential buildings. water heating. It enables productivity. One of the primary advantages of electrotechnologies is that they avoid on-site emissions of pollutants and.
Examples of Technology Alternatives for Buildings and Industry .Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives 223 Figure 11-1.
Table 11-2 shows innovative space-conditioning technologies that may potentially contribute to reduced electricity consumption. cool. The primary purposes of space conditioning are to heat. humidifiers.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that it is one of the five most critical environmental concerns in the U. electric boilers. and provide air mixing and ventilating. Table 11-1. dehumidifiers. Space conditioning is the largest end-user of electricity in both residential and commercial buildings. electricity drives devices such as fans. cooling towers. air conditioners. the U. Innovative Lighting Technologies Space Conditioning Space conditioning is an important consumer function. When properly designed. Table 11-1 shows innovative lighting technologies that may potentially contribute to reduced electricity consumption. and various controls used to operate space-conditioning equipment. Indoor Air Quality Indoor air quality is a subject of increasing concern to consumers. In fact. space-conditioning systems afford the consumer healthy living and working environments that enable productivity and a sense of well-being. To this end. innovations in technologies related to space conditioning may have a substantial effect on how electricity is used in the future. Ac- . heat pumps. pumps. dehumidify. humidify. resistance heaters. It also accounts for a relatively large share of electricity use across the manufacturing industries. commercial and industrial sectors. chillers.S. Because of its significance and large impact on electricity use across the residential.224 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response of functionality and energy use—maximizing lighting's contribution to a perfect electric energy service system is an obvious goal of future innovation.
Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives
Table 11-2. Innovative Space Conditioning Technologies
cording to EPA statistics, Americans spend an average of 90% of their time indoors, either at home, school or work. Thus, it is essential for our health and well-being that we take measures to ensure acceptable indoor air quality. The health effects of poor indoor air quality can be particularly severe for children, elderly, and immuno-suppressed or immuno-compromised occupants. Poor indoor air quality is estimated to cause hundreds of thousands of respiratory health problems and thousands of cancer deaths each year (EPA, 2001). Indoor air contaminants such as allergens, microorganisms, and chemicals are also triggers for asthma. In addition to causing illness, poor indoor air quality may inhibit a person's ability to perform, and leads to higher rates of absenteeism. Furthermore, turmoil with the Middle East has promulgated the need for heightened homeland security measures, which focus on protecting building occupants from chemical and biological weapons and creating more resistant indoor environments. Table 11-3 shows innovative indoor air purification technologies that may reduce electricity consumption.
Table 11-3. Innovative Indoor Air Purification Technologies
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
Domestic Water Heating Domestic water heating is essential for the comfort and wellbeing of consumers. Hot water is used for a variety of daily functions, including bathing, laundry and dishwashing. Water heating is also a significant end user of electricity, particularly for the residential sector. Indeed, water heating accounted for 9.1% of residential electricity use in 2001. It makes up a smaller share in the commercial sector, consuming 1.2% of commercial electricity use in 1999. Electricity is used to run electric resistance water heaters, heat pump water heaters, pumps and emerging devices such as microwave water heaters. Because of the importance of water heating to society—in terms of both functionality and electricity use—maximizing the contributions by water heating technologies to a perfect electric energy service system should be a focus of future innovation. Table 11-4 shows innovative domestic water heating technologies which may potential contribute to reduced electricity consumption.
Table 11-4. Innovative Domestic Water Heating Technologies
Hyper-efficient Appliances While the adoption of the best available energy-efficient technologies by all consumers in 100% of applications is far from complete, the utilities, states and other organizations interested in promoting increased efficiency are beginning to question the availability of the "next generation" of energy-efficient technologies. After several years of unsuccessfully trying to encourage the electricity sector to fill in the gaps of R&D in advanced utilization appliances and devices, EPRI has turned instead to the goal of transferring proven technologies from overseas. As a result of several factors, manufacturers of electrical apparatus in Japan, Korea and Europe have outpaced U.S. firms in the development of high-efficiency electric end-use technologies. If fully deployed, these technologies could reduce the demand for electric energy by over 10%. In addition, collectively these technologies have the potential to reduced electric energy consumption in residential
Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives
and commercial applications by up to 40% for each application. They represent the single greatest opportunity to meet consumer demand for electricity. The technologies are currently being demonstrated with several utilities in different climate regions to assess their performance when deployed in diverse environments. This will ensure a thorough evaluation. The following technologies are considered among those ready for demonstration in the U.S.: • • • • • • Variable Refrigerant Flow Air Conditioning (with and without ice storage) Heat Pump Water Heating Ductless Residential Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners Hyper-Efficient Residential Appliances Data Center Energy Efficiency
Light-emitting Diode (LED) Street and Area Lighting
Ductless Residential Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners Approximately 28% of residential electric energy use can be attributed to space conditioning. Use of variable frequency drive air conditioning systems can offer a substantial improvement when compared to conventional systems. In addition, in many climate zones, the industry has long recognized that the application of electric-driven heat pump technology would offer far greater energy effectiveness than fossil fuel applications. However, except in warmer climates, the cost and performance of today's technology in insufficient to realize that promise. These ductless systems have the potential to substantially change the cost and performance profile of heat pumps in the U.S. Variable Refrigerant Flow Air Conditionings Ducted air conditioning systems with fixed-speed motors have been the most popular system for climate control in multi-zone commercial building applications in North America. These systems require significant electricity to operate and offer no opportunity to manage peak demand. Multi-split heat pumps have evolved from a technology suitable for residential and light commercial buildings to variable refrigerant
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
flow (VRF) systems that can provide efficient space conditioning for large commercial buildings. VRF systems are enhanced versions of ductless multi-split systems, permitting more indoor units to be connected to each outdoor unit and providing additional features such as simultaneous heating and cooling and heat recovery. VRF systems are very popular in Asia and Europe and, with an increasing support available from major U.S. and Asian manufacturers, are worth considering for multi-zone commercial building applications in the U.S. VRF technology uses smart integrated controls, variable-speed drives, refrigerant piping and heat recovery to provide products with attributes that include high energy efficiency, flexible operation, ease of installation, low noise, zone control and comfort using all-electricity technology. Ductless space conditioning products, the forerunner of multisplit and VRF systems, were first introduced to Japan and elsewhere in the 1950s as split systems with single indoor units and outdoor units. These ductless products were designed as quieter, more efficient alternatives to window units (Smith, 2007). Heat Pump Water Heating Heat pump water heaters (HPWHs) based on current Japanese technology are three times more efficient than electric resistance water heaters and have the potential to deliver nearly five times the amount of hot water, even compared to a resistance water heater. HPWHs are significantly more energy efficient than electric resistance water heaters, and can result in lower annual water heating bills for the consumer, as well as reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. But the high first costs of heat pump water heaters and past application and servicing problems have limited their use in the U.S. Water heating constitutes a substantial portion of residential energy consumption. In 1999, 120,682 GWh of electricity and 1,456 trillion Btu of natural gas were consumed to heat water in residences, amounting to 10% of residential electricity consumption and 30% of residential natural gas consumption (EPRI, 2001). While both natural gas and electricity are used to heat water, the favorable economics of natural gas water heaters have historically made them more popular than electric water heaters. Heat pump water heaters, which use electricity to power a vaporcompression cycle to draw heat from the surrounding environment,
Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives
can heat water more efficiently for the end user than conventional water heaters (both natural gas and resistant element electric). Such devices offer consumers a more cost-effective and energy-efficient method of electrically heating water. The potential savings in terms of carbon emissions at the power plant are also significant. Replacing 1.5 million electric resistance heaters with heap pump water heaters would reduce carbon emissions by an amount roughly equivalent to the annual carbon emissions produced by a 250 MW coal power plant. Heat pump water heaters have been commercially available since the early 1980s and have made some inroads in some places in the world, particularly in Europe and Japan. Hyper-efficient Residential Appliances Driven in part by high electricity prices and government encouragement, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and European markets have witnessed the introduction and widespread adoption of "hyper-efficient" residential appliances including electric heat pump clothes washers and dryers, inverter-driven clothes washers, multi-stage inverter-driven refrigerators, and advanced-induction ranges and cook tops. Depending on the application, these appliances can use 50% less electricity than conventional U.S. appliances. However, there are issues with regard to their acceptance with U.S. consumers and their actual performance. Data Center Energy Efficiency Data centers consume 30 terawatt hours of electricity per year. The technologies that are employed in those buildings today only allow 100 watts of every 245 watts of electricity delivered to actually be used to provide computational ability. The steps in between delivery to the building and actual use include the following conversions: • • • • Uninterruptable Power Supplies Power Distribution Power Supplies 88—92% Efficient 68—75% Efficient 78—85% Efficient 98—99% Efficient
DC to DC Conversion
In addition, all the lost energy has to be cooled. That is typically
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
done with air conditioning requiring 1,000 watts for each ton of cooling, typically at an efficiency of 76%. Light-emitting Diode (LED) Street and Area Lighting Street lighting is an important lifestyle enhancement feature in communities all over the world. There is a move across the U.S. to replace existing street and area lights—normally mercury vapor, highpressure sodium (HPS) or metal halide (MH) lamps—with new technology that costs less to operate, and LEDs are at the forefront of this trend. Since LED street and area lighting (LEDSAL) technology is still relatively new to the market, utilities, municipalities, energy service providers and light designers have expressed a keen interest in what the tradeoffs are between conventional lighting and LEDSAL. Cost is probably first among them, with the disadvantage of higher initial cost, but the advantage of lower operating costs. Several important tradeoffs to consider when adopting LEDSAL are presented in this chapter, organized according to their advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include energy efficiency, lower operating costs, durability, flexibility and improved illumination that can lead to increased safety. On the disadvantages side are higher first costs, lower immunity to electrical disturbances, lower LED efficacy, varying fixture designs, three-wire installation, and unsuitability for retrofits into conventional fixtures. LEDSALs offer a number of advantages related to power and energy use, light quality, safety and operating costs. INDUSTRIAL Industrial use of electricity is dominated by the use of electric motors, lighting and process heating. Lighting applications have been discussed earlier. This section focuses on motors and drives as well as process heating. This is followed by three additional key opportunities for energy efficiency in the industrial sector—cogeneration, thermal energy storage and the application of industrial energy management programs. Motors and Drives Electric motors and drives use about 55% of all electricity in the
blowers. less waste heat is generated by an efficient system. Motors • Better lubrication: It is important to use high-quality lubricants that are appropriate for the particular application. permanent magnet DC motors. and provide an opportunity for almost immediate energy savings. (b) equipment retrofit and replacement. belts. and electrical supply systems are described below. efficiency improvements can be made in four main categories: the prime mover (motor). drive controls. grinding. chains. Too much or too little lubrication can reduce system efficiency. electric drive. control packages. In addition. the efficient use of motors and drives presents a considerable opportunity for energy savings in the industrial sector and beyond. a smaller cooling load would result for an environment that is air conditioned. mixing. drive train. • Improved cooling: Adequate cooling of motors can reduce . cutting and milling operations. and pumps. A drive system includes the following components: electrical supply. and assorted equipment for crushing.S. fans. For example. trimming. couplers. refrigeration systems. The efficiency of motors and drives can be improved to some extent by better operation and maintenance practices. The main energy efficiency opportunities for motors. motor. Indirect energy savings can also be realized through efficient motor and drive operation. Operation and maintenance measures are typically inexpensive and easy to implement.S. and (c) controls and alterations to fans. pumps. This section focuses on efficiency opportunities in (a) the operation and maintenance of electric drive systems. synchronous motors. There are several types of motors used in industrial applications. blowers. including DC motors. electrically driven equipment accounts for about 67% of industrial electricity use in the U. conveyors. and therefore. reluctance motors and induction motors. There are losses in each component that need to be addressed for maximum efficiency. Induction motors are by far the most common motor used in industry and account for over 90% of all the motors of 5 horsepower and greater. Applications of electric drives include compressors. drive trains.Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives 231 U. and electrical supply. In general. stamping. gear drives and bearings. It is best to focus on the entire drive system to realize maximum energy savings. As a result of their prevalence.
Adjust belt tension correctly. batch operation. belt drives and clutches. gears. Cleaning heat transfer surfaces and vents will help improve cooling. Efficiency decreases as the percentage of loading is decreased. This is facilitated by choosing leak-proof motors Minimized low. Match its torque characteristics to the load. • Spillage prevention: Prevent the spillage of water into motor windings. • Minimization of friction: Reduce losses due to friction by checking operation of bearings. Motor matching: Size the motor correctly to fit the application. Chains: Convert roller chains to silent chains. • • • • . Direct driven loads: Use direct-driven loads in the place of gear. or larger motors in batch operation? • • • • Drive Train • Belt operation: Properly align belt drives. Quality rewinding: Use high-quality winding techniques and materials (such as copper) when rewinding motors. Synchronous belts: Convert V-belts to synchronous belts. Lubrication: Lubricate the chain in chain drives correctly. Consider replacing or rewinding motors with aluminum windings. Use appropriate types and quantities of lubricants. Is it more efficient to run smaller motors continuously.or no-load operation of motors: Eliminate motors that are operating infrequently or at low loads. Operation: Analyze the merits of continuous vs.232 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response the need for motor rewinds and improve efficiency.
Turn off motors when they are not in use. reducing the demand on heating equipment. Efficient power systems: Losses can occur in the power systems that supply electricity to the motors. switching gear. Variable speed drives (adjustable speed drives): Install variable speed drives to control the shaft speed of the motor. Equipment Retrofit and Replacement Equipment retrofit and replacement measures require more money and time to implement than do operation and maintenance measures. and feedback control systems. This reduces energy consumption considerably by matching the motor speed to the process requirements. and schedule large motors to operate during off-peak hours. Electrical Supply • Operation at rated voltage: Motors are most efficient if they are operated at their rated voltage. however. they can also result in more significant energy savings. • 233 Quality bearings: Use high-quality bearings for minimized friction. The waste heat can supply heat for another part of the process. transformers. Other controls: Consider power factor controllers in low-dutyfactor applications. Some common retrofit and replacement opportunities for motors and drives are described below. distribution systems. • • Phase balance: Balance three phase power supplies. Controls for scheduling: Install controls to schedule equipment. De-energize excess transformer capacity. • Heat recovery: Modify equipment to recover heat. Check substations. feeders and panels for efficient operation. Replacement of throttling valve with variable-speed drive: Con- • • • • .Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives belt or chain drives for maximum efficiency.
pneumatic drives are preferred because of electrical hazards or because of the need for lightweight and highpower drives. and when motors need replacement. it is significant enough that energy efficiency improvements in process heat applications have the potential for a substantial impact on overall electrical efficiency.S. Although this percentage is small compared to electric drive systems. the utilization of high-efficiency motors in industry is small compared to what is possible. electric-based systems. if possible. electric systems will likely become more prevalent as a result of the increasing costs . or with solar collection systems. High-efficiency motors: Install high-efficiency motors in all new designs and system retrofits. Electric motors are much more efficient. Despite motor innovations and availability. When all types of process heat are considered. and applicability for a large range of capacities. cleanliness at the point of use. Motor manufacturers have focused on improving motor efficiency since the mid-1970s when the cost of electricity started to rise. there is still a large potential for energy savings. electrically powered systems only account for a few percent of the total.234 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response trol shaft speed with a variable-speed drive instead of a throttling valve. Replacement of steam jets: Replace steam jets on vacuum systems with electric motor-driven vacuum pumps. safety. In addition. • • Process Heating Process heat accounts for 10% of industrial end-use of electricity in the U. The four main ways for process heat to be generated are with combustible fuel-based systems. The share of electric process heat systems is likely to increase in the future because of several advantages associated with electric systems. small size. but in some applications. Pneumatic drives use electricity to generate compressed air which then is converted to mechanical energy. thermal recovery systems. which are hard to eliminate or avoid. Throttling valves are associated with significant energy losses. including ease of control. • Replacement of pneumatic drives: Consider replacing pneumatic drives with electric motors. The main inefficiency of pneumatic drives arises from air leaks.
The most common electric process heat technologies include resistance heaters. Cogeneration should continue to grow in the face of increased fuel prices and the development of new cost-effective technologies. but the steam that is generated from the exhaust gas is directed into a steam turbine to produce additional electricity. dielectric systems (RF and microwave). cogeneration use at the industry level started to decline. softening and moisture removal. and there are many emerging technologies. Specific applications include distilling. electric salt bath furnaces. This was the beginning of cogeneration. Generally. As the public utility industry grew in size. There are three main classes of cogeneration systems: (1) topping cycles. either simultaneously or sequentially. In the early 1990s. cooking. . it increased to about 5. as a result of the oil embargo in the 1970s. In topping cycles. electricity is produced first. and the thermal energy that results from the combustion process is used for process heat. Electricity is then produced when the mechanical energy is applied to a generator.1%. induction heaters. and (3) combined cycles. and then the lower temperature steam is recovered and used to generate electricity. space heat or additional electricity production. process heat is used for melting. high-temperature thermal energy (typically steam) is produced for process applications. heating and drying operations. Combined cycles are based on topping cycles. Cogeneration systems produce mechanical energy and thermal energy. However. (2) bottoming cycles. Cogeneration In the early 1900s. and the costs of electricity generation decreased. most industries generated their own power and used the waste heat for supplemental thermal energy. annealing. infrared systems. cogeneration began to receive more notice and has experienced a slow growth since the mid-1980s when industrial cogeneration capacity was about 4%. industrial electrical power production decreased from about 25 to 9% and continued to decline. fusing. There are a variety of electric heating systems currently available. The following section of this chapter summarizes some of the energy efficiency opportunities for process heat applications. Between 1954 and 1976. In bottoming cycles. and direct arc electric furnaces.Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives 235 of combustible fuels. Topping cycles are more commonly used than bottoming cycles.
The large thermal demand makes cogeneration a desirable option. and therefore. and the number of candidate industries is increasing. however. Cogeneration is applicable (and currently used) for steel mills of the open-hearth type. Chemical industry: The chemical industry is another significant user of cogeneration. the chemical industry has had the third largest installed cogeneration capacity in the industrial sector. Food processing: The demand for cogeneration in the food industry is on the rise.. It uses about the same quantity of steam annually as the pulp and paper industry. Steel industry: Open-hearth steel-making processes produce an off-gas that is capable of providing fuel to produce steam. The main limitation is the cyclic nature of its thermal demand. Petroleum refining industry: The petroleum refining industry has a significant thermal demand and is very well suited for cogeneration. cogeneration is not as applicable. The steam is then used to drive blast furnace air compressors and for other applications. Any industry that has a demand for thermal energy and electrical energy is a candidate for cogeneration. TES provides peak . Large quantities of burnable wastes are used to fuel cogeneration systems for electricity generation. newer mills utilizing electric-arc technology do not have a significant thermal demand. steam. water. oil or solids) for use at a future time. TES is the storage of thermal energy in a medium (i. TES is used to manage energy in several ways. For example.e.236 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Cogeneration systems are currently in use in a variety of industries. Some of the main applications of cogeneration in the industrial sector include: • Pulp and paper industry: The pulp and paper industry has been the primary industrial user of cogeneration. Historically. • • • • Thermal Energy Storage Thermal energy storage (TES) can also be considered an industrial energy source.
Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives
load coverage for variable electricity or heat demands, it allows for the equalization of heat supplied from batch processes, and it enables the storage of energy produced during off-peak periods for use during peak periods. TES is also used to decouple the generation of electricity and heat in cogeneration systems. Better energy management through the use of TES can help industries reduce their dependency on utilities for energy supply. In addition, TES systems can provide a backup reserve of energy in the event of a power outage. Industrial Energy Management Programs The establishment of an energy management program is a crucial part of the process of setting and achieving industrial energy-efficiency goals. First and foremost, the establishment of an energy management program requires a commitment from management to initiate and support such a program. Once management is committed, an energy management program should be custom designed for each specific application, since efficiency goals vary with the type and size of the industry. However, there are several main guidelines that are applicable to any energy management program. In general, the procedure for setting up an energy management program requires the following six main steps: • • • • • • Appoint energy managers and steering committee Gather and review historical energy use data Conduct energy audits Identify energy-efficiency opportunities Implement cost-effective changes Monitor the results
This general procedure may be applied to any type of facility, including educational institutions, commercial buildings, and industrial plants. Manufacturing Processes The industrial revolution brought about radical changes in how items were produced. The automation of manufacturing processes has improved the modern world's standard of living and continues to do so. In recent times, these productivity gains have come from
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
the introduction of the computer into manufacturing, automating repetitive tasks and allowing for improved quality control and process management. Manufacturing processes today are heavily automated and dependent on robots and computers to perform functions. This degree of automation, in turn, requires reliable and high-quality power. Manufacturing is also very energy intensive and can have negative environmental impacts. Technological innovations that can improve upon existing manufacturing processes, making them more productive, cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally responsible are depicted in Table 11-5.
Table 11-5. Innovative Technologies for Manufacturing and Control of Air Emissions
ELECTROTECHNOLOGIES Electrotechnologies, while often existing technologies, are most often categories of end-use technology not considered as energyefficient. Interestingly, there are many end uses of fossil fuels that are inefficient from a total energy balance and environmental perspective. This is due to the physics of energy conversion wherein many end-use applications of electricity are far superior in conversion of electricity to actual desired heat, motive power, comfort or other derived energy conversion need that fossil fuels are. These electrotechnologies save so much energy at the point of end use so as to more than offset losses in electricity production and delivery. Also, as a result, they have lower CO2 emissions. Residential Sector There are eight electrotechnologies typically considered as having the potential for consideration as superior when compared to fossilfuel end-use applications in the residential sector. Table 11-6 summarizes these eight electrotechnologies.
Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives
Table 11-6. Residential Electrotechnologies
Commercial Sector Twenty electrotechnologies have the potential for consideration as electrotechnologies in the commercial sector. Table 11-7 lists the twenty electrotechnologies in the commercial sector. Industrial Sector Table 11-8 summarizes the industrial electrotechnologies typically considered as having the potential to be superior when compared to
Table 11-7. Commercial Electrotechnologies
Table 11-8. Industrial Electrotechnologies
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response
fossil-fuel applications. A few are described in more detail in the section which follows. Induction Process Heating Induction heating systems use electromagnetic energy to induce electric currents to flow in appropriately conductive materials. The materials are then heated by the dissipation of power in the interior of the materials. Induction heating is similar to microwave heating except that induction heating utilizes lower frequency, longer wavelength energy. The approximate frequency range is 500 to 800 kHz. Dielectric Process Heat Dielectric heating is accomplished with the application of electromagnetic fields. The material is placed between two electrodes that are connected to a high-frequency generator. The electromagnetic fields excite the molecular makeup of material, thereby generating heat within the material. Dielectric systems can be divided into two types: RF (radio frequency) and microwave. RF systems operate in the 1 to 100 MHz range, and microwave systems operate in the 100 to 10 000 MHz range. RF systems are less expensive and are capable of larger penetration depths because of their lower frequencies and longer wavelengths than microwave systems, but they are not as well suited for materials or products with irregular shapes. Both types of dielectric processes are good for applications in which the surface to volume ratio is small. In these cases, heating processes that rely on conductive, radiative and convective heat transfer are less efficient. Infrared Process Heat Infrared heating is used in many drying and surface processes. It is based on electromagnetic radiation at small wavelengths of one to six microns and high frequencies (~108 MHz). Because of their small wavelengths of energy, infrared heating systems typically are not capable of penetrating more than several millimeters into materials and are, therefore, best suited for surface applications. Typical applications include drying paper and textiles, hardening surface coatings, and accelerating chemical reactions. Electric Arc Furnaces Electric arc furnaces use a large percentage of the energy that is consumed in the primary metals industry. They are used primar-
Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives
ily for melting and processing recycled scrap steel. The refinement of scrap steel requires only about 40% of the energy required to produce steel from iron ore in a typical oxygen furnace. Since its inception, electric arc technology has improved substantially, and improvements are continuing. The percentage of steel produced in arc furnaces increased from 15% in 1970 to 38% in 1987, and the percentage is still rising. In addition, the electricity use per unit of product has decreased significantly. Energy improvements include the use of better controls, preheating of the material with fuel combustion or heat recovery, waste minimization by particle recovery, and ladle refining. Efficiency Advantages of Electric Process Heat Systems • Quick start-up: Electromagnetic systems are capable of quick start-up. Fuel-fired furnaces require long warm-up periods. As a result equipment is often left on continuously. Electric systems can be turned off when not in use. • Faster turn-around: Electric systems accomplish the required heating at a faster rate than furnaces. This can result in increased productivity and smaller heating times. Less material loss: Faster electric heating rates result in less material scaling. The amount of scaling is related to the time and quantity of exposure to oxygen at high temperatures. Energy is indirectly saved in the form of less material loss. Direct heating process: Direct heating systems are more efficient than indirect systems because energy losses from the heat containment system to the work piece are eliminated. Implementation of direct electric heating with infrared or dielectric technology can reduce energy use for industrial process heating by up to 80%, with typically a payback period of one to three years. Heat generation inside material: In induction and dielectric heating systems, heat is generated throughout the material, regardless of the material's thermal conductivity. This is in contrast to radiative and convective heating systems, in which the effectiveness and efficiency depends on the materi-
The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response al's thermal conductivity. Since the materials are heated from within, less energy is lost and the heat is distributed more uniformly. This also results in increased product quality.
More process control: By varying the frequency of the energy, the heating parameters can be optimized for the specific application. As a result, energy loss is reduced. In addition, electric processes can direct the energy to the desired location more precisely. Energy use is reduced by the avoidance of heating unnecessary material or equipment.
MERITS OF ELECTROTECHNOLOGIES BEYOND ENERGY EFFICIENCY There are several benefits to the increased use of electrotechnologies in the residential sector aside from the energy and CO2 savings that they offer. A few of the specific merits of the electrotechnologies selected for analysis relative to their fossil-fueled counterparts include the following: • Urban Emissions Reduction: Emissions from direct combustion of fossil fuels are moved from homes to central generation sites, which tend to be located farther from city centers. Heat Pumps Leverage Ambient Heat: Therefore, in many heating applications, the primary energy source is the sun, which is a renewable and local energy source. Dehumidification: Heat pump water heaters cool and dehumidify the surrounding air when operating. Manufacturing Development: Wider adoption of heat pump technologies in the U.S. will present the opportunity for manufacturing development in the U.S. and, consequently, job creation in the green manufacturing sector.
• •
One unique characteristic of electricity is that it is the only fuel source that can decrease its CO2 intensity. On one hand, this is due to
there is increased research and development relating to technologies to reduce the amount of CO2 entering the atmosphere at fossil-fueled generation sites. This orderliness means that electrical processes are controllable to a much more precise degree than thermal processes. Electric Drives: Lower maintenance and operating cost. electricity can deliver packages of concentrated. This focusing can be a tremendous advantage in. i. For instance. Heat Pumps: Reduced waste heat. direct combustion of fossil fuels will always produce the same amount of CO2. lowered effluent temperature. As such. energy input can instantly adjust to varying process conditions such as material temperature.e. i.e. electrotechnologies have some unique additional advantages over fossil-fueled technologies in industrial processes. for example. In contrast.. or chemical composition. It offers society greater form value than other forms of energy since it is such a high-quality energy form. moisture content. For one. which is random. heating of parts precisely at points of maximum wear. Their focal points can be rapidly scanned with computer-controlled mirrors or magnetic fields to deposit energy exactly where needed. improved process control. Form value affords flexibility. . increased penetration of nuclear and renewable generation sources. reduced cooling water use. precisely controlled energy and information efficiently to virtually any point. since electricity has no inertia. quicker response to load changes. thereby eliminating the need to heat and cool the entire piece.. A few of the specific merits of the electrotechnologies selected for analysis relative to their fossil-fueled counterparts include the following: • • • Electric Boilers: Smaller footprint.Efficient Electric End-use Technology Alternatives 243 the ability to change the fuel mix of generation. In addition. with only small variations based on fuel composition. On the other hand. improved product quality. in contrast to thermal energy. electricity is an orderly energy form. carbon capture and storage. improved process control. In the industrial sector. lasers and electron beams can produce energy densities at the work surface that are a million times more intense than an oxyacetylene torch. which in turn allows technical innovation and enormous potential for economic efficiency and growth.
Saving Energy with Electricity. www. Washington. EPRI. Discussion Paper. Clark W. improved product quality. . CONCLUSION One of the most important actions which can be undertaken to meet the energy needs of consumers is to make certain that end uses are as efficient as possible. Lee Smith. CA: 2008. 2007. Gellings. 2001. DC: October 2001. Palo Alto. EPRI. "History Lesson: Ductless Has Come a Long Way. EPA. Healthy People: A Vision for the 21st Century. Phase I Reports: Potential for End Use Technologies to Improve Functionality and Meet Consumer Expectations. 2006. CA. Palo Alto." ACHR News. Appliances. EPA-402-K-01-003.org. improved process control. Energy Market Profiles—Volume 1: 1999 Commercial Buildings.244 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Electrotechnologies for Process Heating: Reduced operating and maintenance costs. and Energy Use. References Healthy Buildings.galvinpower. Equipment. and Energy Use and Volume 2: 1999 Residential Buildings. April 30.
Chapter 12 Demand-side Planning INTRODUCTION From the energy issues first raised in the 1970s. Recognizing and planning for the integration of customer programs like energy efficiency. In summary. and rural electric utilities. A key challenge through these decades continues to be balancing customer demand for electricity with cost. Thus. environmental concerns. These options are equally applicable and desirable for investor-owned. to techniques for analyzing the cost-effectiveness of alternatives. as well as system operators. whether distribution. This focuses on the broad issues of demand-side planning ranging from motives for considering energy efficiency. it warrants examination by virtually every participant in the electric sector. the key issues that will be developed here are: • Demand-side planning can elucidate a broad range of alternatives for electricity demand. This chapter is intended to provide an overview of the key issues in that regard. demand response and electrification can help mitigate the need for future generating capacity. participants in the electric sector have learned the importance of a flexible and diverse management strategy that will help them succeed in an increasingly competitive and uncertain market. transmission or generation. municipal. and stakeholder requirements. and augment the range of choices available to utility management in meeting the environmental challenges of the future. The arrangement between consumers and providers can be dynamic. There is a need to constantly assess the demand for electric245 • . third-party providers or energy service entities. Table 12-1 lists the definitions used in discussing demand-side planning. assure efficient utilization of facilities. and to analyses of implementation issues.
but in a manner that will hold mutual benefits.246 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 12-1. Key Definitions ity and a need to alter course as economic or operating conditions change. • Demand-side programs and initiatives can provide customers with the opportunity they desire to better manage their total energy cost and usage and the impact they have on the environment. which can lead to increased efficiency in overall customer energy use and to improve customer productivity. such as electrification. Demand-side programs and activities include many new activities. • .
meets the definition of demand-side programs. rigorous analytical modeling. The extent to which market participants can successfully carry out demand-side initiatives will depend on a number of factors. none of which will be more important than the active support of top management and regulators. the years of planning and scheduling. Under this definition.e. Demand-side activities warrant the same level of attention and resources that are given to whole-market and other supply-side requirements—i. The essence of demand-side programs lies in how providers can relate to their customers and to the regulatory community. Demand-side activities involve a deliberate intervention by the market participant through the establishment of an infrastructure and programs so as to alter the overall pattern and/or demand for electricity. On the other hand. customer purchases of energy-efficient refrigerators would not be classified as part of a utility program. load management. They must be permitted to treat demand-side activities as assets in much the same way transmission. and calculations concerning reliability. new efficient uses. • • What is Demand-side Planning? Demand-side planning is the planning of those activities designed to influence customer use of electricity in ways that will produce desired changes in the utility's load shape—i. and maintenance. energy efficiency and distributed generation. While this distinction be- . distribution or generation assets are treated. Rather. they would be considered part of naturally occurring responses of consumers to prices. changes in the time pattern and magnitude of a utility's load or the adoption of new electric technologies which displace fossil energy uses. operation.Demand-side Planning • 247 The impacts of customer programs are highly specific. and the availability of improved devices. Demand-side activities have evolved and expanded over the last few years as seen in Figure 12-1. through either incentives or advertising. a program that encourages customers to install energyefficient refrigerators.e. Programs falling under this umbrella include demand response (such as time of use rates... but there is a wealth of data and a very rapidly growing experience base on which to draw. and direct-load control).
Note also that demandside alternatives extend bey o n d d e m a n d re s p o n s e . demand response and energy efficiency can provide an effective means to reduce the need for wholesale capacity while minimizing the environmental footprint. social. and resource supply factors have combined to change the utility industry's operating environment and its outlook for the future. it is nevertheless important. For others. many providers are faced with staggering environmental concerns. Why Consider the Demand Side? Why should electric energy providers be interested in customers? Since the early 1970s. economic. demand-side alternatives warrant consideration Figure 12-1. capital requirements for new plants. Growth in the Range of Deregardless of the regulatory mand-side Activities arrangements and business models involved. For areas with strong load growth. if 2007. and regulatory and consumer concern about rising prices. political. While embracing customers is not a cure-all for these difficulties. it does provide management with a great many additional alternatives. Now. declining financial performance. Thus. technological.248 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response tween "naturally" occurring and deliberately induced changes in energy consumption and load shape is at time difficult to make. These demand-side alternatives are equally appropriate for consideration by all electric sector participants. energy efficiency and load management to include programs designed specifically to incorporate new efficient uses of electricity which could add load overall or in peak and off-peak periods. deploying new uses of electricity and deliberate increases in . significant fluctuations in demand and energy growth rates.
current generating mix. This wide range of alternatives mandates that providers seriously consider the demand-side by including it as a part of their overall planning process. Therefore. expected load growth. reduce overall environmental impacts. Selecting Alternatives Finally. assessing which alternative is best suited for a given energy service provider is not a trivial task. The choice is complicated by the fact that the attractiveness of alternatives is influenced strongly by area-specific factors. capacity expansion plans. and the use of less expensive energy sources as well as in sources with lower environmental impact.Demand-side Planning 249 the market share of energy-intensive uses can improve the utility load characteristics. and reserve margins. This is complicated by the various values customers and providers have. Due to the large number of alternatives. implementation. changing the load shape that a provider must serve can reduce operating costs. and monitoring of activities selected from among a wide variety of programmatic and technical alternatives. evaluation. Aside from these rather obvious cases. demand-side planning encompasses planning. Figure 12-2. and optimize return. load factor. generation operations. however. such as the regulatory environment. A Renewed Partnership . Changes in the load shape can permit adjustments in short-term market purchase. it is inappropriate to transfer these varying specific factors from one service area or region to another without appropriate adjustments. load shapes for average and extreme days.
These infer eight critical issues that utilities considering the demand-side must resolve. during a certain season. or annually. Embracing the demand side can offer a utility a broad range of alternatives for reducing or modifying load during a particular time of the day.250 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response ISSUES CRITICAL TO THE DEMAND-SIDE Figure 12-2 illustrates the needs which customers and providers perceive in demand-side programs. The eight questions are listed in Table 12-2. How Can Demand-side Activities Help Achieve Its Objective Although provider needs and characteristics vary widely within the industry. The Utility Planning Process In some cases. every utility should examine demand-side alternatives. Issues in Demand-side Planning . energy efficiency. and deploy new efficient uses have emphasized the impacts of a single alternative with little discussion on how that alternative was first selected. The preferred approach in assessing the overall viability of planning is Table 12-2. reviews of demand response.
whether you are a distribution utility. Clearly. Discussion here focuses on a three-level hierarchy in utility planning related to demand-side activities: establishing broad objectives. they differ depending on the position one has in the value chain (i. or improving customer satisfaction. These strategic objectives are quite broad and generally include such examples as improving cash flow. This is illustrated in Figure 12-3.Demand-side Planning 251 to incorporate the assessment as part of the utility's strategic planning process. Table 12-3 defines the load shape objectives listed.e. and determining desired load shape modifications.. transmission owner or Figure 12-3. setting specific operational objectives. The first level of an energy service provider's formal planning process is to establish overall organizational objectives. Hierarchy of Planning Objectives . increasing earnings.
Load Shape Objectives* .252 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 12-3.
While all electric sector stakeholders face such institutional constraints. regulation. there is a need for a second level of the formal electric system planning process in which a provider's objectives are operationalized to guide management to specific actions. independent system operator. regulatory. and the obligation for some to provide service of reasonable quality to customers. Certain institutional constraints may limit the achievement of these objectives. environmental considerations. environmental and system configuration. It is at this operational level or tactical level that demand-side alternatives should be examined and evaluated. and competition. Operational objectives that can be addressed by demand-side alternatives include: • • • • • • • • • • Reducing the need for capacity Reducing the need for fossil fuels Reducing CO2 emissions Reducing or postponing capital investment Controlling electricity costs Increasing profitability Providing customers with options that provide a measure of control over their electric bills Reducing risks by investing in diverse alternatives Increasing operating flexibility and system reliability Decreasing unit cost through more efficient loading of existing and planned generating facilities . For example. vertically integrated utility. options will become only more desirable. Postponing the need for new construction through a demand-side program may reduce investment needs and stabilize the financial future of the market participant. they differ between states and certainly between investorowned and public power utilities. These constraints represent the obvious regulatory environment that many players face—competition. case reserves. power producer.Demand-side Planning 253 operator. including demand-side alternatives. While overall organizational objectives are important guidelines for electric system long-range planning. or energy service provider with no assets). operating environment. As CO2 constraints emerge and tighten. as well as across system operators and power providers. Specific operational objectives are established on the basis of the conditions of the existing provider—its business model. an examination of capital investment requirements may show periods of high investment needs.
a provider must carefully consider such factors as the manner in which the activity will affect the load shape. the process of identifying potential candidates can be carried out more effectively . What Type of Demand-side Activities Should Providers Pursue? Although customers and providers can act independently to alter the pattern of demand. Nevertheless. The concept that consumer demand is not fixed but can be altered deliberately with the provider. operational objectives are translated into desired load shape changes that can be used to characterize the potential impact of alternative demand-side alternatives. Airlines offer night coach fares to build traffic during off-peak hours. regulator. and the likely magnitudes of costs and benefits to both provider and customer prior to attempting implementation. the concept of demand-side planning implies a relationship that produces mutually beneficial results between providers and customers. the demand-side approach does provide management with a whole new set of alternatives with which to meet the needs of its customers. the methods available for obtaining customer participation. To achieve these mutual benefits.254 • • • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Satisfying regulatory constraints or rules Increasing sustainability Improving the image of the utility Once designated. All of these examples are deliberate attempts to change the demand pattern for a product to encourage efficient use of resources and thus profitability. For example. The potential role that can be filled by these demand-side alternatives in a planning process looks rather ambitious. telephone utilities have long offered reduced evening rates to shift demand and to encourage usage during non-business hours. and customer cooperating opens a new dimension in planning and operation. Movie theaters offer reduced matinee prices to attract additional customers. Demand Response & Energy Efficiency The obvious question in response to the above claims is: Can demand-side activities help achieve the broad range of operational objectives listed by merely changing consumer demand? The answer is that numerous industries have found that changing the pattern of the demand for their product can be profitable. Because there are so many demand-side alternatives.
load forecasts may indicate that existing and planned generating Figure 12-4.Demand-side Planning 255 by considering several aspects of the alternatives in an orderly fashion. Level I: Level II: • • • • Load Shape Objectives End Use Technology Alternatives Market Implementation Methods The first step in identifying demand-side alternatives is typically the selection of an appropriate load shape objective to ensure that the desired result is consistent with utility goals and constraints. Demand-side activities can be categorized in a two-level process in which the second level has three steps and illustrated in Figure 12-4. For example. Characterization of Demand-side Alternatives .
laundry. and energy storage. Choosing between meeting peak versus reducing the peak becomes a balance between the costs and benefits associated with the range of available supply-side and demand-side alternatives. cooking. lighting. space cooling. and water heating are the residential end uses with the greatest potential applicability for achieving load shape objectives. The second dimension of demand-side planning involves choosing appropriate technology alternatives for each target end use. interruptible rates. refrigeration. There are also a number of demand-side alternatives. space cooling. extra power can be purchased as needed from other generating utilities. Once the load shape objective has been established. some energy service providers and distribution utilities have achieved significant load shape modifications by implementing programs based on or including combinations of other end uses. each end use (e. or perhaps. There are nine major end uses which have the greatest potential. These end uses tend to be among the most energy intensive and among the most adaptable in terms of having their usage pattern altered. direct load control. In general. and miscellaneous other uses. it is necessary to find ways to achieve it. In general. lighting) exhibits typical and predictable load patterns. swimming pools. The first dimension involves identifying the appropriate end uses whose peak load and energy consumption characteristics generally match the requirements of the load shape objectives. water heating. while others can realistically be useful for meeting only one or two of these objectives. Some of the end uses can successfully serve as the focus of programs to meet any of the load shape objectives. This process should consider the suitability of the technology for satisfying the load . Several supply-side alternatives may be available to meet this capacity shortfall: additional peaking capacity can be built. Each of these end uses provides a different set of opportunities to meet some or all of the load shape modification objectives that have been discussed. including demand response. that can augment the number of planning alternatives available to a utility. space heating. They are space heating. However.g..256 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response capacity will fall short of projected peak demand plus targeted reserve margins. This is the second level in the identification process which involves three steps or dimensions. a reduction in reserve margin can be tolerated. The extent to which load pattern modification can be accommodated by a given end use is one factor used to select an end use for demand-side planning. space heating.
Frequently. For example. or soon to be available. In this case. although heat pumps are appropriate for reducing domestic water heating electric consumption. Many of the individual options can be considered as components of an overall program and thereby offer a very broad range of possibilities for successful residential demand-side program synthesis and implementation. customer options. Residential demand-side technologies can be grouped into four general categories as described in Table 12-4: • • • • Building envelope alternatives Efficient equipment and appliances Thermal storage equipment Demand Response (energy and demand control options. Customer awareness strategies can require less utility involvement. the four steps of activities described provide an orderly method for characterizing demand-side management alternatives. Direct incentive programs. The third dimension of demand-side alternatives deals with various methods for encouraging the customer to participate in the program. they are not appropriate for load shifting. These options are described in greater detail in Table 12-4. an option such as direct load control would be a better choice. it may not produce the desired results. including dynamic response These four main categories cover most of the currently available. for example. Taken in sequence. Market implementation methods vary for different technologies. represent a high degree of utility support in promoting demand-side programs. Even though a technology is suitable for a given end use.Demand-side Planning 257 shape objective. two or more customer adoption strategies are used simultaneously to promote a given program. The different types of customer adoption techniques represent varying levels of utility involvement. The basic steps are: • • • • Establish the load shape objective to be met Determine which end uses can be appropriately modified to meet the load shape objectives Select technology options that can produce the desired end use load shape changes Identify an appropriate market implementation plan program .
Gellings and J. C. The question is difficult since the number of demand-side alternatives from which to select is so large. transfer of results from one service area to another may not be appropriate. Reference Demand-side Management Planning. a detailed analysis of demand-side alternatives is not the starting point in the selection process. such as regulatory.. . These evaluations typically require a great deal of data and a computer model for processing.H. Residential Demand-side Technology Alternatives How Do I Select Those Alternatives That Are Most Beneficial? Selection of the most appropriate demand-side alternatives is perhaps the most crucial question a service provider faces. what is attractive to one utility may not be attractive to another. However. load shape summer and winter peaks. because the relative attractiveness of alternatives depends upon specific characteristics.W. Chamberlin. PennWell Publishing Co. and load growth. In other words. Completing detailed evaluations of demand-side programs can be complex and may even appear overwhelming. customer mix.258 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 12-4. generation mix. environment. 1993. In addition.
Figure 13-1.Chapter 13 Demand-side Evaluation LEVELS OF ANALYSIS Because there are so many different demand-side alternatives available. Levels of Evaluation in Demand-side Planning 259 . and ending with a detailed and comprehensive evaluation. the appropriate level of analysis depends upon the importance of the decision that will be influenced by the analysis. quick and less demanding analysis is used to identify the most attractive candidates for more extensive analysis. more detailed analysis is not outweighed by the cost of completing the detailed analysis. This is illustrated in Figure 13-1. they should be analyzed through a hierarchy of evaluation levels. continuing with an aggregate analysis. To a large extent. starting with an intuitive selection. In the hierarchy. However. the analyst must ensure that the potential value of additional.
In a typical detailed analysis. the program participants. and often society at large. It builds heavily on the region's existing analysis tools and cooperate models. Comparison of the benefit/cost ratios will then yield preliminary ranking of programs. the costs of implementation. and total energy sales. Note that the intuitive selection process does not identify those alternatives that are in some sense "best" for the service area. The first level. appropriate to achieve stated goals. . seem to satisfy the provider's and the utility's needs. Interested parties include the service provider. More detailed rankings can be made of combined programs. at least initially. on the pattern of demand. This analysis estimates changes in wholesale market prices or in the generating system and its operation that will result from the altered load shape produced by the selected demand-side alternatives. Rather. Options such as weatherization or thermal storage may be of lesser interest. is based upon a thorough understanding of the conditions within the service area. and wholesale market or generating system data (such as costs for existing units). The next level in identifying alternatives is a more quantitative analysis that examines costs and benefits to all parties affected by implementation of a specific program. third-party providers. and of the operating characteristics of the demand-side alternatives. The final step in the selection of the most appropriate demand-side alternative is a detailed analysis of the most cost-effective alternatives.260 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Although every service provider does not need to go through all three levels of analysis or even the final level in selecting an alternative. the performance of the electric system from both an operational and a financial viewpoint is stimulated over time with and without the selected demand-side alternative. the process identifies a number of alternatives that are. For this level of analysis. a provider concerned about its summer peak and low load factor could be investigating heat pumps to build winter loads or demand response programs to reduce the summer peak growth. and the public at large are projected for the entire life of the program. the starting point should be an intuitive selection of those alternatives that. other customers. the participants in the program. all expected costs and benefits to the provider. For example. To calculate the costs and benefits requires quantitative information on the impact of the alternative on peak. without extensive analysis. intuitive selection. of the wholesale electricity market or native generation portfolio and planned expansion. the expected participation in the program.
for example. or heat pump) and likely future changes in heating requirements. In addition.Demand-side Evaluation GENERAL INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS 261 Such analysis requires a great deal of information on the existing and anticipated wholesale market. In the case of space heating. The next step. marketing departments can plan a major role in gathering it. Since demand-side alternatives focus on the customer. the amount of information prohibits its use on all potential alternatives. information on the load shape of the end use and changes in that load shape resulting from the implementation of the selected demand-side alternative is required. the annual heating requirements. obtaining the information for demand-side programs is often a challenge. . this implies accumulating information on the number of electric space heating customers. the selection process starts with informed personnel selecting those alternatives that seem most appropriate based upon insight into their service area.g. resistance baseboard heat. Thus. any native generation. the type of equipment (e. the preliminary cost/benefit analysis. must be developed for the planning horizon. it is necessary to characterize the end use in the service area. electric furnace. requires more quantitative information but for only those alternatives that have some promise for the service area. taking into account customers' costs and savings. Since much of the information needed is related to the customer. projections of customer acceptance and response to the program. Implicit in the selection process is a definite strategy to reduce the information requirements to manageable levels consistent with the trade-off between the data collection/analysis expense and the resulting level of accuracy in the evaluation. Specifically. and on the demand-side program. customer-related background information is essential in this first step. Finally. the comprehensive analysis is applied only to those alternatives that have the highest benefit-to-cost ratio. or more correctly on a customer's end uses. While the information describing the current and anticipated wholesale market or the planned generating system and its operation is generally available from capacity expansion and production costing analyses. Although the detailed analysis is the most comprehensive and in some sense the most "accurate" assessment. This strategy focuses on quickly and efficiently reducing the number of alternatives appropriate for both a given service provider and geographic area. Finally..
There are a number of reasons for this. Second. Translating these effects into specific cost savings depends upon the characteristics of the supply system. this is a unique combination. cost savings resulting from the implementation of demand-side alternatives depend upon the provider's load shape and the wholesale market or generating system it has been designed to serve. While the analysis techniques. First. electric space heating and electric water heating . Table 13-1. the results cannot. Concerns in Evaluating Demand-side Alternatives SYSTEM CONTEXT Demand-side alternatives must be evaluated in the context of the supply-side alternatives—the supply system. the attractiveness of alternatives depends upon the existing and planned supply system and on the characteristics of the alternatives themselves. Some of these are listed in Table 13-1. Just as in the analysis of supply-side alternatives. in most cases. can be transferred.262 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response The remainder of this discussion focuses on a number of important concerns in the evaluation process. Most often. customer end-use characteristics often differ between service areas. and in some cases data. Demand-side alternatives alter the load shape and thus affect the operating efficiency and future capacity additions. For example. TRANSFERABILITY Caution must be exercised in transferring results of a selection process from one service area to another.
and climatic conditions measured (e. Customer acceptance of alternatives. it actually involves the same uncertainties. cooling or weatherization programs change. depending upon dwelling type (e. Customer characteristics and climatic conditions also influence the impacts on a per unit or per customer basis. Energy savings resulting from heating.g. since supplyside planning is based on projected future energy requirements (i. single-family vs. Operating/technical characteristics of the alternatives. requiring information in four major categories: • Service area-specific customer and end-use characteristics (type of equipment in use.g. COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS The cost/benefit evaluation approach is the preferred approach to assess demand-side alternatives. Although analysts typically minimize .e. critical variables in supply-side planning are often known with no more accuracy than demand-side variables. customer demands). the total impact resulting from the same saturation will be quite different.. they give the impression of greater reliability. by heating degree days). Because supply-side data tend to be much more hardware and engineering oriented. dwelling size. initial cost). stock estimates of this equipment. patterns of usage).Demand-side Evaluation 263 saturation levels are often quite different. Characteristics of the supply system (operating costs. • • • It is often said that demand-side planning data tend to be "softer" and much more customer oriented than supply-side data.. while the impact of an alternative may be the same on a per unit basis.. Moreover. reliability. multi-family). However. DATA REQUIREMENTS Detailed analyses of demand-side alternatives are data intensive. Thus. even for providers in the same geographic area.
two systems are assumed to be equivalent if they serve the load at the same level of reliability. Thus. In cases where the reserve levels are not equal. it is important to perform the analysis on an equivalent unit basis. For utilities with excess reserves attempting to build load. Regardless of whether the analysis uses required revenues or unit costs as the measure of program impact. this measure is inappropriate for evaluating some demand-side alternatives. a program designed to build off-peak use of electricity. In this comparison. Among these are: • • • • • • • • • • • • Potential use of CO2 trading Cash flow Magnitude of start-up Public relations reaction Compatibility of alternatives Uncertainty/risk associated with success of program Availability of competent installation/products Customer reaction/participation Real or perceived customer health/safety issues Ease/convenience of service installation Conformance to building codes and standards Regulatory/institutional limitations and opportunities . Although the discussion has dwelt upon savings in monetary costs up to this point. NON-MONETARY BENEFITS & COSTS Factors other than easily quantified monetary benefits and costs are often important in the selection of demand-side alternatives. the costs and benefits of serving the load shape. it is appropriate to perform the analysis on the desired reserve level. some estimates for the cost of outages must be included in the analysis. such as an add-on heat pump program. will increase revenue requirements. with or without the demandside alternative is place. there are other important factors influencing the selection of these alternatives. increased utilization of existing capacity will lower the unit cost of power—clearly a benefit to both the customers and the utility. For example. must be estimated and compared over the planning horizon. However.264 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response future revenue requirements in evaluating supply-side alternatives.
combined with the design characteristics . Numerous factors influence both the selection and utilization decision. System load shape changes can occur naturally due to fluctuations in customer mix. not to meet utility demand growth. the entry of new industries into the marketplace. Similarly. Customers purchase electricity to satisfy a need for energy. they are typically not included in a formal quantitative analysis. The residential load shapes are influenced by the customer's decision to purchase an appliance. This focus may give the impression that they only load shape changes that occur are those induced by demand-side programs and activities. Thus. However. including: • • • • • • • Price of electricity and competing fuels Demographics (income. and the growth of end-use stock in the residential and commercial sectors.Demand-side Evaluation 265 Because such variables are difficult to quantify. as well as the resulting level of use of that appliance. Instead. in the commercial and industrial sectors. age. demand-side planning focuses on deliberately changing the load shape so as to optimize the entire power system from generation to delivery to end use. to examine the impact of demand-side alternatives. they are incorporated qualitatively in the summary assessment of the proposed program. usage. Projections of the purchase of appliances and the behavior of customers combine to produce a forecast of the residential load shape. What Changes in the Load Shape Can Be Expected By Implementing Demand-side Alternatives? As outlined in the introduction. it is important to differentiate naturally occurring changes in the load shape and those changes resulting from demand-side alternatives. cost and age) Behavioral factors Utility marketing/program availability Mandated standards Government programs The action taken by consumers once an appliance or device has been purchased and installed. installation of equipment and its utilization affect the load shape. the introduction of new processes. there is increasing interest in explicitly quantifying CO2 savings from demand-side programs. and education) Appliance characteristics (saturation. Certainly this is not the case.
. results in the load shape change or the customer response as illustrated in Figure 13-2. . these factors are not mutually exclusive and often interact. Changes in an individual customer's load shape result from two different factors: • Changes in customer utilization of existing appliances or equipment (e. the emphasis is on how the customer responds and how permanent that response is.g. with customers eventually reverting back to their original behavior patterns. In the case of behaviorally induced changes. substitution of a heat pump for an electric furnace). Since in many cases there is no customer investment. the changes may only be temporary. Changes in the operating characteristics or technology for a given end use (e. Figure 13-2.266 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response of the device. installation of clock thermostat setback in response to an advertising campaign or conservation). it is important to differentiate the effects of each..g. Factors Influencing System Load Shape The same basic mechanism used to describe the load shape and its change over time can also be used to estimate changes in that load shape due to demand-side programs and activities. • Obviously. While both of the above factors produce changes in the load shape. System load shape changes are the cumulative response of individual customer load shape changes plus the load contributed by new customers.
but also cooling loads. Returning to the heat pump example. if that heat pump program is coupled to a weatherization program. The remainder of the discussion in this section focuses on two critical issues related to load shape impacts: program interaction and dynamic systems. the changes in the load shape tend to be "permanent" and more predictable. Moreover. energy requirements are lowered for those customers participating in both programs. However. DYNAMIC SYSTEMS Load shape impacts of demand-side alternatives may change over the planning horizon. these changes are limited when compared to the change resulting from the improved operating characteristics of an advanced replacement heap pump. the load shape may still change as the customer becomes more energy conscious or responds to a demand response program. Load shape changes that can be expected from the implementation of demand-side alternatives vary.Demand-side Evaluation 267 The technology-induced changes in the load shape depend upon the relative usage level of the device. Demand-side alternatives are often promoted and implemented as an integrated program. Just as the system load shape is dynamic and is . PROGRAM INTERACTION Alternatives tend to interact making the estimation of changes in the load shape difficult. As such. there may be changes resulting from cycling air conditioners that can be influenced by the use of a "smart" thermostat. Promotion of heat pumps not only affects heating requirements. as well as its improved design characteristics. The kind of thermostat "knows" the future power interruption and automatically lowers the indoor temperature in anticipation of expected reduced air conditioner operation. Similarly. Interactions of alternatives must be carefully examined and their implementations analyzed. This should not be surprising since factors unique to the service area influence changes in the system load shape. The critical question remains—what is the level of customer acceptance of the device? Acceptance of demand-side alternatives is discussed in more detail later.
the total amount of control tends to increase. energy services departments successfully stimulated company growth by directing numerous advertising and sales efforts such as the "Live Better Electrically" Program conducted in cooperation with appliance manufacturers. During the 1970s and 80s. Thus. so are the load impacts of many demandside alternatives. however. is that the load shape is dynamic and changes over the planning horizon. data collected. and technol- . many of these marketing efforts were dismantled and the marketing staff dispersed to other departments. It is an old adage that "nothing happens until someone sells something. Assuming the same amount of control. the amount of control that can be exercised over the cooling load using direct load control without a dynamic system will change over the course of the planning horizon. Table 13-2 gives examples of load shape changes resulting from select demand-side alternatives. Therefore. the stock of central air conditioners is still growing due to increasing saturation levels and/or customer growth. these efficiency improvements would tend to decrease the impact of the load control interruptions. Failure to recognize and account for this can lead to serious future supply problems. one of the first and most fundamental issues to be addressed in the development of marketing programs is to locate and pull together the expertise and tools necessary to identify.268 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response expected to change over time. this means that even if the best analysis techniques have been applied. as electricity costs accelerated and national targets for utility use of petroleum and natural gas were set. For example. For many utilities. supply-side issues took on a greater importance. On the other hand. But. Some customer-related departments can make valuable contributions to developing demand-side solutions to load problems and to taking advantage of load opportunities. How Can Adoption of Demand-side Alternatives Be Forecasted and Promoted? For many years. assuming the same level of participation in the program. customers are replacing old and inefficient units with much more energy efficient ones." In the demand-side planning context. It has only recently (albeit modestly) been recognized nationally that marketing can be used to shape load as well as to stimulate it. and implement successful marketing programs. The important message. The net effect of these opposing trends depends on the specific conditions present in the service area. evaluate.
but instead are interested in the service it provides. As discussed in the previous section. Customers do not purchase energy for the sake of consuming it. age. Typical Load Shape Changes Resulting From Select Demand-side Alternatives ogy developed. cooling. and education) . or other conveniences. per se. This service brings warmth.Demand-side Evaluation 269 Table 13-2. artificial illumination. It is important for utilities to understand how these decisions are reached. the success of demand-side activities often hinges on the ability to persuade customers to actively participate in the program. potential customer interest in a demand-side program or activity may be based on a number of factors including: • • Price of electricity and competing fuels Demographics (income. motive power.
and use of programs and promotions . Enlarge the number of devices covered in program to approach the total market potential. cost and age) Behavioral factors Utility marketing/program availability Mandated standards Providers must also be sensitive to the fact that the stage a consumer has reached in adopting a new product or service has a bearing on the type of marketing that should take place. in setting goals near the upper limit of market potential due to the possible diminishing returns of marketing expenditures over time. usage. The concept of "optimal market share" can be explored if the utility can quantify the benefits associated with alternative market share levels. ESTIMATING FUTURE MARKET DEMAND & CUSTOMER PARTICIPATION RATES Projections of future market demand depend on a large number of factors. Caution should be used. The goal of the programs and their associated marketing effort is often to increase the engagement in the demand-side program or activity.270 • • • • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Appliance characteristics (saturation. including: • Availability. timing. a number of options are worth considering. If market penetration is deemed too low. To make these successful. Increase or modify advertising/promotional efforts to encourage greater response from the existing market. however. it is important to know the current market penetration of certain end-use devices. The provider may: • • • Attempt to expand the number of people comprising the target market. frequency.
are the independent variables. installations. may be used. Some use this technique for operational programs that have stable customer response rates.. and field representatives regarding equipment sold and devices placed into the field. including: Buyer intention surveys Middleman estimates Market tests Time series analysis Statistical demand analysis Buyer intention surveys solicit buying intentions for an upcoming period from a sample of target consumers. income. are viewed as dependent variables and price. cycles. construction starts. population. . Statistical demand analyses include additional variables that may either co-vary or cause a change in the effect of product and service requests. etc. A number of components of historical information are often analyzed. households.. audits.Demand-side Evaluation • • • • • • • • State of the economy Seasonality Value of program incentives 271 Market demand can be projected by several methods. Price. etc. However. and household formation are the types of variables used." which is similar to a Likert Scale in refining customer responses. Sales. Market tests/pilot programs are particularly appealing where a new product or service in planned and other forms of measurement are not appropriate. pilot programs are developed and implemented to either a small part of a provider's service territory or informally offered to customers as part of another program in order to measure and evaluate customer responses. Where there is no prior experience with a program. and seasons. Time series analyses rely on historical buyer data to estimate future consumptive decisions. Middleman estimates consist of information supplied by dealers. buyers having less clear intentions and those unwilling to report their intentions affect the reliability of results. Simple "yes—no" questions can be asked or a "full purchase probability scale. sales personnel. including trends.
Observational techniques include a variety of unobtrusive measures. *Adapted from Resource Planning Associates.272 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response CONSUMER & MARKET RESEARCH* Secondary and/or primary market data are collected and analyzed as inputs to the market analysis methodologies. The two most common forms of qualitative research are in-depth interviewed and focus group discussions. experimentation. October 1982. Experimentation includes test marketing. published by the Electric Power Research Institute. and buying intentions. the estimator of market penetration must consider these factors: • • • The accuracy of the data and its relevance to the estimating task at hand. EPRI has also recently funded a project on "Identifying Consumer Research Techniques for Electric Utilities" RP1537) . Certain archival records generated by market participants and other end-use technology-related industries might also be classified as observational. or to analyze consumer preferences. Surveys can provide data on socioeconomic characteristics.. to forecast sales. Primary data collection is usually categorized in two ways: qualitative and quantitative research. for example. Inc.m EPRI EA-2702 (RP2045-2). Methods for Analyzing the Market Penetration of End-Use Technologies: A Guide for Utility Planners. attitudes. The cost (time and money) to collect and analyze the data. utility metering of electrical use. and develop an understanding of the consumer. and surveys. behavior. concept testing. The accuracy of the resulting estimate. Primary data are collected to answer specific marketing or estimating needs. Both techniques are used to explore issues. Frequently. Quantitative research can be further subdivided into observational techniques. identify motivations and behavior. The concept of control groups is central to experimentation. qualitative research provides the foundation for quantitative research by clarifying relevant concepts and developing research hypotheses. The information can be used to estimate market potential. and a variety of other relatively powerful techniques designed to establish causality. Regardless of the type of research data selected.
the receptivity of state regulatory authorities. and can serve to define the phenomenon. . These data usually do not answer the precise estimating needs. Many of these alternatives have been used successfully in the past. secondary data are easily available. and there may be problems associated with the way the data were originally collected or are presented. On the other hand.S. Most of these program options fall into one of the following categories: • • • • • • Alternative pricing (rate structures) Direct incentives Customer education Direct customer contact Trade ally cooperation Advertising and promotion Table 13-3 presents a number of specific program options within these categories.Demand-side Evaluation 273 Secondary sources include data collected for some purpose other than estimating. the U. The selection of the incentives typically depends on a provider's prior experience with similar programs. and the organizational philosophy of the utility. Internal secondary data include proprietary price and sales records. CUSTOMER ADOPTION TECHNIQUES Executives have a number of market implementation methods from which to choose. Bureau of Census. External data are usually defined as published information. For example. usually less expensive. A further delineation of secondary data research concerns the source—internal or external. Department of Commerce. collects data on population and housing that can be used to estimate the penetration of central air conditioning in residential buildings. The use of secondary data in estimating market penetration has advantages and disadvantages.
Examples of Customer Adoption Techniques .274 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Table 13-3.
.Demand-side Evaluation 275 What is the Best Way to Implement Selected Demand-side Programs?* With a few exceptions. Report No. program implementation refers to carrying out demand-side programs after their cost-effectiveness has been determined during the demand-side program planning and evaluation phase. Inc. EM-2649 (RP1940-1). Energy Utilization Systems. PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES Implementing demand-side programs involves three major considerations: • • • Program Planning Program management Program logistics Program Planning As with any sophisticated program. Report No. and obtainable goals. In this overview. many of the current programs being implemented are either "pilot" programs or larger efforts that are at a preliminary stage. March 1983. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. November 1982. Electric Power Research Institute." December 1982. 1982 Survey of Utility Load Management. EPRI EA-2904 (RP2050-8). Electric utility Sponsored Conservation Programs: An Assessment of Implementation Mechanisms (forthcoming. measurable. Program implementation involves the many detailed day-to-day decisions that must be made to realize the goals of demand-side management programs. "Load Management Implementation Issues. presentation made at the EPRI Seminar on "Planning and Assessment of Load Management. Issues in Implementing a Load Management Program for Direct Load Control. Energy Management Associates. Published by Electric Power Research Institute. and Solar End-Use Projects. RP2050-11. A program logic chart can be used to identify the program implementation process from the point of *Much of the material presented in this section is adapted from: Linda Finley. Only a limited amount of information has been compiled on major program implementation experiences. Inc. a demand-side program should begin with an implementation plan. Conservation.." Synergic Resources Corporation.. The plan includes a set of carefully defined.
It is always important to establish good rapport with customers. decision points. facilities. For example. if periodic status reports are required. device installation. The careful planning that characterizes other operations should carry over to the implementation of demand-side programs.276 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response customer response to program completion. A customer adoption plan that coordinates the use of mass media and other advertising and promotional activities (such as bill inserts and direct mail) should be carefully integrated into the implementation program. Ongoing program management is also extremely important. Actual program implementation can be checked against the plan and major variances reviewed as the occur. Careful management is required to ensure efficient implementation. in a direct load control program. The need for cost accounting. Managing the needed widespread activities requires a complete understanding and consensus of program objectives and clear lines of functional authority and accountability. and post-inspection can be defined. The variety of activities and functional groups involved in implementing demand-side programs further accentuates the need for proper planning. A program implementation manual is a useful tool to provide program personnel with necessary policy and procedure guidelines. and training requirements. such as meeting customer eligibility requirements. Program Management The implementation process involves many different functional groups or departments within the service provider. The programs are expensive and prudent planning will help assure program efficiency and effectiveness. completing credit applications. even more so now. The sample list of functional responsibilities in an implementation program (see Table 13-4) gives an indication of the activities that may be included in such a manual. the use of direct incentives necessitate close monitoring of program costs. This requires closer interaction with . Program Logistics Program support includes staffing. the requisite input data and the reporting of key performance indicators must be carefully included. For whatever reason. equipment. because the industry is entering a new era—the era of providing energy services. monitoring employee productivity and quality assurance should be addressed.
Many demand-side programs and activities include installing a specific piece of equipment or hardware that will alter customer energy use to benefit both the customer and the utility. Effective marketing and public education campaigns. Sample Functional Responsibilities in Marketing Program Implementation customers. Customer concerns should be addressed at all levels of program design and implementation. and good rapport is necessary regardless of the demand-side program. will help achieve this goal. In this report. the affected end use. as well as quick response to customer concerns. and the selected cus- .Demand-side Evaluation 277 Table 13-4. such equipment has been termed "technology alternatives" to contrast it with the other three dimensions or aspects of demand-side alternatives—the intended program objective.
Providers can reduce operating costs by developing prudent scheduling policies for . changes in demand-side technology (such as improvements in the efficiencies of space heating and cooling equipment) and evolving provider needs (such as automation of the utility's distribution system) should be evaluated. establishing an appropriate customer adoption program. or marketed as part of the demand-side program. service providers can improve customer and utility system performance by considering quality assurance in the implementation program. In addition. failures may be attributed either to malfunctions of the devices or to the communication links. Establishing an Appropriate Implementation Program Some marketing programs are better suited to promote the installation of certain demand-side technology alternatives. The specifications for any new equipment must be coordinated with existing customer and utility hardware. Developing an Installation and Maintenance Schedule Many expenses are involved in the installation. Selecting the Proper Equipment or Hardware Stakeholders need to evaluate a variety of conflicting factors if they are specifying the functional requirements for equipment or hardware. maintenance. developing quality assurance programs. The selected implementation marketing measures should be compatible with any technology alternative that is part of the demand-side program. distribution utilities need also to identify the safeguards that will ensure proper equipment use. and developing an installation and maintenance schedule. In most cases. The special issues related to such demand-side programs involving utility or third-party ownership and installed equipment include selecting the proper equipment or hardware. Some of these technology alternatives are installed. In the example of a direct load control program. In the equipment selection process. a mix of implementation techniques will be used. used. Identifying Quality Assurance Considerations Because of the possible large number of dispersed devices.278 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response tomer adoption technique or marketing strategy. and repair of the numerous utility- and third-party-owned and operated devices that are included in a demand-side program.
THE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS Developing. completing a pilot experiment and demonstration. all the steps associated with "implementing" a supply-side program— takes years of planning and scheduling. demand-side planning project team with representation from .Demand-side Evaluation 279 their limited crew resources. installing. There are many utility and non-utility actors involved in the implementation process. The stages may include forming an implementation project team. expanding to systemside implementation. An equally rigorous approach is needed to implement the demand-side alternatives. Efficient scheduling of equipment ordering and installation is helpful in reducing unnecessary program delays. and operating a generating plant—that is. rigorous analytic modeling. Figure 13-3. and strict construction scheduling. Stages in the Implementation Process of Demand-side Programs or Activities The implementation process takes place in several stages. and this requires the careful coordination of all parties. market participants may want to create a high-level. finally. Figure 13-3 illustrates the typical process. and. calculations concerning reliability and maintenance. This "time-phased" process tends to reduce the magnitude of the implementation problem because pilot programs can be used to resolve program problems before system-wide implementation takes place. and careful coordination is required. Implementing demand-side programs involves almost every functional department within a service provider. As a first step.
marketing. customer acceptance. including a written scope of responsibility. and with the overall control and responsibility for the implementation process. After the pilot experiment is completed. and program administration requirements. . If the pilot experiment proves cost-effective.* The ultimate goal of the monitoring program is to identify deviations from expected performance and to improve both existing and planned demand-side programs. foster advanced planning and organization within a demand-side program. additional effort must be given to refining the training. and scheduled milestones can help determine whether the demand-side management program has been implemented as planned. It is important for management to establish clear directives for the project team. staffing.280 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response the various departments. a pilot experiment may precede the program. project team goals and time frame. How Should Monitoring and Evaluation of the Performance of Demand-side Programs and Activities Be Best Achieved? Just as there is need to monitor the performance of supply-side alternatives. When limited information is available on prior demand-side program experiences. In monitoring the performance of demand-side programs. then initiating the full-scale program may be considered. two questions need to be addressed: • • Was the program implemented as planned? Did the program achieve its objectives? The first question may be fairly easy to answer once a routine monitoring system has been adopted. Tracking and review of program costs. *Portions of the material presented in this section have been adapted from various evaluation studies by Synergic Resources Corporation and by Eric Hirst and colleagues at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. there is a need to monitor demand-side alternatives. Monitoring and evaluation programs can also serve as a primary source of information on customer behavior and system impacts. Pilot experiments may be limited either to a sub-region or to a sample of customers. and provide management with the means of examining demand-side programs as they develop.
those changes . Information such as the cost per unit of service. To assess load shape impacts requires the careful definition of a reference baseline against which load shapes with a demand-side management alternative can be judged. Recordkeeping and reporting systems can be helpful in completing descriptive evaluations. this measurement can be difficult because other factors unrelated to the utility's demand-side program can have a significant impact on customer loads. and the number of customer complaints. • The two monitoring approaches tend to address different sets of concerns. Experimental—Use of comparisons and control groups to determine relative program effects on participants or non-participants. management should be aware of basic program performance indicators. and characteristics of program participants. With a descriptive approach. therefore. in terms of both administrative procedure and target population characteristics. customer acceptance rates.Demand-side Evaluation 281 The second question can be much more difficult to answer. The reference baseline reflects those load shape changes that are "naturally occurring"—that is. or both. can be useful in assessing the relative success of a demand-side management program. However. services offered. an assessment of program success must begin with measuring the impact of the program on load shapes. it may be useful to incorporate both in programs. is not adequate for systematically assessing the load shape impacts of the demand-side program. As noted previously. MONITORING AND EVALUATION APPROACHES In monitoring and evaluating demand-side programs. the frequency of demand-side equipment installation. demand-side program objectives can be best characterized in terms of load shape changes. however. The descriptive evaluation. Thus. activities completed. two common approaches can be taken: • Descriptive—Basic monitoring that includes documentation of program costs. the type of participants (single family households or other demographic groups).
Similarly. income. In some cases.282 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response unrelated to the demand-side program itself. that group must have characteristics similar to those of the participants. for example. and program organization. most of these issues can be grouped into one of four categories: monitoring program validity. If the reference point is a group of non-participants. data and information requirements. work schedules. The "before" situation must be clearly characterized so that appropriate impact of the program can be measured. it is often necessary to adjust data for subsequent changes in the customer's appliance or equipment stock and its usage. This. External validity is the ability to generalize experimental . The energy consumption and hourly demand of program participants could also be measured before they joined the program to provide a "before" and "after" comparison. management concerns. If the "before" reference is used. and age of head of household. ISSUES IN PROGRAM MONITORING AND EVALUATION Although there are numerous issues facing utility management as it undertakes demand-side program monitoring. from retirement or from the second spouse joining the labor force. of course. the effect of direct load control of a water heater can be altered by changes in a customer's living pattern resulting. requires a great deal of information on both groups to allow for proper matching. Adding an extra appliance (such as a window air conditioner) can more than offset any reductions in energy use resulting from a weatherization program. Internal validity is the ability to accurately measure the effect of the demand-side management program on the participant group itself. the reference baseline might be the existing forecast with appropriate adjustment to reflect the short-term conditions in the service area. In other cases. including not only appliance stock data but also such information as family size. the reference might be a control group of customers not participating in the program. Monitoring Program Validity Monitoring programs strive to achieve two types of validity: internal and external.
Some data collections take considerable time. It can also refer to the degree of bias involved in assigning customers to the experimental and control groups. customer bills. The data must be valid (measure what it is supposed to measure) and reliable (the same results would occur if repeated. and plant openings and closings. the effect of these non-program-related changes can be greater than the effect of the demand-side program. additional data must be collected before the start of the program. including weather. Data and Information Requirements Data and information requirements involve the entire process of collecting. changes in personal income. Typically. • . The list of potential sources of confounding influences is extensive. Randomization refers to the degree to which the participating customer sample truly represents the total customer population involved in the demand-side program. validating. Confounding influences refer to non-program-related changes that may increase or decrease the impact of a demand-side program. metering. For example. If the "before" data are inadequate. The data collection system should be designed before the implementation of the demand-side program itself. The cost of data collection is likely to be the most expensive part of the evaluation study. Sources of evaluation data include program records. Data collection costs can be reduced with proper advance planning and by having sufficient recordkeeping and reporting systems. In some cases. inflation. There are a number of reasons for this: • Some information is needed on a "before" and "after" program initiation basis. particularly if metering of customer end uses has to be performed. Threats to monitoring program validity usually fall into two categories: problems associated with randomization and problems associated with confounding influences. managing. and analyzing data in the monitoring and evaluation program. controlled water heating may reduce peak load for a sample of participants.Demand-side Evaluation 283 results to the entire population. telephone surveys are used by utilities to complete field surveys. and field surveys. but there is no guarantee that all customers will react in a similar fashion. within an acceptable margin of error).
Developing a strong organizational commitment to adequately plan. The expertise gained in conducting these activities is helpful in considering the development of a monitoring program. evaluation design. motivations for participating. awareness of the program. and satisfaction are very important in evaluating the overall success of a program. Recognizing that monitoring and evaluation programs can be data intensive and time consuming. coordinate and fund monitoring programs. therefore. In addition. information on participant characteristics.284 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Monitoring the effect of the demand-side alternative throughout the program allows for adjustments and modifications to the program. Load research programs and customer surveys have long been used to collect data for forecasting and planning. Management Concerns Monitoring and evaluation programs require careful management attention. evaluation design . Establishing clear lines of responsibility and accountability for program formulation and direction. The information-gathering mechanisms may already be in place at many utilities. • • • • MONITORING AND EVALUATION PROGRAMS Monitoring and evaluation programs can be organized in four stages: pre-evaluation planning. evaluation program costs must be kept in balance with benefits. Organizing and reporting the results of the evaluation program to provide management with a clear understanding of these programs. Some of the most important hurdles that must be overcome in the management of a monitoring program include: • Assuring sufficient advanced planning to develop and implement the monitoring and evaluation program in conjunction with the demand-side activity.
Once the questions on the checklist have been answered.Demand-side Evaluation 285 implementation. Evaluation Design focuses on organizing the overall evaluation effort and developing of specific program evaluation designs. an overall assessment can be made of the needs of a monitoring and evaluation program. Refer to Table 13-5. The "pre-program planning checklist" presented below will help guide this phase. and program feedback. The major elements of an evaluation design are: • • • • • • Evaluation Objectives Evaluation Approach Data Requirements and Collection Strategy Data Analysis Procedures Final Report Format Program Cost Table 13-5. A decision whether to use descriptive or experimental or some combination of the two must be made. Pre-Evaluation Planning consists of working out beforehand the conceptual and logistical questions that will be encountered during the full-scale program. Pre-program Planning Checklist .
In-house information that is of particular use includes: • • • • • • • • • Customer appliance surveys.286 • The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Program Management Plan Design Implementation refers to initiating the evaluation framework according to the action plan. some adjustments and generalizations are often required. for different time periods. there is often a sufficient information base to initiate a preliminary analysis of demand-side alternatives. How Do I Get Started in Addressing Demand-side Planning Issues as They Relate to My Utility? The previous discussion has focused on seven major issues related to the assessment of demand-side alternatives for an individual energy service. Typically. In any case. The information requirements to address these issues are. and using different collection methods. Cost comparisons for major end uses. the information can be obtained from different organizations. or water heating. Consumer behavior surveys. and water heating. Information available from sources outside the utility includes: Energy consumption data for residential appliances. and recordkeeping. Customer responses to time-of-use rates. at first glance. in different geographic locations. including monitoring. Thus. Load research data on customer classes or specific end-use load shapes. primarily space heating. analysis. . cooling. Load shapes for selected appliances and adjustments to make them appropriate to selected service areas. In-house programs or special studies on specific end uses. extensive and a major hurdle in getting started in demand-side planning. Program Feedback consists of reviewing the evaluation results and determining whether any program changes are warranted. electric space heating. such as cooling.
References Demand-side Management Concepts and Methods. Customer acceptance and market penetration of selected demandside alternatives. Fairmont Press. Gellings and J. 1993 .W. Chamberlin.H. Analysis tools for the evaluation of demand-side alternatives. Housing characteristics and space and water heating system by dwelling type. C.Demand-side Evaluation • • • • 287 Descriptions and operating characteristics of specific demand-side alternatives.
"This page left intentionally blank." .
Presentation. White Plains. R. Parmenter. United Kingdom and New York.. Energy for Sustainable Development: Energy Policy Options for Africa. A. R.. B.W. Palo Alto. (In Norwegian). "An Overview of Efforts in Japan to Boost Energy Efficiency. International Energy Agency. House of Representatives Committee on Energy and Commerce.Appendix Additional Resources A Survey Of Time-of-Use (TOU) Pricing and Demand-Response (DR) Programs. International Energy Agency. prepared for the U. Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting. Cambridge University Press. May. Enova: 2007. Dynamic Energy Management. M. EPRI.S.. Environmental Protection Agency.S. "Demand-side Management. 2007. 2007. CA: 2007 Edahiro. France: 2007. New York: July 24-27. Annual Energy Outlook 2006. Enge. K." JFS Newsletter. Davidson. Energy Information Administration. and K. Investment Aid and Contract Bound Energy Savings: Experiences from Norway. With Projections to 2030. 2007. Gellings. Meyer (eds). USA: 2007.. Holmen. 2007. S. Metz. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Paris. Testimony of Audrey Zibelman. C. before U. Ellis.E. San Francisco. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation." in 289 . R. J. O. Facilitating the Transition to a Smart Electric Grid. prepared by Energy & Environmental Economics. Sep. PJM Chief Operating Officer and Executive Vice President. Washington. Bosch. 2007 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry. NY. Energy Use in the New Millennium: Trends in IEA Countries. Standby Power and the IEA. U. May 3. DC: February 2006. Enova's results and activities in 2006. CA: July 2006. Sandbakk. Cambridge.S. Dave. P. Department of Energy. and M. L. UNENERGY/Africa: 2007. Berlin.
" Fact Sheet. 19. September 2007.H. Standby Power Use and the IEA "1-Watt Plan. Cambridge University Press. France: April 2007. 2007. and Ghosh. edited by F. Statistics Norway. Targets. The Keystone Dialogue on Global Climate Change. July 4. Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. signed in San Francisco. Federal Ministry for the Environment. Vol. White Plains.S. Kreith and D.Y. Memorandum of Understanding between the Department of Energy of the United States of America and the National Development and Reform Commission of the People's Republic of China Concerning Industrial Energy Efficiency Cooperation. Electric Power Research Institute. International Energy Agency. R1—Residential Lighting Best Practices Report. Total supply and use of energy. L. U. UK: 2007. Gellings. The ElectriNetSM: An Electric Power System for a Carbon-Constrained Future. LLC. Price. CA: pending publication. Washington. EPRI. Taking Action Against Global Warming: An Overview of German Climate Policy. Paris... Palo Alto.W. Cambridge. National Energy Efficiency Best Practices Study. The Keystone Center. . New York. 2007. Draft. Issue 9. and W. United Nations Foundation. and Mansoor. CRC Press. Berkeley. July 24-27. Vol.. C. Xuejun. D. Palo Alto. September 2008. Wikler.. Lafayette. The Green Grid: How the Smart Grid will Save Energy and Reduce Carbon Emissions. EPRI. N.. 1997-2006. S." Herald Tribune. 2004.. C. "Merkel confronts German energy industry with radical policy overhaul. Department of Energy.. "Assessment of U. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review.290 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Specker. Final Report. "Constraining Energy Consumption of China's Largest Industrial Enterprises Through the Top-1000 Energy-Consuming Enterprise Program. September 12." 2007 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry. Realizing the Potential of Energy Efficiency. New York. NY: 2007. G.. Statistisk Centralbyra. November 2006. CA and Global Energy Partners. CO: May 2003. Electric End-Use Energy Efficiency Potential. Stern. and Measures for G8 Countries. Gellings. DC: 2007. A. 2007. The Power to Reduce CO2 Emissions: The Full Portfolio.S. Policies." The Electricity Journal. CA: Dec. Quantum Consulting Inc. Goswami.
U." M. 2005. Dimensions of Demand Response: Capturing Customer Based Resources in New England's Power Systems and Markets—Report and Recommendations of the New England Demand Response Initiative. No. Gellings. No. 2006. Palo Alto. Winter 2006-2007. Vol. EPRI Report CU-6914. 2007. Press Release. "Transformer Efficiency. France: 2005. Group II Load Management Studies. 10 CFR Part 431. France: 2006. LLC. Samotyj. Gellings. December 1990. Market Progress Evaluation Report. Overview and .S. January 1981. July 23. 197.W. September 14. Demand-side Management: Volumes 1-5.. No. 1. Phase I Report: June 2003-Novembr 2005..J. International Energy Agency." C. EPRI." Power Tools. April 23.Appendix 291 CA: August 2007. 2003. Vol.W. "Wal-Mart Continues to Change the Retail World—One CFL at a Time. and China Sign Agreement to Increase Industrial Energy Efficiency. International Energy Agency. 58189. May 18. Edison Electric Institute Executive Symposium for Customer Service and Marketing Personnel. "Distribution Efficiency Initiative. August 2006. Lafayette. Testimony of C. 2007. "Demand Response Enabling Technology Development.S. Energy Conservation Program for Commercial Equipment: Distribution Transformers Energy Conservation Standards. 72. John L. Global Energy Partners. 4. U. Clark W. Arens. report number E05-139. Paris. LLC. 1984-1988. CA: 2007. CA. Federal Register. et al. "Demand-side Planning. "Retrofitting Utility Power Plant Motors for Adjustable Speed: Field Test Program. October 12. E. Department of Energy. DOE to Conduct Energy Efficiency Audits on up to 12 Facilities. Assessment of Demand Response and Advanced Metering—Staff Report. FERC Docket AD06-2-000." Electric Power Research Institute. November 1982. Program Manager." Global Energy Partners. 4. World Energy Outlook 2006. 2002. Paris. Gellings. Final Rule. Fetters." State of New Jersey—Board of Public Utilities—Appendix II. World Energy Outlook 2005: Middle East and North Africa Insights.
A." Report to CEC Public Interest Energy Research (PIER) Program. Residential End-Use Energy Planning System (REEPS). Demand-side Planning Cost/Benefit Analysis. Report No. Octo- . "Market Planning for Electric Utilities." in Adela Bolet (ed. Boston Pacific Company.C. October 1983. Wharton. Legal.. EPRI SIA82-419-6. 27-28 and 38-39. Utility Promotion of Investment in Energy Efficiency: Engineering. Report No. 1981). and J. Gellings and D. July 1982. routers and hubs. EPRI EM-4486. Electricity Demand (Boulder. Hopkins. Inc. Electric Utility Rate Design Study." EPRI Journal. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. C. prepared for Electric Power Research Institute. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. The Marketing Plan (New York: The Conference Board. EA-2512 (RP 1211-2). "Cooling Commercial Buildings with Off-Peak Power. Various DDC system manufacturers have incorporated access via the Internet through an IP address specific to the DDC system. Decision Focus. University of California. P. Inc." Paper Presented at Energy Technology Conference. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. April 4. David C. Faruqui. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) as developed by the Advance Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and may be used over Ethernet networks and the Internet. Westview Press). March 1984. "Ten Propositions in Modeling Industrial Electricity Demand.W... Customer's Attitudes and Customers' Response to Load Management. Cost/Benefits Analysis of Demand-side Planning Alternatives. 1985. Volume 8. December 1983.C. and Economic Analyses. CO. Number 8. Limaye. Report No. the COMMEND Planning System: National and Regional Data and Analysis. Inc. Washington. Berkeley. EPRI RDS 94 (RP 1613). Published by Electric Power Research Institute. Cambridge Systematics. September 1986.S. Gupta. Use of this communications industry standard allows DDC network configurations consisting of off-the-shelf communication devices such as bridges. Office Productivity Tools for the Information Economy: Possible Effects on Electricity Consumption.) Forecasting U. Commend building types.292 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Reports from the Four Project Groups. November 1983. Pp.R. Center for the Built Environment.. Alliance to Save Energy. Decision Focus. D. August 1983.
Issues in Implementing a Load Management Program for Direct Load Control. Decision Focus. Demand-side Management Vol. July 1983. EPRI EA/EM-3597... Vol. November 1982. EPRI EA-2904 (RP 2050-8). EPRI RP2381-5. Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI EA 2396 (RP 1485). Vol. forthcoming. Electric Utility Conservation Programs: Assessment of Implementation Experience (RP 2050-11) and 1983 Survey of Utility End-Use Projects (EPRI Report No. 3 Project 2381-4 Final Report. 1: Overview of Key Issues. 3: Technology Alternatives and Market Implementation Methods. Report No. Published by Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI EA/ EM-3597. EM-3159-SR. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. EM2649 (RP 1940-1). EBASCO Services. Energy Management Associates. Survey of Innovative Rate Structures. EM 3529). EPRI Reports prepared by Synergic Resources Corporation. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Inc. 2: Evaluation of Alternatives. Inc. Decision Focus. Strategic . Demand-side Planning Cost/Benefit Analysis. RP 2547. Demand-side Management Vol. Demand-side Management Vol.. March 1983. EPRI RDS 94 (RP 1613). Decision Focus. EA-970 (RP 1108). Integrated Analysis of Load Shapes and Energy Storage. Gellings. EPRI EA/ EM-3597. Gupta. 4: Commercial Markets and Programs. Inc. Eco-Energy Associates. EPRI EURDS 94 (RP 1613). Vol. Report No. EPRI EA/EM-3597. 4 Project 2381-4 Final Report. May 1982. Report No. and Ahmad Faruqui. Load Management Strategy Testing Model. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Pradeep C. 1 Project 2381-4 Final Report. 2 Project 2381-4 Final Report. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute.Appendix 293 ber 1983. Vol.. Demand-side Management Vol. Opportunities in Thermal Storage R&D. March 1979. Consumer Selection of End-Use Devices and Systems. Inc. EPRI Project.. 1981 Survey of Utility Load Management Conservation and Solar End-Use Projects. Report No. Inc. Report No. November 1983. Clark W. Energy Utilization Systems. Inc..
) Strategic Planning and Management for Electric Utilities. 1980). Published by Oak Ridge National Laboratory. published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Residential Response to Time-ofUse Rates. 1984. forthcoming 1984. presentation made at the EPRI Seminar on "Planning and Assessment of Load Management. Marketing Demand-side Programs to Improve Load Factor. Electric Power Research Institute. 1982. New Jersey. Kuliasha." in James L. . J. Inc." M. Competitive Strategy (New York Free Press. p. Energy Information Administration. Inc. McMenamin and I. Reference Manual of Data Sources for Load Forecasting. The PG and E Energy Expo. PrenticeHall.S. Rohmund. Department of Energy. Non-residential Buildings Energy Consumption Survey: Characteristics of Commercial Buildings. Electricity Use in the Commercial Sector: Insights from EPRI Research. EPRI Project RP 1956. March 1986. Identifying Commercial Industrial Market Segments for Utility Demand-side Programs. February 1983. ORNL-5795. April 1966. Methods for Analyzing the Market Penetration of End-Use Technologies: A Guide for Utility Planners. September 1981. Berkeley. Gayle Lloyd. EPRI EA-2008 (RP 1478-1). Resource Planning Associates. Jersey Central Power and Light Company and Todd Davis. "Load Management Implementation Issues. 57. Report No. October 1985. Chirtensen Associates.S. California.A. Lauritis R. Synergic Resources Corporation.294 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Implications of Demand-side Planning. p. U. EPRI EA-2702 (RP 2045-2).. Published by Electric Power Research Institute. October 1982. EPRI has also recently funded a project on "Identifying Consumer Research Techniques for Electric Utilities" (RP 1537)." from the Utility Resource Planning Conference sponsored by the University of California-Berkeley. Plummer (ed. Published by the Electric Power Research Institute. Linda Finley. 1983.. October 1982. EPRI EA-2702 (RP 2045-2). "Load Forecasting. February 28." December. Inc. Michael Porter. A Guide for Utility Planners. Mathematical Sciences Northwest. Electric Power Research Institute Working Paper. Pradeep Gupta. Methods for Analyzing the Market Penetration of End-Use Technologies. College of Engineering. 5-4. EA-4267. Utility Controlled Customer Side Thermal Energy Storage Tests: Cool Storage.
Survey of Utility Commercial Sector Activities. U.S. Report EM-3529-1984 (RP 1940-8). . Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. EPRI P-2799-SR. 1983. Southern California Edison Company. "Understanding Commercial Fuel and Equipment Choice Decisions. 1983—1987 Research and Development Program Plan published by the Electric Power Research Institute. edited by Craig Smith. Coughlin. Synergic Resources Corporation. U. 1985). Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI EM-4142. Synergic Resources Corporation. September 13. Inc. vol. State Energy Date Report. 1979 Nonresidential Buildings. New Orleans. January 1983. November 7. and Implementation. Energy Consumption Survey Data for COMMEND buildings. Todd Davis and Peter Turnbull (New York Pergamon Press. Department of Energy. Analysis. Electric Utility Sponsored Conservation Programs: An Assessment of Implementation Mechanisms (forthcoming). Conference Proceedings. 1981 Conservation and Load Management: Volume II Measurement (1981 Page 2-VIII-I). RP 2050-11. April.S. Paper presented at Utility Conservation Programs: Planning. 1985." Meeting Energy Challenges: The Great PG&E Energy Expo. 1985. 2.Appendix 295 Robert M. Residential Load Forecasting: Integrating End Use and Econometric Methods. 1985. pp. 439-447. July 1985. Electric Power Research Institute. 1986 Statistical Year Book. 1983 Survey of Utility End-Use Projects. Edison Electric Institute. Stephen Braithwait. US DL 85-478.
"This page left intentionally blank." .
273 connectivity to consumers 117 direct incentives 192. 150 structure to Support a Digidistributed generation 99 tal Society 114 distributed power systems 87 consumer and market research distributed resources 121. 124 advertising and promotion 190. 132. 245. 144. 40 advanced distribution automation 50. 110 building integrated power syssystems 98 tems 84 DC to DC converters 109 building systems 163 demand response 141. 195 customer education 273 customer satisfaction 198 customer services 121 D data and information 216. 126. 283 data center 99. 273 conservation voltage reduction 43 distributed energy resources 4. 105. CO2 emissions 6. Consortium for Electric Infra124. 124 direct current 93 compact fluorescent lamps 103 direct customer contact 199. 37. 116 DC power delivery 100. 12 247 cogeneration 235 device-level power system 81 communication 167 direct consumer contact 189 architecture 119. 97 alternative pricing 190. 273 architecture 3 automation 126 consumer portal 128 customer acceptance and response 193. 206. Capgemini 14 139 China 179 demand-side planning 53. 273 alternating current 93. 246.Index A adjustable speed drives 28. 111 energy efficiency 229 B DC distribution 93. 202. 125 272 distribution operations 121 consumer education 189 distribution transformer efficiency consumer interface 165 46 297 . 109 bottlenecks 10. 252 C demand-side evaluation 259 California 182 demand-side management 138. 142. 205.
142 EnergyPortSM 155. 226 ductless residential heat pumps and air conditioners 227 dynamic energy management 131. 171 energy audits 199 energy efficiency 252 improvement rates 69 supply curve 72 energy efficient end-use devices 132 energy efficient technologies 221 energy information systems 143 energy management system 134. 156. 143. 162 energy storage 109 entertainment 169 environment 60 European Union 23 F fast simulation and modeling 122 financial impacts 55 finite resources 59 . 133 intelligent network agents 123 intelligent universal transformer 49 Distribution Vision 2010 21 domestic water heating 32. 267 E efficiency in power delivery 43 electric energy savings potential 71 Electricite de France 23 electricity demand 66 electric transportation 5 ElectriNetSM 2 electrotechnologies 238. 146 systems 131. 134. 242 end-use energy efficiency 53.298 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response flexible AC transmission technologies 11 fully integrated power system 88 G Galvin Electricity Initiative 78 Galvin Initiative 22 General Electric 19 Germany 178 Ghana 177 green grid 12 greenhouse gas emissions 61 grid operations 9 GridWise™ 19 H heat pump water heaters 228 heat rate 27 high-level architecture 122 high-voltage direct current 97 Hydro Quebec 22 hyper-efficient appliances 226 hyper-efficient residential appliances 229 I IBM 16 implementation 212 increasing worldwide demand for energy 58 independent system operators 8 indoor air quality 224 inductive charging 110 information technology 105 integrated energy and communications architecture 120. 161. 151. 140. 148. 135.
8 space conditioning 224 . 166 self-healing grid 117. 127 power flow 114 power plant electricity use 28 power plant lighting 29 power plant space conditioning 32 price-smart 11 process heating 234 program management 210 program planning 210 R rate of efficiency improvement 57 reactive power 114 regional transmission organizations 8 reliability 9. 88 North Africa 185 Norway 175 299 P participatory network 16 peak clipping 252 peak demand reduction 75 perfect power system 78. 113 inverters 100 J Japan 180 L light-emitting diode (LED) street and area lighting 230 lighting 222 load management 246 load shape 140. 231 and drives 230 multi-resolution modeling 123 N national security 59 new source review 29 N-l 9. 281. 122 self-healing system 11 smart devices 150 smart grid 1. 83. 5. 266. 84. 269 objectives 255 load shifting 252 local energy network 4 low-carbon central generation 6 M market implementation 189 market operations 121 mechanical system 1 micro-grid system 100 Middle East 185 modern grid strategy 19 monitoring and evaluation 213. 10 nodes of innovation 82. 17. 164 renewable energy 6 S safety 163. 251. 80 configurations 81 phaser measurement units 8 plug-in hybrid electric vehicles 4. 284 motors 37. 246.Index IntelliGridSM 2. 265. 12 policies and programs 174 polyphase alternating current 96 Portland 183 power delivery system 1 power electronics 100.
and enduse electric energy savings 74 switched-mode power supply 101 T thermal energy storage 236 trade ally cooperation 190.300 The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response unified modeling language 122 uninterruptible power systems 104 United Nations Foundation estimates 67 U. 273 transformer efficiency standards 48 transformer losses 47 transmission and distribution 7 transmission operations 121 U UK SuperGen 21 .S. 116 W Wal-Mart 184 wide-area monitoring systems 8 storage 126 devices 99 supply curve for U. peak summer demand reduction potential 73 V valley filling 252 variable frequency drives 101 variable refrigerant flow air conditionings 227 visualizing 10.S. 201.
This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue?
We've moved you to where you read on your other device.
Get the full title to continue reading from where you left off, or restart the preview.