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Electro-Motive Division SD90MAC-H No. 8504, specially painted for EMD's 75th anniversary, is the DPU on a westbound loaded coal train that is testing on Union Pacific's Moffat Tunnel route. Three ... (more)
Electro-Motive Diesel's SD70ACes demonstrators #1208, #1208 and some other UP power pass over the Colorado River Road with a westbound West Elk Mine coal empty.
EMD Demonstrators #1206 and #1208 pass through Range with coal empties on the Dotsero Cutoff - Glenwood Springs Sub.
Performing tests along CSX's former L&N mainline between Corbin and Cartersville, EMDX SD70ACe Demonstrators No. 1203 and 1202 lead a northbound empty hopper train through Lake City on CSX's KD Su... (more)
EMDX 1204 and 1205 pose at Louisville on the P&L. The units are on their way to Progress Rail at Mayfield, KY.
EMD SD70ACe's 1210 and 1209 lead a southbound loaded
CSX coal train.
Owned at EMD locomotive, GT46AC model with corporative scheme, which is currently in the city of Vallenar, under the control of FERRONOR railway company for testing its iron trains, given the purc... (more)
Two rare (of only four built) SD60MACs demonstrate the abilities of AC-motored power on a CSX unit coal train. Accompanied by an EMD test car, the duo is at the very foot of Elkatawa Hill. The loa... (more)
EMD fielded four SD60MACs in BN paint in 1991. Two of the units are shown testing on CSX at Gentry, KY. The pair is pulling a northbound coal train from Hazard to Ravenna, on the Eastern Kentucky ... (more)
First of its kind Developed as answer to replacing DC locomotives with AC power at a likely lower cost and a direct response to the GE ES44C4 model, EMDX 1207 is the first six axle AC loc... (more)
Shamu: Four 6,000 horsepower Electro-Motive Division SD90MAC-H locomotives, along with EMD's test car, head up to East Portal, Colorado, for some high-altitude testing on January 30, 1998. Leading... (more)
An eastbound UP stack train runs around EMD 7011 East at Stockridge. UP experimented with several SD70M demonstrators during this period before purchasing hundreds of the model.
EMD 1, 2 and 4 lead a special Santa Fe intermodal test train with specially equipped passenger test cars out of tunnel number 1 on Cajon Pass.
2 EMDX demos lead T411 through Akron after a considerable delay due to an eastbound autorack pulling a drawbar and having to wait for 7 other eastbounds to run around it.
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- Fully Flexible Programming Options
- Smart Alerts
- Minimum System Requirements for Use with Wi-Fi:
- A compatible 802.11b/g/n wireless router
- To complete initial set-up, a smartphone or tablet with Android 2.3 and above or iOS 6 and above is required
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Green Pico de Gallo
A cooling and crunchy green version of the typical salsa.
Tuna Poké
The real key here is to use the best-quality tuna you can find. When in doubt, ask your fishmonger if he would eat it raw. If the answer is no, neither should you.
Ham and Sausage Jambalaya
You can use kielbasa or any kind of dry-cured pork sausage, but spicy andouille gives this jambalaya a nice kick of heat.
Tex-Mex Breakfast Waffle Nachos
It's breakfast! It's brunch! It's a snack! It's a glorious mess. And in case you're wondering, the waffles are pretty amazing just on their own.
Bread-and-Butter Pickles
These pickles are a must-have accompaniment for BA's Best Fried Chicken Sandwich…though they're pretty amazing on their own as a snack as well.
Spicy Chicken Stock
All the rejuvenating powers of your grandmother's chicken stock, plus a head-clearing kick of chile. Reserve chicken for Spicy Feel-Good Chicken Soup or another use.
Spicy & Healthy Chicken Soup
Chicken soup is the ultimate comfort food. This healthy version packs spicy flavor, thanks to jalapeño. The squash and cabbage greens are seasonal and healthy, but you can add whatever veggies you like.
Curried Meatballs
The texture of the raw meatballs is very soft. Don't worry; it's the reason they're so tender when cooked.
Turkey Pho Dip
You're familiar with French dip, of course. This is pho dip! In a stroke of holiday genius, you'll use the turkey carcass to make an aromatic broth.
Chicken Skin with Peanuts, Chiles, and Lime
This dish of shatteringly crisp chicken skins tossed with peanuts, chiles, and lime is a riff on Chinese salt-and-pepper squid.


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With UK deal, Nortel becomes a second supplier to Vodafone
Vodafone appointed Nortel as a supplier of radio access equipment for its third generation (3G) mobile phone network in the...
This Article Covers
Supplier management
Vodafone appointed Nortel as a supplier of radio access equipment for its third generation (3G) mobile phone network in the United Kingdom. This deal confirms Nortel's position as a second supplier to Vodafone globally.
Your exclusive guide to CIO trends
A collection of our most popular articles for IT leaders from the first few months of 2016, including: - Corporate giants recruit digitally-minded outsiders to drive transformation - Analytics platforms to drive strategy in 2016 - Next generation: The changing role of IT leaders.
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All of us are asked to break the rules at work at some point or another. Do we go along to get along, or do we resist? How we address such disputes can have serious consequences for us and our organizations. Here are some tactics to keep in mind.
1. Appeal to the self-interest of those in charge. It's possible that they are unaware of the implications of what they are suggesting. So exploring their requests, and framing them in terms of the potential costs and implications for them, is a good way to test the waters. This also signals your discomfort and gives them a way to quietly withdraw their demands without losing face.
2. Appeal to their better angels. Emphasizing what seems fair and decent, particularly if those in charge are caught up in their more banal intentions, can help to increase their dissonance.
3. Just say no. If what you are being asked to do is sufficiently unethical, immoral or illegal, then your sincere refusal may be enough to worry or intimidate them into backing off and reconsidering their demands.
4. Say no louder. When saying no alone doesn't work, it's time to bring in others. This can mean speaking with friends and colleagues and getting their advice and support. If this is not possible without putting them in jeopardy, then it might be time to speak to your supervisor or human resources officer.
5. Broadcast no. When the previous tactics don't work, it is time to consider blowing the whistle outside. Whistle-blowers are more likely to be effective if they have high credibility within the organization, forgo anonymity and identify themselves at the outset of the proceedings.
6. Increase your numbers. Another tactic is to change the power dynamic at work by gathering allies. This might mean organizing several people from a department to go to a manager together to express concerns.
7. Take power. If all else fails, it may be time for direct legal action. This tactic, obviously, is the most costly. But it should always be considered as a backup plan should all else fail.
Adapted from "What to Do If Your Boss Asks You to Break the Rules" at HBR.org.
© 2015 Harvard Business School Publishing Corp


text:
|Credited cast, sorted by IMDb STARmeter:
|Stephen Merchant
Wheatley (voice)
|Ellen McLain
GLaDOS / Turrets (voice)
A young test subject named Chell awakes from a stasis in the Aperture Science Research Facility by a mysterious voice. Asked to perform certain "tests", Chell makes her way through various rooms and test chambers using the Aperture Science Handheld Portal Device, or the "Portal Gun". The tests challenge her wit and her skill and she is able to overcome various obstacles. In one test, she is asked to use a cube known as the Companion Cube to solve the tests. During the test, Chell grew attached to it but was asked to burn it in the end in order to progress. This proved to be a tough feat for Chell. Later, she learns she is being tested by a demonic robot with evil intentions who killed everyone in the facility using a deadly neurotoxin. After nearly being baked into a cake, Chell manages to escape and she works her way through various office rooms to find her mysterious perpetrator, GLaDOS (Genetic Life and Disk Operating System). After a violent battle in which Chell burns the ... Written by Justin R.


text:
Tips And Tricks On How To Hang Outdoor Christmas Lights
Christmas lights are an important element of the holiday season. Nothing indicates that its Christmas time like the beautiful decorations and lights. Most people start shopping for the lights months before the big day so as to decorate the inside and outside of their homes. When buying outdoor Christmas lights, the first thing that you must put into consideration is the type of light.
There are different types of outdoor Christmas lights ranging from traditional C7 and C9 lights to the modern LED lights. The lights are available in different shapes and sizes. When buying, ensure that you pick those lights that are marked as 'outdoor only', as they are the only ones that are durable enough and can survive outdoor conditions. This is particularly important if you liver in an area with harsh climatic conditions. Check the product carefully to ensure that you get the light that is best suited for your need.
Some of the most popular Christmas lights options include the C7 and C9 lights. The C7 lights have a length of 2 inches while the C9 lights are 3 inches long. To add to their aesthetic value, both styles can be colored or just plain white. The lights are popular for their brightness and their long-lasting value.. However, they do not last as long the LED lights. No other type of Christmas light can produce a shine like these lights. They have bulbs that are screwed into their individual sockets, making it possible to fully customize the strings of lights as homeowners can buy a sequence or pattern of their choice.
Though they are bright, flashy and durable, the C7 and C9 lights have their own disadvantages. Since they are made of glass and filament, they can be incredibly fragile. They can also be easily shattered and this raises questions about their suitability for outdoor purposes. Though the lights are still a popular choice for decorators due to their shine and brilliance, they are becoming less popular due to these disadvantages.
The incandescent Christmas lights, also known as mini lights, are smaller and closely spaced as compared to the C7 and C9 lights. They have between 100 and 600 bulbs. However, the bulb's spacing, color and size depends on the particular model of the light. These types of lights are popular because of their diversity. They can be decorated easily due to their small sizes. However, the bulbs are less bright and therefore, aren't the best choice for outdoor use. Their bulbs are also built in set and therefore, a failure of one bulb will damage the whole set.
The LED Christmas lights are relatively new and make use of light emitting diodes. They are more efficient and are available in a range of sizes and shapes. The lights can be incredibly durable. However, their greatest advantage is in the amount of electricity that can be saved from the use of the lights. Some decorators suggest that it is possible to cut Christmas electricity cost by up to 90% while using the LED Christmas lights.
When buying the Christmas lights, you can choose to do it either online or offline. If you choose to do it online, there are many sites where you can find the lights. Some of the recommended sites include eBay, Amazon and Craigslist.
After buying , you will need to consider how hang outdoor Christmas lights. Ensure that you use the suitable light hangers. Search for specialized light clips that are designed for the purpose. Before you hang the light, be sure to test it. This will help you realize if you have a dud early enough rather than after spending many hours stringing the lights. Ensure that the first strand of the lights start from the place where you intend to plug them. Hang the lights following the house's natural architectural line. To create a professional look, follow the window frames and the roof lines. If you have porch posts or columns in your home, you can accent the unique features of the house by wrapping them with a Christmas lights strand.
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text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Apr 12, 1977
|Filing date
|Sep 18, 1975
|Priority date
|Sep 18, 1975
|Publication number
|William C. Baker, John J. Chapman
|Original Assignee
|Teledyne, Inc.
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (8), Referenced by (22), Classifications (6)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
The concept of heating a fluid stream and sensing its temperature to thereby obtain a measure of fluid flow it well known. For example, in U.S. Pat. No. 946,886 issued on Jan. 18, 1910 to Carl C. Thomas, there is disclosed an arrangement wherein a heater is inserted into a flow stream, and temperature sensors are located upstream and downstream of the heater. In one mode of operation Thomas measures the heater current necessary to maintain a constant temperature different between the two sensors. However, since Thomas relies on the movement of fluid between the two sensing points to establish the temperature differential, his arrangement is inapplicable to situations wherein the flow approaches zero.
A significant advance in thermal flowmeters is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,181,357 which issued to James M. Benson on May 4, 1965 wherein the actual flow conduit serves as both the heat source and a portion of the temperature sensing arrangement. Benson inductively couples a constant amount of power into the conduit and uses the conduit as one element of a thermocouple to measure changes in fluid temperature as heat transfers between the heated conduit and the fluid stream. The Benson flowmeter is inherently non-linear because the measured variable is differential temperature which is inversely proportional to flow. This significantly limits its usefulness and its range of measurement. Furthermore, the Benson device requires a relatively high operating temperature in the conduit for adequate flow sensitivity (typically 213� C. above ambient for a 10 mvdc thermocouple signal) which prevents its use with some fluids, notably liquids with boiling points below 240� C. and gases whose physical properties change adversely at elevated temperatures.
Also known are thermal devices, commonly referred to as "hot wire anemometers", which have been made to operate in the constant temperature mode and used to measure fluid flow by placement inside a conduit. Such devices measure the cooling effect of a fluid on a heated body (wire, thermocouple, etc.,) submerged in the fluid stream; that is the velocity of the fluid at the point of insertion. The calibration of the device is strongly dependent on the thermal conductivity of the fluid and the relationship between power and flow is not linear. Furthermore, this type of thermal device is subject to damage from streaming debris in the conduit, and in the case where the fluid is combustible, an ignition problem is presented.
The present invention pertains to a thermal flowmeter of the heated conduit type operating in a constant temperature mode which overcomes the aforementioned disadvantages and has the additional advantages of inherent linear output, increased range, reduced operating temperature, reduced effect of position on accuracy, reduced effect of temperature on the fluid heat capacity, and reduced noise on the output signal.
Briefly, the invention comprises a flowmeter having a conduit through which fluid passes. The conduit is mounted with respect to a heat sink such that it is divided into separate sections. One section is heated by a variable power source. Temperature sensing devices are associated with both the heated and non-heated sections of the conduit. The outputs of the sensing devices are employed to control the power source in order to maintain a constant temperature differential between these outputs. The amount of power required to maintain the constant differential is related to the mass flowrate through the conduit. Consequently, by monitoring the power input to the flowmeter, the mass flowrate is determined.
The invention will become more fully apparent when considered in light of the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments of the invention and from the appended claims.
The illustrative embodiments may be best understood by reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein:
FIG. 1. is a plot comprising mass flowrates measured by constant temperature and constant power devices;
FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, illustrating a first embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 3 is a plot of temperature taken along the conduit of FIG. 2 with the fluid entering the conduit being at a temperature the same as that of the heat sink;
FIG. 4 is a plot of temperature taken along the conduit of FIG. 2 with the fluid entering the conduit being at a temperature above that of the heat sink;
FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, illustrating a second (and preferred) embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, of a third embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 7 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, of a fourth embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 8 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, of a fifth embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 9 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, of a sixth embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 10 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, of a seventh embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 11 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, of an eighth embodiment of the invention; and
FIG. 12 is a schematic drawing, partially in section, illustrating an alternative conduit which may be used in the several embodiments of the present invention.
Prior to the detailed description of the illustrative embodiments of the invention, a brief discussion of the basic principle and considerations involved in the present invention will be outlined.
The relationship that exists between fluid flow and the several variables is given by the formula: ##EQU1## where M is the mass flowrate, H is the heat input per unit time, Cp is the heat capacity of the fluid at constant pressure, Δt is the temperature differential between two points in the fluid located so as to reflect the effect of the heat input of the fluid stream, and P is the electrical equivalent (power) of the heat input. This formula shows that if Δt and Cp are maintained constant, then M varies directly with H (or P) whereas, if H and Cp are maintained constant, M varies inversely with Δt.
The present invention relates to a constant temperature flowmeter wherein Δt and Cp are maintained constant. FIG. 1 illustrates by a solid line the linearity of the mass flowrate measurable by such an arrangement, whereas for comparative purposes there is illustrated in broken lines the non-linear relationship which occurs with a constant power flowmeter of the type disclosed, for example, in the Benson U.S. Pat. No. 3,181,357. This plot demonstrates the constant sensitivity obtainable with a constant temperature flowmeter as compared with the decreased sensitivity at higher flows encountered with a constant power flowmeter. Obviously, the latter type of flowmeter is limited in its useful range.
The heat capacity term Cp in the above formula cannot indiscriminately be considered a constant since it varies with fluid composition, temperature, and pressure. In most fluids the variation with pressure, even over several decades, is small and can be neglected. The variation with temperature, however, can be quite large for some fluids. For example, the Cp for carbon dioxide varies 19.5% for a 200� C. change, and 200� C. is typical of the variation due to flow in the operating temperature of the conduit of some constant power flowmeters. By operating the flowmeter in a constant temperature mode, these variations in Cp due to flow are eliminated. It is true that Cp still varies with changes in ambient temperature. However, such variations are normally relatively small. All fluids have their own characteristic heat capacity the value of which is well documented. It follows, therefore, that if the flowmeter is operated in a constant temperature mode, then Cp will be relatively constant for any given fluid, and that the output will be a function of the mass flow for the particular fluid being measured.
When operating a heated conduit type thermal flowmeter in a constant power mode and measuring the change in temperature, it will be appreciated that the larger the temperature change the greater the sensitivity of the signal. A typical constant power flowmeter using thermocouples to sense temperature requires a 213� C. temperature differential for a 10 mvdc output. When operating a heated conduit type thermal flowmeter in a constant temperature mode and measuring the change in power, it is only necessary that the temperature differential be of sufficient magnitude to provide a stable error signal capable of maintaining adequate control. In a typical design, a 25� C. temperature differential provides approximately a 1 mvdc signal, which is adequate to hold the temperature constant as hereinafter will be explained. While this already represents an order of magnitude reduction in Δt as compared with a constant power flowmeter, even lower temperature differentials are practical.
The lower operating temperature of the constant temperature flowmeter significantly reduces the movement of air surrounding the outside of the heated conduit caused by thermally induced convection currents. In the constant power flowmeter with its higher conduit temperature, this movement of air randomly affects the output of the temperature sensors causing false flow indications, which are most noticeable when the position of the flowmeter is changed.
FIG. 2 shows a first embodiment of the present invention in which a conduit 10 through which a fluid flows is divided into two portions 10a and 10b by thermally massive and electrically conductive heat sink 12. Power is inductively coupled into portion 10b of the conduit by an adjustable source 14 and wound toroid 16 thereby raising the temperature of portion 10b, and that of any fluid contained therein, above ambient. The fluid within the conduit 10 is in thermal equilibrium with the conduit throughout its length. One thermocouple temperature sensor TC-1 is formed at the junction of the unheated portion 10a of the conduit and an attached conductor of a dissimilar material, and a second thermocouple temperature sensor TC-2 is formed at the junction of the heated portion 10b of the conduit and an attached conductor of a dissimilar material.
In a simplified case, the temperature of the heat sink 12, the unheated portion 10a of the conduit, temperature sensor TC-1 and the incoming fluid are in equilibrium. The effect of inductively coupling energy to a portion 10b of the conduit whose ends are held at a fixed temperature by the heat sink is to create temperature variations along the conduit, as shown in FIG. 3, thus establishing a temperature difference, even at zero flow, between the incoming fluid sensed by TC-1 and the heated fluid sensed by TC-2. This difference is designated in FIG. 3 as ΔtA.
Should the temperature of the incoming fluid initially be different from that of the heat sink 12, then they will in the long run reach some intermediate equilibrium temperature. In the short run, the unheated portion 10a of the conduit, because of its much smaller thermal mass, will have a temperature variation as shown in FIG. 4 until such time as the fluid and heat sink reach their new equilibrium temperature. In a like manner, the heated portion 10b of the conduit will also follow changes in the fluid temperature, such changes being in addition to the temperature variation established by the inductive heating. The net result is to maintain a temperature difference ΔtB. This difference is equal to ΔtA, so it can be appreciated that the present invention compensates for changes in temperature of the incoming fluid.
As can be seen in FIG. 2, temperature sensor TC-2 is preferably attached to the midpoint of the heated conduit 10b since this approximates the point of maximum temperature on the conduit for a given power input. Sensors TC-1 and TC-2, are connected in a differential arrangement for example, as inputs to differential amplifier 18, to measure Δt, which initially can be set to any desired value by adjusting the heat input at zero flow. The power required for such initial setting is referred to as the "idle power" and can be biased out of the output signal by conventional means. As fluid begins to move through the conduit, the temperature at TC-1 remains unchanged. However, the temperature at TC-2 is reduced as the fluid carries heat out of the conduit. This also reduces Δt, and this difference in Δt is translated by amplifier 18 into an error signal that calls for additional heat to restore the temperature gradients of the heated conduit, hence Δt, to its former value. The additional power required therefore is a measure of the mass flowrate of the fluid.
In order to obtain an accurate determination of mass flowrate, it is necessary to measure power delivered to the fluid independently of the electrical losses associated with the power supply and inductive coupling, and the thermal conduction, convection and radiation losses associated with the conduit and heat sink. The power delivered to the heated conduit 10b is a function of the resistance and voltage across the conduit, specifically P = E2 /R. If the conduit is constructed of a material having a very small temperature co-efficient, and if it is maintained at a constant temperature differential, its resistance for all practical purposes will be constant and P will be proportional to E2. By means of conductors 20 and 22, the voltage across the conduit portion 10b is applied to a conventional squaring circuit 24 to produce an output at 26 representative of the power delivered to the fluid via portion 10b which output is independent of losses occurring both in the power supply circuit and from inductive coupling. However, not all of the heat supplied to the conduit is transferred to the fluid. There are unavoidable losses due to thermal radiation, convection, and conduction. Typically the conduit operating temperature is only 25� C. above ambient. Radiation losses are then negligible. Similarly, convection losses are minimized and are relatively constant. Conduction down the circuit portion 10b to the heat sink 12 accounts for the principal losses. However, if the conduit is maintained at a constant temperature difference above the heat sink, and if the heat sink has sufficient thermal mass so that its temperature is unaffected by either the heat flow from the conduit or the induced heating current, then the conductive heat loss will be constant, and unaffected by the amount of power supplied to the conduit. Consequently, the total amount of heat (power) loss by radiation, convection, and conduction is constant and is independent of the amount of power delivered to the conduit. Thus, it can be treated the same as idle power and biased out of the voltage output signal by conventional means.
FIG. 5 illustrates a preferred embodiment of the present invention including the associated electrical circuitry. A thermally and electrically conductive conduit 10 is attached to an electrically conductive and thermally massive heat sink 12 at 28, 30 and 32. Partition 34, part of heat sink 12, effectively divides the conduit into two not necessarily equal sections 10a and 10b and separates the heat sink into portions 12a and 12b. A total transformer inductively couples power in a secondary loop consisting of conduit section 10b, heat sink end wall 36, heat sink portion 12b, and heat sink partition 34. No power is coupled to conduit section 10a. Metallic conductors 38 and 40 of a material different from the conduit, are attached to conduit 10 (for example, by welding) at points located preferably, but not necessarily, at the center of conduit sections 10a and 10b, thus forming thermocouple junctions TC-1 and TC-2 with the conduit. Conductors 42 and 44 are attached symetrically to conduit section 10b preferably as close to the ends of the conduit section 10b as practical to maximize the voltage signal obtained therefrom. It is desirable that these conductors 42 and 44 be of the same material as the conduit so that they do not form a thermocouple with the conduit. However, if the conductors are of a material different from the conduit, the resultant thermocouple voltages will be small and self-cancelling if the conductors are symmetrically placed near the end of the conduit section 10b. Fluid passes unobstructed through the conduit 10 in the direction shown by the arrowhead and is in thermal contact with the conduit throughout its length. The circuitry associated with the flowmeter consists of two parts, the constant temperature servo loop contained within the block designated as 46 and the power measuring circuit grouped within block 48. The differences in electrical outputs from the thermocouples TC-1 and TC-2, formed by the conduit 10 and conductors 38 and 40, represents Δt and is amplified by 18. The output of amplifier 18 is compared by comparator 50 to a fixed reference voltage 52 which is equal to the amplified output of the thermocouples at the value at which Δt is desired to be held constant. Any error signal developed by comparator 50 is applied to a voltage controlled power oscillator 54 so as to alter the AC power supplied by means of conductors 56 and 58 to the toroidal transformer 16 which heats the conduit section 10b. The AC power is of appropriate magnitude to restore Δt to its desired constant value at any flowrate within the design range of the flowmeter. The voltage difference between the ends of conduit section 10b is coupled by conductors 42 and 44 to amplifier 60 and then to an RMS converter 62 so as to develop the DC equivalent of the AC voltage output from amplifier 60. A fixed DC voltage from source 64, which voltage is representative of the idle power plus fixed losses, serves as a bias which together with the output of converter 62 are applied as inputs to a conventional squaring circuit 66 in which the difference between the inputs is squared and scaled. The output of circuit 66 is proportional to the mass flow of the fluid and is displayed on a suitable readout device 68.
FIG. 6 illustrates a further embodiment of the invention wherein the unwanted AC signal picked up by thermocouple TC-2 is nulled by the bridge circuit consisting of the conduit section 10b, the thermocouple TC-2 and a potentionmeter 70 whose resistance is much larger than that of the conduit section 10b (so that is consumes negligible power), the potentiometer including conductors 72 and 74 which attach symmetrically to the extremities of section 10b. A differential amplifier 76, having a high common mode rejection receives inputs from TC-2 and potentiometer 70. The amplifier rejects the AC signal which is common to both its inputs and passes only the DC signal from the thermocouple TC-2. By attaching the potentiometer symmetrically to the extremities of the conduit, no DC signal is present on the potentiometer tap to interfere with the temperature measurement of the thermocouple. The pure DC signal from the differential amplifier 76 is substracted from the pure DC signal from the reference thermocouple TC-1 by the differential amplifier 18 the output of which represents the temperature difference between the two thermocouples. It would be obvious to one skilled in the art, that amplifiers 18 and 76 could be a signal amplifier and that the conductors 72 and 74 could be the voltage measuring conductors 20 and 22 in FIG. 2 previously described. Of course, it will be understood that the components for controlling power to conduit section 10b and for squaring the voltage difference between the ends of the section 10b have been omitted merely for convenience of illustration.
FIG. 7 illustrates a further embodiment of the invention wherein thermocouple TC-2 does not pick up any of the unwanted A.C. heating signal. Conductor 10b is bent in the form of a loop 121. The loop is closed electrically by joining the outer walls of the conduit together, (as by welding or similar techniques) at 122, but flow still passes through the conduit from inlet to outlet. Thermocouple TC-2 is attached at the junction 122 of the loop. There is now no A.C. potential between the thermocouples TC-1 and TC-2. The loop further improves the performance of the flowmeter by enhancing the mixing of fluid, thus promoting thermal equilibrium between the fluid and the conduit. An additional winding 123 on the toroidal coil 16 provides a voltage proportional to the heating power supplied to the conduit, which is transformed into an output signal proportional to mass flow by circuitry 48 previously described in connection with FIG. 5.
The range of the constant temperature flowmeter of the type which have been described can be increased as shown in FIG. 8 by placing additional conduits 77 of similar dimensions in shunt around the active measuring conduit 10, said additional conduits, which need not be heated, forming a stable and linear flow divider. All of the conduits are retained within a larger pipe-like housing 78. Since fluid conditions are the same (except for the small temperature differential of the active conduit 10 which can normally be neglected), the mass flow through each of the conduits is the same, and the total flow is the measured flow through the active conduit times the total number of conduits.
Another method of increasing the flow range of the constant temperature flowmeters is shown in FIG. 9 and consists of placing a first restrictive element 80 in series with the flowmeter's active measuring conduit 10, said restrictive element being of a form wherein the pressure drop across the element varies as the square of the velocity through the element, such as occurs with an orifice plate, venturi tube, etc. The pressure drop across the conduit 10 must be much smaller than that across the first restrictive element. A second restrictive element 82 having a pressure drop which also varies as the square of velocity therethrough, but not necessarily of the same form as the first restrictive element, is placed in shunt with the first restrictive element 80 and the conduit 10 thus forming a stable and linear flow divider. Since fluid conditions are the same for each restrictive element, said elements responding similarly, and since the conduit itself has negligible influence on the flow, and since the velocity of approach factors can be made similar, the total flow is that measured by the flow through the conduit times a fixed ratio depending on the throat area of the first and second restrictive elements.
In the various embodiments of the invention previously described, an indication of power requirements is obtained by squaring the voltages across the conduit section 10b. This may also be obtained by multiplying the voltage difference between the extremities of conduit section 10b by the current in the conduit section (P = EI). Another method is shown in FIG. 10 wherein an additional conduit section 84 is placed in parallel with the heated section 10b of the original conduit 10 between end wall 36 and partition 34 of the heat sink 12. Section 84 is in the inductive circuit and thus heated, but the ends of section 84 are sealed so that no fluid can pass therethrough. Temperature sensor TC-3 is attached to the conduit section 84, and another sensor TC-2 is attached to the conduit section 10b. The two temperature sensors are connected to a differential amplifier 86 of the output of which represents the difference in temperature between the two conduit sections. At zero flow the temperatures of both sections are the same and the output of the differential amplifier 86 is zero. As fluid moves through the conduit 10, the constant temperature servo circuit 46, previously described with respect to FIG. 5, controls the power delivered to the conduit section 10b and 84 until section 10b is restored to its desired temperature. Since the conduit sections 10b and 84 are identical and in parallel, the power divides evenly between them. Power applied to conduit section 84 increases its temperature since it has no fluid movement to remove the heat. Consequently, a difference in temperature exists between the two conduit sections 10b and 84 which is proportional to the power necessary to maintain a constant Δt between the heated and unheated sections 10b and 10a of conduit 10. The output of amplifier 86 is thus proportional to the mass flow of the fluid in conduit 10.
FIG. 11 illustrates another form of the present invention in which a multiple arrangement of conduits and thermocouples provides an adequate electrical signal proportional to the temperature difference in the fluid at substantially lower conduit temperatures. Multiple conduits (88, 90, 92 and 94) are joined to a thermally conductive but electrically non-conductive heat sink 96. Alternatively, the heat sink 96 can be electrically conductive if the conduits are separated from the heat sink by a thermally conductive but electrically insulative material. The heat sink further divides each conduit into two sections (88A and 88B, 90A and 90B, etc.), the second group of which (identified by the suffixes B) is inductively heated by attaching conductors 98, 100, 102 and 104 to the extremities of said conductors through an inductive coil 106. Conductors 108, 110, 112, 114 and 116 of a material different from the conduits, form thermocouple junctions (TC-1A to TC-1D and TC-2A to TC-2D) with the conduits 88, 90, 92 and 94, said thermocouple junctions thereby being electrically joined in series. The conductors are arranged such that conductor 110 attaches the unheated conduit section 88A and the heated conduit 90B; conductor 112 attaches to the unheated conduit section 90A and to the heated conduit section 92B, etc. One end of each conductor 108 and 116 is connected to a differential amplifier such as that employed in circuit 46 of the FIG. 5 embodiment, the output of said amplifier being proportional to the sum of the outputs of each individual thermocouple. The same total flow requires the same total power. However, both the flow and power are divided substantially equal among the conduits. The power can be measured as described with reference to the embodiments of FIGS. 2 and 5 or by winding an additional secondary 120 on the inductive coil 106 to obtain a voltage proportional to that induced across the conduits. Such a voltage would still be independent of any losses associated with the power supply or the coil, and any error introduced by the difference in coupling would be small and proportional. By squaring the voltage by means such as circuit 48 described with reference to FIG. 5, an output is produced which is representative of the power delivered to the fluid, and thus it also is representative of the mass flowrate.
In addition to the advantage of a lower temperature differential, the arrangement just described also has the advantage of increased range. The maximum range of a single conduit flowmeter is limited to flowrates in which the conduit and the fluid rate are substantially in thermal equilibrium. Thus, the maximum range of a multiconduit flowmeter is increased in direct proportion to the number of conduits. It can be seen that this embodiment could incorporate loops in the heated conduit sections as previously described with respect to FIG. 7.
FIG. 12 shows a modification which may be utilized in the various embodiments of the invention which have been described. More particularly, the walls of the conduit 10 may be "dimpled" or otherwise roughened to enhance turbulence (mixing) in the fluid, thus promoting thermal equilibrium between the fluid and the conduit.
Among the advantages of the present invention is the fact that fluid passes unobstructed through the conduits. There are no heaters or sensors protruding into the flow stream. It is also possible in some embodiments of the invention for the conduit 10 to be a straight piece of tubing, which would have the following advantages: (1) the conductor is much less susceptible to fouling by dirty fluids, (2) that its condition can be easily determined by visually examining the conduit from either end, and (3) that if fouling does occur, it can be cleaned without damaging the sensors in any way by pushing a cleaning rod through the entire length of the conduit. Additionally, the fluid comes in contact only with the conduit and not with the heat sink or the sensor wires. Connection of the conduits to an external line can be made by direct welding, or any other suitable method. This means that the flowmeter can be used to measure fluids that might attack materials, such as silver solder, which are commonly used in previously known designs.
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|Jan 26, 2012
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|U.S. Classification
|73/204.12, 73/204.16, 73/202.5
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification


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