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The issues surrounding the use and nature of the term 'validity' in qualitative research are controversial and many. In this paper, the author attempts to establish that 'validity' is not a single, fixed or universal concept, but rather a contingent construct, inescapably grounded in the processes and intentions of particular research methodologies and projects. The first section of this work deals with the problems faced in defining 'validity' in both quantitative and qualitative research methods and will briefly review other authors' attempts to categorise it. The work will then proceed to distinguish and compare the claims to 'validity' made by quantitative and qualitative researchers, highlighting similarities and differences as they emerge. Finally, an attempt will be made to establish that an understanding of nature of 'truth' is central to any theorisation of 'validity.' It will become clear that it is the affiliations of methodologies, concerning truth, that generate varying notions of 'validity.'
It is the intention of this work to highlight some of the issues surrounding the use and nature of the term 'validity' and to establish that 'validity' is not a single, fixed or universal concept, but rather a contingent construct, inescapably grounded in the processes and intentions of particular research methodologies and projects. The first section of this work will deal with the problems faced in defining 'validity' in both quantitative and qualitative research methods and will briefly review other authors' attempts to categorise it. The work will then proceed to distinguish and compare the claims to 'validity' made by quantitative and qualitative researchers, highlighting similarities and differences as they emerge. Finally, an attempt will be made to establish that an understanding of nature of 'truth' is central to any theorisation of 'validity.' It will become clear that it is the affiliations of methodologies, concerning truth, that generate varying notions of 'validity.'
The exact nature of 'validity' is a highly debated topic in both educational and social research since there exists no single or common definition of the term. Therefore, in order to understand something of the range of meanings attached to 'validity', it is essential to review a selection of the range of definitions given by leading authors.
A much cited definition of 'validity' is that of Hammersley's (1987, p. 69): "An account is valid or true if it represents accurately those features of the phenomena, that it is intended to describe, explain or theorise." Although this would seem to be an all-encompassing and reasonable description, many other definitions fail to envisage such a 'realist approach' (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 282). The fact that there are so many possible definitions and replacement terms for 'validity' suggests that it is a concept entirely relative to the person and belief system from which it stems.
One of the most recurring features in critical discussions of 'validity' is the combination of 'validity' with the term 'reliability' (Campbell & Fisk as cited in Simco & Warin, 1997; Black & Champion, 1976, p. 222, 234; Kerlinger, 1964, p. 430; Hammersley, 1987, p. 75). Yet, the definitions for 'reliability' are as varied and as complex as those for 'validity'.
Hammersley (1987) reviews the extent to which 'reliability' and 'validity' are defined by a selection of different authors writing from different methodological positions. I will avoid merely repeating those definitions verbatim and instead offer a few key words summarising each definition.
'An agreement between two efforts to measure the same thing with different methods' -- Campbell and Fisk (as cited in Hammersley, 1987)
'The measure that an instrument measures what it is supposed to' -- Black and Champion (1976, pp. 232-234)
'Accuracy' -- Lehner (1979, p. 130)
'Degree of approximation of 'reality' -- Johnston and Pennypacker (1980, pp. 190-191)
'Are we measuring what we think we are?' -- Kerlinger (1964, pp. 430, 444-445)
'to the extent that differences in scores yielded…reflect actual differences' -- Medley and Mitzel (as cited in Hammersley, 1987, p. 150)
'An agreement between two efforts to measure the same thing with the same methods' -- Campbell and Fisk (as cited in Hammersley, 1987)
'Ability to measure consistently' -- Black and Champion (1976, pp. 232-234)
'Reproductibility of the measurements…stability' -- Lehner (1979, p. 130)
'Capacity to yield the same measurement…stability' -- Johnston and Pennypacker (1980, pp. 190-191)
'Accuracy or precision of a measuring instrument?' -- Kerlinger (1964, pp. 430, 444-445)
'To the extent that the average difference between two measures obtained in the same classroom is smaller than…in different classrooms' -- Medley and Mitzel (as cited in Hammersley, 1987)
Insofar as 'validity' definitions are concerned, two common strands begin to emerge: Firstly, whether the means of measurement are accurate. Secondly, whether they are actually measuring what they are intended to measure. However, it is with the definition of 'reliability', and its confusion with 'validity' that the greatest level of disagreement appears between authors. The notions of accuracy, more commonly attributed to 'validity', appear to be associated with 'reliability' also. What authors do seem to attribute to 'reliability' more commonly than to 'validity' is the degree of replicability. From this summary, it is possible to suggest that the aggregated definition of 'validity' could be that of accuracy, and the definition of 'reliability' that of replicability. Whatever the differences in definition and classification are amongst the above authors, it is these two concepts--accuracy and replicability--which appear to underpin their aggregated goals and means.
However, it immediately becomes apparent that an aggregated definition, whilst representing the majority of opinion, can prove mutually exclusive to the definitions of certain researchers and methodologies. I refer of course to qualitative researchers, some of whom vehemently deny that replicability is either useful or possible in situations concerning highly complex and transient circumstances: namely those that involve the lives, thoughts and behaviour of actors. Some researchers would also take issue with the notion of accuracy and claim that precision is of greater importance. As Hammersley continues:
We can measure the length of a large object in terms of metres, centimetres or millimetres. In that order, these scales represent an increasing degree of precision. Note that this is independent of the accuracy of the measurement. On this usage, a score may be very precise but highly inaccurate. How precise we want our measurement to be will depend on our purposes…Other things being equal, the more precise the scale, the more difficult it is to achieve high levels of 'validity'…there is often the temptation to be more precise than the level of 'validity' with which an object is being measured justifies. (Hammersley, 1987, p. 77)
What Hammersley is referring to is the trade-off between 'validity' and precision. It may indeed be possible to measure the time it takes child 'A' to finish a test (designed to last for an hour) in milliseconds, but this extra degree of precision is unlikely to generate greater accuracy. In particular over-precision can threaten 'validity' in statistical tests. Overly precise, discrete categorisations, even with a sample of thousands, would generate categories by the thousand, each of which is likely contain only one or two results. In addition, computation, measures of central tendency and measures of variance become increasingly inaccurate and unworkable as precision increases. Even in qualitative research, which thrives on accurate description, measures which are too precise, such as the time in seconds of pauses in conversation or exact measures of vocal intonation; can confound and obscure the more general purposes of the research and analysis.
'Validity…is a unitary concept.' (Wainer & Braun (1988, p. xvii)
It is the intention of this section to assert that 'validity' is not in any simple sense a unitary concept. There is no single form, construct or concept that can universally be claimed to define or encompass the term. Neither, however, can validity be said to be a discretely identifiable element of any research project, which is capable of being located at multiple and specific stages within the research. The concept of 'validity' defies extrapolation from, or categorisation within, any research project.
For some researchers (mainly qualitative), 'validity' is not a singular acid test that can be applied to the research process as a whole. The 'validity' measure can be applied differently depending upon the researcher's beliefs as to what stage of the research process is in need of validation. Such an approach may perceive validity as referring only to measurement, observers, scores, instruments, relationships between scores or observable variations, rather than to the whole research process.
Within this approach, 'validity' is claimed either by viewing it as resident in a particular stage of the research process, or as combinations of certain stages. Maxwell (1992, p. 285) identifies five typologies of 'validity' as they relate to various stages of the research. I will briefly describe Maxwell's definitions and offer some critique of them, not because I necessarily conform to his segmented typologies, but because they raise some interesting concerns.
Descriptive 'validity' is that which is concerned with the initial stage of research, usually involving data gathering. The central issue is factual accuracy in the informational statements that describe what was observed and experienced - what Runciman (1983) refers to as 'Reportage.' The choice of language and selection of 'relevant data' are the greatest threat to 'validity'. Maxwell (1992, pp. 287-288) identifies many possible areas of error within this process concerning data selection and initial interpretative biases. The section concludes with the following statement:
If different observers or methods produce descriptively different data or accounts of the same events or situations, this puts into question the descriptive 'validity' (and other types of 'validity' as well) of the accounts. (Maxwell, 1992, p. 287)
This measure of 'validity' that Maxwell offers should be approached with some caution. Of course, stark differences in factual statements or events, such as whether person 'A' was present or not during data gathering, appears a very fundamental error. However, what this rather blatant difference in description demonstrates, is the highly selective, reductive and subjective processes involved in all research. If researcher '1' failed to notice the presence of person 'A', while researcher '2' noted the presence of that particular person as an 'important' factor, then this discrepancy will undoubtedly raise some concerns. Of course, if the researcher is dishonest or lacks commitment to the work then the matter becomes one of integrity. In this case, most would agree that 'validity' has been compromised. However, if both accounts represent the conscientious efforts of the two researchers, rather than labelling the greatly differing accounts as evidence of reduced validity and unreliable measures, the discrepancies between them merely mark the multi-perspective experiences of researchers '1' and '2'. The 'inaccuracy' is an honest and valid account of the researchers' experiences of the 'realities' that exist within the events recorded. This perspective acknowledges the essential role of the researcher within the research process and the events themselves. Of course, this would be far from acceptable within the quantitative paradigm, but within qualitative research, this would raise interesting questions worthy of investigation. Contrary to the assumptions governing quantitative research, qualitative methodologies have come to recognise that research into the lives, personalities and experiences of people involves the inevitability of contradiction and the existence of parallel and opposing truths within accounts. To 'cleanse' the data of these personally-oriented discrepancies involves further subjective action, since it would involve a degree of selection and choice.
Within the qualitative paradigm, interpretation is typically viewed as an inextricable (and, indeed, unavoidable) element of data collection. On these grounds, Maxwell's segregation of description and interpretation is not only a false distinction, but effectively impossible. Interpretation is essentially couched within the rhetorics that the researcher uses to describe a situation and is mutually constructed between researchers and subjects. Quantitative researchers do much to disassociate themselves from such interpretations, yet these too are inevitable in their categorisations and selection of data. To imagine that any 'reasonable' (by reasonable I mean that which can be justified by any kind of evidence present at one or more stages of the data) constructed interpretation could ever be proven to be invalid is almost unimaginable. Yet, in Maxwell's 'realist' approach to 'validity' (1992, p. 290) he ultimately upholds that a 'valid' account "must respect the perspectives of the actors in that situation" (1992, p. 290). What Maxwell asserts is that an account is only valid if the actors are able to confirm or recognise the findings of the research, in particular, he notes, where there is a chance that they may be disadvantaged by the results. Using this relativistic logic, a convicted rapist with a long history of convictions for sexual crimes, yet who protests that he is innocent of every charge, would have to be portrayed as an innocent victim of a series of miscarriages of justice. In fact, we have no choice but to adopt his own perspective as a test of the 'validity' of our interpretation of his actions. Regardless of the ethical implications of interpreting meaning from the observations of others, other than those that they would necessarily agree with, it is worth noting that an individual may often have no more 'valid' interpretations of their own actions than another might make.
Maxwell comments that the previous two accounts of 'validity' depend on a consensus on the application of terms and that disagreements refer only to accuracy and not meaning. We have already seen that that this analogy is incorrect. Maxwell continues to say 'theoretical validity' is a more 'abstract' analysis than the 'descriptive' and 'interpretive' 'validities' concerning the 'immediate physical and mental phenomena studied' (1992, p. 291). Maxwell claims that theoretical 'validity' goes beyond the concrete and descriptive and concerns itself with the constructions that researchers apply to, or develop, during the research. This of course is a fallacy, as we have already established that a researcher's theoretical framework and constructions, whether grounded theory or metatheoretical, intrinsically define both the recording and interpretation of the data at the initial stage of research. What is interesting about this typology is that this form of validity applies not only to the research itself, but to the mental and emotional constructs of the researcher. However, identifying one's own theoretical standpoint, or even categorising it as essentially 'Marxist', 'Positivist', 'Sructuralist', 'Postmodern', 'Feminist' or any combination of any theories, would paradoxically necessitate further subjective theorisation and prove futile.
Maxwell (1992, pp. 293-295) observes that the degree to which an account is believed to be generalisable is a factor that clearly distinguishes qualitative and quantitative research approaches. The ability to generalise findings to wider groups and circumstances is one of the most common tests of 'validity' for quantitative research and yet is considered to be of little, or even no, importance for many qualitative researchers. Maxwell also notes that sampling, a vital consideration in establishing the 'validity' of a statistical test, is usually purposeful in qualitative research as opposed to random. Qualitative research almost exclusively limits itself to 'internal' generalisations, if indeed it seeks to claim any form of generalisability at all. Quantitative research, on the other hand, attempts to deal with both 'internal and 'external' generalisations, referring to these as 'internal validity' and 'external validity' respectively (Maxwell, 1992, p. 294). One possible explanation for this difference in the scope of the claims made by researchers is tied to the types of situations and phenomena that qualitative and quantitative researchers investigate. In a very general sense, qualitative research concerns itself with the meanings and experiences of the 'whole' person, or localised culture. On the other hand, quantitative research attempts to fragment and delimit phenomena into measurable or 'common' categories that can be applied to all of the subjects or wider and similar situations. Hence, quantitative research, whilst able to claim validity for wider populations and not just merely samples, is restricted to measuring those elements that, by definition and distortion, are common to all. This raises the question of 'at what cost' are we exchanging accuracy for generalisability. Within the quantitative definition, an account may be judged 'valid', 'replicable' and 'stable' on the merits of its generalisability. Yet, one could argue that generalisation in itself is neither 'valid' nor accurate. It is likely that a 'generalisable' statement, whilst relating to all those to whom it is applied, may not actually describe the phenomena of any single case with any accuracy, in the same way that a mean average score need not be the same value as any of the numbers of which it is an average.
As one would expect, this form of validity that Maxwell proposes refers to the application of an evaluative framework. Maxwell asserts that evaluative frameworks are similar in both qualitative and quantitative research and that many researchers make no claim to apply any evaluation to their research whatsoever (Maxwell, 1992, p. 295). However, evaluation is not some conclusive statement that may or may not be tagged onto the end of a research report, thus determining the nature, outcome or 'reality' of that research. Similar to the issues raised in response to Maxwell's categorisation of 'interpretive validity, evaluation is an almost inescapable, and often unconscious, consequence of the research process itself. Recognising that evaluation of some sort is an inescapable inevitability within research, enables the control of that evaluation, and offers a measurement of the research in terms of its overall 'validity.'
As stated at the beginning of this section, it has been my intention to establish that the deconstruction of the concept of validity into separate types and then relating them to certain stages of the research process is an unnecessary conceptualisation which may lead one to think that as long as these parameters are considered, then the research could be said to be wholly 'valid.' No such formulaic approach could ever claim to guarantee validity, and Maxwell's typologies, whilst being convenient and systematic, are paradoxical and unnecessary.
Although the relative notions of 'validity', as they relate to quantitative and qualitative research respectively, have been discussed at various stages of this work, it is worth summarising these ideas for the purpose of comparison.
The traditional criteria for 'validity' find their roots in a positivist tradition, and to an extent, positivism has been defined by and bolstered along by a systematic theory of 'validity'. Within the positivist terminology, 'validity' resided amongst, and was the result and culmination of other empirical conceptions: universal laws, evidence, objectivity, truth, actuality, deduction, reason, fact and mathematical data to name just a few. It is within this tradition and terminology that quantitative research is traditionally defined. Qualitative research, arising out of the post-positivist rejection of a single, static or objective truth, has concerned itself with the meanings and personal experience of individuals, groups and sub-cultures. 'Reality' in qualitative research is concerned with the negotiation of 'truths' through a series of subjective accounts. Whereas quantitative researchers attempt to disassociate themselves as much as possible from the research process, qualitative researchers have come to embrace their involvement and role within the research. For quantitative researchers this involvement would greatly reduce the validity of a test, yet for qualitative researchers denying one's role within research also threatens the validity of the research.
Some qualitative researchers have argued that the term validity is not applicable to qualitative research and have at the same time realised the need for some kind of qualifying check or measure for their research. As a result many researchers have espoused their own theories of 'validity' and have often generated or adopted what they consider to be more appropriate terms, such as 'trustworthiness', 'worthy', 'relevant', 'plausible', 'confirmable', 'credible' or 'representative' (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Hammersley, 1987; Mishler, 1990; Wolcott, 1990). Other qualitative researchers have rejected the notion of 'validity', in any form, as entirely inappropriate to their work.
Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially positivist epistemology. While they may have undoubtedly proved useful in providing checks and balances for quantitative methods, they sit uncomfortably in research of this kind, which is better concerned by questions about power and influence, adequacy and efficiency, suitability and accountability. (Watling as cited in Simco & Warin, 1997)
Wainer and Braun describe the validity that concerns quantitative research as 'construct validity'. The construct is the initial concept, notion, question or hypothesis that determines which data is to be gathered and how it is to be gathered. Wainer and Braun assert that quantitative researchers actively cause or affect interplay between construct and data in order to 'validate' their investigation, usually by the application of a test or other process. Data can either support or reject this construct which can then be can be put forward as a theory or further hypothesis (Cronbach & Meech, 1995, p. 20).
In this sense the validity is very specific to the test to which it is applied, or:
The correlation of scores on a test with some other objective measure of that which the test is used to measure. (Bingham, 1937, p. 214)
Unlike quantitative research, there are no standardised or accepted tests within qualitative research and often the nature of the investigation is determined and adapted by the research itself. There may not be any hypothesis or even any findings as such. Instead the 'validity' of the research resides with the representation of the actors, the purposes of the research and appropriateness of the processes involved. The only similarity between the two research methods is that, at some point, questions will be asked and data will be collected. Likewise, commonalities within definitions of 'validity' only exist within its concern for the research process and its appropriateness to the phenomena investigated.
As already suggested, there are differences that exist between quantitative and qualitative research in what they attempt to research. Quantitative research limits itself to what can be measured or quantified and qualitative research attempts to 'pick up the pieces' of the unquantifiable, personal, in depth, descriptive and social aspects of the world. Many of the allegations of invalidity from both sides can be attributed to a failure to recognise the purposes to which each methodology is suited.
However, there are further issues in the selection of research subjects, in particular those concerning the selection or use of samples, which ultimately relates to the degree to which the research is intended to be internally or externally generalisable. Internal validity relates to whether the findings or results of the research relate to and are caused by the phenomena under investigation and not other unaccounted for influences. In essence, this essentially comes down to the issue of correlation and causality. Within quantitative research, causality must be established for the test to be valid, or indeed, of any use at all. Researchers get around this by attempting, some say in vain, to isolate the factors under investigation away from any confounding variables. The pollution of the results caused by other unwanted factors does not entirely invalidate the test, especially since they cannot really be fully isolated and stripped away, but a study with notable, and yet unaccounted for, influences is said to have low internal validity. In a sense what the quantitative researcher is attempting to do is ensure that his/her explanation for the results can be the only possible or feasible one. There are many factors that pose a threat to validity in this case, such as the maturation of the individual in a longitudinal study, previous experiences of the individuals, 'lost data,' the affects of the test itself, or regression to the mean as a result of outliers or positively or negatively skewed values. Qualitative research 'validity' also partially requires an 'internal validity', but is not centrally concerned with issues of cause and effect, and is not so harsh in its isolation and categorisation of particulars within the phenomena.
External validity is the secondary, yet still very important goal of quantitative research. The measure of external validity is the extent to which the results can be generalised and thus applied to other populations. A test can have very high internal validity and very low external validity at the same time. Threats to external validity are similar to those for internal validity, except that the test itself is more likely to pose a threat as an alternative explanation for similar results.
External validity is often of no importance to qualitative research and the attempt to achieve it can seriously hinder its overall validity. However, qualitative findings are best generalisable to the development of theories and not wider populations.
The necessity for random sampling and other standard design features, which are features of quantitative research, also have little or no importance in qualitative research, where researchers may deliberately choose to investigate the unusual and unrepresentative. Unlike quantitative research whose validity depends upon the established canon of standardised tests and procedures, qualitative research embodies a vast and evolving body of techniques that can be modified or developed as the research demands. What these vast range of research methods and techniques demonstrate is that:
...[A] method in itself is neither valid nor invalid; methods can produce valid data or accounts in some circumstances and invalid ones in others. (Maxwell, 1992, p. 284)
Therefore, since validity is not a feature of a particular methodology, process or test, within qualitative research all that remains is how representative the description is and how justifiable are the findings.
This is why many researchers claim that 'understanding' is more pertinent to qualitative research than 'validity' (Wolcott, 1992). What is certain is that qualitative research sets itself up for failure when it attempts to follow the established procedures of quantitative research such as experimentation, efforts of replication, use of control groups, use of standardised formulas or the use of the pre-test/post-test method.
One thing that does appear to bear equal importance to the validity of both quantitative and qualitative enquiries is the reliability of the research, that is, is the research measuring what we want it to? The means by which this is ensured are different for each methodology, but the question essentiality remains the same for both.
Another issue that concerns all claims to 'validity' and truth, regardless of the methodology or issue, is the question for who is the research valid and in whose interest is this claim to truth being made? The desire to understand and categorise others is implicitly one of power and control. In 'understanding' we must conflate and model the lives of others and reduce them to a series of explanations and evaluations. Moreover, these explanations and conceptualisations are not uniquely formed, but forced to fit our own, pre-existing, conceptual moulds. For many research projects, it would be of little value or relevance whether the subjects were able to identify or agree with any of the findings or evaluation constructed beyond the descriptive data. However, as was established earlier, this can raise ethical problems in itself and requires very careful handling. It is all too easy for the researcher to act as an omniscient or impartial voice. Yet, findings and evaluations, however validated by the justification of appropriate methods and processes, inevitably carry with them the political and philosophical views of the researcher and the methodology employed. What evolves is a kind of shared or intersubjective truth between the actual events and the unisubjective 'realities' of the researcher. Any 'reality' perceived or offered as a result of this process is therefore birthed of the subjective 'reality' of a particular, political and historical perspective. Theoretical awareness of the social construction of 'reality' has lead to what Denzin and Lincoln (1998, p. 286) refer to as a 'radical antifunctionalist position.'
This stance claims that knowledge, even the knowledge process, is without grounding, without authority, and therefore many things 'go.' That is, knowledge itself is no longer the criterion, because all knowledge claims are based on various assumptions. (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 286)
However, as the authors continue to point out, 'an assumptionless science is not possible' (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 286). Therefore, the purposes of research have had to change in order to attempt to reduce this problem.
Research is no longer coupled with knowledge, but has been given multiple choices (such as liberation, emancipation, programmatic politics, expressive 'art'). Depending on one's choice research is defined accordingly. (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 286)
This is not to say that certain researchers, in particular in the quantitative field, do not continue to make assumptions based on what they might consider to be the inevitable results of their findings.
Another problem raised by the concept of 'validity' centres around the use of existing cultural or subject oriented terms 'to refer to 'real', natural categories.' (Maxwell, 1992, p. 282). Maxwell cites the loss of translating these terms to other languages where 'natural' classifications may connote subtly or wholly different meanings. However, these classifications could also create problems of subjective misunderstanding within or across native cultures. Terminology presents problems in the practice and dissemination of research in both qualitative and quantitative methodologies and can present a serious threat to 'validity', however it is conceptualised.
As we have seen, establishing a common definition or even core concept of 'validity' is an immensely difficult process. In order to cut through the surface issues of whether a particular account is either 'valid' or 'invalid', we must consider the more metaphysical concepts governing 'validity' (regardless of variations in definition or terminology) and propose a thesis as to the underlying commonality of intention and desire underpinning the attempt to establish or define a 'valid' argument.
Whatever one's choice of terminology, it is the notion of truth and our claim to it that is central to all perspectives on 'validity'. As I have already established, these notions of truth do not merely concern the factual events or statements recorded during the data gathering, but the research process as a whole.
One's notion of truth determines one's definition of accurate representation, reliability and trustworthiness. Conflicts as to the nature of 'validity' arise from a lack of consensus concerning a particular theory or philosophy of truth.
However, attempting to establish which truth is more valid, or which 'validity' is more truthful, is therefore a meaningless exercise and one that would inevitably require adoption of at least one of the subjective perspectives investigated.
Michel Foucault's theorisation concerning 'truth' elucidates many issues pertinent to this debate. Contrary to common perception, Foucault does not wholly reject the notion of truth or objectivity (Seals, 1998). He instead understands 'truth' as elliptical of the much more adequate phrase 'discourse of truth'. Foucault (1972) argues that statements may be said to be 'truthful' on three different levels, categorised 'transubjective', 'intersubjective' and 'unisubjective.' In brief, unisubjective truth concerns truth that is entirely personal to the subject. As Foucault puts it, 'the conditions of individuation of the subject are in fact very strict, very numerous, and authorise in this case only one possible subject' (1974, p. 94). Intersubjective truth requires a common positionality of subjects from which all initiated subjects can share a claim to truthfulness or falsity. Finally, what Foucault refers to as transubjective truth epitomises what positivists refer to as objective truth. Foucault offers the example of a mathematical law that exists as true despite the positionality of any subject. In the realm of transsubjective truth:
The subject of the statement is in a neutral position, indifferent to time space and circumstances, identical in any linguistic system, and in any code of writing or symbolisation, that any individual may occupy when affirming such a proposition. (Foucault, 1974, p. 94)
Foucault proceeds to argue that intersubjective truths, when analysed, produce transubjective truths about subjects and the nature of intersubjectivity (Seals, 1998, p. 61).The relevance of this for research and in particular claims to 'validity' is that there would appear to be different forms that truth and 'validity' can take which are relative to the nature or stage of the research process. If, indeed, a variety of truths exists, then to attempt to classify them all as merely objective or relative is a mistake at a fundamental level. Seals encapsulates this view:
Statements are distinguishable by objective features and because a different logic or set of rules for truth determination applies to each type of statement, to treat a given kind of statement in terms of a logic of truth that does not apply to it is to make a category mistake. (Seals, 1998, p. 62)
It is precisely this 'category mistake' that has created the confusion, misunderstanding and misapplication of research methods in relation to the concept of 'validity'. By Foucault's reasoning, it would appear that the correct appropriation of research methods depends on the nature of the truth that we require, and perhaps more importantly, the truth that is available to us. Therefore, it would seem that 'validity' relates to the correlation of research methods and the purposes of the research, rather than any universal or standardised test or procedure. Maxwell (1992) echoes this correlative relationship:
[T]he ways in which the researchers make these discriminations do not pertain entirely to the internal coherence, elegance, or plausibility of the account itself, but often refer to the relationship between the account and something external to it - that is, the phenomena that the account is about. Validity, in a broad sense, pertains to this relationship between an account and something outside of that account, whether this thing is construed as objective reality, the constructions of actors, or a variety of other possible interpretations. (Maxwell, 1992, p. 283)
Whether or not validity is essentially the same concept in qualitative and quantitative research, it would seem evident that the means by which this is to be achieved are different for each methodology. However, these means could also be viewed as means to different ends and means to different 'truths'. From Foucault's definition of the multiplicity of truths, one could suggest that each different truth inevitably requires different means of validation. It is the means of validation that should be adjusted depending on the kind of truth that is sought or expected. Therefore, 'validity' appears to reside within the appropriation of research methodologies to those systems of truth that their processes best represent. As mentioned earlier, one possible test for validity is to enquire whether the research is measuring what it was intended to measure. Yet this question may be even more illuminating if we adapt it to enquire, is it measuring the kind of 'truth' it hoped to measure.
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Wolcott, H. F. (1990). On seeking--and rejecting--validity in qualitative research. In E. W. Eisner & A. Peshkin (Eds.), Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate (pp. 121-152). New York: Teachers College Press.
Winter, G. (2000, March). A comparative discussion of the notion of 'validity' in qualitative and quantitative research. [58 paragraphs]. The Qualitative Report [On-line serial], 4(3/4). Available: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR4-3/winter.html
Glyn Winter
2000 copyright
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Devils rookies Adam Larsson and Adam Henrique are getting ready to rub shoulders with the NHL's elite.
Although they won't play in the All-Star Game in Ottawa on Sunday, they will participate in the SuperSkills competition the day before.
"It's going to be fun. It will be an experience," Henrique said. "I think the whole experience will be fun. I watched it growing up."
Devils coach Pete DeBoer said both players should soak in the atmosphere.
"It's great that they get to see that and be around those type of people that are going to be at the All-Star Game," DeBoer said. "That can be nothing but a positive for them as young players on how to conduct themselves and where they want to get to. To actually get to play in the real game one day.
"I think it's a reflection on the scouting staff and the development process here that you've got young guys that have come in and been such a big part of our team."
Larsson said he doesn't know any of the veteran Swedish players who will be there, so it will be an opportunity to get to know some stars.
"The Sedin twins (Henrik and Daniel) are good players. They'll be fun to be around," Larsson said.
Which players would Henrique like to meet?
"I think most of the guys," he said. "It will be pretty cool. Just to be in the room with all the guys that will be there."
Neither Henrique nor Larsson know in which SuperSkills events they will be asked to compete.
"I'll do whatever they ask me to do," Henrique said.
Larsson said he isn't set on being on the SuperSkills squad that has Swedes like Daniel Alfredsson.
"No. It doesn't matter," the 19-year-old defenseman said. "But it would be fun to have some Swedes around."
Larsson's family won't attend. His Swedish agent will be in Ottawa.
Henrique's mother, father and two younger brothers will attend.
* * *
Devils coach Pete DeBoer said he isn't worried about his players being focused for the game against the Sabres. Many will be vacationing in places like Florida during the break.
"You address it, like we did the Christmas break. They're professionals. We have a lot of veterans in the room. I'm not worried about that," DeBoer said. "We should be able to handle that and take care of business. It's been talked about. It's a non-issue.
"It's an important game for both teams. We know how important it is to Buffalo, where they're at and what they're dealing with. For us, we don't want to go into the break with three losses. You'll see two desperate, focused teams I think here tonight."
DeBoer spoke of the Devils' losses to Boston and Philadelphia.
"I think it's a couple of things. I think law of averages is part of it," he said of the back-to-back defeats. "Even when we were going weeks without getting scored on (the penalty-kill) there were some quality opportunities there. We'd get a save it would hit a post, bounce over a guy's stick. Those chances were still there. They've just gone in the last week or two.
"I think our penalty kill is probably a focus for the other team now, too. More than maybe it has been in the past. They come in and spend some time breaking it down and looking for weaknesses. We're at that point in the seasons where you get to the 40-50 game mark and those kind of things become more prevalent. Teams have a lot more video and tape on you."
* * *
DeBoer said he doesn't expect defenseman Andy Greene, recovering from a fractured big toe and left foot, to play in the Jan. 31 game against the Rangers.
"I don't anticipate him back right after the break," DeBoer said. "I think I'm hopeful that he'll start to practice with us after the break and from there we'll play it out."
Rich Chere: email@example.com; twitter.com/Ledger_NJDevils

subset: commoncrawl


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Blessed Savior Catholic School's south campus at 64th Street and Capitol Drive in Milwaukee will be closed again on Monday.
VIDEO: Classes delayed until Tuesday
The school was flooded Thursday morning after a water main break.
Classes were canceled Thursday and Friday.
A representative said the school will reopen on Tuesday.


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Kim + Ben // 07.11.15 // The West Mill // Darley Abbey, Derby
Marie + Micheal // 26.09.15 // The Priest House // Castle Donington
Our Wedding Videographers loves video, we love what it has to offer and we recognise the value within it. Our goals reflect process, professionalism and the quality of our work. We have experience working overseas in California and in the UK. We strive to make the best wedding video's on the planet, through dedication and attention to detail. Wedding video isn't just a hobby for us. We have all the latest wedding video tricks and techniques and all the latest and greatest wedding video gear.We love wedding video.


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The Management and Staff of Bobby Camping Safaris would like to welcome you to Tanzania to enrich your experience and expand your horizons. Come with us and experience the wonderful atmosphere of undisturbed wildlife and peaceful lifestyle of Tanzania. With such a perfect Location, perched on the edge of the African continent, and facing the Indian Ocean, Tanzanias weather and climate leaves nothing to be desired.
Warm and sunny days are followed by cool and balmy nights, and whether youre on safari on the Serengeti plains or enjoying the tropical beaches of Zanzibar, the temperatures are always welcoming and gentle. Consult Weather and Climate to find out when the best times to visit are, and learn more about the monsoon winds and seasonal rains. But sun-filled and beautiful days are not all that Tanzania has to offer. On the contrary, the countrys borders hold a vast number of people and tribes whose varied cultures and traditions make up the rich tapestry that is Tanzanian culture. The most popular being the Maasai culture and the customs of the Swahili Coast. We organize cultural tours for you to experience the ancestral ways of living.
Although Tanzania is a country rich in culture and traditions, its history is also one of treasured heritage and pride. From the early days of mankinds history, man has called the land of Tanzania home - its verdant mountains, its scrubland plains.
Tanzanians enjoy a climate of freedom and peace in our daily lives, and value community and togetherness very highly. Religion is an expression of community and culture, and one that binds us all as citizens to our country and to the people around us. Tanzanians practice Christianity, Islam, and traditional African religions in tolerance and understanding. Our culture and our traditions can be seen in everything. We are surrounded with the handicrafts that are the specialties of our country. Visitors to Tanzania will find the section on shopping immensely useful in helping them decide what to bring back for their friends and loved ones from our amazing country.
FOR MORE INFORMATION OR PRICES, KINDLY CONTACT BOBBY CAMPING SAFARIS AT firstname.lastname@example.com.
For an unforgettable holiday and experience in Tanzania, let BOBBY CAMPING SAFARIS be your choice!


text: Comments on No Hispanics on new Miami Beach commission TypePad 2013-11-21T15:58:27Z Miami Herald http://miamiherald.typepad.com/nakedpolitics/ tag:typepad.com,2003:http://miamiherald.typepad.com/nakedpolitics/2013/11/no-hispanics-on-new-miami-beach-commission/comments/atom.xml/ Walter commented on 'No Hispanics on new Miami Beach commission' tag:typepad.com,2003:6a00d83451b26169e2019b018defaf970d 2013-11-23T22:44:19Z 2013-11-24T00:26:03Z Walter Is this a new trend in the making? The story is NOT that Hispanics are out, rather that amongst the... <p>Is this a new trend in the making? The story is NOT that Hispanics are out, rather that amongst the majority of the voters, Hispanics voted for a change in Miami Beach. Out with the politicians that looked the other way for too long and allowed corruption and incompetence to putrify the reputation of our beautiful city. Now it remains to be seen whether the nation's disenfranchised minorities will also vote for a change in our government that has continuously over promised and under delivered in the best of cases. </p>


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Albanian names are used in the country of Albania, as well as Kosovo and other Albanian communities throughout the world.
There are 45 names matching your criteria.
AFËRDITA f Albanian
Either from Albanian afër dita meaning "near to the day", or else an Albanian form of APHRODITE.
ALBAN m German, French, Albanian, English (Rare)
From the Roman cognomen Albanus which meant "from Alba"... [more]
DAFINA f Albanian, Macedonian
Albanian and Macedonian form of DAPHNE.
DARDAN m Albanian
From the name of the Dardani, an Illyrian tribe who lived on the Balkan Peninsula... [more]
GENTIAN m Albanian
From the name of the flowering plant called the gentian, the roots of which are used to create a tonic... [more]
KOSTANDIN m Albanian
Albanian form of CONSTANTINE.
SKENDER m Albanian
Short form of ALEKSANDER.
VASIL m Bulgarian, Macedonian, Georgian, Albanian
Bulgarian, Macedonian, Georgian and Albanian form of BASIL (1).


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The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review's Rob Biertempfel and later MLB.com's Greg Luca tweeted that Pittsburgh Pirates starting pitcher Jeff Karstens will continue his rehabilitation from hip and shoulder injuries with the Curve on Tuesday at Peoples Natural Gas Field.
The Curve play New Britain that day at 7 p.m.
Curve manager P.J. Forbes said nothing was set in stone, however.
"I can't confirm [that Karstens is pitching in Altoona]," Forbes said. "I have not gotten wind of that."
Roster shakeup
Prior to Thursday's game against Trenton, the Curve announced several roster moves but they were put on hold thanks to flight problems.
Altoona called up outfielder Evan Chambers, infielder Drew Maggi and infielder Stefan Welch from Class A Bradenton, but their flight was delayed in Philadelphia.
Maggi and Welch were added to the roster anyway to replace Miguel Perez, who went on the seven-day disabled list, and Greg Picart, who was assigned to State College. However, since the players were not going to make Thursday's game, Anthony Norman, who had been assigned to State College, was reassigned to Altoona to serve as a backup outfielder while Chambers was held off the roster.
Norman pinch hit in the ninth inning, drew a walk and scored one of the Curve's six runs during a rally that secured a 7-6 win over Trenton.
"It was good to be able to stay here and contribute to something so fun," Norman said. "I was excited to be a part of that."
Chambers will be added to the roster today in Norman's spot.
"It's a difficult situation for him, and the organization, because we hold [Norman] in high regard," Forbes said. "He's a pro, and he does whatever you ask him."
Welch is the highest regarded prospect of the three incoming players.
"Chambers is an outfielder who will earn his way into playing time," Forbes said. "He can spell Grossman when he needs a day.
"Maggi can bounce around the field at shortstop, second and left field. Welch will come in and bounce between third base and first base."
Curve first baseman Matt Curry is currently on the disabled list but is expected to return soon.
"We'll play Welch at third base, and we'll be mixing and matching," Forbes said. "We'll get the other guys at bats, but we're hoping he can continue what he started at Bradenton."


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4 Lesser-Known Halves of Music Duos Who Deserve Your Respect
#2. Flavor Flav (Public Enemy)
Theo Wargo/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images
Again, is Public Enemy really a duo? Not if you consider a DJ and several security guards to be legitimate members of a musical act. In other words, yes -- for all intents and purposes, Public Enemy is a duo consisting of rappers Chuck D and Flavor Flav. The former is widely regarded as one of the most important lyricists of his day; the latter fucked Brigitte Nielsen on VH1 in the name of nothing more than giving your girlfriend something to watch on television.
Carlo Allegri/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images
Your woman expects this from you now.
So it's understandable that he'd be viewed as the less essential half of his longstanding partnership with Chuck D (real name Carlton Ridenhour, in case you hadn't already guessed). There's more to Flavor Flav than gigantic clocks and questionable relationship choices, though. For one thing, he's got that Viking helmet that he's pretty well-known for these days. Don't even try to take that away from him.
Mark Mainz/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images
It wouldn't look this good on you anyway.
Wait, there's more! Cracked has already discussed at length that Flavor Flav is a secret genius who can play pretty much any musical instrument by ear ...
... and if segues were a thing you needed in a list article, that point would make as good of a segue as any for what I want to talk about here, which is the music of Flavor Flav.
Once again, in the annals of Public Enemy history, it's the Chuck D-fronted songs that get most of the attention. For Flavor Flav, the general public's knowledge of his musical output is mostly limited to "911 Is a Joke" from the 1990 album Fear of a Black Planet.
A lot of that has to do with the fact that, in general, Flavor Flav is limited to a song or two per album, which I imagine is just one on a list of many things he has in common with the Beatles' George Harrison.
This too.
Another characteristic the two share as a result of the limitations put on their ability to release music is an unusually strong batting average as it relates to good songs vs. terrible songs. Over the course of Public Enemy's gigantic catalog of released material, there have been enough "Flavor Flav" songs to maybe fill an album or two. That said, if you did compile those songs onto an album, it would be a pretty strong one. As far back as their first album, Flavor Flav's contributions have provided a welcome respite from the almost always otherwise serious tone of Public Enemy's work. Like this song from the House Party soundtrack ...
... which eventually ended up on the same album as "911 Is a Joke" and, as a result, has been mostly forgotten. He turned in similarly strong songs for their next album, Apocalypse '91 ...
... the album after that one ...
... and pretty much every Public Enemy album before or since. Sure, he's a borderline maniac who's probably a massive embarrassment to be around in front of friends and family, but that should be all the more evidence of his usefulness and importance to the Public Enemy legend. If he wasn't worth putting up with, they wouldn't still be putting up with him after all these years.
#1. Meg White (The White Stripes)
Scott Gries/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images
Sometimes, when I'm putting together a column, I like to make little side bets with my friend (not a typo) and co-workers about which entry is going to inspire the most outrage among the commenters. This week, I've put my money on Meg White.
I'm joking, of course. No one cares what you think. Still, I can envision a lot of people furrowing their stupid brows over Meg White's inclusion here. After all, let's just say it: She's a terrible fucking drummer. Like, really bad. Famously bad. Legendarily bad. Calling her underrated probably seems like a stretch. In terms of talent, Meg White was Jack White's equal only in that they're the Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen of avoiding the sun.
"You're Pippen."
Still, despite having a drummer who can barely play the drums, the fact remains that the White Stripes made some really great music. How did that happen? Easy -- they didn't make great music in spite of their terrible drummer; they made great music because of their terrible drummer. Listen to any White Stripes song and, please, by all means, tell me what those drums should sound like. If you're a drummer, you probably have an actual answer, which is fine provided you're fine with no one wanting to hear it. The only correct answer, of course, is that those drums sound exactly as they should, because that is a White Stripes song. If you want a White Stripes song with competent drumming, you're going to have to listen to a different band:
The White Stripes was not a unit built upon a foundation of capability. Their songs succeeded because they work on the same level as things like nursery rhymes and shiny objects. They tap into something very basic and primal that lives inside all of us, which, of course, is the need to rock with as little muss or fuss as possible.
None of this would have been possible without Meg White and her near total inability to play the drums. Couldn't a competent drummer have stepped in to play those simple patterns? No, because they'd be too ashamed to attach their name to that shit. Meg White, clearly, has no aspirations toward becoming a great musician, which made her perfectly suited to play the preschool level drum parts that make a White Stripes song so immediately distinguishable ...
... from the rest of Jack White's catalog.
Besides, how would Jack White have even known that his squeals and squeaks become so tasty when set to the sound of a noticeable lack of talent if he never decided to just up and let whoever happened to be in the room at the time have a shot at playing drums? I'm not sure how the first one worked, but these days, every chicken starts as an egg, and, as it pertains to the White Stripes, Meg White is that egg. Without her, the music of the White Stripes literally could not exist ...
... and that would be a goddamn shame.
Adam hosts a podcast called Unpopular Opinion that you should listen to on SoundCloud and a live stand-up comedy show of the same name that you should come see sometime if you're in the Los Angeles area. You should also be his friend on Twitter, Facebook, and Tumblr.
For more halves that deserve better, check out 16 Secret Pet Peeves of Famous Sidekicks.


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I live in Ames, Iowa and work as a mechanical engineer for Iowa State University.
I love alpine/sub-alpine backpacking and have packed in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Washington, California, Utah, South Dakota, Arkansas, Missouri and Iowa. I've also just gotten into motorcycling and... compact backpacking gear is perfect for motorcycle touring!
I've posted a lot of 5 star gear reviews on backcountry.com. I keep a VERY detailed log of my gear -- every piece of gear/food/clothing has been weighed down to the tenth-of-an-ounce -- and I scrutinize the crap out of this stuff! If I give it 5 stars, I mean it.
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I use a Sea To Summit Ultra-Sil Stuff Sack (size xxs) to keep my Jetboil Ti stove and an extra 100g fuel cylinder tidy. After a meal on a recent trip, it began to rain and I slipped the Stuff sack over the assembled Jetboil to keep its neoprene sleeve and burner dry. Worked like a champ!
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That's 5'-7" Katie in a size small Atom LT jacket. We rode my motorcycle to a walk around Ada Hayden Lake in Ames, Iowa and the Atom LT held back the morning's 26 deg wind chill temp. We both think the Atom LT is a great jacket (I've had mine for over 4 years). It's warm and lightweight and just feels great. With its athletic/trim cut, it looks great too. Highly recommended.
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In this "lo-fi" video, Ric Cabot, President of Darn Tough Vermont, talks about what he and his company had to do to stave off the outsourcing of his company's Vermont-made socks.
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I finally bought my first pair of Darn Tough socks. I was tired of my many pairs of "the other brand" merino socks failing prematurely (and having their customer service people whine). These socks - so far - rock! Comfortable, breathable, fit great and look great (I bought the lime variety). In fact, they're so comfortable that, in one stretch, I wore one pair 5 days in a row!
And... on top of all this, these socks have the longest name out there!
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I've purchased many pairs of these socks over the last three years and... they - are - the - bomb! In fact, I like 'em better than my many pairs of Smartwool socks (whaaa?!). My 18- and 21-year-old backpacking sons concur. They're comfortable, breathable and long-lasting. And the chocolate brown (former color) and grey color schemes go with most of what I wear.
What more can you want out of a sock?
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I recently went online to check battery specs for this watch and found nothing. I looked through the guide that came with the watch and only found the statement "Battery replacement must be performed by an authorized Columbia service center to retain a valid warranty".
I opened her up and found a Renata 377 button-type battery. Energizer, Eveready and Renata all use the number 377 for this battery. Other battery manufacturer's, like Maxell, Panasonic and Sony have an equivalent battery numbered SR626SW.
Attached pic shows a few of my Air Zippsacks (NOT the Air Zippditty Stuffsacks) in Glacier National Park. I've long thought bc.com should carry the former and was pleasantly surprised that they now have the latter. I assume that Granite Gear created the Zippditty to round out the small end of their zippered stuffsack offerings. For example, the largest Zippditty here (146 cu in) is smaller than the smallest Zippsack (280 cu in) (orange zippered stuff in the pic).
I can't speak for Zippditty's, but GG's Air Zippsacks are the bomb! I've purchased about ten of these stuffs over the years - for myself and for others - and they really help keep my gear organized. The Cordura Sil-Nylon, used in both Zippditty and Zippsacks, is uber-lightweight and is slick (making it easy to slide in/out of my top-load pack). This fabric is also semi-translucent making it possible to identify contents.
Recommendation: Ask bc.com to add the GG Air Zippsacks to their site (I did)!
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On a recent trip 'round The North Circle loop in Glacier National Park (7 days x 60 miles), I used my BDULTP's 90% of the time. They were especially useful on ascents / descents / crossing mountain passes. In this pic we're taking a break on a 1500-foot ascent on the highline trail (just below the Continental Divide). Photo by Gary Munkvold.
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My Pulsar 1P grabs some rays at the end of a long day on the trail. On this trip we divided three people between two tents (the excellent MH Skyledge 3 and the Pulsar 1P). We played paper, rock, scissors every night to see who got the Marmot tent!
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Selfie of me and a pair of SmartWool Hiking Medium Crew Socks on The North Circle loop in Glacier National Park. I wear my SW socks over a pair Fox River merino wool liners for the "perfect setup" on EVERY backcountry adventure. I carry an extra pair of each and alternate every day.
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Yes, that's a Precip Baseball Hat - shielding my eyes - under my sunglasses. Coincidentally, backpacking partner, Mike, is sporting a Precip Safari Hat in the pic, too.
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After a couple of years on the bench, my Precip hat made it back to first string. On a recent 8-day / 60-mile trip through Glacier National Park, the Precip barely left my head. Mostly, this hat shielded my eyes from 7+ days of bright skies. It also helped hold up the hood brim of my shell jacket during a morning rain.
The mesh liner helped me maintain a cool head in temps that were 15 deg above normal and the adjustable "hook and loop strap" tailored the fit so that it wouldn't blow off in GNP gusts.
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Contrary to previous reviewer, I thought the size of the watch is fine (watch case O.D. = 1-3/4" / see pic). Larger watch faces seem to be the trend lately. The band is thin, but comfortable. The watch itself is very light - a plus for some but, for me, it's missing the "heft" of a quality watch. My only real complaint is that the crown pulls out a little too easily and I occasionally mis-adjust the time by accident.
Final analysis: This watch is a fashion watch, not a serious outdoors watch (and, thus, the Backcountry.com recommended use is "Casual"). A pretty good watch for the (on sale) price.
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From Tech Specs above, the new Leatherman Juice S2 model weighs 130g (4.6 oz). My previous S2 model comes in at 4.35 oz. The leather holster adds 1.10 oz. Combined, my S2 and holster weigh 5.45 oz.
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I think the Leatherman Juice S2 has one of the best function-to-weight ratios out there. I've used mine on hundreds of miles of alpine backcountry trips over the past four years and can't recommend it enough.
How do I use this multi-tool?
- I use the knife always
- I use the scissors even more
- I use the pliers for pulling tent stakes out of frozen ground
- I use the phillips-head screwdriver in town, but not on the trail
- I use the medium screwdriver for opening the back of my watch
- I use the small screwdriver in town, but not on the trail
- I use the extra-small screwdriver for adjusting compass declination
- I use the bottle opener for beer
- I don't use the can opener (does anybody?)
Backpacker Magazine gave this tool an Editor's Choice Gold Award in 2014 (Backpacker's Gear Editor, Kristen Hostetter, REALLY likes this knife) and a video:
0 Comments
This video answers a couple community questions posted below:
A1. The closed cell pad doesn't absorb water, even if punctured.
A2. The pad is meant to be used "silver side up" when placed on the ground.
0 Comments
Last fall I carried this pack (last year's model) for 38 miles x 6 days - mostly above 12,000' - in Colorado's South San Juan Wilderness. Fully loaded on the first day, my pack weighed 31 lbs and the Exos 58 carried the load nicely.
Osprey built this pack to be a super-lightweight, full-featured pack. My size large weighs in at 2 lbs, 12.2 oz and, other than low weight, I wouldn't call this a "minimalist" pack (look at the bullet point list of features above). I thought the previous model's zippered, mesh waist-belt pockets were too big / too floppy and Osprey addressed that with their current model. I wouldn't use the elastic shoulder strap pockets, but no star deduction for that feature here.
I'm a big proponent of using 55 - 60 liter capacity packs for week-long trips. My other pack in this category is Gregory's excellent z55 (also received an update for 2014). My older z55 weighs 14 oz more than the Exos 58 but carries the load a little better at the heavy end of the spectrum. I'll likely choose the z55 for 6- and 7-day trips and the Exos 58 for 3- and 4-day trips. (Looks like it's gonna be a fight to see who gets to go on the 5-day trips!)
Photo shows "gear dump" at Bear Lake camp site in Colorado's South San Juan Wilderness.
Last year's model in an 11,500' snowstorm in Colorado's South San Juan Wilderness.


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Celeb Inspiration: Maxi dresses
These Bollywood ladies love their maxi dresses and here's why you should be inspired to try one
Day: Think floral prints, bright colours and free-flowing silhouettes. For those who love to play with colour, take a cue from Gauhar Khan with a mix of bright and monochrome colours. Priyanka Chopra's fitted floral dress is ideal for a formal brunch.
Night: Whether you are going for an intimate party or a black tie event, maxi dress are versatile enough to suit any occasion. We like Kalki Koechlin's red option for a night out in a swanky bar while we'll reserve Sussanne Roshan's animal print maxi dress for a red carpet occasion.
-Shruti Thacker
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Want to know who are the 'Bachcha', 'Muscles' and 'Babu' of Indian cricket? Well, now look no further.
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< Spacer
this wiki
- "Drink it down, boys, for the black of space is cold. Drink it down, boys, for it's always better to live hard and die young than live not and die old."
- ―A spacer's toast
Spacer, or mariner,[1] was a slang term that referred to those who made their livings flying through space, including pilots and crew. Most spacers ran freight, charter, or information collection operations, although many worked or moonlighted as mercenaries, bounty hunters, and smugglers. Some were hyperspace explorers. Other slang terms for "spacer" included star-hopper (which became famously attached to a group of spacers on Aduba-3), star-jumper, star-rover, and planet-jumper. The term was usually used only to describe civilians within spacefaring professions.
Gav Daragon, Han Solo and Chewbacca were examples of spacers.
Behind the scenesEdit
Spacer is used much in the same way that sailor is used today.
Star-hopper was originally used in the first issues of Marvel's Star Wars as a synonym of spacer.
The term spacer was used to refer to the player's character in Star Wars Galaxies. Many of the quests completed by the player are considered an integral part of the Expanded Universe; for instance, in The Story of General Grievous: Lord of War, author Abel G. Peña attributed the death of Necrosis to "a motley band of spacers," referring to Star Wars Galaxies players, who kill Necrosis in a quest on Kashyyyk.
- A Guide to the Star Wars Universe
- Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game
- Galaxy Guide 6: Tramp Freighters
- Planets of the Galaxy, Volume One
- Galaxy Guide 7: Mos Eisley
- Galaxy Guide 8: Scouts
- Galaxy Guide 9: Fragments from the Rim
- Dark Empire Sourcebook
- Planets of the Galaxy, Volume Three
- Super Empire Strikes Back Official Game Secrets
- Han Solo and the Corporate Sector Sourcebook
- "Smuggler's Log"—Star Wars Adventure Journal 1
- The Last Command Sourcebook
- A Guide to the Star Wars Universe, Second Edition
- Galaxy Guide 6: Tramp Freighters, Second Edition
- Cracken's Rebel Operatives
- "The Free-Trader's Guide to Sevarcos"—Star Wars Adventure Journal 2
- "The Pentastar Alignment"—Star Wars Adventure Journal 3
- "The Pentastar Alignment"—Classic Adventures: Volume Four - The Best of the Journal
- The Star Wars Planets Collection
- Shadows of the Empire Sourcebook
- Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire trading cards (Card: Dash Battles AT-ATs on Hoth)
- Shadows of the Empire Planets Guide
- Star Wars Gamemaster Screen, Revised
- Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided Quick Reference Guide
- Ultimate Adversaries
- The Story of General Grievous: Lord of War
- The Essential Atlas
- The Unknown Regions
- Star Wars: The Clone Wars: Incredible Vehicles
- Millennium Falcon Owners' Workshop Manual
- The Essential Guide to Warfare
- Star Wars: Edge of the Empire Core Rulebook
- "Convenient Daily Departures: The History of Star Tours," The Official Star Wars Blog (link)
- Suns of Fortune
- Wookiees in the Encyclopedia (link now obsolete; backup link on Archive.org)
- Star Wars: Age of Rebellion Core Rulebook
- Fly Casual


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The town of Sderot sits on the front lines of rocket attacks from the Gaza strip.
Since 2001, it's been a city under siege and nearly a quarter of the residents have fled.
But Christian organizations are trying to protect residents there.A Game of 'Gaza Roulette'
Israel's security minister called daily life in Sderot and southern Israel "Gaza roulette." Day by day, Israeli mothers and fathers and their children face death or injury when they go to school, catch a bus or go out to play.
Police spokesman Micky Rosenfeld explained to reporters death comes from just down the street.
"The distance from the Gaza Strip, the north end of the Gaza Strip to Sderot is just 800 meters to the industrial zone and one kilometer to the center of town. So even the smallest of rockets, the 60 millimeter rocket can land and has caused and killed innocent civilians."
When Israel completely pulled out of Gaza in 2005, Israeli leaders believed it would bring peace.
"Well, unfortunately, we've experienced just the opposite and what has taken place is that there's been a larger number of rockets; in fact, four times as the number of rockets have landed since 2005 until the end of 2007," Rosenfeld said.
These rocket attacks have killed 13 people, wounded several hundred, and put thousands more in a state of shock.Operation Lifeshield
In order to help the people of Sderot and southern Israel, several Christian groups pooled their resources to purchase portable bomb shelters.
"I think what we're doing today is a perfect example of how we as Christians can stand practically at the side of Israel. What we are doing here is providing shelters for people who are standing at bus stations or in the neighborhood of their city and they can run immediately to one of those protected areas which we are providing with the help of Christians from all over the world," Yurgen said.
Earl Cox is the international spokesman for Operation Lifeshield.
"We can't bring peace but we can bring peace of mind to the people of Sderot, the people of Asheklon, those people who live in southern Israel," he said.
Six bomb shelters were recently put in place with a final goal of 57 in all. The idea for Operation Lifeshield came during the second Lebanon war by its founder Josh Adler
"We saw the need for providing shelter, safety, protection, life saving protection to these people in these open public areas, along the main streets, in the parks, in the sports fields and that's how Operation Lifeshield was born," Adler said.Americans Remain Ignorant
According to a recent survey, 60 percent of Americans know little or nothing about these rocket attacks.
"It's very difficult for people who live in a place like the United States of America where there are no such things as rockets falling out of the sky. To realize what it's like walking down the street and suddenly a siren goes off and you've got thirty seconds to find shelter. Well we came over. We saw that and we talked to the people and I was hooked," Ben Kinchlow said.
A major debate now rages within Israel over why the government can't protect its own citizens.
In the meantime, the number of rocket attacks has recently increased, which means these portable bomb shelters might be more needed than ever.*Originally aired on February 11, 2008.
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Traffic slowed by semi wreck along I-40UPDATED 1:37 PM CDT Apr 10, 2013
A rollover wreck along westbound Interstate 40 between Morgan and Council roads has traffic backed up.
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- Table View
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Peer to Peerby Rael Dornfest David Anderson Nimisha Asthagiri Dan Brickley Dan Bricklin Alan Brown Avinash Chugh Lorrie Cranor Roger Dingledine Michael Freedman Marc Hedlund Theodore Hong Gene Kan Adam Langley Richard Lethin Jeremie Miller Nelson Minar David Molnar Tim O'Reilly Aviel Rubin Clay Shirky Walter Tuvell Jon Udell Marc Waldman Brandon Wiley
This book presents the goals that drive the developers of the best-known peer-to-peer systems, the problems they've faced, and the technical solutions they've found. The contributors are leading developers of well-known peer-to-peer systems, such as Gnutella, Freenet, Jabber, Popular Power, SETI@Home, Red Rover, Publius, Free Haven, Groove Networks, and Reputation Technologies. Topics include metadata, performance, trust, resource allocation, reputation, security, and gateways between systems.
Security and Usabilityby Simson Garfinkel Lorrie Cranor
Human factors and usability issues have traditionally played a limited role in security research and secure systems development. Security experts have largely ignored usability issues--both because they often failed to recognize the importance of human factors and because they lacked the expertise to address them. But there is a growing recognition that today's security problems can be solved only by addressing issues of usability and human factors. Increasingly, well-publicized security breaches are attributed to human errors that might have been prevented through more usable software. Indeed, the world's future cyber-security depends upon the deployment of security technology that can be broadly used by untrained computer users. Still, many people believe there is an inherent trade-off between computer security and usability. It's true that a computer without passwords is usable, but not very secure. A computer that makes you authenticate every five minutes with a password and a fresh drop of blood might be very secure, but nobody would use it. Clearly, people need computers, and if they can't use one that's secure, they'll use one that isn't. Unfortunately, unsecured systems aren't usable for long, either. They get hacked, compromised, and otherwise rendered useless. There is increasing agreement that we need to design secure systems that people can actually use, but less agreement about how to reach this goal. Security and Usability is the first book-length work describing the current state of the art in this emerging field. Edited by security experts Dr. Lorrie Faith Cranor and Dr. Simson Garfinkel, and authored by cutting-edge security and human-computer interaction (HCI) researchers world-wide, this volume is expected to become both a classic reference and an inspiration for future research. Security and Usability groups 34 essays into six parts: Realigning Usability and Security-- with careful attention to user-centered design principles, security and usability can be synergistic. Authentication Mechanisms-- techniques for identifying and authenticating computer users. Secure Systems-- how system software can deliver or destroy a secure user experience. Privacy and Anonymity Systems-- methods for allowing people to control the release of personal information. Commercializing Usability: The Vendor Perspective-- specific experiences of security and software vendors (e.g., IBM, Microsoft, Lotus, Firefox, and Zone Labs) in addressing usability. The Classics-- groundbreaking papers that sparked the field of security and usability. This book is expected to start an avalanche of discussion, new ideas, and further advances in this important field.
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Full CoverageWEATHER
Local town gets first storm siren in yearsUPDATED 6:01 PM CDT Mar 26, 2014
40/29's Emily Maher tells us why it took nearly four years for community leaders to get something they've been needingVideo Transcript
TOOL JUST HOURS BEFORE WE COULD SEE OUR FIRST WAVE OF SEVERE WEATHER. 40/29'S EMILY MAHER TELLS US WHY IT TOOK NEARLY FOUR YEARS FOR COMMUNITY LEADERS TO GET SOMETHING THEY'VE BEEN NEEDING. SHE'S LIVE. IT MAY NOT LOOK LIKE A LOT FROM DOWN HERE - YOU CAN STILL SEE WHERE CREWS DUG UP THE MUD JUST A FEW HOURS AGO. BUT TAKE A LOOK AT THIS - ABOUT FIFTY FEET IN THE AIR IS A BRAND NEW STORM SIREN, THE FIRST ONE COMMUNITY LEADERS SAY THIS TOWN HAS HAD IN NEARLY TWO DECADES. (nats siren) (SOT Karen Griffin, Helped raise money) "we've just been working heard" KAREN GRIFFIN IS PART OF THE GROUP IN HARTFORD THAT HELPED RAISE MONEY TO BUY THIS STORM SIREN. (SOT Karen Griffin, Helped raise money) "we've even sit out and begged for money" SHE SAYS THAT JOKINGLY, BUT FOR THREE AND A HALF YEARS A GROUP OF A HALF DOZEN PEOPLE HAVE HELD FUNDRAISERS AND EVENTS TO RAISE MONEY. (SOT Karen Griffin, Helped raise money) "some of them turned out good and some of them didn't" (nats wiring) CREWS FROM TULSA FINISHED WIRING UP THE SIREN BEFORE INSTALLING IT IN THE GROUND. AND THEN A SOUND PEOPLE IN THIS AREA HAVEN'T HEARD IN A WHILE. (nats siren) GRIFFEN TELLS ME THE SEBASTIAN COUNTY EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT OFFICE WILL BE IN CHARGE OF SOUNDING THE ALARM. (nats siren) CREWS SAY AS THE SIREN ROTATES, IT CAN BE HEARD FOR A MILE IN EACH DIRECTION, A SOUND KAREN GRIFFIN SAYS IS.. (SOT Karen Griffin, Helped raise money) "Great" GRIFFIN TELLS ME THE SIREN COST MORE THAN 19-THOUSAND DOLLARS. HER GROUP WAS ABLE TO RAISE ABOUT FOUR-THOUSAND OF THE TOTAL COST, THE REST WAS PAID FOR BY A GRANT FROM STATE'S GENERAL IMPROVEMENT FUND. REPORTING LIVE TONIGHT, EMILY MAHER 40/29 NEWS. THE COMPANY WHO INSTALLED THE SIREN SAID THEY HAD CREWS
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Single Article Purchase:
Physician Burnout: An Urgent Call for Early Intervention—Reply
Shanafelt TD, Dyrbye LN, West CP.
JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(8):710-711.
Published online April 22, 2013
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Obtain AMA PRA Category 1 Credit™ by reading an article and completing an online quiz. Quizzes are available to AMA Members, subscribers, and those who have purchased tokens.


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I have only just recently started incorporating eyeshadows into my makeup routine. I'll maybe use it once or twice a month unless I have a shoot and it's being expertly applied to my eyelids by a professional.
The reason why I have shied away from eyeshadow until now is because I was always terrified of not blending correctly and looking rather clownish, plus the colors that I have tried in the past either had too much pigment or not enough and I didn't feel like I had the skill set to apply them without looking overly made-up.
Recently, however I've been experimenting more with makeup and have gotten more confident in my skills…or rather the skills I have borrowed from the various amazing make-up artists I have had the pleasure of working with, and have started experimenting more with my eye makeup. I now have a few favorite brands of eyeshadows, but I'm always looking to add a few more to the list of favorites. Read more


text:
email@example.com schrieb:
> Hello,
> We have a request to release cpu and memory from an lpar which is not
> going to be used for a few months. We do not want to delete the lpar
> from the hmc, just release all the cpu and memory.
> Even though the lpar is shutdown it does not release the resources
> into the available pool. It has 1 cpu and 12Gb memory. Whenever I try
> to update the profile with 0 cpu and 0 mem it fails with minimum
> required msgs. We have 2 other inactive lpars with 0 cpu and 0 mem
> allocated. Not sure how this was accomplished.
> How do I release these resources from this inactive lpar so that the
> managed system properties show it has no cpu or mem assigned?
> This is a p590 with firmware version 240_338 and HMC 6.1.3.
> Thanks.
why do want the profile to be changed to 0 for cpu and mem ?
If the LPAR is down, resources are not used and can be used by any other LPAR.
If all your resources are used by other LPARs, the effect is that your unused
LPAR wuill not start, since the profiles requirements cannot be fullfilled by
the managed system any more.
(May be you can achieve want you want, by adding resources as "desired" and
removing from "required" settings. Just an idea - not tested)
Uwe Auer


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DeSoto Gallery
DeSoto HS
Photo: VERNON BRYANT / Staff Photographer
DeSoto's David Porter (17) runs to the endzone for a 42 yard touchdown reception in front of Round Rock Stony Point's Keven Smith (26) during the first half of a high school football game at Eagle Stadium in DeSoto on September 17, 2010.
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Create lyrics explanationSelect some words and click "Explain" button. Then type your knowledge, add image or YouTube video till "Good-o-meter" shows "Cool" or "Awesome!". Publish your explanation with "Explain" button. Get karma points!
Neurosis – Left To Wander lyrics
A light went out of the world today
The spirit rose like smoke
The corpse gave in to the ether
We're left to wander at the void
We're left to wander
The race to render your vision
A fracture in the world can devour
Return to the light of the bearer
The radiant breaks down into life
We're left to wander
Lyrics taken from http://www.lyricsmode.com/lyrics/n/neurosis/left_to_wander.html


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BYU will kick off the 2013 season on Saturday afternoon against UVA, and a trip across the country to Charlottesville could be tougher than it appears. The Cavaliers will field a solid team, and playing on the road will add to the difficulty.
It will be a fun game to watch, as it will be the unveiling of the new Cougar offense. If Robert Anae's unit works as planned, BYU could walk away with an esteem-building win.
So, here is all you need to know about the Cougar-Wahoo matchup.
Time: 3:30 p.m. ET
Place: Scott Stadium, Charlottesville, Virginia
Radio: KSL NewsRadio (102.7 FM, 1160 AM)
Spread: BYU -1


text: hilmor Launches 2015 Retool Your Future Scholarship Competition Company to award six HVACR students with scholarships, tools, and more August 4, 2015 No Comments HVACR tool manufacturer, hilmor®, has announced its third annual Retool Your Future Scholarship Contest. Designed to aid current and future HVACR students, the scholarship contest awards six grand prizes consisting of a $5,000 scholarship, a trip to the 2016 AHR Expo in Orlando, Florida, and a set of hilmor tools. Read More


text: Water ( ρ = 998.2 kg/m 3 and μ = 1.003 × 10 ‒3 kg/m • s) flows in a long, straight pipe. The flow is steady, fully developed, and laminar, so the analytical velocity profile is known. Write an expression for axial velocity component u as a function of radial coordinate r, pipe radius R, and average axial velocity V. Run FlowLab with template Pipe_1d_Reynolds at Re = 1000. Record the average velocity and write the velocity profile data to a file. Generate a plot of u( r) that compares the analytical velocity profile to that generated by CFD. Is there good agreement? Repeat for Re = 2000. Discuss your results.


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Study: Childless Marriages Don't Lastsandymaple
A new study released by the Centers for Disease Control reveals some surprising statistics about love marriage. Namely, if you want your love to last, get married. And then have some children.
The Marriage and Cohabitation Study, which began in 2002, tracked the relationships of 12,571 men and women ages 15 to 44. Of those, over 40 percent were married and 9 percent were living together.
Newly released data taken from this representative sample of U.S. couples finds that of those who were married, 78% remained so after five years. Of those who were cohabitating without the benefit of a legal union, only 30% were still living together as an unmarried couple after five years. But those numbers are a little misleading. The reason about half of those cohabitations ended was because those couple got married within three years.
That's all very interesting, but the most surprising statistic has to do with starting a family. Women who gave birth 8 months or more after getting married were 79% more likely to celebrate a ten year anniversary. Those who had already conceived a child prior to getting married had a 54% chance of making it to ten years. And those who had a baby before marriage had a 55% chance of lasting ten years.
But what about couples who had no children at all? According to the study, the marriages in which no children were born only had a 34% chance of making it to ten years.
There is a lot of information in the report that delves even deeper into marriage and cohabitation in America, but the upshot seems to be this: Married couples tend to stay together longer but living together leads to marriage about half the time. And for couples who do marry, waiting until after the wedding to have children improves the odds of staying together.
Image: cliff1066/Flickr


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Get Your Bet On At Blue Square Hever Sprint Stakes 2012
Jeremy Gask is hoping Medicean Man's seasonal debut in Lingfield's Get Your Bet On At Blue Square Hever Sprint Stakes will be the start of a good campaign.
The six-year-old developed into classy performer last term, winding up contesting good races won by champion sprinter Deacon Blues.
"He's in good form at home and we are looking forward to the season with him. He did a racecourse gallop during the week and I'm pleased with him. The draw (three) is nice. It will be quick enough for him at Lingfield but it's a good starting point for what should be a good, long year for him," said Gask.
Ed McMahon reports Noble Storm fit enough to do himself justice on his first run since July.
"He's done plenty of work to warrant a run. He's not got a bad draw (six), so we'll have to see how we go. It's a race without a penalty and it's not a bad prize so we have to go for it," said the Lichfield handler
Oasis Dancer has to give 3lb to all of his rivals after winning both of his starts this year over Lingfield's six furlongs. Trainer Ralph Beckett reports the five-year-old fighting fit as he drops to five furlongs for the first time.
"He's fine, he's in good shape, and we're looking forward to running him," said Beckett.
Both of his wins came at the chief expense of Fratellino, who has since been well beaten at Wolverhampton. His trainer Alan McCabe believes the five-year-old did not act on the track in the Midlands and is hoping this race will set him up nicely for a campaign on turf.
"He didn't like Wolverhampton the last time. He's got some good form at Lingfield this year, but it's a hot race. We'll give him a run there to get him tightened up for the grass. We know he's better on turf, but he's picking up some nice prize-money on the all-weather and paying his way," said McCabe.
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Re: Get Your Bet On At Blue Square Hever Sprint Stakes 2012
Borderlescott bids to show he is still a speedster to be feared when he returns from eight months off the track at Lingfield on Saturday.
After being sidelined with a pelvic injury, the dual Group One winner has been given the all-clear to resume his career in the Get Your Bet On At Blue Square Hever Sprint Stakes.
"He was checked over by the vet on Thursday and everything is hunky-dory with him. I'll be pleased if he's in the first three. He's really hard to get fit and doesn't really peak until the end of the year. We want to see if he still has the ability to compete in Group races," said trainer Robin Bastiman.
"I don't want to push him into something he can't do. We might have to go down the handicap route, but there are plenty of conditions races for him as he hasn't any penalties.
"We're starting him off early to make sure he can stand up to the training. If anything goes amiss, that will be it, he'll be finished. He's not ready to retire yet. He's 10 and I think he's retained his speed and he's been working well.
"We've got Ryan Moore to ride as Neil (Callan) got a ban in Hong Kong and Kieren (Fallon) is still over in Dubai. Ryan's a top man and we want a top jockey on him."
Spirit Quartz, formerly trained in Italy, has his first race for Robert Cowell.
The Newmarket trainer said: "He went out to Dubai and we were going to run him out there but he picked up a silly little injury that kept him off the track for literally 10 days, which meant he couldn't get into a race. We shipped him back home and he's done a couple of pieces of work since then.
"He's got useful form in Italy, but we now need to see whether he can translate that to England. He's a nice horse but he's only a youngster and I think he'll make his presence felt at some point.
"I think the trip will be fine. The track will be a bit too sharp for him but he's certainly showing signs he's got plenty of ability. We'll see what he does on Saturday and decide his future plans from there."
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