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- FACULTY and STAFF
Graduate Course Information
ECE 510 - Data Compression
Credits: 3.00
UA Catalog Description: http://catalog.arizona.edu/allcats.html
Course Assessment: Homework: 5 – 7 assignments
Exams: 1 Midterm Exam, 1 Comprehensive Final Exam
Grading Policy:
Typically: 15% Homework,
40% Exam #1,
45% Final.
Course Summary:
Theory and practice of data compression with applications to image and video compression. Huffman coding, run coding, arithmetic coding, transform theory (KLT, DCT, Wavelets), quantization, rate control, scalable compression, compression standards.
"JPEG2000: Image Compression Fundamentals, Standards and Practice by D.S. Taubman and M.W. Marcellin, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.
1. Image Compression Overview (Chapter 1) – Read on your own.
2. Entropy and Coding Techniques (Chapter 2) – We will discuss entropy as a measure of information. Shannon's noiseless source coding theorem will be used to show that data can be compressed to achieve a data rate arbitrarily close to the entropy and that further compression without loss is not possible. Practical coding schemes that approach the entropy will be introduced, including: Elias coding, Huffman coding, Golomb coding, and arithmetic coding.
3. Quantization (Chapter 3) – In many applications, noiseless source coding does not yield enough compression. Popular image and video coding standards such as JPEG and MPEG use noisy source coding to achieve significantly more compression than is possible by noiseless source coding. Quantization is an essential part of noisy source coding. Quantization reduces the precision of data, making them easier to represent. In this chapter we discuss rate distortion theory which gives theoretical bounds on the amount of compression possible for a given amount of distortion. Practical quantizers are presented, including: Lloyd-Max scalar quantizers, entropy coded scalar quantizers, embedded scalar quantizers, deadzone quantizers, vector quantizers, and trellis coded quantization.
4. Image Transforms (Chapter 4) – For many data sources, vector quantization is sufficient to achieve the theoretical bounds on performance for noisy source coding. However, vector quantization is too complex for most applications. Data transforms are used to exploit correlation in data sources of interest including speech, images and video. In this way performance approaching that of vector quantization is obtained with orders of magnitude less complexity. This chapter provides a rigorous foundation for the theory of linear block transforms, subband transforms, and filter banks.
5. Rate Control Techniques (Chapter 5) – When different data have different variances, they should be compressed to different bit rates. This is nearly always the case in transform coding systems. In this chapter, we discuss algorithms for optimally distributing available bit-rate among various data sources, such as transform coefficients. We consider both static and dynamic rate allocation.
6. Filter Banks and Wavelets (Chapter 6) – In this chapter we extend the discussion in Chapter 4 to wavelet transforms. We begin with a review of classical quadrature mirror filters. We then discuss wavelets and multi-resolution analysis, followed by the construction of wavelets. We conclude with a discussion of lifting, reversibility, and boundary handling.
7. Zero-Tree Coding (Chapter 7) – This chapter details the well known EZW (embedded zero tree coding of wavelets) and SPIHT (set partitioning in hierarchical trees) algorithms. These algorithms were often used for comparison with the state of the art prior to the advent of JPEG2000. Both algorithms are based on the coding of trees (consisting of transform coefficients) which are induced by the resolution hierarchy of subband/wavelet transforms.
8. Selected topics from JPEG2000 (Chapters 8 – 12) – JPEG2000 is based on the wavelet transform, and is the latest international standard for image compression. It is used in many applications today. It is part of the medical image transfer syntax standard known as DICOM. It is used to transport data to every digital cinema theatre in the world. We review the functionalities of JPEG2000 as well as show how the algorithmic ingredients from Chapters 1 – 7 were combined to create JPEG2000.
9. JPEG (Chapter 19) – The classical JPEG algorithm is arguably the most successful image compression format in history. It is based on the discrete cosine transform and Huffman coding. It is contained in almost all consumer electronic devices and software that deal with images.
10. JPEG-LS (Chapter 20) – The JPEG-LS algorithm is designed for lossless compression of imagery (in fact, it can perform "near" lossless compression – defined in a very particular way). It has not found widespread applicability, but is useful for drawing comparisons with state of the art lossless compression systems.
11. MPEG (Course Notes) – We will briefly review the MPEG family of standards. Some form of MPEG is used in nearly all modern video hardware and software, including digital television (both high definition and standard definition).
Lecture: 150 minutes/week


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Carnegie Mellon Philharmonic Ronald Zollman conducts the Philharmonic, with the Repertory Chorus and Concert Choir prepared by Dr. Robert Page, in Anton Bruckner's Te Deum and Robert Schumann's Symphony #4. This concert will be repeated Friday at the Music Center at Strathmore, Bethesda, Maryland04/03/2013Time: 8:00 pm4400 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PAwebsite | map
Texture Contemporary BalletThere's Something About Fontina, an evening of new mixed works. Performances are Wednesday & Thursday at 7:30pm; Friday at 8pm. For tickets, ShowClix.04/03/2013 - 04/05/2013Location: New Hazlett Theater, Northsidewebsite
Dream of AutumnIt seems a chance meeting, two former lovers in a cemetery, where the man will bury his grandmother. But nothing is as it seems, all of life, of lives, of history, is going to emerge from the dreamlike shadows as these two do battle against each other, then turn together to face the forces of the past and future. Written by one of Europe's leading playwrights, Jon Fosse's lyrical and erotic drama provides urgent testimony to the fact that our loves and lives will be the death of us all. World premiere translation by director Sarah Cameron Sunde starring Martin Giles, Karla Boos, Laurie Klatscher, and Gregory Lehane.04/04/2013 - 04/28/2013Location: Royal York Apartments, 3955 Bigelow Blvd., Pittsburgh, PAwebsite
Big Band & Doowop BrassA trip down memory lane, celebrating the music of America's finest and most famous bands, with special guests Johnny Angel and The Halos! Works to include: Blue Moon, Miller Magic, a Tribute to Stan Kenton, In the Mood, April in Paris and much, much more!04/04/2013 - 04/12/2013Time: variousLocation: 7 locationswebsite
Master of the Modern FluteA solo recital by flutist Robert Dick, whose influences range from Telemann to electronic and ambient music, jazz to Jimi Hendrix. "Jazz Times" has called him a "truly revolutionary" performer. He'll also join the Alia Musica Pittsburgh ensemble at Bricolage Saturday evening.04/04/2013Time: 7:30pmLocation: Bricolage Theater, 937 Liberty Ave., downtownwebsite
Toi Derricotte, poetAward-winning poet Toi Derricotte will give a free public reading. Her most recent book, The Undertaker's Daughter, looks back on her childhood in an abusive home. Recipient of two Pushcart Prizes, the Paterson Poetry Prize, NEA fellowships, and Rockefeller and Guggenheim Foundation grants, Derricotte teaches at Pitt, and is co-founder of Cave Canem, a workshop and retreat for African-American poets.04/04/2013Time: 7:00 pmLocation: Power Center Ballroom, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PAwebsite
The Six Brandenburg ConcertosConductor and harpsichordist Jeannette Sorrell leads these six masterpieces in concerto grosso form, J.S. Bach's supreme achievement in instrumental music. The Brandenburg Concertos were unknown until published on the centennial of Bach's death. Ms. Sorrell is one of the leading interpreters of Bach's music and will provide insights throughout the concert.04/05/2013 - 04/07/201304/05 - 8:00 pm04/06 - 8:00 pm04/07 - 2:30 pmHeinz Hall, 600 Penn Ave., Pittsburgh, PAwebsite | map
Les Ballets TrockaderoFor more than 35 years, New York's legendary all-male dance company "Keeps on Trockin" by playfully bringing the pleasures of dance to the widest possible audience. Through its skillful parodies of ballet classics and modern dance, the Trocks' comedic brilliance lies in incorporating and exaggerating the foible, accidents and underlying congruities of serious dance.04/05/2013Time: 8:00 pmByham Theater, 101 6th St., Pittsburgh, PAwebsite | map
PSO Presents Mercury SoulComposer of the Year Mason Bates joins forces with musicians from the PSO, conductor Joshua Gersen, music director Benjamin Shwartz, director/designer Anne Patterson and Carnegie Mellon Drama. Using the innovations of modern stagecraft and club production, Mercury Soul re-imagines the classical music experience for a broad audience in extraordinary spaces, from clubs to warehouses to concert halls.04/05/2013Time: 9:00 pmLocation: STATIC, 1650 Smallman St., Pittsburgh, PAwebsite
East Meets West: A Musical JourneyThe Grand Halle Performance Series presents its final concert of the season, with the Greater Johnstown Community Chorus, and organist Bryan Lohr.04/05/2013Time: 7:30pmLocation: The Grand Halle, 306 Broad St., Johnstown 15906
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Thank you for your interest in the Bachelor of Applied Technology. We are looking forward to the possibility of collaborating with you on an innovative degree that will help you achieve your personal, educational and professional goals.
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Complete an application at: Apply Now
Please make arrangements for all official transcripts to be mailed to the UTB/TSC Office of Admissions.
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After completing the UTB/TSC application process, please submit unofficial copies of all college transcripts* to your BAT/BAAS advisor. Electronic copies by email are preferred if available.
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Thank you. I found this video very helpful.
I have last week being diagnosed with Multiple Myeloma and I find your article very very
interesting, I am trying very hard to come to terms with it, as I have had a very healthy life over the last 60years.
There has been no cancer of any form ever discovered in the history of our Family.
Again I feel reading and listening to your article has helped me mentally and prepared me for what I expect to go through in the months ahead
Thank you. Is it possible to send me your information packs in order to better prepare myself for the times ahead?
M.A.Walsh. Johannesburg S. Africa.
+27 (0)83 309 5932


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Is an indoor shooting range needed in the city?
rpmwwe, probably both and a mixture of those that can't offer anything as to why they are against it and they have the privilege of saying no.
0 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
I'm curious to know if those voting "No" on the question are gun owners who feel there are a sufficient number of ranges nearby and another one is not needed, or are they non-gun owners that seek to exert some level of control over gun owners by keeping range access limited.
1 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
I thought the "need and control" game that hinders economic growth in Salem was behind us. Apparently not.
We already know that private agenda of "need and control" has decimated our Industrial growth in Salem.
I really wonder when this is going to end so Salem can move forward?
I don't what to hear what we need? I want to hear what we can do to get this new potential business owner up and running and successfully generating revenues into the City of Salem coffers. I don't care if another business comes into Salem to start another commercial shooting range. It drives the competitive edge.
I don't care if another restaurant, bar, movie theater, hotel, casino, night club, fast food chain, hospital, clothes store wants to build up and open in Salem. Move the economic growth and stop hindering Salem's growth.
This unfriendly business environment has to stop.
1 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Well that's some tricky wording there. Needed? perhaps not. would a commercial indoor range be successful? probably. if properly designed, built, and permitted should a citizen be allowed to have one in their basement for recreation? I think so.
5 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
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TechOffers email template has been specially crafted with a clean and neat newsletter template in mind.
Although its presented as a tech / electronics email template, it can be used as a e-commerce, shopping, corporate newsletter or for any offers or products that your company may promote.
In the included documentation you will find graphical representation of the structure. Based on this you will be able to easily modify the email template.
UPDATE (22nd March 2010):There were some issues in Outlook 2007. We've fix them. If you bought the template and need the updated version, you can download the main archive again to get the new files. Please use absolute paths to point to the images on your server.
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- Optimized for the major email clients (Mail for mac, mail for windows, yahoo, gmail, thunderbird, outlook)
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The package contains:
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on March 5, 2013 - 8:21 PM
, updated March 6, 2013 at 7:47 AM
Thirteen nursing homes in Western New York earned the highest ranking in the U.S. News & World Report's latest ratings.
Meanwhile, eight others in the region received the worst ranking.
The magazine's one-to-five-star rankings come from Nursing Home Compare, a website run by the federal Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services that combines nursing home inspection results and measures on staffing and quality of care to offer overall scores for about 15,000 facilities across the nation.
The nursing homes here with top ratings are:
Autumn View in Hamburg, Briody in Lockport, Canterbury Woods in Amherst, Elderwood at Crestwood in Niagara Falls, Elderwood at Maplewood in Cheektowaga, Elderwood at Oakwood in Amherst, Elderwood at Wedgewood in Amherst, Garden Gate in Cheektowaga, Harris Hill in Clarence, Northgate in North Tonawanda, Seneca Health Care Center in West Seneca, Absolut Center in Dunkirk and Western New York Veterans Home in Batavia.
Facilities with the lowest rating are:
Chautauqua County Home in Dunkirk, Erie County Medical Center/Erie County Home in Alden/Buffalo, Lutheran Retirement in Jamestown, Niagara Nursing Center in Niagara Falls, Ridge View Manor in Buffalo, TLC Health Network/Lake Shore in Irving, Wellsville Manor and Wyoming County Community Hospital Skilled Nursing in Warsaw.
"The five-star ratings reflect our employees' outstanding care and our overall commitment to providing modern facilities designed for comprehensive rehab and nursing services," F. James McGuire, president and chief executive officer of the McGuire Group, said in a statement.
McGuire operates the Autumn View, Garden Gate, Harris Hill, Northgate and Seneca facilities.
email: email@example.com


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Top Definition
A person who is bitter because he or she cannot sleep because he or she waited until the night before to start a 2500 word paper that is worth 100% of their grade.
Many college students are aglamandon certian parts of the year.
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Awards Honor Nebraska Dairy
Awards Honor Nebraska Dairy
The University of Nebraska Dairy Farm and a dairy farmer from Stromsburg have been honored with top awards from the state's dairy industry. The Philip H. Cole Memorial Awards singled out the University for the Distinguished Service Award, while Douglas Nuttelman received the Distinguished Dairyman Award. The honors were presented during the Nebraska Dairy Convention in Norfolk.
The University Dairy began its activity in the late 1800s and recently moved to the East Campus, where it continues dairy research that resulted in more than 250 papers and abstracts during the past 25 years. Manager Erin Moratz accepted the award on behalf of the dairy, while also being recognized for over 20 years of service there.
Doug Nuttelman and his family milk 225 cows at Stromsburg, having begun dairying in 1986 with 60 cows. His wife, Gloria, and three sons – Jason, Greg and Scott – also have five employees who help make the dairy successful. Nuttelman has served on the boards of Dairy Farmers of America, National Milk Producers Federation, Midwest Dairy Association and the National Dairy Board. He also serves his church and is chairman of the local United Farmers Co-op.
Three dairies were recognized as top winners for quality milk. They were:
1. Russ and Lori Bryant, Omaha;
2. Darrell Wallman, Diller; and
3. Prairieland Dairy, Firth.
Awards were also presented to the top production herds in three categories. They were:
Holstein –
1. Broken Bow Dairy LLC, Milburn;
2. Wallman Dairy, Diller; and
3. Tiemersma Dairy, LLC, Jansen.
Crossbred/Mixed –
1. Crook Dairy, Humboldt.
Jersey –
1. James Meyer, Roca; and
2. Chad and Robbin Beckmann, Omaha
About the Nebraska State Dairy Association:
The Nebraska State Dairy Association promotes dairy interests in the state of Nebraska. For more information, visit nebraskamilk.org.


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Cities with the lowest jobless rates
POSTED: 10:53 AM MDT Jul 11, 2013 UPDATED: 09:30 AM MDT Jun 06, 2014
The economy has finally regained all the jobs it lost in the recession. Check out the cities with the lowest jobless rates.
The views expressed are not those of this company or its affiliated companies. Please note by clicking on "Post" you acknowledge that you have read the Terms Of Service and the comment you are posting is in compliance with such terms.blog comments powered by Disqus


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Published July 24, 2014
A UB delegation led by President Satish K. Tripathi traveled to Singapore last week to take part in the annual commencement for UB's degree programs offered at the Singapore Institute of Management (SIM), as well as celebrate the 10th anniversary of UB's undergraduate programs at SIM.
Nearly 500 undergraduate students in six degree programs — the most ever — received their degrees during the ceremony held on July 18 at SIM, UB's long-time partner. Members of the UB delegation participating in the commencement ceremony, in addition to Tripathi, were Provost Charles F. Zukoski; School of Management Dean Arjang Assad; College of Arts and Sciences Dean E. Bruce Pitman; Stephen Dunnett, vice provost for international education; Joseph Hindrawan, associate vice provost and director of international enrollment management; and Wei Loon Leong, director of international alumni relations.
Also attending were the chairs of two UB departments offering degrees at SIM — Debra Street of Sociology and Stephen Tiffany of Psychology — as well as a representative of the UB Libraries, Christopher Hollister, currently doing a site review of library support for the program.
Senior leadership from both institutions took the opportunity to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the launch of UB's undergraduate programs at SIM, which began in May 2004 with one UB Bachelor of Science in Business Administration degree program and only 50 students. Over the past decade, the number of undergraduate degree programs has grown to six — business, communication, psychology, sociology, economics and international trade — and enrollment in these programs has increased to some 1,600 students.
"We are delighted to join our SIM colleagues in celebrating our highly successful, 10-year partnership in delivering outstanding UB undergraduate degree programs in Singapore," Dunnett said. "This initiative could not have happened without our School of Management's pioneering Executive MBA program, launched at SIM in 1996. The demand for additional programs over time and the growth in the enrollment is indicative of the quality and popularity of our programs in this part of the world, particularly for those students who cannot travel to Buffalo to earn their degrees."
All told, 3,920 students have enrolled in the undergraduate programs at SIM and 2,118 have received degrees so far. As part of their UB programs, many students have spent a semester or more at the home campus in Buffalo — some 550 at latest count. At least 70 students from UB's programs at SIM plan to study in Buffalo in the upcoming fall semester.
In fact, some UB-SIM students study abroad together with Buffalo students — for example, through UB's popular "Sociology in London" spring-semester program. In turn, UB regularly sends Buffalo students to SIM for study abroad. A group of 40 students recently completed the annual six-week summer program in "Asian Business" at SIM directed by Paul Yong. In addition, several students are preparing to study at SIM this fall. In this year's first winter session, Buffalo students joined UB-SIM counterparts for a January course in "Cinematic Sociology" at SIM.
Speaking at the commencement ceremony, Tripathi pointed out that more than half of the graduates were receiving Latin honors — a much higher rate than in Buffalo. "This is a great accomplishment and a wonderful tribute to the excellence of our students in Singapore," he said. "I know that some of you recently attended our University Commencement in Buffalo and I am delighted to have the honor of shaking your hand once again today."
In his prepared remarks for the anniversary celebration, Tripathi congratulated his counterpart, Kwok Cheong Lee, CEO of SIM Global Education, noting, "It is a great source of pride and pleasure to witness the close friendships that have developed between our students and faculty, as well as between our institutions and between the communities of Buffalo and Singapore as well. I look forward with great anticipation to the next 10 years of cooperation and mutual enrichment between our institutions."
Tripathi also offered UB's best wishes on the pending 50th anniversary of SIM's founding, which is to be celebrated this fall.


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Hubby says I should post it. I'm afraid of hurting feelings and turning people away. And really, this thing I wrote about probably isn't a big deal to anyone else but me. So that is why I'm going to hold off until I feel right about it and can handle the criticism in the comments.
Anyway. I think I'm going to head out to Target with all four kids where I'd much rather deal with criticism in people's eyes. We'll for sure be the show to see.
Subscribe to my blog here
Twitter me- I'm babysteph


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Jesse Katsopolis – John Stamos's character on Full House – and his band, Jesse and the Rippers, are back ... and they're performing together again this Friday!
The group will appear on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, PEOPLE confirmed, after Stamos posted a cryptic Instagram video of himself singing the theme song to his beloved 90s sitcom.
"Never thought I'd be singing THIS song," the actor wrote on Monday. And "Jesse Katsopolis" (a.k.a. @jesseandtheripp) has also been Tweeting in anticipation of the TV reunion.
"Have to dig this vest out of storage – may need soon," Katsopolis Tweeted Monday with a vintage photo of himself in a black leather vest, replete with era-appropriate white sneakers. (The Twitter feed also features a trove of photos from the era, including outtakes from the "Forever" video, and hints at another performance as well.)
Me in bed during the Rippers video shoot for FOREVER. J.K. pic.twitter.com/tvGPNBLeAv— Jesse Katsopolis (@jesseandtheripp) July 5, 2013
Stamos, who's currently starring opposite Callie Thorne on USA's Necessary Roughness, has often said he's grateful for the sitcom role that he's still known for today, and clearly he's making good on that assertion.
As to which we must say … have mercy.


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on November 18, 2012 - 12:51 AM
A quarterback prospect who answers all the prayers of the franchise will not be easy to find for the Buffalo Bills in April's NFL Draft.
There are no college prospects this season who are as highly rated as Andrew Luck and Robert Griffin III, the top two picks in last year's draft. The depth of the 2013 QB class doesn't look great, either.
"You gotta dig this year," said Bills General Manager Buddy Nix. "I think that might be to our advantage. We'll do that. I know we'll be thorough about it."
"It's not like last year when you knew who was one and two, no matter what," Nix said. "And then the year before, it was [No. 1 pick] Cam [Newton]. We're gonna have to do a really good job of evaluating."
The Bills are eager to find a young quarterback who could develop into a franchise player. The struggles of starter Ryan Fitzpatrick to be a consistent winner enhance the Bills' need. The contracts of backup quarterbacks Tyler Thigpen and Tarvaris Jackson both run out after this season.
The complication for the Bills is 2013 is not the "Year of the Quarterback."
There are only two draft-eligible quarterbacks who are widely acknowledged as first-round prospects at this early stage of the evaluation process. They are West Virginia's Geno Smith and Southern California's Matt Barkley.
Even those two don't make all draft gurus giddy with excitement.
"Right now there's not a quarterback worth taking No. 1 or No. 2 or No. 5 or even No. 10," said ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper on a national conference call this week. "That's just the way it is."
Kiper's opinion, however, may change by the spring. Few were talking about Texas A&M's Ryan Tannehill as a top first-round prospect at this time last season, and he went eighth overall to Miami. Ditto for Blaine Gabbert and Christian Ponder the year before. Gabbert went 10th to Jacksonville; Ponder 12th to Minnesota.
Quarterbacks usually rise up the draft boards. It would not be a surprise if both Smith and Barkley went in the top 10 of the draft.
Who knows where the Bills (4-6) will be picking? There are numerous teams that might need a quarterback that could be drafting ahead of Buffalo, including Kansas City (1-8), Jacksonville (1-8), the New York Jets (3-6) and Arizona (4-5).
Nix says there easily could be a worthy prospect available to the Bills, even if it does not happen in the first round.
"There may be a great one there," Nix said. "But you've got to do your work to identify him."
"The Senior Bowl is going to be so important for those guys," Kiper said of the prospects after Smith and Barkley. "Tyler Wilson out of Arkansas could be a second-round guy. Mike Glennon out of N.C. State has had some good games and some so-so games. He could be in that discussion. Tall, good pocket passer."
Smith, 6-foot-3 and 220 pounds, entered Saturday with 31 touchdowns and three interceptions and is passing for 337 yards a game. He's a pocket passer with good arm strength. He has decent mobility. Playing exclusively in a spread-out, shotgun offense, he has some mechanics issues to sort out.
"Smith has had ball security problems," Kiper said. "Now the defense is horrible at West Virginia so that puts a lot of pressure on Smith. So you take that into consideration. He's not a runner or a scrambler, he's a pocket guy, a cerebral guy."
Barkley, 6-2 and 230, is a polished product who will wind up with 48 career starts by the end of this season. He had 39 touchdowns and seven interceptions last year. He entered Saturday's game with 26 TDs and 12 INTs. USC, a preseason No. 1, has disappointed this year.
"The only question with Barkley," says Kiper, "is that he doesn't have the great physical ability. ... There are questions about the arm strength."
Here are four other prospects to watch the rest of the college season who could be second-day draftees or who could even move into the first round with strong offseasons:
• Tyler Wilson, Arkansas: Wilson had a great first season as starter in 2011, passing for 280 yards a game with 24 touchdowns and six interceptions. However, the Razorbacks' program has imploded since coach Bobby Petrino was fired last spring. After going 11-2 last year, Arkansas is 4-7. Wilson has taken a beating and has 12 interceptions. He has pretty good accuracy and he shows toughness. He doesn't have ideal height, at 6 feet, 1.6 inches. His arm is good but not elite.
• Mike Glennon, North Carolina State: Glennon has a big-time arm. He throws deep comebacks and vertical routes well. He shows some gutsiness, leading a comeback win over Florida State last month. He's 6-6 and 220 pounds. As with a lot of very tall QBs, the downside is he's immobile. As a passer, he reminds people of Baltimore's Joe Flacco. He doesn't move in the pocket as well as Flacco.
• Ryan Nassib, Syracuse: A three-year starter, Nassib has improved every year. His yards-per-game pass averages have gone from 179 to 223 to 302. His completion percentage has gone from 56.4 to 62.4 to 63.4. His profile was low entering the season because the Orange ended last year with five straight losses. He's 18-17 as a starter. He's a pocket passer with some mobility. His arm looks pretty good. He's a scholar-athlete working on a master's degree in accounting. Syracuse coach Doug Marrone, a former Saints aide, runs a pro-style offense. Kiper said this week Nassib could go in the mid- to late-rounds. He might be underrating Nassib.
• Logan Thomas, Virginia Tech: In his first season as a starter last year, he led the Hokies to 11 wins and produced 30 touchdowns (19 passing, 11 rushing). His 6-6, 260-pound frame prompted some comparisons with Newton. But this season, Thomas' completion percentage has dropped from 59.8 to 53.6, and he has 14 interceptions. Virginia Tech is 5-6. He's a junior.
"He's had a bad year but ... he has things that nobody else has," Kiper said, "which is the great size, physicality, arm strength and all that, mobility. He would be a guy a quarterback coach would have to work with and tweak some things, but as far as potential, he has the most."
email: email@example.com


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Community Tank
Active within 397 Days
Name: AndyS
Size/Category 40-Gallon Freshwater
Type: Glass
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Devoting land to crop production can diminish habitat for wildlife. Soil erosion, nutrient and pesticide runoff, and irrigation can pollute the air and water, degrade soil quality, and diminish water supplies. The degree of the environmental problems associated with agriculture vary widely across the country. ERS analyzes the use and efficacy of conservation practices and of Federal programs and policies in combating the harmful effects of agriculture as they relate to:
ERS also evaluates the suite of policy tools that can be used to encourage farmers to adopt practices that protect and enhance environmental quality. An extensive research program has been developed around markets for environmental services (see The Use of Markets To Increase Private Investment in Environmental Stewardship, ERR-64, September 2008). The program addresses such issues as potential supply of environmental services from agriculture, demand for environmental services from the public, and market design mechanisms such as trading and auctions that allow market forces to allocate resources more efficiently to the provision of environmental services.
ERS has extensively studied costs and producer responses to other policy approaches such as regulations on animal operations, which are increasingly being used where chronic environmental problems such as nitrogen in the environment have not responded to voluntary approaches (see Nitrogen in Agricultural Systems: Implications for Conservation Policy, ERR-127, September 2011). ERS also evaluates the environmental implications of energy and commodity policies that provide economic incentives to producers that may be at odds with the goals of conservation and environmental policies (see Grassland to Cropland Conversion in the Northern Plains: The Role of Crop Insurance, Commodity, and Disaster Programs, ERR-120, June 2011).
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Stimulating Vaccine Development:
The First Annual Conference on Vaccine Research
November 1998
A note from TheBody.com: The field of medicine is constantly evolving. As a result, parts of this article may be outdated. Please keep this in mind, and be sure to visit other parts of our site for more recent information!
"Build it and they will come" was the mantra of the Kevin Costner baseball film, "Field of Dreams." It must also be the faith of the organizers of any new scientific meeting. The First Annual Conference on Vaccine Research, held May 30-June 1, 1998, in Washington, DC, was no exception. "In the past two decades there has been a 600 percent increase in scientific articles in peer-reviewed medical publications dealing with vaccine research," noted William J. Martone, MD, executive director of the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases, one of the organizers of the conference. "We couldn't help but recognize that the intense interest in vaccine research was in marked contrast to the absence of a scientific meeting dedicated to vaccine research."
The faith of the cosponsors was rewarded. The day prior to opening, the conference reached its capacity of 300. Participants came from more than 30 US states and 19 foreign countries. Vaccines are a hot topic and getting hotter.
Keynote speaker Robert F. Breiman, MD, director of the national vaccine program office at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), provided a policy framework for the meeting. He described his job as "visualizing and making people understand the congruence between public health needs and the commercial market. It seems like it should be obvious, but it is not always recognized." He emphasized the need for planning by quoting that eminent philosopher of the diamond Lawrence "Yogi" Berra: "If you don't know where you are going, you might wind up someplace else."
Breiman said that the United States has licensed for production vaccines against 24 diseases, with two more likely this year. He called the Haemophilus influenzae b (Hib) vaccine "an amazing public health triumph. And it is one the public doesn't really appreciate because Hib really doesn't carry with it the same mark that polio or others did in earlier generations."
"Despite these incredible accomplishments, or perhaps because of them, the focus now has to come more on the risks of vaccines than on the benefits." Breiman attributed part of that shift to the quick response of the media and particularly the Internet. He called for increased attention to communicating the risks and the benefits of vaccines in educating both the general public and healthcare providers, as part of the total framework of vaccine development. Surveillance must also be strengthened "so that we can more precisely define vaccine-attributable adverse events risk and the effectiveness of vaccines once they are in use."
Within the United States, Breiman found "most frightening" the racial disparity that exists in terms of access to vaccination, particularly for pneumococcal vaccines. "African-Americans are at a much greater risk of incidence of pneumococcal disease and are much less likely to be vaccinated."
Breiman outlined principles for effective vaccine policy. They include laying out a plan that industry can support and, thus, be willing to invest and play its role in the process. He believes that the community can do more during the prelicensure phase "to more precisely define the risk of adverse events."
Ethical challenges must embrace how trials are conducted and how they are intended. "We need to test vaccines in settings where the disease magnitude is greatest, as well as offer to those locations the potential benefits once they are licensed," Breiman said. For some "limited use vaccines, like malaria," where there is limited market incentive in the developed nations, "we need to find a way to decrease the development risk for companies." He pointed to the increased global economy as a reason for national governments and international institutions, such as The World Bank, to contribute financial assistance to those efforts.
Immunomodulators and adjuvants
"Before it was, essentially, take a bacteria, kill it, inject it, and hope for the best," said Frederick R. Vogel, PhD, a senior scientist at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Division of AIDS. "Today we are moving away from the more empirical approaches of the past to more rational strategies of vaccine design based on recent advances in immunobiology. Rational vaccine design requires the identification of protection epitopes and the development of suitable formulations capable of driving protective immune responses to them."
Vogel explained that the highly purified antigens of modern vaccines are often "less immunogenic than many traditional vaccines." Adjuvants, or chemical helpers, can be used to help boost the immune response they generate. "Today there are hundreds of natural and synthetic compounds known to promote adjuvant activity. However, aluminum has remained the only adjuvant used in licensed vaccines in the United States."
"Adjuvants work by their ability to modulate the immune response to cytokines, their effects on T-helper subsets, and on antigen processing," Vogel said. They can push cells to either a TH1 or a TH2 response. By choosing the proper adjuvant it is possible to direct and optimize the immune responses that are appropriate for the vaccine. "If the vaccine is designed for cell-mediated responses, then you should use adjuvants that will push towards that."
Adjuvants have a role as a research tool. Vogel noted, "You might have the right antigen but if you don't drive it in the right way you won't necessarily see the protective immune response that you want. The advantage of using adjuvants with immune antigens is to drive the response in different directions to see which gives you the best protection."
Adjuvants can also help to reduce the number of antigens and/or the number of separate vaccinations required to achieve protection. That can help increase compliance with the proper schedule of serial vaccination and also reduce costs. Both are very important factors in any society, and they may become crucial ones in poorer nations.
Mark J. Newman, PhD, vice president of research and development at Vaxcell Inc, Norcross, Georgia, has been focusing on nonionic block copolymers. They are synthetic, stable, safe, and readily manufactured molecules commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry. Using different ratios of a polyoxypropylene (POP) core and polyoxyethylene (POE) ends, the company tried to drive TH1 and TH2 responses. "In the vaccine world it is fairly easy to get TH2 responses -- most of the adjuvants will do this," Newman said. "But the trick has been to induce TH1 responses."
By measuring the cytokines produced, Newman found that "copolymers with 10 percent POE significantly augmented type 2 helper T-lymphocyte responses," while a more hydrophobic product "with lower POE contents augmented both type 1 and type 2" responses. He is unsure how this works, but believes it is "by altering the way that the initial antigen is processed." This holds out the possibility of vaccines "customized by using adjuvant-active nonionic block copolymers that will augment the most appropriate types of immune responses."
Michel J. Caulfield, PhD, with Merck Research Laboratories, turned to the example of hepatitis B virus (HBV). Chronic carriers of HBV have elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase liver enzyme and continued evidence of HBV DNA in their blood. Although they develop antibodies to the core, they generally lack antibodies to the surface of the virus. They also have weak or poor cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) reactions. By contrast, patients who have thrown off HBV carry antibodies to both the core and envelope. "They also develop fairly potent CTL responses," he said. "This raises the question, do chronic infections induce the wrong kind of response?"
"Our hypothesis is that chronic hepatitis B results from the induction of a weak immune response," said Caulfield. "A strong type 1 response may clear it after initial infection." However, current HBV vaccines are recombinants that induce a TH2 response and no CTL response or weak CTL response. They are useful for prophylaxis but not for therapy. Merck's goal is to develop a vaccine that will enhance the TH2 response.
Merck's strategy has been to formulate various DNA protein vaccine and adjuvant combinations, then measure and compare the IgG1 vs IgG2 responses they generate. Caulfield has found that calcium phosphate can act as an adjuvant for vaccine, "resulting in an approximately tenfold increase in antibody titers." Phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide can enhance type 1 responses with protein vaccines through increasing IgG2 antibodies as well as CTL responses. Work continues toward fashioning a marketable product.
Surrogate markers
The clinical end point trial increasingly seems like an endangered species as medicine moves from short-term therapy to treating long-term chronic diseases. The accelerating pace of second and succeeding generations of innovation further outstrips the temporal capacity of traditional trials to provide answers. Researchers, manufacturers, and consumers are not content to wait years, perhaps decades, for the definitive word on life-saving or life-enhancing innovation. They want answers, and the sooner the better. A partial answer today often is more valuable than a more detailed answer next week.
Surrogate markers have become the new standard of evaluation of efficacy for accelerated approval by the US Food and Drug Administration. While they do not yet have the luster of the "gold standard" of double-blinded placebo-controlled clinical end point trials, they have acquired the patina of acknowledging real world practicalities in developing new medical technologies. Most conference participants acknowledged that surrogate markers are likely to be the standard by which improved variations and new combinations of vaccines will be evaluated.
Steven Black, MD, codirector of the Kaiser Permanente Vaccine Study Center in Oakland, California, posed the principal question of choosing surrogates: "Which is the appropriate correlate of protection: is it priming or is it circulating antibodies?"
It is an important question, because some vaccine combinations do not produce great amounts of circulating antibody but they do effectively prime the immune system to respond to the challenge of disease. Black said that vaccination can take seven to 14 days or longer to evoke an antibody response, but in a primed individual the response may be only 24 to 72 hours.
Black suggested that the answer might vary, depending on "the kinetics of onset of the infection. Where there is a long onset, such as with hepatitis B, priming might be perfectly adequate. Whereas another infection, where the onset is quite rapid, there might not be time for the primed individual to develop an antibody response, and circulating antibody might be more important."
This is only part of the story. David S. Krause, MD, a researcher with SmithKline Beecham Biologicals, reminded the audience, "Antibody concentrations alone do not convey information about cell-mediated immunity or other aspects of bioindividuality."
Krause turned to the efficacy trials of pertussis vaccines conducted by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) from 1994 to 1996. The trials concluded that "there was no specific correlate of protection. No specific antibody or combination of antibodies was found to be effective to predict protection." He summarized what is now accepted as surrogates for specific vaccines (Table 1).
George R. Siber, MD, chief scientific officer of Wyeth-Lederle Vaccines and Pediatrics, argued that current surrogates are not reliably predictive for determining individual protection through vaccination. "One of the requirements to have a true surrogate for efficacy is that we need to know the effective mechanism of immunity against the organism. And we need to have an assay that reliably measures that protective antibody."
Siber explored the limitations of individual- and population-based correlates before making a pitch for "antibody concentration-specific protection." He described this method as not a simple yes-or-no but as a curve for calculating individual risk for developing infection at specific antibody concentrations, preferably measured shortly after immunization.
"If you have a curve relating titer with protection, you can estimate the protection of any new vaccine based on the distribution of antibodies that it induces that is different from the original vaccine." Siber cautioned that this modeling requires a large incidence of disease from which to calculate the curve; it will not work for relatively uncommon infections.
According to Siber, there are additional drawbacks. One is that "for many antigens, such as those for the pertussis vaccine, we don't have functional antibodies to measure." A second is unanswered questions about multiple protective antigens. And, what does one do when protection is influenced by cell-mediated mechanisms, where our assays are not as good? These appear to be the most crucial defenses with some types of infections.
John Clemens, MD, chief of the Epidemiology Branch at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, warned that "the idealized conditions of a phase III efficacy trial may lead us to overestimate vaccine impact." He pointed to pneumococcal vaccines and vaccines for measles as examples. However, it can also be true that exclusion of indirect impact "may lead us to underestimate not overestimate vaccines' impact. The major impact of PRP conjugate vaccines would never have been anticipated on the basis of phase III efficacy trials because those trials did not measure indirect effects." He urged effectiveness trials that more closely model real world conditions in which the vaccine is likely to be used.
Administering vaccines
Five new vaccines have been introduced in the United States since 1981, said Bruce Weniger, MD, assistant chief for vaccine development at the CDC. Two more seem likely to be approved shortly, and a handful of additions are likely within the next decade. "The challenge is, how are we ever going to incorporate all of these new vaccines into an increasingly crowded and complex immunization schedule?"
Weniger presented the current US schedule of recommended vaccinations to immunize a child (Table 2), which requires a minimum of 14 injections to take advantage of all newly licensed combination vaccines available today.
"As those of you who have accompanied your children to the doctor's office to receive injections already know, the principal problem is that shots are a terrifying and traumatic experience for many children." This can result in deferred or missed vaccinations.
One solution is to further combine several vaccines into a single inoculation. But as Weniger pointed out, "Chemical incompatibilities and immunology interference have made combination vaccines rather difficult to develop." Overlaying that are problems of the marketplace and antitrust regulation that may constrain companies from even discussing potential combinations. Oral and intranasal vaccines may represent a long-term option to some of these challenges.
Pearay L. Ogra, MD, chairman of the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, discussed mucosal administration of vaccine antigens. He explained how there are localized induction sites in lymphoid tissue where CD4 and CD8 cells expand in reaction to the vaccine. After activation, "the antigen peptides migrate to the infection sites where they perform their function in terms of antibody production and subsequent interaction with the antigens."
Research, Ogra said, "suggests that there is a certain degree of compartmentalization between the different induction sites. There can be local immunization response, but not a response that migrates into the lymphocytes." Immunization at a specific site may offer particular protections and weaknesses that differ from those obtained through immunization at another site. He noted that "animals immunized internasally had 100 percent protection in both the nose and lung." And "animals immunized in the intestine had 100 percent protection in the lung," but virtually all of them could be infected through nasal mucosal tissue.
"One can predict," said Ogra, "that if you put antigen in the mucus membranes in the inductor sites, you will induce antigen-mediated activation of many of these antigenated cells, which will migrate to distant mucosal sites. But then if you go back and boost them with antigens at the local sites, one would expect significant proliferation and further differentiation of these cells to produce a more profound response at the site of immunization" (Figure 1).
The strategy for immunization will depend on whether one wishes to prevent infection or prevent disease at a specific site. In a separate discussion, Ogra used the example of chlamydia. "If one wants to immunize the genital tract, but not necessarily put the antigen in the vagina, you can use the nose. Put the antigen there and then hope that if they get exposed under natural circumstances, at the time of infection you will be able to boost the response in the genital tract. So you may have mild infection but you won't have the disease."
Ogra suggested that one effective strategy for immunization might be "to prime internasally or by oral administration, then try to boost it by a little pill. One might see a more effective response than simply immunization of the inductive sites."
Robert B. Belshe, MD, director, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, St. Louis University School of Medicine, presented data on a clinical trial using a nasal spray to vaccinate for influenza.1 The randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial enrolled 1602 children ages 15 to 71 months during the winter of 1996-1997. It tested the efficacy of one- and two-dose regimens.
The trial used a cold-attenuated influenza virus that is temperature sensitive. "The live vaccine attaches to the target tissue, the nasal mucosa, and replicates and stimulates the full complement of immune responses, antibody, and probably also cellular immune responses," Belshe said. It will reproduce in the nasal passages, which are about 25°C, but not in the lungs, which are about 37°C.
The spray produced the same degree of immunization as did drops when used in young children. "The advantage is that you do not need any cooperation at all from the kid," Belshe said. "They don't cry, there is no needle, it is done very, very quickly. So the simplicity of this device is really terrific." Adults are handed the device and use it themselves.
The study found that the vaccine was accepted, well tolerated, and effective against influenza. Only 14 of the 1070 vaccinated children developed culture-positive influenza, while 95 of the remaining 532 experienced that illness. "There was a 35 percent reduction in antibiotic use among the vaccinated children compared to the placebo group, if they had a febrile illness," Belshe said. "Clearly that is a dramatic reduction."
The live vaccine viruses "emerge from children, but these do not spread to contacted children," Belshe said. Nor does it appear to spread in very close quarters such as a day care setting. Data are being analyzed from a follow-up trial conducted during the 1997-1998 influenza season.
Weniger said that there should be no risk to healthcare workers exposed to the aerosol of the initial nasal application.
The nasal applicator comes prepackaged and loaded and is frozen until use. "I can foresee the day," Belshe said, "when this is over the counter and sold next to ice cream in the frozen food section. But that is a long way from now."
Vaccination and pediatrics are twins joined at the hip, so intertwined that we sometimes lose sight of the yeoman work of the former, and focus on vaccination primarily in terms of the unanswered questions before us rather than the ones that have been answered and have become routine practice.
Most vaccination does in fact occur during early childhood and provides lifelong immunity. It works, so we forget about it. However, there is a window of vulnerability during the first months, even year, of life. Attempts at inducing early protection by immunizing newborns have been generally disappointing, said Pamela M. McInnes, DDS, chief of the Respiratory Diseases Branch at NIAID. That is because the neonate's immature immune system often does not respond well to the vaccine challenge, or the immune response requires time to develop, during which the newborn is unprotected. The growing number of vaccines that must be accommodated further complicates the picture.
Recently, interest has focused on a strategy of passive transfer of antibodies in utero through vaccination of the pregnant mother. Some developing countries have tried it with tetanus toxoid and have reduced neonatal mortality for the disease by about one third.
NIAID is investigating the approach for group B streptococci, pneumococci, Bordetella pertussis, and respiratory viruses such as influenza and respiratory syncytial virus. The advantages of such a strategy are numerous, explained McInnes. "Young infants are vulnerable to numerous infections but they are least responsive to active immunization. Pregnant women do have access to healthcare and they do respond well to vaccines.
IgG antibodies cross the placenta well during the third trimester. And the benefit could be experienced by both the mother and offspring." Immunizing the mother will also eliminate her as a possible source of infection of her child.
McInnes continued, "In theory, one could harness the immune system and increase the number of doses needed for active immunization of the offspring. And depending on the disease, it might even be possible to avoid active immunization of the infant at all."
Richard A. Insel, MD, director of the Strong Children's Research Center at the University of Rochester School of Medicine, said that "at times the antibody response in pregnant women exceeds that of the nonpregnant state."
Insel reported that the interval between vaccination of the mother with tetanus toxoid and Hib is crucial. Inoculating with the second vaccine during the window of two to seven weeks following the initial vaccination resulted in "inhibition of the antibody response to the tetanus conjugate vaccine." From week eight forward there was no problem because the immune response had matured sufficiently.
Insel explained that the placenta thins out and becomes more permeable as it enlarges. "This explains why IgG is transferred so much better in the third trimester than it is in the second trimester of pregnancy." Thus, staging is very important; there is only a limited window of opportunity in which to most successfully intervene.
"There is a finite period, an interval that must occur, between immunization and the time that antibody can be transferred through the placenta to the fetus," Insel continued. "This interval reflects the time required to mount an antibody response in the system, and in addition it reflects the time that it requires for that IgG antibody that is induced to equilibrate with the larger total pool of IgG. In general, one recommends an interval of four to six weeks between immunization and delivery, if at all possible."
Insel cited the work of Englund et al, in which they compared the time between immunization of mothers and their deliveries.2 What they found was that "if the interval was greater than one month, 75 percent of maternal IgG1 antibody levels were transferred from mother to baby. In contrast, if the interval was only one to two weeks, the number was only 15 percent. So the extra two weeks resulted in a fivefold greater transfer of antibody."
Insel noted that the World Health Organization has established standards for vaccination of pregnant women. If the mother has not been immunized for tetanus, it recommends that she receive two immunizations, the first at least 50 days prior and the second at least 20 days prior to delivery.
"The half-life of an IgG antibody is approximately 30 days," Insel said. "So as long as a protective titer is induced [in the fetus], and it is several half-lives greater than protection, one can have prolonged levels of protective antibody in the newborn" for as long as six months after birth.
Insel said that it might be possible for maternal immunization to "prime" the neonate for future immunization. However, it also may be possible that maternal antibodies suppress neonatal responses. "One cannot walk away from this with any definitive data." The answer may well lie in the variable genetic immunocompatibilities of individual mothers and fetuses.
Nutrition and aging
Nutrition may be an important factor in the development of immune response with some vaccines, said Ranjit Kumar Chandra, MD, director of immunology at Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada. Much of the early work in the field has been done with young children in developing countries, and "many of those results can be extrapolated to developing countries."
Nutrition, Chandra said, "makes no difference with [levels of antigen response with] tetanus toxoid and pneumococcal vaccines, but it does make some difference in responses to adenovirus and hepatitis B vaccines. There is no work at all on the effect of nutrition on protective efficacy on vaccines in humans."
Chandra summarized his work on how poor nutrition can reduce immune response.3 It can reduce the production of T-helper cells, the proliferation of antigens and maturation of cells, receptor sensitivity and binding, and the production of cytokines.
"If a nutrient is essential for immune response, it does not mean that more of it is even better." The example Chandra used was his small study of 11 medical students who were given 150 mg/d of zinc. "Within four to six weeks we saw a very significant drop in lymphocyte responses and in parasitic responses. It took several weeks of stopping the supplement before this response came back to normal."
"Is immunologic decline an inevitable part of aging?" Chandra asked. "Does it occur in everybody?" He noted that there is a decline in physiological functions between the ages of 30 and 80. However, that is on the average; some people do not experience significant decline while others exhibit severe decline.
Chandra examined the immune response curves of two groups: one composed of people ages 20 to 40 years and a second of people ages 80 to 100 years. He found that in the upper quartile of both groups, "12 percent had two or more nutrient deficiencies. The lowest quartile was 47 percent." While this does not prove causation, "it suggests that there may be some effect of nutrition on immune response."
Chandra asked a second question: if we improve nutritional deficiencies in the elderly, will it lead to improved immune response as it does in the young? He acknowledged studies showing the positive effect of regular exercise on the immune system and the negative effect of bereavement, which complicates teasing out the effect of nutrition.
Then he turned to a study by Meydani et al, which used 50, 200, and 800 mg doses of vitamin E supplement over an eight-month trial.4 All three dosage groups showed a significantly increased sensitivity to antibodies and to hepatitis B vaccine. But the response did not correlate with dose. All that was necessary was compensation for insufficient vitamin E. A significantly higher dose may in fact produce poorer results.
"There is always an upper threshold beyond which you will see a decline in immune response," said Chandra. "If you take more than 2 g/d of vitamin C, which is a massive dose, you do begin to see a decline in immune responses." He knows of two or three unpublished trials that used large amounts of zinc in cancer patients and showed "a very profound adverse effect of 100 mg. So one has to be careful" about large doses of any supplement.
Deficiencies are seldom limited to a single nutrient. Thirty-five percent of people in the industrialized world "have deficiencies in two or more vitamins or nutrients," Chandra said. He set out to formulate the ultimate supplemental regimen. He began with values "very close to the recommended dietary amounts. So that if you use them in addition to what you are taking in in the diet, at the most what you are taking in is two times the recommended daily allowance." Then the laboratory established dose-response curves for each supplement to find out which produced the highest immune response. Finally, he calibrated the package of supplements to maximize the total immune response.
Chandra wanted to know what type of clinical effect this package might have. He asked, "If we do improve nutrition and immunity, will it result in an overall reduction in illness?" He conducted a randomized placebo-controlled study in 96 seniors whose average age was 74. "There was almost a 50 percent reduction in common infections in the supplemental group." He concluded that "for every dollar spent on dietary counseling or nutritional supplements, you will save approximately $28 in healthcare cost for infectious disease." He saw the most important impact of nutrition as not necessarily on the prolongation of life but on the process of healthy aging -- living a better quality life less marred by infection.
The HIV rift
A preventative vaccine for HIV is undisputedly the most pressing challenge before the fraternity of vaccinologists. In May 1997 President Clinton set a goal of finding that vaccine within ten years. David Baltimore, MD, already had been appointed to chair the AIDS Vaccine Research Committee at the NIH. However, a faction of scientists has chafed under Baltimore's leadership of that effort.
Weniger made a foray at the March 1998 meeting of the Presidential Advisory Council on HIV/AIDS (PACHA), of which he is a member. He invited the late Jonathan Mann, MD, MPH, dean of the Allegheny University School of Public Health in Philadelphia, to speak before PACHA's international committee.
Mann charged that the delay in testing HIV vaccines was a violation of ethical principles and human rights. He formalized those remarks in the May 1998 Journal.5
In discussions at the PACHA meeting, Mann and Weniger both made tarter comments. "I've been utterly amazed by the paralysis -- there is just no other word -- and the failure of vaccine development," said Mann. "David Baltimore is not equipped to make tremendous contributions to vaccine development."
Weniger charged that the current vaccine effort has been a failure. He proposed strong language for PACHA to adopt but was unable to gain a single vote of support.
The issue arose again at the Vaccine Conference, this time from the late Mary Lou Clements-Mann, MD, a professor at the Center for Immunization Research at Johns Hopkins University and spouse to the aforementioned Mann. She chose to focus on two issues of "why a milestone-driven strategic process for an AIDS vaccine has not yet emerged."
"The first major misconceptions are that vaccines are expected to provide sterilizing immunity, in other words, to completely prevent infection," Clements-Mann said. "Rather, the goals for public health importance have been to provide sufficient immunity to prevent or ameliorate severe disease. Few vaccines completely prevent infection." She cited the inactivated polio vaccine as an example.
Clements-Mann added, "Another misconception is that vaccine protection must be demonstrated in animal models prior to conducting efficacy trials in humans." She said that historically results of vaccine trials in animal models often showed data significantly different from trials in humans.
Clements-Mann attacked "the notion that correlates of protective immunity must be known prior to conducting efficacy trials based in humans," saying that was impossible to know ahead of time. Furthermore, early field trials are likely to provide information useful for refining later generations of vaccine.
A feeling of discontent grew among many during Clements-Mann's presentation and erupted during the question period. "What is the biologic plausibility or hypothesis that you are trying to test with such a trial?" asked one participant from the floor. "There has to be something from the phase I and phase II trials that looks promising. I hope that we are gleaning something from that before we go into a field trial."
Clements-Mann did not respond directly to the question. She pointed to the need for a vaccine throughout the world, the willingness of people to participate in such a trial, and the inability to do challenge trials during phase II study. She said that her purpose was to talk about the process rather than individual vaccine options.
"No one has demonstrated that the types of immune responses clearly do something to the pathogen that people will see," said one questioner. "I think that is the fundamental reason why these trials have not gone forward."
Near the end of the conference, co-organizer Bruce Weniger declared it a success. The second annual conference will take place March 28-30, 1999, in Bethesda, Maryland.
1. Belshe RB. The efficacy of live-attenuated, cold-adapted, trivalent, intranasal influenza virus vaccine in children. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:1405-1412.
2. Englund JA, Glezen WP, Thompson C, et al. Haemophilus influenzae type b- specific antibody in infants after maternal immunization. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997;16:1122-1130.
3. Chandra R. Graying of the immune system: can nutrient supplements improve immunity in the elderly? JAMA 1997;277:1398-1399.
4. Meydani SN, Meydani M, Blumberg JB, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1997;227:1380-1386.
5. Mann JM. Paralysis in AIDS vaccine development violates ethical principles and human rights. JIAPAC 1998;4(5):42-44.
A note from TheBody.com: The field of medicine is constantly evolving. As a result, parts of this article may be outdated. Please keep this in mind, and be sure to visit other parts of our site for more recent information!
This article was provided by International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care. It is a part of the publication Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care.


text:
A death row inmate who was convicted of murder in his girlfriend's killing in Dorchester County will get a new sentencing hearing, according to a South Carolina Supreme Court ruling released Wednesday.
This case is the third Dorchester County death penalty sentence reversed or sent back for resentencing by a higher court within the last year.
John Edward Weik, 47, of Moncks Corner was sentenced to death for the 1998 shooting of Susan Hutto Krasae at her Knightsville home.
During the sentencing hearing, Weik's defense attorneys presented three mental health experts who testified Weik suffered from paranoid schizophrenia, including hallucinations, paranoid delusions and suicidal thoughts.
The defense, however, didn't present evidence concerning Weik's "chaotic upbringing and dysfunctional family," according to the ruling.
In the Supreme Court opinion, which was unanimous, Justice John Kittredge said that since this information was not provided during the hearing, they are forced to reverse a lower court judge's ruling denying a new sentencing hearing.
Weik's childhood was traumatic and he was emotionally and physically abused by his father, Russell Weik, according to the Supreme Court ruling.
"Indeed, one mitigation specialist with forty years of experience described Weik's family as the most dysfunctional family she had ever encountered," the ruling said.
Despite presenting a lot of information about Weik's troubled past, defense attorneys only presented one witness, Weik's sister, to testify briefly about his upbringing, according to the ruling.
Justice Kittredge referred to the testimony as limited and lacking specifics.
The case will be sent back to the 1st Circuit Solicitor's Office to prepare for a sentencing hearing.
David Pascoe, the current solicitor, said in cases like this one, the hearing will be lengthy and could take weeks at a time.
"You basically have to retry the case," he said.
Pascoe said it is too premature to determine whether or not they will again seek the death penalty or life in prison.
The family must be consulted, according to Pascoe.
Amber, Krasae's daughter, who was 8 years old at the time, testified during the trial that she saw Weik shoot her mother.
A burglary charge was one of two aggravating factors the state used to seek the death penalty in 1999. The other was physical torture, which the 1st Circuit solicitor at the time, Walter Bailey, defined as "prolonging the suffering of a murder victim."
In his confession, Weik said he fired at least four shotgun blasts into Krasae.
Bailey told The Post and Courier his heart goes out to Krasae's family.
"I feel sorry for the family that put this behind them almost a generation ago and have to go through this again," Bailey said.
He said Weik shot Krasae several times in places so she would not die immediately.
"He basically tortured her," Bailey said.
If the jury had heard more testimony about Weik's upbringing, as suggested by the S.C. Supreme Court, Bailey said it likely would not have made a difference in their recommendation of the death penalty.
"They heard a lot of testimony," he said. "I'm just not convinced it would have affected the outcome of the case."
Reach Natalie Caula Hauff at 937-5594 or Twitter.com/ncaula.
- Keywords


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Tuesday, October 22, 2013
The Palmetto Christian football team, without senior quarterback J.T. Waters, struggled in a 51-32 loss at Northwood Academy this past Friday night.
Waters, the Eagles' leading rusher and passer, did not play for an undisclosed reason. It was Palmetto Christian's first loss in the region, while catapulting the Chargers (6-2 overall, 2-1 region) up in the standings.
Northwood jumped out to a 21-0 lead in the first quarter and never looked back.
Eighth grader Cale Lewis got his first start at quarterback for the Eagles (5-2, 1-1) and threw for 185 yards on 21-of-43 passing. He had three touchdowns and two interceptions.
Northwood quarterback Will Lloyd completed nearly a third of Lewis' total completions (8) but boasted an average of 23 more yards per pass than Lewis, as the Chargers made a habit of big plays.
In addition to Lloyd, three other Northwood players had at least 90 offensive yards. On the ground, the Chargers successfully rotated four different rushers throughout the game.
For the Eagles, only senior running back Ryan Roe, who was back from an injury, was a rushing threat. He ran for 235 yards on 35 carries and a pair of scores.
Senior wide receiver Will Tuchfarber was the main beneficiary of the passing game, hauling in eight catches for 80 yards and two touchdowns.
Junior Jake Iriart led the defense in tackles with seven primary and two assists. Tuchfarber, who also plays linebacker, added six tackles.
Palmetto Christian looks to rebound with a home game on Friday against Hilton Head Christian Academy (5-2, 2-0), which is riding a five-game winning streak. Hilton Head Christian has won its previous three games by at least 21 points.
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The mismatch between federal government revenues (taxes) and spending has resulted in $1 trillion+ deficits for the last four years. Left unaddressed, the US could become another Greece in the next 10 or 12 years; unable to sustain existing benefits and services for its citizens. Democrats favor balancing the equation by increasing taxes while Republicans have opposed most tax increases and demand spending reductions. This has led to an impasse and multiple calls for reform of the US Tax Code, which has become 73,000+ pages long and has not seen major revisions since 1986. The Simpson Bowles Commission and other would be reformers advocate a simplified structure with 3 tax brackets and a great reduction in deductions.
In order to see where such changes would need to come from, Diogenes examined the major deductions and credits taken by US taxpayers to discover which are the most unfair, or unjust. Below is a chart showing the magnitude of each of these "tax expenditures".
Employer Paid Health Insurance
The largest single deduction, that taken for employer provided insurance plans, should be the first deduction to be eliminated. The amounts companies (or government) spend on these plans should become ordinary income for everyone. All Americans should be given a deduction of up to about $10,000 for direct health insurance spending. While this would cost revenue, there is no public policy benefit to forcing the 30% of Americans who are self employed or self insured to pay for their health insurance with after tax dollars.
Municipal Bond Interest & State and Local Income Taxes
Not shown on the chart are an estimated $120 billion in interest payments on about $3 trillion in municipal bonds, which are generally not subject to federal taxes. Many wealthy citizens avoid tax on substantial portions of their income with these deductions. The Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT) was originally enacted to force these few to pay their "fair share", but because of the "Fiscal Cliff", the number of Americans subject to the AMT absent Congressional action before January will rise from about 4 million to over 25 million.
This deduction should also be eliminated. There is simply no justification to reduce federal revenues to provide support for the local and state projects that these bonds finance. Similarly, the $54 billion in deductions for state and local income taxes should not be deductible from federal taxes. Why do all taxpayers have to subsidize the profligate states (California, Illinois, Massachusetts)? We could broaden the tax base and lower marginal tax rates. The real effect of this deduction is subsidize the high-tax-rate states at the expense of all other taxpayers. People deserve the governments they get. Those who don't like the policies in Illinois and don't live there don't deserve to be forced to pay for a part of the results.
Mortgage Interest Deduction
"Subsidizing housing finance is especially problematic, as home building clearly over expanded in the early 2000s and needed to contract. If public policy subsidized a good into excess supply, further subsidies aren't the cure. The Fed has merely delayed adjustment in the housing and financial sectors by continuing to direct credit to them." (Gerald O'Driscoll, WSJ 8/31)
The mortgage interest deduction is also socially unjust, as it disadvantages minorities and the poor. Only 43% of minorities and 65% of whites are able to take advantage of it. Furthermore, it has failed to achieve it's public policy purchase of increasing home ownership. The rate of home ownership in the US trails many other countries which provide no tax advantages to home owners. By subsidizing housing finance, the US government has also absorbed about $160 billion in losses at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac (so far).
Deduction of Charitable Contributions
Americans have a long history of being among the most charitable people on Earth. But why does government need to support this generosity with over $50 billion in tax deductions? Wouldn't we still give? And if I am an atheist, why do I need to taxably support contributions to your church?
How Do We Decide Which Deduction and Credits To Eliminate?
We have just identified over $325 billion in tax deductions that should be immediately eliminated in the tax code. However, one can only imagine the howls of protest from lobbying groups whose determined efforts have resulted in these distortions to an equitable tax code.
The AMT and various code reform attempts including Simpson Bowles suggested that deductions be phased out as income increases. However, this again results in continuing complexity within the tax code. A reform proposed last week by Republican Presidential candidate Mitt Romney is to enact tax simplification by limiting any taxpayer's total deductions to an amount that would result in revenue neutrality after enactment of across the board rate cuts. He has suggested that the number would be between $17,000 and $50,000. The genius of this proposal is that it would protect the deductions of the middle class. It would limit benefits to high income earners even as it cuts their rates to spur investment activities.
The approach is also appealing because it would make more income subject to taxation—which boosts revenue—while reducing opposition from taxpayers who want to preserve specific deductions. One benefit for politicians is that capping deductions wouldn't produce the same intense opposition they would get if they tried to eliminate just a few specific deductions. And Congress could continue to sell their fiscal favors to special interests secure in the knowledge that they wouldn't be hurting the country (much).


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Rural-Urban Continuum Codes
Stay Connected
The 2013 Rural-Urban Continuum Codes form a classification scheme that distinguishes metropolitan counties by the population size of their metro area, and nonmetropolitan counties by degree of urbanization and adjacency to a metro area. The official Office of Management and Budget (OMB) metro and nonmetro categories have been subdivided into three metro and six nonmetro categories. Each county in the U.S. is assigned one of the 9 codes. This scheme allows researchers to break county data into finer residential groups, beyond metro and nonmetro, particularly for the analysis of trends in nonmetro areas that are related to population density and metro influence. The Rural-Urban Continuum Codes were originally developed in 1974. They have been updated each decennial since (1983, 1993, 2003, 2013), and slightly revised in 1988. Note that the 2013 Rural-Urban Continuum Codes are not directly comparable with the codes prior to 2000 because of the new methodology used in developing the 2000 metropolitan areas. See the Documentation for details and a map of the codes.
An update of the Rural-Urban Continuum Codes is planned for mid-2023.
Last updated: Friday, May 10, 2013
For more information contact: Timothy Parker


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Celebrity Central / Top 25 Celebs
Blake Shelton
- 1990s
Outta This Town
At 17, Shelton, who performs at local honky-tonks, leaves his native Ada, Okla., for Nashville in search of a record deal. Along the way he meets country legend Bobby Braddock, who helps Shelton develop as an artist while he makes the rounds as a demo singer in the country music capital. "That's when the dream is so far off it seems like it will never happen," the up-and-comer reflected of his pre-fame days to CNN.
- 2001
'Austin' Calling
After years of making the rounds in Nashville, Shelton finally releases his self-titled debut, boasting his first No. 1 single "Austin," which spends five weeks at the top of Billboards Hot Country Singles chart. The album also helps earn Shelton a top new male vocalist ACM nomination in 2002. "I love what I do for a living," he gushed at the time. "I can't think of a better situation."
- 2003
Gettin' Hitched
With the release of his second album The Dreamer, Shelton spends most of the year on tour with Toby Keith and receives his first CMA Award nomination for new artist of the year. Although he doesn't take home the prize, he does nab a bride in girlfriend Kaynette Williams, whom he weds on Nov. 17. Their marriage goes bust nearly three years later.
- 2005
Love 'Duets'
A newly single Shelton is paired with newcomer Miranda Lambert for CMT's "100 Greatest Duets" special, where the duo sings "You're The Reason God Made Oklahoma." "We got up there on stage for rehearsal and something just happened, I think we both knew it, " Shelton says of their first meeting. "I'm from southern Oklahoma, she's from north Texas and we had a lot to talk about." Before long, Lambert moves to Oklahoma, a few miles down the road from Shelton.
- 2008
Hot Like Fire!
Shelton releases his fifth album, Startin' Fires, and hits the road with Lambert on a joint tour. "We didn't know if we would kill each other or become closer," Lambert jokes to PEOPLE of touring with her man, who is listed as one of PEOPLE Country's hottest guys. "Knowing that I'm one of the hot guys of country its a strange feeling," Shelton says.
- 2010
'Bone' Collector
Shelton releases Hillbilly Bone, a six-pack album of songs, which heats up the charts with its title track. "When I first heard 'Hillbilly Bone,' I knew it was one of those songs that would kick the door down, and who better to kick the door down with me than my buddy Trace," he says of the Grammy-nominated duet with Trace Adkins. Eight years after earning his first ACM nomination, Shelton finally takes home the award for vocal event of the year with his duet partner for the down-home ode.
A Down-Home Proposal
Shelton surprises Lambert by popping the question with a diamond-and-platinum ring deep in the Oklahoma woods. "I was wearing a camo jacket and no makeup," Lambert tells PEOPLE of the proposal. Shelton adds, "We've been together long enough to know that we're more miserable apart than we are together. I think we're meant to be together, so we're just going to do something about it – finally!"
Grand Ole Awards
Shelton is inducted into the Grand Ole Opry by pal Trace Adkins. "This is the reason you come to Nashville if you're me," Shelton says of the honor. "I get the same feeling walking into the Opry House as I do when I see one of my heroes. The Grand Ole Opry is an artist, and I am proud to be one of its songs."
The year just keeps getting better for Shelton, who takes home two trophies at the CMA Awards, including the highly coveted male vocalist of the year award, beating out the reigning three-time winner Brad Paisley. "It's about 34 years worth of steps right there for me, y'all," the singer says during his acceptance speech. "This is a really big deal for me."
- 2011
Mouthing Off
With his signature charm and witty banter, Shelton joins the judging panel of NBC's new singing competition The Voice, alongside Christina Aguilera, Maroon 5's Adam Levine and Cee Lo Green. "I'm not sure The Voice knows what they signed on for by bringing me on the show," he jokes in a statement.
Photo Credits
BIOGRAPHY (top to bottom): Justin Kahn/WireImage; Rusty Russell/Getty; Ed Rode/CMT; Mark J. Terrill/AP; Denise Truscello/Wireimage; Courtesy Miranda Lambert; Royce DeGrie/Getty; Andrew Walker/Getty; Michael Tran/FilmMagic
- Name
- Blake Shelton
- Date of Birth
- June 18, 1976
- Birth Place
- Ada, Okla.
- Relationships
Miranda Lambert, wife (2006 to present)
Kaynette Williams, ex-wife (2003 to 2006)


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"Do you have all your own body parts?"
This question surfaced when I was visiting with lifelong friends in the home of my childhood friend, Barbara Walker. As the eight of us chatted around the dining room table after lunch, I asked the group to think about the kinds of queries a mature single person might pose when looking for "just a companion." They had some hilarious suggestions as we laughed at Father Time and poked fun at the Grim Reaper. We learned long ago that much of life is about attitude. The positive effects of laughter on our health have been well documented. It relieves stress, enhances resilience, lowers blood pressure and even helps to prevent heart problems. So we laughed the afternoon away as we thought of additional questions.
In your spare time, would you rather read poetry or hunt 'possums? Would you rather read or wrestle? (The answer here will give you a world of information.) Have you been married before? Are you married now? Do you still live with your mommy? Do you have your own teeth? How much money do you have? (Watch this one, for it might be a turnoff.)
Do you like to walk barefoot in the rain or on the beach in the moonlight? Do you take any kind of body-enhancing drugs or are you looking for a strictly platonic relationship? Do you have a sense of humor, or are you a prim and proper grump? How judgmental are you? Do you like to eat out? If the prospective companion is hoity-toity, you might use the word "dine" instead of "eat." One can never be too careful with language. Do you know what a double negative is? If the prospect has uttered one, you might not give a fig. If your blood pressure rises when you hear a double negative, continue searching.
Do you have children? How do they feel about your dating? Have you ever been arrested? Do you like to travel? Should you decide to marry, would you insist on a prenuptial agreement? How many drugs do you take, including over-the-counter, prescription and street drugs? Of course, you might want to do what you did as a young person and take pot luck. Sometimes that works, and sometimes it doesn't.
Still in a light vein, here are several personal ads placed by witty seniors in a Florida newspaper.
"Sexy, fashion-conscious blue-haired beauty, '80s, slim, 5 feet, 4 inches (used to be 5 feet 6 inches)/searching for sharp-looking, sharp-dressing companion. Matching white shoes and belt a plus."
"Long-term commitment - Recent widow who has just buried fourth husband and is looking for someone to round out a six-unit plot. Dizziness, fainting, shortness of breath not a problem."
"Serenity Now - I am into solitude, long walks, sunrises, the ocean, yoga and meditation. If you are the silent type, let's get together, take our hearing aids out and enjoy quiet times."
"Winning Smile - Active grandmother with original teeth seeking a dedicated flosser to share rare steaks, corn on the cob and caramel candy."
"Memories - I can usually remember Monday through Thursday. If you can remember Friday, Saturday and Sunday, let's put our two heads together."
"Mint Condition - Male, 1932, high mileage, good condition, some hair, many new parts including hip, knee, cornea, valves. Isn't in running condition, but walks well."
Who says mature, wise and witty citizens don't have a great sense of humor?


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Program Requirements | MBA Course Descriptions
Students who have completed an undergraduate business program within five years at Westminster College in Accounting, Aviation Management, Business, B.S. in Economics, Information Resource Management, or International Business may have the option, based on admission to the MBA program, of completing an accelerated Master of Business Administration degree. A minimum of 36 graduate semester hours are required to complete the program to earn the Master of Business Administration degree. Individuals who graduated with any of the above-listed degrees five years ago or longer may be required to complete foundational preparation in addition to completing the 36 semester hours of graduate core and elective coursework.
Graduate programs in the Bill and Vieve Gore School of Business prepare students for executive decision making in dynamic business environments. Students build skill in decision making through a combination of coursework, experiential requirements, and skill-building exercises and simulations. Innovative delivery of courses gives students expertise in the functional areas of business.
In addition to building expertise in the functional areas of business, students completing graduate programs in the Bill and Vieve Gore School of Business are required to demonstrate mastery in the following competency areas:
The program requires 36 credit hours for completion. There are four program requirements: three modules and an elective block. All core courses are delivered in a blended format, meaning that courses use a combination of classroom, online, project-based and experiential components. In the classroom, courses may use a combination of learning methods, such as lecture, case study, or in-class projects.
Module 1 contains courses that should be taken at the beginning of the MBA program; courses in this module introduce the model of the entire program. While taking module 1 courses, students and their advisors will work together to complete a program of study and to plan out elective courses and/or graduate certificates to meet the student's individual career goals.
Module 2 and elective courses may be taken as early as desired upon completion of prerequisites. Module 3 can only be taken upon completion of all core required courses as it serves as the capstone for the core program.
A maximum of 9 approved graduate hours may be transferred toward the MBA Program from other professionally accredited institutions (AACSB or ACBSP) upon the written permission of the program director. Courses eligible for transfer are only those that contribute to, or build upon, the program goals. Courses completed at other graduate institutions must be awarded a minimum of a B grade to be eligible for credit.
A grade of C is the lowest passing grade for all MBA and graduate certificate courses.
For course prerequisites please refer to the course description.
|Requirement Description
|Credit Hours
|Module I Courses
|MBA 600C The Language of Strategy
MBA 605C Executive Development
MBA 610C Data Analysis for Decision Making
MBA 615C The Ethical Leader
|Module II Courses
|MBA 620C Understanding Market Dynamics
MBA 625C Financial Reporting and Control
MBA 630C Financial Design and Analysis
MBA 635C Executive Financial Decision Making
MBA 640C Managing Processes
MBA 645C Value Creation and Delivery
MBA 650C Developing Competitive Human Capital
MBA 655C Global Environment of the Firm
|Module III Courses
|MBA 699C International Context Trip*
MBA 670C Achieving Competitive Advantage Through Applied Strategy*
*The international trip is required and can be taken after the student has completed at least 33 credit hours. See program director for details.
**All courses in modules I and II must be completed before taking this course.
|Elective Courses
|Elective courses are chosen with the student's advisor to meet individual career goals. Students wishing to complete a graduate certificate may use electives to complete the requirements for the graduate certificate.
Westminster undergraduate students planning to apply for the accelerated MBA program should consider completing their admissions application, including GMAT score, in the Spring semester of their senior year to ensure full consideration for admission.