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The technique of partially scanned interferograms is applied to the retrieval of trace gases from Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) observations. For the specific case of CO, CO2, CH4 and N2O, we show that this methodology allows us to retrieve trace gases column abundances at an unprecedented accuracy at the level of the single IASI footprint. The technique consists in transforming the IASI spectra back to the interferogram domain where we identify small regions that are mostly sensitive to single gas species. The retrieval is then performed by directly applying Least Squares estimation to these small segments of interferometric radiances. One of the main advantages of the technique is that it allows the efficient use of the information contained in all the IASI channels that are available in the absorption bands of a specific gas species. The retrieval technique has been applied to IASI radiances measured over the Mediterranean sea during the month of July 2010, one of the hottest months on record. Results have been validated against ground-based measurements. We have also carried out a comparison with Atmospheric Infrared Radiometer Sounder data and IASI retrievals obtained with usual variational approaches in the spectral domain.
1. Introduction
Fourier Transform Spectroscopy with Partially Scanned Interferograms (PSI) for the retrieval of trace gases from Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI [1]) observations has been recently investigated by [2–5]. PSI is used to compute the difference between spectra of atmospheric radiances at two different spectral resolutions. This differentiation of the spectrum acts as a high pass filter, which eliminates from the spectrum the low pass components, which include the surface emission in atmospheric window spectral regions. This property is particularly useful for nadir-looking instruments, where we need to separate the atmospheric windows emission component, which conveys information about atmospheric gases in the lower troposphere, from the surface emission.
PSI was first introduced by [6] for the retrieval of atmospheric parameters. Later on, [7] proposed a correlation interferometer for the observation of atmospheric trace gases, whereas [8] further analysed and applied the PSI methodology to the direct inversion of small segments of interferometric radiances for the purpose of temperature retrieval.
When we apply PSI to the retrieval of total column amounts of trace gas species we exploit what is known as the multiplex or Fellgett gain of Fourier transform spectrometers. Each single interferogram sample is a linear combination of the entire set of spectral radiances forming the original spectrum. The peak contribution to top of atmosphere radiances comes from altitudes that change with wave number. Consequently, in the spectral domain we need to sample a relatively large portion of the spectrum if we want to retrieve information for an atmospheric column ranging from the Earth's surface to the top of the atmosphere. Conversely, because in the interferogram domain each data point conveys information from any region of the spectrum, the vertical portion of the atmospheric column covered by any individual interferogram sample is much larger than the portion covered by any spectral sample at a given wave number. In addition, the IASI spectral sampling of 0.25 cm−1 allows us to resolve the specific periodic patterns that characterize the spectra of linear molecules such as CO2, CO and N2O. Due to the properties of the Fourier transform, these periodic patterns in the spectra result in well defined sharp signatures in the interferogram. This means that a small interval of the interferogram domain contains most of the information contained in the whole radiance spectrum. For instance, CO2 absorption lines are typically characterized by a regular spacing of ≈ 0.8 cm−1, this results in a sharp resonance feature in the interferogram. The resonance can be found at an optical path difference equal to the inverse of two times the spacing, i.e. ≈ 0.63 cm.
Following the PSI approach, [3–5] developed an estimation statistical method, which is based on a polynomial regression between interferogram radiance and the total column amount (TCA) of the trace gas. This parametric approach is computationally fast because does not require the calculation of Jacobian derivatives and allowed us to achieve accuracies, at the level of the single IASI observation (which has a footprint of 12 km radius at nadir), of about ±9 ppmv for CO2, ≈ ±16 ppbv for CO, ≈ ±0.1 ppmv for CH4 and ≈ ±30 ppbv for N2O [3, 5].
In this paper we show that the introduction of the use of Jacobian derivatives allows us to utilize a non-parametric approach where the radiative transfer equation is directly inverted through a conventional Least Squares estimation. Using this procedure we can achieve an estimate where the final accuracy has been improved by a factor between 3 and 10, depending on the molecule. The fast computation of the Jacobian derivatives has been made possible by improvements to our forward model for IASI, hereafter referred to as σ-IASI [9, 10]. These improvements have allowed us to run the code 100 times faster than the previous version.
The limb-sounding of upper and lower stratosphere trace species is amongst the main goals of many satellite missions, e.g. Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment [11], MIPAS (Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding) of the European Space Agency [12]. The objective of this study is to apply our methodology to the retrieval of trace gases from IASI, which is a nadir-looking instrument, with improved accuracy and horizontal spatial resolution.
The subject of remote sensing of atmospheric minor and trace gases from nadir looking instruments on board polar satellites is not a new subject. The sensors used for this scope include the Japanese IMG (Interferometric Monitoring of Greenhouse Gases) [13], the American AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Radiometer Sounder) [14–16], the European IASI [3, 17–24] and the Japanese GOSAT (Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite) [25].
In this paper we offer a different perspective focusing on the use of the PSI methodology and documenting its capability of achieving columnar contents of trace gases with an unprecedented accuracy. The PSI methodology has been applied to IASI data recorded during July 2010 over the Mediterranean sea. The July 2010 period has been selected because of the weather pattern over the Mediterranean, which has been characterized by above normal surface temperatures associated to a relatively high frequency of blocking days. Likewise, a particularly long blocking event has been experienced over Western Russia that has lead to the occurrence of anomalously high temperatures over this region. Thus, we have decided to use our methodology to investigate whether the quiescent weather and the high temperatures could have resulted in any detectable behaviour in the concentration of the trace gases considered in this paper.
The state vector (surface temperature, temperature, H2O and O3 atmospheric profiles), which is needed to initialize the estimation procedure for the total column amount of traces gases, has been retrieved directly from IASI radiances, through the forward/inverse package that we call φ-IASI. The mathematical aspects and validation of φ-IASI have been discussed in detail in various publications [9, 10, 26–32]. Ancillary information used to constrain the retrieval of the atmospheric state vector has been obtained from the European Centre for Medium range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) analyses, collocated in time and space with the IASI soundings.
The paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we describe the IASI data and the new aspects of our forward model σ-IASI, whereas the description of the basic methods used in the PSI approach is presented in sections 3. The retrieval methodology for CO2, CO, CH4 and N2O is discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2. Section 3.1 covers the case of CO2 and is mainly intended to give an example of the overall retrieval methodology. Results obtained from the use of IASI data are presented for the aforementioned Mediterranean basin case study in section 4, where we also show a comparison to AIRS data and IASI retrievals obtained with variational approaches in the spectral domain [23, 24]. Finally, conclusions are drawn in section 5.
2. Data
IASI observations used in this work have been recorded during the entire month of July 2010 over the Mediterranean sea. We concentrate on clear sky, sea surface soundings. However, the retrieval methodology can be applied to any kind of surface.
IASI, which is flying on board the Metop-A/B (Meteorological Operational Satellite) platforms, has been developed in France by the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) and is the first of three satellites of the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) European Polar System (EPS). The IASI instrument [1] covers the spectral range from 645 to 2760 cm−1 (3.62 to 15.50 μm), with a sampling interval Δσ = 0.25 cm−1. Thus, each single spectrum is formed by 8461 data points or channels. The calibrated IASI interferogram extends from 0 to a maximum optical path difference of 2 cm. IASI is an across track scanning system with a swath range of ±48°20′. The scan movement is symmetric with respect to the nadir direction and results in a scan line with thirty footprint positions on the Earth's surface. The effective field of view (EFOV) is the useful field of view at each scan position or footprint. Each footprint consists of a 2 × 2 matrix of instantaneous fields of view (IFOV). Any single IFOV has a diameter of 14.65 mrad, which corresponds to a ground resolution of 12 km at nadir assuming a satellite altitude of 819 km. The 2 × 2 matrix is centred on the viewing direction.
The IASI spectra were screened for cloud contamination using the IASI stand alone cloud detection algorithm developed by the authors [28–31]. After cloud detection, a total of 34719 IASI spectra were selected.
For comparison purposes we have utilized AIRS level 2 CO2 products (AIRS version 5) for the same area and dates [33]. The data are not gridded and their horizontal spatial resolution is 90 km, which is coarser than the IASI 12 km resolution. For the case of CO, we have also used IASI data utilizing a different retrieval scheme. This is the scheme developed at LATMOS-ULB (Laboratoire d'Optique Atmosphérique - Université libre de Bruxelles) [23, 24]. LATMOS-ULB IASI Level 2 CO data for the whole month of July 2010 over the Mediterranean basin have been downloaded from the Atmospheric Chemistry Data Center [34] site.
Sea level July averages of CO2, CH4 and N2O concentrations obtained from a number of Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) (World Meteorological Organization) WMO stations located in the Mediterranean basin have been also used.
To specify the water vapour and ozone background vectors and covariance matrices utilized in the inversion of the IASI spectra, we have used ECMWF atmospheric analysis fields at 00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and 18:00 UTC during July 2010. The version of the ECMWF model which was operational at that time was characterized by a vertical discretization of the atmosphere into 91 pressure levels with the model top at 0.01 hPa and a horizontal truncation of T1279. This truncation corresponds to a grid spacing of about 16km or, equivalently, to a horizontal grid box of 0.141° × 0.141°. The vertical coordinates of the model are surfaces of constant pressure in the upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere whereas they follow the earth's surface in the lower and mid-troposphere. In terms of vertical resolution (measured in geometric height), this is highest in the planetary boundary and lowest in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere. The analysis fields were extracted from the ECMWF archive at the full T1279 resolution, interpolated to a grid of points with a separation of 0.3° × 0.3° and then collocated in both space and time to the IASI soundings used in this study.
For T (temperature profile) and Ts (surface temperature) our IASI retrieval algorithm does not use the ECMWF analyses. These two parameters are first directly estimated from IASI observations with an Empirical Orthogonal Function linear regression procedure and, finally, simultaneously retrieved with the other parameters through iterations with a physical inverse scheme. This final physical retrieval step retrieves simultaneously the state vector (T, Q, O, Ts, ε), where Q is the water vapour mixing ratio profile (units of g/kg), O is the ozone mixing ratio profile (units of ppmv) and ε the surface emissivity spectrum. The most recent version of the scheme can be found in [32]. Trace gases are not retrieved at this stage, their retrieval is performed sequentially using the PSI scheme utilizing the state vector (T, Q, O, Ts, ε) previously estimated from IASI.
2.1. Forward model
Radiative transfer calculations are based on our σ-IASI model [9]. The σ-IASI package consists of a monochromatic radiative transfer computer code designed for the fast computation of spectral radiances and their derivatives (Jacobians) with respect to a set of geophysical parameters. In its original formulation σ-IASI uses a vertical grid of sixty atmospheric layers bounded by pressure levels ranging from 1050 to 0.005 hPa. The model is based on a look-up table of optical depths computed using the line-by-line code LBLRTM [35]. The current optical depth look-up table is based on LBLRTM version 12 released on January 2011 in conjunction with the water vapour continuum model MT CKD version 2.5.2 and the line file aer v3.0 [36]. The σ-IASI model parameterizes the monochromatic optical depths using a second order polynomial. At a given pressure, the optical depth for the generic i-th molecule, is computed according to37]. Thus, for water vapour, identified with i = 1, the optical depths is calculated according to 9], the monochromatic optical depth was computed and parameterized at the spectral resolution of 10−4 cm−1. A recent analysis of the trade-off between accuracy and computational efficiency of the code has shown that this spectral sampling can be reduced without sacrificing the robustness and accuracy of the inverse scheme. The analysis has shown that for IASI, the optical depth can be averaged and re-sampled at the lower rate of 10−2 cm−1. This is referred to as lut-coarse (look-up-table-coarse) sampling in contrast to the lut-fine sampling of 10−4 cm−1. Also, in the case of the lut-coarse sampling interval, the optical depth can be parameterized with a low order polynomial where the regression coefficients are obtained as explained below. For each species i we can define an equivalent optical depth χ〈σ〉,i, which can be parameterized with respect to temperature in the same way we do for lut-fine sampled quantities (Eqs. (1) and (2)). The equivalent optical depth is Eq. (3) the equivalent coefficients c〈σ〉,j,i with j = 0, 1, 2, are obtained by fitting the layer transmittance averaged from the fine to the coarse spectral resolution
3. PSI basics and retrieval methodology
For a Fourier transform spectrometer such as IASI the quantity which is effectively measured is the interferogram, I(x), with x the OPD (optical path difference in units of cm). The spectrum, R(σ), with σ the wave number (in units of cm−1) is recovered through a Fourier transform operation. For a calibrated, bandlimited spectrum, whatever its origin and measurement technique, the interferogram is simply computed as the Fourier transform of the symmetrized spectrum, r(σ)3]. For the present analysis, these properties are well illustrated by the case for CO2 whose periodic pattern of absorption lines, superimposed on vibrational transitions, yields a typical interferogram resonance around x = 0.65 cm. This resonance is plotted in Fig. 1, which shows a typical interferogram for a tropical IASI sounding. The interferogram has been obtained by considering the IASI band 1 (645 to 1210 cm−1) alone. In this band we have the ν2 fundamental absorption band of CO2 and the hot bands in the atmospheric window. It is important to stress that the partial interferogram shown in Fig. 1 conveys information from the entire IASI band 1. This means that due to the spectral characteristics of CO2 lines, all the IASI band 1 information on CO2 emission is compressed in a relatively small interval in the interferogram domain. This is all the more evident when we consider the sensitivity of the partial interferogram to the concentration of CO2. The sensitivity is computed as the Jacobian derivative of the interferogram radiance, JI with respect to the CO2 atmospheric profile, that is Fig. 2 for the range of OPD around the CO2 resonance. From this figure we see that the sensitivity of I(x) to CO2 extends throughout the entire atmospheric column, down below to the planetary boundary layer.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
3.1. The case of CO2
For the retrieval of the total column amount of CO2, we consider the partial interferogram which extends from x1 = 0.55 cm to x2 = 0.75 cm. This interferogram is derived from IASI radiances in band 1, which covers the range from 645 to 1210 cm−1. The partial interferogram is shown in Fig. 3 for the case of a typical tropical air mass. The contribution to the signal due to the potential interfering molecules H2O and O3 is also shown in the figure. For the generic interfering factor, X, the contribution to the interferogram is computed by considering the difference, I(x) − IX (x), where I(x) is the interferogram with the full state vector, and IX (x) that with the state vector where X has been set to zero. It is seen that within the range 0.55–0.75 cm the interferogram signal is mostly due to CO2. The effect of H2O is significant, whereas that of O3 can be considered to be an effect of second order.
Fig. 3
For the specific case of IASI, the number of interferogram samples within the range 0.55–0.75 cm is N = 227. Let I be the interferogram vector, I = (I1,..., IN)T), where the super-script T stands for transpose and Ij stands for I(xj), j = 1,...,N and let v = (qCO2, T, Q, Ts)T be the state vector. We develop the interferogram in a Taylor series around a reference state vector, vo truncated at the first order term,
Because the reference atmospheric state vo has been itself retrieved by using IASI observations, the assumption of linearity is reasonable, unless the retrieval failed. In addition, we do not need at this stage to retrieve the fine structures of the vertical profiles of T and Q. These parameters are included, along with Ts, to avoid that their residual uncertainty could bias the final estimate of the total column amount of CO2. For this reason we assume that the true and the reference atmospheric parameters may be different up to a scaling factor, that isEq. (7) simplifies in Eq. (9). Then, Eq. (9) can be written as Eq. (10) we have M = 4 unknowns and N = 227 observations, therefore we can use Least Squares to seek for an optimal solution. We have checked that no further constraints have to be considered to get an estimate f̂ of f and its covariance matrix, Sf̂, therefore we can use unconstrained Least Square, this is important because it means that the final solution is not biased,
Finally, an estimate q̄CO2 of the total column amount of CO2 is obtained by3], we have checked that the choice of either an uniform CO2 profile (constant mixing ratio with the altitude) or a non-uniform profile is not critical. This sensitivity check has been performed by considering retrievals obtained with uniform profiles with a fixed mixing ratio value of 385 ppmv (see Fig. 3) and non-uniform CO2 profiles obtained from ECMWF analysis (e.g., see Fig. 2 in ref [3]) colocated in time and space with the JAIVEx soundings. As a result we have a difference, (non-uniform)-(uniform), which does not exceed +1 ppmv.
The various scaling factors which are determined within the retrieval scheme also provide a good quality check of the final solution. We do not expect dramatic variations in the values corresponding to Ts, T and H2O. The reference atmospheric parameters have been obtained by a physical inversion of the same spectra we use to retrieve CO2. In case we find large variations, it is likely that the retrieval has failed due to some unknown source of additional error, most likely cloudiness. For temperature we expect at most to have variations below ±1 K, for water vapour we could expect some larger deviation from the reference, because the IASI retrieval may have a large uncertainty in the lower troposphere. However, variation larger than 20% are suspicious and the retrieval is flagged as of poor quality in this case.
To demonstrate the PSI methodology, we have applied it to a set of 22 clear sky, sea surface IASI soundings which were recorded during the 2007 JAIVEx experiment [38], which took place in the Gulf of Mexico. This set of IASI spectra has been already used to check the PSI retrieval for CO2 by [3], which the reader is referred to for further details. Six of this spectra are nadir view spectra, whereas the remaining 16 correspond to an angle of ≈ 22.5°. Furthermore, the spectra have been recorded on different days. Six (those at nadir) on 29 April 2007, sixteen on 30 April 2007. For that period the global average value for CO2 was 384.10 ppmv, according to the NASA Earth System Monitoring Laboratory (Global Monitoring Division) [39]. For the JAIVEx experiment, the reference atmospheric state, consisting of (Ts, T, Q, O) was retrieved by initializing the physical scheme with a first guess obtained by EOF regression. From a comparison with in situ dropsonde observations, we know that the final results for H2O were determined with an accuracy not better than 15%. In contrast, the accuracy for Ts was within ±0.5 K and that for the temperature profile was within ±1 K in layers of 1 km width in the lower troposphere [32]. Figure 4 shows the retrieved values of q̄CO2 corresponding to the 22 IASI soundings. It is seen that the accuracy, computed through Eq. (13) of the estimate is ±3 ppmv (that is better than 1%) at the level of the single IASI IFOV, hence at a spatial resolution of 12 km. The average of the retrieval for 29 April 2007 is (383.0 ± 1.2) ppmv, whereas that for 30 April 2007 is (382.2 ± 0.8) ppmv to be compared to the global average value of 384.10 ppmv for that period. It is important to note that if we consider the standard deviation of the retrieval shown in Fig. 4 we get the value of ±3 ppmv, which is equal to the accuracy of each single observation. In other words, the variability we see in Fig. 4 is that of the random error of the IASI observations and is not due to an additional unknown source of random noise or bias. To further check the quality of the retrieval it is also interesting to look at the behaviour of the four scaling factors. These are shown in Fig. 4. It is seen that the effect of Ts and T is marginal. The scale factor for the skin temperature is almost zero, which attests to the accuracy of the reference value used for Ts in our scheme. The scaling for the temperature profile is in any case below 1%, which again is a sign of the quality of the reference we used for the retrieval. Conversely, as expected, the effect of H2O is more conspicuous and the related scaling factor can attain variations as large as 14%.
Fig. 4
Finally, the problem of the interdependence between the total column amount of CO2 and the temperature profile is addressed. First, we note that through the scaling factor, fT we retrieve a bulk temperature of the atmosphere and not a detailed temperature profile. The fact that we have independent information for both fT and fCO2 is evidenced by the existence of the unconstrained Least Squares solution we get through Eq. (11). A strong interdependency between the two parameters fT and fCO2 would yield a Kernel A highly ill-conditioned. However, normally the conditioning number of this Kernel is below 100, which means that the linear system expressed by Eq. (10) is made up with equations, which are largely independent. The interdependency between atmospheric parameters can be also analysed by looking at the a-posteriori covariance matrix, Sf or better at the correlation matrix, Cf defined according toEq. (10), a typical example of the correlation matrix Cf is shown in Eq. (15) below Eq. (15), second row, we note a relatively high interdependency between T and Q, and T and Ts.
In summary, for the retrieval scheme we have developed the interdependence between temperature profile and the total column amount of CO2 is not a major concern, a source of possible bias is much more linked to Ts, for which we need a good reference value to initialize the inverse scheme to retrieve q̄CO2.
3.2. The case of CO, N2O and CH4
The retrieval methodology developed for CO2 has been also applied to CO, N2O and CH4. Of course, the partial interferogram depends on the given gas and is selected in order to minimize interfering effects from other species.
For the case of CO, a linear molecule, its spectrum (at the IASI spectral resolution) has regularly spaced spectral lines in the atmospheric window between 2080 and 2200 cm−1. The line spacing is ≈ 2 cm−1 in the spectral domain, which yields a resonance in the interferogram space at the inverse of two times the line spacing, that is 0.25 cm. The partial interferogram we use for CO total column amount retrieval is obtained by Fourier transforming the IASI band 3 alone. The interferogram interval extends from 0.2230 to 0.3118 cm and is shown in Fig. 5(a) for the case of a tropical model of atmosphere. At the IASI sampling interval, we have a total of N = 136 data points. In this range, apart from the ubiquitous presence of water vapour, CO is the most important contributors to the spectrum, with N2O and O3 playing a secondary role.
Fig. 5
N2O is a linear molecule as well, with regularly spaced absorption lines at the spectral IASI resolution. The main N2O absorption bands (ν1 and ν3 absorptions bands) are located in IASI band 1, 2 and 3. For this reason, to take advantage of the contribution from all lines, the interferogram from N2O is obtained by Fourier transforming the whole IASI spectrum (band 1, 2 and 3). The partial interferogram for N2O is shown in Fig. 5(b) and extends over two separate intervals from 1.0459 to 1.0499 cm and 1.1220 to 1.1270 cm, respectively, for a total of 40 data points. N2O is the most difficult gas to retrieve. Its ν1-absorption band overlaps that of methane at 1306.6 cm−1, and the ν3 in the short-wave region overlaps that of CO2. The partial interferogram range we have selected is the only short portion of the whole interferogram where the main contributor is N2O, whereas the contribution from interfering species, especially by CH4 is minimized.
Finally, CH4 is present in the IASI band 2 (ν4 absorption band centred at 1306.2 cm−1). Methane is not a linear molecule, however its spectrum also generates (at IASI spectral resolution) a characteristic wave-like structure in the interferogram domain. For the purpose of the retrieval of the total column amount of CH4, the interferogram has been obtained by considering only the IASI band 2, which limits potential interfering effects mostly to N2O alone. The partial interferogram we have selected for the retrieval of CH4 is shown in Fig 5(c). It extends from 0.7399 to 1 cm for a total of 412 data points. In this range the contribution from N2O is nearly zero.
The reference profiles we use for CO, CH4, N2O and CO2 as well are summarized in Fig. 3. The total column amount from the reference profile yields 109 ppbv for CO, 306 ppbv for N2O and 1646 ppbv for CH4.
As for CO2 we have that the sensitivity of our retrieval methodology extends to a large portion of the troposphere. Normally, the lower troposphere, which extends from 1000 to ≈ 800 hPa shows a very poor sensitivity, mostly for CH4 and N2O, as it is possible to see from Fig. 6, which shows mesh surfaces of the Jacobian derivative of the interferogram radiance with respect to the volume mixing ratio of CO, N2O and CH4, respectively.
Fig. 6
For the set of 22 IASI spectra from the JAIVEx experiment, Fig. 7 shows the retrieval for the total amount of CO, N2O and CH4, respectively. The accuracy of the retrieval for a single IASI observations is ≈ ±1.5 ppbv, ≈ ±13 ppbv and ≈ ±0.015 ppmv respectively for CO, N2O and CH4. Figure 7 shows that the retrieval is largely in agreement with the global annual cycle of CO, CH4 and N2O, respectively (e.g., [40]). In addition, as already found for the case of CO2, we also have that the standard deviation of the retrieved values for CH4 and N2O perfectly parallels the accuracy assessed trough the retrieval covariance matrix, Eq. (11), that is ±15 ppbv for CH4 and 13 ppbv for N2O. For CO the standard deviation is 3 ppbv, which is about two times the accuracy. This is quite compatible with the high variability of this atmospheric gas.
Fig. 7
4. Application to IASI for the Mediterranean sea
To check the quality and reliability of the retrieval algorithm for trace gases when applied to a large set of IASI data, we have focused on the Mediterranean basin for the period of July 2010. We have a total of 34719 IASI soundings, which have been checked for clear sky using the IASI stand alone cloud detection scheme described in [28–31]. Each IASI sounding has been inverted for Ts and T, Q, O. These parameters have been used as the reference state in the sequential retrieval for trace gases.
The maps for the four trace gases considered in this study are shown in Fig. 8. The original IASI retrieval has been smoothed with a Wiener filter [41] and projected on 0.5×0.5 deg (lat × lon) grid. To a variable degree, all maps shows a positive gradient into the direction North-West to South-East. This is in agreement with the general circulation over the Mediterranean sea for the month of July. For the case of CO2 we have that the total column amount is distributed over a range of values form 380 to 390 ppmv, with an average of 384.8 ppmv. This can be compared to the global average value of the annual cycle for the month of July 2010, which according to the NASA Earth System Monitoring Laboratory (Global Monitoring Division) [39] is equal to 387.21 ppmv.
Fig. 8
The average values for CH4, N2O, and CO are 1926 ppbv, 313 ppbv and 88 ppbv, respectively. The value observed for CH4 is a bit higher of that credited to this gas from ground based observations at mid-latitude, that is 1874 ppbv [40], whereas for N2O our average concentration of 313 ppbv is slightly smaller than the global value, which is 324 ppbv [40]. These differences have to be expected when we compare sea surface measurements with satellite observations, which are not sensitive to the planetary boundary layer (e.g. see Fig. 6). The observed differences just says that the volume mixing ratio of both N2O and CH4 is not uniform with the altitude. For N2O aircraft observations tend to confirm that the concentration of N2O in the boundary layer is some 10–15 ppbv larger than that in the open troposphere [42].
For the case of CO, we have to say that this is a gas which has a large time and space variability, so that the comparison with sea surface values makes less sense. What we can say is that sea surface observations also show a pronounced annual cycle with its minimum in the summer season. Also, aircraft records show that the summer vertical spatial distribution of CO concentration has a rapid decrease from the boundary layer to the free troposphere [43]. This behaviour is in agreement with our retrieval. We also stress that our CO retrieval results are in excellent agreement with those obtained with the LATMOS-ULB algorithm [23, 24]. The comparison to our CO retrievals is shown in Fig. 9. The LATMOS-ULB mean value for the month of July is 89.4 ppbv with a variability of 9.08 ppbv over the basin. This figure can be compared to our figure of 88.2 ppbv for the mean and 7.20 ppbv for the variability. The slightly lower mean and variability obtained using our retrieval is likely to be a result of the use of a more stringent cloud mask in the processing of the IASI data. Nevertheless, the two maps plotted in Fig. 9 show remarkably consistent features and display the same horizontal spatial gradients.
Fig. 9
For the CO2 case we have carried out a comparison with AIRS CO2 level 2 products by projecting IASI and AIRS CO2 fields on the same 2 × 2 deg (lat × lon) grid. Results are shown in the maps plotted in Fig. 10. It is evident that the results shown in the AIRS map display all the elements of a random behaviour. Furthermore, the AIRS CO2 level 2 data give an average value of 391.5 ppmv with a variability (standard deviation) of 2.8 ppmv. This means that, even taking into account its variability, the AIRS estimate of the average value exceeds both the value of the annual cycle for the month of July (387.21 ppmv) and the annual trend for 2010 (388.58 ppmv [39]). In contrast, our scheme retrieves an average value of 384.8 ppmv, which, within a variability of 4.8 ppmv, is in agreement with both the cycle and the trend. Besides, this variability of 4.8 ppmv is not just random. It reflects a North-to-South gradient as shown in Fig. 10. This pattern is absent in the AIRS results which clearly show that the variability of the retrieval is fundamentally random.
Fig. 10
As shown in Fig. 10, the North-to-South gradient retrieved by the IASI PSI scheme is in agreement with the observations of CO2 and CH4 at the sea surface level obtained from the GAW WMO network for the month of July 2010. For the case of CO2 it is interesting to see that the IASI PSI retrieval is capable of capturing the local minimum around Filokalia station (see Fig. 11). The capability of the PSI methodology of capturing the correct horizontal gradients is also evident in the case of methane. These results support our claim of being able to retrieve the concentration of trace gases to an unprecedented accuracy. Also, we note that the North-West to South-East gradient for CO2 and CH4 is in agreement with the known biogenic activity of the Mediterranean sea. In summer the North-West part of the sea is a sink for CO2, whereas the South-East part behaves like a source [44].
Fig. 11
5. Conclusion
We have demonstrated that the technique of partial correlation interferometry applied to IASI observations is capable of improving the accuracy of trace gas retrieval to the unprecedented values of ±3 ppmv for CO2, ±13 ppbv for N2O, ±1.5 ppbv for CO and, finally ±15 ppbv for CH4 for each single IASI observation with a horizontal spatial resolution of ≈ 12 km. The analysis of IASI data over the relatively small basin of the Mediterranean sea has shown that we can retrieve relatively small scale structures. This has allowed us to detect for the first time a summer North-West to South-East gradient in the concentration of trace gases of climatological importance. The pattern of CO2 is consistent with the known biogenic activity of the Mediterranean sea in July. The global monthly maps of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide retrieved using IASI data are consistent with the known annual cycles of these trace gases. As an example, we were able to detect the strong decrease of carbon monoxide concentration in July, when the concentration of this gas in the open troposphere goes below 100 ppbv. It has also to be stressed that our scheme is a physical-based algorithm, which exploits the capability of the σ-IASI forward model to compute analytical Jacobian derivatives. Examples of analytical Jacobian have been provided that show the sensitivity of IASI to the vertical concentration of trace gases. Because of this capability, our scheme can be easily generalized to retrieve also information along the vertical. However, the important aspect of the present methodology is that it is based on unconstrained Least Square, which yields unbiased results. If we want to move to the retrieval of vertical profiles, we will need additional constraints, which inevitably will add bias to the final solution. To conclude, the vertical spatial resolution and the magnitude of the bias will depend on the background constraint, an effect which will be investigated in future work.
IASI has been developed and built under the responsibility of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES, France). It is flown onboard the Metop satellites as part of the EUMETSAT Polar System. The IASI L1 data are received through the EUMETCast near real time data distribution service. We thank Dr Stuart Newman (Met Office) for providing the JAIVEx data. The ground based measurements in Lampedusa and Sede Boker have been provided by NOAA/ESRL and have been downloaded from (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/dv/iadv/). The ground based measurements in Begur and Finokalia have been provided by Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement (http://www.lsce.ipsl.fr/). The ground based measurements in Cairo have been provided by the Egyptian Meteorological Authority (http://ema.gov.eg/). The ground based measurements in Lampedusa for what concerns N2O have been provided by the Italian Agency ENEA. Work supported by project Ritmare-Ricerca Italiana per il Mare (CNR-MIUR)
References and links
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10. A. Carissimo, I. De Feis, and C. Serio, "The physical retrieval methodology for IASI: the δ-IASI code," Environ. Model. Software , 20(9), 1111–1126 (2005), doi: [CrossRef] .
11. http://www.ace.uwaterloo.ca/
12. https://earth.esa.int/web/guest/missions/esa-operational-eo-missions/envisat/instruments/mipas
13. A. M. Lubrano, G. Masiello, M. Matricradi, C. Serio, and V. Cuomo, "Retrieving N2O from nadir-viewing infrared spectrometers," Tellus B 56(3), 249–261 (2004), doi: [CrossRef] .
14. M. T. Chahine, C. Barnet, E. T. Olsen, L. Chen, and E. Maddy, "On the determination of atmospheric minor gases by the method of vanishing partial derivatives with application to CO2," Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L22803 (2005), doi: [CrossRef] .
15. M. T. Chahine, L. Chen, P. Dimotakis, X. Jiang, Q. Li, E. T. Olsen, T. Pagano, J. Randerson, and Y. L. Yung, "Satellite remote sounding of mid-tropospheric CO2," Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L17807 (2008), doi: [CrossRef] .
16. W. W. Mc Millan, C. Barnet, L. Strow, M. T. Chahine, M. L. Mc Court, J. X. Warner, P. C. Novelli, S. Korontzi, E. S. Maddy, and S. Datta, "Daily global maps of carbon monoxide from NASA's Atmospheric Infrared Sounder," Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L11801 (2005), doi: [CrossRef] .
17. C. Crevoisier, A. Chédin, H. Matsueda, T. Machida, R. Armante, and N. A. Scott, "First year of upper tropospheric integrated content of CO2from IASI hyperspectral infrared observations," Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 4797–4810 (2009), doi: [CrossRef] .
18. P. Ricaud, J.-L. Attié, H. Teyssédre, L. El Amraoui, V.-H. Peuch, M. Matricardi, and P. Schluessel, "Equatorial total column of nitrous oxide as measured by IASI on MetOp-A: implications for transport processes," Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 3947–3956 (2009), doi: [CrossRef] .
19. A. Boynard, C. Clerbaux, P.-F. Coheur, D. Hurtmans, S. Turquety, M. George, J. Hadji-Lazaro, C. Keim, and J. Mayer-Arnek, "Measurements of total and tropospheric ozone from the IASI instrument: comparison with satellite and ozonesonde observations," Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 6255–6271 (2009), doi: [CrossRef] .
20. L. Clarisse, P.-F. Coheur, A. J. Prata, D. Hurtmans, A. Razavi, T. Phulpin, J. Hadji-Lazaro, and C. Clerbaux, "Tracking and quantifying volcanic SO2with IASI, the September 2007 eruption at Jebel at Tair," Atm. Chem. Phys. 8, 7723–7734 (2008), doi: [CrossRef] .
21. L. Clarisse, C. Clerbaux, F. Dentener, D. Hurtmans, and P.-F. Coheur, "Global ammonia distribution derived from infrared satellite observations," Nature Geosci. 2, 479–483 (2009), doi: [CrossRef]
22. C. Clerbaux, A. Boynard, L. Clarisse, M. George, J. Hadji-Lazaro, H. Herbin, D. Hurtmans, M. Pommier, A. Razavi, S. Turquety, C. Wespes, and P.-F. Coheur, "Monitoring of atmospheric composition using the thermal infrared IASI/Metop sounder," Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 6041–6054 (2009), doi: [CrossRef] .
23. D. Hurtmans, P.-F. Coheur, C. Wespes, L. Clarisse, O. Scharf, C. Clerbaux, J. Hadji-Lazaro, M. George, and S. Turquety, "FORLI radiative transfer and retrieval code for IASI," J. Quant. Spectroscop. Ra. 113(11), 1391–1408 (2012), doi: [CrossRef] .
24. T. Kerzenmacher, B. Dils, N. Kumps, T. Blumenstock, C. Clerbaux, P.-F. Coheur, P. Demoulin, O. Garcia, M. George, D. W. T. Griffith, F. Hase, J. Hadji-Lazaro, D. Hurtmans, N. Jones, E. Mahieu, J. Notholt, C. Paton-Walsh, U. Raffalski, T. Ridder, M. Schneider, C. Servais, and M. De Maziere, "Validation of IASI FORLI carbon monoxide retrievals using FTIR data from NDACC," Atmos. Meas. Tech. 5, 2751–2761 (2012), doi: [CrossRef] .
25. D. Wunch, P. O. Wennberg, G. C. Toon, B. J. Connor, B. Fisher, G. B. Osterman, C. Frankenberg, L. Mandrake, C. O'Dell, P. Ahonen, S. C. Biraud, R. Castano, N. Cressie, D. Crisp, N. M. Deutscher, A. Eldering, M. L. Fisher, D. W. T. Griffith, M. Gunson, P. Heikkinen, G. Keppel-Aleks, E. Kyro, R. Lindenmaier, R. Macatangay, J. Mendonca, J. Messerschmidt, C. E. Miller, I. Morino, J. Notholt, F. A. Oyafuso, M. Rettinger, J. Robinson, C. M. Roehl, R. J. Salawitch, V. Sherlock, K. Strong, R. Sussmann, T. Tanaka, D. R. Thompson, O. Uchino, T. Warneke, and S. C. Wofsy, "A method for evaluating bias in global measurements of CO2 total columns from space," Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 12317–12337 (2011), doi: [CrossRef] .
26. U. Amato, M. F. Carfora, V. Cuomo, and C. Serio, "Objective algorithms for the aerosol problem," Appl. Opt. 34(24), 5442–5452 (1995), doi: [CrossRef] . [PubMed]
27. G. Masiello and C. Serio, "Dimensionality-reduction approach to the thermal radiative transfer equation inverse problem," Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L11105 (2004) doi: [CrossRef] .
28. G. Grieco, G. Masiello, M. Matricardi, C. Serio, D. Summa, and V. Cuomo, "Demonstration and validation of the φ-IASI inversion scheme with NAST-I data," Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 133(s3), 217–232 (2007), doi: [CrossRef] .
29. C. Serio, A. M. Lubrano, F. Romano, and H. Shimoda, "Cloud detection over sea surface by use of autocorrelation functions of upwelling infrared spectra in the 800–900-cm−1window region," Appl. Opt. 39(21), 3565–3572 (2000), doi: [CrossRef] .
30. G. Masiello, M. Matricardi, R. Rizzi, and C. Serio, "Homomorphism between cloudy and clear spectral radiance in the 800–900-cm−1atmospheric window region," Appl. Opt. 41(6), 965–973 (2002), doi: [CrossRef] . [PubMed]
31. G. Masiello, C. Serio, and V. Cuomo, "Exploiting quartz spectral signature for the detection of cloud-affected satellite infrared observations over African desert areas," Appl. Opt. 43(11), 2305–2315 (2004), doi: [CrossRef] . [PubMed]
32. G. Masiello and C. Serio, "Simultaneous physical retrieval of surface emissivity spectrum and atmospheric parameters from infrared atmospheric sounder interferometer spectral radiances," Appl. Opt. 52(11), 2428–2446 (2013), doi: [CrossRef] . [PubMed]
33. http://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/AIRS_CO2_Data/
34. http://www.pole-ether.fr/etherTypo/index.php?id=1577&L=1
35. S. A. Clough, M. W. Shephard, E. J. Mlawer, J. S. Delamere, M. J. Iacono, K. Cady-Pereira, S. Boukabara, and P. D. Brown, "Atmospheric radiative transfer modeling: a summary of the AER codes," J. Quant. Spectroscop. Ra. 91(2), 233–244 (2005), doi: [CrossRef] .
37. G. Masiello and C. Serio, "An effective water vapor self-broadening scheme for look-up-table-based radiative transfer," in Remote Sensing of Clouds and the Atmosphere VII. Proceedings of the SPIE, Volume 4882. (K. P. Schaefer, O. Lado-Bordowsky, A. Comeron, and R. H. Picard, eds.), 52–61 (2003), doi: [CrossRef] .
38. FAAM, "Joint Airborne IASI Validation Experiment (JAIVEX)," http://badc.nerc.ac.uk/data/jaivex/.
39. http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/.
40. T. J. Blasing, "Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations," (2011) doi: [CrossRef] .
41. J. S. Lim, Two-Dimensional Signal and Image Processing (Prentice Hall, 1990), p. 548.
42. http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/wdcgg/wdcgg.html
43. A. Klonecki, M. Pommier, C. Clerbaux, G. Ancellet, J.-P. Cammas, P.-F. Coheur, A. Cozic, G. S. Diskin, J. Hadji-Lazaro, D. A. Hauglustaine, D. Hurtmans, B. Khattatov, J.-F. Lamarque, K. S. Law, P. Nedelec, J.-D. Paris, J. R. Podolske, P. Prunet, H. Schlager, S. Szopa, and S. Turquety, "Assimilation of IASI satellite CO fields into a global chemistry transport model for validation against aircraft measurements," Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 4493–4512 (2012), doi: [CrossRef] .
44. F. D'Ortenzio, D. Antoine, and S. Marullo, "Satellite-driven modeling of the upper ocean mixed layer and air-sea CO2flux in the Mediterranean Sea," Deep-Sea Res . Pt. I 55(4), 405–434 (2008), doi: [CrossRef] .


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Just a nice little thought.
When setting up the league, the process requires you to set the league season.
When you then go to fixtures, the default date is 1900 and could probably default to the year set to the date of the league.
BTW - haven't used it fully yet, but this plugin looks wonderful !


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- Report: #19872
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We simply upgraded our website and it is DESTROYED:
You can look at it and see it's a disaster, but to further explain...
The normal structure of the layout is insane, it's repeating posts over and over that should only be displayed once, and it's totally missing all of the other thumbnail posts.
We have had this layout structure for a year and never ad an issue. It was instantly destroyed with the upgrade :( :( :( PLEASE HELP!!!


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gull 1
A long-winged web-footed seabird with a raucous call, typically having white plumage with a grey or black mantle.
- Family Laridae: several genera, in particular Larus, and numerous species.
Example sentences
- I could go on and on about the many herons, egrets, gulls, terns, and various and sundry other species we spotted yesterday.
- Carrion crows, large gulls, hawks and herons all receive severe punishment.
- Seabirds such as gulls and terns, even pelicans, can point the way to 'sure thing' action when the excited flocks are low and tight, dipping and circling.
Words that rhyme with gullannul, cull, dull, hull, lull, mull, null, scull, skull, Solihull, trull, Tull
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gull 2
verb[with object]
Fool or deceive (someone): he had been gulled into believing that the documents were authentic
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- That's because the man that gulled him has a very, very long line of creditors.
- To understand ground rents and land prices is to understand cities; not to understand is to remain mired forever in confusion and fallacy, to be gulled and misled and bamboozled, which is, indeed and alas, the common lot of mankind.
- They are gulled by the oldest trick of all, the one that gets the victim to look somewhere else.
A person who is fooled or deceived.
Example sentences
- The title of this piece might seem to be no more than a comment on the ease with which the flats, mugs, suckers, punters, marks, gulls, or coneys could be relieved of their money.
- Dauphine echoes the initial warning of the second prologue in describing the ways in which the gulls are duped.
Late 16th century: of unknown origin.
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Talk:Geography of Mars
|WikiProject Solar System / Mars
|(Rated B-class, Mid-importance)
December edits of discussion page and the reversion of the main page title[edit]
I'm not saying that it should necessarily redirect this aeticle, but just that areography should contain the same information. As you know Geo- comes from "Gaia" i.e. Earth so if you are going to use geo it should be put ion inverted commas. There are lot of accurate scientific words that are not widely used. Also look at Areology or Selenology. As for removing other poeples comments, Ok I shouldn't have, but areography IS a word in the English language and is also a correct scientific term. Most "editors" probably don't have a clue about the though either.
Hi 184.108.40.206,
Thanks for your interest in this article. However, as you can see below there is a detailed discussion about the usage of areography which you seemed to ignore in your redirect edit. You write that "areography is the correct scientific term." Our discussion below indicates that most editors believe that areography is not a widely used term in scientific publications. I would appreciate it if you would revert the article to "Martian Geography" and discuss here in detail your justification for the redirect to "Areography". Also, it appears that you removed comments by other editors from the discussion which I believe is generally considered not helpful.
In any case, again a sincere thank you for your interest in this article. Jespley 20:07, 5 December 2006 (UTC)
Hello, all. I guess I should have been paying more attention to the entry I created! I am the individual who created the entry for "areography" in the first place a few years ago, and it was dismaying to see my definition utterly vanished and then the entry redirected to the "Geography of Mars" entry (which is pretty good, to be sure). As noted by other posters, "areography" is an old and established term for the "geo"graphy of Mars going back to the nineteenth century. As a professor of geography teaching a new course in "Areography: A Regional Geography of Mars," I revisited my old entry to link my class to it and was surprised to find it missing. I suppose I shouldn't have been, given the Wiki-Wars over such topics as evolution and creation "science." I also teach biogeography and, yes, "areography" has acquired a second meaning just in the last couple of decades in that subfield, namely, taxon geography or the geographical distribution strategies of taxa. I had added that newer meaning on my original entry, IIRC. The existence of two different meanings for the same scientific word seems to have troubled a few earlier discussants. Such divergent pairs of meanings are seen among disparate sciences whose vocabularies evolve in partial or total isolation from one another. Another one is "mesosphere," with two completely different references in geology and in meteorology. Cheers, Christine M. Rodrigue, Ph.D., Professor, Geography, California State University, Long Beach, http://www.csulb.edu/geography/ CMRodrigue 10:07, 21 December 2006 (UTC)CMRodrigue
Hi Christine, Thanks for chiming in -- in some of my google searching on 'areography' your name and class had turned up so it's good to see other experts interested in the article. I'm the one who has done most of the pushing to rename the article from areography. In a nutshell, from my perspective as a professional planetary scientist no one uses the term areography in professional contexts. Google searches seemed to confirm this general lack of usage (see the older discussion down further). Thus, I was worried that the tail was the wagging the dog and that by having Wikipedia use the term as the primary article title we were creating an artificial sense of the popularity of the term. In other words, I'm not arguing that areography is not a correct term for Martian geography but rather it is not currently the dominant one and that the Wikipedia article should use the dominant term as its title. Nevertheless, I'm not fixed in my view so I welcome your input. Jared Espley Jespley 19:09, 21 December 2006 (UTC)
Areography as a Term[edit]
There is no use in providing weblinks to subacription sites to back up your point as people can't read them. Anyway, I came across a book called "The Planet Mars" by William Sheehan which uses the term. [http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm. The article stated "Areography" up until October this year I have also noticed.
Martian geography is a nonsense phrase - it doesn't make sense - by definition the prefix geo- is Earth specific and therefore shouldn't be used, Areography is the correct scientific term.
I suggest renaming this topic to Martian Geography. It is obvious (to me anyway) that we cannot have planetary-body-specific terms for each planetary body. How many geography-equivalent words would we need? Given the size of the universe, we would have vastly more geography-equivalents than all words in all human languages. Even if we restrict the number of -ographies to the solid-surfaced Major and Dwarf Planets, we would need separate terms for Mercury, Venus, earth, Mars, Ceres, Pluto, 2003UB3113 (and probably another 50 scattered disk objects within the next 10 years). And of course, the Moon and other major sattelites should get their own -ography... Who would that help?
Creating a term for just Mars suggests POV bias to me - it's the kind of thing an enthusiast for a particular planet might do.
- I fully support this and I have started removing areography but I'm new to wikipedia so I'm trying not to screw up too many links, sections, etc. Jespley 17:31, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
- Help! I've realized that Geography of Mars is already taken as a page. I still feel strongly that areography as a term is not common usage and should be suppressed but I don't know the protocol for rearranging whole pages. Jespley 17:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
- I'm in favour of keeping it as Areography, following the example of Selenography, which is the geography of the Moon. I think the argument that this is a slippery-slope and we'll need to have names for all planets and satellites isn't a good one.. if someone wants to start an article called Geography of Venus, then there's nothing stopping them. Mlm42 18:09, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
- Ok, I'm willing to entertain a discussion on the issue. As I mention on the Mars:Talk page, my own admittedly anecdotal experience is that areography is not used by working Mars scientists (areologists? :)). A search at adsabs.harvard.edu (a high traffic, NASA sponsored searchsite of professional astronomy articles) gives one hit for areography but over 100 for the combination of "Mars" and "geography". Given this and the ISI, Google scholars, and general net results cited by Stone at Mars:Talk regarding the nonuse of "areology", I suggest using the term geography and when necessary for context, Martian geography. Jespley 19:00, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
- hmm.. i'm not sure your findings are quite valid, since you shouldn't be searching for articles with both the word "mars" and the word "geography".. nevertheless, i tried the searches again with "Geography of Mars" or "Martian Geography" or any other appropriate title.. Google scholar returns 14 for "geography of Mars", 10 for "Martian geography" and over 200 for areography.. but this has made me realise there is another meaning for the word Areography.. in any case, another search for "areography" and "mars" together returned 15 hits, including one that says "areography" was "the standard term used to refer to Martian surface geography in the late nineteenth century".. so i don't have an answer.. either way is fine for me; but changing the title will cause a lot of redirects. Mlm42 08:09, 21 September 2006 (UTC)
- Yeah, this is more complicated than I thought at first. I appreciate your response, Mlm42. In my view, there are three ways of judging what is the "right" term: 1) On the basis of what experts/professionals say 2) On the basis of what is the most popular/predominant 3) On the basis of what would make sense in an ideally constructed language.
- Here are some points of evidence to consider:
- adsabs.harvard.edu gives 6 returns for "Martian geography" and 1 for "areography"
- As cited by Mlm42, Google scholar gives 15 returns for "areography Mars", 6 for "Martian geography" and 14 for "geography of Mars"
- My personal experience is that professional planetary scientists (although scientists aren't necessarily geographers) don't use the term.
- An acquaintance (Maria Lane), who wrote her PhD thesis on the history of map making at Mars, entitled it, "Geographic Representations of the Planet Mars, 1867-1907" although she also has a conference paper entitled "Areographical Narratives: Images and Imaginations of the Planet Mars, 1867-1916" (Google "Maria" "Lane" "Mars")
- As Mlm42 cites, she wrote that areography was "the standard term used to refer to Martian surface geography in the late nineteenth century" http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ISIS/journal/issues/v96n4/960401/960401.html
- Based on my skimming through it, the nontechnical book, "Mapping Mars" does not use the term areography in any significant way nor it is found in the index.
- An article in "The Professional Geographer: Forum and Journal of the Association of American Geographers" says, "For example, terms such as "selenography" and "areography" are neither necessary nor desirable; "lunar geography" and "martian geography" amply ..." http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1974.00258.x/abs/
- Most of the Mars-related areography google hits appear to be related to this article from wikipedia.
- As cited above, using areography as a term would in principle give rise to a proliferation of -graphy terms.
- I think this point may be an unfair slippery-slope argument. The fact that so far only the Earth, Moon, and Mars have their own dedicated terms may simply reflect our particular long-term interest in them as (potentially) habitable places. If and when colonization of Venus and Mercury becomes more likely, we'd probably see similar terms arise, but I doubt any of us will be around to worry about that (let alone its implications for Wikipedia) by then! --Arvedui 23:02, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
- Areography is also used to mean the geographic range of a species
- This may be your most valid reason of all, actually... but even so, I'd prefer to see a disambiguation page instead. --Arvedui 23:02, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
- Here are some points of evidence to consider:
- Hence, in my opinion, areography as a term should be de-emphasized here (i.e. changing the article's title to "Geography of Mars") although we should perhaps include the quote about areography's usage in the 19th century and note that the term is less used today. Jespley 00:40, 27 September 2006 (UTC)
- I like the term areography as well, and think it's a bit of a stretch to try to call POV on it. I'm still not convinced that the term is as disused as you suggest. For what it's worth, Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy, which is widely regarded as one of the better-researched (albeit fictional) series on the topic, uses "areo-" related terms throughout, and I suspect that any future Martian colonists would probably do the same. --Arvedui 22:53, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
- That's true. I remember encountering the word there and being confused for a moment and then thinking to myself that it was a clever invention. I'm not deadset against it -- to be honest, my main motivation for de-emphasizing it is my own personal experience that planetary scientists don't use it. Nonetheless, the google scholar search results aren't too encouraging - of the 15 for "areography mars", 5 are from the early 20th century, 4 are about early astronomers, 2 are for the species definition, 1 is from a Russian book, and 3 are modern professional documents. It's hard to tell how many scholarly articles use geography instead when refering to areography since one may not use "Martian geography" if it's clear that one is talking about Mars already. For example, I could easily imagine an article entitled, "Geographic distribution of crustal magnetic fields at Mars". Nevertheless, I'm open to hear about other people's experience with the term -- maybe nonprofessionals use the term often enough to justify it's use. It's definitely a fun word. Jespley 02:33, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
- as per WP:NAME, and the fact the areography is also starting to mean 'the study of the geographical range of a species' (i.e. from 'area'). Geography of Mars is something that is understandable to everybody, and not frowned upon by experts; hence it should be moved. after all, titles should be 'useful' over 'fun'. Mlm42 08:02, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
- Can you give a reference for this starting? Scientists do not use it in publications and the internet gives only links related to Wikipedia. Google Scolar and ISI do not use it!--Stone 08:57, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
- sorry, i'm not clear on what your asking.. if you search on Google Scholar you get the species use of the word 'areography'. this is why i think this article should be moved to Geography of Mars. Mlm42 09:00, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
Definition of Martian "sea level"[edit]
I've removed the talk of the "fourth-degree and fourth-order spherical harmonic gravity field" (ooh!), because it's incomprehensible and the discussion then says it's not the basis of the definition anyway! But it looks like the main Mars page has a simple wording too; which is better? Not sure about the suitability of the last sentence I added; what I meant was "don't assume that a 'sea level' site on Mars has fossils of ancient beach organisms, let alone a good tiki bar." Wanted to add "...or vacation planning"; is humor forbidden?
Simply stating I created redirects makes it less offensive, but still there was a discussion and nobody could give a proof for Aerography meaning something different than the distribution of animals over a certain area. So WE, the people who have already discussed the thing, will redo the changes, because it pushes a term into use which means something different!--Stone 08:31, 6 December 2006 (UTC)
Areography: Geographical Strategies of Species (Book Supplement to the Journal of Child Psychology and Psych) (Hardcover) by Rapoport, 269 pages Publisher: Pergamon; 1st English ed., rev. and enl edition (July 1982) ISBN: 0080289142----This is far from Mars!--Stone 10:42, 6 December 2006 (UTC)
Areography of the genus Dendroctonus (Coleoptera : Curculionidae : Scolytinae) in Mexico Author(s): Salinas-Moreno Y, Mendoza MG, Barrios MA, Cisneros R, Macias-Samano J, Zuniga G Source: JOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY 31 (7): 1163-1177 JUL 2004 --Stone 10:43, 6 December 2006 (UTC)
Areography 2.0. A program to delimit distributional areas of species Author(s): Guasp AC, Curth MIT, Gonzalez DE Source: ENVIRONMENTAL SOFTWARE 11 (4): 271-275 1996--Stone 10:44, 6 December 2006 (UTC) --Stone 10:45, 6 December 2006 (UTC)
AREOGRAPHY - GEOGRAPHICAL STRATEGIES OF SPECIES - RAPOPORT,EH Author(s): SHIMWELL DW Source: JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 71 (3): 1037-1038 1983 ----Stone 10:45, 6 December 2006 (UTC)
Is the interactive image accessible to those who may be using a braile or audio display? Perhaps an alternative access method is required. Variant 09:34, 11 September 2007 (UTC)
- Good point, I doubt it is, how would we find out? and any ideas on setting up an alternative access method? sbandrews (t) 07:22, 13 September 2007 (UTC)
- Wikipedia:Accessibility gives some ideas sbandrews (t) 15:20, 13 September 2007 (UTC)
Topography and Elevation[edit]
I don't know where the values for the max and min Mars elevations came from, but they don't agree with my sources. Carr (2006) has -8.200 km at the bottom of Hellas to +21.229 km at the peak of Olympus. Google Mars agrees. The description of the datum definition is also very confusing: it reads like the temperature is actually at 0degC at the datum, which is clearly nonsense. Is the 26km figure actually the relief of Olympus Mons? I'm guessing, but this whole article is strongly under-referenced (adding template), and this kind of sloppy error makes me think a detailed check might be in order... DanHobley (talk) 20:25, 30 April 2012 (UTC)


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Malique Lytle finished second with a time of 17:19.30 as Shawnee opened its 2013 cross country season at the Carl Albert Titan Invitational.
The Lady Wolves, led by Daylan Storie at13th with a time of 13:47.40, were fourth in the team standings with 83 points. Westmoore was first at 39, and Edmond Santa Fe was second at 47. Bishop McGuinness was third at 72.
The Lady Wolves had four runners, including Storie, finish in the top 20. Blair Johnson was 14th at 13:48.46; Sadie Cullison was 18th at 14:02.53; and Paige Hughes was 19th at 14:03.12.
Shawnee's boys were sixth in the team standings with 162 points. Westmoore was first at 63, and Bishop McGuinness (100) and Duncan (105) were second and third, respectively.
Besides Lytle, the Wolves' Tyler Day was in the top 20 of the 5,000-meter race. Day was 16th at 18:53.40.
"All in all, we had a great season opener," said SHS head coach Kendra Ray. "There is always something to improve upon, however we are off to a great start. The girls' strength lies within their unity. The strength of the boys' team has definitely improved."
Shawnee will go to Bethany Friday, Sept. 6, for the Putnam City Invitational.
Note: Report compiled by Jason Smith.
Location, ST | website.com


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Just as speech can be acquired, so can it be lost. Speakers can forget words, phrases, even entire languages they once knew; over the course of time peoples, too, let go of the tongues that were once theirs, as languages disappear and give way to the others that follow them. In Echolalias, Daniel Heller-Roazen reflects on the many forms of linguistic forgetfulness, offering a far-reaching philosophical investigation into the persistence and disappearance of speech.
The work of Alois Riegl (1858-1905) has been highly influential in art history of the modern age. Riegl, the most important member of the so-called Vienna School, developed a refined technique of visual or formal analysis that departed from the iconological method, which emphasized decoding motifs through recourse to texts.
In this first full-length study of a largely forgotten optical device from the eighteenth century, Arnaud Maillet reconfigures our historical understanding of visual experience and meaning in relation to notions of opacity, transparency, and imagination. Many are familiar with the Claude glass as a small black convex mirror used by artists and spectators of landscape to reflect a view and make tonal values and areas of light and shade visible.
Imagine a world without things. There would be nothing to describe, nothing to explain, remark, interpret, or complain about. Without things, we would stop speaking; we would become as mute as things are alleged to be. In nine original essays, internationally renowned historians of art and of science seek to understand how objects become charged with significance without losing their gritty materiality.
Aby Warburg (1866-1929) is best known as the originator of the discipline of iconology and as the founder of the institute that bears his name. His followers included such celebrated art historians of the twentieth century as Erwin Panofsky, Edgar Wind, and Fritz Saxl. But his heirs developed, for the most part, a domesticated iconology based on the interpretation of symbolic material. As Phillippe-Alain Michaud shows in this important book, Warburg's own project was remote from any positivist or neo-Kantian ambitions.
Already translated into six languages, Francois Jullien's In Praise of Blandness has become a classic. Appearing for the first time in English, this groundbreaking work of philosophy, anthropology, aesthetics, and sinology is certain to stir readers to think and experience what may at first seem impossible: the richness of a bland sound, a bland meaning, a bland painting, a bland poem. In presenting the value of blandness through as many concrete examples and original texts as possible, Jullien allows the undifferentiated foundation of all things -- blandness itself -- to appear.
Destroyed faces, dissolved human shapes, invisible enemies: violence and anonymity go hand in hand. The visual representation of extreme physical violence makes real people nameless exemplars of horror -- formless, hideous, defaced. In Defaced, Valentin Groebner explores the roots of the visual culture of violence in medieval and Renaissance Europe and shows how contemporary visual culture has been shaped by late medieval images and narratives of violence.
This book introduces to an English-language audience the writings of the so-called New Vienna School of art history. In the 1930s Hans Sedlmayr (1896-1984) and Otto Pächt (1902-1988) undertook an ambitious extension of the formalist art historical project of Alois Riegl (1858-1905). Sedlmayr and Pächt began with an aestheticist conception of the autonomy and irreducibility of the artistic process. At the same time they believed they could read entire cultures and worldviews in the work of art.
Though the genocide of 1994 catapulted Rwanda onto the international stage, English-language historical accounts of the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa--which encompasses Burundi, eastern Congo, Rwanda, western Tanzania, and Uganda--are scarce. Drawing on colonial archives, oral tradition, archeological discoveries, anthropologic and linguistic studies, and his thirty years of scholarship, Jean-Pierre Chrétien offers a major synthesis of the history of the region, one still plagued by extremely violent wars.
What do biologists mean when they say that to live is to react? Why was the term abreaction invented and later abandoned by the first generation of psychoanalysts? What is meant by reactionary politics? These are but a few of the questions the internationally renowned scholar Jean Starobinski answers in his conceptual history of the word pair, action and reaction.Not simply a history of ideas, Action and Reaction is also a semantic and philological history, a literary history, a history of medicine, and a history of the biological sciences.
Siegfried Kracauer's biography of the composer Jacques Offenbach is a remarkable work of social and cultural history. First published in German in 1937 and in English translation in 1938, the book uses the life and work of Offenbach as a focal point for a broad and penetrating portrayal of Second Empire Paris.
Most of the people around us belong to our world not directly, as kin or comrades, but as strangers. How do we recognize them as members of our world? We are related to them as transient participants in common publics. Indeed, most of us would find it nearly impossible to imagine a social world without publics. In the eight essays in this book, Michael Warner addresses the question: What is a public?According to Warner, the idea of a public is one of the central fictions of modern life.
The essays in this book present a complex theme at the heart of the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, what in his last writing he called simply "a life." They capture a problem that runs throughout his work--his long search for a new and superior empiricism. Announced in his first book, on David Hume, then taking off with his early studies of Nietzsche and Bergson, the problem of an "empiricist conversion" became central to Deleuze's work, in particular to his aesthetics and his conception of the art of cinema.
The Na of China, farmers in the Himalayan region, live without the institution of marriage. Na brothers and sisters live together their entire lives, sharing household responsibilities and raising the women's children. Because the Na, like all cultures, prohibit incest, they practice a system of sometimes furtive, sometimes conspicuous nighttime encounters at the woman's home.
The four studies in this book center on the Western obsession with the nature of personal identity. Focusing on the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but with an eye toward antiquity and the present, Caroline Walker Bynum explores the themes of metamorphosis and hybridity in genres ranging from poetry, folktales, and miracle collections to scholastic theology, devotional treatises, and works of natural philosophy.
A picture universally recognized, endlessly scrutinized and described, incessantly copied, adapted, lampooned: does Leonardo's near-ruined Last Supper still offer anything new to be seen or to be said? This book is a resounding Yes to both questions. With direct perception—-and with attention paid to the work of earlier scholars and to the criticism embodied in the production of copyists over the past five hundred years—Leo Steinberg demonstrates that Leonardo's mural has been consistently oversimplified.
Athens, 403 B.C.E. The bloody oligarchic dictatorship of the Thirty is over, and the democrats have returned to the city victorious. Renouncing vengeance, in an act of willful amnesia, citizens call for—-if not invent—-amnesty. They agree to forget the unforgettable, the "past misfortunes," of civil strife or stasis.
Culture in Practice collects the academic and political writings from the 1960s through the 1990s of anthropologist Marshall Sahlins. More than a compilation, Culture in Practice unfolds as an intellectual autobiography. The book opens with Sahlins's early general studies of culture, economy, and human nature. It then moves to his reportage and reflections on the war in Vietnam and the antiwar movement, the event that most strongly affected his thinking about cultural specificity.
Although the work of Pierre Francastel (1900-1970) has long carried the label "sociology of art," it bears little resemblance to anything conventionally sociological. For too long Francastel has been unavailable to English-language readers, and hence known only through erroneous and secondhand characterizations. This translation of Art and Technology should open the way for a rediscovery and reconsideration of this brilliant, often misunderstood thinker.
In what way do we benefit from speaking of things indirectly? How does such a distancing allow us better to discover -- and describe -- people and objects? How does distancing produce an effect? What can we gain from approaching the world obliquely? In other words, how does detour grant access?Thus begins Francois Jullien's investigation into the strategy, subtlety, and production of meaning in ancient and modern Chinese aesthetic and political texts and events.
In this book the Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben looks closely at the literature of the survivors of Auschwitz, probing the philosophical and ethical questions raised by their testimony."In its form, this book is a kind of perpetual commentary on testimony. It did not seem possible to proceed otherwise. At a certain point, it became clear that testimony contained at its core an essential lacuna; in other words, the survivors bore witness to something it is impossible to bear witness to.
The sharing of a sexual partner between relatives has always been taboo. In this stunning work, anthropologist Françoise Héritier charts the incest prohibition throughout history, from the strict decrees of Leviticus to modern civil codes, and finds a secondary type of incest, which she calls the incest of two sisters. The term refers not to incest between two sisters, or between two sisters and their mother, but to a love triangle of sorts in which the transfer of bodily fluids among sexual partners, two of whom are related to each other, creates undeniable bonds.
At the heart of medical history is a deep enigma.The true structure and workings of the human body are, we casually assume, everywhere the same, a universal reality. But then we look into the past, and our sense of reality wavers: accounts of the body in diverse medical traditions often seem to describe mutually alien, almost unrelated worlds.The Expressiveness of the Body meditates on the contrasts between the human body described in classical Greek medicine and the body as envisaged by physicians in ancient China.
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Saxophonist Paula Van Goes has been described as "a virtuoso saxophonist that possesses excellent technical attributes and a deep understanding of the music [she] performs." (Ovación)
"Thanks for the Villa Lobos lesson, Paula. Anyone intending to play his music should get a lesson with you first." - Branford Marsalis
Paula is a Selmer-Paris artist and clinician.


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This folder contains memoranda of conversations between Henry Kissinger, consultant to the National Security Council (NSC), and various German and Belgian officials discussing nuclear weapons policies and the potential of a multilateral force (MLF) within NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).
This file contains memoranda regarding United States policy and strategy towards Iran. The materials in this file relate to National Security Action Memoranda number 228 (NSAM 228) titled, "Review of Iranian Situation."
This file contains a copy of National Security Action Memoranda number 244 (NSAM 244) titled, "The Future of the World Sugar Market," to Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman from McGeorge Bundy, Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs.
This folder contains material collected by the office of President John F. Kennedy's secretary, Evelyn Lincoln, for the President's News Conference of May 22, 1963 (News Conference 56). During this press conference President Kennedy answered questions from the press on a variety of topics including the controversial integration at the University of...
This folder contains material collected by the office of President John F. Kennedy's secretary, Evelyn Lincoln, concerning the Council of Economic Advisers (CEA). Topics include the tax program and interest rates, steel prices and wages, and a history of United States economic expansions. Of note is a revised version of the "Policy Recommendations"...
This folder contains material collected by the office of President John F. Kennedy's secretary, Evelyn Lincoln, concerning the Department of Justice, and consists of a report by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy on the renewal of the Interstate Compact to Conserve Oil and Gas.
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Materials in this folder include a telegram, a press release, memoranda, and correspondence between President John F. Kennedy, various members of the White House staff, and individual citizens concerning pending civil rights legislation, racial segregation in educational institutions, efforts by educational organizations to eliminate discriminatory...
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Diabetes Health Center
Prevent Diabetic Ills With Chamomile Tea?
Sept. 12, 2008 -- When you sit down for a meal today, consider drinking a cup or two of chamomile tea, especially if you have diabetes. A new study shows the tea may help prevent the development of diabetic complications, such as loss of vision, nerve damage, and kidney damage.
Chamomile tea, a popular drink in many countries and long considered to have medicinal benefits, has been studied more closely in the past 30 years, according to the report published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Chamomile has been used to treat inflammation, skin diseases, wounds, gout, and ulcers. Recent research shows that chamomile plant extract suppresses the growth of human cancer cells.
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Chamomile tea is prepared with dried flowers from a plant called Matricaria chamomilla L. It is considered one of the richest sources of dietary antioxidants.
Researchers from the University of Toyama in Japan and the Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research in the United Kingdom added chamomile extract to the diets of diabetic rats for 21 days. Scientists compared the chamomile-treated rats to a group of diabetic rats fed a normal diet without the addition of chamomile extract. The rats that received the chamomile showed a significant decrease in blood glucose levels compared to the diabetic rats eating a normal diet. The chamomile also inhibited two enzymes, both of which have a role in the development of diabetic complications such as diabetic neuropathy (nerve damage), cataracts, retinopathy (retinal damage of the eye), and nephropathy (kidney damage).
"These results clearly suggested that daily consumption of chamomile tea with meals could contribute to the prevention of the progress of hyperglycemia and diabetic complications," the authors conclude.
The findings could also lead to the development of a new chamomile-based drug for type 2 diabetes.
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- Diabetes: Keys to Better Daily Control
- I Have Diabetes: Is Insulin Right For Me?
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- Diabetes as You Age: Stay Active, Live Better
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My son is 21 months and showed some signs of readiness to start potty training. He can stay dry through the night and during his naps. We started about 3-4 weeks ago with letting him sit on his toddler potty and the big potty. Once he realized what to do, he went pee almost everytime we set him on the potty even if it was only a little bit. A couple of days ago he started resisting and not wanting to use the potty anymore. Whenever I sit him on his toddler potty or the toilet (using the attatchment so he feels secure) he immediately wants to get off. I tried letting him run around naked with his toddler potty available to him at all times and he just pees on the floor. Also, I will sit him on the potty, he will refuse, and I will put a diaper on him and he immediately pees in his diaper. We took him to the store and let him pick out "big boy undies." I let him wear them around (I expected accidents) and the first time he peed in them he got really upset, almost ashamed of himself, and it seemed like he was starting to understand. But now, he will just pee in them too. It's almost like he doesn't care. We had another baby a little over two months ago but waited to start potty training until after the baby was born. We gave him time to get used to the new baby before introducing him to the potty at all. I just don't know why he is refusing all of a sudden, he was doing great! Anyone else have this problem?
Trying to Potty Train.
Posted 05/02/2012
Comments (1)
Posted 05/02/2012
Seeking attention, perhaps? I wouldn't consider 2 months after a newborn sibling to be born that much time.
Check out the Nuts & Bolts of Toilet Training board. I am sure you will get lots of advice there.


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http://fightnetwork.com/ - David "The Caveman" Rickels discusses his upcoming bout vs. Melvin Guillard at Bellator 159, moving out to train with Elevation Fight Team in Colorado, For additional cov watch video >>
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Wayne "Caveman" Murrie (c) Vs Leon "Rocky" Edwards for the BAMMA Lonsdale British Welterweight Title from BAMMA 15 held on April 5th 2014 at The Copper Box Arena, London. watch video >>
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cocking out is when one is done with sexual relations for the day. Similar to clocking out from a workplace.
Guy: Sorry babe, i'm cocking out for the day.
Guy: Sorry babe, i'm cocking out for the day.
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Can you define these popular missing words?
When your hanging out and your wang comes out, and whatever you do is led with your cock.
So i was just hanging out in Barcelona on the Las Ramblas, and I was like 'fuck that i'm cocking out!"
Ace 2 da Maceによって 2008年05月21日(水)