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Volume 96, Issue 11, 01 December 2004
Magnetotransport properties of two-dimensional electron gas in quantum well structures designed for device applications96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1792385View Description Hide Description
The mobility and the sheet electron density of two-dimensional electron gas in quantum well structures optimized for device applications were measured in the temperature range . A maximum electron mobility was found at at a sheet electron density . Measurements of the integral quantum Hall and Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations in the temperature range were also carried out to obtain additional information on the characteristics of the two-dimensional electron gas. The electron effective mass and the effective electron -factor were determined from these measurements and found to be, respectively, and 14.6. The latter is in good agreement with the recent experimental data obtained from cyclotron resonance and titled magnetic-field experiments.
Initial growth dynamics of homo epitaxial (100) GaAs using pulsed laser deposition96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1806258View Description Hide Description
The homoepitaxialpulsed laser deposition of GaAs on thermally desorbed (100) GaAs substrates is studied utilizing reflection high-energy electron diffraction and contact atomic force microscopy as a function of growth time. Interestingly, results indicate an unexpected initial roughening due to preferential growth on terrace regions around pits, resulting in a rough surfacestructure. As film growth proceeds, the surface structures become progressively more coherent up to a point, after which further growth results in smoothing by pit filling, and eventually resulting in an ordered undulatory surface topology. An explanation for this change in preferred growth region is set forth in which the initial oxide desorption process leaves regionally varying chemical stochiometries on the surface, which subsequently affect relative growth rates.
Thermal stability of the interface for sub- complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor gate oxide stacks: A valence band and quantitative core-level study by soft x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1809769View Description Hide Description
Synchrotron-radiation photoelectron spectroscopy is used to study the valence-band structure and the core-level photoemission spectra of ultrathin films grown onto substrates by atomic layer deposition (ALD). We determine the band offsets (valence and conduction) of to as a function of postdeposition annealing treatments (under an inert atmosphere or in situ in ultrahigh vacuum) and find a significant evolution, the conduction-band offset remaining larger than . The and the core-level spectra give detailed information on the composition and the spatial extent of the interfacial silicate layer formed between the bottom oxide and the ALD thin film. By a quantitative treatment of the core-level intensities, we examine the thermal stability of the interface silicate after postdeposition annealing under and in situ annealing in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV), both at . The as-deposited layer gives rise to a stack with corresponding thicknesses of . After postdeposition annealing at in a atmosphere, this becomes a stack with corresponding thicknesses of . In situ annealing in UHV, on the other hand, gives a stack with corresponding thicknesses of . The former favors an extension of both the silicate and the interface layers, whereas the latter develops only the silicate layer.
Micro-photoluminescence characterization of local electronic states in a (110) quantum well fabricated by cleaved-edge overgrowth96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1804248View Description Hide Description
Local electronic states due to characteristicsurface islands and pits formed on an atomically flat (110) interface of a quantum well fabricated by a cleaved-edge-overgrowth method with high-temperature growth-interruptannealing are characterized by micro-photoluminescence(PL) imaging and spectroscopy. With the overall observation of the -thick (110) quantum well with the area of width and length, we found local PL signals due to isolated 2- or 3-monolayer (ML) islands, isolated pits, and islands and pits formed along the cleavage atomic-step lines, and gradual change of the states across the full range of the sample.
Comparison of GaNAsSb and GaNAs as quantum-well barriers for GaInNAsSb optoelectronic devices operating at96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1807028View Description Hide Description
quantum wells were grown by solid-source molecular-beam epitaxy utilizing a radio-frequency nitrogen plasma source. The GaNAsSb layers, originally the quantum well barrier materials for GaInNAs(Sb) devices, were studied for their general growth characteristics as well as their structural and optical properties, which give an indication of its quality as a quantum well barrier material.Reflection high-energy electron diffraction, high-resolution x-ray diffraction, secondary-ion mass spectroscopy, and photoluminescence(PL) measurements were used to study those properties. The growth parameters including arsenic overpressure and substrate temperature were changed systematically to determine the properties during deposition and to optimize these conditions. It was found that the addition of antimony to GaNAs did not improve the material as it did for GaInNAs. PL measurements indicated a decreasing optical quality with an increasing substrate temperature and no change with the arsenic overpressure. In addition, the addition of antimony had eliminated the lattice-strain compensation provided by the GaNAs barriers. Using GaNAs rather than GaNAsSb barriers in the GaInNAs(Sb) devices was found to be advantageous and has dramatically improved the performance of long-wavelength GaAs-based lasers.
Thermal annealing of junctions with amorphous and polycrystalline ferromagnetic electrodes96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1808899View Description Hide Description
In this work we study Al-oxide-based tunnel junctions with amorphous and polycrystallineferromagnetic(FM)electrodes. Focus is given on the evolution of the tunnel magnetoresistance and barrier characteristics (resistance-area product, effective thickness, height, and asymmetry) as a function of the annealing temperature up to . Junctions with two CoFeB electrodes show the largest thermal stability of the tunnel magnetoresistance. Substituting firstly one and then both CoFeB electrodes with CoFe leads to an increasingly faster degradation of the spin-dependent transport upon annealing. The observed differences suggest an improved interface quality between the amorphousFM and the Al oxide.
Suppression of the metal-insulator transition temperature in thin films96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1812599View Description Hide Description
In this paper, we illustrate an approach to discriminate between epitaxial strain and other factors responsible for the decrease of the metal–insulator transition temperature in thin filmsgrown by pulsed laser deposition. Using this approach, we have estimated the effect of the biaxial strain on . Ultrathin films, independent of epitaxial strain, do not show any metal–insulator transition over the full temperature range. This finding confirms the existence of an interface dead layer. The strain-independent decrease in , relative to its bulk value, observed for a much wider thickness range (up to about ) can most likely be attributed to oxygen deficiency.
Electrical characteristics and interface structure of magnetic tunnel junctions with hafnium oxyfluoride barrier96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1813638View Description Hide Description
We have studied the effects of fluorine inclusion on the electrical transport characteristics and interface structure of the hafnium oxide barrier in a magnetic tunnel junction. The tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) and resistance-area (RA) as a function of oxidation time show that the TMR ratio of the hafnium oxyfluoride barrier is higher (8.3%) than that of the hafnium oxide barrier (5.7%) at their optimum conditions, and the oxyfluoride barrier junctions maintain a high TMR ratio even when the RA product increases by three orders of magnitude. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis shows that the fluorine atoms in the oxyfluoride barrier play an important role in the formation of a barrier with uniform composition. We believe that the initial fluoride layer is causing the subsequent oxygen diffusion to slow down, resulting in the formation of a defect-free hafnium oxide layer. These results are consistent with what we have found for aluminum oxyfluoride barriers.
InAs quantum dots on96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1811387View Description Hide Description
InAsquantum dots(QDs) were prepared by molecular beam epitaxy on substrates. Shape and size distribution of the QDs were investigated using in situscanning tunneling microscopy as function of preparation temperature between 435 and . The wetting layer is not flat but undulated in submicrometer scale in a similar way as the bare substrate. The atomic structure of the wetting layer is the same as found for the flat base of InAsQDsgrown on substrates. The shape of the QDs is given by {110}, , and bounding facets and a round vicinal region. Unexpectedly, the number density increases and the size distribution sharpens, when the growth temperature is increased from , which is attributed to lattice defects incorporated into the QDs during growth at .
Resistance degradation due to interstitial hydrogen in photorefractive potassium lithium tantalate niobate single crystals96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1810195View Description Hide Description
Resistance degradation in potassium lithium tantalate niobate (KLTN) doped with iron and titanium was measured in a single sample containing various concentrations of interstitial hydrogen. In this crystal the degradation arose from the migration of interstitial hydrogen and not oxygen vacancies, as reported in previous research. Interstitial hydrogen and oxygen vacancy defects both arise to compensate the valence shortfall of the substitutional iron impurities and the thermodynamic balance between the two compensation mechanisms can be controlled using reaction chemistry techniques. Through appropriate annealing treatments a single crystal of KLTN was prepared in three states: hydrogen-rich oxidized, hydrogen-poor reduced, and hydrogen-rich reduced. The characteristic degradation times for the three cases were 29, 2710, and , respectively. The degradation rate is correlated with hydrogen concentration and not oxidation state of the crystal. Infrared absorption from near the two electrodes of the hydrogen-rich reduced crystal after degradation confirmed polarization of the hydrogen concentration. Electrocoloration was also found to correlate with hydrogen—it was observed in both hydrogen-rich states, but was absent from the hydrogen-poor crystal.
Structural and electric properties of ultrathin layers with posttreatment in plasma96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1813640View Description Hide Description
Amorphous layers were prepared using a thermal oxidation method. The layers were nitrided at a temperature between 450 and utilizing a plasma generation system, in which the layers before the nitridation were simultaneously grown on two different -type crystalline Si substrates, one having a high resistivity for electron-spin resonance (ESR) and Fourier transform infrared absorption measurements and another having a low resistivity for current–voltage measurement. We found the breakdown strength, estimated based on the characteristics, increased with increasing until , but the annealing at a further high caused also a decrease in the breakdown strength. We found a strong correlation between the changes in the characteristics and those in the bonding properties, and this correlation was also discussed in connection with the change in the ESRproperties for the layers. Furthermore, incorporation of N atoms into layers at was suggested to improve the structural properties and the electrical properties.
Thin polycrystalline diamond for low-energy x-ray detection96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1813621View Description Hide Description
The response of polycrystallinediamonddetectors to low-energy x-ray beams is presented. Diamond metal∕semiconductor∕metal vertical structures have been realized to investigate the influence of the electric field in the dark and under x-ray irradiation. Nonlinear contributions to the current, compatible with field-assisted thermal ionization of trapped charges, have been evidenced, as well as the presence of defect-related electronic states acting as traps has been confirmed by subband-gap photoconductivity measurements. Moreover, correlations have been evidenced among irradiation time, variation of the current in the dark, and photoconductive response of the devices to the x-ray beam. An evaluation of the minority-carrier mobility-lifetime product, at the end of the activation process, has led to a value of . Two orders of magnitude linear response to the beam intensity variations have been evaluated after removal of the bremsstrahlung radiation contribution on a -thick device.
Minority-spin band parameters in a NiMnSb thin film determined by spectral conductivity96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1811779View Description Hide Description
NiMnSb is expected to be a ferromagnetic half metal, an expectation that is based in part on band structure calculations. Here we report optical conductivity studies of the band structure for a film prepared by pulsed laser deposition onto a Si substrate held at a relatively low temperature as is required for some device applications—films which are susceptible to site disorder associated with the vacant site in this half-Heusler compound. We demonstrate that the direct interband transitions are essentially unshifted in comparison with bulk material, though they are somewhat broadened. Below the direct-transition absorption edge we report the presence of indirect spin-reversingtransitions between the Fermi energy and the extrema of the minority-spin valence and conduction bands, providing a measure of the band edge energies. Both of these edges appear closer to than is seen in well-ordered bulk NiMnSb, with the conduction-band minimum showing weight at only above , close enough to have substantial occupation at ambient temperature.
Recombination activity and electrical levels of dislocations in -type structures: Impact of copper contamination and hydrogenation96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1812602View Description Hide Description
The impact of copper contamination and subsequent hydrogenation on recombination activity and hole-trap levels of misfit dislocations were investigated in -type structures. In the as-grown (noncontaminated) samples, dislocations were found to exhibit very low recombination activity, detectable with the electron-beam-induced current technique only at low temperatures. Deep-level transient spectroscopy revealed a dislocation-related hole-trap level at . The position of the observed level is close to the theoretically predicted hole-trap state of the intrinsic stacking fault of a dissociated dislocation. Contamination with a low copper concentration [5 (parts per ) ppb] gave rise to a large increase of the recombination activity of the dislocations and to the appearance of another dislocation-related defect level at . Hydrogenation of the samples by a treatment with an acid solution and subsequent reverse-bias anneal at resulted in the evolution of the levels of substitutional copper and its complexes with hydrogen.
Threshold voltage shift in organic field effect transistors by dipole monolayers on the gate insulator96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1810205View Description Hide Description
We demonstrate controllable shift of the threshold voltage and the turn-on voltage in pentacene thin film transistors and rubrene single crystal field effect transistors (FET) by the use of nine organosilanes with different functional groups. Prior to depositing the organic semiconductors, the organosilanes were applied to the gate insulator from solution and form a self-assembledmonolayer(SAM). The observed shifts of the transfer characteristics range from and can be related to the surface potential of the layer next to the transistor channel. Concomitantly the mobile charge carrier concentration at zero gate bias reaches up to . In the single crystal FETs the measured transfer characteristics are also shifted, while essentially maintaining the high quality of the subthreshold swing. The shift of the transfer characteristics is governed by the built-in electric field of the SAM and can be explained using a simple energy level diagram. In the thin film devices, the subthreshold region is broadened, indicating that the SAM creates additional trap states, whose density is estimated to be of order .
Hot-phonon temperature and lifetime in biased 4H-SiC96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1812598View Description Hide Description
Experimental results on electron transport and microwave noise are used to investigate, in the electron temperature approximation, dissipation of hot-electron energy in a biased donor-doped 4H-SiC channel . The electron energy relaxation time is estimated to be in the electric-field range below at room temperature. Longitudinal-optical phonons are found responsible for electron energy dissipation when the supplied power ranges from per electron. In this range, accumulation of nonequilibrium (hot) longitudinal-optical phonons takes place. Equivalent hot-phonon temperature reaches near , hot-phonon lifetime is comparable to the electron energy relaxation time. Dependence of the lifetime on electric field is weak in the investigated range of electric fields below .
Transport properties of undoped and -doped polycrystalline with low background electron concentrations96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1805722View Description Hide Description
A series of polycrystalline 1 μm thick films were deposited onto borosilicate glass substrates by atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition. Unintentionally doped as-grown layers had electron concentrations and mobility of and , respectively. Potential barriers and trap concentrations were calculated to be 30 meV and , respectively. Upon annealing at 670 K for 15–20 min, the potential barrier height decreased to 8 meV and the electron mobility increased to . When doped with ammonia, the mobility of as-grown samples decreased to . The magnitude of the potential barriers varied, with ammonia doping, from 175 to 31 meV with trap densities of , respectively. Upon annealing at 670 K for 20 min, the electron mobilities of ammonia dopedfilms recovered to , whereas the height of the potential barriers decreased to 3–4 meV with trap concentrations of . The observed changes in the electrical properties are well described by a double back-to-back Schottky barrier model.
General theory of carrier lifetime in semiconductors with multiple localized states96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1805192View Description Hide Description
The Shockley-Read-Hall rate equations determine the average carrier transitions via a single-level defect in the band gap of a nondegenerate semiconductor. In the present work the differential rate equations for multiple levels, or localized states systems, are derived from first principles. These multiple level systems comprise the multiple discrete defects system and the coupled or excited states system. The solution for the single-level rate equations, developed recently for transient decay, is represented by an infinite series of monoexponential terms, the frequencies or inverse time constants of which are a linear combination of the fundamental frequencies . For the multiple localized state solution expressions for the fundamental time constants are derived for states with without an approximation at a given temperature for an excess carrier concentration below nondegenerate doping, arbitrary uniform doping concentration , defect level concentration , cross section , and energy level . Verification of the set of rate equations for each system is performed by comparing the analysis of the numerical solution for component time constants with the prediction of the theory. The variation of the fundamental time constant with excess carrier concentration indicates the behavior of minority carrier trapping.
Influence of regrowth conditions on the hole mobility in strained Ge heterostructures produced by hybrid epitaxy96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1811784View Description Hide Description
Strained Ge-channel heterostructures have been produced using a hybrid-epitaxy method, which allows the advantages offered by different growth techniques to be exploited. Chemical vapor deposition of thick strain-tuned virtual substrates has been combined with growth of the active layers by solid-source molecular beam epitaxy. This paper discusses optimization of the regrowth conditions, to achieve a high hole mobility, and correlates structural characterization with electrical measurements. Initial ex situ chemical cleaning of the virtual substrate was found to be essential for successful regrowth. Structural analysis, using cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, showed that the regrowth temperature significantly affects the growth mode of the active layers and that planar growth was only achieved below . Samples with Ge channels from thick were analyzed with plan view transmission electron microscopy to study the formation of misfit dislocations and estimate the degree of relaxation—two effects detrimental to hole transport properties. For intermediate thickness layers, postgrowth annealing at was found to significantly improve the hole mobility, by eliminating point defects but not leading to substantial relaxation. As a result, the mobility was found to almost double at room temperature and increase fourfold at . The level of diffusion and interface integrity, for both the as-grown and annealedstructures, has been investigated using low energy secondary ion mass spectrometry.
Emission rates for electron tunneling from InAs quantum dots to GaAs substrate96(2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1813620View Description Hide Description
Tunneling emission rates of electrons from InAsquantum dots(QD) in a GaAs matrix depletion region have been calculated for application in the analysis of experimental data from deep-level transient spectroscopy(DLTS). The hybridization among metastable states localized in the InAsQD and continuum states in the GaAs substrate in the DLTSmeasurement is evaluated from the local densities of states. Two physical quantities have been calculated, the broadening of the metastable state localized in the InAsQD, i.e., the charge-transfer rates from the quantum dot to the substrate, and the corresponding hybridization coefficients. The metastable state is broadened significantly only when the bias is large enough, whereas the hybridization coefficients increase almost linearly with the bias. The effects of the direct Coulomb interactions and exchange energies among electrons initially confined in the QD have been included and found to be very significant. Increasing the number of electrons initially confined in the QD from 1 to 4, the charge-transfer rates increase by a factor of 1.8.


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