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Phonological memory in bilinguals and monolinguals
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DOI: 10.3758/s13421-012-0237-x
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- Yoo, J. & Kaushanskaya, M. Mem Cogn (2012) 40: 1314. doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0237-x
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In the present study, we examined the effects of lexical-semantic knowledge and of difficulty level on phonological memory performance by monolingual adult English speakers and bilingual adult Korean–English speakers. The monolingual English speakers were more proficient in English than the bilingual speakers. All participants were tested on a range of phonological memory tasks in English. We manipulated the degree to which the phonological memory tasks involved lexical-semantic knowledge of English (word-span task, digit-span task, and nonword repetition task), as well as the difficulty level of the tasks. Results revealed that on the word-span task (highest level of lexical-semantic knowledge), monolinguals outperformed bilinguals at the easier levels of the task but bilinguals outperformed monolinguals at the more difficult levels of the task. For the digit-span and nonword repetition tasks, monolinguals outperformed bilinguals at the easier levels of the tasks, but the differences between the two groups vanished with the increase in the difficulty levels. Together, these results suggest that proficiency-based differences between monolingual and bilingual phonological memory performance depend on the degree to which the tasks rely on lexical-semantic knowledge and the difficulty level of the task.
KeywordsBilingualismShort term memoryWorking memory
Phonological memory in bilinguals and monolinguals
Phonological memory is defined as the ability to maintain verbal information in memory for a brief period of time. This skill is imperative for performing complex linguistic tasks in both the native (L1) and the second (L2) language (e.g., Christoffels & de Groot, 2005), including auditory language comprehension (e.g., Smith, Mann, & Shankweiler, 1986) and written language processing (e.g., Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Swanson & Berninger, 1995). The storage capacity of the phonological memory system is limited, and human beings can maintain only a few items in memory at any one time. However, there is remarkable variability in the population, with some individuals demonstrating high phonological memory capacity and others demonstrating low phonological memory capacity. What determines the phonological memory capacity? One factor in particular—the structural knowledge of one's language—has been linked to the efficiency with which the phonological memory system encodes information (e.g., Cheung, 1996; Harrington & Sawyer, 1992; Windsor, Kohnert, Lobitz, & Pham, 2010).
The relationship between language knowledge and phonological memory is obviated by studies that examine phonological memory in bilinguals (e.g., Cheung, 1996; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990; Masoura & Gahtercole, 1999; Michas & Henry, 1994; Service, 1992; Thorn & Gathercole, 1999). It is well documented, for example, that in bilinguals whose language proficiency in the L2 is lower than the L1 proficiency of the monolingual peers, phonological memory performance is also lower than in the monolinguals (e.g., Messer, Leseman, Boom, & Mayo, 2010; Windsor et al., 2010). However, it is unknown whether the degree to which a bilingual's phonological memory performance in the L2 deviates from a monolingual's phonological memory performance depends on the extent to which the phonological memory tasks involve the lexical-semantic knowledge of the target language and on the difficulty level of the task. Yet the structural knowledge of one's language and the difficulty level of the task form the basis for the modern theories of short-term memory (STM; e.g., Cowan, 1988, 1999, 2001). Therefore, the goal of the present study was to compare phonological memory abilities in bilinguals' L2 and monolinguals' L1 on a range of phonological memory tasks that varied in the degree to which they engaged lexical-semantic knowledge. We also manipulated difficulty levels of the tasks in order to examine whether increased pressure on the phonological memory system would modulate discrepancies between bilingual and monolingual phonological memory performance. Knowing how precisely lower proficiency in the L2 affects phonological memory performance on different phonological memory tasks would enable us to formulate precise models of the relationship between long-term linguistic knowledge and the STM system. Furthermore, manipulating the difficulty level of the phonological memory tasks would allow us to examine the interactions between language-specific knowledge and cognitive resources within the phonological memory system and to propose the mechanisms behind the effects of bilingualism on memory.
Phonological memory system and long-term knowledge
Although different memory models disagree about the structure and the modularity of the various memory systems, all models of STM posit that the STM system interacts with the long-term memory (LTM) system. For example, Baddeley's model of working memory (WM) separates short-term storage in the WM system from the knowledge stored in the LTM (e.g., Baddeley, 2001) but presupposes that the two systems interact during memory tasks through the episodic buffer (e.g., Baddeley, 2000). Cowan (1988, 1999, 2001) suggests that the STM is a subset of the LTM. According to Cowan's embedded-processes WM model, STM is part of the contents of the LTM. In other words, STM is information stored in the LTM that is activated above some threshold for a particular task. Within this temporarily activated information, some information becomes the focus of attention, while other information that is not in the band of focused attention becomes inactive. Similarly, Engle, Kane, and Tuholski (1999) argued that WM consists of a subset of activated LTM information units and specified the relationship between WM and LTM simply as "WM = STM (activated portion of LTM) + controlled attention" (p. 126).
There is empirical evidence suggesting that long-term knowledge affects the STM performance. For example, participants are more successful at remembering words than nonwords (e.g., Gathercole, Frankish, Pickering, & Peaker, 1999; Hulme, Maughgan, & Brown, 1991) and at remembering high-frequency words than low-frequency words (Hulme et al., 1997). Similarly, participants are more successful at remembering nonwords of high phonotactic probability than nonwords of low phonotactic probability (Gathercole et al., 1999) and nonwords that are more wordlike than nonwords that are less wordlike (Gathercole, 1995). These long-term knowledge effects on STM performance have been explained in terms of redintegration. Specifically, it is proposed that the incomplete or partially lost representations in the temporary storage (STM) can be redintegrated (that is, repaired or restored) by the permanent representations in the LTM (Gathercole et al., 1999; Schweickert, 1993; Thorn, Gathercole, & Frankish, 2005). As a result, immediate recall tasks using words and nonwords are supported by long-term knowledge with lexical-semantic representations likely activated for real words and with phonological, sublexical representations likely activated for nonwords. Therefore, while it is possible to vary the degree to which long-term linguistic knowledge influences phonological memory performance, it is, in fact, difficult to design a pure phonological memory task that would not involve any activation of long-term linguistic knowledge (e.g., Hulme et al., 1991).
Perhaps the most compelling evidence for the close association between linguistic knowledge and phonological memory comes from studies comparing phonological memory performance in the L1 versus the L2. In bilingual adults, the linguistic knowledge in the L2 typically falls below the linguistic performance of the monolingual native speakers (e.g., Bialystok & Feng, 2009; Roberts, Garcia, Destochers, & Hernandez, 2002), even when bilinguals are fairly proficient in their L2 (e.g., Portocarrero, Burright, & Donovick, 2007). In a number of studies, it has been demonstrated that bilinguals perform better on the phonological memory tasks in their native and more proficient language than in their second and less proficient language (Cheung, 1996; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990; Harrington & Sawyer, 1992; Masoura & Gahtercole, 1999; Michas & Henry, 1994; Service, 1992; Thorn & Gathercole, 1999). Similarly, monolinguals tend to outperform bilinguals on phonological memory tasks when the task is administered in the monolinguals' L1 and the bilinguals' L2 (e.g., Messer et al., 2010; Windsor et al., 2010). Lower phonological memory performance in bilinguals, as compared with monolinguals, reflects the discrepancies in linguistic knowledge between the two groups. However, it is unknown whether bilingual/monolingual differences in performance on phonological memory tasks hold for different types of phonological memory tasks involving different degrees of linguistic knowledge.
In the present study, we capitalized on the common mechanisms outlined by the different models of STM where the information stored in the LTM can constrain the ability to retain information in the STM. That is, we hypothesized that the ability to encode information in STM would be constrained by the degree to which the LTM could be involved in the encoding process. We then examined whether the extent to which the to-be-remembered information taps the long-term linguistic knowledge influenced performance on phonological memory tasks by monolinguals performing the tasks in their L1 and by bilinguals performing the tasks in their L2. To that end, we contrasted three phonological memory tasks that differed with respect to the linguistic knowledge they activated: a word-span task (high degree of lexical-semantic knowledge), a digit-span task (low degree of lexical-semantic knowledge), and a nonword repetition task (sublexical phonological knowledge only). The use of the three tasks tests the degree to which linguistic knowledge modulates phonological memory performance. We manipulated the difficulty level of each task in line with the models of STM that posit that the increase in the difficulty level of the memory task is associated with an increased reliance on domain-general attentional mechanisms.
Phonological memory system and task difficulty
Classic theories of WM distinguish the STM and the WM through the involvement of the central executive (e.g., Baddeley, 1986, 2000). These classic models posit that STM tasks index the storage capacity of the phonological memory, while WM tasks index the storage capacity of the phonological memory and the ability to engage in cognitive processing. WM performance, but not STM performance, therefore relies on the function of the central executive—the component of Baddeley's WM model that focuses and switches attention during memory tasks (e.g., Baddeley, 2000, 2003; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Thus, STM tasks include simple span tasks, such as a word span task, a nonword repetition (NWR) task, or a digit-span task, while WM tasks include complex span tasks, such as a reading span task or an operation span task. The interactive models of WM (e.g., Cowan, 1999; Majerus, Heiligenstein, Gautherot, Poncelet, & Van der Linden, 2009; Unsworth & Engle, 2006), however, suggest that the distinction between the STM and the WM tasks lies not in the presence of a secondary cognitive processing task, but in the difficulty level of the primary task.
In the interactive models of WM, the ability to focus attention on the relevant information relies on the central executive system, which is responsible for voluntary, effort-demanding processes (e.g., Cowan, 2001; Engle et al., 1999). Cowan (1999) argued that STM capacity is constrained by the strength with which information is activated in the LTM. Within this temporarily activated information, some information becomes the focus of attention. Because the ability to focus attention is capacity limited, the more difficult the task, the higher the demand for attention. Therefore, simple (STM) tasks and complex (WM) tasks both tap the storage and the executive control abilities, but the two types of tasks differ in the degree to which they rely on the central executive (Cantor, Engle, & Hamilton, 1991; Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway, 1999; Kail & Hall, 2001; Kane et al., 2004; Unsworth & Engle, 2006). STM tasks are easier and, therefore, rely on the central executive less than do WM tasks.
A number of studies support the relationship between STM and WM performance (e.g., Kail & Hall, 2001; Unsworth & Engle, 2006). For example, Unsworth and Engle (2006) examined performance on verbal complex span tasks (i.e., reading span and operation span) and simple span tasks (i.e., word span and letter span) as a function of list length. Results revealed that the simple span performance at the long list lengths and performance on all the complex span list lengths shared a large amount of common variance, suggesting that the more difficult simple span tasks and complex span tasks tapped the same mechanisms. Therefore, increasing task difficulty is an effective way to manipulate the involvement of the central executive in memory performance. In the present study, we manipulated the difficulty levels of the verbal memory tasks in order to examine whether the involvement of the central executive would modulate verbal memory performance differently in bilinguals versus monolinguals. We hypothesized that the increase in the difficulty level of the phonological memory task would be associated with an increase in the degree to which the central executive (or controlled attention) would be involved in task performance. In hypothesizing that increased reliance on the central executive would shift the patterns of difference between bilingual and monolingual phonological memory performance, we were motivated by previous works suggesting that bilingualism may facilitate domain-general controlled-attention mechanisms.
Controlled attention in monolinguals and bilinguals
It is well documented that life-long bilingualism influences the cognitive system both functionally and structurally. A number of studies have reported that bilinguals outperform monolinguals on nonverbal executive function tasks (e.g., Bialystock & Shapero, 2005; Mezzacappa, 2004; Zelazo, Frye, & Rapus, 1996). Bilinguals are especially likely to outperform monolinguals on tasks that require inhibitory control and selective attention to environmental stimuli (e.g., Bialystok, 1999; Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004; Bialystok & Feng, 2009). One common explanation for these bilingual advantages is that constant practice inhibiting cross-linguistic competition translates into improved performance on nonlinguistic tasks that require inhibition (Blumenfeld & Marian, 2011; Bialystok, Craik, & Ryan, 2006; Costa, Hernandez, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2008). Because WM capacity has been shown to be related to performance on a number of attention task involving the central executive system, including Stroop (Kane & Engle, 2003), antisaccade (Kane, Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001), and flanker (Heitz & Engle, 2007) tasks, it is possible that bilingualism also influences WM performance.
In the nonlinguistic domain, a positive effect of bilingualism on WM has been demonstrated by Bialystok et al. (2004). Specifically, Bialystok et al. (2004) manipulated both congruency (indexing inhibitory control) and the number of visual stimuli (indexing WM capacity) on the Simon task. The results revealed bilinguals' advantages over monolinguals on both measures. Bialystok et al. (2004) suggested that bilinguals' better performance on inhibition trials and that on WM trials were both rooted in the central executive. However, this finding is at odds with studies of verbal memory performance in bilinguals, where consistently lower performance was observed in bilingual than in monolingual speakers, especially when bilinguals were tested in their L2 (e.g., Messer et al., 2010; Windsor et al., 2010). In the present study, we examined whether the differences between bilinguals and monolinguals on the verbal memory tasks would be conditioned by the difficulty level of the task. We expected that bilingualism would facilitate the efficient use of central executive (i.e., domain-general attention resources) and, therefore, the size of the difference on verbal memory tasks between bilinguals and monolinguals would be reduced with the increase in the difficulty levels of the tasks.
Present study
In the present study, we examined how bilinguals and monolinguals performed on phonological memory tasks in a target language that was bilinguals' L2 and monolinguals' L1. First, we examined whether lower levels of linguistic knowledge would reduce bilinguals' performance on target-language phonological memory tasks, as compared with monolinguals. We were especially interested in whether bilingual/monolingual differences in performance would depend on the degree to which a phonological memory task involved the knowledge of semantic and lexical information in the target language. To that end, we contrasted a word-span task (highest lexical-semantic knowledge), a digit-span task, and a NWR task (lowest lexical-semantic knowledge).
The word-span task requires participants to recall real words, either independently of order or in the same order as that in which they occurred, immediately after hearing or reading a list of words (e.g., Shah & Miyake, 1996). Successful performance on the word-span task depends crucially on one's semantic and lexical knowledge of the language in which the task is administered (Engle, Nations, & Cantor, 1990; Harrington & Sawyer, 1992; Poirier & Saint-Aubin, 1995; Watkins & Watkins, 1977). The digit-span task requires participants to recall sequences of digits. Because access to digit names becomes highly automatic through frequent use (e.g., Gathercole & Adams, 1993) and because the semantic value of digits is entirely transparent and clearly specified, unlike that of other words in the lexicon (e.g., Damian, 2004; Dehaene & Mehler, 1992), the influence of prior language knowledge on phonological memory is lower for the digit-span span task than for the word-span task (e.g., Harrington & Sawyer, 1992). Finally, the NWR task requires participants to listen to nonsense words and to repeat them back as accurately as possible (e.g., Gathercole et al., 1999; Gathercole, Willis, Emslie, & Baddeley, 1991). Unlike the word-span and the digit-span tasks, the NWR task is assumed to mostly involve sublexical knowledge (i.e., knowledge of fine-grained phonological representations), rather than lexical or semantic knowledge (e.g., Baddeley, Gathercole, & Papagno, 1998; Edwards, Beckman, & Munson, 2004; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1989; Munson, 2001).
The differences in the degree to which semantic and lexical long-term knowledge is involved in the word-span versus the digit-span versus the nonword repetition tasks enable us to ask how these discrepancies are reflected in bilingual versus monolingual phonological memory performance. Given that in our study, bilinguals' L2 was less proficient than monolinguals' L1, it was reasonable to hypothesize that bilinguals' lower lexical and semantic target-language skills would be particularly disadvantageous to performing the phonological memory task that relied on lexical and semantic knowledge the most (i.e., the word-span task). However, the converse was also possible; that is, it may be that not being able to take advantage of lexical-semantic knowledge (even when the levels of that knowledge are fairly low) would place bilinguals at a disadvantage. The result would be that monolinguals would outperform bilinguals on tasks that involve the lowest levels of lexical and semantic knowledge (i.e., the NWR task).
Second, we examined whether the involvement of the central executive system in the memory tasks would influence the patterns of differences between bilinguals and monolinguals. To manipulate the involvement of the central executive system in phonological memory performance, we systematically varied the difficulty levels of the three phonological memory tasks. Specifically, we manipulated the syllable and the list length on the word-span task and the complexity of the NWR and the digit-span tasks as a way to increase the difficulty level of the task and, thus, the involvement of the central executive in the memory process. Increase in word length (e.g., Archibald & Gahtercole, 2006; Baddelely, Tomson, & Buchanan, 1975; Girbau & Schwartz, 2007; LaPointe & Engle, 1990; Lovatt, Avons, & Masterson, 2000) and in list length (e.g., Baddeley et al., 1975; Hulme, Thomson, Muir, & Lawrence, 1984) have both been linked to increased difficulty levels of the memory task. Similarly, an imposition of a secondary processing task has been shown to increase the difficulty levels of the memory task (e.g., Conklin, Curtis, Katsanis, & Iacono, 2000; Daneman & Capenter, 1980; Engle et al., 1999; Just & Carpenter, 1992; Turner & Engle, 1989). We hypothesized that the differences in performance on the phonological memory tasks between bilinguals and monolinguals would be reduced as the demands on central executive increased. This hypothesis was based on previous studies showing that bilingualism may facilitate executive functions, which appear to be closely linked with WM capacity. What is most interesting, however, is the interplay between the particular task and the difficulty-level manipulation in bilinguals versus monolinguals. The crucial question asked in the present study was whether the difficulty-level manipulation would influence bilingual versus monolingual performance differently for tasks that involved different degrees of linguistic knowledge.
Demographic characteristics of Korean–English bilinguals and English monolinguals
F value
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
28.43 (5.49)
24.58 (6.56)
Years of education
19.06 (3.92)
16.03 (2.24)
Daily exposure to English (%)
59.76 (12.79)
93.68 (7.62)
Self-rated English speaking proficiency (zero-to-ten scale)
6.29 (1.74)
9.42 (0.69)
Self-rated English understanding proficiency (0-to-10 scale)
6.57 (1.70)
9.37 (0.96)
Self-rated English reading proficiency (0-to-10 scale)
7.48 (1.47)
9.32 (0.89)
Receptive Vocabulary Standard Score (PPVT–III)
88.67 (10.13)
116.58 (10.22)
Expressive Vocabulary Standard Score (EVT)
97.20 (12.44)
117 (13.18)
Nonverbal IQ Standard Score (KBIT-II)
112.50 (10.81)
106.71 (11.81)
Twenty-four English-speaking monolinguals participated in this study. Of those, one outlier (participant who scored more than 1 standard deviation below the mean IQ for the sample) was omitted from the analyses. The average age of the remaining 23 monolingual participants was 24.58 years. Monolingual participants also rated their English proficiency levels on a Likert scale. The two groups differed in their self-reported English proficiency, with monolinguals reporting higher English proficiency levels for speaking, understanding, and reading than bilinguals. These self-reported differences were confirmed by standardized measures of English vocabulary knowledge. English monolingual participants outperformed the bilingual participants on both the receptive vocabulary measure (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III; Dunn & Dunn, 1997) and the expressive vocabulary measure (Expressive Vocabulary Test; William, 1997). The lower English proficiency in bilinguals, as compared with monolinguals, was expected and, thus, was part of the overall design. The groups did not differ in age or in their nonverbal intelligence as measured by the Visual Matrixes subtest (indexing nonverbal IQ) of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004).
All the stimuli for the three phonological memory tasks were in English—the L1 for the monolinguals and the L2 for the bilinguals.
Word-span task
Concreteness and frequency of word stimuli in word-span task
Syllable length
List length
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
569.40 (32.04)
33.48 (26.26)
564.70 (58.10)
51. 37 (68.13)
559.67 (48.76)
39.31 (57.23)
571.40 (42.11)
25.79 (25.31)
571.80 (9.36)
25.86 (20.23)
552.70 (39.35)
34.50 (64.97)
562.33 (49.55)
20.78 (22.82)
558.35 (54.80)
26.56 (31.94)
588.40 (23.94)
12.01 (5.72)
546.70 (45.84)
15.85 (12.32)
544.20 (61.06)
20.22 (29.26)
558.65 (39.59)
26.24 (24.10)
Phonotactic probability and neighborhood size of word stimuli in word-span task
List length
Comparison across list lengths
Phonotactic probability
Mean (SD)
Syllable length
.21 (.02)
.17 (.06)
.17 (.06)
.15 (.70)
F(3, 146) = 1.84, p = .14
.14 (.03)
.13 (.03)
.15 (.04)
.12 (.05)
.16 (.03)
.14 (.06)
.12 (.04)
.13 (.03)
Comparison across syllable lengths
F(2, 147) = 6.84, p < .001*
Neighborhood size
Mean (SD)
Syllable length
30.40 (15.95)
29.50 (12.74)
17.33 (10.69)
18.40 (9.83)
F(3, 136) = 1.43, p = .24
6.50 (1.29)
7.30 (6.18)
4.54 (4.82)
5.79 (7.48)
1.25 (0.50)
1.30 (0.48)
1.67 (0.78)
1.50 (0.79)
Comparison across syllable lengths
F(2, 137) = 79.83, p < .001 *
Digit-span tasks
The Memory for Digits subtest of the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1999) was used to measure participants' forward digit-span skills. The task started with two-digit sequences and increased to eight-digit sequences incrementally, with three trials per sequence length. The Numbers Reversed subtest of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ-III COG/NU; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2005) was used to measure participants' backward digit-span skills. The task started with two-digit sequences and increased to eight-digit sequences. There were five trials for two-digit and three-digit sequences and four trials per sequence length for sequences of four to eight digits.
NWR tasks
One hundred forty-four English nonwords were selected from an established corpus of nonword stimuli (Gupta et al., 2004). Of these, 48 were two-syllable nonwords, 48 were four-syllable nonwords, and 48 were six-syllable nonwords (see Appendix 2). The stimuli were split, so that there were three pairs of 16 two-syllable nonwords, three pairs of 16 four-syllable nonwords, and three pairs of 16 six-syllable nonwords. Each member of the triplet was presented in the STM task, the unimodal WM task, or the cross-modal WM task. We used a simple NWR task to measure STM capacity and two complex NWR tasks to measure WM capacity. For the WM tasks, one set of nonwords was combined with an animacy judgment task (unimodal WM task), and the other set of nonwords was combined with a visual search task (cross-modal WM task).
Phonotactic probability and neighborhood size of nonword stimuli in NWR tasks
Comparison across tasks
simple NWR
complex NWR-animacy
complex NWR-visual
Phonotactic probability
Mean (SD)
Syllable length
.13 (.03)
.13 (.02)
.12 (.02)
F(2, 141) = 0.01, p = .99
.10 (.02)
.09 (.02)
.10 (.02)
.10 (.03)
.10 (.02)
.10 (.03)
Comparison across syllables
F(2, 141) = 21.17, p < .001 *
Neighborhood size
Mean (SD)
Syllable length
0.25 (0.58)
0.25 (0.45)
0.44 (1.03)
F(2, 141) = 0.32, p = .73
0.00 (0.00)
0.00 (0.00)
0.00 (0.00)
0.00 (0.00)
0.00 (0.00)
0.00 (0.00)
Comparison across syllables
F(2, 141) = 9.06, p < .001 *
In the STM NWR task, participants heard a nonword and repeated it as accurately as possible. In the unimodal WM task, participants heard the nonword, followed by an auditory presentation of a noun. Participants decided whether the noun was animate or inanimate and then repeated the nonword as accurately as possible. The 25 animate and 23 inanimate nouns selected for the unimodal WM task were matched on frequency, concreteness, and familiarity. In the cross-modal WM task, participants heard the nonword, followed by a presentation of a visual grid that contained variously configured "L" shapes (e.g., some were rotated, and some flipped). Participants decided whether there was an upright canonical "L" shape on the grid and then repeated the nonwords as accurately as possible. Half of the visual-search displays contained the canonical "L" shape, while the other half did not (randomized across trials).
The English nonwords and nouns (for both the unimodal WM task and the word-span task) were recorded by a female native speaker of English. All recordings were made in the soundproof booth at 20 K Hz sampling rate, and saved as .wav files. These .wav files were then normalized using Praat to 70-dB amplitude in order to ensure comparable acoustic parameters across conditions.
The order in which the tasks were administered was randomized for each participant.
Word-span task
Participants listened to lists of English words and were asked to recall as many words in the list as possible, regardless of order. They started with one-syllable words in lists of 5, 10, 15, and 20 words each, followed by two-syllable words and three-syllable words. The time interval between words was 500 ms, and the presentation of words in the set was randomized within each set and for each participant. Participants' productions were recorded and coded off-line.
Digit-span tasks
For the forward digit-span task, participants listened to strings of digits and were asked to recall the digits in the same order as that in which they heard them. For the backward digit-span task, participants listened to strings of digits and were asked to recall the digits in the reverse order from the one in which they had heard them. Responses were coded online.
NWR tasks
The order of the three NWR tasks was counterbalanced across participants. Two-syllable nonwords were always presented first, followed by four-syllable and six-syllable nonwords. In all three NWR tasks (STM, unimodal WM, and cross-modal WM), the time between the presentation of the nonword and the cue to repeat it was set to 4,000 ms. The picture of a microphone on the screen cued participants to repeat the nonword. After producing the nonword, the participants were asked to press the space bar to proceed to the next nonword. Participants' productions were recorded and coded off-line.
Vocabulary knowledge and language experience
All participants were administered standardized tests of English vocabulary, including the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–III (PPVT–III; Dunn & Dunn, 1997) and the Expressive Vocabulary Test (EVT; William, 1997). All participants were also administered a measure of nonverbal IQ using the Matrices subtest of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test–2 (KBIT–2; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004). Finally, all participants were asked to fill out the Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (Marian, Blumenfeld, & Kaushanskaya, 2007).
Word-span task
All productions were transcribed word-for-word by a native speaker of English. Regardless of order, each production was scored as correct if the produced word was in the list. The proportion correct score was derived for each list set. Semantically similar/associated words (e.g., faculty instead of professor, judge instead of jury) or duplicated words were scored as incorrect.
Digit-span tasks
For the forward digit-span task, a participant's score was determined by the highest sequence of digits repeated accurately by a participant, with the criterion of two out of three same-length trials repeated correctly. For the backward digit-span task, a participant's score was determined similarly, with the criterion of three trials out of four repeated correctly.
NWR task
Coding and scoring were completed by a native speaker of English. Proportion correct score was obtained for each nonword by calculating the proportion of correctly produced phonemes out of total number of phonemes per nonword. Subphonemic differences between the target production and the participants' production were coded as correct. This was done in order to give bilingual participants credit for NWR performance despite differences in production due to Korean accent. Korean-accented productions of phonemes that were recognizable as the target phoneme by the native English coder were scored as correct. Conversely, all productions where phonemic differences were detected (e.g., when the produced phoneme and the target phoneme were different phonemes in English) were scored as incorrect. For example, an English nonword kadad is pronounced as /kedæd/, with the first vowel stressed. If a participant produced /kedæd/ with both vowels stressed, both vowels were coded as correct since they were perceived as the target vowels. However, if a participant produced /kedæd/ as /kadæd/, substituting /a/ for /e/, the phoneme /a/ was coded as incorrect, and the proportion correct score for the nonword was .8. An independent coder who was a native speaker of English coded 10 % of NWR data, randomly selected from the 44 participants. Interrater agreement between the two coders ranged from 90 % to 100 %, with an average of 97 % for the simple NWR task, and from 88 % to 98 %, with an average of 93 % for the complex NWR tasks.
Because accuracy scores for the NWR and the word span task are based on proportions, all proportion accuracy scores were first converted into arcsine values using the arcsine transformation. Furthermore, since the coding criteria for the forward digit-span and backward digit-span were different, Z-scores were computed for the forward and backward digit-span scores and were used for the analyses.
Four types of analyses were conducted. First, for word-span data, a 2 × 3 × 4 mixed ANOVA was conducted to examine whether there was an effect of group (bilingual vs. monolingual), word length (one-, two-, and three-syllable words), and list length (5-, 10-, 15-, and 20-word lists) on word-span performance. Second, digit-span data were analyzed using a 2 × 2 ANOVA with group (bilingual vs. monolingual) as a between-subjects independent variable and task (forward vs. backward digit-span) as a within-subjects independent variable. Third, for NWR data, a 2 × 3 × 3 mixed ANOVA was conducted to investigate whether there was an effect of group (bilingual vs. monolingual), syllable length (two-, four-, and six-syllable nonwords), and task complexity (STM, unimodal WM and cross-modal WM) on NWR performance. Fourth, for NWR data, a 2 × 2 × 3 mixed ANOVA was conducted to examine whether there were differences in performance on the secondary processing tasks (animacy judgment task vs. visual search task) across groups (bilingual vs. monolinguals) and syllable lengths (two-, four-, and six-syllable nonwords).
Word-span performance in monolinguals and bilinguals
The mixed ANOVA yielded a main effect of list length, F(3, 123) = 290.80, p < .0001, ηp2 = .88, and significant two-way interactions between word length and group, F(2, 82) = 6.10, p < .01, ηp2 = .13, between list length and group, F(3, 123) = 20.52, p < .0001, ηp2 = .33, and between word length and list length, F(6, 246) = 4.99, p = .00, ηp2 = .11. No other main effects or interactions were observed. Participants (bilinguals and monolinguals) were more accurate on 5-word lists (M = 1.03, SD = 0.34) than on 10-word lists (M = 0.44, SD = 0.11), on 10-word lists than on 15-word lists (M = 0.32, SD = 0.10), and on 15-word lists than on 20-word lists (M = 0.26, SD = 0.09), with all pairwise comparisons adjusted for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni method and significant at p < .01. To identify the locus of the significant interactions between word length and group and between list length and group, independent-samples t-tests were run comparing bilinguals and monolinguals on their word-span performance at different levels of word length (collapsed across lists) and list length (collapsed across word lengths).
Digit-span performance in monolinguals and bilinguals
NWR performance in monolinguals and bilinguals
The mixed ANOVA yielded a main effect of task, F(2, 84) = 130.76, p < .0001, ηp2 = .76, and a main effect of nonword syllable length, F(2, 84) = 269.88, p < .0001, ηp2 = .87. However, there was no effect of group, and no two-way or three-way interactions. All follow-up pairwise comparisons were adjusted for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni method. Participants were more accurate on the STM task (M = 1.15, SE = 0.02) than on the cross-modal WM task (M = 1.07, SE = 0.02) and on the cross-modal WM task than on the unimodal WM task (M = 0.92, SE = 0.02), both ps < .01. This pattern was consistent in both groups (i.e., task complexity did not interact with group). In addition, participants were more accurate on two-syllable nonwords (M = 1.21, SE = 0.02) than on four-syllable nonwords (M = 1.13, SE = 0.02), on two-syllable nonwords than on six-syllable nonwords (M = 0.81, SE = 0.03), and on four-syllable nonwords than on six-syllable nonwords, all ps < .01. This pattern was also consistent in both groups (i.e., syllable length did not interact with group).
Animacy judgment and visual search accuracy on the WM NWR tasks
The mixed ANOVA revealed that the effects of group, F(1, 42) = 0.17, p = .68, ηp2 = .004, task, F(1, 42) = 0.68, p = .41, ηp2 = .02, and syllable length, F(2, 84) = 2.78, p = .07, ηp2 = .06, were not significant. These results confirmed that our manipulation of the secondary processing tasks was successful, in that there were no differences between the two tasks in difficulty levels for the two groups of the participants. The lack of a syllable-length effect suggests that participants performed the two secondary tasks with the same accuracy independently of the difficulty levels of the primary task. Together, these analyses suggest that differences in NWR performance when combined with the animacy judgment task versus the visual search task are a reflection of within- vs. across-modality manipulation, rather than a reflection of higher difficulty levels associated with the animacy judgment task versus the visual search task.
The present study investigated how bilinguals' performance on L2 phonological memory tasks compared with that of their monolingual peers. We were interested in whether discrepancies between bilinguals' and monolinguals' linguistic knowledge would seep into phonological memory performance and whether increased task difficulty would alter the patterns of difference between bilinguals and monolinguals. In line with the previous work on L2 phonological memory (e.g., Messer et al., 2010; Windsor et al., 2010), monolinguals outperformed bilinguals on some phonological memory tasks. However, this monolingual, L1 advantage was limited to tasks involving the easiest levels of task difficulty (shortest words/lists on the list-memory task; forward digit-span task) and to tasks involving lexical-semantic knowledge (list memory and digit-span tasks). Bilinguals and monolinguals did not differ in their performance on the NWR task. Moreover, the differences between bilinguals and monolinguals disappeared, and even reversed, at the most difficult levels of the digit-span and the list memory tasks. Together, these findings indicate that previously identified discrepancies between bilingual and monolingual phonological memory skills must be reconceptualized and reinterpreted.
We observed superior monolingual performance at the easiest level of task difficulty for the digit-span and the list-memory tasks. However, for the NWR task, the overall ANOVA failed to reveal a significant interaction between task and group. The finding that monolinguals and bilinguals did not differ in their performance on the NWR task is at odds with previous studies of NWR performance in L2 versus L1 (e.g., Masoura & Gathercole, 1999; Messer et al., 2010). For example, Masoura and Gathercole (1999) demonstrated that L1 NWR performance was significantly higher than L2 NWR performance, and Thorn et al. (2005) found that monolinguals outperformed bilinguals on the NWR task where the nonwords were constructed according to the phonotactic rules of the monolinguals' L1. There are a number of possible explanations for the lack of group differences on the NWR task in the present study.
For the word-span and the digit-span tasks, there was a clear interaction between task difficulty and group in the overall ANOVAs. We observed that an increase in the difficulty level eliminated the monolingual advantage on the digit-span task, while for the word-span task, an increase in the difficulty level actually revealed a monolingual disadvantage. In conceptualizing the study, we equated the increase in the difficulty level of the phonological memory task with the increase in the involvement of the domain-general executive control processes (e.g., Cowan, 2001; Engle et al., 1999). Therefore, we interpret the interaction between group and difficulty level observed in the word-span and digit-span data to suggest that bilinguals and monolinguals are differentially affected by the involvement of the central executive in the memory process. Specifically, we propose that the reversal of monolingual/bilingual differences observed in the present study at different difficulty levels of the phonological memory tasks is a reflection of the dynamics between linguistic knowledge and domain-general executive control processes.
While linguistic knowledge may be more robust in monolinguals than in bilinguals (especially those tested in their L2; see, e.g., Perani et al., 2003; Portocarrero et al., 2007), executive functioning (especially the ability to control attention) may be more robust in bilinguals than in monolinguals (e.g., Bialystok, 1999; Bialystok et al., 2004). For the simple memory tasks, where the central executive is less involved and performance largely relies on short-term storage (activated information in LTM), it is the extent of linguistic knowledge that dictates performance. Here, monolinguals clearly have an advantage over bilinguals, whose levels of L2 lexical-semantic knowledge are lower. For the more difficult memory tasks, where the central executive becomes more involved and performance relies on both the short-term storage (activated information in LTM) and the efficiency of the central executive (or focused attention), bilinguals may have an advantage over monolinguals. In other words, a more efficient central executive compensates for the lower levels of linguistic knowledge as the tasks get more difficult and overtakes linguistic knowledge in constraining the phonological memory performance once the amount of information exceeds the capacity limitations of the memory system. As a result, bilinguals outperform or perform comparably to monolinguals on the difficult phonological memory tasks.
An alternative interpretation of the shifting group differences in the digit-span and the word-span data, with monolinguals outperforming bilinguals at the easier (but not the more difficult) levels of the phonological memory tasks is that monolinguals are better able to take advantage of the reintegration processes than are bilinguals, at least at the easiest levels of task difficulty. Redintegration theories suggesting that long-term linguistic knowledge can support STM function have been traditionally used for interpreting L2 disadvantages on phonological memory tasks like the word-span task (e.g., Brown & Hulme, 1992; Thorn & Gathercole, 1999, 2001; Thorn, Gathercole, & Frankish, 2002). Specifically, according to the redintegration account of LTM/STM interactions (e.g., Gathercole et al., 1999; Schweickert, 1993; Thorn et al., 2005), it is possible to repair incomplete information in the STM storage using permanent lexical representations in LTM. For example, findings of superior memory performance for real words than for nonwords have been explained in terms of redintegration (e.g., Brown & Hulme, 1995; Thorn & Gathercole, 2001).
Using the redintegration framework (e.g., Gathercole et al., 1999; Schweickert, 1993; Thorn et al., 2005) to explain the discrepancies between L1 and L2 phonological memory skills in bilinguals leads to a hypothesis that bilingual speakers may be less able to take advantage of redintegration mechanisms when performing phonological memory tasks in their L2 because of the relatively weak L2 linguistic representations in the LTM. The explanation for the reduced differences between monolinguals' and bilinguals' digit-span and list-memory performance with an increase in difficulty levels would then be that with the increase in the difficulty level of the task, the degree to which the stimuli activate the LTM linguistic representations decreases. In the present study, as the word length increased in the word-span task, the phonotactic probability and neighborhood density of the words decreased. It is possible, then, that decreased activation of the LTM associated with decreased phonotactic probability and neighborhood density, rather than increased reliance on the central executive, is what reduced the L1/L2 performance gap at the more difficult levels of the word-span and the digit-span tasks.
There are two reasons why this explanation is unlikely or at least insufficient to account for the findings obtained in the present study. First, the reduction in L1/L2 performance levels was also observed on the backward digit-span task, as compared with the forward digit-span task. Given that the backward digit-span task involved the same stimuli as the forward digit-span task, it is unlikely that the two tasks relied on the LTM to different degrees. Instead, it is likely that the increased involvement of the central executive in backward digit-span performance is what reduced the difference between bilinguals and monolinguals. Second, phonotactic probability and neighborhood density of words in the word-span task were controlled across lists and varied only across the different syllable-length levels. If reduced reliance on LTM was at the root of improved L2 performance, we would expect the reversal to take place at the longest syllable-length level. Yet the reversal of bilingual/monolingual differences was observed only when list length increased and was not observed when syllable length increased. Therefore, our preferred interpretation for the fluctuations between bilingual and monolingual levels of performance on more versus less difficult phonological memory tasks is that an increase in the difficulty level of the task elevates the involvement of domain-general central executive mechanisms in performance. This ameliorates the disadvantages associated with performing the phonological memory tasks in the L2 and, in fact, can yield advantages in bilinguals on one particular task—the word-span task. But why did bilinguals in our study outperform monolinguals only at the difficult levels of the word-span task, and not on the digit-span or the NWR task? There are a few possible explanations for this finding.
For example, it is possible that the manipulation of the difficulty level was more successful for the word-span task than for the NWR or the digit-span task. The tasks were not designed in a way that would enable us to equalize the difficulty levels across tasks, and the differences across the difficulty levels within a task and across tasks were not documented independently from the tasks themselves. In the future, it would be useful to replicate the present findings with a different population in order to examine whether the difficulty hierarchy established here generalizes across experiments and participants. In the context of the present study, it is possible that the NWR task never became difficult enough to induce the involvement of the central executive and, thus, to reverse the direction of the bilingual/monolingual differences.
Furthermore, it is possible that the different patterns of results across the three tasks are rooted in the different methods by which task difficulty was manipulated. We manipulated the difficulty of the word-span task across two parameters: syllable length and list length. We found that group differences reversed (with bilinguals outperforming monolinguals) only with the increase in list length, but not with the increase in syllable length. An increase in the syllable length equalized bilingual and monolingual levels of performance but did not reveal a bilingual advantage. Similarly, we manipulated the NWR task by increasing the syllable length and by combining the primary NWR task with verbal or nonverbal secondary tasks and did not find bilingual advantages at the more difficult levels of the task. Therefore, it appears that the increased efficiency of the central executive associated with bilingualism is more likely to influence STM performance when the number of to-be-remembered meaningful units increases than when the number of to-be-remembered phonological units (i.e., syllables) increases. Generally, the dissociation between the word-span task and the NWR task suggests that the involvement of the central executive elevates bilingual performance over monolingual performance only when the task involves meaningful information. That is, perhaps a more efficient central executive coupled to the ability to take advantage of the available semantic network is necessary to observe bilingual advantages on the L2 phonological memory tasks.
In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggest that phonological memory differences between bilinguals and monolinguals crucially depend on the type of the phonological memory task (and the degree to which the task indexes lexical-semantic knowledge) and the difficulty of the task (and the degree to which the task involves a domain-general central executive system). At the easiest levels of task difficulty, monolinguals tend to outperform bilinguals on L2 phonological memory tasks, likely because of the more robust linguistic representations established in the L1 versus the L2. Moreover, at the easiest levels of task difficulty, monolinguals are more likely to outperform bilinguals on the phonological memory tasks like the word-span and the digit-span that involve target language lexical-semantic knowledge than on tasks like the NWR, which relies minimally on target language lexical-semantic knowledge. With the increase in the difficulty level, the differences between bilinguals and monolinguals diminish, likely because of the involvement of the domain-general central executive. Only by comparing bilingual and monolingual performance is it possible to observe the fluid dynamics between linguistic knowledge and central executive in the phonological memory system.
This research was supported by the University of Wisconsin–Madison Graduate School WARF Grant to Margarita Kaushanskaya. The authors are grateful to Anna Saucerman, Stephanie Van Hecke, Jenna Osowski, Julie Winer, and Marissa Stern for help with data collection and data coding.


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Robert B. Den, MD
Room G-301, Bodine Center
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215) 955-6702
(215) 955-0412 fax
Most Recent Peer-reviewed Publications
- The Missing Pieces in Reporting of Randomized Controlled Trials of External Beam Radiation Therapy Dose Escalation for Prostate Cancer
- Decision Support and Shared Decision Making About Active Surveillance Versus Active Treatment Among Men Diagnosed with Low-Risk Prostate Cancer: a Pilot Study
- The landscape of prognostic outlier genes in high-risk prostate cancer
- Impact of Radiation Therapy Dose Escalation on Prostate Cancer Outcomes and Toxicities
- Reply to Nicola Fossati, Giorgio Gandaglia, Alberto Bossi, Francesco Montorsi, Alberto Briganti's Letter to the Editor re: Stephen J. Freedland, Voleak Choeurng, Lauren Howard, et al. Utilization of a Genomic Classifier for Prediction of Metastasis Following Salvage Radiation Therapy After Radical Prostatectomy. Eur Urol. In press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2016.01.008
Medical School
Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
Radiation Oncology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
University Appointment
Associate Professor, Department of Cancer Biology
Research and Clinical Interests
I am a board-certified radiation oncologist who specializes in the treatment of prostate cancer. I see patients and discuss their cases in a genitourinary multidisciplinary clinic with colleagues in urology and medical oncology. I specialize in using IMRT to treat men with prostate cancer to improve patients outcomes and decrease the side effects of treatment.
I am also a translational researcher with a laboratory at Jefferson that focuses on combining new biologic agents with radiation therapy. The goal of this work is to introduce the most exciting compounds into clinical trials to benefit my patients.

subset: commoncrawl


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WordPress version: 3.2.2
version 1.2.3 of WordPress SEO is causing an error in my theme's builtin facebook like button. It currently just says "Error" now instead of a Like button. When I disable SEO plugin, the Like button works fine.
It doesn't matter if I have anything checked on the Social tab of the plugin settings either.
The "Error" link it displays takes me to this page:
Any ideas?


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Sunday, September 21, 2008. (AP) -- Scott Schoeneweis and the Mets bullpen blew another late lead, with the Atlanta Braves rallying for four runs in the eighth inning and a 7-6 win Sunday that stalled New York's playoff push.
The Mets began the day trailing Philadelphia by a half-game in the NL East. Their edge in the wild-card race was cut to 1 1/2 games by Milwaukee, which beat Cincinnati 8-1.
Down 4-3, Atlanta struck in the eighth against Schoeneweis (3-4) and three Mets relievers. It was the latest collapse for a beleaguered bullpen missing injured closer Billy Wagner.
(Copyright 2008 by The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved.)


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- Report: #867890
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Complaint Review: Home Finance of America
Home Finance of AmericaInternet United States of America
Home Finance of America Will invalidate appraisal if rate rises, Internet
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We have fantastic credit. We watched, shopped around and locked in at a great rate. After our appraisal was done which was a little low anyway, rates shot up. Home Finanace of America promptly told us our appraisal was no good and under review even though they choose the apprasal company. They could give us no applicable reasons for our apprasal to be invalid.
The field review they ordered then took enough time for our lock to run out. They pushed for us to lock in at a fair bit higher rate with points and fees. Of course they already had the markup from our original apprasal. They did have a significant markup since we talked to the appraisor.
So they made money on the appraisal and got rid of a loan without the desired markup. We were out the marked up appraisal fee and have to settle for a higher rate with someone else.
This report was posted on Ripoff Report on 04/12/2012 08:52 PM and is a permanent record located here: http://www.ripoffreport.com/r/Home-Finance-of-America/internet/Home-Finance-of-America-Will-invalidate-appraisal-if-rate-rises-Internet-867890. The posting time indicated is Arizona local time. Arizona does not observe daylight savings so the post time may be Mountain or Pacific depending on the time of year.
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A Maryland State Police trooper who was allegedly assaulted in the bathroom of the Mount Airy Walmart is at home recovering, according to a state police spokesman.
A mother, her two sons and a family friend were arrested Thursday after a confrontation that ended with the alleged assault of Trooper Johnathan Horner. Horner was treated at Carroll Hospital after the incident, but Sgt. Marc Black did not have any information regarding specific injuries suffered in the incident.
Meanwhile, two of the people involved in the incident have been released, while two others remained held at the Carroll County Detention Center as of 5 p.m. Friday.
Jacob Conners, 17, of the 13000...


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Holiday Gingerbread House
- Summary
Our quaint gingerbread cottage is crafted by artisan bakers who make the European-style gingerbread pieces using a recipe from a famous French chef and only the highest quality ingredients. The house arrives assembled and festively decorated with a wreath on the front door and a jolly gingerbread man to greet you. Available plain, with "Happy Holidays" written on a plaque above the front door, or personalized with the name of your choice. The house makes a sweet gift or festive centerpiece for the holiday table.
- Can be personalized with a name up to 8 letters.
- Shipped fresh.
- Made in USA.
- Dimensions & More Info
- Length: 10 3/4"
- Width: 8 3/4"
- Height: 9"
- Made in USA.
- Use & Care
Receiving Instructions
- The gingerbread house ships at ambient temperature, sealed in clear plastic wrap. Store in a cool, dry location, whether unopened or opened. Do not refrigerate or freeze. Unopened, it will last up to 8 months. Opened, it will last up to 3 weeks.
- Ingredients
- Gingerbread ingredients: enriched unbleached flour (wheat flour, malted barley flour, niacid, reduced iron, thiamine mononitrate, riboflavin folic acid), honey, corn syrup, brown sugar, unsalted butter (from milk), palm oil, eggs, cinnamon, baking soda, caramel color, cellulose gum, ginger, cloves, allspice.
- Icing and candy decorations: sugar, eggs, cream of tartar, natural & artificial flavors, artificial food colors fd & c (yellow #5 & #6, red #3 & #40, blue #1 & #2, titanium dioxide), corn starch, malic acid, glycerine, carnauba wax, beeswax, peppermint, soy lecithin, gelatin, lactic, citric and fumaric acids.
- Shipping
Shipping Information
Please allow up to two weeks for processing and delivery of perishable items, which are shipped two-day delivery to ensure freshness. Perishable items are not eligible for rush shipping.
Shipping Rates
The shipping rate varies depending on your order total and shipping destination.
Return Policy
At Williams-Sonoma, we take great pride in the quality and craftsmanship of our products. Attention to design, materials, safety and construction are our priority. Upon receipt, please inspect your purchase and notify us of any damage; we will arrange for a prompt replacement.
We cannot accept returns on monogrammed, personalized, special-order items, custom upholstery, food, items shipped direct from the vendor, or on items damaged through normal wear and tear. Final sale items ending in .97 or .99 cannot be returned. View Full Return Policy.


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61 Tallow St Moulamein NSW 2733
Contact AgentNeed a home loan? Just crunching the numbers for you...
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- 03 5453 2099
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61 Tallow St Moulamein
Fishing, Camping or Holiday Shack
* Great opportunity for syndicate
* Property does require TLC
* Rental opportunity also
* Dual water supply
* Shedding
Property No. 110126653
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- General Features
- Property Type:House
- Bedrooms:2
- Bathrooms:1
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Contains property sales information provided under licence from the Land and Property Information ("LPI"). RP Data Pty Ltd trading as CoreLogic is authorised as a Property Sales Information provider by the LPI.


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About Oppi Rotse
Oppi Rotse is a rock art creation that provides you with a warm African ambience. There is a thatched lapa overlooking the garden, a swimming pool, Jacuzzi, water feature, different braai areas and a bar which joins a combination of self-catering and bed and breakfast units.
Our spacious air-conditioned guest rooms have private entrances and are tastefully decorated with your comfort in mind.
- Response Rate: 99%
- Response Time: 5 hours
- Type: Self-catering
- Sleeps: 26
- Check-in: 01:00 PM Check-out: 10:00 AM
- Reviews: 59 Reviews
- Airport Shuttle
- Laundry Facilities*
- Indoor Fireplace
- Braai/Barbecue
- Swimming Pool
- Beach
- Budget
- Mid Range
Languages Spoken
- English
- Afrikaans
Oppi Rotse Rooms
Reviews for Oppi Rotse59 guest reviews Reviews of
4 out of 5 stars
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*Distances are shown as the crow flies and not necessarily the actual travelling
Things to do in and around St Lucia
iSimangaliso Wetlands Park
(84.5 km from St Lucia)
You will discover the many treasures of the park. Guided tours in safari vehicles or self-drives tours in your own vehicle will give you the opportunity to discover the rocks pools at Mission Rock, Cape Vidal, Banghazi lake, a number of gravel roads...
Bhangazi Horse Safaris
(0 km from St Lucia)
Bhangazi Horse Safaris offers an amazing experience in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. Feel the sheer thrill of riding along untouched beaches and viewing wildlife.
Chane Cheese Farm
(13 km from St Lucia)
Take the kids to Chané Cheese Farm for a fun experience milking goats and an educational tour. Don't miss sampling a variety of homemade organic cheeses. Kick back and enjoy the views and breakfast or a light lunch at the coffee shop. Delicious goat...
Hippo and Croc St Lucia Cruise
(0 km from St Lucia)
Take a two-hour leisurely cruise on the St Lucia Cruise Estuary. Spot hippo, crocodile, fish eagles, kingfishers and herons galore. Or just relax and enjoy the ride.


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Reminder - New School Start Times 8/11/16
Parents, remember to set your alarms a bit earlier this year at elementary and junior high. The elementary school day will begin 10 minutes earlier and the junior high school day will begin 15 minutes earlier. The high school day is unchanged.
Elementary School Day: 7:50 a.m. - 3:00 p.m.
Junior High School Day: 8:15 a.m. – 3:30 p.m.
High School Day: 9:00 am – 4:10 pm
See you Monday, August 22 for the first day of school!


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Does What We Sing Matter to the Faith of the Church?
Since the 1970s we have had a raging debate about singing and music in the church. This debate has often come down to "traditional" music, or (old) hymns, versus "modern," or popular music. The real truth is that the great … Continue reading
Posted in ACT 3, American Evangelicalism, Liturgy, Music, Personal, Prayer, Protestantism, Renewal, Spirituality 19 Comments/Likes
The Week of Prayer for Christian Unity in Wheaton 2016
The Week of Prayer for Christian Unity
The Week of Prayer for Christian Unity is an international Christian ecumenical observance kept annually between January 18 and 25. It is actually an octave, which means the observance lasts for eight days. The observance began in 1908 and was … Continue reading
Living in Community, Living in Love
Yesterday, I wrote about the desert fathers and mothers. One of the most prominent of them all was Antony of the desert. After reading Jesus' words to the rich younger ruler Antony, sensing the spiritual deadness of his own soul … Continue reading
A Special Season in the Desert – A Journey into Deeper Ecumenism (3)
What God gave to me in the late 1990s, and into the early years of this present century, was a settled assurance that he would go with me into a desert. There I would feel abandoned at times but he … Continue reading
Week of Prayer for Christian Unity 2015
One of the most important events each year, an event which is now over one hundred years old and counting, is the International Week of Prayer for Christian Unity. Around the globe Christians from all churches and denominational expressions come … Continue reading
Posted in ACT 3, Missional-Ecumenism, Prayer, Unity of the Church 17 Comments/Likes
The Moravian Daily Texts and My Contemplative Practice in 2014
A dear friend, Gerald Stover (PA), gave me a lovely gift at the Luminosa Award ceremony in June. I have used this gift, The Moravian Daily Texts, regularly in 2014. Most historians agree that the Moravian Church, which began as … Continue reading
Give Us This Day Our Daily Bread
No teaching on prayer has more powerfully impacted the Christian Church than the "model" prayer, what I prefer to call "The Disciples' Prayer" (Matthew 6:9-15). The Lord's Prayer is slightly inaccurate since our Lord never prayed this prayer but rather … Continue reading
Posted in ACT 3, Prayer 10 Comments/Likes
Jesus Prays for His Own – A Sermon (John 17)
The life of our Lord Jesus Christ had an intentionally designed dramatic climax. He was "born to die." This was not just any death for any person but a death which revealed the depth of God's love for the world (John … Continue reading
Posted in ACT 3, Death, Gospel/Good News, Homiletics/Preaching, Love, Personal, Prayer 4 Comments/Likes
A Unique Opportunity for Serving Christ in Ecumenism
Next Tuesday, April 8, the Semi-Annual meeting of the Bishops' Committee on Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops takes place near O'Hare Airport in Chicago. To my pleasant surprise I have been afforded the opportunity … Continue reading
Posted in ACT 3, Missional-Ecumenism, Prayer, Roman Catholicism 16 Comments/Likes


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Paul McCartney is inviting graphic designers and illustrators to create artworks inspired by the 1970 album McCartney and 1980's McCartney II. Read more »
Tag Archives: mccartney ii
McCartney and McCartney II reissue details announced
Details have been announced of the forthcoming reissues of Sir Paul McCartney's solo albums McCartney and McCartney II. Read more »


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A formal, public ceremony marking the official renaming of the Rockville Library to the Rockville Memorial Library will be held on Friday, May 28 at 11 a.m. at the Town Square entrance of the building at 21 Maryland Ave.
On November 10, 2009, Montgomery County Executive Ike Leggett signed a proclamation declaring that the name of the library be changed to honor "those who have given their lives defending the principles of freedom [during every major military conflict since the County was created in 1776] and will be deserving of the highest gratitude and honor by the people of Montgomery County."
The new library identification sign, centered on the angled beam at the front of the glass canopy above the front entryway, will be unveiled as part of the ceremony.
In addition to local elected officials, others on the program include veterans from past wars and representatives of the Montgomery County families who have lost loved ones. Bagpipe selections will be performed, and the ceremony will conclude with Taps.


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Fulbright, ridden by Silvestre de Sousa, held off the challenge of Mabait to cross the line more than a length ahead of his nearest rival.
Mister Music placed third with last year's winner Boom and Bust in fourth.
"We were running him over six (furlongs) - clearly we haven't got a clue. He's out of handicaps now, it's going to have to be Group races," Johnston said.
De Sousa added: "There was plenty of speed in the race and he's a horse that has won over six furlongs and seven so I had no doubt I'd have the speed to travel whatever the pace was.
"I was just tracking the leaders and he was enjoying being there so I just let him enjoy the race."
Australia's Ortensia finally won in Britain this summer at the third time of asking with victory in the Gordon's King George Stakes. The horse had previously been beaten at Royal Ascot and in the July Cup at Newmarket.


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Leslie Crofford, M.D.
Dept. of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology
Dept. of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology
Contact Information
Office Location:
Phone: 615-322-4746
Fax: 615-322-6248
E-mail: email@example.com
Campus Mail Address:
Department of Medicine, Rheumatology Division
Mailing Address:
Vanderbilt University School of Medicine
Department of Medicine, Rheumatology Division
1161 21st Ave South
Nashville, TN 37232 - 2681
MD, University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Memphis, TN
Research Keywords
Research Description
Inflammatory arthritis, including rheumatoid arthritis, is a systemic disease causing pain, fatigue, disability, and early mortality. Clinical expression of systemic autoimmune inflammatory arthritis is associated with activation of innate and acquired immune systems. In addition to the local effects of synovitis, systemic effects include skeletal muscle dysfunction likely mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Clinical Research Description
Noehren, B, Dailey, DL, Rakel, BA, Vance, CG, Zimmerman, MB, Crofford, LJ, Sluka, KA. Effect of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on pain, function, and quality of life in fibromyalgia: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. Phys Ther, 95(1), 129-40, 2015
Salt, E, Rayens, MK, Kerr, AM, Alikhan, M, Crofford, LJ. Examining rheumatoid arthritis patients'' trust in their provider over time: the effects of demographic factors and accessing sources of information. Orthop Nurs, 34(3), 159-65, 2015
Cleary, LC, Crofford, LJ, Long, D, Charnigo, R, Clasey, J, Beaman, F, Jenkins, KA, Fraser, N, Srinivas, A, Dhaon, N, Hanaoka, BY. Does computed tomography-based muscle density predict muscle function and health-related quality of life in patients with idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken), 67(7), 1031-40, 2015
Crofford, LJ. Psychological aspects of chronic musculoskeletal pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol, 29(1), 147-55, 2015
Maseda, D, Bonami, RH, Crofford, LJ. Regulation of B lymphocytes and plasma cells by innate immune mechanisms and stromal cells in rheumatoid arthritis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol, 10(6), 747-62, 2014
Brogden, NK, Ghosh, P, Hardi, L, Crofford, LJ, Stinchcomb, AL. Development of in vivo impedance spectroscopy techniques for measurement of micropore formation following microneedle insertion. J Pharm Sci, 102(6), 1948-56, 2013
Pagorek, S, Kuperstein, J, Guo, J, Ballert, KN, Crofford, LJ. The Association of Chronic Back Pain and Stress Urinary Incontinence: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Womens Health Phys Therap, 37(1), 11-18, 2013
Brogden, NK, Banks, SL, Crofford, LJ, Stinchcomb, AL. Diclofenac enables unprecedented week-long microneedle-enhanced delivery of a skin impermeable medication in humans. Pharm Res, 30(8), 1947-55, 2013
Srikuea, R, Symons, TB, Long, DE, Lee, JD, Shang, Y, Chomentowski, PJ, Yu, G, Crofford, LJ, Peterson, CA. Association of fibromyalgia with altered skeletal muscle characteristics which may contribute to postexertional fatigue in postmenopausal women. Arthritis Rheum, 65(2), 519-28, 2013
Hung, EW, Mayes, MD, Sharif, R, Assassi, S, Machicao, VI, Hosing, C, St Clair, EW, Furst, DE, Khanna, D, Forman, S, Mineishi, S, Phillips, K, Seibold, JR, Bredeson, C, Csuka, ME, Nash, RA, Wener, MH, Simms, R, Ballen, K, Leclercq, S, Storek, J, Goldmuntz, E, Welch, B, Keyes-Elstein, L, Castina, S, Crofford, LJ, Mcsweeney, P, Sullivan, KM. Gastric antral vascular ectasia and its clinical correlates in patients with early diffuse systemic sclerosis in the SCOT trial. J Rheumatol, 40(4), 455-60, 2013
Painter, JT, Crofford, LJ. Chronic opioid use in fibromyalgia syndrome: a clinical review. J Clin Rheumatol, 19(2), 72-7, 2013
Painter, JT, Crofford, LJ, Talbert, J. Geographic variation of chronic opioid use in fibromyalgia. Clin Ther, 35(3), 303-11, 2013
Oddis, CV, Reed, AM, Aggarwal, R, Rider, LG, Ascherman, DP, Levesque, MC, Barohn, RJ, Feldman, BM, Harris-Love, MO, Koontz, DC, Fertig, N, Kelley, SS, Pryber, SL, Miller, FW, Rockette, HE, , . Rituximab in the treatment of refractory adult and juvenile dermatomyositis and adult polymyositis: a randomized, placebo-phase trial. Arthritis Rheum, 65(2), 314-24, 2013
Salt, E, Crofford, LJ, Studts, JL, Lightfoot, R, Hall, LA. Development of a quality of patient-health care provider communication scale from the perspective of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Chronic Illn, 9(2), 103-15, 2013
Hanaoka, BY, Peterson, CA, Horbinski, C, Crofford, LJ. Implications of glucocorticoid therapy in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Nat Rev Rheumatol, 8(8), 448-57, 2012
Hanaoka, BY, Peterson, CA, Crofford, LJ. Glucocorticoid effects on skeletal muscle: benefit and risk in patients with autoimmune inflammatory rheumatoid diseases. Expert Rev Clin Immunol, 8(8), 695-7, 2012
Aschbacher, K, Adam, EK, Crofford, LJ, Kemeny, ME, Demitrack, MA, Ben-Zvi, A. Linking disease symptoms and subtypes with personalized systems-based phenotypes: a proof of concept study. Brain Behav Immun, 26(7), 1047-56, 2012
Arnold, LM, Stanford, SB, Welge, JA, Crofford, LJ. Development and testing of the fibromyalgia diagnostic screen for primary care. J Womens Health (Larchmt), 21(2), 231-9, 2012
Schiopu, E, Phillips, K, MacDonald, PM, Crofford, LJ, Somers, EC. Predictors of survival in a cohort of patients with polymyositis and dermatomyositis: effect of corticosteroids, methotrexate and azathioprine. Arthritis Res Ther, 14(1), R22, 2012
Brogden, NK, Milewski, M, Ghosh, P, Hardi, L, Crofford, LJ, Stinchcomb, AL. Diclofenac delays micropore closure following microneedle treatment in human subjects. J Control Release, 163(2), 220-9, 2012
Salt, E, Crofford, L. Rheumatoid arthritis: new treatments, better outcomes. Nurse Pract, 37(11), 16-22; quiz 23, 2012
Shang, Y, Gurley, K, Symons, B, Long, D, Srikuea, R, Crofford, LJ, Peterson, CA, Yu, G. Noninvasive optical characterization of muscle blood flow, oxygenation, and metabolism in women with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Res Ther, 14(6), R236, 2012
Lommel, K, Bandyopadhyay, A, Martin, C, Kapoor, S, Crofford, L. A pilot study of a combined intervention for management of juvenile primary fibromyalgia symptoms in adolescents in an inpatient psychiatric unit. Int J Adolesc Med Health, 23(3), 193-7, 2011
Kojima, F, Matnani, RG, Kawai, S, Ushikubi, F, Crofford, LJ. Potential roles of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 in rheumatoid arthritis. Inflamm Regen, 31(2), 157-166, 2011
Sarnes, E, Crofford, L, Watson, M, Dennis, G, Kan, H, Bass, D. Incidence and US costs of corticosteroid-associated adverse events: a systematic literature review. Clin Ther, 33(10), 1413-32, 2011
Boomershine, CS, Crofford, LJ. A symptom-based approach to pharmacologic management of fibromyalgia. Nat Rev Rheumatol, 5(4), 191-9, 2009
Dubois, RN, Abramson, SB, Crofford, L, Gupta, RA, Simon, LS, Van De Putte, LB, Lipsky, PE. Cyclooxygenase in biology and disease. FASEB J, 12(12), 1063-73, 1998


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- Report: #603609
Report - Rebuttal - Arbitrate
Complaint Review: Oil City Surplus
Oil City Surplus1108 pennsylvania houston, Texas United States of America
Oil City Surplus REVIEW: Oil City Surplus is commitment to customer satisfaction, Oil City Surplus implemented deliberate changes to insure customers get the best deal for their money, focusing on finding ways to help customers save money on their surplus equipment needs in todays challenging market.
*UPDATE: Recognized by Ripoff Report Corporate Advocacy, Business Remediation and Customer Satisfaction Program. A program that benefits the consumer, assures them of complete satisfaction and confidence when doing business with a member business. Oil City Surplus, A Verified Safe Business.
*REBUTTAL Owner of company: Pumps
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Editors UPDATE: Positive rating and recognition has been given to Oil City Surplus for its commitment to excellence in customer service.
Rip-off Reports discussions with Oil City Surplus have revealed an ongoing commitment by the company to total customer satisfaction. This means that customers can expect that the company will work extra hard towards finding a mutually satisfactory tenacity to any and all complaints or concerns. Oil City Surplus always listens carefully to customer concerns and sees them as an opportunity to learn from past mistakes to become more efficient as a company in the purchasing of equipment and services offered.
Oil City Surpluss president, Mr. Mark John, has informed us that his personal belief is that his customers are a very precious resource to his business. As a successful businessman, Mr. John feels it is critical to listen to all of his clients and respond to their demands properly. By always putting his customers first, Mr. John hopes to maintain Oil City Surplus as a successful business both now and in the futrture.
Another director of the company told us that Mr. John's personal business values is based on the premise that "buying at high prices and selling high quality surplus equipment at low prices will ultimately be a successful business model in this surplus industry. Oil City Surplus's mission statement says it all: "Our goal is to provide our customers with the best quality, exceptional value and low prices with the professionalism that customers deserve in the surplus industry." Some of the other things Ripoff Report learned in the course of its investigation: typical customer feedback reads: Oil City Surplus (and Mr. John) really understands all aspects of their job by corresponding to his customers in a timely and effective manner. We are very pleased with the responsiveness that he and his employees show us. They are serious about meeting commitments, and deliver on all their promises."
At Oil City Surplus they provide limited warranty for money back guarantee with a 14 day period after purchase. They state that they will repair and maintenance any issues that may arise with the 14 day period after purchase. They also said that they have designed procedures to improve and hold quality in all of our products. Company technicians say, their Quality Control program is certified and that they are excellent in performing preventative maintenance.
Oil City Surpluss agents have articulated that they feel very confident doing their job. The purchasing manager at Oil City Surplus stated "I have seen Mr. John take personal interest in finding the right surplus products with low price selection for the customer. With his many years of experience in sales and purchasing some of the most reliable equipment for companies like Zachry, I know that he has the best business skills in Houston. It always gives me great pleasure to speak to the customer a while after their purchase of the equipment to find that the equipment has exceeded its potential expectations by alot.
Oil City Surplus also takes employee satisfaction seriously. Employee feedback and blogs reveal comments such as this: "Oil City Surplus provides a very humble and positive working environment. Opportunities for suggestions and improvements are always encouraged everyday. Mark is truly concerned about our contribution to the company by providing growth opportunities and pay raises yearly. He also takes time out of his life to listen and communicate with all of his employees and customers." Rip-off Report was pleased to learn that Oil City Surpluss past and current approach to business is focused on its pledge to total commitment towards customer and employee satisfaction.
Oil City Surplus recognizes that complaints posted on Rip-off Report (whether true or not) are issues that need to be addressed promptly and not ignored. If handled correctly, complaints can be a very valuable learning opportunity for all. With the feedback generated by Rip-off Reports Investigation, Oil City Surplus has made managerial changes allowing its customers and employees to have a more efficient approach to probem perserverance and a commitment to great customer service.
In summary, after our review, which included discussions with Mr. John and many of his past and current associates, Rip-off Report is convinced that Oil City Surplus is committed to comprising of high quality used and new surplus merchandise resulting in total customer satisfaction.
Read more about why consumers should feel confident when doing business with a member of Rip-off Report's Corporate Advocacy Business Remediation & Customer Satisfaction Program. Yes, its a long name for a program that does a lot for both consumers and businesses alike.
Read about Rip-off Report Corporate Advocacy Business Remediation & Customer Satisfaction Program,.. A program that benefits the consumer, assures them of complete satisfaction and confidence when doing business with a member business. this program works.
SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT THE ONE REPORT THAT WAS FILED ABOUT OIL CITY SURPLUS: The author of the Report below would not respond..
As a matter of policy, when a business becomes a member of the Corporate Advocacy Program they agree to allow Rip-off Report to contact every person who filed a complaint so they can make things right with them. The member business agrees in writing that they are not allowed to sue someone who files a complaint about their business if they were a customer. The 3 Reports about Oil City Surplus were all found to be false.
Oil City Surplus - Shawn Parker sold me a defective machinery. houston Texas
I bought 3 Slurry pumps from Shawn Parker and Mark John for $7000. ( 713-304-7312 - 713-204-6074)
These pumps were then installed and later caused damaged to the slurry tank. After inspection, we ascertained the pump housing was cracked and had been re-welded.... this caused the agitator to come apart.
Shawn Parker knowingly sold me a defective piece of machinery that has caused thousands of dollars in lost time and money.
When I went back to the yard to discuss the one year warranty that was included on the pump sale, I was informed that Shawn Parker does not own the yard and that several other companies are looking for him.
Consider this a warning --- Beware of these scam artists!
This report was posted on Ripoff Report on 05/15/2010 04:55 AM and is a permanent record located here: http://www.ripoffreport.com/r/Oil-City-Surplus/houston-Texas-/Oil-City-Surplus-REVIEW-Oil-City-Surplus-is-commitment-to-customer-satisfaction-Oil-City-603609. The posting time indicated is Arizona local time. Arizona does not observe daylight savings so the post time may be Mountain or Pacific depending on the time of year.
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#1 REBUTTAL Owner of company
AUTHOR: Gino - (United States of America)
SUBMITTED: Friday, May 21, 2010POSTED: Friday, May 21, 2010
These are false allegations. If this is true, please, provide the customer name and number, But they will not be able to because it is a false report that was made up, Because, they are competitors who always lose the bids at auctions when we are involved.
Industrial Surplus, Inc
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The mortality for meningitis due to Staphylococcus aureus or Listeria monocytogenes remains high, ranging from 32% to 77%. We treated a patient with staphylococcal meningitis refractory to methicillin sodium and oxacillin sodium, and a patient with Listeria meningitis refractory to penicillin G potassium and ampicillin sodium; both patients were cured when intrathecal gentamicin sulfate was added to the regimen. The combination of intrathecal gentamicin and a penicillin may be beneficial in refractory staphylococcal or Listeria meningitis.
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Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: > 300
Comments: This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations).
In a survey of populations in the contiguous U.S., Huntington et al. (1996) identified 28 healthy native stocks of winter steelhead (20 in Washington, 7 in Oregon, 1 in California) and 6 healthy native stocks of summer steelhead, all in Oregon.


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With a crazy revamp to the website, solely showcasing a fall/winter 2013 collection with incredibly unique fabrics and avant garde designs, there are a few things we know for sure: 1. Rhude isn't just about Bandana T-shirts anymore, 2. Head designer, Rhuigi Villasenor truly is a young leader in style, and 3. this could possibly be one of the best collections you haven't seen yet for fall/winter 2013. Expect to see some VIPs wearing a plethora of these pieces in the next few months. Mark our words.
10 Brands That Are About to Blow Up
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The newest member of the Von Essen group has something other hotels don't - its own heliport
Luxury hotel openings are two a penny in London at the moment. There's the soon-to-open Corinthia on Whitehall Place, the W London in the former Swiss Centre and the new look Savoy, set to open on 10 October.
Yet few can match the unique selling proposition of the new Hotel Verta in Battersea - it has its own heliport.
The London heliport, the only licensed commercial landing spot in London, first opened in 1959 and has undergone redevelopment in the past two years. It now has a new terminal building, linked directly to the hotel next door, and a new control


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Rent Shifting Involvements 20th edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Albert O. Hirschman. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Princeton University Press.
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The college was established in 1976 and aims at enhancing integrity and professionalism among its members.The institute offers customized procurement and supply chain training programs.Some of the courses and certifications offered include:1. Chartered Institute of Purchasing & Supply Diploma Program (CIPS)2. Kenya Institute of Supplies Examinations Board (KISEB) Certification3. International Diploma in Supply Chain Management4. Continuous Professional Development (CPD)for procurement and supply chain professionalson
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Clash of Clans Hack Tool
Hack tools are designed for those players who are really fond of it and love to play it. Hack tools also designed following the way that all types of devices whether it is smartphone or tablet can support it. If a player really wish to win all the battles of Clash of Clans they require lots of resources and this is the only way to get as it is safer to use and virus free.
Tool Updated:
Get to know more about Clash of Clans game before Playing
Troops are divided into different levels like Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3, dark Elixir Troops and Heroes.
Tier 1: Consists of Archers, Goblins and most importantly Barbarians
Tier 2: Included Giants, Ballons, Wall Breakers, and Wizards etc.
Tier 3: On this level there are Dragons, Healers etc.
Dark Elixir Troops: It have Hound Hog Riders, Golems, Witches, Flying imp like Minions and lava Hounds.
Heroes: On this level there are Barbarian King, Archer Queen. Heroes are immortal, they never die and they are trained only once.
A player should know how to earn gold and elixir and storage them, a player have to made gold mines and storages, as well as elixir storage and collectors. Elixir is used to train troops, upgrade troops, laboratory research, most importantly to attack on other players base.
Gold is mostly used to build defensive building, upgrade town halls that helps to access higher buildings of the existing one.
One of the major components of this game is the clans facing another. Clan leaders and other leaders can start a war again other clans. To start a war each clan is given a preparation day and a war day. Each clan receives amount of stars depending on the upon the destruction they made to the opponent's community. Each player can only made two attacks per war, at the end of the day the team with most stars is declared as the winner.
Like gold and elixir this game also has gems as currency. Gems are awarded after reaching certain milestones, after achieving some points and also if the player cleared some certain obstacles from the compound. Though the really fruitful method to earn gems are to buy them from app-store using real money. Gems can turn up to be your biggest assets like speeding up your game from every aspect like training troops, constructing as well as to buy more resources and builders.
We know that as a faithful player of Clash of Clans you have visited lots of sites for resources, is it not true? Of course it is. Are you tired of trying to find a good enough hack tool site as now on internet environment there are many fake sites providing false promises. We agree with you completely and feel that you would not want to pay much for a free game? It is also not possible to pay a heavy amount of real money to play just an online game. Smile now, your all search ends here with a fruitful solution. We can assure you right at the moment you started to play using these tools you will feel lucky and we will give you no chance to complain and you might end up winning the game and make your clan victorious.
Using these tools you could unlock different levels of this game quite easily and hassle free, you will not have any roadblocks to gain unlimited gold, elixir and gems in terms of resources. There is also another plus point that is you can adjust the amount you are getting, it makes your game easier and no matter how tough the level is you can go through them swiftly. Besides the amount you can get more resources apart from stated afore and add them in your account which will provide you more advantages while playing the different and difficult levels.
All the items you need to survive on this game can be provided easily if you choose this Clash of Clans hack Tool. Victory is not at all a laborious job if you have unlimited resources; we assure you provide that level after level easily.
Clash of Clans Cheat Features :
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How to Use Hack Tool
Firstly download the cheats
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Follow the tutorial (If Needed)
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Apply it on your game in IOS/Android device


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If you already have an avfc.co.uk account (including an AVTV account), you can login below
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Manager on Robins defeat.
Details of Ashton Gate defeat.
Defender makes Bluebirds switch.
Roberto Di Matteo gives his views ahead of Villa's away game at Bristol City.
Our players discuss what they do to prepare for big games.
Our new defender speaks to AVTV about his move to Villa and his hopes for a successful season.
Come down to Villa Stores
Available now
Fabian Delph was today called up by England.
It was the first senior selection for the driving midfielder, who has been excelling in claret and blue.
Fans immediately took to Twitter after our announcement to share their joy at the decision by Roy Hodgson.
Find below a selection of social media messages.
Quality quartet on target


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I'm using the Wp-Genius theme
My question is how to change the background color of widgets i use.
They are not text widgets.For example i use wordpress popular posts widget,categories widget etc. in the side bar.
I tried in the style.css but there is nothing to change.
Can someone help me?
Thank you


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Reviewed by 1 customer
Best Uses
Comments about Plastic Repair – Rec Repair Patch:
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Two Lies And A Truth On 'The Vampire Diaries' With Nina Dobrev And More
When it comes to a show like "The Vampire Diaries," nothing is off the table. Mixing together vampires and their many derivatives with werewolves, ghosts, witches, and more results in some seriously convoluted plot twists.
Let's make it even more complicated, shall we?
I caught up with some of the cast and creators of "The Vampire Diaries" during San Diego Comic-Con and asked them if they wanted to play a game. Sadly I didn't have the foresight to bring my Jigsaw mask, but they all agreed anyway.
With Two Lies And A Truth, I requested they lie to my face about things that will happen in the upcoming sixth season. And then to sprinkle it with truth. Can you guys figure out which of these statements are false and which will come to pass?
"The Vampire Diaries" returns to The CW on October 2.