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Emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) are found exclusively in Australia and inhabits nearly the entire continent. Lower densities exist along the eastern coast and toward the center of the island. The number of individuals varies around 700,000, and is dependent on the seasonal rains.
Biogeographic Regions: australian (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: island endemic
- Blakers, M., S. Davies, P. Reilly. 1984. The Atlas of Australian Birds. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
Range Description
Physical Description
Emus have many physical characteristics in common with the ostrich, which are the only birds taller than the emu. Emus can reach a maximum height of 190 cm, with the average at 175 cm. Emus feet are similar in design to other running birds, having three forward-facing toes and no rearward-facing toes. Emus have long bare legs, similar to other flightless birds Ratites. Emus are the only bird with calf muscles, making them more adapted to sprinting and long distance running. These strength adaptations allow them to sustain speeds up to 13.4 m/s, with an average 3 meter stride. The high strength of these legs allows them to perform extremely powerful kicks capable of breaking through fences or maiming predators. The average weight of an emu is 36 to 40 kilograms, with females being slightly by not significantly larger. Their plumage of shaggy dark brown feathers is not streamlined, as its main purpose is insulation from direct sunlight. This plumage has some variation due to environment, and will often reflect the general hue of its surroundings. Young emus will have additional camouflage in the form of longitudinal tan stripes on their much thinner plumage. Emus have very small vestigial wings capable of flapping, although they do not aid in mobility. They have a long, sparsely covered neck that is whitish-blue. Their heads are covered in wispy black feathers, and have a large black beak specialized for grazing.
Range mass: 36 to 40 kg.
Range length: 190 (high) cm.
Average length: 175 cm.
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Emus, with their nomadic lifestyle, will occupy nearly all available biomes in Australia. Savannah forest, grassland, and subtropical climates are preferred. Emus tend to gravitate toward areas with standing water and are seen most often in savannah areas. They avoid heavily wooded areas and desertified regions, due to water needs.
Range elevation: 0 (low) m.
Average elevation: 330 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest
Other Habitat Features: agricultural
- Drenowatz, C. 1995. Ratite Encyclopedia: Ostrich, Emu, Rhea. United States: Ratite Records, Inc.
Habitat and Ecology
- Terrestrial
Trophic Strategy
Emus primarily feed on fruits, seeds, insects, and small animals. Emus will also feed on animal droppings, and will reject leaves and dry grasses. Emus have no crop for storing or breaking down food, but instead have a modified esophagus that is able to store food upwards of 30 minutes before entering the stomach. Since emus may experience starvation for weeks, they are able to store large amounts of fat in preparation. Emus are able to lose more than half their body mass during these long starvation periods. This adaptation also allows the male emus to endure an entire encubation period without food.
Animal Foods: mammals; amphibians; reptiles; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods
Plant Foods: wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit
Other Foods: dung
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore ); herbivore (Frugivore , Granivore , Lignivore); omnivore ; coprophage
Emus disperse seeds of many low growing plants over wide ranges, because of their nomadic migratory patterns. Some seeds have a specialized coating that, after digestion, increases their chances of sprouting. The emu can impact farmlands that are not fenced in, due to the herd growing nature of migrating emus searching for food. Many small insects fall prey to the emus, who will eat opportunistically. Emus are often hunted by dingoes and hawks. Internal parasites have been documented in emus. Roundworms have caused illnesses and deaths of captice emus via cerebrospinal nematodiasis. Lungworms inhabit respiratory organ and nematodes infect the brains of emus.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
- roundworms (Baylisascaris procyonis)
- lungworms (Cyathostoma variegatum)
- nematodes (Chandlerella quiscali)
- Kazacos, K., S. Fitzgerald, W. Reed. 1991. Baylisascaris procyonis as a cause of cerebrospinal nematodiasis in ratites. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 22/4: 460-465.
- Law, J., T. Tully, T. Stewart. 1993. Verminous encephalitis apparently caused by the filarioid nematode Chandlerella quiscali in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Avian Diseases, 37/2: 597-601.
- Rickard, L., L. Steinohrt, S. Black. 1997. Subclinical cyathostomiasis and unidentified helminthiasis in a juvenile emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Avian Diseases, 41/4: 993-996.
The primary predator of emus are dingoes. Dingoes mainly threaten the nests, consuming the eggs. One dingo will distract the incubating male, so that the nest becomes exposed. When attacking emus, predators will target the head and neck. To defend against dingo attacks, emus exploit their height by quickly leaping away. Emus will leap to put distance between the dingo's mouth and their neck. This is often accompanied by a kicking defense, which can be lethal for the dingo. Against eagles and hawks, emus have little practical defense. The wedge-tailed eagle, will attempt to break their neck by tackling them after a dive. Emus can only run wildly and unpredictably, seeking cover (a rarity in their habitat).
Known Predators:
- dingoes (Canis lupus dingo)
- wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax)
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Life History and Behavior
Emus have the ability to communicate by using an inflatable neck sack, and can create sounds loud enough to be heard 2 km away. The name "emu" resembles its signature call, heard as "e-moo". Translating these calls is the main form of receiving communication, aside from visually interpreting body language. During courtship, the emu male and female participate in a dance consisting of struts and snake-like head movements. Males must make the correct moves, otherwise the female can rapidly change her mind and become aggressive.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Life Expectancy
When in captivity, under a regular hydration and feeding schedule, emus are able to live up to 20 years. Emus in the wild experience many more stresses, including dry periods and starvation, which reduces their lifespan to a max of ten years.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 5 to 10 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 7 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 15 to 20 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 16 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 5 to 10 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 7 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 15 to 20 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 16 years.
Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
Emus exhibit polyandrous breeding patterns, but not all females engage multiple partners. Mating season begins in December-January, which starts with the male and female emu engaging in a courtship dance. The result is dependent on the male emu's performance; if his it is unsatisfactory the female may become aggressive. Success of the male emu means up to five months of mating privileges with the courted female. Before the female emu lays her eggs, their male counterpart may court other females before being occupied with incubation. After the males begin the incubation period, the female emus will seek to mate with unoccupied males. Most female emus engage in post-mating period polygamy, however not without a cost. Female emus run the risk of losing their mate, which could mean her eggs will not be incubated. To prevent this, some will guard the male from accessing other females. In the relationship, the female emu is most responsible for keeping order in the pair formation, until incubation begins when the male becomes aggressive to all other emus.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
When emus reach sexual maturity at 18 to 20 months, they engage in mating practices. After pairing, emus will breed until eggs are laid. From insemination, this is 48 to 56 days. Female emus are able to store sperm, allowing them to continue laying eggs every 3 days after her initial clutch. This initial clutch can range from 5 to 24 eggs. She will create more nests if necessary, which will be incubated by another male emu. A single nest may contain the eggs of several females. Male emus are responsible for egg incubation, which starts after the last egg is laid in order to minimize the incubation period. In the incubation period, male emus generally do not consume food, drink, or pass waste; they are able to survive on stored fat alone. After 48 to 56 days of incubation, the all the eggs will hatch within a period of days. The average birthweight is 500 grams.
Breeding interval: Emus begin their breeding cycle once yearly.
Breeding season: Emus begin breeding in December to January, up to once daily. Nesting occurs around 50 days after breeding.
Range eggs per season: 5 to 24.
Average eggs per season: 10.
Range time to hatching: 48 to 56 days.
Average time to hatching: 50 days.
Range time to independence: 15 to 18 months.
Average time to independence: 18 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 18 to 20 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 18 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 18 to 20 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 18 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous ; sperm-storing
After female emus lay their eggs, they have little to do with them other than occasionally visiting the incubating male. Male emus are defensive toward all other emus, and takes great care in protecting the nest. Male emus find a suitable location for their mate's eggs, and will build up a bed of dead grass and foliage surrounded by larger brush. Because this nest is largely flat, male emus take special care to gather the eggs that roll away. Male emus rotate and turn the eggs every few hours to ensure consistency of incubation and hatching time. After hatching, males will protect the flock and teach them how to procure food. Males maintain their aggressive disposition toward all other emus, even the mother. This period of dependence lasts up to 7 months, after which the emus are fully grown. Emus are independent from the flock in 15 to 18 months.
Parental Investment: male parental care ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Male); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Protecting: Male); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Protecting: Male); extended period of juvenile learning
- Blakers, M., S. Davies, P. Reilly. 1984. The Atlas of Australian Birds. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
- Blanche, D., C. Barrett, G. Martin. 2000. Social mating system and sexual behaviour in captive Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae. The Journal of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union, 100/3: 161-168.
- Dzialowski, E., P. Sotherland. 2004. Maternal effects of egg size on emu Dromaius novaehollandiae egg composition and hatchling phenotype. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 207: 597-606.
- Patodkar, V., S. Rahane, M. Shejal, D. Belhekar. 2009. Behavior of emu bird (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Veterinary World, 2/11: 439-440.
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Dromaius novaehollandiae
The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.
There is 1 barcode sequence available from BOLD and GenBank.
Below is the sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.
See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen.
Other sequences that do not yet meet barcode criteria may also be available.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Dromaius novaehollandiae
Public Records: 2
Specimens with Barcodes: 12
Species With Barcodes: 1
Conservation Status
The emu lives in abundance in mainland Australia. In Tasmania however, the population was decimated when it was hunted by European settlers.
US Migratory Bird Act: no special status
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Year Assessed
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
If given the opportunity, emus will forage on crops. Farmers now install tall fences so emus cannot access farmland. In the early 1930s, a large migration of emus to an agricultural town ended violently. The emus spoiled or consumed vast wheat fields. The military was called in to eradicate the emus in what some call the "Emu War". However the operation was unsuccessful. The emus have natural camouflage and ability to flee, which allowed them to avoid detection.
Negative Impacts: crop pest
- Johnson, M. 2006. Feathered foes: Soldier settlers and western Australia's emu war of 1932. Journal of Australian Studies, 30/88: 147-157.
Emus produce oil that has been used for medicinal purposes for hundreds of years. A short list of therapeutic effects include lowering cholesterol, treating allergies, preventing scarring and stretch marks, and treating headaches. Tests suggest statistically that emu oil is a superior skin cream to mineral oil-based products. Emus have also been hunted for meat by aboriginal people and contemporary Australians.
Positive Impacts: food ; source of medicine or drug
- Zemstov, A., M. Gaddis, V. Montalvo-Lugo. 1996. Moisturizing and cosmetic properties of emu oil: A pilot double blind study. Australian Journal of Dermatology, 37/3: 159-162.
The emu (/ˈiːmjuː/,[6] US /ˈiːmuː/;[7] Dromaius novaehollandiae) is the largest bird native to Australia and the only extant member of the genus Dromaius. It is the second-largest extant bird in the world by height, after its ratite relative, the ostrich. There are three subspecies of emus in Australia. The emu is common over most of mainland Australia, although it avoids heavily populated areas, dense forest and arid areas.[8]
The soft-feathered, brown, flightless birds reach up to 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in height. They have long thin necks and legs. Emus can travel great distances at a fast, economical trot and, if necessary, can sprint at 50 km/h (31 mph).[9] Their long legs allow them to take strides of up to 275 centimetres (9.02 ft)[8] They are opportunistically nomadic and may travel long distances to find food; they feed on a variety of plants and insects, but have been known to go for weeks without food. Emus ingest stones, glass shards and bits of metal to grind food in the digestive system. They drink infrequently, but take in copious fluids when the opportunity arises. Emus will sit in water and are also able to swim. They are curious birds who are known to follow and watch other animals and humans. Emus do not sleep continuously at night but in several short stints sitting down.
Emus use their strongly clawed feet as a defence mechanism. Their legs are among the strongest of any animal, allowing them to rip metal wire fences. They are endowed with good eyesight and hearing, which allows them to detect predators in the vicinity. The plumage varies regionally, matching the surrounding environment and improving its camouflage. The feather structure prevents heat from flowing into the skin, permitting emus to be active during the midday heat. They can tolerate a wide range of temperatures and thermoregulate effectively. Males and females are hard to distinguish visually, but can be differentiated by the types of loud sounds they emit by manipulating an inflatable neck sac. Emus breed in May and June and are not monogamous; fighting among females for a mate is common. Females can mate several times and lay several batches of eggs in one season. The animals put on weight before the breeding season and the male does most of the incubation, losing significant weight during this time as he does not eat. The eggs hatch after around eight weeks, and the young are nurtured by their fathers. They reach full size after around six months, but can remain with their family until the next breeding season half a year later. Emus can live between 10 and 20 years in the wild and are predated by dingos, eagles and hawks. They can jump and kick to avoid dingos, but against eagles and hawks they can only run and swerve.
The Tasmanian emu and King Island emu subspecies that previously inhabited Tasmania and King Island became extinct after the European settlement of Australia in 1788 and the distribution of the mainland subspecies has been influenced by human activities. Once common on the east coast, emus are now uncommon there; by contrast, the development of agriculture and the provision of water for stock in the interior of the continent have increased the range of the emu in arid regions and it is of Least Concern for conservation. They were a food and fuel source for indigenous Australians and early European settlers. Emus are farmed for their meat, oil and leather. Emu is a lean meat and while it is often claimed by marketers that the oil has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects this has not been scientifically verified in humans.
The emu is an important cultural icon of Australia, appearing on the coat of arms and various coins. The bird features prominently in Indigenous Australian mythology and hundreds of places are named after it.
There are reports the emu was first sighted by European explorers in 1696 when they made a brief visit to the coast of Western Australia. It was thought to have been spotted on the east coast of Australia before 1788 when the first European settlement occurred.[10] It was first described under the name of the "New Holland cassowary" in Arthur Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay, published in 1789.[11] The species was named by ornithologist John Latham on a specimen from the Sydney, Australia area, which was referred to as New Holland at the time.[3] He collaborated on Phillip's book and provided the first descriptions of and names for many Australian bird species; its name is Latin for "fast-footed New Hollander".[12] The etymology of the common name "emu" is uncertain, but is thought to have come from an Arabic word for large bird that was later used by Portuguese explorers to describe the related cassowary in Australia and New Guinea.[13] Another theory is that it comes from the word "ema", which is used in Portuguese to denote a large bird akin to an ostrich or crane.[10] In Victoria, some terms for the emu were Barrimal in the Dja Dja Wurrung language, myoure in Gunai, and courn in Jardwadjali.[14] It was known as murawung or birabayin to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin.[15]
Taxonomy and systematics[edit]
In his original 1816 description of the emu, Vieillot used two generic names; first Dromiceius, then Dromaius a few pages later. It has been a point of contention ever since which is correct; the latter is more correctly formed, but the convention in taxonomy is that the first name given stands, unless it is clearly a typographical error.[16] Most modern publications, including those of the Australian government,[5] use Dromaius, with Dromiceius mentioned as an alternative spelling.[5]
The emu was long classified with its closest relatives, the cassowaries, in the family Casuariidae, part of the ratite order Struthioniformes, but an alternate classification has been recently adopted which splits the Casuariidae into their own order, Casuariformes.[17] Two different Dromaius species were common in Australia before European settlement, and one additional species is known from fossil remains. The insular dwarf emus – D. baudinianus and D. n. minor – both became extinct shortly after the arrival of Europeans.[18] D. novaehollandiae diemenensis, a subspecies known as the Tasmanian emu, became extinct around 1865. However, the mainland sub-species of D. novaehollandiae, remain common. Their population size vary from decade to decade, largely dependent on rainfall; current estimates range from 625,000 to 725,000 birds, with 100,000–200,000 in Western Australia and the remainder mostly in New South Wales and Queensland.[13] Emus were introduced to Maria Island off Tasmania and Kangaroo Island near South Australia during the 20th century. While the Maria Island population became extinct in the mid-1990s, the Kangaroo Island birds have established a breeding population.
There are two extant subspecies in Australia:[5]
- In the southeast, D. n. novaehollandiae, with its whitish ruff when breeding;
- In the north, D. n. woodwardi, slender and paler.
A D. n. rothschildi was once recognised, but is considered dubious today.[19] Examination of DNA of the King Island emu shows it to be closely related to the mainland emu and hence best treated as a subspecies.[18]
Emus are large birds. The largest can reach up to 1.5 to 1.9 m (4.9–6.2 ft) in height, 1 to 1.3 m (3.3–4.3 ft) at the shoulder. In length measured from the bill to the tail, emus range from 139 to 164 cm (55 to 65 in), with males averaging 148.5 cm (58.5 in) and females averaging 156.8 cm (61.7 in).[3] Emus weigh between 18 and 60 kg (40 and 132 lb), with an average of 31.5 and 36.9 kg (69 and 81 lb) in males and females, respectively.[3][20][21][22][23] Females are usually larger than males by a small amount, and are substantially wider across the rump.[24]
They have small vestigial wings, the wing chord measuring around 20 cm (7.9 in) long, and have a small claw at the tip of the wing.[3] The bill is quite small, measuring 5.6 to 6.7 cm (2.2 to 2.6 in).[3] The emu flaps its wings when it is running and it is believed that they stabilise the bird when it is moving.[10] It has a long neck and legs.[24] Their ability to run at high speeds, 48 km/h (30 mph),[3] is due to their highly specialised pelvic limb musculature. Their feet have only three toes and a similarly reduced number of bones and associated foot muscles; they are the only birds with gastrocnemius muscles in the back of the lower legs. The pelvic limb muscles of emus have a similar contribution to total body mass as the flight muscles of flying birds.[25] When walking, the emu takes strides at every 100 cm (3.3 ft), but at full gallop, a stride can be as long as 275 cm (9.02 ft).[26] Its legs are devoid of feathers and underneath its feet are thick, cushioned pads.[26] Like the cassowary, the emu has sharp claws on its toes which are its major defensive attribute. This is used in combat to inflict wounds on opponents by kicking.[27] The toe and claw are a total of 15 centimetres (5.9 in).[26] They have a soft bill, adapted for grazing.[3]
The emu has good eyesight and hearing, which allows it to detect nearby threats. Its legs are among the strongest of any animals, powerful enough to tear down metal wire fences.[26]
The neck of the emu is pale blue and shows through its sparse feathers.[3] They have brown to grey-brown plumage of shaggy appearance; the shafts and the tips of the feathers are black. Solar radiation is absorbed by the tips, and the loose-packed inner plumage insulates the skin. The resultant heat is prevented from flowing to the skin by the insulation provided by the coat,[28] allowing the bird to be active during the heat of the day.[29] A unique feature of the emu feather is its double rachis emerging from a single shaft. Both of the rachis have the same length, and the texture is variable; the near the quill it is rather furry, but the external ends resemble grass.[10] The sexes are similar in appearance,[30] although the male's penis can become visible when it defecates.[31] The plumage varies in colour due to environmental factors, giving the bird a natural camouflage. Feathers of emus in more arid area with red soil have a similarly tinted plumage but are darker in animals residing in damp conditions.[24]
The eyes of an emu are protected by nictitating membranes. These are translucent, secondary eyelids that move from the end of the eye closest to the beak to cover the other side. This is used by the emu as a protective visor to protect its eyes from dust that is prevalent in windy and arid deserts.[24] The emu also has a tracheal pouch, which becomes more prominent during the mating season. It is often used during courting, and it has speculated that it is used for communication on a day-to-day basis.[24] The pouch is more than 30 centimetres (12 in), is spacious and the wall in very thin. Its opening's width is only 8 centimetres (3.1 in). The quantity of air that goes through the pouch, as determined by the emu deciding to open or close it, affects the pitch of an emu's call. Females typically cry more loudly than males.[24]
On very hot days, emus pant to maintain their body temperature, their lungs work as evaporative coolers and, unlike some other species, the resulting low levels of carbon dioxide in the blood do not appear to cause alkalosis.[32] For normal breathing in cooler weather, they have large, multifolded nasal passages. Cool air warms as it passes through into the lungs, extracting heat from the nasal region. On exhalation, the emu's cold nasal turbinates condense moisture back out of the air and absorb it for reuse.[33] As with other ratites, the emu has great homeothermic ability, and can maintain this status from −5 to 45 °C.[34] The thermoneutral zone of emus lies between 10–15 and 30 °C.[35]
As with other ratites, the emu has a relatively low rate of metabolism compared to other types of birds, but the rate depends on activity, especially due to resulting changes to thermodynamics. At −5 degrees, the metabolism rate of an emu while sitting down is around 60% of the value for one that is standing, as the lack of feathers under its stomach leads to a higher rate of heat loss when it is standing up and exposing the underbelly.[35]
Behaviour and ecology[edit]
Emus live in most habitats across Australia, although they are most common in areas of sclerophyll forest and savanna woodland, and least common in populated and very arid areas, except during wet periods.[3] Emus predominately travel in pairs,[3] and while they can form enormous flocks, this is an atypical social behaviour that arises from the common need to move towards food sources. Emus have been shown to travel long distances to reach abundant feeding areas. In Western Australia, emu movements follow a distinct seasonal pattern – north in summer and south in winter. On the east coast their wanderings do not appear to follow a pattern.[36] Emus are also able to swim when necessary, although they rarely do so unless the area is flooded or they need to cross a river.[26]
They are also known to be inquisitive animals, and are known to approach humans if they see movement of a limb or a piece of clothing. They may follow and observe humans in the wild. Sometimes they poke other animals and then run away after drawing a reaction, as though they are playing a game.[37] An emu spends much of its time preening its plumage with its beak.[38]
Emus sleep during the night, and begin to settle down at sunset, although it does not sleep continuously throughout the night. It can awake and arise up to eight times per night in order to feed or defecate. Before going into a deep sleep, the emu squats on its tarsus and begins to enter a drowsy state. However, it is alert enough to react to visual or aural stimuli and return to an awakened state. During this time, the neck descends closer to the body and the eyelids begin to lower.[39] If there are no aural or visual disturbances, it will go into a deep form of sleep after 20 minutes. During this time the body is lowered until it is touching the ground and its legs are folded. The feathers direct any rain downwards along the mound-like body into the ground, and it has been surmised that the sleeping position is a type of camouflage meant to mimic a small hill.[39] The neck is brought down very low and the beak turned down so that the whole neck becomes S-shaped and folding onto itself.[39] An emu will typically awake from the deep sleep once every 90 to 120 minutes and stand in a tarsal position to eat or defecate. This lasts for ten to twenty minutes and the cycle is repeated four to six times during most nights.[39] Overall, an emu sleeps for around seven hours every day. Young emus are known to sleep with their neck flat and stretching forward along the ground surface.[39]
Their calls consist of loud booming, drumming, and grunting sounds that can be heard up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away. The booming sound is created in an inflatable neck sac that is 30 cm (12 in) long and thin-walled.[3][13] The different sounds produced can be used to distinguish males and females. The loud booming caused by inflation of the cervical sac corresponds to females, while loud grunts are limited to male emus.[31]
Emus forage in a diurnal pattern. They eat a variety of native and introduced plant species; the type of plants eaten depends on seasonal availability. They also eat insects, including grasshoppers and crickets, lady birds, soldier and saltbush caterpillars, Bogong and cotton-boll moth larvae and ants.[40] This forms a large part of its protein requirements and intake.[41] In Western Australia, food preferences have been observed in travelling emus: they eat seeds from Acacia aneura until it rains, after which they eat fresh grass shoots and caterpillars; in winter they feed on the leaves and pods of Cassia[verification needed]; in spring, they feed on grasshoppers and the fruit of Santalum acuminatum: a sort of quandong.[3][42] They are also known to eat wheat crops,[43] and any fruit or other crops that it can access, easily climbing over high fences if required.[41] Emus serve as an important agent for the dispersal of large viable seeds, which contributes to floral biodiversity.[42][44] One undesirable effect of this occurred in Queensland in the 1930s and 1940s when emus ate cactus in the outback there. They defecated the seeds in various places as they moved around, spreading the unwanted plant. This led to constant hunting campaigns to stop the cactus from being spread.[41]
Emus also require pebbles and stones to assist in the digestion of the plant material. Individual stones may weigh 45 g (1.6 oz) and they may have as much as 745 g (1.642 lb) in their gizzard at one time. They also eat charcoal, however scientists still have not ascertained why.[3] Captive emus are also known to eat shards of glass, marbles, car keys, jewellery and nuts and bolts.[41]
Emus drink at infrequent intervals, but ingest large amounts when they do so. They typically inspect the water body in groups for a period before kneeling down at the edge of the water and drinking.[37] They are observed to prefer kneeling on solid earth while drinking, rather than in rocks or mud, presumably due to a fear of sinking.[37] They often drink continuously for 10 minutes, unless disturbed by danger, in which case they interrupt themselves to deal with the threat before resuming. Due to the arid environment, they often go one or two days without finding a source of water and drinking.[37] They typically drink once per day or night, but can do so several times daily if supply is abundant.[37] In the wild, they often share water sources with kangaroos, other birds and wild camels and donkeys that were let loose by European settlers. Emus are suspicious of these other species and tend to wait in bushes and wait for other types of animals to leave; they choose to drink separately to the other animals.[37] If an emu senses abnormal circumstances or a threat, it drinks while standing.[37]
Emus form breeding pairs during the summer months of December and January, and may remain together for about five months. During this time they wander around in an area a few miles in diameter. It is believed they guard or find territory during this time.[30] Both males and females increase in weight during this time and the female is slightly heavier at between 45 and 58 kg (99 and 128 lb). This weight is lost during the incubation period, the males losing around 9 kg (20 lb).[30] Mating occurs in the cooler months of May and June, and the exact timing is determined by the climate, as the birds nest during the coldest part of the year.[30] During the breeding season, males experience hormonal changes, including an increase in luteinizing hormone and testosterone levels, and their testicles double in size.[45]
It is the females that court the males, and during the mating season, they become physically more attractive. The female's plumage darkens slightly and the small patches of bare, hairless skin just below the eyes and near the beaks turn turquoise-blue, although this is a subtle change.[30] The female strides around confidently, often circling the male, and pulls its neck back while puffing out her feathers and crying out a low, monosyllabic sound that has been compared to human drums.[30][46] This calling can occur when the males are not in view and more than 50 metres (160 ft) away and when the male's attention has been gained, the female can circle in a radius of 10–40 m.[46][47] As the female circles its prospective mate, it continues to look towards him by turning its neck, while keeping its rump facing him.[47] During this time, the female's cervical air sac may remain inflated as it calls out.[47] The passive male retains the same colour hair, although the bare patches of skin also turn a light blue.[30] The female has more black hairs on its head but gender differentiation can be difficult for humans.[30] If the male shows interest in the parading female, he will move closer; the female continues to tantalise its target by shuffling further away and continuing to circle him as before.[47]
Females are more aggressive than males during the courting period, often fighting one another for access to mates. Fights among females accounted for more than half of the violent incidents in one mating season study.[47] If a female tried to woo a male that already had a partner, the incumbent female will try and repel the competitor by walking towards her challenger and staring in a stern way. If the male showed interest in the second female by erecting his feathers and swaying from side to side, the incumbent female will attack the challenger, usually resulting in a backdown by the new female.[47] Some female-female competitions can last up to five hours, especially when the target male is single and neither female has the advantage of incumbency. In these cases, the animals typically intensify their mating calls and displays, which increase in extravagance. This is often accompanied by chasing and kicking by the competing females.[47]
Males lose their appetite and construct a rough nest in a semi-sheltered hollow on the ground from bark, grass, sticks, and leaves.[3] The nest is almost always a flat surface rather than a segment of a sphere, although in cold conditions the nest is taller, up to 7 cm tall, and more spherical to provide more insulation. When other material is lacking, it can also use spinifex grass bushes more than a metre across, despite the prickly nature.[30] The nest can be placed in open ground or near scrubs and rocks, although thick grass is usually present if the emu takes the former option. The nests are usually placed in an area where the emu has a clear view of the surrounds and can detect predators.[48]
If a male is interested, he will stretch his neck and erect his feathers and bend over and peck at the ground. He will then sidle up to the female, swaying his body and neck from side to side, and rubbing his breast against his partner's rump, usually without calling out. The female would accept by sitting down and raising her rump.[47]
The pair mates every day or two, and every second or third day the female lays one of an average of 11 (and as many as 20) very large, thick-shelled, dark-green eggs. The shell is around 1 mm thick although indigenous Australians say that northern eggs are thinner.[3][48] The number of eggs varies with rainfall.[3] The eggs are on average 134 by 89 millimetres (5.3 in × 3.5 in) and weigh between 700 and 900 grams (1.5 and 2.0 lb),[49] which is roughly equivalent to 10–12 chicken eggs in volume and weight. The first verified occurrence of genetically identical avian twins was demonstrated in the emu.[50] The egg surface is granulated and pale green. During the incubation period, the egg turns dark green, although if the egg never hatches, it will turn white from the bleaching effect of the sun.[51]
The male becomes broody after his mate starts laying, and begins to incubate the eggs before the laying period is complete. From this time on, he does not eat, drink, or defecate, and stands only to turn the eggs, which he does about 10 times a day. Sometimes he will walk away at night; he chooses such a time as most predators of emu eggs are not nocturnal.[51] Over eight weeks of incubation, he will lose a third of his weight and will survive only on stored body-fat and on any morning dew that he can reach from the nest. As with many other Australian birds, such as the Superb fairywren, infidelity is the norm for emus, despite the initial pair-bond: once the male starts brooding, the female mates with other males and may lay in multiple clutches; thus, as many as half the chicks in a brood may be fathered by others, or by neither parent as emus also exhibit brood parasitism.[52] Some females stay and defend the nest until the chicks start hatching, but most leave the nesting area completely to nest again; in a good season, a female emu may nest three times.[36] If the parents stay together during the incubation period, they will take turns standing guard over the eggs while the other drinks and feeds within earshot.[53] If it perceives a threat during this period, it will lie down on top of the nest and try to blend in with the similar-looking surrounds, and suddenly stand up and confront and scare the other party if it comes close.[53]
Incubation takes 56 days, and the male stops incubating the eggs shortly before they hatch.[36] The male also increases the temperature of the nest during the eight-week period. Although the eggs are laid sequentially with days of separation, they tend to hatch within two days within one another, as the eggs that were laid later were subject to higher temperatures and developed more quickly.[54] During the process, the precocial emu chicks need to develop a capacity for thermoregulation. During incubation, the embryos are ectothermic but need to develop endothermic behaviour by the time it is hatched.[54]
Newly hatched chicks are active and can leave the nest within a few days. They stand about 12 centimetres (5 in) tall, weigh .5 kg (18 oz),[3] and have distinctive brown and cream stripes for camouflage, which fade after three months or so. The male stays with the growing chicks for up to 7 months, defending them and teaching them how to find food.[3][49] Chicks grow very quickly and are full-grown in 5–6 months;[3] they may remain with their family group for another six months or so before they split up to breed in their second season. During their early life, the young emus are defended by their father, who adopts a belligerent and standoffish stance towards other emus, even including the mother. The father does so by ruffling his feathers, emitting sharp grunts, and kicking his legs to shoo off other animals. He can also bend his knees to shield his smaller children. At night, he envelops his young with his feathers.[55] As the young emus cannot travel far, the parents must choose an area with plentiful food in which to breed.[43] In the wild, emus live between 10 to 20 years;[56] captive birds can live longer than those in the wild.
There are few native natural predators of emus still alive. Early in its species history it may have faced numerous terrestrial predators now extinct, including the giant lizard Megalania, the Thylacine, and possibly other carnivorous marsupials, which may explain their seemingly well-developed ability to defend themselves from terrestrial predators. The main predator of emus today is the dingo, which was originally introduced by Aboriginals thousands of years ago from a stock of semi-domesticated wolves. Dingoes try to kill the emu by attacking the head. The emu typically tries to repel the dingo by jumping into the air and kicking or stamping the dingo on its way down. The emu jumps as the dingo barely has the capacity to jump high enough to threaten its neck, so a correctly timed leap to coincide with the dingo's lunge can keep its head and neck out of danger.[57] Despite the potential prey-predator relationship, the presence of predaceous dingoes does not appear to heavily influence emu numbers, with other natural conditions just as likely to cause mortality.[58] Wedge-tailed eagles are the only avian predator capable of attacking fully-grown emus, though are perhaps most likely to take small or young specimens. The eagles attack emus by swooping downwards rapidly and at high speed and aiming for the head and neck. In this case, the emu's jumping technique as employed against the dingo is not useful. The birds try to target the emu in open ground so that it cannot hide behind obstacles. Under such circumstances, the emu can only run in a chaotic manner and change directions frequently to try and evade its attacker.[57][59] Other raptors, perentie monitors and introduced red foxes occasionally predate emu eggs or kill small chicks.
Status and conservation[edit]
Emus were used as a source of food by indigenous Australians and early European settlers. Aboriginal Australians used a variety of techniques to catch the bird, including spearing them while they drank at waterholes, poisoning waterholes, catching emus in nets, and attracting them by imitating their calls or with a ball of feathers and rags dangled from a tree.[49] The indigenous Australians used pituri or other poisonous plants to contaminate water supplies and were easily able to catch disoriented emus that drank the water.[60] They also sometimes disguised themselves using the skins of emus they had previously killed.[60] Emus were also lured into capture in camouflaged pits using rags or imitation calls.[60] Aboriginal Australians did not kill the animals except to eat them, and frowned on peers who hunted the emus but then left the meat unused.[60] They also used almost every part of the carcass for some purpose. Aside from the meat, the fat was harvested for oil used for polishing their weapons, and the bones and tendon were used as makeshift knives and tools, and for tying, respectively.[60]
Europeans killed emus to provide food and to remove them if they interfered with farming or invaded settlements in search of water during drought. An extreme example of this was the Emu War in Western Australia in 1932, when emus that flocked to Campion during a hot summer scared the town's inhabitants and an unsuccessful attempt to drive them off was mounted,[60] with the army called in to dispatch them in the so-called 'war'. There were two phases, the second of which started on 12 November with mixed results. There have been two documented cases of humans being attacked by emus.[61][62]
The early white settlers also used emu fat for fuelling lamps.[60] In the 1930s, emu killings in Western Australia peaked at 57,000 per year, and culls were also plentiful in Queensland at the same time due to rampant crop damage. Even in the 1960s, bounties were still paid in Western Australia for killing emus.[60] In John Gould's Handbook to the Birds of Australia, first published in 1865, he laments the loss of the emu from Tasmania, where it had become rare and has since become extinct; he notes that emus were no longer common in the vicinity of Sydney and proposes that the species be given protected status.[11] Wild emus are formally protected in Australia under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, though the IUCN rates their status as Least Concern.[2] Their occurrence range is between 4,240,000 to 6,730,000 km2 (1,640,000–2,600,000 sq mi), and a 1992 population estimate was between 630,000 and 725,000.[63] Although the population of emus on mainland Australia is thought to be higher now than before European settlement,[13] some wild populations are at risk of local extinction due to small population size. Threats to small populations include the clearance and fragmentation of areas of habitat; deliberate slaughter; collisions with vehicles; and predation of the young and eggs by foxes, feral and domestic dogs, and feral pigs. The isolated emu population of the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion and Port Stephens is listed as endangered by the New South Wales Government.[64]
Relationship with humans[edit]
Economic value[edit]
The emu was an important source of meat to Aboriginal Australians in the areas to which it was endemic. Emu fat was used as bush medicine, and was rubbed on the skin. It also served as a valuable lubricant. It was mixed with ochre to make the traditional paint for ceremonial body adornment, as well as to oil wooden tools and utensils such as the coolamon.[65]
An example of how the emu was cooked comes from the Arrernte of Central Australia who call it Kere ankerre:
"Emus are around all the time, in green times and dry times. You pluck the feathers out first, then pull out the crop from the stomach, and put in the feathers you've pulled out, and then singe it on the fire. You wrap the milk guts that you've pulled out into something [such as] gum leaves and cook them. When you've got the fat off, you cut the meat up and cook it on fire made from river red gum wood."[66]
Commercial emu farming started in Western Australia in 1987 and the first slaughtering occurred in 1990.[67] In Australia, the commercial industry is based on stock bred in captivity and all states except Tasmania have licensing requirements to protect wild emus. Outside Australia, emus are farmed on a large scale in North America, with about 1 million birds in the US,[68] Peru, and China, and to a lesser extent in some other countries. Emus breed well in captivity, and are kept in large open pens to avoid leg and digestive problems that arise with inactivity. They are typically fed on grain supplemented by grazing, and are slaughtered at 50–70 weeks of age. They eat two times a day and prefer 2.25 kilograms (5 lb) of leaves each meal.
Emus are farmed primarily for their meat, leather, and oil. Emu meat is a low-fat meat (less than 1.5% fat), and with cholesterol at 85 mg/100 g, it is comparable to other lean meats. Most of the usable portions (the best cuts come from the thigh and the larger muscles of the drum or lower leg) are, like other poultry, dark meat; emu meat is considered for cooking purposes by the USDA to be a red meat because its red colour and pH value approximate that of beef,[68][69] but for inspection purposes it is considered poultry. Emu fat is rendered to produce oil for cosmetics, dietary supplements, and therapeutic products.[70] The oil is harvested from the subcutaneous and retroperitoneal fat from the macerated adipose tissue, and filtering the liquefied fat to get the oil, and has been used by indigenous Australians and the early white settlers for purported healing benefits.[70] The oil consists mainly of fatty acids; oleic acid (42%), linoleic and palmitic acids (21% each) are the most prominent components.[70] It also contains various anti-oxidants, notably carotenoids and flavones.[70]
There is some evidence that the oil has anti-inflammatory properties;[71] however, there have not yet been extensive tests,[70] and the US Food and Drug Administration regards pure emu oil product as an unapproved drug.[72] Nevertheless, the oil has been linked to the easing of gastrointestinal inflammation, and tests on rats have shown that it has a significant effect in treating arthritis and joint pain, more so than olive or fish oils.[73] It has been scientifically shown to improve the rate of wound healing, but the mechanism responsible for such aforementioned effects is not understood.[73] A 2008 study has claimed that emu oil has a better anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory potential than other avian and ratite oils, and linked this to emu oil's higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, in comparison to the amount of saturated fatty acids.[71][73][74] While there are no scientific studies showing that emu oil is effective in humans, it is marketed and promoted as a dietary supplement with a wide variety of claimed health benefits. Commercially marketed emu oil supplements are poorly standardised.[75] Such products are sometimes marketed deceptively; the USFDA highlighted emu oil in a 2009 article on "How to Spot Health Fraud".[76]
Emu leather has a distinctive patterned surface, due to a raised area around the feather follicles in the skin; the leather is used in such small items as wallets and shoes, often in combination with other leathers. The feathers and eggs are used in decorative arts and crafts. In particular, emptied emu eggs have been engraved with portraits, similar to cameos, and scenes of other Australian native animals.[77]
The Salem district administration in India advised farmers in 2012 not to invest in the emu business.[78] In the United States, as of 2013, many ranchers had left the emu business; it was estimated that the number of growers had dropped from about 5,500 in 1998 to 1 or 2 thousand in 2013; remaining growers increasingly relying on sales of oil as a profit center; although, leather, eggs, and meat are also sold.[79]
Cultural references[edit]
The emu has a prominent place in Australian Aboriginal mythology, including a creation myth of the Yuwaalaraay and other groups in NSW who say that the sun was made by throwing an emu's egg into the sky; the bird features in numerous aetiological stories told across a number of Aboriginal groups.[80] One story from Western Australia holds that a man once annoyed a small bird, who responded by throwing a boomerang, severing the arms of the man and transforming him into a flightless emu.[81] The Kurdaitcha man of Central Australia is said to wear sandals made of emu feathers to mask his footprints. Many Aboriginal language groups throughout Australia have a tradition that the dark dust lanes in the Milky Way represent a giant emu in the sky. Several of the Sydney rock engravings depict emus.[82] The animals are also depicted in indigenous dances.[83]
The emu is popularly but unofficially considered as a faunal emblem – the national bird of Australia.[84] It appears as a shield bearer on the Coat of arms of Australia with the red kangaroo, and as a part of the Arms also appears on the Australian 50 cent coin.[84][85] It has featured on numerous Australian postage stamps, including a pre-federation New South Wales 100th Anniversary issue from 1888, which featured a 2 pence blue emu stamp, a 36 cent stamp released in 1986, and a $1.35 stamp released in 1994.[86] The hats of the Australian Light Horse are decorated with an emu feather plume.[87]
There are around 600 gazetted places named after the emu in Australia, including mountains, lakes, creeks, and towns.[88] During the 19th and 20th centuries, many Australian companies and household products were named after the bird; for example, in Western Australia, Emu beer has been produced since the early 20th century. The Swan Brewery continues to produce a range of beers branded as "Emu". Emu – Austral Ornithology is the quarterly peer-reviewed publication of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, also known as Birds Australia.[89]
The late comedian, Rod Hull, featured an emu puppet in his act.[90]
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|chapter=ignored (help)
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- ^ "Tabulam and the Light Horse Tradition". Australian Light Horse Association. 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
- ^ "Place Names Search Result". Geoscience Australia. 2004. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
- ^ "Emu Austral Ornithology". Royal Australasian Ornithologists´ Union. 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
- ^ "Emu set for television comeback". BBC News. 8 June 2006. Retrieved 8 June 2006.
- Coddington, Catherine L.; Cockburn, Andrew (1995). "The Mating System of Free-living Emus". Australian Journal of Zoology 43 (4): 365–372. doi:10.1071/ZO9950365.
- Eastman, Maxine (1969). The life of the emu. London; Sydney: Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0-207-95120-9.
- Howarth, Gordon S.; Lindsay, Ruth J.; Butler, Ross N.; Geier, Mark S. (2008). "Can emu oil ameliorate inflammatory disorders affecting the gastrointestinal system?". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48 (10): 1276–1279. doi:10.1071/EA08139.
- Maloney, Shane K. (2008). "Thermoregulation in ratites: a review". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48 (10): 1293–1301. doi:10.1071/EA08142.
- Stiglec, R.; Ezaz, T.; Graves, J. A. M. (2007). "A new look at the evolution of avian sex chromosomes". Cytogenet. Genome Res. 117 (1–4): 103–109. doi:10.1159/000103170. PMID 17675850.


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Sunday, July 08, 2012
Reflector Size = Size of Reflection
Lighting Equipment
- LiteDisc® Holder
- LiteDisc 12 inch White/Silver
- LiteDisc 22 inch White/Silver
- StarLite®: medium digital kit
Reflectors are important tools for a photographer. Like any other kind of tool, one reflector may be more appropriate for a given shot than another reflector.
This lesson covers the importance of using a reflector that is large enough to light the subject. The rule of thumb is easy - the reflection cannot be larger than the size of the reflector.
We often talk to photographers that want to use a small reflector because it is convenient to carry and easier to set up and use. However, if the reflector is not large enough, it will not cover the area that you want to fill in the shadows or get a reflection on.
(Click on any thumbnail image below for an enlarged view.)
Topics Covered:
- Choosing your reflector size
- Reflector size vs. subject size
We used a highly reflective bread box in this demonstration, because it is easy for you to see how the reflector is working in the reflections of the subject. Just remember that if you are shooting people the same rule will apply; the smaller the reflector, the smaller the potential reflection.
Customers ask us if a 32" or 42" reflector will work for a full length portrait, and this demonstration will show you why we always tell them, "Not if you want to fill in the entire length of the subject."
We set up our main light to the right of the breadbox. We are using a medium Starlite Kit for the main light (figure 1).
Figure 1
The breadbox is about 20 inches across, so we set up a 32" white/soft-gold LiteDisc reflector with the white surface facing the breadbox. We used a 32" reflector because it is larger than the 20" breadbox. When we set it up about 2 feet away from the box, the reflection still covered the front.
We positioned the reflector to catch the light from our main light and bounced it onto the face of the breadbox to fill in the front (figure 2).
Figure 2
This photo from above clearly shows you that the reflector set at this distance will still be larger than the subject and should cover the area we want it to (figure 3).
Figure 3
The results photo shows that our breadbox now has a smooth, even reflection, or "fill", on the front of the box with no fall-off in the corners (figure 4).
Figure 4
Next, we set up a 22" white/ silver LiteDisc reflector on the LiteDisc Holder and put it in the same position as the previous 32" reflector (figure 5).
Figure 5
From above, it looks like maybe the reflector can take the light from the main and reflect it out in a broad area across the front of the breadbox (figure 6).
Figure 6
The results, however, show otherwise. The reflection covers about most the front of the breadbox. This is not nearly enough to give us the result that we were looking for (figure 7).
Figure 7
Many of the people that we talk to think you can move the reflector back to make the reflection larger. Lets try moving the reflector away from the breadbox, about twice as far as the first photo.
Here is the 22" reflector in our new set up position about 2 feet away for the breadbox (figure 8).
Figure 8
From above, it looks like this farther away position will enable the reflector to broaden the angle that the reflector will bounce the light, filling the front of our breadbox with light (figure 9).
Figure 9
The results show that the exact opposite has occured. The reflection is now smaller that it was when the reflector was closer to the breadbox (figure 10).
Figure 10
Now you have learned a new lighting principle; "the farther the light source is moved away from the subject, the smaller it becomes. And conversely, the closer the light source is moved to the subject, the larger it becomes."
We will talk more about this principle in another lesson.
In conclusion, we have demonstrated that you should have a reflector that is larger than your subject if you want to have the reflection, or "fill", cover your entire subject.
Remember this same principle applys to portrait photos. So, if you are shooting full length portraits, you should use our 39" x 72" LitePanel reflector or our oval LiteDisc reflector.
Here are the three results side by side for you to compare one last time (figure 11-13).
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Related Lessons
Following are Web Photo School lessons related to this topic.
Creating Reflective Shapes with a LiteDisc
Learn to use the shape of your reflector to add form and visual interest to your product shots.
Creating Cinematic Lighting the Easy Way
LitePanel reflectors and existing light can offer great results outdoors.
Creating Custom Reflections
Learn how to control the size, shape, and softness of reflections.

subset: commoncrawl


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— Max Atwell


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Archive for September 2006
Taxis in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia
It's not the first time I visit Colombia. But this time a lot of things have changed. The city was heavily remodeled and there is still construction work going on at a lot of places.
Taxis in Colombia always have been yellow. In most Latin American countries they use cars with regular paint, so you have to spot the taxi sign on top of the car.
What has changed is that they now use only newer cars. A couple of years back some taxis were almost a moving wreck, but now everything is new they feature a big replica of the license plate on the doors of each side and even a bigger one the top. The one on the top is probably meant to be seen clearly from the air.
There are more changes visible in the streets. I'll try to take a few more pictures today before we leave tomorrow morning.
The webtop – back in time?
What is all the hype about bringing classic desktop applications like word processing or spreadsheets to the web? CNN Money writes about The Webtop:
Software that was once the bailiwick of desktop computing is now going online. In fact, these web-based applications may someday entirely replace your desktop suite.
Ajax – or maybe we better call it DHTML as it was named earlier – is a useful extension technology that allows to build interactive webapps. There is no doubt about that. It just makes sense that changing a value in any input element on a page should have some effect on the state or values of other elements. Nobody will doubt it is useful to present the full contact information about selecting a person from a drop-down list.
But will anyone want to write books, business plans, letters, the important thesis online on somebody else's server? That's a bit awkward. People have shiny new, powerful desktop computers. There is a local printer attached, even a scanner or camera. And then they should login to a website running on a server at some far-away datacenter to write a letter? I don't believe that this is really a useful application.
Some proponents of online office applications might defend it saying that the user does no longer maintain her computer, doesn't have to worry about malware. It just sounds too good to be true. What hinders a virus to spread from a unsecure desktop operating system to jump to the server via the insecure web browser? That's no better than before. It's just another game for malware developers.
And what about data storage? Does everybody nowadays want to store their private documents on a server they don't control? What happened to people's wish for privacy? Maybe I will be able to store the documents locally. But then I can as well use a regular desktop application – can't I?
Server based applications are a great means for collaboration. A browser based user interface is great when I can't install software on my user's computers or when there are too many different devices. The web UI is perfect when my users use desktop PCs, tablets, PDAs or have to use computers at public places like an Internet cafe.
Once there was a promise: Write once, run anywhere. Do you remember? Java was said to be the technology that would make it become true. You would write a Java desktop application and your users can run it on every operating system that has a Java virtual machine (JVM). With Java Web Start there is even a technology that avoids shipping installation media to the user and perform a real software installation.
The only advantage webapps have is that they require absolutely nothing to get started. You just navigate your browser to the URL and can use them. But when I want to use a word processor or a spreadsheet that doesn't count much.
Or maybe we are now entering the age of the reborn mainframe with terminals? But probably to understand that one has to be older than 25 …
Latin American business culture
Latin American culture is different than European or American culture. While in the United States everything is fast and people tend to work long hours, things in Latin America go by another pace. That doesn't mean Latinos are lazy, they do work hard, but they spend quite some time on social stuff like proper introductions at the beginning of a meeting and caring for personal relationships.
What you wear and how you speak determines how they treat you and how far you will get. Everybody in the office of a typical Latin company is properly dressed. Women wear perfect make-up and you won't find men without a tie and perfectly clean shoes – and those are not sneakers. It doesn't matter how important their work is, whether they receive clients in the office or are just working on internal stuff.
People address each-other with the proper title. A customer service technician named Carlos Rodriguez at the local cable company becomes Engineer Carlos. The higher the social rank more attention is paid to the right way of addressing a person or speaking about somebody, even if that person isn't present. In front of customers Carlos is always Engineer Carlos, because he had to study at the University in order to know how to install cable TV or how to use the provisioning system. His fellow technicians will call him just Carlos, if there is no customer around. But the receptionist, messenger or a sales guy will always refer to him as Engineer Carlos.
The social rank of a person depends on several factors such as your position in a company, your wealth, the name and rank of your family, whether you are a foreigner, your profession and on how you act and dress.
As a foreigner you are seen as a powerful person by default, because you need to posses some wealth in order to come to the country in the first place. Secondly, if you don't come as a tourist, you are seen as an important business person, as an investor and it's presumed you play an important role in the company you work for. While Latinos between themselves pay great attention to the clothes the other person wears, in some areas they do understand that foreigners might be important persons although they don't dress like a high-ranking executive.
How you are supposed to treat other people depends on the social rank of both parties involved. If you happen to talk to Engineer Carlos as the owner of a business, then you will address him simply as Carlos and never ever call him Engineer Carlos. You are the boss and Carlos is the guy who has to do something for you and Carlos has to respect you. It's important not to appear weak, but powerful. If Carlos has reason to believe, you might have the power to make his life hard, then he will work well. In those cases you don't ask for something, you demand it. But still with polite words and a regular tone, because you need to respect Carlos as well.
Another important detail is how you introduce yourself to other people and how your company introduces you. The Spanish language knows two different words for the English you. tu is used to address persons you know well or who are of similar or lower social rank as yourself. usted is more formal and generally used to express respect for the other person, but sometimes it's used as well to make clear that you are serious about something you are saying. Parents use usted talking to their children, if the boy or girl has done something wrong. The younger person addresses the older person with usted as well – even it's within the same family.
Let's say your name is Walter R. Smith. You are the owner of the company and have a meeting with a client. All your employees will address you and your client saying usted and refer to you or address you as Senior Smith – in front of the client. While in regular office communication they well use usted and you become Senior Walter, because the environment is less formal. On the other hand you will refer to your employee Roberto Rodriguez in front of the client as Senior Rodriguez and without the client's presence simply as Roberto. Of course you won't say usted, but tu, because he works for you and you don't have to respect him that much as he has to respect you.
The PC – An entertainment device
Just found this on Jeff Nolan's blog: Dell gives buyers the no-crap option
I bought my mom a HP desktop computer a while back and when I plugged it in for her I could not believe how many marketing icons were preloaded. I literally spent an hour cleaning it up figuring that the more stuff that was there the more confusion it would create. A few months later we had to send it back to HP because of a hard drive failure and went it (finally) came back… yep, all the preloaded crap was back with it.
Apparently PC manufactures think of their customer as a person who buys the machine as some kind of additional TV set, an entertainment device. People should consume, not use. They should buy, enjoy for a short moment, throw it away and buy the next fancy gadget. This sounds like an intriguing recipe for higher profits for the manufactures. But what about the long run? Doesn't that lead eventually to ever dropping margins and ever increasing product cycles?
Back in the 80's and early 90's "some dreamers" thought of the PC, and followed by the Internet, as devices that will help to increase people's knowledge. It appears that the manufacturers of those "entertainment PCs" know very well what the masses want. Looks like they aren't that much interested in gaining more knowledge but more fun instead.


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All quotes by D.H. Lawrence
(1847 quotes found)
"If I take my whole, passionate, spiritual and physical love to the woman who in return loves me, that is how I serve God. And my hymn and my game of joy is my work."
"The great living experience for every man is his adventure into the woman. The man embraces in the woman all that is not himself, and from that one resultant, from that embrace, comes every new action."
"Only a kind person is able to judge another justly and to make allowances for his weaknesses. A kind eye, while recognizing defects, sees beyond them."
"And if tonight my soul may find her peace in sleep, and sink in good oblivion, and in the morning wake like a new-opened flower then I have been dipped again in God, and new-created."
"There is a garden in every childhood, an enchanted place where colors are brighter, the air softer, and the morning more fragrant than ever again."
"I can never decide whether my dreams are the result of my thoughts, or my thoughts the result of my dreams."


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Campagnolo – Vancouver, BC
By shokutsu on May 24, 2009 - 7:55pm
Campagnolo is operated by the group who run Fuel over on the West side of the city. Fuel is a great restaurant with the kind of ethic that this area of the world is known: organic, locally sourced ingredients, "nose to tail" philosophy, talented cooks. Campagnolo is much the same. As a matter of fact, the kitchen had a deer hanging in it getting ready to be prepped "nose to tail" (from primal cuts of meat all the way to the nasty bits that end up in their pate and cured sausages.) The group has also started up a small retail/in-house curing operation cleverly called "The Cure" which will supply Fuel, Campagnolo, and retail.
Continued w/pics...


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The race is on between Dora and the Ice Witch! Print this board game, affix game pieces to coins, and see who can flick their coin the furthest without it sliding off the board.
Weekdays on Nick Jr.
Print the Game Board Templates on card stock or heavy weight paper. Have your child help you cut out all the pieces.
Assemble the game board by following the guides on the printables.
Affix the game piece printables on the coins or other objects that will glide easily across the board.
Follow the instructions on the printable or make up your own simple rules to make this game fun for your family!
Explore a new way to snack with Dora!
Print and create for your Dora the Explorer fan!
Jelly beans make a sweet and fashionable treat for Dora fans!
Every explorer will love these festive cupcake decorations!
This keepsake homemade gift for Mom will last long after the special day is over!
Transform a cereal box into a soccer field!
Print this decal and create a sporty tee for your explorer-to-be!
Make this simple paper puppet and play soccer with Dora!
Get kids ready for Easter egg hunts by crafting a beautiful basket!
Turn a cereal box into a craft that will aMAZE your kids!
Tick, tock, Dora and Boots are inside this clock!
It's paper dolls with a modern twist!
Turn a cereal box into a cute storage box for kids
Kids will be blown away by this beautiful outdoor decoration!
Invite your child's favorite Nick Jr. friends to the kids table with this printable craft
Greet visitors with a colorful display featuring your child's Nick Jr. friends
Make a plain t-shirt or tote spectacular by adding our exclusive Dora decal
Create your very own trick-or-treat bag with Dora!
Kids can help get ready for the feast by adding color to this printable centerpiece!
To celebrate Hispanic Heritage month Dora tours Latin America
Customize kids' skates with an amazing shrink film craft
Gear up for Dora's Great Roller Skate Adventure with this exclusive t-shirt design!
If kids can't wait to skate, create this cereal box playground!
Make a new memory game in minutes with our easy printable templates
This goody bag is dressed up for Dad's special day!
Dress up cones with cute Nick Jr. characters!
Make a door sign that will bloom in any room!
Shower your little flower with quality crafting time!
Make this simple paper puppet and play fetch with Dora's little puppy!
Make lollipops even sweeter with these a-DORA-ble covers
Wag your tail and shake a leg with this dancing game all the pups will love!
Transform a cereal box into a soccer field!
Make this simple paper puppet and play soccer with Dora!
Make this simple paper puppet and play fetch or fly Norville!
Turn paper into the perfect toy for your troll-loving tot!
It's paper dolls with a super silly twist!
Let's play "Guess Who?" with your favorite PAW Patrol pals
Turn a cereal box into a craft that will aMAZE your kids!
It's paper dolls with a modern twist!
Take this wheel for a spin when you begin to teach kids about words with the same endings!
Spin the wheel to reveal new words that end in 'at'!
Get kids excited about reading and spelling with this simple print and paste board game
Make Rubble's digger with our easy printable templates
Dive into crafting by creating a paper toy for your PAW Patrol fan!
Kids can help Skye fly high when you create this paper toy craft!
Racers get ready to take off with this simple spin-to-win printable board game!
Here's a do it yourself toy for your cop car lovin' PAW Patrol fan!
Here's a do-it-yourself toy for your fire-truck lovin' PAW Patrol fan!
Print to turn paper into your kids' favorite recycling pup!
Make a new memory game in minutes with our easy printable templates
Take a trip around Lalaloopsy land, meeting with friends for Crumbs tea party!
Make this simple paper puppet and play fetch with Dora's little puppy!
Make a snugly new friend for your Peter fan
Help Dora and her friends find their way to the party at Benny's barn!
Peter & pals are dashing through the snow-- carrying something sweet, you should know!
Everyone wins when you make your own spinning tops!
Make it family game night & go on a knightly mission to Story Castle!
It's a race to the finish! Take the Team on a ride to the top of Shape Mountain
Get kids' engines going with this cool Dump Truck toy made from an egg carton!
Tranform paper into Pufferty-- print our templates to get this train going


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Satin Sugar Glistening is a revolutionary new dry shampoo that uses light-reflecting minerals to achieve shiny and healthy-looking hair without washing! satin sugar glistening will: -Illuminate hair & body with a sophisticated sheen -Absorb excess oil & add volume -Disappear in all hair shades The icing on the cake? This multi-tasking marvel is a time saver, so hit the gym, fill up that socialista schedule and go ahead and hit snooze! (new sweeter scent) 50g e/1.7 oz. Price: $20.00
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Navy Occupation Service Medal
|20 to 29 September 1945
|18 October to 6 November 1945
Korean War Campaigns
|Campaigns and Dates
|Campaigns and Dates
|First UN Counter Offensive
9 to 10 April 1951
|Korean Defense Summer-Fall 1952
2 to 20 March 1953
|Communist China Spring Offensive
18 May to 14 June1951
|Third Korean Winter
10 to 17 April 1953
|UN Summer-Fall Offensive
1 to 15 September 1951
|Korean Summer-Fall 1953
30 May to 11 June 1953
16 to 17 June 1953
26 to 27 June 1953
14 to 21 July 1953
Vietnam War Campaigns
|Campaigns and Dates
|Campaigns and Dates
|Vietnamese Counteroffensive
14 April to 10 June 1966
|Vietnam Winter-Spring 1970
7 to 13 November 1969
23 November to 2 December 1969
24 to 30 December 1969
|Vietnamese Counteroffensive Phase III
23 July to 23 August 1967
|Sanctuary Counteroffensive
12 May to 9 June 1970
|Vietnamese Counteroffensive Phase VI
21 December 1968 to 25 January 1969
|Vietnamese Counteroffensive Phase VII
13 to 19 August 1970
|Tet Counteroffensive
15 to 27 March 1969
|Vietnam Summer-Fall 1969
12 to 17 August 1969
28 August to 14 September 1969
18 to 25 October 1969
|Click On Image
For Full Size Image
|Image Description
|USS LST-1073, USS LSM-400 and USS LCI(L)-867 during Cadet-Midshipman Exercises (CAMID), 19 August 1946.
US Navy photo
|US Naval Academy, Nimitz Library web site
| USS Outagamie County (LST-1073)
|USS Outagamie County (LST-1073) underway, off San Diego, CA., date unknown.
|LST Home Port
|USS Outagamie County (LST-1073) underway, off San Diego, CA., date unknown.
|LST Home Port web site
|USS Outagamie County (LST-1073) offshore with her bow doors open, August 1966.
US Navy photo # NH 99437 from the collections of the US Naval Historical Center
|US Naval Historical Center
|USS Outagamie County (LST-1073) moored on the ramp at Naval Construction Battalion Center (CBC) Port Hueneme, CA. while loading/offloading construction equipment, circa 1968-69
US Navy photo from "All Hands" magazine, June 1969.
|Joe Radigan, MACM USNR Ret.
|USS Outagamie County (LST-1073) and possibly USS Cavalier (APA-37) off the Hawaiian Islands during boat operations, 1964
|Photo by LT. Richard Dawson USNR USS Renville
|Garcia D'Avilla (G 28)
|Ex-Outagamie County (LST-1073) in Brazilian naval service as Garcia D'Avilla (G 28), beached, date and location unknown.
|Joe Radigan MACM USN Ret.
|Commanding Officers
|LCDR. Holder, Luther Clinton
|no dates
|5 August 1946 - 3 November 1950
|LCDR. Poduska, B. F.
|3 November 1950 - ?
|LCDR. Fitts, Jean Milton
|no dates
|LCDR. Sharpe Jr., Raymond Alexander
|1970 - 21 May 1971
|Back To The Navsource Photo Archives Main Page
|Back To The Amphibious Ship Type Index
|Back To The Tank Landing Ship (LST) Photo Index
|Comments, Suggestions, E-mail Webmaster.
This page is created and maintained by Gary P. Priolo


text:
American English: /kəˈlɛkʃ(ə)n/ British English: /kəˈlɛkʃ(ə)n/
Translation of collection in Spanish:
- 1 1.1 uncountable(of evidence) recopilación (feminine)(of rent, debts) cobro (masculine)(of taxes) recaudación (feminine)(before noun) a debt collection agencyuna agencia de cobro a morososExample sentences
Example sentences1.2 uncountable (act of fetching) the goods are ready for collection
- First, a call from the salesman to tell me the car had arrived and was in process of being 'made ready' for collection on Thursday.
- Household waste presented for collection in refuse sacks or cardboard boxes will not be collected by Council staff.
- Then, it must be left ready for collection by a designated collector.
puede recoger or pasar a buscar las mercancíaschildren must wait for collection by their parentslos niños deben esperar a que sus padres los recojan or pasen a buscar1.3 countable (of mail, refuse)Example sentences
- The Orkney Vintage Club's Orkney Cavalcade 2005 saw a collection of old vehicles drive around the West Mainland.
- Poland has a healthy collection of death metal bands, including Vader and Behemoth.
- Youngsters made a beeline for a table bearing a colourful collection of party hats, masks and whistles.
- From today, Tuesday, all items that cannot be disposed of in regular collections can be dropped off at the centre.
- The crisis is affecting all aspects of life in the rural community with refuse collections and postal services to farms affected by the restrictions placed on people entering and leaving farmland.
- The post office has refused to make collections from a post box but as soon as the cameras are in, I shall be writing in the hope the box will be reopened.
- 2 countable (of money) to make or hold a collection for somethinghacer una colecta para algo(before noun) collection box collection plate (Religion)Example sentences
Example sentences
- She said churches had raised the money both through collections at services and through coffee mornings and other fund-raising events.
- She was very helpful and had a great community spirit, always willing to help out at the Church, charitable collections etc.
- In the Old Testament, Judas Maccabeus took up a collection that he sent to Jerusalem as a sin offering.
- Furthermore, the Talmud provides a budget detailing how the Temple's collections should be expended.
- 3 countable (group)(of objects) colección (feminine)(of people) grupo (masculine)coin/butterfly collectioncolección de monedas/mariposasthe designer's winter collectionla colección de invierno del modisto
Definition of collection in:
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Grammar and usage help for Spanish:
= trending