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Dr. Rutner grew up in Los Altos and has been practicing in the Bay Area since 1985. He has been a pioneer in dental marketing and group practice management. He assisted in the development of Invisalign including international training and expansion into Asia and Australia. Dr. Rutner spends much of his free time with his five children. In his spare time he enjoys traveling, scuba diving, golf, cooking, gardening and skiing. Dr. Rutner received a Bachelor's of Science in Microbiology from the University of California, Davis and completed dental school at Georgetown University. Dr. Rutner is currently a member of the American Dental Association, the California Dental Association and the Mid-Peninsula Dental Society.Read more
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Season 4, Episode 13 Schwartz's Island
Max and 99 honeymoon on a desert island---occupied by KAOS. Chief: Edward Platt. Larrabee: Robert Karvelas. Starker: King Moody.
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King Moody King Moody Starker
Robert Karvelas Robert Karvelas Larrabee
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- Premise: `Would you believe,' as Maxwell Smart would say, this spy spoof was for a time all the rage (and an Emmy winner to boot)? Baby Boomers can never hear that phrase, used by the inept agent when caught in a ridiculous situation, without recalling this series… (more)
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- Status: Active
- Full Name: Marwin Javier Gonzalez
- Age: 27 (March 14, 1989)
- Birthplace: Puerto Ordaz, Venezuela
- Bats/Throws: S/R Ht: 6' 1" Wt: 205
- MLB Debut: 04/06/2012
Marwin Gonzalez Stats Summary
Marwin Gonzalez Career Stats
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|November 12, 2013
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Aguilas del Zulia.
|August 14, 2013
|Houston Astros recalled 1B Marwin Gonzalez from Oklahoma City RedHawks.
|June 24, 2013
|Houston Astros optioned Marwin Gonzalez to Oklahoma City RedHawks.
|June 8, 2013
|RF Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Oklahoma City RedHawks.
|October 11, 2012
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Leones del Caracas.
|July 15, 2012
|Marwin Gonzalez roster status changed by Houston Astros.
|June 28, 2012
|sent SS Marwin Gonzalez on a rehab assignment to Oklahoma City RedHawks.
|June 8, 2012
|Houston Astros placed SS Marwin Gonzalez on the 15-day disabled list retroactive to June 7, 2012. Bruised right heel.
|April 30, 2012
|Houston Astros activated SS Marwin Gonzalez from the paternity list.
|December 8, 2011
|Boston Red Sox claimed SS Marwin Gonzalez off waivers from Iowa Cubs.
|December 8, 2011
|Boston Red Sox Traded SS Marwin Gonzalez to Houston Astros and Oklahoma City RedHawks Traded RHP Marco Antonio Duarte to Pawtucket Red Sox.
|June 26, 2011
|Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Iowa Cubs from Tennessee Smokies.
|March 6, 2011
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Chicago Cubs.
|October 11, 2010
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Leones del Caracas.
|May 7, 2010
|Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Tennessee Smokies from Daytona Cubs.
|March 20, 2010
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Chicago Cubs.
|January 31, 2010
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Venezuela.
|October 7, 2009
|SS Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Leones del Caracas.
|April 9, 2009
|Marwin Gonzalez assigned to Daytona Cubs from Boise Hawks.


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Reserve Bank worries about rising house prices is a clear sign that the next move for official interest rates is up, economists said today.
Some predict the rise will come later this year, while others believe the first rise won't come until December, or perhaps March 2014, given the low levels of inflation.
Reserve Bank Governor Graeme Wheeler this morning held official interest rates at 2.5 per cent, but took a tougher line on the housing market and said the currency was over-valued.
Wheeler pointed out that house-price inflation had increased, and said the central bank was keeping a close eye on that, as well as household credit growth.
"The Bank does not want to see financial stability or inflation risks accentuated by housing demand getting too far ahead of supply," he said.
TD Securities head of Asia-Pacific research, Annette Beacher said Wheeler's comment on house prices was "the clearest indicator" that the next move for the cash rate was up, as housing supply always responded to demand with a lag.
Demand was high with the average days to sell a "tiny" 32 days - which was in line with double-digit house-price inflation seen last decade.
Consents were rising in Auckland and Canterbury, but actual construction was slow.
However, Beacher also said that Wheeler's comment that inflation would move only slowly back to the midpoint of 2 per cent meant TD Securities had shifted its first expected rate rise from June to September.
Westpac chief economist Dominick Stephens expected rates to start rising in December this year, but rise more than others currently expected.
He said Westpac had long believed that rising house prices and the Canterbury rebuild would provoke inflation.
Rising house prices could unbalance the economy and the Reserve Bank was reminding the market that it could keep rates higher "in order to prevent excessive lending from imperilling financial stability" Stephens said.
Infometrics continued to expect the cash rate to remain unchanged till December.
But it said that with house prices rising rapidly and concerns about banks' exposure to residential debt, the chance of intervention in the mortgage market were more likely.
The Reserve Bank could make banks hold more capital for each mortgage they sold, or it could bring in maximum loan-to-value ratios, to curb lending.
ASB Bank chief economist Nick Tuffley expected the cast rate to remain on hold until March 2014, given a weak starting point for inflation and given that inflation would likely stay in the bottom half of the target band for another 18 months.
He said the Reserve Bank did appear to be moving out of its comfort zone because of rising house prices, with a small but growing possibility that it would intervene to limit lending with so-called "macro-prudential tools" such as loan limits.
The central bank is widely expected to keep rates low with inflation running below its target band and high unemployment levels.
The New Zealand dollar also remains higher than the bank assumed late last year, trading at US83c just before this morning's announcement, down almost US1c in the past day.
The currency rose to US83.4c just after the announcement, even though the Reserve Bank said the currency was "over-valued", which was holding inflation down and undermining profits in the export sector.
The bank said economic growth would strengthen over the coming year, reducing spare capacity and bringing inflation slowly back towards the 2 per cent target midpoint.
"On balance, it remains appropriate for the OCR to be held at 2.5 per cent." Wheeler said this morning.
- BusinessDay.co.nz
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We are…Imperfect. Flawed. Quirky. Most definitely…Weird. We are Bold. Experimental. Awkward. We are forever curious and addicted to Learning. Some might say we can be explosive while others call us Passionate. Most importantly…we are REAL. Authenticity is our anthem. Our loyalty is to the Truth.
We have been Disheartened. We have been Confused. We have been lured by Lies. We have acted out of Fear. We have been Abused. We have made Poor Choices. We have been Defensive. Hurt. Destroyed. But…we were Brave. We Fought. We Learned. We Let Go. We let go of everything we thought we knew. We gave up Control. We Submitted. We accepted Possibility as our guide. That moment was the Beginning. It was Magic. Beautiful. Sublime. Spiritual. This is our Human Experience. Welcome.
We are three sisters who grew up in the same home sharing the same experiences. Impressively, our individual perspectives would mold and shape our unique realities into different life paths. Our divergent lives would occasionally overlap, as families often do but, would not truly converge again until now. We commune over our discoveries, stories, thoughts, values, beliefs, and philosophical pondering. We journey together now, searching out a better way of life. Motivated by mutual intention, we are jointly exploring and identifying what aspects of life resonate with us. We inspire, embolden, and fortify each other in this adventure. Join us.
It is with humble gratitude that we welcome Tamara Bess, LMFT on this expedition of self-actualization. We appreciate her willingness to share her hard earned wisdom and skills as a therapist. She has provided us with the knowledge and tools to be able to discern the difference between fear based / victim thinking and empowered thinking. She has educated us on how to recognize these dynamics in friendships, working environments, families, and social groups as well as in romantic relationships. Tamara has assisted in teaching us how to reconnect to our intuitive selves so that we can trust our own judgment. We no longer feel compelled to rely on outside sources to know what is best for us. She has helped us develop the ability to run a "self diagnostic" when we are troubled. We are able to identify emotional pain as a que for our internal "warning system" and troubleshoot the source of our doubts or misgivings. The self-sufficiency this has provided us gives "living green" a whole new meaning.
2bSisters believes in giving back to the community we come from. We also believe in supporting others on the road to self discovery, healing, and awakening. Our humanitarian effort focuses on supporting the rehabilitation of Victims of Domestic Violence and Abuse. As surviviors, 2bSisters has had the opportunity to consider what it means to be a victim of violence and abuse from the inside out. Between experience, education, and observation we have concluded for ourselves that DV is a symptom of a deeper problem, not the problem itself. We feel the root of why victims allow themselves to be abused is Victim Thinking.
While our primary focus is on shifting Victim Thinking to Empowered Thinking we compassionately understand that in the case of abuse victims, Domestic Violence must first be sufficiently and competently addressed. We are also aware of the tremendous amount of support and education needed to; heal the symptoms, relieve the weight of stress, soothe the pain of having allowed abuse and clear the fog of confusion and distraction. 2bSisters is also aware that our culture and social system are sorely inadequate in providing effective education and supportive programs to rehabilitate victims. Even worse is the gross lack of accessibility to therapy and ongoing support while victims heal. As Advocates for Victims of Domestic Violence and Abuse, coming soon is a tab that contains a menu to help:
- Educate families and friends on how to recognize abuse
- Educate victims on how to recognize if they are being abused
- Educate victims, families and friends and how to recognize abusers
- Links to agencies that provide support
- How to plan an Exit Strategy
- Supportive material on how to heal
- A link to Tamara to assist in healing from abuse, as well as, shifting from victim to empowered thinking for stable and sustainable change
As we share our thoughts, experiences, likes and dislikes it is never our intention to be offensive. However, we can't please everyone and we won't even try. That is thinking like a victim. As respectful as we are of diversity, some will still find what we share shocking, socially taboo, culturally rebellious, contrary to acceptable norms, and flat out defiant. We are aware we won't always resonate well with others. We only ask that you alternatively choose to find reading material that is more suitable to your lifestyle and respect our exploration as different than your own. That said, consider with an open mind, it is the variety of the garden that gives it beauty. Even the thistle holds charm and allure.
While we may not be for everyone, out of respect for ourselves and our readers, 2bSisters pledges this:
- We will not meet our needs at our own expense or the expense of others
- We will not allow our readers to meet their needs at our expense
- We will think for ourselves but will not sentence others to our conclusions
- We will stand up for and defend our values, beliefs and convictions
- We will remain willing to accept that our values, beliefs and convictions may change because of new introduction and analysis
- We will remain open minded and flexible to concepts, cultures, societies and discoveries while maintaining the balance of our integrity, morals and ethics
We are all in this human experience together. 2bSisters is an aspect of that journey. Let's have some fun!
That's Empowered Thinking!!!
Special Note: 2bsisters is and advocate for DV
As individuals and as a society, if we are going to make a significant change in the prominence of Domestic Violence and Abuse in our social fabric, then we must attack the root problem…Victim Thinking. Our resource site defines what victim thinking is, exposes its spectrum of manifestations from the subtle to the extreme.


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Syllabus Compressed air system: Types of air compressors, Compressor efficiency, Efficient compressor operation, Compressed air system components, Capacity assessment, Leakage test, Factors affecting the performance and efficiency
3.1 Introduction
Air compressors account for significant amount of electricity used in Indian industries. Air compressors are used in a variety of industries to supply process requirements, to operate pneumatic tools and equipment, and to meet instrumentation needs. Only 10 – 30% of energy reaches the point of end-use, and balance 70 – 90% of energy of the power of the prime mover being converted to unusable heat energy and to a lesser extent lost in form of friction, misuse and noise.
3.2 Compressor Types
Compressors are broadly classified as: Positive displacement compressor and Dynamic compressor. Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of the gas by reducing the volume. Positive displacement compressors are further classified as reciprocating and rotary compressors. Dynamic compressors increase the air velocity, which is then converted to increased pressure at the outlet. Dynamic compressors are basically centrifugal compressors and are further classified as radial and axial flow types.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency 45
3. Compressed Air System
The flow and pressure requirements of a given application determine the suitability of a particulars type of compressor.
Positive Displacement Compressors Reciprocating Compressors Reciprocating compressors are the most widely used type for air compression. They are characterized by a flow output that remains nearly constant over a range of discharge pressures. Also, the compressor capacity is directly proportional to the speed. The output, however, is a pulsating one. Reciprocating compressors are available in many configurations, the four most widely used of which are horizontal, vertical, horizontal balance-opposed and tandem. Vertical type reciprocating compressors are used in the capacity range of 50 – 150 cfm. Horizontal balance opposed compressors are used in the capacity range of 200 – 5000 cfm in multi-stage design and upto 10,000 cfm in single stage designs. Reciprocating compressors are also available in variety of types:
• •
Lubricated and non-lubricated Single or multiple cylinder
Bureau of Energy Efficiency
Single or multi stage In the case of lubricated machines. to operate and install. while multi-cylinder machines are generally water cooled. oil has to be separated from the discharge air. vibrate less. within a casing where the rotors compress the air internally. However non-lubricated machines have higher specific power consumption (kW/cfm) as compared to lubricated types. such as reduced pressure differential across cylinders. Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor. Among rotary compressor. and have a lower number of parts . pulsation free discharge air. Also they require smaller foundations. They are directly coupled to the prime mover and require lower starting torque as compared to reciprocating machine. The most common rotary air compressor is the single stage helical or spiral lube oil flooded screw air compressor. particularly for applications with high discharge pressure (above 7 bar) and low capacities (less than 25 cfm). which reduces the load and stress on compressor components such as valves and piston rings. Dry types deliver oil-free air and are available in sizes up to 20. There is a wide range of availability in configuration and in pressure and capacity. multi-stage machines may have a lower specific power consumption compared to single stage machines operating over the same total pressure differential. Non-lubricated compressors are especially useful for providing air for instrumentation and for processes which require oil free discharge. These units are basically oil cooled (with air cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances. rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain. the working parts never experience extreme operating temperatures. The oil has to be separated from discharge air.000 cfm and pressure upto 15 bar. Lubricated types are available in sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 cfm. They operate at high speed and generally provide higher throughput than reciprocating compressors. These compressors consist of two rotors.which means less failure rate. The roots blower is essentially a low-pressure blower and is limited to a discharge pressure of 1 bar in single-stage design and up to 2. Because of the simple design and few wearing parts. the Roots blower (also called as lobe compressor) and screw compressors are among the most widely used. with discharge pressure up to 10 bar. Two stage machines are used for high pressures and are characterized by lower discharge temperature (140 to 160°C) compared to single-stage machines (205 to 240°C). In some cases. The oil free rotary screw air compressor uses specially designed air ends to compress air without oil in the compression chamber producing true oil free air. although multi-stage air-cooled types are available for machines up to 100 kW.2 bar in two stage design. Compressed Air System • • Water or air-cooled. There are no valves. Single cylinder machines are generally air-cooled. Water-cooled systems are more energy efficient than air-cooled systems. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 47 . Rotary Compressors Rotary compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous. Multi-stage machines generally have higher investment costs.3. Multi staging has other benefits. These compressors are available as aircooled or water cooled types and provide the same flexibility as oil flooded rotary compressors.
with few moving parts. Axial compressors typically are multi-stage machines. The rotor accomplishes this by changFigure 3. The oil-lubricated running gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents.1 TABLE 3.000 cfm. The centrifugal is a continuous duty compressor.8 0. This momentum is converted to useful pressure by slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA FOR COMPRESSORS Type of Compressor Capacity (m3/h) From To 30000 Pressure (bar) From 0. Machines with either axial or radial flow impellers are available. The general selection criteria for compressor is given in the Table 3. The centrifugal air compressor depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the air.3. These compressors have appreciably different characteristics as compared to reciprocating machines.8 0. A single-stage centrifugal machine can provide the same capacity as a multi-stage reciprocating compressor.5 Axial Compressor ing the momentum and pressure of the air. The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design.8 12. especially where oil free air is required. and is particularly suited to high volume applications.1 To 1 Roots blower compressor single stage Reciprocating – Single / Two stage – Multi stage Screw – Single stage – Two stage Centrifugal Bureau of Energy Efficiency 100 100 100 12000 12000 0. typically above 12. A small change in compression ratio produces a marked change in compressor output and efficiency.0 12 700 100 100 600 48 2400 2200 300000 0. Compressed Air System Dynamic Compressors Dynamic compressors are mainly centrifugal compressors and operate on similar principles to centrifugal pump.1 13 24 450 . Axial flow compressors are suitable for higher compression ratios and are generally more efficient than radial compressors. while radial machines are usually single-stage designs. Centrifugal machines are better suited for applications requiring very high capacities.
e. The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency of compressor and drive motor.7 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2 P1 P2 = Absolute delivery pressure kg/ cm2 Q1 = Free air delivered m3/hr. Isothermal Efficiency Isothermal power(kW) = P1 x Q1 x loger/36. total pressure. Because the altitude. it follows that this term does not mean air under identical or standard conditions. Compressor Efficiency Definitions Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used: volumetric efficiency. r = Pressure ratio P2/P1 The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to overcome friction and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic efficiency. and temperature may vary at different localities and at different times. isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency. ( ( ) ) x 100 Π x D2 x L x S x χ x n 4 D = Cylinder bore.3. The reported value of efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency. barometer. It sometimes means actual flow rate. metre L = Cylinder stroke. Compressed Air System 3. metre S = Compressor speed rpm χ = 1 for single acting and 2 for double acting cylinders n = No. adiabatic efficiency. air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. for different compressors that would provide identical duty. Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power divided by the actual power consumption. This also termed as Free Air Delivery (FAD) i.3 Compressor Performance Capacity of a Compressor Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and delivered at conditions of total temperature. = Bureau of Energy Efficiency 49 Volumetric Efficiency Compressor Displacement . and composition prevailing at the compressor inlet. This is an important consideration when selecting compressors based on reported values of efficiency. of cylinders For practical purposes. the most effective guide in comparing compressor efficiencies is the specific power consumption ie kW/volume flow rate . rather than rated volume of flow.
Compressed Air System 3. They are normally watercooled. Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dryers. scoured cylinders.4 Compressed Air System Components Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters. timer based / automatic drain valves etc. Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the compressed air. after coolers. excessive wear etc. receivers. Various types of traps used are manual drain cocks. or heat of compression dryers.6).3. air dryers. as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. Dust causes sticking valves. The moisture is removed by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon. These traps resemble steam traps. Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. or refrigerant dryers. After Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature in a water-cooled heat exchanger. Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output reducing pressure variations from the compressor Bureau of Energy Efficiency 50 . moisture drain traps. inter-stage coolers. filters. regulators and lubricators (see Figure 3. piping network. • • • • • • Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering compressor.
Hence. Cool air intake As a thumb rule. "Every 4°C rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy consumption by 1 % to achieve equivalent output".2 37.1 26. Manometers or differential pressure gauges across filters may be provided for monitoring pressure drops so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules.3 Relative Air Delivery (%) 102. dry air at intake. the compressor power consumption increases by about 2 percent for the same output" Hence. As a thumb rule "For every 250 mm WC pressure drop increase across at the suction path due to choked filters etc.1 92.3 – 2. Suitable air filters should be provided at the suction side. by selecting a bigger diameter duct with minimum number of bends. it is advisable to clean inlet air filters at regular intervals to minimize pressure drops.6 32. TABLE 3.3 for effect of pressure drop across air filter on power consumption.3. as the temperature of air inside the compressor room will be a few degrees higher than the ambient temperature. Dust Free Air Intake Dust in the suction air causes excessive wear of moving parts and results in malfunctioning of the valves due to abrasion. Compressor performance as a breathing machine improves with cool. See Table 3.0 – 5.0 100. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 51 .5 – 4. Air filters should be selected based on the compressor type and installed as close to the compressor as possible.5 Efficient Operation of Compressed Air Systems Location of Compressors The location of air compressors and the quality of air drawn by the compressors will have a significant influence on the amount of energy consumed.0 – 5. low-pressure drops and robust design to avoid frequent cleaning and replacement. cool air intake leads to a more efficient compression (see Table 3.8 91.3 94.4 Nil – 1.7 43.8 It is preferable to draw cool ambient air from outside. While extending air intake to the outside of building. clean.2).2 Power Saved (%) + 1. Compressed Air System 3.0 15. Air filters should have high dust separation capacity.0 98. care should be taken to minimize excess pressure drop in the suction line.5 21.2 EFFECT OF INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE ON POWER CONSUMPTION Inlet Temperature (°C) 10.1 96.
Further. Elevation The altitude of a place has a direct impact on the volumetric efficiency of the compressor. The resulting warm water is cooled in a cooling tower and circulated back to compressors.6 3. which in turn can lead to scale formation in heat exchangers. being high in wet weather. which in turn are dependent on cooling water flow and temperature.22 The moisture-carrying capacity of air increases with a rise in temperature and decreases with increase in pressure. inadequate cooling water treatment can lead to increase. for example.for example locating compressor close to cooling tower. inter-coolers and after-coolers.5. in total dissolved solids (TDS).3.3 EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS AIR INLET FILTER ON POWER CONSUMPTION Pressure Drop Across air filter (mmWC) 0 200 400 600 800 Increase in Power Consumption (%) 0 1. as the compression ratio is higher.00 68. of air at 30°C 27.7 7. Compressed Air System TABLE 3.2 4. or dryer exhaust is to be avoided (see Table 3. not only act as insulators reducing the heat transfer. The moisture level will also be high if air is drawn from a damp area . The effect of altitude on volumetric efficiency is given in the Table 3.60 45. It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power to achieve a particular delivery pressure than those at sea level.4 MOISTURE IN AMBIENT AIR AT VARIOUS HUMIDITY LEVELS % Relative Humidity 50 80 100 Kg of water vapour per hour for every 1000 m3/min.0 Dry Air Intake Atmospheric air always contains some amount of water vapour. after coolers. but also increases the pressure drop in the cooling water pumping system. The compressed air system performance depends upon the effectiveness of inter-coolers. wherein the heat of compression is removed by circulating cold water to cylinder heads.4) TABLE 3. Cooling Water Circuit Most of the industrial compressors are water-cooled. depending on the relative humidity. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 52 . The scales.
3 4. Inter-coolers are provided between successive stages of a multi-stage compressor to reduce the work of compression (power requirements) .6).6 15. Ideally. the inlet air temperatures at subsequent stages are higher than the normal levels resulting in higher power consumption.01972 x 10-3 kg/cm2 Use of treated water or purging a portion of cooling water (blow down) periodically can maintain TDS levels within acceptable limits.3.5 76. TABLE 3. as a larger volume is handled for the same duty (See Table 3. and avoid microbial growth by addition of fungicides and algaecides.5 15. Efficacy of Inter and After Coolers Efficacy is an indicator of heat exchange performance.2 4.0 Sea level 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 * 1 milli bar = 1.1 26.1 At 7 bar 100.5 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Altitude Meters Barometric Pressure milli bar* 1013 945 894 840 789 737 Percentage Relative Volumetric Efficiency Compared with Sea Level At 4 bar 100.2.6 75. It is better to maintain the water pH by addition of chemicals.by reducing the specific volume through cooling the air .8 Reference Chilled Water Cooling 21.2 92. the temperature of the inlet air at each stage of a multi-stage machine should be the same as it was at the first stage.1 53 Perfect Cooling (Base Value) 21.1 15.0 97.9 92.7 90.how well intercoolers and after coolers are performing.3 4.7 .7 74.9 + 2.1 21.7 97. The cooling may be imperfect due to reasons described in earlier sections.6 EFFECT OF INTER-STAGE COOLING ON SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR -ILLUSTRATION Details First Stage inlet temperature °C Second Stage inlet temperature °C Capacity (Nm3/min) Shaft Power (kW) Specific energy consumption (kW/Nm3/min) Percent Change Bureau of Energy Efficiency Imperfect Cooling 21. Hence in actual practice.5 93.0 87.1 .1 15.0 98.apart from moisture separation. Compressed Air System TA B LE 3.0 95. This is referred to as "perfect cooling" or isothermal compression.7 95.
a compressor operating between pressure setting of 6 – 7 kg/cm2 means that the compressor unloads at 7 kg/cm2 and loads at 6 kg/cm2.8 6. inadequate cooling in after-coolers (due to fouling. very low cooling water temperature could result in condensation of moisture in the air. For example.). leading to further energy wastage The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is also less at higher delivery pressures.5 Single-stage Water-cooled 4 9 54 Power Savings (%) Two-stage Water-cooled 4 11 Two-stage Air-cooled 2.8 To (bar) 6.6 that an increase of 5. Compressed Air System It can be seen from the Table 3. However. pressure drops and leakages in piping and end-use equipment. but also leads to excessive wear.6 6.9 Pressure Settings Compressor operates between pressure ranges called as loading (cut-in) and unloading (cut-out) pressures. which in consequence. humid air into the receiver. Loading and unloading is done using a pressure switch. Use of water at lower temperature reduces specific power consumption.8 7.8 TYPICAL POWER SAVINGS THROUGH PRESSURE REDUCTION Pressure Reduction From (bar) 6.1 5. Typical cooling water requirement is given in Table 3. a compressor consumes more power at higher pressures.3. Similarly. allow warm. TABLE 3. leads to increased corrosion.6 15. For the same capacity.1 18.5°C in the inlet air temperature to the second stage results in a 2 % increase in the specific energy consumption.5 Bureau of Energy Efficiency .85 m3/min.7. Periodic cleaning and ensuring adequate flow at proper temperature of both inter coolers and after coolers are therefore necessary for sustaining desired performance. They should not be operated above their optimum operating pressures as this not only wastes energy. which if not removed would lead to cylinder damage.7 TYPICAL COOLING WATER REQUIREMENTS Compressor Type Single-stage Two-stage Single-stage with after-cooler Two-stage with after-cooler Minimum quantity of Cooling Water required (in litres per minute) for 2. which causes more condensation in air receivers and distribution lines. scaling etc. FAD at 7 bar 3. TABLE 3.
the pressure setting can be adjusted such that only one compressor handles the load variation.16 21. Compressors can be graded according to their specific energy consumption. and the pressure drop in the line between the compressed air generation and utilization points.04 14.74 26. TABLE 3.3. • • • • • If all compressors are similar. Compressor modulation by Optimum Pressure Settings: Very often in an industry. of Stages 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 55 Specific Power kW/170 m3/hour (kW / 100 cfm) 6. In general. the pressure switch should be set such that only the smallest compressor is allowed to modulate (vary in flow rate). unload power consumptions are significant. Compressed Air System Reducing Delivery Pressure: The possibility of lowering (optimising) the delivery pressure settings should be explored by careful study of pressure requirements of various equipment. different types. The pressure switches must be adjusted such that the compressor cuts-in and cuts-out at optimum levels.29 9.34 19. Where more than one compressor feeds a common header. The compressor with lowest no load power must be modulated.9).8. A reduction in the delivery pressure by 1 bar in a compressor would reduce the power consumption by 6 – 10 %. the compressor with lower part load power consumption should be modulated. compressors have to be operated in such a way that the cost of compressed air generation is minimal. capacities and makes of compressors are connected to a common distribution network.22 . If compressors are of different sizes. In such situations. Typical power savings through pressure reduction is shown in Table 3.64 13. at different pressures and energy efficient ones must be made to meet most of the demand (see Table 3.57 18. proper selection of a right combination of compressors and optimal modulation of different compressors can conserve energy. If different types of compressors are operated together.9 TYPICAL SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS (BASED ON MOTOR INPUT) Pressure bar 1 2 3 4 7 8 10 15 Bureau of Energy Efficiency No. whereas the others operate more or less at full load.
Comments: • For a cycle time of 45 minutes (39.35 ] × 100 = 81.75 + 13.14) + 45 (12. B.17) + 45 (12. D. C.30 'Unload' kW 42. Speed of the compressor can also be reduced by reducing motor pulley size.21 kWh / 45 Minutes iii) Compressed air generation actual capacity on line in m3 = 45 [ 13.65) = 2392. * Compressors running in load conditions and not getting unloaded during normal operations.3 51.30) + (39.88) i) Compressed air generated in m3 = 45 (13.75 % c) Specific power consumption = 370. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 56 . f) A suitable smaller capacity compressor can be planned to replace the compressor with highest unload losses.20 108.30 104.e.30 109.20) + 45 / 60 (108. Compressed Air System EXAMPLE Compressor modulation Assessing compressed air system study for a plant section gave following results.14 + 12.62 kWh in every 45 minutes cycle i.3 29.36 / 2926.3 Load Time Min.. Nil Nil Nil Nil 39. e) It would be favorable in short term and energy efficient to keep the compressor 'D' in cycling mode on account of lower un-load losses and hence capacity.88/60 (109.36 = 0. Comment on the results? • • Compressors on line A.155 kW/m3 d) Idle power consumption due to unload operation = 25.3.65 ] = 2926. exists although all compressors have almost the same rated capacity. Full time* Full time* Full time* Full time* 5.65 'On' Load kW 115.32) + 45 (13.88 min.12 + 5.3) + 45/60 (104.88 (13.75) + 5.3 = 370.3) + 45/60 (117. Unload Time Min. g) An investigation is called for.21 / 2392.32 + 13.16 m3/minute b) Compressor air drawal as a % of capacity on line is = [2392.12 min.12) / 60 ) 39. 34.8 43.36 / 45 = 53.14 12.36 m3 ii) Power consumption kWh = 45/60 (115.8 39.16 kWh every hour. as to why such a large variation of unload power drawn.17 + 12.17 12. E (all reciprocating type) Trial observation Summary Compressor Reference A B C D E Measured Capacity CMM (@ 7 kg/ cm2) 13.35 m3 a) The consumption rate of the section connected = 2392.32 13.30 117.75 13.3) + 5.
15 0. if the pipes are of smaller diameter.46 0.1 Equivalent lengths of fittings Not only piping. TABLE 3.18 0.20 1.3.68 3.11. Typical pressure losses for various fitting are given in Table 3.5 bar in distribution system.10 illustrates the energy wastage.38 0.44 3.32 125 1.36 65 0.2 0.20 2. improperly sized couplings and hoses represent energy wastage. it is advisable to generate low pressure and high-pressure air separately.76 20 0.65 0.5 3.91 1.76 1.27 0.18 0.37 Nominal Pipe Size in mm 32 40 50 0.37 0.83 2.46 0.76 1.14 0.52 3. choked filter elements.20 4.61 1.07 1.64 0. which invariably waste energy.88 9.3 bar in mains header at the farthest point and 0.26 0.10 TYPICAL ENERGY WASTAGE DUE TO SMALLER PIPE DIAMETER FOR 170 m3/h (100 CFM) FLOW Pipe Nominal Bore (mm) 40 50 65 80 100 Pressure drop (bar) per 100 meters 1.2 0.44 0.76 1.24 0.4 1.18 100 0.80 0.49 0.32 0.61 1.45 Bureau of Energy Efficiency 57 .98 3.67 1.20 2. but also fitting are a source of pressure losses.02 Equivalent power losses (kW) 9. Minimum pressure drop in air lines Excess pressure drop due to inadequate pipe sizing.60 5.07 25 0. Typical acceptable pressure drop in industrial practice is 0.40 0.91 1.04 0.11 0.49 0.98 0. Compressed Air System Segregating low and high pressure air requirements If the low-pressure air requirement is considerable.07 1.96 80 0.37 1.22 0. The Table 3. TABLE 3.11 RESISTANCE OF PIPE FITTINGS IN EQUIVALENT LENGTHS (IN METRES) Type of Fitting 15 Gate Valve Tee 90° long bend Elbow Return bend Outlet of tee globe valve 0.66 7. and feed to the respective sections instead of reducing the pressure through pressure reducing valves.
plant engineer may be tempted to use compressed air to provide air for low-pressure applications such as agitation. a positive displacement compressor may consume up to 30 % of the full load power.13). Load and Unload: This is a two-step control where compressor is loaded when there is air demand and unloaded when there is no air demand. Compressed Air System Blowers in place of Compressed Air System Since the compressed air system is already available. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 58 . 75 % & 100 %) varying from full load down to no-load (see Table 3. operation and maintenance practices.3. Multi-step Control: Large capacity reciprocating compressors are usually equipped with a multi-step control. 50 %. depending upon the type. This is a very efficient method of controlling the capacity of compressor. another efficient way to match compressor output to meet varying load requirements is by speed control (see Table 3. as its name implies. Capacity Control of Compressors In many installations. However. (0%. as it completely switches off the motor when the set pressure is reached. During unloading. some means of controlling the output flow from the compressor is necessary. TABLE 3. starts or stops the compressor by means of a pressure activated switch as the air demand varies. pneumatic conveying or combustion air. Therefore. unloading is accomplished in a series of steps. Using a blower that is designed for lower pressure operation will cost only a fraction of compressed air generation energy and cost. The type of capacity control chosen has a direct impact on the compressor power consumption. Some control schemes commonly used are discussed below: Automatic On / Off Control: Automatic On /Off control.12). configuration. In this type of control. where the motor idle-running losses are eliminated. 25 %. This control is suitable for small compressors. the use of air is intermittent.12 POWER CONSUMPTION OF A TYPICAL RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR AT VARIOUS LOADS Load % 100 75 50 25 0 Power Consumption as % of full load Power 100 76 – 77 52 – 53 27 – 29 10 – 12 Throttling Control: The capacity of centrifugal compressors can be controlled using variable inlet guide vanes.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency 59 . speed control is recommended. % 111 100 80 60 40 20 0 Power Input (%) Speed Control 120 100 76 59 55 51 47 Power Input (%) Vane Control 100 81 64 50 46 43 At low volumetric flow (below 40 %). wherever applicable.59 0. For loads more than 40 %.90 3. Power kW 10. Compressed Air System TABLE 3.14 gives an idea of savings by stopping use of compressed air by choosing alternative methods to perform the same task. vane control may result in lower power input compared to speed control due to low efficiency of the speed control system. It should always be remembered that safety consideration always override energy conservation.95 – 2.14 TYPICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRICAL TOOLS Tool Pneumatic angle grinder Electric angle grinder Pneumatic jet grinder Electric straight grinder Wheel dia mm 150 150 35 25 Speed rpm 6000 5700 – 8600 30000 22900 – 30500 Air Cons. Wherever possible. liquid agitation. m3/h 102 m3/h at 6 bar N. drying.13 TYPICAL PART LOAD GAS COMPRESSION :POWER INPUT FOR SPEED AND VANE CONTROL OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS System Volume. especially places where inflammable vapours are present in the environment. equipment cooling and other similar uses must be discouraged.18 It may be noted that in some areas use of electric tools are not permitted due to safety constraints. The following Table 3. • Electric motors can serve more efficiently than air-driven rotary devices.3.A. Avoiding Misuse of Compressed Air: Misuse of compressed air for purposes like body cleaning.2 1.3 m3/h at 6 bar N. for example secondary air for combustion in a boiler / furnace. lowpressure air from a blower should be substituted for compressed air. 32.A. TABLE 3. floor cleaning. The Table gives the comparison of pneumatic grinders and electrical grinders.
pipe and hose joints. it can cost about Rs. 1. For applications like blowing of components. Vacuum systems are much more efficient than expensive venturi methods. The main valve should be opened only for a few. This has also been widely applied in cement industry where pneumatic conveying has been replaced by bucket and screw conveyor resulting in significant energy reduction. no connections for cleaning should be provided from process or equipment air lines. compressed air should be used only with blow guns to keep the air pressure below 2 bar. conveyers. compressed air was used for conveying wood chips. dry. For applications. If a ¼" hose pipe is kept open at a 7 bar compressed air line for cleaning for at least 1000 hours / annum. Compressed Air System • • • • • • • In place of pneumatic hoists. blowers or gravity-based systems may be possible.0 lakhs / annum. Many applications do not require clean.3. Avoiding Air Leaks and Energy Wastage: The major opportunity to save energy is in the prevention of leaks in the compressed air system. relief valves. use of compressed air amplifiers (see Figure). If absolutely necessary. The equivalent power consumption was 77 kW. local air fans or blowers may satisfy the need for moving air much economically. Replacement of pneumatically operated air cylinders by hydraulic power packs can be considered. provide cooling. Material conveying applications by blower systems can be replaced preferably by a combination of belt / screw conveyers and bucket elevators. well-defined time periods during the whole day. only moving air is needed to blow away debris. quick release couplings. Blowers can be also used for this purpose. shut off valves. improper installations etc. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 60 . electric hoists can be used. When moving air really is required for an application. In a paper manufacturing facility. where compressed air is indispensable for cleaning internal crevices of machines etc. This method of conveying was replaced by blower system consuming only 7 kW. Mechanical stirrers. a saving of 70 kW. high-pressure and expensive 6 bar or 7 bar compressed air rather. often sources other than compressed air can do the job. In these cases. tools and equipment. or other functions. Brushes can sweep away debris from work in progress as effectively as high-pressure air. installation of a separate cleaning air header with a main isolation valve may be considered. Leaks frequently occur at air receivers. In most cases. they are due to poor maintenance and sometimes. which use expensive compressed air rushing past an orifice to create a vacuum.. and low-pressure air will mix materials far more economically than high-pressure compressed air.
33 2.22 0.0 2.4 * kW Wasted 0.6 24.08 0.5 mm 35.5 52. air at 7.15 DISCHARGE OF AIR (m3/MINUTE) THROUGH ORIFICE (ORIFICE CONSTANT Cd – 1.15 gives the amount of free air wasted for different nozzles sizes and pressure.16 that any expenditure on stopping leaks would be paid back through energy saving.0 12. The system leakage is calculated as: T t = = Time on load in minutes Time on unload in minutes 61 Bureau of Energy Efficiency . 8000 operating hours. TABLE 3.5 1.33 0.6 5 mm 5. TABLE 3.8 3.2 0.92 1.6 3.14 0.0 0. Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of operation Note the sub-sequent time taken for 'load' and 'unload' cycles of the compressors.19 3 mm 2.8 11.4 32.0 7.33 3.0 5. For accuracy.0 202.16 COST OF AIR LEAKAGE Orifice Size mm 0.4 152.0) Gauge Pressure Bar 0.5 5.5 mm 0.92 5.31 2 mm 0. Then calculate total 'ON' Time (T) and Total 'OFF' time (t).0 Cost of Compressed Air Leakage: It may be seen from Table 3.5 129. 5 / kWh.0 12.5 91.06 0.4 14.6 97.0 bar Steps in simple shop-floor method for leak quantification • • • • Shut off compressed air operated equipments (or conduct test when no equipment is using compressed air).25 0.3. take ON & OFF times for 8 – 10 cycles continuously.1 6.8 1.0 * Cost of air leakage (Rs/Year) 8000 32000 120000 480000 based on Rs. Compressed Air System Air leakages through Different Size Orifices The Table 3.5 8.33 1 mm 0.1 3.97 1.7 8.8 33.6 58.5 10 mm 22.58 0.
following results were observed = 35 Compressor capacity (m3/minute) 2 = 6. all cooling and condensing of air should be carried out before the air leaves the receiver.375 x 24 x 60 = 6300 m3/day 188 kW /(35 x 60)m3/hr 0. oil and dirt are removed by the separators and traps in the mains. kg/cm2(g) Load kW drawn = 188 kW Unload kW drawn = 54 kW Average 'Load' time.5 minutes Average 'Unload' time. which senses when there are leakage in compressed air systems at high temperatures-beneath insulated coverings. which takes place in the lines. Compressed Air System EXAMPLE In the leakage test in a process industry. kg/cm (g) = 7. Line Moisture Separator and Traps Although. Leak testing is done by observing and locating sources of ultrasonic vibrations created by turbulent flow of gases passing through leaks in pressurized or evacuated systems.3. In general. Moreover. still some are always left. The amount of condensation. depends on the efficiency of moisture extraction before the air leaves the receiver and the temperature in the mains itself. pipe systems Bureau of Energy Efficiency 62 .5 minutes Comment on leakage quantity and avoidable loss of power due to air leakages. this is not very often achieved in practice. manifolds etc. and the distance between drainage points should not exceed 30m.8 Cut in pressure. Further. Compressed Air Filter Although. some water. as it assists in the separation of water. Whenever a branch line is taken off from the mains it should leave at the top so that any water in the main does not fall straight into the plant equipment. The leak is detected by ultrasonic vibration. the bottom of the falling pipe should also be drained. t = 10.q 4. . which are carried over along with compressed air. the air main should be given a fall of not less than 1 m in 100 m in the direction of air flow. T = 1. in an ideal system.5 Cut out pressure. Drainage points should be provided using equal tees.375 m3/min Leakage quantity 4.0895 x 6300 = 564 kWh Leakage Detection by Ultrasonic Leak Detector: Leakage tests are conducted by a Leak Detector having a sensing probe. pipelines.
5 Bureau of Energy Efficiency 63 . all of which are liable to have harmful effects on pneumatic equipment.17 for moisture content in air and Table 3. They produce dry air with -10°C to -40°C dew point. For these applications. Compressed Air System accumulate scale and other foreign matters. they should be fitted with a lubricator. Three common types of air dryers used are heat-less (absorption). such as small pieces of gasket material. This oil is carried with the motive air. because if the level is allowed to build up. All lubricators require a certain minimum rate of airflow to induce oil into their stream. with other contaminants. regulators and lubricators as close as possible to the equipment being served. Refer Table 3. pneumatic operations are to be carried out at a lower pressure than that of the main supply. Essentially. depending on the type of dryers. a metered amount of oil is fed in mist form into the air stream. It is advisable to install filters. This calls for more sophisticated and expensive methods to lower the dew point of compressed air. forms a gummy substance.18 for typical pressure dew point and power consumption data for dryers. Lubricators Where air is used to drive prime movers.3. ppm 3800 2500 1600 685 234 80 6. Water and oil collected in the filter sump must be drained off. Dew point is the temperature at which moisture condenses. Regulators In many instances. and this. to the point of use to lubricate all moving parts.17 MOISTURE CONTENT IN AIR Dew point at Atmospheric Pressure °C 0 –5 –10 –20 –30 –40 –60 Moisture Content. To remove these. it is forced through the filter element into the very system it is designed to protect. jointing compounds etc. Burnt compressor oil may also be carried over in pipe work. a lubricator is a reservoir of oil and has been designed so that when air is flowing. Air Dryers There are certain applications where air must be free from moisture and have a lower dew point. cylinders and valves. TABLE 3. adsorption and refrigerated dryers. pressure regulators are required to reduce the pressure to the required value and also to ensure that it remains reasonably constant at the usage point. the air should be filtered as near as possible to the point of use.
Pipes are to be installed parallel with the lines of the building. Another approximation can be to size the receiver volume to be 5% of the rated hourly free air output. Piping layout Where possible the piping system should be arranged as a closed loop or "ring main" to allow for more uniform air distribution to consumption points and to equalize pressure in the piping. Automatic moisture traps used for this purpose are effective only when the air has been cooled and the Bureau of Energy Efficiency 64 . The piping system will be designed for a maximum allowable pressure drop of 5 percent from the compressor to the most distant point of use. Compressed Air System TABLE 3. and separates moisture and oil vapour. The air receiver should be generously sized to give a large cooling surface and even out the pulsation in delivered air pressure from reciprocating compressor. Traps will be installed in airlines at all low points and dead ends to remove condensed moisture. serves as a reservoir for sudden or unusually heavy demands in excess of compressor capacity.7 kW –40 Medium Medium 18. would avoid the need to provide extra capacity. with main and branch headers sloping down toward a dead end. Loss of air pressure due to friction The loss of pressure in piping is caused by resistance in pipe fittings and valves. prevents too frequent loading and unloading (short cycling) of the compressor. However. For 1000 m3/hr 2. this should be considered indicative of the minimum size of receiver. Providing an air receiver near the load end. allowing the moisture carried over from the after coolers to precipitate. Separate services requiring heavy air consumption and at long distances from the compressor unit should be supplied by separate main airlines.0 kW –40 High Very low 0. Simple formulae often quoted for air receiver size is to take a value equal to one minute's continuous output of the compressor.18 TYPICAL PRESSURE DEW POINT AND POWER CONSUMPTION DATA FOR DRYERS Type of Dryer Refrigeration Desiccant regenerative (by compressed air purging) Desiccant regenerative (external or internal heating with electrical or steam heater. which dissipates energy by producing turbulence. reduced or no compressed air purging) Desiccant regenerative (using heated low pressure air.3.8 kW Air Receivers The air receiver dampens pulsations entering the discharge line from the compressor. no compressed air loss) Desiccant regenerative (by recovery of heat of compression from compressed air) Atmospheric Dew Point °C –20 –20 First Cost Low Low Operating Cost Low High Power Cons. where there is sudden high demand lasting for a short period.9 kW 20.0 kW –40 High Low 12.
as against centralized compressors often serve this purpose better by having the option to switch off when air is not need in a particular section/equipment. thus closing the receiver outlet. In order to meet the air demand. the use of air is intermittent. Compressed Air System moisture has precipitated. This means the compressor will be operated on low load or no load condition. Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test. it has become a viable option to maintain constant pressure in the system and to avoid unloading operations by varying the speed of the compressor. orifice constant. Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch. based on the air temperature. fouled heat exchanger and effects of altitude also tend to reduce free air delivery. One way of doing this is to use a smaller compressor. despite good maintenance practices. The nature of the control device depends on the function to be regulated. A periodic assessment of the FAD capacity of each compressor has to be carried out to check its actual capacity.6 Compressor Capacity Assessment Due to ageing of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal components. 3. Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver) from initial pressure P1. for optimum energy consumption. since it will affect the lubricating system. thus consuming more power than actually required. The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is through a nozzle test wherein a calibrated nozzle is used as a load. other factors such as poor maintenance. the inefficient compressor may have to run for more time. One of the objectives of a good compressed air management system would be to minimize unloading to the least as unloading consumes up to 30% of full load power. corrective measures should be taken to rectify the same. Capacity Utilisation In many installations. the free air delivered may be less than the design value. a worn out compressor valve can reduce the compressor capacity by as much as 20 percent. The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of FAD capacity. For example. Branch headers from compressed air mains will be taken off at the top to avoid picking up moisture. Simple method of Capacity Assessment in Shop floor Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it. an economical way will be to suitably change the pulley size of the motor or compressor and reduce the RPM to de-rate the compressor to a lower capacity.3. However. Flow is assessed. This can be overcome by providing a separate lube oil system independent of the compressor. etc. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 65 . which increases the specific power consumption per unit of air generated. If a compressor is oversized and operates at unloading mode for long periods. With decreasing cost of variable speed drives. Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipe line. If the deviations are more than 10 %. to vent out the generated compressed air. Hence. a proper compressor capacity control should be selected. caution should be taken for operations at very low speeds. Sometimes. Decentralized compressors. stabilization pressure.
Compressed Air System Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below : Actual Free air discharge Where P2 P1 P0 V T = = = = = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a) Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a) Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver. perfect isothermal compression.e.79 + 0.. the FAD is to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2). Every 4°C rise in air inlet temperature will increase power consumption by 1 percent.021 minutes 8.287m3 Time taken to build up pressure : 4.75 m3/minute rating is 1. after cooler. 3.63 m3/minute i. say t20C is higher than ambient air temperature say t10C (as is usual case).12 m3/minute Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.7 Checklist for Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air System Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and humid by locating compressors in wellventilated area or by drawing cold air from outside.3. 66 • Bureau of Energy Efficiency .e. In case the actual compressed air temperature at discharge.05%. 11. EXAMPLE An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final compressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) .287 = 13.4974 = 8. i.. which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further. and delivery piping Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is same as the ambient air temperature.Comment? 7.
Install equipment interlocked solenoid cut-off valves in the air system so that air supply to a machine can be switched off when not in use. especially motor current cooling water flow and temperature. to eliminate the `unloaded' running condition altogether. Compressed air leakage of 40 – 50 percent is not uncommon. compressors must be operated in such a way that only one small compressor should handle the load variations whereas other compressors will operate at full load. 67 Bureau of Energy Efficiency . If more than one compressor is feeding to a common header. wherever possible. Worn-out valves can reduce compressor efficiency by as much as 50 percent. Compressed air piping layout should be made preferably as a ring main to provide desired pressures for all users. say over 100 kW. Keep compressor valves in good condition by removing and inspecting once every six months. Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be done periodically to check the present operating capacity against its design capacity and corrective steps must be taken if required. inter-stage and discharge pressures and temperatures and compressor load-cycle. to save energy. Present energy prices justify liberal designs of pipeline sizes to reduce pressure drops. which uses the heat of compressed air to remove moisture. Compressed Air System • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Clean air-inlet filters regularly. The possibility of heat recovery from hot compressed air to generate hot air or water for process application must be economically analyzed in case of large compressors. Install manometers across the filter and monitor the pressure drop as a guide to replacement of element. If pressure requirements for processes are widely different (e.3. Retrofit with variable speed drives in big compressors. Carry out periodic leak tests to estimate the quantity of leakage. Periodic cleaning of intercoolers must be ensured.g. Compressor efficiency will be reduced by 2 percent for every 250 mm WC pressure drop across the filter. Check air compressor logs regularly for abnormal readings. Minimize low-load compressor operation. if air demand is less than 50 percent of compressor capacity. Consideration should be given to two-stage or multistage compressor as it consumes less power for the same air output than a single stage compressor. So frequency of drainage should be optimized. Reduce compressor delivery pressure. Provide extra air receivers at points of high cyclic-air demand which permits operation without extra compressor capacity. located far off from the central compressor house. Fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency and cause more water condensation in air receivers and distribution lines resulting in increased corrosion. A smaller dedicated compressor can be installed at load point. Automatic timer controlled drain traps wastes compressed air every time the valve opens. instead of supplying air through lengthy pipelines. Consider the use of regenerative air dryers. 3 bar to 7 bar). it is advisable to have two separate compressed air systems. Keep the minimum possible range between load and unload pressure settings. consider change over to a smaller compressor or reduce compressor speed appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in case of belt driven compressors.
agitation. Pneumatic transport can be replaced by mechanical system as the former consumed about 8 times more energy.3. On account of high pressure drop. ball or plug or gate valves are preferable over globe valves in compressed air lines. Misuse of compressed air such as for body cleaning. Pneumatic equipment should not be operated above the recommended operating pressure as this not only wastes energy bus can also lead to excessive wear of equipment's components which leads to further energy wastage. which will reduce friction. Where possible welding is a good practice and should be preferred over threaded connections. and other similar applications must be discouraged in order to save compressed air and energy. general floor cleaning. Highest possibility of energy savings is by reducing compressed air use. prevent wear of seals and other rubber parts thus preventing energy wastage due to excessive air consumption or leakage. Wherever possible. they should be replaced with electrically operated tools. Pneumatic tools such as drill and grinders consume about 20 times more energy than motor driven tools. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 68 . Hence they have to be used efficiently. Compressed Air System • • • • • • • All pneumatic equipment should be properly lubricated.
26 minutes Motor power consumption (avg.2 m3 Atmospheric pressure : 1. 14.) : 98. 69 3.3.026 kg / cm2A Compressor pump-up time : 4. which of the following compressors are used: a) Roots blower b) Lubricated screw c) Lubricated reciprocating d) Non-lubricated compressor Which of the following is not a rotary compressor? a) Roots blower b) Screw c) Centrifugal d) Reciprocating Which of the following compressors best meet high volume low pressure requirements? a) Reciprocating b) Screw c) Centrifugal d) Lobe FAD refers to the compressed air discharge a) at ISO stated conditions b) Inlet conditions c) at outlet conditions d) at STP Isothermal efficiency is the ratio of isothermal power to a) Motor power drawn b) isentropic power c) Shaft power d) theoretical power Which of the following parameters are not required for evaluating volumetric efficiency of the compressor? a) Power b) Cylinder bore diameter c) stroke length d) FAD The smoothening of the pulsating output of a reciprocating compressor is helped by a) Receiver b) intercooler c) after cooler d) drain traps Which of the following does not improve compressor performance ? a) cool air intake b) clean air intake c) humid air intake d) lower elevation The leak test results show load time of 5 seconds and unload time of 10 seconds. 2. 7. Compressed Air System QUESTIONS 1. 11.2 kg / cm2g Final pressure : 6. 10.6 kW Calculate the operational capacity of compressor & specific power consumption (neglect temperature correction)? List the factors that affect energy efficiency in air compressors. then the leakage would be a) 33 cfm b) 50 cfm c) 200 cfm d) 66 cfm In a compressor capacity trial in a plant. 12. If the compressor capacity is 100 cfm. 9. 5. 6.0 kg / cm2g Additional hold-up volume : 1. 8. following were the observations: Receiver capacity : 10 m3 Initial pressure : 0. 13. Bureau of Energy Efficiency . 4. The efficiency of compressed air system is around a) 80% b) 60% c) 90% d) 10% For instrumentation air needs. What are the methods of capacity control in reciprocating air compressors? Briefly explain shopfloor method of air compressor capacity assessment.
5 minutes Suggest possible energy saving opportunities on a short-term basis. 3. 17. REFERENCES 1. 2. What are the effects of moisture on compressed air? Briefly explain the benefits of an air receiver. 16. Technology Menu for Energy Efficiency (NPC) PCRA Publications on Compressed Air System NPC Energy Audit Reports Bureau of Energy Efficiency 70 . Compressed Air System 15. A reciprocating V belt driven compressor was found to operating during normal factory operation with the following parameters: Load pressure = 6 bar Unload pressure = 8 bar Load time = 3 minutes Unload time = 1.3.
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Eeyore ([Child. Lit.])
The gloomy old grey donkey in A. A. Milne's books about *Winnie the Pooh.
> Someone who is deeply pessimistic or gloomy
Eeyore of the Year was, as usual, a toss-up between Peter Owen ('If anything, it is getting worse') and Tom Rosenthal ('Among those books which sold less badly'). The Bookseller 1995


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nikon v1 vs 5n jpegs
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Everdog • Veteran Member • Posts: 4,837
If the subject is moving nikon v1 will usally be better
In reply to lakemcd • Oct 17, 2011
The Nikon 1 focuses fast and tracks moving subjects.
If you want to shoot sports, action or moving kids, it is a no brainer.
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BizReport : Mobile Marketing : July 17, 2012
Jivox release allows for video ads in live streaming
Living streaming is one of the areas of video advertising that has been the most challenging for businesses. Sponsorship of live streaming events is great, but about in-stream ads? A new offering from Jivox allows video ads to be inserted within live streaming events - which could open a new avenue during high profile events like the Olympics.
HTTP live streaming is getting an upgrade from interactive video tech hub Jivox. Through their new solution ads can be inserted directly into live streaming events viewed through mobile and apps using HLS video.
"Viewers are increasingly accessing broadcast content from multiple devices and this requires a seamless approach to advertising," said Diaz Nesamoney, CEO of Jivox. "With our platform advertisers are guaranteed that their interactive video ad can be seen by their targeted audience no matter what screen they are watching. This extends the reach and engagement of their TV ad buy."
HTTP live streaming allows on demand and live video streams to be delivered to mobile devices, across screens and to devices which don't support Flash video - like Apple's iOS devices.
Data from Nielsen notes 163 million Americans streamed 26 billion videos in May 2012. Meanwhile comScore reports video ads pushed past the 10 billion barrier for the first time in May; the top video ad properties included Hulu (725 ad minutes, 1.66 billion video ads), Google Sites (143 ad minutes, 1.38 billion ads) and BrightRoll (673 ad minutes, 1.130 billion ads). comScore reports total video numbers which are slightly higher than Nielsen's - 180 million video viewers who watched 36.6 billion video streams.
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Next day tyres live up to their name next day they arrived. From ease of ordering to receiving the tyres it was as described. A really quality service in really quick time. It is just as easy as going to the local bike shop. Prices are competitive and of top quality. I have not had any bad experiences when using next day tyres.
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Arrests over Spurs fans attack
French police have arrested three men following a gang attack on a bar packed with English football fans in Lyon.
French police have arrested three men following a gang attack on a bar packed with English football fans in Lyon.
Eyewitnesses who were inside the Smoking Dog pub said thugs attacked the bar at 10.18pm on Wednesday night. They then returned to launch another assault, leaving the pub badly damaged.
At 10.18 the pub was rammed with Tottenham fans watching the Champions League on the television. The front of the pub, which is made up of reinforced glass, was attacked by 20-25 people.
They threw projectiles through the windows. There was a stand off. They didn't get in to the bar. Then it calmed down. Then they came back a second time and it all started again.
There were three injured Tottenham fans taken away by ambulance. One of them had a head injury. I'm not sure how bad it was.
Thomas Jackson, 30, suffered severe head injuries after he tried to shield Mia Ayliffe-Chung during a knife attack in Queensland.
Man's best friend really does understand some of what we are saying, scientists are suggesting.
Selena Gomez said she was taking time out to deal with panic attacks and depression thought to be a side effect of her lupus disease.


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The two Department of Homeland Security agencies in charge of airport, port and border security want some private-sector help in developing the next-generation IT and other technology that will speed U.S. travel and tourism processes.
The Transportation Security Administration and Customs and Border Protection last week jointly announced a slew of openings under DHS's Loaned Executive Program, which brings private-sector executives into federal agencies for unpaid six-month assignments.
DHS established the program in 2008 to tap executive-level and subject-matter experts to share their knowledge. Participating executives continue to receive their private-sector salaries and benefits during their stints, which come with an option for an additional six months.
With the latest round of openings, DHS is looking to speed the electronic and physical processes for tourists entering the U.S., according to DHS Deputy Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas. The May 7 announcement by TSA and CBP marks the first time the agencies have participated in the program. The resume deadline is May 27.
Among the positions the two agencies are looking to fill are senior advisor for self-service technology, senior advisor for metrics and senior advisor for the Office of Biometrics Identity Management.
The metrics advisor, said the TSA/CBP notice, will help clarify issues related to collection and analysis of data on airport systems flow for international travelers. The agencies want a senior-level executive with extensive experience in data collection and analysis involving complex systems or operations.
The senior advisor for the Office of Biometrics Identity Management will advise the director and deputy director of the Office of Biometric Identity Management in the National Protection and Programs Directorate.
That executive, according to the notice, should be able to leverage knowledge of emerging technologies to recommend improvements to major enterprise applications, identify tools to optimize IT system performance and develop and promote collaborative/joint technology solutions to improve services to enhance mission effectiveness.
The self-service technology adviser, said the notice, will help TSA and CBP clarify issues about development and deployment of enterprise-level self-service technologies.
About the Author
Mark Rockwell is a staff writer at FCW.
Before joining FCW, Rockwell was Washington correspondent for Government Security News, where he covered all aspects of homeland security from IT to detection dogs and border security. Over the last 25 years in Washington as a reporter, editor and correspondent, he has covered an increasingly wide array of high-tech issues for publications like Communications Week, Internet Week, Fiber Optics News, tele.com magazine and Wireless Week.
Rockwell received a Jesse H. Neal Award for his work covering telecommunications issues, and is a graduate of James Madison University.
Click here for previous articles by Rockwell.
Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.com or follow him on Twitter at @MRockwell4.
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That figures. We ask private sector experts to work for free to fix problems that paid department staff cannot. At the end, paid staff will probably get a bonus for the improvements made by volunteers.
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August 21, 2016: Last week of Summer Camp
We have made it to the last week of Summer Camp and it will be held at St. Andrew's School. Full Camp Monday - Thursday with Wednesday (half day). No Lunch so bring your own or money for local shops.
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SIGN UPS FOR THE FALL 2016 Session are now OPEN! Limited space and an evaluation is required for all new players. This is an academy for serious tennis players. We design a plan for every player to reach their personal best!
We are that BIG academy training in Rhode Island. Our vision is to develop players to their highest potential, who will compete together in practice and push one other to improve every day.


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5101 Emerald Lodge, Trappeurs
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Sleeps: 10/
Type: Apt. / Condo
Book this 4 bedroom, 3 bathroom apt. / condo in Steamboat Springs today! A total of 10 people can sleep here comfortably.
Guests can enjoy a pool, outdoor grill, and air conditioning among other amenities offered by this rental.
Travelers are sharing their opinions on this property. It has an overall rating of 5/5 thanks to an average of 13 reviews.
Costs vary, with the average weekly rate as low as $2,029.00 to as high as $7,525.00, depending on travel dates.
The owner responds to 75% of inquiries and last updated the property's calendar today.
About the manager
About the manager
Simply Steamboat
Simply Steamboat
- Response rate: 75%
- Response time: Within a day
- Calendar updated: today
Overall rating:
4.9 / 5.0
Proximity to TripAdvisor's Top Steamboat Springs Attractions
Proximity to TripAdvisor's Top Steamboat Springs Attractions
Reviews (13)
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Discussion in 'Detailing - Sponsored by Slim's Detailing' started by the_cueball, Apr 4, 2014.
Just got my RS6 wheels back today...
now to get them cleaned, sealed and back on the car...
Awesome job there! I bet you can't wait to get them on
Had mine done a few weeks ago.
hopefully get mine off next week to go to the powder coaters, going for either silver flake or anthracite flake.
Wow they look shiny!!!
Good job mate
yeah, my man does a decent job for me...
Well, after 2 coats of ceramic sealant and 2 coats of wheel wax...
and a new set of these:
they are back on the car, and I am parking 6ft away from any kerbs!