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Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98
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Part I—An Overview of Projects and Their Effective and Successful Management Chapter 1—Project Management in Today's World of Business
Project Management Defined Classical vs. Behavioral Approaches to Managing Projects The Project Cycle and Tts Phases Project Success or Failure
Chapter 2—A Wedding in Naples: Background Information on Our Case Study
Organizational Structure General Nature of the Business An Opportunity Arises The Initial Process Selection of the Project Manager Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 3—The Qualities of Good Leadership
What Leaders Do When Leadership Falters or Is Missing Are Leaders Born or Made?
Part II—The Basic Functions of Project Management
Chapter 4—The Vision Statement and Motivating for Project Success
Providing the Project Vision Communicating the Vision Keeping People Pocused on the Vision Facilitating and Expediting Performance Motivation to Participate Team Building Team Diversity The Project Manager as a Motivator Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 5—The Statement of Work and the Project Announcement
The Statement of Work Introduction Scope Assumptions Constraints Performance Criteria Product/Service Description Major Responsibilities References Amendments Signatures The Project Announcement Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 6—The Work Breakdown Structure
Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 7—Techniques for Estimating Work Times
The Benefits and Challenges of Estimating Work Times Types of Estimating Techniques Factors to Consider in Drawing Up Estimates
Chapter 8—Schedule Development and the Network Diagram
What Scheduling Is Task Dependencies and Date Scheduling Perry's Scheduling Method The Float Other Types of Network Diagrams The Schedule as a Road Map
Chapter 9—Resource Allocation—Aligning People and Other Resources With Tasks
1. Identify the Tasks Involved 2. Assign Resources to Those Tasks
3. Build a Resource Profile 4. Adjust the Schedule or Pursue Alternatives How Perry Levels the Load Consultants and Outsources Summing Up Resource Allocation
Chapter 10—Team Organization
Ten Prerequisites for Effective Organization Types of Organizational Structure Virtual Teams SWAT Teams Self-Directed Work Teams
Chapter 11—Budget Development and Cost Calculation
Different Kinds of Costs Direct vs. Indirect Costs Recurring vs. Nonrecurring Costs Fixed vs. Variable Costs Burdened vs. Nonburdened Labor Rates Regular vs. Overtime Labor Rates How to Calculate Costs What Happens If Cost Estimates Are Too High? The key: Identifying and Managing Costs Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 12—Risk Management
Managing Risk: A Four-Step Process Exposure Categories of risk Key Concepts in Risk Management Ways to Handle Risk Risk Reporting The Key: Risk Management, Not Elimination
Chapter 13—Project Documentation: Procedures, Forms, Memos, and Such
Procedures Flowcharts Forms Reports Memos Newsletters History files Project Manual The Project Library
Determining the Paper Trail's Length
Chapter 14—Team Dynamics and Successful Interactions
Set Up the Project Office Conduct Meetings Give Effective Presentations Apply Interpersonal Skills Being an Active Listener Reading People Deal With Conflict Effectively Getting Teamwork to Work Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 15—Performance Assessment: Tracking and Monitoring
Collect Status Data Methods of Collection Data Validity and Reliability Assess Status Determining Variance Earned Value Making Performance Assessment Count Questions for Getting Started
Chapter 16—Quality Assessment: Metrics
Introduction to Metrics The Collection and Analysis of Data The Results of Data Analysis Summing Up Quality Assessment
Chapter 17—Managing Changes to the Project
Managing Change Replanning Contingency Planning Summing Up Change Management
Chapter 18—Project Closure
Learning From Past Experience Releasing People and Equipment Recognizing and Rewarding People Some Guidelines for Future Projects Questions for Getting Started
Part III—Project Management Enhancement Chapter 19—Automated Project Management
Personal Computing Systems
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and techniques so that readers can easily understand and apply the material. it's so important that it is the first topic. Plan a project in a way that results in a road map that people will confidently follow. 4. assessing its progress. resulting in greater productivity. and achieving its goals. we present the route to achieving the knowledge and expertise that will help you display excellence in project management. and provides a general look at what constitutes leadership. tools. and dealing with change. provides information on the wedding case study." 6. Kleim and Irwin S. with chapters covering the key issues that face project managers today. At the end of each chapter ----------- . Define a project's goals and objectives so everyone agrees on the results and knows success when they see it. Close a project in a manner so that it lands smoothly rather than crashes. on any type of project in any industry. Control a project so that its momentum and direction are not overtaken by "scope creep. 3. people who display excellence in project management. The book comprises three major parts. Part II is the heart of the volume. We cover such topics as working with new teaming structures and styles. Based on the six functions just listed. Using a wedding-business case study. In this book. 5. not just the project manager. estimating costs. These circumstances call for people who can deal with ambiguity and time pressures while simultaneously accomplishing project goals—in other words. project management will continue to be a highly desired skill in the midst of great change. Starting with Chapter 2. these chapters discuss setting up your project structure. Lead a project throughout its cycle. we present the basic principles. Organize a project in a manner that increases the efficiency and effectiveness of the team. Part I establishes the fundamentals of project management. you'll learn the six basic functions of project management. with an overview of the field today. Because rigid organizational boundaries and responsibilities have blurred and new technologies are changing the ways of doing business. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Preface Well into the swiftly approaching millennium. You'll learn how to: 1.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. 2. results must be delivered more quickly and accurately than ever before. motivating people.
is a series of questions that will help you apply your new knowledge to an existing or upcoming project. . engineering. documentation.. services. construction. The book is based on our combined experience of more than fifty years in business management. The Appendix material refers to the case study. Inc. The authors have applied the principles. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. as well as in other environments. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. operations. we offer products. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Project management works—if you know what it is and how to do it. and telecommunications projects. insurance. support services/help desk. and the References are suggestions for further reading. information systems. and techniques in this book successfully in a wide variety of projects: audit. Part III contains additional tips. Washington. and information systems. of Redmond. tools. the Glossary is a quick reference to special terms. All rights reserved. and training programs designed to meet the special needs of our varied clients. manufacturing. such as how to work with new technologies and how to manage or decrease risk. As the founders and executives of the consulting firm Practical Creative Solutions. you will be able to join the ranks of effective and successful project managers. After reading this book.
and Internet computing) and telecommuting has accelerated the disappearance of organizational boundaries and hierarchical management levels. Companies are always in transition now.. Intranet. Contrary to popular belief. Along with this blurring of organizational levels has come employee empowerment. effective management of an entire spectrum of projects. With this alliance between strategic plan and project management comes an increasingly close but often tense relationship between project and process management. client/server. Such changes add a new . This means the project managers must continually demonstrate their contribution to the bottom line. Employees are no longer offered or seek long-term employment—many people and companies want flexibility or mobility. But failure to effectively manage a key project could cause a malfunction in the core process! This relationship between process and project management also manifests itself in a need to integrate multiple projects when they involve common core processes.g. The nature of today's workforce has changed in many companies..g. a rise in use of distributed systems technology (e.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. integral parts of their strategic plans. Kleim and Irwin S. Many companies view projects as investments. projects become integral players in using and implementing processes. thus requiring even greater integration to ensure such processes are not adversely affected. For example. Many companies now grant employees greater responsibilities and decision-making authority (e. project management and process management are compatible. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Part I An Overview of Projects and Their Effective and Successful Management Chapter 1 Project Management in Today's World of Business The project manager has never had a tougher job. And the changes just don't stop. self-directed work teams). remodeling and reorganizing to meet the latest global challenges. Competition is keen and only the flexible will survive. These business conditions translate directly to the greater demands for efficient.
and many people—as in many change efforts—will resist or embrace change. you still need someone with enough clout to support its introduction. But let's take a closer look at the functions of project management just mentioned. and processes for defining. Here are some steps for introducing project management within an organization. Certainly. Whether defining. No matter what case you can make for project management. It is the only function of project management that occurs simultaneously with the other functions. But it is the skill of the future as well. or controling. Project management is the tools. As the economy continues to expand. and leading a project as it completes its tasks and delivers the results. the great management consultant. requires that a project manager's skills go beyond being able to put together a flowchart. the fundamental tools of project management remain the same regardless of project or industry. Customers not only want a quality product but also want it sooner. has a start and stop date. managing a marketing project requires the same skills as managing a software engineering project. such as by using consultants and outsourcing. It is more critical than ever that the pieces of the project be in place to ensure delivery of the final service on time and within budget and to guarantee that it be of the highest quality. what is required now is excellence in project management if project success is to be the norm. Project Management Defined Despite a changing project environment.dimension to the work being done on a project—a dimension that directly affects relationships and ways of doing business. Identify opportunities for applying project management. operational. Introducing Project Management The top management in some companies does not understand that project management is what is needed. project managers in the past have faced similar problems of providing alternative sources of expertise—but never on as great a scale as they do today. the project manager uses leadership to execute the project efficiently and effectively. That's because project management disciplines will affect many policies. depending on how it is perceived. controlling. 3. The need for managing projects efficiently and effectively has never been greater and so are the rewards for its success. and human resources issues. and processes. for instance. will the risks for failure. techniques. • Lead To inspire the participants to accomplish the goals and objectives at a level that meets or exceeds expectations. The complexity involved in managing projects has never been greater and will likely only grow in the future. Tom Peters. The globalization of the nation's business. Benchmark. Collect data on previous project performance and show statistically and anecdotally how project management would have improved results. organizing. . Each activity. Build an awareness of project management. particularly as a way to solve problems. But having good project management practices in place will no longer suffice. 1. Time-to-market pressures force project managers to be efficient and effective to an unprecedented degree. You can distribute articles and books on the subject and attend meetings sponsored by the Project Management Institute and the American Management Association. was correct when he said that project management is the skill of the 1990s. even a paradigm shift. Find a sponsor. key resources will become limited and project managers will need alternative ways to obtain expertise. How do you convince people that project management will help them? Introducing project management is a change management issue. They will also affect technical. too. and the entire project. 4. too. And many projects now involve people from different occupations and backgrounds. 2. For example. Such changes can be dramatic. organizing. Market pressures complicate the management of projects. procedures. But what is a project? What is project management? A project is a discrete set of activities performed in a logical sequence to attain a specific result. planning. economic. You can compare your organization's experience with projects to that of companies that have used project management. planning. So. Establish a need for project management.
• Control To assess how well a project meets its goals and objectives. and preparing the lessons learned document. allocating resources. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. objectives. This is a document that delineates the above information and is signed by all interested parties. • Organize To orchestrate the resources cost-effectively so as to execute the plan. preparing project documentation. assign who will perform them. releasing people. Communicate the results. scope. Provide consultation on other projects. assessing risk. Planning entails activities such as constructing a work breakdown structure and a schedule for start and completion of the project. Select a project that's not too visible but also one that people care about. and deliverables of a project. All rights reserved. goals. • Close To conclude a project efficiently and effectively. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. With the expertise acquired on your pilot project. and responding to circumstances that can negatively impact the project participants. Avoid taking on too much when introducing the idea of project management. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. apply your knowledge to other projects. 7. and ensuring good communications. and identify their start and completion dates. Organizing involves activities such as forming a team. calculating costs. • Define To determine the overall vision. . Your advice will enable others to see the value of project management. The project serves as a proving ground for your new ideas. • Plan To determine the steps needed to execute a project. A common way to capture this information is with a statement of work. managing changes to baselines.5. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. Controlling involves collecting and assessing status reports. As the project progresses. 6. responsibilities. let management know about its successes and failures. Select a good pilot. Profile the project as a "lessons learned" experience. Closing a project involves compiling statistics.
----------- The Project Cycle and Tts Phases In the classical approach. Each time the cycle completes (reaches closure). This does not mean that the formal tools. and people all play integral roles in the success or failure of a project. plan. Project managers were to define. What worked in the past may not necessarily work in the future. The three elements—cost. This viewpoint is considered the classical approach for managing projects. Do something to one and the other two would be affected. managing a project meant focusing on three key elements of a project: cost. and quality. although project managers perform the same functions. it is quite evident that the behavioral aspects of a project can have an impact on final results. organize. however. While it made sense.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. and principles are less important. In the past. The classical approach emphasized the formal. Managing projects meant building neat organizational charts and highly logical schedules. positively or negatively. The emphasis is shifting toward viewing a project as a total system. Cost. techniques. Recently. Indeed. Behavioral Approaches to Managing Projects The field of project management is currently in transition. schedule. project management was conceived in a linear way. In many cases. Today. Kleim and Irwin S. and interpersonal communications can have as much an effect as a poorly defined schedule or an ill-defined goal. as well as using formal decision-making disciplines. Individual and team motivations. quality. control. schedule. Each element had a direct relationship with the other two. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Classical vs. we view the project manager's role differently. informal power structures. the impact of behavioral problems can be even more dramatic. it is just that they share the stage with behavioral techniques. and quality—gain an added dimension: people. project management has taken a more behavioral approach. precisely because the world of business has changed. it begins again. we perceive their performance not in a linear context but in a cyclical one. and close—in that order. . or was at least formally portrayed that way. This system perspective emphasizes the human aspects of a project as much as the structural ones. structural aspects. the reality was usually something else. requiring the reinstitution or refinement of the functions that were used in a previous cycle. schedule. as shown in Exhibit 1-1. or subsystem operating within a system.
procedures. or subsystems. At this point. or unrealistic expectations. Such behavioral factors are frequently recognized as having as much importance for project success. During the concept phase. of course. companies adopt simplistic. a work breakdown structure. disequilibrium can result in project failure. Energy is expended to achieve the goals and objectives of the project in the manner prescribed during the formulation phase. it becomes easier to understand the impact of a 10 percent budget cut on each element of a project. A conflict between project and system can result in disequilibrium. If left unmanaged. there's pressure to accelerate the project cycle without sacrificing quality. as shown in Exhibit 1-2. and schedules. poor customer commitment. low morale. policies. this function occurs throughout the project life cycle and plays a prominent role in each iteration of the cycle. But. a work breakdown structure. Then. some of which are dependent upon and interact with related elements in the larger business system. to building a new product or delivering a new service.Exhibit 1-1. the complete project plans are developed. reuse. enable such fast-tracking to become possible and prevalent. the idea of a project arises and preliminary cost and schedule estimates are developed at a high level to determine if the project not only is technically feasible but also will have a payback.g. such as a computing system or a building. as well as more sophisticated tools (e. the project manager can see how all the elements interact. failure of a project is increasingly seen as a result of bad behavioral circumstances—for example. Project Success or Failure Projects. meaning they proceed quickly. in the installation phase. As noted earlier. In the formulation phase. in-systems development) for building products. or a schedule. or controlling the project in a step-by-step manner. Exhibit 1-3 shows some common reasons for project success or failure. lack of vision. The implementation phase is when the plan is executed. In many cases. For example. as mentioned earlier. Notice the word lead in the middle of the cycle. and requirements. Many projects are on the fast track. Each project has or uses elements such as processes. the view was that failure resulted from not adequately defining. is under the customer's control and an infrastructure exists to maintain and enhance the product. the final product is delivered to the customer. they overlap. considerable training and administrative support are provided to "please the customer. Component-based manufacturing." The sustaining phase covers the time the product. for example. But by taking a systems perspective. They are parts. participants. . organizing. In today's fast-paced environment. So what types of disequilibrium make a project a success or failure? In the past. The typical project cycle consists of phases that result in output. These plans often include a statement of work. it is easier to identify potential project failure by recognizing the disequilibrium. of much bigger systems called businesses. partly owing to time-to-market pressures and partly to a rapidly changing business environment. no buymin from people doing the work. planning. Sometimes these phases occur linearly. a project's failure was attributed to not having an adequate statement of work. modular approaches Exhibit 1-2. and just-in-time delivery. as a well-defined work breakdown structure. More important. are not operated in a vacuum. Functions of project management. It is the center—focus—to ensure that each function occurs efficiently and effectively.. and assess the impact on the individual project. Phases of project management. other times. To accommodate that acceleration. Still other times they occur in a spiral.
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team members. see Exhibit 1-4.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. of course. and senior management. you will learn how to apply the basic functions of project management throughout the cycle of a typical project. At the end of each chapter is a set of questions you can answer on your own to help you apply the principles and techniques that you have learned. 14. And the effectiveness of the feedback loop depends on a constant flow of quality information among the project manager. Chapters 4 through 17 will walk you through the process. Exhibit 1-3. So begin now. and the project the company is about to launch. To do that requires maintaining a feedback loop throughout the project cycle. We'll discuss this in greater depth in Chapters 13. by meeting the CEO of Great Weddings. Kleim and Irwin S. Based on the case study presented in the next chapter. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title The key. Reasons for Project Failures Classical Ill-defined work breakdown structure High-level schedule No reporting infrastructure Too pessimistic or optimistic estimates No change management discipline Inadequate formal communications Inefficient allocation of resources No accountability and responsibility for results Behavioral Inappropriate leadership style No common vision Unrealistic expectations Poor informal communications and interpersonal relationships No "buy-in" or commitment from customer or people doing work Low morale Lack of training Poor teaming ----------- . is being able to recognize if and when projects start to fail. showing the major assessments and decisions to be made. Reasons for project failures and successes. the customer. and 19. Inc..
Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. or too short time frame Culture not conducive to project management Lack of trust among participants False or unrealistic expectations No or weak executive sponsorship Mediocre knowledge transfer Reasons for Project Successes Classical Well-defined goals and objectives Detailed work breakdown structure Clear reporting relationships Formal change management disciplines in place Channels of communication exist Adherence to scope Reliable estimating Reliable monitoring and tracking techniques Clear requirements Reasonable time frame Broad distribution of work Behavioral Agreement over goals and objectives Commitment to achieving goals and objectives High morale Good teaming Cooperation among all participants Receptivity to positive and negative feedback Receptive culture to project management Realistic expectations Good conflict resolution Executive sponsorship Good customer-supplier relationship Exhibit 1-4. . Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Feedback loop. too long.Poor role definition Inadequacy of tools Ill-defined scope Unclear requirements Too high. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. All rights reserved.
relatives. located in New York City. Inc. The organizational structure of GWI is shown in Exhibit 2-1. and newspapers. it might have to reduce services. worse. the business could stagnate—or. It is a model situation around which we have built our guidelines for effective and successful project management. providing prewedding parties and rehearsals (e. GWI provides wedding services in fourteen states. bachelor parties and bridal showers). provides a full line of wedding services: sending announcements to friends.. In 1997. Great Weddings. its revenue was $5 million after it was in business for seven years. Amelia Rainbow is president and CEO of GWI. photography and videotaping. lighting. Growth for the business has been slowing in recent years. music. All weddings are managed out of its corporate headquarters in New York City. flowers. Kleim and Irwin S. using the functions of leading. controlling. entertainment. planning. food and beverages.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. defining. providing wedding attire. arranging for travel and hotel accommodations. sound. If this trend continues. Each department has a corporate staff reporting to her. determining the ceremony and reception locations.g. preparing and mailing invitations. . (GWI). decorations and props. and she holds 100 percent of the stock. and preparing the wedding feast and cake. which is privately owned. and closing. organizing. from 10 percent annually three years ago to 2 percent this year. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Chapter 2 A Wedding in Naples: Background Information on Our Case Study Here is the case study that forms the backbone of this handbook. Organizational Structure Amelia Rainbow has several department heads at vice-presidential levels reporting to her. coordinating wedding transportation.
and cost..g.General Nature of the Business GWI frequently receives solicitations for proposals.g. High costs and levels of effort are necessary to prepare and respond to it..g. lump sum. And a request for proposal is a detailed. what. A proposal request is a formal document sent to potential vendors. as well as the terms and conditions of the contract. fixed price) • Warranties There are three types of proposal requests: letter request. management. It does not require the vendor to provide any services or render any commitments..g. request for information. and request for proposal. The major difference among them is the level of effort and resources needed for a response and commitment upon notification of winning the contract. A letter request briefly conveys the needs of the client. and how for meeting the proposal's request.. names of subcontractors and experience/expertise) The cost component includes: • Cost for subcontract work (e. . complex contract opportunity. It often precedes an opportunity to respond to a request for proposal. levels of acceptance) • Technical approach The management component includes: • Background • Facilities • Legal/contracts • Operating plan • Organizational structure • Project management methodology/approach • Program/project plan (to achieve goals and objectives) • Résumé of cadre (key) personnel • Resource allocation • Schedule • Statement of work • Subcontract work (e. A request for information usually seeks clarification about specific areas of technology. The technical component includes: • Vendor's experience/expertise with similar projects • List of equipment • Photographs of end products • Services Exhibit 2-1. when. It states the requirements and expectations of the client. equipment rental) • Options • Payment schedule • Price breakout (for services and products) • Taxes • Type of contract (e. A reply to a proposal request provides vendors with the opportunity to describe the who. labor rates. A proposal has three major components: technical. where. • Standards (e. GWI organizational chart. These requests are for weddings of all sizes and religions.
The wedding. which is a wedding. It has definite start and stop dates. the idea catches on—people and other resources will be returned to "normal" business life.g.An Opportunity Arises One day. The wedding itself has all the criteria for being a project. If a project requires a person with good people skills. The next issue for Amelia to address is to determine at what hierarchical level within the company the project should be placed and what its most appropriate structure is. where they fell in love with the city. What Type of Project Manager Are You? In Corporate Pathfinders (New York: Penguin Books. who accompanied the family on their Naples trip. Amelia knows. If a project requires trouble fixing or hard logical analysis (e. a wealthy American family. A key characteristic is reliance on human emotions and persuasion. Within a week. After carefully reviewing its contents. Dave and his team verify that the wedding will support the strategic plan. The internal review team consists of people with finance. The Smythes recently returned from a two-week trip to Naples. although they stretch the company to the limits. 1. Such a wedding would be unprecedented. they perform an assessment to determine the risks that GWI might face if it takes on the project and what measures to employ to prevent or mitigate those risks. Next. meaning that hiring more staff now might mean later laying off people or absorbing costs that could hurt GWI in the future. Italy. One criterion is to give the project as much visibility as possible. defining requirements and specifications). Once the wedding is over—unless. The Initial Process Prior to responding to the wedding request. GWI receives a request to host a large wedding from the Smythes. she knows. then an implementer would be the best choice. she receives notification that GWI has won the contract with the Smythe family. Amelia also recognizes that this wedding must be treated more carefully than most because of its high visibility and the amount of money being spent. She wants to communicate its priority. A key characteristic is the importance placed on values and beliefs. Everyone has agreed to hold the wedding in Naples. John Hankle. It has a sequence of activities that are required to make the wedding a reality. 1987). the proposal is available for Amelia's signature.. The entire wedding will also be competing with other ongoing wedding activities. legal. Their oldest daughter. The manager who is an implementer emphasizes the use of action through people. Amelia realizes that she has no choice but to use the existing infrastructure to handle such an unprecedented project. Dave Renberg. The manager who is a problem solver emphasizes the use of reasoning. logic. then choose a pathfinder as leader. With other wedding projects occurring simultaneously. Amelia recognizes that the wedding could provide the opportunity to open up a niche that GWI had until now not tapped—American wedding firms providing services in other countries. 3. however. She appoints a proposal manager. Dave forms a team of wedding experts and a technical writer. After several iterations. then a problem solver would make the best choice. Such weddings. The team is then ready for the next step: prepare the proposal. it is temporary. and analysis. Karen. If a project requires vision. it is easy to forget this priority. and pathfinders. implementers. that it will enable GWI to avoid stagnation and grow in a highly competitive industry. After the team completes the first draft. Harold J. too. 2. Then they conduct an internal assessment to determine whether GWI has the capabilities to support the project and it does. Dave establishes an internal review team to critique the proposal. Previous Table of Contents Next . are considered unprecedented opportunities. The manager who is a pathfinder emphasizes the use of visioning. is an excellent candidate for applying solid project management disciplines. both in location and in size. GWI finds it has the capabilities to respond to the risks. of course. also recently accepted a marriage proposal from her longtime boyfriend. A key characteristic is reliance on facts and data. Finally. Amelia forms a proposal team to develop the response. Amelia signs the proposal. It has a defined product. Leavitt identifies three types of managers in an organizational setting: problem solvers. and wedding backgrounds.
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Amelia does. ----------- Exhibit 2-2. many qualified people can do the mechanics of project management. the need for supporting existing weddings. value. See Exhibit 2-3 for a comparison of these structure types. Kleim and Irwin S. The steering committee will have a dotted-line relationship to Amelia. the resources must be borrowed from other organizations until the demand for this type of wedding increases in number. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title She decides to establish a steering committee to oversee the overall performance of the project. This structure involves assigning people as dedicated members to a project—meaning they support no other project. While completing the Smythe Project. The shortage of skills. as shown in Exhibit 2-2. After all. which in turn means layoffs later on. or their representatives. After making a few mistakes in the past. The matrix structure enables her to tape the expertise of functional groups and use people on a temporary basis. but not everyone is a project leader. The purposes of the steering committee are to provide general oversight of and guidance to the project. and the temporary and risky nature of the project make the matrix structure the most appropriate selection. She realizes. Amelia has learned that the technically competent person is not necessarily a competent project leader.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. and longevity. That's why she looks first and foremost at the leadership qualities of the person. Although the project manager would be at the vice-presidential level. that a task force structure would grant the project more visibility and autonomy. This steering committee will consist of all the vice-presidents. Organizational placement of Smythe Project. though. consider a task force structure for the project. they could also support other wedding projects. Selection of the Project Manager The final initial step is to select the right person to serve as project manager. Amelia next decides to adopt a matrix structure for the project itself. That would require removing people from other important projects and hiring replacements. however. A person may have the best logical and analytical mind in the group . with Sam Herkle of Quality as chair. Amelia recognizes the importance of selecting the right person—his or her qualities have a direct impact on the outcome of the wedding.
Task vs. and quality • Legal affairs • Organizational . Task Structure Advantages • • • • • Autonomous Dedicated resources Greater control over people Greater decision-making authority High visibility Matrix Structure Advantages • Access to expertise not ordinarily available • Flexibility in adopting to changing circumstances • Less idle time for team members • Fewer morale problems as project concludes Disadvantages • • • • • Conflict with other projects of higher priority High stress due to conflicting demands Less autonomy Less control over people Less decision-making authority Disadvantages • Impacted by turnover • Less flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances • Threat to morale as project winds down • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Active listening Business orientation Coaching Communication Conflict resolution Cross-functional thinking Customer orientation Delegation Diversity orientation Facilitation Interviewing Mediation Meetings management Negotiation Networking Political savvy Power of persuasion Priority setting Sensitivity Successful delivery of product Team building Time management Of course. and team members). it is important that that person have good "people skills. she also recognizes the need for additional skills: • Communications (writing and public speaking) • Computer literacy • Knowledge of human resource management. senior management. matrix structure. procurement. Because the project manager must interact with many people (such as sponsors." These skills include: Exhibit 2-3.and yet lack the qualities that lead a project to a successful conclusion. client.
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Amelia recognizes that the project manager must have certain personality characteristics: • Analytical • Can deal with uncertainty and ambiguity • Conceptual • Creative • Delivers a product or service • Exhibits courage • Facilitates • Flexible and adaptable • Has high ethical standards • Has self-confidence • Has self-control • Innovative • Looks at the overall picture • Maintains accountability • Maintains credibility • Makes decisions • Mediates • Remains open-minded • Self-reliant and independent • Solves problems • Stays focused • Takes risks • Trustworthy • Understands legal matters • Willing to change and provide recognition .Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Finally. Kleim and Irwin S.
Project managers usually have little coercive power in an overt sense. Still. These project managers have certain characteristics that make people want to follow them. From a nonmonetary perspective. then move on to Chapter 3. Can you facilitate and expedite their performance? 10. they can reward people by assigning them to high-visibility tasks. they may not assign certain people to coveted tasks. be able to communicate effectively. However. • Coercive power uses fear as a primary tool. How will you provide a vision of what the project is to achieve? 6. What soft skills will you need to lead your project? Do you know what areas to improve upon? 3. provide a vision of what the project is to achieve. especially if they have the political support of a powerful senior manager. Each applies to varying extents to the project manager. they are not as powerless as they think. five different sources of power exist. however. and establishing the responsibility for project management. or education. How will you ensure that people stay focused on the vision? 8. such as hiring and firing. lack this power—they must use other power sources. especially in a matrix environment. failing to see the big picture and working on other key areas. What hard skills will you need to lead your project? Do you know what areas to improve upon? 4. In the end. The only problem is that project managers often become narrowly focused. • Referent power is based on trait theory—that is. Project managers. where the qualities of project leadership are considered from a broad perspective. as well as involve them in the decision-making process. What ideas do you have for leading groups of people? Previous Table of Contents Next . Amelia selects Perry Fitzberg as the project manager. It involves inflicting punishment. Review the following questions. Do you communicate effectively? 7. An example of such a trait is charisma. According to management theorists John French and Bertram Raven. ensure that people stay focused on the vision. • Expert power is based on a person's knowledge credentials. they have some legitimate power. At this point. In addition. Project managers often feel powerless because they lack the powers of functional managers. and facilitate and expedite performance. not invite them to meetings. you have seen the initial steps taken by senior management in assessing the worth of the project. While true. Do you have ideas for motivating people to participate? 9. After conversations with executives on the steering committee and after reviewing the performance records of prospective candidates. Most project managers lack the power to use monetary incentives. Project managers are often chosen for these characteristics and they gain considerable power in this regard. such power allows managers to "order" people with the full backing of the institution. • Legitimate power is the authority granted by the institution. Questions for Getting Started 1. which in turn provides a basis for determining salary increases. a person's characteristics.The Power of the Project Manager Power is often defined as the ability to influence key players in the decision-making process to achieve a goal. power means getting what one wants. On a more subtle level. • Reward power uses positive financial and nonmonetary tools. she wants someone who can lead groups of people as well as individuals. In other words. What type of organizational structure does your project have? Is it task force? Matrix? 2. In other words. or not communicate with them. they have power only as long as people respect those characteristics. they can provide feedback to functional managers on performance. expertise. evaluating its prospects for success. Project managers can also pay for training and dispense other perks. What aspects of your personality will prove useful in leading your project? Do you know what aspects to improve upon? 5. motivate people to participate.
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leadership is dynamic rather than static.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. control. Flexibility and adaptability are two characteristics of good leadership. which is the vision. but today the two are distinct roles. each with its own characteristics. While such activities are important and must be done. Leadership. Contemporary leadership theories and practices emphasize the people side. thereby increasing project efficiency and effectiveness. and it embraces the future rather than preserves the status quo. fuller understanding of the concept.. judgments are based on the big picture. In other words. The leader also helps align people and other resources to focus on achieving results. That way. "reading" people to . By developing a vision and goals. It involves looking at the present and determining the steps to move on to some desired future state (e. Rather than debate a definition of leadership. the emphasis is on what and why rather than how. you can come around to a better. and sequential—that is. and budget. Leadership embraces change. the project leader gives the team a sense of purpose. project leadership goes beyond those functions. "What are we doing? Is that the only way to do it? Can we do it better?" Questioning the status quo is characteristic of leadership. Leadership means the ability to motivate. it's more than simply applying the mental thought processes originating in the left side of the brain. It requires viewing a constantly changing environment while pursuing the vision. analytical. and roles if they will more efficiently and effectively help attain the vision. a vision buttressed with meaningful goals that serve as guideposts). Kleim and Irwin S. requires being results-oriented. The term was once confused with management. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 3 The Qualities of Good Leadership Our concept of leadership has evolved over the years. Consequently. ----------- What Leaders Do It is increasingly clear that leaders do more than plan. This emphasis on change therefore requires a willingness to adopt new processes. Thus. coordinate. Leadership takes on a holistic perspective by including the "people side" in project management. At all times. It requires constantly asking. not surprisingly. organize. leadership involves more than being logical. procedures. Leadership entails active listening techniques in conflict management. it is advantageous to discuss what leaders do.g.
They know that the leader must inspire the team to accomplish goals and objectives at a level that meets. It means being open and honest at all times—that is. not negative. With all these players. are over. Communication is not just giving effective presentations. But being a project manager has never been harder. They build cohesive teams that have synergy.." all in an effort to attain the vision. and "thinking outside the box. Leaders build an atmosphere of trust and mutual support. An experienced team member or project manager only has to work once on a project to understand the difference between a project with leadership and one without it. laying the groundwork for creativity. in a constantly changing environment. confidently. leadership involves a willingness to take smart. The days of managing the team with "thou shalts.g. and in a highly committed way. coaching. They secure the resources. the project becomes quixotic. They can maneuver through the "halls of power.. leaders put the customer first. Finally. and interact with the customer to ensure satisfaction of all requirements and specifications. Leaders look for better ways not only to conduct business but also to take action." It requires communicating laterally and vertically in a manner that is open and engenders trust. and facilitating performance. In addition." network with key players. It implies delegating. empowering. negotiating through open communication. They remove obstacles to performance. Thus. That is not as simple as it sounds. The people to be inspired are not just the ones working directly on the project. building trust. tastes. not create them. creating an atmosphere of trust. It means keeping the vision in the forefront of everyone's mind by continually asking the question. even exceeds. . From a motivational perspective. customer and senior management) and those who support the project for a short period of time (e. They strive to understand everything about the customer—for example. All rights reserved. it is also listening to the "want to hears" and the "need to hears. way. they can be political if it furthers the interests of the project. effective leadership is critical. Here." with the support of a clearly designed organizational structure and rational. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. They are also the ones whom the leader reports to (e. leadership is getting people to perform enthusiastically. and across the chain of command. Good project managers know the value of exercising effective leadership throughout the project cycle. needs. to ensure credibility and trustworthiness up. contract employees and consultants). However.understand their messages and motives. handling diversity (people from different cultures and disciplines). "How will this help to achieve the vision?" That translates to being results-oriented and aligning responses and processes in a focused. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. The customer is king and drives the vision. and relevant market conditions. Leaders help people do their jobs in a positive. they do more. where hidden agendas and dishonesty have no place. Team members share information and other resources in a way that encourages cross-functional participation. without that focus on the vision. Leadership involves communicating. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. They embrace ambiguity and complexity in a manner that fosters innovative ideas and solutions to achieve the vision.g. logical discipline. All decisions and behaviors are of the highest ethical standards. too. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. When Leadership Falters or Is Missing Leadership encourages greater productivity. calculated risks. disciplined manner. leadership means facilitating rather than impeding performance. emphasizing relational rather than hierarchical interactions and directing team energy toward achieving the vision. down. expectations. Leadership requires a constancy of purpose.
indeed more so. studies have shown that soft skills can prove as critical. While expertise is important. There is a failure to distinguish between project leadership and project management. it rarely is seen on some projects. 6. 1. control very little. solely on technical issues or on the schedule at the expense of more important areas. smothering it with attention. There is a tendency to emphasize hard rather than soft skills. There is a tendency to select people solely for their technical expertise. as many experienced project managers know. There is a tendency by senior management to micromanage a project. to delegate. Often. such as building a schedule. It starts at the beginning and continues throughout the project cycle. There is a failure to recognize that leadership is ongoing. to have approval from senior management. a person selected for his or her technical expertise relies on that quality at the expense of the project. constantly changing environment. Kleim and Irwin S. even the smallest. Project management deals with the mechanics of managing a project. That is. Such an oppressive atmosphere makes it impossible to exercise project leadership. ensuring that people focus on the vision. (See box on page 25. They eventually start to overcontrol and in the end. thereby killing any initiative by the project manager or the team. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Although leadership is important for a project. There is a tendency to select project managers based on the FBI (Friends. many project managers seek security by grabbing on to a small piece rather than looking at the big picture.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. They may focus. In a complex. 7. managers tend to forget about . 8. it is a mistake to assume that expertise is equivalent to leadership. increasingly recognized as subordinate to other qualities. who may or may not have the attributes of a project leader. Hard skills are scheduling and statistical analysis. even themselves. Brothers. and are worth noting. in a project's success. and In-laws) principle. They fail." Yet time and again. they try to do everything themselves and be all things to all people. for example. Leadership goes beyond technical prowess. They treat the project as a pet. for example. The reasons for this are many. 5. project leadership deals with much bigger issues—for example. 4. Senior managers often select people they like or who are like themselves. It is not uncommon for project managers of technical projects to disparagingly refer to soft skills as "touchy-feely. There is a tendency to be heroic. Yet especially with long-term projects. 2.) 3. An example is requiring any action. There is a tendency to wear blinders. soft skills are active listening and writing.
constructing schedules. the contemporary viewpoint is that managers in general and project managers in particular stress people rather than task completion. Basically. too much emphasis on image can have deleterious effects as the underlying problems persist and become more acute. and closing a project depends largely on how well project leadership is exhibited. repetitive problems with the quality of output. means going beyond the mechanics of managing a project. and personal behavior theories. The output from defining. or a combination of two or more. and closing a project. But it would be a mistake to assume that project leadership is secondary to project management. physical features. 10. planning. depending on the circumstances. So if you are currently a project manager—or strive to become one—keep the leadership qualities discussed in this chapter foremost in your mind. Typical leadership styles are either task or people centered and. although most management experts believe that leaders are made rather than born. client. 3. Project managers must gain and retain the confidence of myriad players. 9. team. Regardless of approach. situational contingency theories. there are three theories of leadership: trait theories. of course. and techniques needed for defining. While looking good has its immediate advantages. It is. Of course. Are Leaders Born or Made? For a long time. Some managers stress the people side while others emphasize the mission. Situational contingency theorists deal with different leadership styles under varying circumstances. Previous Table of Contents Next . There is a tendency to ignore or not recognize the indicators of poor leadership. there's a high correlation between problems in leadership and those in performance. such as building a work breakdown structure. Without solid leadership. in many ways. and constant slippage of major milestone dates. Project leadership. internal motivations. Trait theorists say that people contain characteristics that make them leaders. or managing change. organizing. The issue remains relatively unsettled. It calls for inspiring all players to accomplish the goals and objectives in a manner that meets or exceeds expectations. Personal behavior theorists deal with views on how leaders perceive people and their role in an organization. The latter discusses how to learn from past mistakes so that future projects will have successful outcomes. These indicators include a high turnover or absenteeism rate among team members. and senior management. 2. one style is preferable to another. however. successful project leader. these indicators may reflect other problems. Project Leadership Is there a difference between project management and project leadership? Project management uses the tools. There is a tendency toward window dressing rather than dealing with substantive issues. people have debated whether leaders were born or made. controlling. leading. including the project sponsor. that you will avoid these pitfalls and become an effective. planning. the glue that holds the other functions together. Part II begins with the initial steps of project management and concludes with a chapter on closure. substantive issues probe the root causes. knowledge. yet achieved less than satisfactory results. Project leadership is the only function that occurs throughout the project cycle. to be a subset of project management. 1. Project Management vs. It is our hope. Project leadership appears. These characteristics could be based on personality. organizing. controlling. then. Industries are replete with examples of projects that had well-defined plans and plenty of financial support. performance of the other functions will be marginal at best.inspiring people and their leadership assumes a posture of benign neglect. therefore. Window dressing concentrates on images.
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Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Part II The Basic Functions of Project Management Chapter 4 The Vision Statement and Motivating for Project Success Perry Fitzberg. He used several sources to draft the statement. and can feel a sense of commitment to. can relate to. one at a time. It is often a high-level statement supported by a list of goals and objectives. Communicate that vision to all involved. including the minutes of meetings and the formal contract with the customer. Perry knows that the vision should be clear. Motivate people to participate in the project. 4. concise. and direct. 5. Build an effective team. Facilitate and expedite performance. To . 3. Ensure that everyone stays focused on that vision. ----------- Providing the Project Vision From a project management perspective. expressed in a form that everyone understands. 2. knows all too well that leadership involves more than just building schedules and calculating budgets. newly appointed manager for GWI's Smythe Project. Perry also knows that the vision statement will require commitment by people working directly and indirectly on the project. Kleim and Irwin S. The vision is essentially an idea of some desired end state. 6. the vision describes what the project is to achieve. Provide a vision of what the project is to achieve. As project manager it will be his job to: 1. But let's examine each of these points.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L.
The vision statement is the yardstick against which performance can be judged. which are important to state here. He will post it on the project's Web site. although he wants everyone to do the same. And there are several ways he can ensure that people stay focused. encourages raising important questions. Chapters 15 and 16 will describe methods for data collection. Therefore. Vision statement. If they become distracted the likelihood increases for the schedule to slide. 2. He obtains help from team players to validate his assessments. "Mapping" becomes easier because everyone knows what perspective to take. Communicating the Vision A vision statement is worthless. Perry does not do this alone. But the challenges of communication are many. identifying likely risks and ways to respond. unintentional expansion of the project's boundaries. it helps build a sense of community. He ensures that the right people receive the statement at the right time. It determines the importance of questions that arise during the project. Exhibit 4-1. activity. Making the vision statement public has obvious benefits. and controlled from the perspective of that vision. questions will arise about performance. may restrict how the vision statement is received. 6. Throughout the project cycle. Perry takes the lead in asking whether each process. "pockets of resistance" exist. values. and possibly addresses communciation problems before they can negatively impact the project. What is important and what is not must always be clear. 4. reflecting nonacceptance of the vision. and 19 have additional information on communciation. 14. 5. All subsequent activities are planned. tracking past performance and projecting the future. unless other people know about it. The vision statement provides a basis for evaluating performance. . For example. Essentially it is the criterion for decision making. He continually raises the issue of direction. (Chapters 13. The vision statement empowers. or action will achieve the vision. Of course. which all attendees will talk about for years to come and which will bring joy and happiness to the families of the newlyweds. 3. It provides a basis for managing the project. helping to avoid "scope creep. either intentionally or inadvertently. instituting change management disciplines. He will conduct information-sharing sessions or give presentations. negative comments) or overt (vocalizing opposition). beliefs. Another challenge is to cut through the layers of bureaucracy. It clearly formulates in people's minds what the project is to achieve. Organizational layers may filter or alter the message. Keeping People Pocused on the Vision Perry realizes that it is easy to get sidetracked—that is. This helps generate commitment. and collecting and evaluating measurements and metrics on quality. such as collecting and evaluating data regarding schedule and budget. it communicates the scope of the project. it gives people a sense of the scope of the project. organized. and attitudes. and the output to be inferior. it gives people a means for independent judgment. That resistance might be covert (subtle. As project manager. there's less chance for ambiguity as people understand the importance of their activities. It establishes the groundwork for effective communication via a common language and mental framework.engender this commitment. He'll provide a copy for each project manual and reiterate it at training sessions and other meetings. Finally. Since a vision statement describes what the project is to achieve. Also. Perry widely distributes the statement. Smythe Project Vision Statement Provide a wedding with the grandest of flair. People tend to filter or slant the message. of course. A vision statement is the tool to help answer those questions. Having a vision statement at the outset offers several advantages: 1. to lose sight of the vision while "fighting fires. So Perry will publish the vision statement in a house newsletter. for example." He is concerned about not letting those fires distract him or the team. In other words. he solicits feedback to make revisions where appropriate. the project to overrun the budget. It bridges the communications gap.) The key is to ensure the vision statement is brought to everyone's attention. Mental paradigms." that is. Exhibit 4-1 is his vision statement for the Smythe Project.
g. performance will suffer.. wants to facilitate rather than impede performance. albeit revolutionary. and to handle the political aspects of the project (e. it has become quite clear that scientific management. Motivation deals with the internal conditions that encourage people to act or not to act. the mystery of human behavior remains. Perry. He relied on identifying the most efficient tasks to perform a job. a major contributor to the development of the concept of scientific management.g. there are many theories that work most of the time. other motivational therories have been developed. Perry does not address every problem or obstacle that confronts the team. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. and have proved useful for project managers like Perry. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. project managers can frustrate or facilitate the performance of team members.. Motivation to Participate Perry understands that. But since Taylor. to ensure the availability of the right tools (e. Perry must have insight into human behavior and direct it toward achieving the vision. He strives to eliminate physical distractions (e. and management relied solely on financial motivations. interference in daily activities by senior management). They face obstacles and frustrations. But he determines what is important.g.Facilitating and Expediting Performance Most project teams do not operate in a vacuum. had negative motivational consequences. From a managerial perspective. Work often became meaningless and highly routine. telecommunication equipment and software).. training people to do them. developing standards to measure performance. In addition. computing paperwork). of course. From Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung to contemporary practitioners. the project does not exist. noisy equipment). Over the years. He faces constraints on his power.. The best workers—the ones meeting or exceeding the standard—received the best pay. in light of whether it affects the achievement of the vision. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. He also knows that without motivated people. such as not having the right equipment or having to deal with bureaucratic politics. and separating tasks between management and workers. It is a complex process that remains intriguing to psychologists and layman alike. . without people. yet he refuses to take a "dying cockroach" position. All rights reserved. but not always. Credit for the birth of motivational theory largely falls to Frederick Taylor. despite growth in our knowledge. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.g. To motivate his team. to shield the team from administrative red tape (e.
policies. and water. Kleim and Irwin S. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another popular motivational theory. If a manager combines the two. in the following order: physiological. they will negatively impact motivation. Hence. Employee-centered supervisors are people-oriented. Each need must be satisfied sequentially. According to David C. they tend to be autocratic in their style. recognition. and work conditions. Motivational factors are satisfiers. if the rewards and conditions are right. self-esteem. sex. the degree just varies from person to person. Self-actualization needs include realizing one's fun potential. According to this. safety. Safety needs include psychological and physical security. Motivational factors include opportunities for achievement. there's a greater the probability of achieving successful results.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. and self-actualization. Managers believe people dislike work. The Theory X style of management involves taking a negative view of human nature. love/belongingness. According to this. they will select the appropriate behavior that promises the highest probability of success. Self-esteem needs include feeling good and confident about oneself. Production-centered supervisors are task-oriented. Maintenance factors include pay. will avoid it. maybe even coercion. meaning that if not present to a sufficient degree. close oversight is unnecessary. motivation depends on whether people place much value on a goal. Physiological needs are ones like food. and advancement. Victor Vroom developed another theory of motivation based on an individual's goal and the influence different behaviors have in achieving that goal. Maintenance factors are dissatisfiers. Other motivational theories are more narrowly focused. accept little or no responsibility. Love/belongingness needs include social acceptability. Motivational theories have laid the foundation for managerial theories. If people feel a goal is important. will commit themselves to their jobs and take on responsibility—consequently. people are motivated by five fundamental needs. they will positively impact performance. McClelland's n Ach theory. They treat people as instruments of production and intervene on how to perform the work. One of those is Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. people are motivated via maintenance (hygiene) or motivational factors (motivators). He found that this need was influenced by the expectation of success and the likelihood of reward. meaning that if addressed. and consequently need close oversight. They grant autonomy to people when . people have a need to achieve. Research known as the Michigan studies has revealed two types of supervisory styles that can affect motivation: production and employee-centered. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- One is Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation. But Theory Y takes a positive view of human nature. Managers believe people like work and.
and the availability of time and other resources. performance. importance of the task. It increases the level of effort and challenge. Perry must know the people on the project. expertise. Applying all three tools requires careful consideration. learning curve. Only then can he motivate by satisfying the WIIFM (What's In It For Me) syndrome. Perry knows that some people are a mismatch for certain tasks. The work piles up and the schedule slides. Job enrichment entails structuring or assessing tasks and responsibilities to give people the opportunity to actualize. The results are frequently poor because they assume too much work. Perry uses some powerful motivational tools: Delegation Because some project managers feel powerless (e. Project managers. Enlargement. talents. Perry knows a powerful way to build commitment is through participation. The answer. must be sensitive to this shift because they often lack command and control.performing tasks. He must also consider nonbehavioral factors such as the availability of time. Some may not be gregarious enough to perform .. If lacking. by holding one-on-one sessions. then people will not care about the results. and schedules. Participation Commitment is important to a project's success. One type of interaction is through the performance of tasks. as Perry knows. A reluctance to delegate often indicates lack of confidence in oneself or the delegate. To do that. Perry recognizes that the trend in managing people is increasingly to emphasize the people side. take a positive view of the capabilities and talents of subordinates. Personal Goal Attainment People have different goals—money.g. he looks at the nature and importance of the tasks. power. and impact to quality. Participation means obtaining input or feedback prior to making a decision. Perry accomplishes that by getting feedback on the statement of work. Personality/Task Match Personality is the composite of characteristics that constitute a person's behavior. Perry must ponder the personality. Participation breeds emotional commitment to the outcome. they equate that with a loss of control and to compensate. especially. Job rotation. They must rely on positive motivation to have people perform tasks and must understand how their own behavior affects that of others. What Perry hopes to achieve is to maximize output by matching effort. Job enlargement involves increasing the number of tasks and responsibilities to perform. cost. Keeping the above theories in mind. and knowledge of each individual. The studies found that employee-centered supervisors generally achieve the best performance. they lack command and control over people). A dramatic shift has occurred away from being task or mission oriented and toward taking a behaviorist approach. and tend to be democratic in their style. the capabilities and personality of the individuals. To ensure that he delegates work correctly. or physical surroundings—but Perry must identify the reason each person is working on the Smythe Project. estimates. It manifests itself through comments like "I can do a better job myself. do many tasks themselves. Delegating is having one person act on behalf of another. and Enrichment Job rotation entails moving people from one job to another to increase their overall awareness or exposure. How people interact with their environment reflects their personality. reviewing of personnel documentation (résumés). too. It is useful for inculcating a generalist background and providing a "bit picture" viewpoint. This means relinquishing authority to perform the work but not necessarily the responsibility or accountability for the results." Perry is a practical person who knows that delegation can have negative consequences. This knowledge will help him satisfy a person's expectations while simultaneously achieving the overall goals of the project. and personal familiarization. is to delegate. and getting participation at meetings. and project goals.
but not impossible to complete. autonomy. intelligence. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. A mismatch between personality and task can negatively impact project performance. he also considers the complexity of the task. he looks at the track record. From a structural perspective. and scope. self-confidence. Recognition must be done carefully. Recognition Many people want to stand out. training. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. All rights reserved. repetitive tasks that involve methodical detail.tasks involving social interaction. others lack the personality to deal with routine. To avoid such results. or aptitude. quality can suffer. morale and esprit de corps can plummet. fair." One key motivational issue in recent years is the role stress plays on the project manager and the team. as well as its variety. The idea is to find a balance between individual and team recognition and to discover the types of recognition people value. Perry knows that he and his team will be under considerable stress and that he has responsibility for managing it. meaningful. and not overdone. There are two types of stress: negative stress (or distress) and positive stress (or eustress). objective. including what they did and did not do well in the past. Perry considers several variables when matching a person to a task. From a personality perspective. Stretching Sometimes Perry will assign people to tasks that present a challenge. . and schedule can slide. or present a mental challenge relating to intelligence. Receiving recognition is one way to satisfy that need. Perry also knows that recognition must follow some basic principles. The new challenge may exceed physical and emotional dimensions. People view the task as more difficult than the "typical" task. The idea is to match the person to the task so that the person "stretches" and does not "break. extroversion). otherwise. their characteristics (introversion. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. stress handling abilities. it can be counterproductive. It must be genuine. and needs. timely. Tasks can go uncompleted. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.
he can develop and revise his project plan to reflect realism. He can alleviate the impact in several ways. intelligence type. and not isolating the team from politics. Such practices include not defining roles and responsibilities clearly. It affects people psychologically by making them depressed and argumentative or just "wanting to give up. unrealistically assigning resources. The idea is to capture and direct the synergy generated by the group to efficiently and effectively achieve a goal. . It is an assembly of individuals with diverse backgrounds who interact for a specific purpose. Kleim and Irwin S. It causes ailments. compressing the schedules. providing inadequate tools. consultants and contractors hired as replacements. rapidly varying market conditions. Downsizing. For example. he considers all the same for himself. provide opportunities for the team members to go on respites or breaks from time to time. from hives to heart attacks.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Perry has witnessed many signs of ineffective teams. people start "throwing their work over the fence" and they lower their productivity. and outsourcing services all add to a stressful situation. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Negative stress manifests itself in many ways. assign people to tasks that are more suitable to their expertise level. Poor project management practices also cause stress." It affects the performance of the team as conflict intensifies. Perry realizes that he does not have to let stress have a harmful effect on him or his team. increased time-to-market pressures. and encourage people to be flexible. Perry is well aware that there are many causes for high stress. rotate people between critical and noncritical tasks or equitably distribute the workload. or personality type. As for Perry himself. ----------- Team Building A team is more than just a group of people doing work. Throughout the years.
There are four primary styles: • Reactive Stimulators thrive on action and the immediate. No common ground exists other than to meet periodically to work. People will feel that the work is not valuable. may be viewed with suspicion. No one has an emotional attachment to the goal. no one—including the project manager—seems to focus on them. • Lack of management support. facilities. Washington. For example. if you put a Reactive Stimulator and a Relational Innovator on a task. From a project management perspective. People do not speak or share information unless it reinforces behavior or thoughts. or money. time. The situation can also lead to squabbling. the questions will arise: (1) will decisions be made quickly with little attention to detail (as may be needed). The pressure to conform is so intense that anyone different in thinking or work style is ostracized or not taken seriously. giving a competitive advantage. Different combinations of styles on a project team can influence the level of detail that goes into making a decision and how quickly it is done. Team squabbles and overt and covert discussions are ongoing occurrences. • Vague role definitions. because it looks at the interactions of people. and other characteristics of a work situation. even revolts. equipment. This results in lost synergy. supplies. provides a scientific tool—also called Decide-X—to measure how much information a person needs before reaching a decision. The reporting structures and responsibilities are unclear. They prefer situations and projects with organizational structure. Decide-X is described in more detail in Gary Salton. . which focus only on the individual. a Bellevue. If team members perceive—whether justifiably or not—that management is not supportive of the project. Under such circumstances no opportunity is available to capitalize on people's strengths and address their weaknesses. or will they conflict? Decide-X differs from other approaches. company. 1996). • Logical Processors thrive on logical detail while maintaining focus. • Insufficient resources. everyone acts in his or her own interests. • Team members who lack commitment to the goal. Whether it's people. • Conformity and mind protection. as well as their preferences in dealing with direction. for instance. people deal with team-building situations in ways that reflect their needs and desires. insufficient resources make teams ineffective. The goals are vague or nonexistent. If resources are not distributed in an objective. causing conflicts. making cooperation difficult. The team is an unorganized grouping of people. or exposing vulnerabilities. Even if the goals are defined. • Hypothetical Analyzers like to solve problems using decomposition to unravel complexity. Instead. Mich. • Relational Innovators deal in ideas from a big-picture perspective and find relationships or patterns. everyone is aimless. They prefer situations and projects that provide a relatively slow pace to perform analysis. • Lack of openness and trust. then motivation can plummet. at least to the organization.: Professional Communications. • No commonality or cohesiveness. Members of the team can quickly become polarized. • No camaraderie or esprit de corps. to allow for exploration of detail? And (2) will the Reactive Stimulator and Relational Innovator cooperate. Whistle-blowers and creative types. The players do not feel that they are part of a team. or will they be made much more slowly. details. Openness and truthfulness are perceived as yielding to someone. Instead. change. dissention. Territorial disputes and power struggles occur often. According to Decide-X. meaningful manner. No one feels a sense of community or brotherhood. then differences can magnify into severe conflicts. They prefer situations and projects that involve blue-skying and move at a pace that allows them to do that. protective of his or her own interests. Organizational Engineering (Ann Arbor.What Is Your Team-Building Style? Decide-X. • Low tolerance for diversity. Characteristics of Poor Teams • No processes for gaining consensus or resolving conflicts. even impossible. They prefer situations or projects that are fast-moving and have lots of pressure. Insecurity permeates people for fear of being different or ostracized. Everyone is guarded. • Listless team members. the Decide-X tool is very useful.
of course. A symbiotic relationship between the two just does not exist. and reeking of negative competition. Perry wants. with the latter not valuing the former. considerable frustration levels. . An ineffective team is conflict ridden. These conditions manifest themselves in high turnover and absenteeism. All rights reserved. There is a misalignment between the two.• Discontinuity between individual expectations and group expectations. filled with distrust. no esprit de corps. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. unfocused. poor communication. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. and intolerance. a project team with desirable characteristics: Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited.
In other words. and encouraging task interdependence. 4. 3. He knows that communication is more than writing memos. standing in front of a team. values. employing technology as a communications tool. defining acronyms and jargon. written. however. He sets the example. open attitude Ability to gain consensus and resolve conflicts High morale and esprit de corps Information and resources sharing ----------- Perry knows all too well that a team with these characteristics is difficult to achieve. There are seven actions that he takes to engender such characteristics: 1. and electronic. it is made in the context of achieving the vision." 2. so he is committed. He wants people to be trustful and open. Kleim and Irwin S. He knows. increases task interdependence. that he must continually nurture that energy to keep it flowing. so he is trustful and open. He expects people to be committed. It requires sharing information in an open and trusting manner. He not only espouses certain values and beliefs but also exercises them. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Characteristics of Effective Teams • • • • • • • • • Acceptance of new ideas and objective evaluation of them Sustained common norms. He has the team focus on results. They direct all their energies toward achieving the vision. So he empowers team members. and teams people with complementary .Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. He encourages communication—oral. matches the right person with the right task. Perry constantly communicates the vision and establishes change control and problem-solving processes. he "walks the talk. or setting up a Web site. encourages consensus building and win-win solutions. Whether he or the team makes a decision. holding frequent meetings (status reviews and staff). He engenders high morale and esprit de corps by developing and maintaining the energy that comes from teaming. Yet he also knows that such characteristics will not arise unless he takes action. and beliefs without excessive conformity Synergy through mutual support Loyalty and commitment to the project Focus on end results A trusting. publishing a project manual.
norms. however. seeking input and feedback. 1. ways of doing business. 7. background reviews. The Smythe family also has many friends around the world who will attend the wedding. The project culminates in Italy and. He remains conscious of different values and beliefs. encouraging participative decision making. seeks task interdependence to encourage communication. He overcomes the temptation to stereotype. perception of priorities. He builds commitment to the vision and the project. Always mindful of the danger of groupthink. Through research. determining each team member's strengths and weaknesses and making assignments that capitalize on the former.. That is. subproduct or deliverable). Ways to do that include matching people's interests with tasks. attend diversity training to understand and respect differences. He sets the example by embracing diversity. He also tackles stereotyping by team members. and nurtures a continuous learning environment. He is especially mindful to obtain feedback from people whose cultural background is dramatically different from his own or from the rest of the team. He also understands that differences exist in the meaning of words (semantics). Ideally. and accounts for them when leading the project. He encourages greater diversity in thinking. Needless to say. He is patient when dealing with people of a different background. He attempts to appreciate. Perry understands that people vary in their concept of time. He is especially aware of the multicultural environment of the Smythe Project. This lessens the tendency for the team to split into subgroups. 2. styles of management and leadership. including race. Perry uses cross-training and job rotation to broaden people's understanding of each other. and control of the project. and definition of team building. that he can deal with diversity in several ways. Team Diversity With globalization of the economy in general and the Smythe Project in particular. assigning people with responsibility for completing deliverables. The word is empathy. Previous Table of Contents Next . not sympathy.work styles. 4. interpretation of expressions (body language). and behavior. clearly defining roles and responsibilities. and lifestyles. He has empathy for other people's experiences. interviews. Throughout the project cycle. with himself. and views of how the world functions. requires working with people from another country. Perry learns about the diverse backgrounds of the people and encourages everyone to do the same. and the like. 6. Perry wants to achieve the former. work style. and religion.g. since the latter connotes patronization and condescension. 5. for example. 3. 5. empowering people. all this diversity adds complexity to the planning. He encourages feedback. ethnicity. Perry encourages different thoughts and perspectives. He can also have the team. The team members have a variety of backgrounds. He lays the groundwork for synergy. Perry recognizes that the challenge of leading a diversified team has never been greater. To ensure receptivity to diversity. He knows. coordination. But synergy requires cooperation. beliefs. Ways to obtain cooperation include providing cross-training so that people understand each other's roles and responsibilities. encourages experimentation and brainstorming to develop new ideas and keep an open mind. for example. he avoids generalizing about people based on one characteristic. An effective approach is to have people with different backgrounds work together. Leading a team in such an environment requires heightened sensitivity to different values. the difficulties in reconciling different perceptions of time. therefore. A team is more than the sum of its members. and keeping the project in the forefront of everyone's mind. team commitment can rise or fall. and having groups within the team be accountable for a complete work unit (e.
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3. If meeting is costly or impossible. (More about contractors and outsourcing in Chapter 9. even for Perry. Such etiquette enables greater interaction. real or imagined. He assigns people to tasks that require greater interaction and. which in turn increases bonding or cohesion. He develops rules of exchange or communications etiquette. or that management perceives outside help as better than inside. But they are not insurmountable. An exception is made only if the consultant or contractor has unique expertise. For instance. and become acquainted. challenge any team-building effort. At a minimum.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. These circumstances. equipment. Perry takes three important steps: 1. Kleim and Irwin S. team members may be spread over a wide geographical area. They feel that management is exhibiting lack of confidence in their work. In general. the task should require at least some electronic interdependence to generate cohesion. meeting physically. if only occasionally. ----------- Many contract employees and consultants do not feel they are part of a team. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Contract Employees and Consultants Along with downsizing has come a corresponding rise in the use of consultants and contract employees. They know that their presence is temporary. their participation could end at any time. and. To foster team building. 2. The Smythe Project is no different. (See Chapter 19 for additional information.) Telecommuting and Mobile Computing In today's environment. this meeting provides an opportunity to exchange ideas. many permanent employees feel slighted by the presence of independent contractors and consultants. thanks to this dispersion.) Team building can be extremely difficult. and other perks. share information. however. preference is only for the duration of the task. Perry treats the word TEAMING as an acronym to remind him of how to build a good project . He gives preference to permanent employees regarding task assignments. Team members may also feel that the contractors or consultants are receiving higher compensation or the best offices or equipment. He tries to have everyone on the team meet periodically. colleagues should respond to each other within a certain time. if so. At the same time. presenting little opportunity to see each other. and its use of such people challenges his efforts to build a cohesive team. Perry also gives employees the first opportunity to participate in decision making. hence their commitment is questionable.
How will you facilitate and expedite performance? What obstacles will you face and how will you overcome them? 5. Get people to move efficiently and effectively toward the results.team: Target Energize Assemble Move Inform Neutralize Glue Focus on the end result. The Project Manager as a Motivator Leadership plays an important role in the successful execution of a project. He must build teams and focus all their efforts on achieving the vision. . Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. consultants. like all experienced project managers. skills. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. knows that leadership must be constantly exercised throughout a project. It requires having a basic understanding of what motivates people.g. It provides the basis for developing a meaningful statement of work. If you have contractors. focus on the vision) will you encourage team building? What obstacles will you face and how will you overcome them? 7. In what ways (e. job enrichment) do you plan to motivate the people on your team? What challenges will you face and how do you plan to overcome them? 6. Questions for Getting Started 1. A vision statement partly satisfies the motivational needs of a project team. There is additional information on telecommuting and other technology-based innovations in Chapter 19. In what ways (e. how will they be involved? What impact will that have on the permanent team members and what will you do about any problems that arise? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.. Can you identify the obstacles for exercising effective leadership inherent in your project? 2. and expertise. All rights reserved. Provide the emotional spark that encourages high morale and esprit de corps. Have people share knowledge.. Keep the team as a cohesive unit so that synergy is produced. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Perry. However. or telecommuters. Remove biases and preferences in decision making. however.g. it is not something that can be done in a "paint-by-number" fashion. The vision plays another role too. laterally and vertically. How will you develop a vision for your project? How do you plan to communicate it? What are the challenges you face in developing and communicating that vision? How do you plan to overcome them? 3. How will you ensure that your project stays focused on the vision? What challenges will you face? 4. that the vision is just one aspect of leadership. Perry realizes. Bring people together with defined roles and responsibilities.
However. or determines its vision (as mentioned in Chapter 4). As described in Chapter 1. many details remain unaccounted for. Perry uses a statement of work (SOW) or. . the contract between the company and the Smythe family). In other words. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Chapter 5 The Statement of Work and the Project Announcement Perry recognizes that a key determinant for success or failure of a project is the adequacy of the definition. goals. It also sets the stage for effective communication throughout the project cycle. the project manager defines the project. objectives. a statement of understanding to obtain and record answers to any remaining questions. largely by interviewing members of the steering committee.g.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. • What are the goals and objectives? • Who are the principal participants? • When must the project be finished? • Where will the project be executed? • How will the result be achieved? • Why is the project being launched? • What are the constraints/limitations of the project? By answering such questions Perry can better execute the other functions of project management. He knows that good definition lays the groundwork for developing reliable plans. Kleim and Irwin S. scope. more informally. and reviewing documentation (e. The Statement of Work Although a contract has been signed between GWI and the Smythe family. It requires considerable effort. getting answers to these and other questions is not easy. and deliverables. responsibilities.. To define is to determine exactly the purpose and boundaries of the project. contacting the customer.
Follow proper interviewing etiquette by asking permission to record or tape sessions. With an SOW Perry will have the answers to five W's: 1. Why is there a project? More specifically. Who are the primary participants. Avoid engaging in a debate and do not introduce bias in your questions. For example. however. or customers. Perry will capture the following information: • Constraints or limitations on the work • Coordination requirements • Levels of support from participants • Major assumptions • Major responsibilities • Milestone dates • Quality criteria • Specific objectives The onus is on Perry to acquire the data necessary to draft the SOW. Assumptions IV. Where will the project be undertaken? 5. When must the project start and be completed? 4. Is it specific information that you need or general background information? • Determine whether you want to do a structured or an unstructured interview. is a medium for defining what the project will accomplish and the overall approach to take. including the customers? 3. Constraints V. such as memos or procedures with earlier customers. and scheduling interview sessions at the right time. reviewing existing documentation. raises and addresses assumptions and potential conflicts. After collecting the data. What is the product or service to be delivered? 2. You just need to follow a few principles: • Determine the objectives of the interview. Structured interviewing is asking a set of questions that help you get specific.The SOW is a definitive agreement between the customer and the project's leadership about what is to be accomplished. Perry has several options. and gives direction overall. that the SOW is more than an agreement between the major participants. asking clear and concise questions. then. listening actively. It is also on him to draft the document and obtain final approval. interviewing will be a useful tool for acquiring information for your . You use it when the subject matter is clear and unambiguous. if applicable. which include examining data from earlier. and reviewing lessons learned. The SOW. It also sets the groundwork for effective communication. Product/Service description The Art of Interviewing You don't have to be a Barbara Walters or Larry King to conduct effective interviews. Unstructured interviewing is asking open-ended questions and winging it. often detailed information. For example. Introduction II. If you follow these guidelines. similar projects. To obtain that data. Performance Criteria VI. steering committee. The interviewer controls the interview as it progresses. keeping emotional distance from the response. Perry prepares a draft of the SOW. vendors. Scope III. which follows this outline form: I. use an unstructured interview to obtain an understanding of the customer's expectations for a project. Perry knows. You use it when the subject matter is vague and greater insight into the subject matter is necessary. interviewing project sponsor. from earlier projects. use a structured interview to obtain specific information about a line item in a statement of work.
When reviewing the draft. Commonalities might include values. Being comfortable opens the dialogue. gives reasons for its existence. The Art of Negotiation As a project manager. budgets. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. or visions. Be flexible. Signatures Exhibit 5-1 shows the draft SOW that Perry has prepared. keep these principles in mind: 1. consider the purpose of each major section. other times it will be informal. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. and senior management. Pick the right time and place to negotiate. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. When negotiating. you will have plenty of opportunity to negotiate. Know as much as possible about the person you're negotiating with. . 4. what is and is not to be done. References IX. It provides the name of the project. By stressing what's common. and provides other pertinent information. Such victories are short-lived and can cause greater problems later on. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. schedules. Seek a win-win solution. goals. and quality with customers. Sometimes the negotiation will be formal. names major players. 2. A rigid stance may leave you with nothing or even a lose-lose result. All rights reserved. 5. Major Responsibilities VIII. Scope This section lists the project's "boundaries"—that is. Be flexible by knowing what you value most and least. 3. Introduction This section describes the goal of the project. tools. You will have to negotiate resources. The scope is important for planning and also for minimizing changes. Negotiation is not a victory over someone. team members. norms. Keep the commonalities between you and the person you're negotiating with in the forefront of your mind.statement of work. you keep communication open. one that is comfortable for both parties. Amendments X. VII.
Statement of work (SOW). Introduction This project resulted from a request by the Smythe family of 1801 Brotherhood Avenue. Exhibit 5-1.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Money. substantially increasing our revenues. Kleim and Irwin S. Assumptions may. relate to levels of internal support or existing or market conditions. people. Recognizing such limitations early on enables realistic planning. Scope This project will require all our services provided for domestic weddings. Italy. relatives. Pennsylvania. for example. Although our primary focus is on weddings within the continental United States. These services include: • Announcements. this wedding will occur in Naples. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Assumptions This section lists any unsubstantiated ideas about the project. and facilities are often limited in quantity and quality. II. I. ----------- Constraints Rarely does a project have unlimited resources at its disposal. equipment. This is GWI's first project outside the United States. It is expected that this project will lead to similar ones in the future. and newspapers • Ceremony and reception locations • Decorations and props • Entertainment • Flowers • Food and beverages • Hotel accommodations • Invitations • Lighting • Music . supplies. Rockford. time. Assumptions are used in planning. including to friends.
which includes: • Periodic review of progress • Guidance and direction. • Evaluate changes to all baselines. Major Responsibilities The project manager will: • Serve as the primary point of contact for the project. V. VI. Signatures • Project manager . • Keep the steering committee informed regarding progress. Performance Criteria The project will comply with all requirements listed in the contract between the Smythe family and GWI. • Resources must continue to support other wedding projects.). Product/Service Description GWI will provide a full one-day wedding service on top of Mount Vesuvius on 11 June 2000. • Use all resources efficiently and effectively. for additional information. Refer to the contract between the Smythe family and GWI. Any deviations from the contract must be reviewed by the steering committee and require signatures. X. including bachelor parties and bridal showers Sound Travel Videotaping Wedding attire Wedding feast and cake Wedding transportation Services required by the Smythes but not available through GWI will be contracted out.• • • • • • • • Photography Prewedding parties and rehearsals. The cost for the wedding cannot exceed $1 million (U. and itinerary for the honeymoon. The steering committee will provide continuous overseeing for the project. Amendments This document may be changed only after review and approval of first the steering committee and then the internal customer. GWI will also arrange the wedding ceremony.S. The project must finish on 11 June 2000. • Develop and execute a comprehensive project plan. III. • No legal problems will occur in holding a wedding outside the United States. • The project will have priority over existing projects. References The primary documents supporting this statement of work are: • Contract between GWI and the Smythe family • Existing company policies and procedures IX. Constraints The following constraints will be placed on the project: • Culture differences may impede performance. Scope. Assumptions The Smythe Project will be managed based on the following assumptions: • Internal resources will be available to include electronic and staffing. • Contracted services will perform when required. IV. and entertainment. The wedding includes providing lodging for dignitaries. feast. food. Also refer to Section II. tourist attraction events. VII. when necessary • Reporting to the internal customer VIII.
service or product specifications must be addressed. characteristics. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Often. or deliverables to be produced. and quality. components. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. for example.• Steering committee members • Internal customer Performance Criteria This section describes the criteria for customer satisfaction. This information allows for meaningful planning and ensures that the project will address key concerns. . The content may be a narrative or a diagram. it points to three criteria: cost. Product/Service Description This section has an overall description of the product or service. specific milestones or red-letter dates must be met. cost more than a set amount. All rights reserved. This information is useful for developing a work breakdown structure. The project cannot. This description might include the basic features. schedule. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.
These tasks will be given in finer detail in the work breakdown structure. customer. Exhibit 5-2 shows a flowchart for developing a statement of work. Perry has one more task before he can start to plan: publishing a project announcement. The documents often provide more details for planning. The project announcement is a widely distributed memo—albeit more than just another memo. the statement of work usually becomes part of the terms and conditions of the formal contract. . At minimum. If this is the case. It is a living document that probably will be modified from time to time. Signatures This section contains the approvals of all principal decision makers. It is also a way to give visibility to the project. it should have signatures of the project manager. contrary to popular belief. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Major Responsibilities This section delineates the high-level tasks of major participants. the "customer" is frequently the liaison with the external customer. as with the Smythe Project. ----------- References This section lists any documentation that governs the content of the SOW.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Kleim and Irwin S. If the ultimate customer is external to the company. Amendments The SOW is not something etched in stone. The Project Announcement With a completed SOW. communicate to everyone the priority of the project. executive sponsor. and executive steering committee members. and acquire the political muscle to compete with other projects. This section is for appending any agreed-upon changes that come later.
et al. cc: Rogersby.. necessary? If so. Is a statement of work. Italy.. Provide answers to these questions about your project: • What are the goals and objectives of the project? • Who are the principal participants? • When must the project be started and finished? • Where will the project be executed? • Why is the project being launched? • How will the product or service be? 2. entails many tasks. The wedding will occur in Naples. Amelia Amelia Rainbow President. Flowchart for statement of work. The planning function. He will report directly to the executive steering committee. If you don't have the answers to any of the above. or understanding. H. Project announcement. GWI Extension 3400 Mailstop 01-01 The key question is. He believes she is the internal customer and sponsor for the project.Exhibit 5-2.000 people will attend the event. The project must start no later than 30 January and be completed by 11 June 2000. et al. consisting of all functional vice-presidents of GWI. Approximately 1. Questions for Getting Started 1. Exhibit 5-3. as described in Chapter 1. there is a distinction between the two. N. Perry prepares the memo himself and presents it to Amelia for signature. Perry can begin planning. Who will prepare and sign the memo? Being a self-starter. In many circumstances. do you know what is contained in each of these sections: • Introduction? • Assumptions? • Constraints? • Performance criteria? • Product/service description? • Major responsibilities? • References? • Amendments? • Signatures? . Exhibit 5-3 shows the announcement. how are you going to get them? • By interview? • Document research? • Contact with the customer? 3. Subject: Smythe Project Perry Fitzberg has been designated the project manager for the Smythe Project. With publication of the project announcement. however. Date: 15 January 2000 To: Jones. which are covered in Chapters 6 through 8.
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Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 6 The Work Breakdown Structure Perry now has the visibility he needs and the details for building the project. he will seek the participation of his core team to flesh out the WBS. More people must provide input and then approve the portion they are responsible to perform." A well-defined task can be assigned to a specific individual. bring out assumptions. There is a knowledge transfer and exercise of brain power. For another. 1. and customers to delineate the steps required to build and deliver the product or service. The exercise alone encourages a dialogue that will help clarify ambiguities. Although Perry will develop the high-level WBS. helps in generating a meaningful schedule. Kleim and Irwin S. The first iteration is rarely right and as the project changes. The larger the scope of the project. 2. For one. The WBS is a detailed listing of the deliverables and tasks for building the product or delivering the service. so does the WBS. people cannot hide under the "cover of broadness. It lays the groundwork for developing an effective schedule and good budget plans. and makes calculating a reliable budget easier. With a defined WBS. A large WBS (one that identifies several thousand activities) can take several weeks to develop. There are several benefits to developing a WBS. Finally. A good WBS makes planning and executing a project easier. it takes time—and plenty of it. broad-to-specific hierarchical outcome of the work to perform. 4. The level of detail in a WBS makes it easier to hold people accountable for completing their tasks.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. the larger the WBS will be. It is a top-down. 3. ----------- . Of course. the advantages outweigh the challenges. Now he will use the SOW to develop a work breakdown structure. narrow the scope of the project. This participation will spark involvement in the project. The process of developing and completing a WBS breeds excitement and commitment. the WBS requires continual refinement. The WBS forces the project manager. who is then responsible for its completion. it requires effort. and raise critical issues early on. A well-defined WBS enables resources to be allocated to specific tasks. or WBS. developing a WBS is not easy. team members. Still.
g. Work breakdown structure based on responsibility. and reliably estimate the hours to perform tasks. Generally. The project manager takes an eclectic view of the WBS. Failure to manage changes to the WBS can result in unanticipated impacts on the scope. 3. 2. few team members have a sense of ownership or commitment to the contents. There are many ways to draw up a WBS—for example. Each item in the PBS is described with a noun and a unique number. then he breaks down the task into smaller tasks. The result is that subsequent delivery of the product or service is unsatisfactory. which delineates the segments that constitute the final product or service. make assignments that build accountability. Other sources of information for building the WBS are documentation. or cost. The result is incomplete planning. Sometimes. If it is kept to too high a level. however. It may also contain items deemed important (e. When the WBS is published. Exhibit 6-1. of related projects. The other component is the task breakdown structure (TBS). The WBS generally consists of two components. he gets to a level of detail that provides the ability to track and monitor progress. training). Each task in the TBS is described with an action verb.Where WBSs Go Wrong More often than not. The WBS does not cover the whole project. which contains the tasks to build or deliver something (see Exhibit 6-2). a noun. the WBS should not become "frozen" or "baselined. There is a failure to put the WBS under configuration management. The entire WBS is not used in subsequent planning. and tracking the schedule and cost performance become "guesstimation. Perry identifies all the requirements for the wedding. With this information." with all future changes not identified or evaluated for their impact on the project. lacking a comprehensive view of the work to be done. 5. interview notes. and a unique number. It may also list tasks deemed important to the project. by phase. a simple WBS can improve the overall performance of a project. schedule. A common heuristic Perry uses is the 80-hour rule: each of the lowest-level items in the WBS should not exceed 80 hours' effort. which provides a guideline since it is representative of a high level and contains all the necessary information. The first component is the product breakdown structure (PBS). including the WBS.. such as project administration and training. estimating. Perry decides on how to approach the WBS. First he reviews the SOW. 4. It is also easier to determine progress at a higher level when reporting to senior management or the customer. the more accurate the planning and the greater the ability to monitor progress. To begin developing a WBS. How detailed the WBS gets depends on the level of control the project manager wants. The reasons some WBSs fail are as follows: 1. Perry recognizes that he will have to continually refine the WBS as he estimates the time to complete tasks. As Perry progresses down each leg of the WBS. The WBS does not have sufficient detail. a WBS can do more harm than good. Previous Table of Contents Next . using only selected portions. It might omit other important activities. and memorandums. or by deliverables." Composite or roll-up views lack meaning because the lower-level content is missing or too general to be reliable. Once everyone agrees on its contents. If the job requires more. legal documentation. by responsibility (see Exhibit 6-1). He decides on deliverables for this WBS since that worked best for him in the past. The WBS is the result of one individual and does not include those who will work on the tasks. the more specific the WBS. It contains only the activities needed to build the project.
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Thus. Either way. construct schedules. Lower levels are called technical levels. Consider the WBS as a giant topical outline. a WBS dictionary can help the project manager determine whether a task has been completed. Perry is now able to solicit input from the key players. Each level lower is a breakdown of a higher level. Each entry in the dictionary describes the expected output of the task. He presents it to the steering committee and obtains their acceptance. ----------- Exhibit 6-2. With his draft of the WBS ready. Kleim and Irwin S. the details are "rolled up" to the managerial level for reporting purposes. the display will look like Exhibit 6-3. These are the tasks or subtasks he will use to assign responsibilities. Next. Sometimes the higher levels of a WBS are managerial levels. each task in the work package has an accompanying description. contained in a WBS dictionary. But he can also display the WBS graphically. and track progress.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Another way is to post sticky notes on a wall to display the hierarchical relationship. The items in the lower level constitute the one in the next higher level. Perry's WBS for the Smythe wedding is shown in the Appendix. Task breakdown structure (TBS). He used a word processing program to produce it. On very large projects. as a tree diagram. by using graphics software. he identifies the key skills needed to perform the tasks and obtains additional input from team members. The PBS gives him an idea of the following needed expertise: • Attendants • Cosmetologist • Drivers • Florist • Hair stylist . Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title The lowest level in the WBS is the work package level.
Did you receive input from all relevant parties when building the WBS? 4. Perry has no idea how many people with the requisite expertise are necessary. Perry needs once again to present his case to the steering committee. Henry Winkless Usher. Raymond Leazowitz Photographer. The work breakdown structure.g. Michael Cramer Lawyer. Hank Wilson Wedding consultant. Larry Eisenberg Jeweler. Vy Toon Videographer. Attendant. using the 80-hour rule)? • Give each item a unique number? . What are the tasks for your project? Did you display them in the task breakdown structure (TBS) of the WBS? 3. as shown in Exhibit 6-4. Ted Rogers Planner. Graphic display of task breakdown structure. David Rockford Travel agent. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Jewelers Lawyer Musicians Photographer Planners Public relations expert Receptionists Tailor Travel agents Ushers Valet Videographer Waiters Wedding consultants At the moment. Questions for Getting Started 1. Mary Ewing 2. Core team members. Perry now has his core team. Did you perform the following when building the WBS: • Explode each leg down to the lowest level of detail (e. to contact the relevant functional organizations. Pat Jones Public relations expert. is an excellent foundation for the remaining project planning functions. But he will require at least one of each on the core team (the key participants). Frank Galucci Florist. Cynthia Fralusinski Receptionist. Gina Davies Waiter.. Perry then solicits input from these core team members regarding the WBS and gets ready to take on the next step in planning: estimating the time to complete each task. Danny Smith Musician. although time-consuming to prepare. Terry Karla Tailor. and upon receiving its approval.Exhibit 6-3. Next we consider the work-time estimates. Wonda Wrangell Driver. Robin Schister Valet. which aid in the preparation of schedules and costs. Eva Brewster Cosmetologist. To acquire core team members. What are the deliverables for your project? Did you display them in the product breakdown structure (PBS) of the WBS? Exhibit 6-4.
removed. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. or modified? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. .• Give each item in the PBS a name consisting of an adjective and a noun? • Give each item in the TBS a name consisting of an action verb and an object? 5. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. All rights reserved. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Did you put the WBS under configuration control in the event that an item is added.
to produce the product or deliver the service. Lastly. estimating requires dealing with ambiguity. But remember. This information then enables the project manager to produce a realistic plan based upon that effort. Types of Estimating Techniques Perry and his team can use one of four techniques to estimate the time it will take to complete each task: 1. If the people who will do the work also help make the estimates. it takes time and effort to develop reliable estimates. doing an estimate breeds commitment. an estimate. Many people take the path of least resistance and generate either an extremely pessimistic or an overly optimistic estimate. Estimating also helps the project manager anticipate the budget for the project. The best Perry or any project manager can hope to develop are reliable estimates — ones that offer confidence in being achievable. It gives an idea of the level of effort required to complete a project.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Allocated funds are largely based on the effort. Hours are converted to flow time. Scientific wildly assumed guess 2. they will feel more committed to their tasks and keep within the allotted time. Good estimating requires extensive calculation and research to avoid skewing the calculated values. Global efficiency factor . an estimate is just that. Kleim and Irwin S. estimating is not easy. for two reasons. with the interrelationships among tasks. Perry can now estimate the time required to complete each task. estimating has both knowns and unknowns. While it offers many benefits. First. By its very nature. which in turn is used. Either way. confidence in the resulting estimate is low. to calculate start and stop dates. Second. ----------- The Benefits and Challenges of Estimating Work Times Estimating the work times provides several benefits for the project manager. The unknowns can generate fear or cause people to react out of ignorance. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 7 Techniques for Estimating Work Times With the work breakdown structure complete. or labor. The estimate becomes the basis for developing a schedule.
80% = 20%. However.20) . or 1. thereby skewed and subjective. The estimator deducts the percents from 100 percent to derive a more realistic estimate. Perry decides not to use the SWAG technique. The estimator provides one figure for each task. They believe that it accounts for nonproductive time and eliminates the tendency toward unwarranted optimism. quickly. We now add this 20% factor to our baseline of 100%. Now he is thinking about using the global efficiency factor technique. Perry decides. as follows: Task 10. Then the estimator accounts for nonproductive factors that are each assigned a percent relative to each other. or three-point estimating.1 Determine floral requirements 100% . Often. The estimation assumes that a person is 100 percent productive. relying on an hour estimate that is based on a "feel" for doing the work. then the estimate will be optimistic. It applies an overall productivity factor to the estimate for all tasks. if someone does the work who had no input to the estimate? What happens if an obstacle arises that the new person cannot handle? Then the estimate becomes unreliable. we assume people are 80 percent productive: Task 8. Estimate to perform work 100 hours Adjusted estimate 120 hours (100 hours × 1. The percent for each deduction will also often vary among people. the GEF technique has its drawbacks. As long as the same people do the same work. For these two reasons alone. to look at another estimating technique: the productivity adjustment percent. What happens.4 Arrange for food and beverage Deficiency Percent to Deduct Unsatisfactory skill level Unfamiliarity with project Unfamiliarity with tools Lack of well-defined requirements Total Deficiency Estimate to perform work Adjusted estimate 8 10 5 2 25 100 hours 125 hours [100 hours + (100 hours × 25%)] The GEF is not as popular but it does have its adherents. If the estimators hold themselves in high regard. However. then the estimates may prove reliable. It is rarely based on in-depth analysis to derive the values. technique Scientific Wildly Assumed Guess (SWAG) This technique is the most popular. therefore.2. Second. no long calculations are necessary. though. Productivity Adjustment Percent (PAP) The PAP technique attempts to do on a more global scale what the GEF does. Global Efficiency Factor (GEF) This technique is also easy to use and attempts to incorporate nonproductive time into the estimate. one or two individuals can do the entire estimate. it understates or overinflates the time. The SWAG is most popular because it is quick. The percents to deduct are often subjective themselves. Program evaluation and review. then it will be pessimistic. It accounts for only a limited number of factors. it is highly subjective. For our example. giving us a PAP of 120%. The estimator determines a single value for time to do the work. based on one person's estimate of doing a task. The SWAG is also popular because it requires very little research. First. Productivity adjustment percent 4. the SWAG is also very unreliable for two reasons.3. if they lack confidence. yet the most unreliable.2.
uses three estimates of time to complete a task. Despite these two benefits. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) The PERT. The historical records are not always available to determine the productivity factor for an organization. it is based on historical figures. There are no percent deductions on a task-by-task basis nor any burdensome mathematical calculations. Realistically. The three variables are then used to calculate an expected time to complete a task. Below is an example of how to calculate the revised expected time: Task 10. the figure is so global that it may not be relevant to a specific task. most pessimistic. The most optimistic is the effort to complete a task under the best or ideal circumstances. For these three reasons.2. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.3.3 Coordinate transportation (ground and air) Estimate to perform work = 500 hours 500 hours × 1. The most likely time is the effort (usually in hours) to complete a task under normal or reasonable conditions. That leaves one other option: the PERT. there are some disadvantages. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Finally. the results have no impact on progress on the actual work.10 (for 10% nonproductive time) = 550 hours Revised expected time = 550 hours Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. The most pessimistic time is the effort to complete a task under the worst conceivable circumstances.g. First. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. and most optimistic. The estimator assumes that a person is 100 percent productive during the time to complete the task.. it is easy to apply this calculation. break times). meetings. . also known as the three-point estimating technique. of course. it does not account for the complexity of issues involving individual tasks. Second. Perry does not use the PAP technique. This time has no direct relationship to the work being done. so the hour estimates are adjusted to account for this nonproductive time (e. as shown below: Task 1. The three estimates are the most likely. telephone calls. for two reasons. Some time is inevitably spent being nonproductive.1 Determine type of entertainment/music This estimating technique accounts for the level of effort to complete a task after accounting for all the parameters to do the work. All rights reserved. no one is 100 percent productive. Work measurement studies are frequently used to derive the overall percent.The PAP has its adherents. Also.
It identifies issues and assumptions early. however. discussion over the parameters that relate to each variable forces people to communicate to come to a conclusion. does offer four benefits. either inside or outside your company. It forces people to think seriously about the time to complete a task. For one. performing the calculations can take a long time. Also. You can benchmark one or more tasks. It might mean going to an outside expert or organization for an evaluation. The adjustment ends once you gain concurrence or are comfortable with the result. It may mean comparing the estimates with similar ongoing or completed projects. Once all the estimates are complete. Sometimes. When calculating each variable. it is laborious. You can check the historical records of other projects that dealt with similar work. It improves communication. not too many people understand the reasons for taking this approach. however. You can apply the Delphi approach. New estimates can then be developed. which can be intimidating and too academic for some people. Simply identify a number of people to provide input on an estimate. Whatever the reason. people must identify issues and assumptions. Then make the adjustment and resubmit the estimate to them for further adjustment. The technique. Assumptions and issues may arise that will call into question the validity of some estimates. Perhaps you do not trust the people making the estimate. you can assemble everyone in a room to discuss the estimate for each task. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title The three-point estimating technique has its problems. Lastly. performing the calculations requires considerable thinking and searching for reliable information. How to Reevaluate an Estimate Sometimes you might feel uncomfortable with an estimate.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. even when a computer is used. it accounts for many parameters to compensate for being too optimistic or pessimistic. such data are either difficult to obtain or unavailable. It might mean going to someone on another project where similar work was performed. you can take several actions to validate the estimate. it is time consuming. Perhaps you suspect it is unrealistic. the three variables require looking at as many parameters as possible to calculate a realistic estimate. The estimate is more reliable than other estimating techniques. its underpinnings are probability and bell curve analysis. you can conduct peer reviews. Perhaps you think the reasoning behind it is faulty. Finally. ----------- . You can seek a second opinion. especially for a large project. Kleim and Irwin S.
This takes advantage of time pressure. 5. he will mix "apples with oranges. He avoids using the three-point estimate technique for some tasks and not for others. That requires reestimating during the project to increase the reliability and validity of the overall estimate. Second. This takes advantage of professional pride. They can solicit input from other people. He does not hide the estimates. So. or pessimistic. not accuracies. is a project manager to do? Project managers have several options: 1. Consequently. optimistic. He must get input estimates from the people who will do the actual work. These include: • Availability of nonlabor support • Clarity and definitiveness of scope • Complexity of the work • Degree of available information to estimate . as though they were his personal golf scores or bowling averages. What. 4. This takes advantage of formal authority to get the estimate. Ideally. he reminds himself that it is still a good idea to get input from people who will do the work. the reusable estimate may require revision. 3.To ignore issues and assumptions adds to the cost of addressing them later in the project cycle. the accuracy of the estimate will be assumed. It is one thing to follow someone's dictate of the hours to do the work. Doing this is important for two reasons. They can make the estimate themselves and inform the person in a memo that unless there is acceptance by a certain date. he and others will better understand the rationale behind the estimates. The team members may fear commiting themselves." with some estimates being realistic. A lack of discipline in this regard can result in an unrealistic schedule. 2. Otherwise. where everyone can discuss and share their estimates in the presence of other team members. He is cautious enough to realize that circumstances are not always exactly the same from one project to another. which becomes more possible as a project progresses through its cycle. He also knows that getting their input will encourage commitment to their assigned tasks. He believes that it will provide more-reliable estimates and also offer many other benefits. Perry knows that people will feel a subtle pressure to use them. First. then. He must maintain consistency in the estimating process. he will publish the estimates. This takes advantage of peer pressure to get the estimate. He must identify and document the assumptions and parameters used to derive the estimates. They can hold a team meeting. it is another when he does the estimate himself. 2. Sometimes project managers just do not get cooperation from team members. After getting feedback. Then they present the estimate to the uncooperative team member and formally request his or her feedback. 6. he can also determine what has changed since making the estimate and make revisions accordingly. 1. This is especially the case in a matrix environment. Of the four estimating techniques. 3. Circumstances change that make estimates irrelevant. Rather than apply the estimating technique for all tasks. hate to wrestle with unknowns or ambiguities. using the three-point estimating technique requires Perry to keep in mind the following points. Also. 4. He must look at the historical records of other projects. He must understand that the estimates are approximations. Factors to Consider in Drawing Up Estimates Estimators consider many factors when performing their calculations. What Happens When No One Wants to Give the Project Manager an Estimate? Project managers often lack formal authority over the people on their teams. he may uncover some reliable estimates that can be reused for similar tasks. They can document the refusal to cooperate in a memo and address it to the functional manager. or just not like the project manager. He must make the estimates public. where people report to a functional manager and may support several projects simultaneously. By publishing the estimates. an estimate has the highest confidence level. Perry elects the three-point estimating technique. He appreciates their knowledge of what is required to complete the work.
says that work expands to fill the time available. Did you select the most appropriate estimating technique? What are the reasons for your choice? 3. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Perry will consider Parkinson's law. All rights reserved. If necessary. So Perry treats Parkinson's law seriously. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. If you meet resistance. Did you identify all the work package items in the work breakdown structure? 2. and expertise of the team members Financial constraints on the project History of similar work performed Legal constraints on the project Location of team members working on the task Number of people assigned to the task Number of potential interruptions Priority of the task Productivity of team members Project size Standardization of processes related to the task Structure versus unstructured nature of the work to be performed Whether the completion date of the task is dictated When estimating. . In other words. Perry is now ready for the next big planning action: developing a schedule. how do you plan to overcome it? 5. Parkinson's law. if given ten hours to complete a task when it ordinarily takes five hours. of course. did you get time estimates for the tasks they are responsible for completing? 4. He knows that too much available time to perform a task is almost as troublesome as too little. Questions for Getting Started 1. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. how will you reevaluate estimates? Review historical records? Apply the Delphi approach? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.• • • • • • • • • • • • • • Degree of uncertainty or risk in achieving the outcome Experience. people will take ten hours. With at least the core team members. knowledge.
Difficult issues become apparent. especially if you've not had previous experience drawing flowcharts. In addition. The advantages. tasks. Perry sits down with his core team and determines the logical sequence of tasks.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. He has everyone look at the big picture. Logic is the sequence of tasks. Time is the hour estimate to complete each task—in other words. Finally. A schedule is only useful if people are willing to commit themselves to maintaining it. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 8 Schedule Development and the Network Diagram With the statement of work and the work estimates completed. Duration is the hour figure converted to flow time for completing each task and. making forecasts and "what-if" scenarios is easier. Kleim and Irwin S. logic. the diagram enables easier tracking of performance because it is based on the work-package level items in the WBS. are great. Tasks are the entries in the WBS. time. however. he will juggle six factors: scope. you focus on the project goal and discover the appropriate approach. The network diagram displays the logical relationships between the tasks. By constructing the diagram. and resources. duration. But all of this will become clearer as we explain more about scheduling. the entire project. ----------- What Scheduling Is Scheduling entails making a logical sequence of tasks and then calculating start and stop dates for each task. The scope is described in the SOW. In so doing. . tying together all the tasks. Network diagramming may initially seem complex. the estimates. so the effort and expense of dealing with them later is avoided. Perry is now ready to do some scheduling. And resources are the labor and nonlabor investments assigned to each task. consequently. They use this perspective to draw a network diagram. Therefore. like the one in Exhibit 8-1. The results are displayed as a diagram.
or flow time. or dependencies. Exhibit 8-2. Sometimes one task will finish earlier than the other." or "to be determined. Exhibit 8-1. and early and late finish dates. Watch for these two common indicators of bad scheduling: • Warning Sign Number 1: Sometimes people are unsure of the future. a lapse of time between the end of the predecessor and the start of the successor. is completed and the next one. Finish-to-Start An earlier activity. there is. the successor. to calculate the start and stop date for each task. Finish-to-start relationship. as displayed in Exhibit 8-3. A task can have one or more predecessors or successors. He then uses this duration. For starting purposes only. in other words. • Warning Sign Number 2: Occasionally people will develop schedules that contain too much negative float (being too tight) or too much positive float (being too loose). The time between the finish of one and the other is also called lag. Sometimes the succeeding task is not begun immediately. . Finish-to-Finish Two activities are finished around the same time. The early start date is the earliest time a task can be begun. as illustrated in Exhibit 8-2. Having identified all the dependencies between the tasks." It not only represents unclear and incomplete thinking but also opens the opportunity for guesswork and poor oversight of tasks. Too much negative float indicates that the schedule cannot be realistically accomplished. Network diagram. Either way. they write "TBD. That interval is called lag. Task Dependencies and Date Scheduling A network diagram will show one or more of the following relationships. Exhibit 8-3. But the raw time estimates must be converted to some meaningful value. The early finish date is the earliest time a task can be completed. between tasks. Finish-to-finish relationship. Perry converts the hour estimates into workdays. Sometimes one task is begun just a little later than the other. or the predecessor. especially one of realism. as shown in Exhibit 8-4. He divides the hours by 8 to derive the number of days needed to complete the task. the gap between the start of one task and the beginning of the other is also called lag. yet each must finish before its successor is begun. it indicates a problem with the schedule. Start-to-start relationship. Start-to-Start Two activities are begun around the same time. The early start and early finish dates are the first pair to calculate. too much positive float indicates that estimates for the tasks are too low. is begun. Exhibit 8-4. These dates are determined by comparing the duration of a task with the dates for the preceding and succeeding tasks. so rather than calculate an end date for a task. Perry can apply the time estimates to each task. Actually. Perry calculates two sets of start and stop dates: early and late start dates.Warning Signs of Bad Scheduling Practices Bad scheduling practices can tarnish the credibility of a schedule.
Under these circumstances. People might feel the time or effort expended to build the schedule exceeds the value gained. recirculate for feedback. Perry's Scheduling Method Here's how Perry calculates the early start and early finish dates for his tasks. then make changes. the task has an external dependency that must be considered when calculating start and finish dates. All rights reserved. The output of one project.Why Some People Don't Do Scheduling Occasionally you run into people who do not like schedules. . First. he assigns activity numbers to the tasks in the WBS and converts the time estimates into flow times. Some dates may not be logically derived from a network diagram. tasks may have to begin or finish on a specified date. these are known as constraint dates. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. for example. certain tasks may have to start no earlier than a specific date or may not finish earlier or later than a specific time. For example. as shown below: Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Or they might not want to commit themselves. Likewise. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. Sometimes that person is even the project manager. You can hold a group meeting and cover the schedule in general. A related tactic is to apply the Delphi method by encouraging input from everyone. In some cases. letting peer pressure prompt the person to cooperate. There are all sorts of reasons for this reluctance. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. You can document a person's reluctance in a memo and send it to higher-level management. the start or finish date of a task may depend on the start or completion of a task in another project. and repeat the cycle until everyone is satisfied with the results. you have several options. may feed another. If you are working with someone who is reluctant to schedule.
1-1. meaning the task will be done on April 1. EF is early finish).1.1 6.1. Kleim and Irwin S. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Activity Number 6.1.) After determining the durations and sequences.2. Forward pass (where ES is early start. April 7.2 6. Task 6.1 is the successor and it will begin on April 4 at 8:00 A. He performs the forward pass. by moving from the first task in the network diagram up through the last.M.M.2.1 will begin on 8:00 A. too.1. on April 6.5 Next. He knows.1.1. Task 6. They both will begin on the day after 6.2. Task 6. Now. Task 6.2. It. 2. on the April 3.M.2 has a duration of one day. April 1.2 has a duration of two days. on April 8. has a duration of three days and is completed at 5:00 P.2 Task Description Identify limousine service to church Coordinate limousine service to church Determine transportation requirements to church Coordinate transportation to church Arrange for valet service for church Hours 24 8 24 16 8 Duration (Hours/8) 3 1 3 2 1 ----------- 188.8.131.52 is completed.2. that the duration is three days. Perry logically ties all the tasks together in a network diagram. The one that is finished the furthest . Two successor tasks follow 6. Perry knows that task 6.M.M.. as shown in Exhibit 8-188.8.131.52.5 cannot be begun until its two predecessor tasks are finished. (A network diagram was shown in Exhibit 8-1. and 3.1. Exhibit 8-5. too. Perry calculates the early start and early finish dates for each task and then the entire project.1 6.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. so it is completed at 5:00 P. so its completion date is April 7. He also knows that the previous task was completed the day before.1.1.1. finishing at 5:00 P.2.1.1.
2. By obtaining input. Assuming that the finish date to task 6. Perry now calculates the late start and late finish dates for each task. Is Work Group Participation the Best Way? In many environments.5 has been set as April 9. Since they each finish the day before.2. Since task 6. the more time to develop the schedule.2 is a concurrent activity.2. it can begin as far back as April 7.1.1. For instance.1. These dates are necessary to calculate the float for a task. Work group participation also helps to raise issues and question assumptions early to preclude future misunderstandings and problems. early finish.1. He realizes that task 6.2. This movement from right to left is the backward pass.2 has a duration of two days and. with a duration of one day. the project manager has overall responsibility for the project. especially for the work each person is responsible to do. will be completed on April 9. Exhibit 8-6. And since task 6. Or if it does not have to be finished as early as possible. there may be time to slide. he moves from right to left.22.214.171.124 and 6.2. consequently.1. with a duration of three days.2.1's duration is three days. Perry uses a simple calculation to determine float: the difference between the early start date and the late finish date. its late start date is April 4. Hence.1. the project manager solicits ownership in and commitment to the schedule.2.1.1. their late finish dates are April 8. beginning with the very last task and calculating the late start and late finish dates.1. It's a "snapshot" presented here to illustrate the basics of network diagramming and calculating dates. Although participation adds to the flow time.2.1.5 has a duration of one day and.2 and 6. Getting people involved adds time.1. The Float Perry now has four dates for each task: early start. the same late start date as 6. it must finish the day before.2. Previous Table of Contents Next . there is time to let the date slide a bit. Since 6. Also.out—6. One is the time required to obtain this input. begins on that same day.1 is the predecessor to both 6.5 can begin." The counterargument is that the work group should have a say in building the schedule. 6. and late finish. and has a shorter duration. on April 3.1. it does offer some powerful advantages. Task 6. project managers develop schedules without input or feedback from the people who will be doing the work.5 will begin on April 9 and.5 has two predecessors.2.1.2—must end before 6. providing a late start date of April 9. has a late start date of April 7. late start. Perry can begin the backward pass.1.2. He knows that 6. and the more people.2.2. The project manager has the big picture perspective and can ensure that "all the pieces fit together.2. it must have a late finish date of April 6. Since task 6. consequently. as shown in Exhibit 8-6. minus the duration. Note: this is only a partial description of the network diagram for the wedding. There are several reasons for this.1. LF is late finish).1 is the predecessor of 6.2. Float is the time an activity can slide without affecting the project completion date.1. Backward pass (where LS is late start.1. it must have a late start on April 22.214.171.124. as shown in Exhibit 8-7. Using the same durations and dependencies in the network diagram. if a task does not have to be begun right away. 6.
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The bar chart often is useful. Critical path showing float. Kleim and Irwin S. The fundamental difference between a bar chart and a network diagram is that the former does not show dependencies. It. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Tasks given a zero float means that they cannot slide. There are. As Exhibit 8-8 shows. in reality. The float just described is known as total float and affects the project end date. which occurs on noncritical paths. a standard bar chart does not present all four dates for a task. too. if they do. The one or more paths through the network diagram that have tasks with zero floats are called the critical path. Another diagramming technique is the bar. relies on relationships. Thus. its simplicity. Also. for each one.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L." or summarizing the progress of a related group of tasks. The arrow diagram uses "nodes" to represent events and arrows to describe the task between those nodes. and engineering industries. Other Types of Network Diagrams Perry has used one type of network diagram. and summarization capabilities make it an excellent tool for reporting to senior management. the arrow diagramming method is used. It is used most often in nonconstruction applications. It is also excellent for "rolling up. or Gantt. two types of float. The other type is the free float. such as in the information systems. but several other types exist. It is easy to read. too. visual orientation. The bar itself provides a visual means to check the status of a task. The bar chart displays a list of tasks and. showing only one set of start and finish dates. chart. this technique uses dummy activities that consume no resources. as shown in Exhibit 8-7. for several reasons. It gives senior . unlike the precedence diagramming method. Perry's choice is the precedence diagramming method. ----------- Exhibit 8-7. This is the time that an activity can slide without impacting the start date of its successor. then the project end date will slide. For construction applications. a bar shows the flow time or duration. pharmaceutical. but they take a different form.
A bar chart using roll-ups is shown in Exhibit 8-9. This event might be receiving approval or the completion of a task.0 Flowers 9.0 Gifts and favors 5. The schedule provides a road map for him and all team members to follow.management the big picture rather than the details. Exhibit 8-9. The icon has a duration of zero. If you developed a network diagram.0 Attire 6.0 Parties 2. Did you develop a network diagram or a bar chart? Or both? 2. logical diagram? • Convert the hours for each task to flow time or duration? • Calculate the early and late start and finish dates for each task? • Consider the constraints. it is best used when reporting to senior management. such as imposed dates. Like the basic bar chart.0 Transportation 7. Roll-up bar chart. Task 1.0 Honeymoon 10. However. It has the outlay of a bar chart but also has an icon or symbol to mark the occurrence of an event. He uses the bar chart for reporting to senior management.0 Fees 8. Questions for Getting Started 1.0 Guests Duration Jan Feb Month Mar Apr Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê May Ê Jun Perry uses the network diagram to plan the details of the project and manage it from day to day. did you: • Assign task numbers to each item in the WBS? Is the numbering scheme meaningful? • Identify the people who will help you put the logic together? • Tie all the tasks together to form a complete. He also needs to organize his project so that he can efficiently and effectively execute his plan. Exhibit 8-10.0 Stationery 3. Exhibit 8-8. Basic bar chart. Exhibit 8-10 is an example of a milestone chart. Milestone chart. The milestone chart is a type of bar chart. when calculating dates? • Consider relationship types and lag? • Calculate float to identify the critical path(s)? • Obtain all core team members' concurrence? .0 Photography/ Videography 4. he realizes that a schedule can help him to accomplish only so much. Perry builds a realistic schedule. The Schedule as a Road Map Using the work breakdown structure and the time estimates that he developed earlier.
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for most projects in general and for the Smythe Project in particular. Assign Resources to Those Tasks Perry starts determining how to best apply his resources. and facilities. When assigning people resources.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. These tasks are the same ones as at the work package level in the work breakdown structure (see Chapter 6). supplies. are the predominant resource and. he considers several factors. Resource allocation. including people. Identify the Tasks Involved Perry goes directly to the network diagram to identify the tasks involved in his project. Resource allocation involves four basic steps: 1. 2. the major focus here to illustrate resource allocation principles. a part of the organizing function. a project manager has a wide variety of resources to employ. both people and things—and use them efficiently and effectively. equipment. Kleim and Irwin S. Perry must have sufficient resources—that is. including: • Availability • Available budget • Education/training • Equipment to do work • Expertise • Individual's desire or interest . consequently. As Perry knows. People. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Chapter 9 Resource Allocation: Aligning People and Other Resources With Tasks For the Smythe Project to succeed. allows him to do that.
and work owing to oversights or mistakes. Unleveled histogram. Of course. He uses job enrichment to motivate other team members. He recognizes that some people may not be suitable to do certain tasks (e. such as a consultant or contract employee (see "Consultants and Outsources. The low points are valleys. He can also reduce the float of noncritical activities by lengthening their duration without changing the total hours of effort. then Perry can rearrange assignments to lower the working hours per day or employ an alternative person. for instance. The high points are peaks. The continuous vertical bars profile the cumulative hours that someone will work on one or more concurrent tasks. He can change the logic of the schedule so that the number of concurrent activities someone is as. performance.e. 3. He will use job enlargement. Perry is willing to take the chance in applying his people resources. Build a Resource Profile The resource profile graphically displays the planned and actual use of one or more resources over the duration of a task.. The y-axis shows the cumulative hours to perform one or more tasks." below). since the potential payback in productivity will easily outweigh the risks. and the process of smoothing it out is called level loading. Exhibit 9-1. Finally. give preference to the task with the least float. give preference to the more complex task.• Knowledge • Personality • Teaming Perry also considers behavioral factors.g. such scenarios can negatively affect motivation. The peaks may indicate that the schedule is too tight (i.. or entire project.g. When it becomes impossible to alter the schedule. reflecting lower use of resources at a specific point in time. When allocating resources. Of course. and productivity. thereby leveling the work. Perry recognizes that there are some risks. thereby requiring extensive overtime to complete the work. • If two activities are critical and have the same float. The valleys may indicate that too much time is available to complete a task. he can reduce the output from certain tasks. The schedule may be too loose (i. reflecting greater use of resources at a specific point in time. The x-axis shows a time continuum reflecting the early or late start and finish dates. The initial histogram often has an irregular shape. • Give priority to tasks on the critical path. Exhibit 9-1 is an example of a histogram with several peaks and valleys. Too little duration can lead to burnout. group of tasks. as shown in Exhibit 9-1. such as personality. The result is called a leveled histogram. Either way. a histogram is rarely flat. to challenge certain people to assume more responsibilities. Adjust the Schedule or Pursue Alternatives Perry can level his histogram in several ways.. change a start-to-start relationship to a finish-to-start one) or add lag between the two activities to reduce concurrency.. compressed durations). Perry also considers the motivational tools at his disposal. negative conflict. An irregular shape to the histogram reflects that resources are being employed inefficiently or ineffectively. . Therefore.e. signed is less. He can change the relationship between two activities (e. And he considers job rotation. The display is often a histogram. an engineer may well be unsuitable to do the work of a salesman). similar to what appears in Exhibit 9-2. However. Perry attempts to reduce the number of peaks and valleys by smoothing out the histogram as much as possible. mainly the inability of the person to handle different or greater responsibilities. Too much duration communicates a lack of importance or urgency. 4. durations too spread out). Perry applies the following heuristics (or rules of thumb): • With noncritical tasks.
1. Too much overtime is symptomatic of major project management problems.1 6. cost. Leveled histogram. If excessive overtime becomes the norm. especially ones where meeting the completion date is critical.4 6.1.1. Periodic overtime is fine.5 6.2.1 6.6 Description Identify limousine service to church Coordinate limousine service to church Identify limousine service to reception Coordinate limousine service to reception Determine transportation requirements to church Coordinate transportation to church Determine transportation requirements to and from reception Coordinate transportation to and from reception Arrange for valet service for church Arrange for valet service for reception Duration (Days) 3 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 Assigned to Ewing Ewing Ewing Eisenberg Ewing Eisenburg Ewing Eisenberg Smith Smith Hours/Day 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Previous Table of Contents Next . extensive overtime can result in burnout.1. and scrapped work. Exhibit 9-3. a management-by-crisis situation. 6. overtime is the norm rather than the rule. level the major peaks in the histogram. From a schedule. which is a common condition in the information systems world.Exhibit 9-2. and quality perspective.3 6.2 6. From a behavioral perspective. There may be an unrealistic schedule. serious replanning is required. but if taken to the extreme.2.3 6. To avoid overtime problems. poorly trained people. People's performance becomes impaired.1.1.2. excessive overtime has an effect.1. inadequate equipment or facilities. Overtime and Burnout On many projects. Work assignments.1. Burnout can lead to omissions.1.1.2. low morale. it can have long-term effects on team members and influence overall performance on the project. all contributing to lower productivity. or lack of teamwork.2 6.1.4 6.1.2. Task No.1. rework.2. too.1.
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6. Look at several consultants rather than one as a sole source. Is it a deliverable product? Is it a document or just "advice" in oral form? 2. 4. or 6. Exhibit 9-3 shows the assignments of everyone to this task. Take the following steps when hiring consultants.1. 3.3.1.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. 184.108.40.206.1. Double the duration but not the work effort (hours) for 6. contractor.1.. or both) with additional help (e. consultant. Know exactly what you expect from the consultant. After making the changes to the assignments and changing the precedence relationships (see Exhibit 9-6). Perry figures he has several options: 1.2. project managers will not have sufficient labor resources to complete their projects. Switch the start-to-start relationship to finish-to-start for tasks 6. Kleim and Irwin S.1. or outsource). Exhibit 9-4 shows the original histogram for Ewing. since their services can prove expensive and the quality of their output is often debatable. He notices that the histogram for Ewing has high peaks in the beginning and a sharp drop several days later.1. But hiring consultants should not be done lightly. and Exhibit 9-5 shows that portion of the network diagram related to transportation.. he generates a leveled histogram for Ewing (see Exhibit 9-7).1.2. This will reduce the peak for Ewing. or both with 6. A solution is to hire consultants.g.0 in the work breakdown structure). Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title How Perry Levels the Load Perry develops a histogram for tasks related to transportation (6. .3. 2.g.2.1. Replace Ewing on certain concurrent tasks (e.1. Consultants and Outsources ----------- Consultants From time to time. Reliance on one consultant increases dependency. 1. which is a noncritical-path task.3 or 6.1.3. Change the precedence relationships between tasks.1.
4. The work can cost more initially. Ensure that the terms and conditions of an agreement exactly describe the deliverable. If nonperformance occurs. Who is on their client list? How satisfied are the clients with their work? What is their reputability in performing that type of work? 4. 5. Often. Outsourcing has its advantages.Exhibit 9-4. Do an analysis to determine if outsourcing is a better option than having the team do the work. And it takes time to find a reliable outsourcing vendor. 2. Finally. Select from several outsourcing vendors. which can eventually lead to disagreements that can only be resolved in the courts. If outsourcing something critical. 5. but especially for critical services or deliverables. complex deliverables to expertise that does not exist on the team. Have those reviews documented to prevent legal problems regarding the quality of output. the rights for reviews and audits should be incorporated in the contract as a general rule. 3. Outsourcing Services An alternative to using consultants is outsourcing. too. Don't rely on general statements. it can allow for flexibility in responding to a fast-paced environment. The potential for losing control may be high. a project manager might outsource the development and delivery of a deliverable or component of the product being built. For example. Include the tasks of consultants in the work breakdown structure and on the schedule. 3. it is easier to show the impact on the overall progress of the project. at least from a schedule and cost perspective. A bad outsourcing decision can have disastrous results on the entire project. To ensure that you make a good outsourcing decision: 1. Monitor the performance. Exhibit 9-5. Network diagram (portion for transportation). Identify what you can outsource. It can shift nonessential deliverables to outside vendors so that the team can focus on critical matters. . Actually. Compare each one. Unleveled histogram for Ewing. Exhibit 9-6. It can help shift the development of difficult. since less is invested in a project infrastructure and the outsourcing can be canceled without investing too much. Expect periodic reviews to preclude the unexpected lack of delivery. these are services or deliverables not essential to the outcome of the project. Network diagram with logic change. Conduct a background investigation. not just on a cost basis but also on reputability of work and service. by which an independent vendor provides a service and assumes responsibility for the results. 6. Identify what is too critical to outsource. then ensure that reviews and audits are stipulated in the contract. Outsourcing has its disadvantages.
Fast-tracking accelerates the life of a project. building profiles. While the focus on results does provide opportunities for effective teaming. of course. The emphasis is on getting results quickly and correctly. Fast-tracking works best when the project has a previous history. Do you know all the different types of resources you will need? 3. Perry must be sensitive to their psychological needs (e. Did you need to or attempt to level each of the histograms? 7. It is building a product or delivering a service in a very short period of time. one major difference. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. which. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. it can have long-term negative consequences. This psychological factor becomes especially important not only when Perry assigns tasks but also when he starts to organize his team to efficiently and effectively achieve the goals of the project. The downside to fast-tracking is burnout. In exchange for speedy delivery. what steps are you willing to take to deal with the effects of burnout? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. There is. however.g. When doing people allocation. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. Summing Up Resource Allocation The principles of resource allocation apply to inanimate objects such as desks and supplies no less than to people. Did you assign people to all the tasks? 5. even creativity. and the opportunity for reuse exists. There are usually several concurrent activities. People on accelerated projects work at a feverish pace for a short time. Did you run a resource histogram for each person? 6. failures can be magnified and lead to finger pointing. Did you identify the tasks to allocate your resources? 2. Leveled histogram for Ewing. however. do you consider behavioral as well as technical factors? 8. the team members are highly skilled and have previous experience. usually undertaken for a time-to-market circumstance in an emergency. did you perform a background analysis first? 9. If overtime appears in the histograms. Accelerated Projects It's called fast-tracking. If you use consultants or outsourcing. All rights reserved. Fast-tracking also requires constant training and retraining so people can perform quickly. . Little time is available for experimentation. Is there a resource pool where you can get all the resources you need? If not. Questions for Getting Started 1. is not necessary for inanimate objects. values). and making adjustments to satisfy requirements.Exhibit 9-7. feelings. In either case allocating resources requires identifying the tasks. Information system projects that must deliver an application under market pressure quite commonly fit this category. When you assign people to tasks. is it constant or sporadic? If the former. making assignments. will you need consultants? Will you need to out-source? 4..
He must know all the players. Some projects have too many leaders. 3. Others lack an appreciation for its contribution to project success. yet project managers often give too little attention to organizing their group.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Still others have a preference for an unofficial organizational structure. especially one that handles medium to large projects like his: 1. He must know the project goals. 4. Good organization makes sense. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 10 Team Organization Over the years. ----------- Ten Prerequisites for Effective Organization Perry must satisfy some preliminary requirements to build a formal organization. This knowledge will help to determine how to best arrange his resources. 2. His team can operate more efficiently. This knowledge will help him to determine who will support him directly and who will provide ad hoc support. teams are an assembly of people and nothing more. because roles and reporting relationships will be clear — which in turn reduces the opportunities for conflict. waiting for all the leaders to reach agreement or gain approvals. the project may be around for a long time. To augment frustration levels. Although the team may be temporary. Frequently. It can operate more effectively. Perry can realize many advantages. because each person will know what is expected of him or her. He must understand the political climate. He must receive preliminary concurrence on the project organization from all the major players . Some project managers fear alienating people by setting up a project organization. impeding effective communication. Kleim and Irwin S. team members become frustrated. tasks frequently are unclear. leaving only a few people to do the work and making coordination difficult. lacking definitions of roles and responsibilities. Perry has seen the symptoms of poor team organization. Other projects have too many layers of management. Through the function of organization. since responsibilities and reporting relationships will be clearly defined. The team has higher morale.
The project manager can acquire people with the right skills at the right time. it can become too independent.g. If he wants tight control. this helps keep the cost lower. . "stealing" people from other projects. Since a task force would last for only a fixed duration. customers). Often. It also usually operates autonomously. Staff functions do not contribute directly to the results and ordinarily they are not part of the core team. The task force structure is shown in Exhibit 10-1. and accountability. As the project grows. It is not uncommon for a project to experience lapses in quality as a result. Other organizations and projects are robbed of badly needed expertise. task forces are temporary. He must consider how to group the functions of the project team. the task force may experience severe morale problems. communication. This will depend on how much control he wants to maintain. appointing team leaders). responsibility. He must consider how much autonomy to grant people on the project. This means determining how many people he can effectively manage before establishing an additional layer of management (e. devotes its entire energies to its accomplishment.(e. For command and control purposes. The matrix structure offers several advantages. People don't need to look for a new job as the project concludes. He must identify the line and staff functions. he must negotiate with functional and other managers to obtain people's help. This action will clarify roles early and reduce the opportunity for conflict. It allows for sharing people with heavy expertise among several projects. The goal of the project will help determine the positions. there's a danger that few people would have loyalty to the project and stay the course. Should he mix them or segregate them? If the latter. How much authority will he have and how much can he grant? How much responsibility can he relinquish and still be accountable for the results? 9. 5. By its very nature. people report to their functional managers but support one or more project managers. with its own budget and authority. he will limit the autonomy he grants to project participants. It will also make assigning responsibilities easier. Perry does not like the task force structure. He must publish the organization chart as early as possible. As a project ends. thereby reducing the need to keep people on when they are not needed. especially if projects are sharing resources. leaving it vulnerable to schedule slippages and lapses in quality. 8.. He must determine the appropriate span of control. Types of Organizational Structure There are two basic types of organizational structures for a project: task force and matrix. as people scramble for new jobs before completing their responsibilities. A matrix structure obtains resources from functional organizations and also shares those people with other projects. The team is completely focused on that goal and. Despite these advantages. some people might depart early.. Keeping these shortcomings in mind. the team is disassembled once the goal is accomplished. Line functions contribute directly to the results. As the project experiences difficulties. He must consider issues of authority. It makes planning difficult. It enables creativity and experimentation within the confines of the goal and scope of the project. The matrix structure also gives senior management flexibility in changing the scope or stopping the project owing to different market conditions. 7. Exhibit 10-1. A generic matrix structure is shown in Exhibit 10-2 and the one for the Smythe wedding is shown in Exhibit 10-3. these are typically people on the core team. The task force is a group of people assembled to complete a specific goal. senior management. 6. at least for the Smythe Project. It isolates team members from organizational myopia and frees them from daily administrivia. and teaming? 10. consequently.g. how will he encourage information sharing. though. Task force structure. that a matrix structure presents challenges. Perry agrees with his boss that a matrix structure is best for the Smythe Project. Perry realizes. too. The task force has the advantage of giving visibility to a project.
He will coordinate closely with functional and other project managers to facilitate availability and try to integrate his project with other projects. change is a way of life in the matrix environment. too. Matrix structure. All rights reserved. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. and bonding. Finally. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Team members on multiple projects may be forced to determine which project to give attention to. . he will stress flexibility. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. He will encourage greater communication. adding to team angst. A matrix structure can wreak havoc on morale. That struggle can last a long time. since priorities and resource availabilities constantly change.Exhibit 10-2. To tackle these challenges. Perry recognizes the stress a matrix structure places on team members. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. the matrix structure often violates the unity-of-command principle (a single superior to whom subordinates report). Sometimes the competition is so keen that individuals become pawns in a power struggle among functional and project managers. information sharing. Finally.
A side benefit is a flatter organization chart. ----------- Exhibit 10-3. With members geographically dispersed and in different time zones.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. working with less supervision. Kleim and Irwin S. Similarly. mornings. groupware. in remote geographical locations. communication usually involves more than e-mail. There are many advantages to a virtual team. Since oversight is difficult. reality may provide a different picture. That is the nature of virtual teams. not just technically but also in managing projects. too. While sounding like a dream come true. coordination can be a nightmare. The first is how to provide support for these virtual team members. plus administrative matters such as accessibility to the project library and ways of collecting information nonelectronically. Many work alone. evenings). Some ways to handle these challenges include: • Conducting frequent face-to-face meetings and holding social gatherings • Developing objective ways to measure performance and completion criteria • Empowering people to assume responsibility and accountability for results . These changes include e-mail. There must be a way to discuss major project activities. project managers cannot closely monitor work. Second is how to overcome the purported loneliness that affects some virtual team members. Technologies such as these have enabled team members to work autonomously at remote locations during all time periods (e. Team members feel greater freedom. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Virtual Teams Recent advances in information systems have brought unparalleled changes to business. There are issues concerning hardware and software.g. It reduces the need for expensive facilities. and client-server technology. Organization chart reflecting matrix structure of Smythe Project. Third is the challenge of coordinating the activities of team members. the Internet. Their opportunities for social interaction and camaraderie are limited.. But a project team may never meet face-to-face with some people and will only interact electronically. Virtual teams can pose tough challenges.
and teaming skills are extremely important. meaning that people with different disciplines and backgrounds work together to achieve a common goal. the team's effort will be wasted. SWAT team members must solicit buy-in for their work. it will have developed and implemented a complete project plan. The team decides everything. from estimates to schedules.• Establishing time commitments for team members to respond to each other • Providing a standard suite of hardware and software tools SWAT Teams Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams are a growing presence in project management. Since the entire team is responsible for the results. To use SWAT teams effectively: 1. Other actions include selecting people. organize. a project SWAT team must quickly set up the appropriate project management and technical disciplines at the beginning of a project. define. 3. The key characteristic is the autonomy to make decisions without supervisory approval. 4. In the sense that their objective is to move quickly to complete their mission and pull out. plan. Specifically. otherwise. SDWTs are teams that have considerable autonomy while building a product or delivering a service. and close the project. or information. and improving processes. Members must be willing to tackle projects when goals and deliverables are ill defined. from setting priorities to allocating resources. These are small groups of individuals who are experts not just in project management but also in other subjects. Be aware that working on a SWAT team can cause burnout. Active listening. Once the disciplines have been established. Did you determine whether your project organization has or should have a task force or matrix structure? 2. Obtain support for the work of a SWAT team by follow-on teleconferencing sessions. They must keep abreast of technologies in order to provide state-of-the-art expertise. Cross-training can help. who are responsible for completing the project. but only so far. Self-Directed Work Teams In recent years. facilitation. too. By the time its work is completed. called a Self-Directed Work Team (SDWT). Regardless of the type. communication. Provide constant training for SWAT team members. soft skills are important. These teams are cross-functional. all members must help lead. evaluating performance. expertise. For example. Although hard skills (e. SWAT team work is intense. 2. the team relinquishes control to a project manager and his group.. these groups are like the police SWAT teams from which they get their name.g. a different approach to building teams has emerged. Also important is the ability to keep calm under pressure and a willingness to share equipment. expertise with software and hardware) are important. Questions for Getting Started 1. did you consider the following when organizing the team: • Accountability issues? • Authority issues? . It is a group of professionals sharing responsibility for results. Morale and energy levels can plummet. Several trends are pushing toward the SDWT concept because these teams: • Create flatter organizations • Empower employees • Encourage greater teaming • Encourage people to have a more general background • Enlarge spans of control SDWTs are excellent candidates for applying project management ideas. Select people for the SWAT team who can handle ambiguity. control. The tools and techniques of project management enable teams to do that.
If a task force structure. even partially.... Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.• Basis for grouping functions? • Concurrence from the right people? • Level of autonomy for team members? • Players? • Political climate? • Project goals? • Responsibility issues? • Span of control? • When to publish the organization chart? • Which are the line and which are the staff functions? 3. All rights reserved. what can you do to deal with its shortcomings (e. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. ongoing technical support) often associated with such teams? 6. decline in loyalty)? 4. competition among projects for key people)? 5. If you have a virtual team..g.g.g. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. how will you deal with the challenges (e. If you have a SWAT team. burnout) often associated with such teams? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.g. how will you overcome the challenges (e. . If a matrix structure. what can you do to deal with its shortcomings (e.
Perry looks for overruns and underruns on a task-by-task global basis. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 11 Budget Development and Cost Calculation Nothing gets done without money. He must develop budgets on a task-by-task basis and for the entire project. contract) . As project manager. Perry establishes a management reserve. Of particular importance are estimates versus actual costs up to a given point.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Kleim and Irwin S. ----------- Different Kinds of Costs Perry knows that many items in a project cost money. If the actual costs exceed the estimated costs up to a specific point. if necessary. If the feedback has an overrun. Perry takes corrective action. and usage) • Facilities (office space. He seeks additional funding. They also help determine priorities as the project progresses. identifying and reporting deviations to upper management. for example. he tracks and monitors expenditures. There are many reasons for calculating costs before they are incurred. they contribute to the overall profitability of a company. Cost calculations later become a tool for measuring the efficiency of a project team. This reserve increases the overall cost estimate for the project. an underrun exists. usually 3 to 5 percent of the total estimate for the project. To begin. If the actual costs are less than the estimated costs up to a specific point. they give an idea of how much the goals will cost to achieve. The typical ones are: • Equipment (purchase. Projects are no exception. Perry has several responsibilities for budgeting. When estimating his costs. He must ensure that expenditures stay within the budget allocated for each task and the project as a whole. rental. Finally. Later. Perry uses the cost estimates to compare to actual expenditures. to address unexpected costs. lease. Finally. and Perry is the first to realize this. warehouses) • Labor (employee. an overrun exists. while controlling his project.
conferences. long-term payments for facilities. Nonrecurring costs appear only once — for example. labor is seen as the primary contributor to costs. the purchase of equipment. materials and specialized labor. not just reducing head count. Nonburdened Labor Rates Burdened labor rates include the cost of fringe benefits — for example. Traditional accounting emphasizes "hacking away many heads. toner. Project managers can play a major role in furthering the use of ABC. With traditional accounting methods. while with ABC. ABC also requires good definitions of what the customer wants (statement of work). a list of the activities for meeting those wants (work breakdown structure). sundries) • Training (seminars. cost of materials. It also focuses on customers. overhead and materials have significant impact. since the true cost of the final product is passed on to the customers. Variable Costs Fixed costs are not alterable owing to changes in work volume — for example. Recurring vs. Fixed vs. sea." not reducing material and overhead costs.• Supplies (paper. and fixed monies (cost estimates) to produce the product or deliver the service. ABC instead focuses on processes and their improvement. symposiums) • Transportation (land. monthly. Activity-Based Costing (ABC) Activity-based costing (ABC) is a process approach to accounting. Project managers can realistically determine direct and indirect costs and also determine what processes to improve or remove in order to increase customer satisfaction and reduce costs. Burdened vs. weekly. or hourly rate) × (period of usage) There are also different ways to classify costs. Indirect Costs Direct costs directly relate to the building of a product — for example. rent and taxes. pencils. insurance and floor space and . giving a realistic portrait of the total costs for a project. Variable costs vary depending upon consumption and workload — for example. cost of facilities usage. air) The standard formulas for calculating these costs are: Equipment = purchase price or lease price × time period or rental price × time period Facilities = lease price × time period or rental price × time period Labor costs = (regular hours × hourly rate) + (overtime hours × time and a half rate) + (overtime hours × double time rate) Supplies = quantity × unit price Training costs = (tuition cost × number of attendees) + (the sum of the labor costs for attendees) Transportation costs = (daily. Nonrecurring Costs Recurring costs appear regularly — for example. Indirect costs are other than direct costs and not necessarily related to the building of a product — for example. Direct vs.
the better the definition. since they represent hourly rate times total hours. see Chapter 5. Unless identified. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. All rights reserved. including time and a half and overtime. Finally. If the work estimate is reliable. The assumptions are spelled out in the statement of work. Overtime Labor Rates Regular labor rates are less than or equal to 40 hours per week. Making a reliable cost estimate also depends on a good work breakdown structure (WBS). Regular vs. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited.nonlabor overhead. see Chapter 6. Overtime labor rates are more than 40 hours per week. these assumptions can lead to misunderstandings and ultimately to inaccurate calculations. then the costs should have an equivalent reliability. too. Most cost estimates rely on a count of labor hours to complete work. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. How to Calculate Costs Making a reliable cost estimate depends on the amount of information available for estimating. estimates often are based on assumptions. the more reliable the estimate because the parameters of the final product or service have been established. see Chapter 7. . to produce a reliable cost estimate requires a good project definition. Nonburdened rates are labor rates minus the cost of fringe benefits and overhead. of course. see Chapter 5. Obtaining a reliable cost estimate depends on good time estimates. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. Having more information means you have greater ability to discern the elements that constitute an estimate. And.
excluding the management reserve.00 Labor Telephone Transportation Training Equipment Supplies Total Estimate Perry a good idea of how well expenditures have gone and will go if the current levels of performance continue.00 0. The MEAC is the actual expenditures to date plus the remaining estimate to complete the entire project.00 12. Kleim and Irwin S.00 0.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title What follows is an example of how Perry estimates the costs for each task in the WBS. He uses a worksheet format (Exhibit 11-1) to calculate the figures. Costs ($) 560. Perry tracks the estimate-at-completion for each task and the management-estimate-at-completion (MEAC). What Happens If Cost Estimates Are Too High? .00 0.00 20.00 592.00 round to 600. The summary of his calculations is the total cost for the project. Both the estimate-at-completion and the actual expenditures to date give ----------- Exhibit 11-1 Worksheet for estimating costs. The estimate-at-completion is a combination of actual expenditures to date up to a specific point plus the remaining estimate to complete the project.
along with schedules. All rights reserved. reduce the work requirements as described in the work breakdown structure. To a large extent. too. and modify the assignments. the project manager can negotiate with the customer to reduce or revise the scope of the project. project managers are asked to reduce their estimates. Perry knows. reduce the time estimates. Fortunately. . Did you identify all the types of costs for your project? 2. Top management often feels that a project can be completed with less money. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. If you elect to have a management reserve. The project manager can also develop revised cost estimates. did you determine the appropriate percent to be multiplied against the total costs of the tasks? 5. Finally. Presenting the reasons and assumptions especially gives a persuasive argument for retaining the cost estimates. the rationale behind the time estimates and the accompanying calculations. that costs. are susceptible to positive and negative changes that may increase or decrease the reliability of his estimates. The project manager can communicate her reasons for the cost estimates. Did you identify the rates for usage and quantity that you plan to consume? 3. Based on feedback from senior management. If you received pressure from your management or the customer for having too high an estimate. they have several options. Ultimately. this reliability will be affected by the degree of risk associated with his schedule and cost estimates. Perry appreciates the importance of identifying and managing costs throughout the life of the project. did you develop alternative ways to deal with their resistance? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Questions for Getting Started 1. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. she can select the best revised estimate.Frequently. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. The Smythe Project is no exception. Dealing with such commands is one of the hardest challenges facing project managers. Did you calculate the total costs by summing the totals for each task? 4. revisions to the scope will then be reflected in the estimated costs. It may even declare a 10 percent across-the-board reduction for all projects. He knows that how he categorizes costs is not as important as ensuring that the project completes within budget. The key: Identifying and Managing Costs Money is the oil that gets projects moving and keeps them running. for example. She can explain.
she can prevent or mitigate its impacts by using risk management. which involves anticipating responses to negative circumstances. and senior management to solicit input. It involves deciding under what circumstances to take action to prevent or mitigate the impact of a risk. and reporting risk. he can identify priorities. including the statement of work. expertise. The information is necessary to understand the major processes and components. and perspective. Perry will rely on his and others' knowledge and expertise. He will meet with core team members. analyzing. It will take time to collect the information and assemble it in some meaningful form. time. and the controls that should be in place. Kleim and Irwin S. controlling. This information prepares him for the next step. technical issues at the expense of business ones). and requirements documents. work breakdown structure. Perry essentially will do contingency planning. ----------- Managing Risk: A Four-Step Process Risk management is the process of identifying. He will review documentation.. so that he can maximize his assets and minimize his losses. To do this. Perry will compare the "should be" controls with the ones that do exist and will identify any discrepancies. the customer. the accompanying threats. Risk identification is the identification of major elements of a project and their associated risks. rather try to control everything. He will use his expertise in project management to apply risk management while maintaining a broad perspective to avoid focusing on just one area (e. thereby focusing his energies and resources as well as developing a meaningful project plan. Risk control is the determination of controls that can mitigate the risks. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 12 Risk Management Projects can fail for a number of reasons and the risks are always high. Risk analysis is the classification of those elements to different levels of risk. Perry needs information. To perform risk management. He will also determine the probability or likelihood each risk will materialize and whether a control is necessary. Perry knows that by managing risk.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L.g. The analysis of risk indicates the strengths and the weaknesses of the project. . Risk reporting is the act of informing team members and senior management of those risks. It helps him to identify and put into place the most important controls. While a project manager cannot eliminate risk.
Risks are either short or long term. Risks are either acceptable or unacceptable. A technical risk is the inability to build the product that will satisfy requirements. . such as when senior management arbitrarily cuts funding by 20 percent. risks are either internal or external. • Staff expertise and experience. such as the inability to get the parts of a product to work. of course. The more times a project of a similar nature has been done. A vulnerability is the inherent degree of weakness of a component. An external risk originates from outside the scope of the project. the greater the ability to respond to problems as they arise. Having more time means greater flexibility and the opportunity to prevent or mitigate the impact of errors. more money brings greater ability to secure equipment or people when needed. A short-term risk has an immediate impact. or both. A project is a system consisting of components that. • Team size. do not guarantee protection from risk. For example." the greater the risks of a problem arising. Categorizing risks is. in turn. people will struggle to learn as they go along. An example of a threat is when there is no customer buy-in of a schedule or requirement. Plentiful resources. robbing the project of time and possibly introducing errors. such as releasing a product without adequate testing.Exposure Several factors can expose projects to higher than normal risk. If the staff lacks direct experience and knowledge of the subject. An example of a business risk is misuse of project funds. The more sophisticated a project. • A component is a basic element of an overall system. communications can be more difficult as the number of participants increases. Management irritability can lead to unrealistic scheduling and inefficient use of resources. which in turn means reaching goals. of course. Key Concepts in Risk Management When performing risk management. • Management stability." • A threat is the occurrence of an event that negatively affects a project in some manner. such as ones dealing with information systems or biotechnologies. A manageable risk is one you can live with. The number of interactions among people increases and thus they require greater coordination. • History. The more senior management plays "musical chairs. such as a huge turnover of core team members. such as a schedule having no acceptance by the customer. the higher the probability of a problem arising. and impact to the project. then the risks are magnified. A threat exploits a vulnerability. are risk laden. For example. technical. Untested technologies. Risks are viewed as either manageable or unmanageable. Perry remembers the following concepts. If a schedule is highly compressed. An unmanageable risk is impossible to accommodate. relative importance. With every new management comes the possibility of changed priorities and directions. such as a minor requirement change. deliverables. Examples of a component are a process like "determining requirements" or a deliverable like a "requirements document. the greater the opportunity of a mistake or slipup. Management stability implies unity of direction. can consist of subcomponents. These classifications can help you determine the source. or operational. The larger the team. • Time compression. however they do provide the means to respond to it. • Complexity. mainly an academic exercise. The more resources that are available. the greater the likelihood of success. or exposure. Newer projects are riskier because the processes have not been refined. Components can be processes. An unacceptable risk is one that negatively affects the critical path. A long-term risk has an impact sometime in the distant future. An operational risk is the inability of the customer to work with core team members. Finally. An acceptable risk is one that negatively affects a task on the noncritical path. such as changing the requirements for a deliverable. • Resource availability. An internal risk is peculiar to a project. Categories of risk Risks can be viewed as business.
prevent. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. . A control can be physical. • Control is a measure in place to mitigate. Keeping the above concepts in mind. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. or logical. such as a required signature. Probability determines the extent to which a risk will occur and the level of vulnerability. will occur any-where from 0 to 100 percent. All rights reserved. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Perry can perform risk management using two approaches: quantitative or qualitative. such as a peer review. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.• Probability is the odds that something. like a threat. or correct the impact of a threat.
Control Mail or e-mail duplicate copies of project management documentation to the client. address the same requirements despite management having reduced the budget. A common qualitative approach is a precedence diagramming method. Unavailable requirements. or rules of thumb. known as risk acceptance. Accept the risk.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. which uses ordinal numbers to determine priorities and outcomes. Perry can take measures that will mitigate the impact of a risk. the risk or risks associated with each process. which generates a value from a probability distribution and other factors. Conduct periodic reviews. 2. For example. See Exhibit 12-1. and its impact on a project. applying probabilities to two or more outcomes. Avoid the risk. Example of a qualitative approach. For example. Adapt to the risk. Still another approach is the Monte Carlo simulation. Kleim and Irwin S. using criteria to determine outcomes. to determine outcomes. The qualitative approach relies on judgments. Unclear requirements. Perry takes action that will keep a risk from seriously . Another approach is heuristics. Another example is the three-point estimating technique described in Chapter 7. Perry can do nothing to prevent or mitigate the impact of a risk. 1. 2. its probability of occurrence. A common example of the quantitative approach is decision tree analysis. he continues to Exhibit 12-1. Process Risk 1. known as risk adaptation. he reduces requirements to reflect the corresponding cutback in funding. Obtain involvement of Inability to make regular client. contact. Determine requirements. 3. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title The quantitative approach relies on statistical calculation to determine risk. and the control or controls that may or should exist for each risk. An example of a qualitative approach is to list in descending order specific processes of a project. Draft requirements and review them with client. known as risk avoidance. ----------- Ways to Handle Risk There are four basic ways to deal with risk.
resource assignments. the content of the report will be basically the same. Perry has the option to develop either a written or an oral report. and then devise an appropriate response. however. he also communicates the list of risks and their accompanying controls to all people who have a need to know. The key is not to try to eliminate risks but to manage them. Exhibit 12-2. He then implements controls to mitigate or eliminate their potential impact. However. Risk Reporting Risk reporting occurs after risk identification. did you determine whether contingency plans should be in place? If so. its probability of occurrence. Did you identify the controls that should exist for preventing or mitigating risks to each component or process? 4. He considers options like changing the dependencies. Probability of Impacts Occurrence Low • Less attendance at reception or wedding • Delays in arrivals Description Cancellation of air transportation Response Set up charter flight The Key: Risk Management. a project will always face risks. Transfer the risk. technical. and its impacts (e. He uses a simple form to capture this information. business and technical). Did you identify the major threats to your project? Did you identify their probability of occurrence? 3. Not Elimination In a dynamic environment. economic. analysis. 4.g. For example. By developing and distributing documentation on risks and their controls. In either case... concise.impacting his project.g. Risk response form. durations. did you prepare the appropriate response? Previous Table of Contents Next . or time estimates. Did you identify the major components and processes for your project? 2. Perry also reviews the schedule to identify possible risks. When performing the contingency planning. Questions for Getting Started 1. and self-explanatory. to include probability of occurrence and impact. requirements. and recommendations or actions to strengthen controls or respond to risks when they become actual problems (e. It should contain categories of risks (e. risks for each component. and control are complete. Perry identifies and analyzes risks. Perry lets someone else assume the risk.. Perry will identify the expected event or threat. A risk report should be clear. as shown in Exhibit 12-2. For example. contingency plans). background and scope of project. components. Perry can either prevent related problems or minimize their effects when they occur. operational). For all control weaknesses. he contracts out or outsources certain high-risk tasks rather than let the core team handle them. he decides to narrow the scope of the project to avoid certain high risks. known as risk transfer. Did you conduct research to determine what controls actually exist? 5.g.
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Project documentation consists of the following items: • Procedures • Flowcharts • Forms • Reports • Memos • Project manual • Project library • Newsletters • History files Procedures For many projects. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- Chapter 13 Project Documentation: Procedures. It increases efficiency and effectiveness because everyone follows the "same sheet of music. They improve effectiveness by ensuring that people achieve project goals. It provides an audit trail for analysis and project reviews. planning. organizing. particularly large ones. It lends order and structure to the project by giving direction and setting parameters. procedures facilitate management. and Such Perry recognizes that documentation is essential for leading. A balance must exist." And it gives team members confidence. Memos.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. . Forms. Kleim and Irwin S. depending largely on the size and importance of the project. Good documentation serves as an excellent communication tool. He also realizes that too much documentation is as much a problem as too little. controlling. They help achieve efficiency by ensuring consistency of action. and closing a project. especially when things appear chaotic or there are too many unknowns. defining.
never to be used by anyone. consider the following when developing procedures." The results are poorly written and incomplete procedures. Chronological order is also good. Define special terms. Be positive. or vice versa. review. ensure that the text references the graphics and that the two match information. 5. Regardless of your writing ability. as well as conducts research on previous projects to find similar procedures. He chooses the latter. mainly to satisfy reviewers and auditors. Assign a version number to each and note the date. Avoid clichés. 8. and usability Procedures are often less than adequate on projects. the passive voice is weak and reveals a tentative writer. They are a tired way of expressing what you mean. 4. and publish the documents • People with good research. Use positive expressions. such as from the general to the specific. Avoid wordiness. They distract from the message and show sloppiness. of course. Finally. To develop a good set of procedures. Key Insights for Preparing Procedures Developing procedures is more than just writing words on paper. and editing skills • Management and user buy-in to ensure people follow the procedures • Feedback loop to ensure completeness. Some specific topics include: • Change control • Forms • Meetings • Organizational structure • Purchases • Reports • Resource usage • Responsibilities • Schedules • Statusing 2. 10. for several reasons. The reader needs to understand what you are saying. the project manager may view writing procedures as something that must be done only to "satisfy requirements. 3. Check for typographical and spelling errors. Integrate text and graphics. Identify the topics." Finally. Ideas should flow logically. The active voice is strong language. Use the active rather than the passive voice. Avoid "do not" or "cannot" because such phrases create a mental block in the reader's mind. you need the following: • Information to write about the topic • Time to prepare. Be original -. Watch your organization. Sometimes the project manager prepares the procedures late in the project. Perry can either develop a set of topics on his own or solicit help from the team. 9. Ideas are easier to grasp this way. 2.but always clear in your meaning. The reader may not know what you mean.They reduce the learning curve by providing guidance on the "way things are done. writing. There are four possible procedure formats: narrative . they improve productivity because people with questions can refer to the documentation rather than interrupt other people. If using both. ensures good procedures by following four simple steps. 1. Determine the format for the procedures. Perry. currency. Keep sentences short (less than 15 words) and paragraphs brief (usually less than 5 sentences). 1. Track your revisions. 6. For one. 7. Or the project manager may assign the task to someone who knows little about the project or whose role is minimal. so everyone uses the most recent version. Define acronyms the first time they appear and spell out abbreviations at first use. the procedures are prepared and then set on a shelf.
In the variance field. as shown in Exhibit 13-2. Authors' note: This example of the narrative format would actually have been one paragraph . has a step-by-step appearance. and item-by-item (Exhibit 13-4). Be sure to add the project number if one has been assigned. the narrative format has an essaylike appearance. which is shown above. . write the original estimated cost for the project. Submit one copy to your next higher level of management or to the chairman of your steering committee.(Exhibit 13-1). Narrative format. In the project field. Keep one copy for your records. Although a narrative presentation is easy to read. sequential (Exhibit 13-2). since the blocks of text minimize white space. And it is difficult to update or revise because it lacks modularity. . 11/26/00). write the date you are completing the form. Each sentence is a generally brief command. Completing and Submitting the Monthly Status Report Form Project: Date: Start (baseline): Finish (baseline): Management estimate at completion (MEAC) date: Variance: Original total cost estimate: Estimated cost to date: Actual cost to date: Management estimate at completion (MEAC) cost: Variance: Overall performance evaluation: This procedure describes how to complete and submit the Monthly Status Report (MSR) form. make three copies. Do the same for the finish (baseline) field. In the start (baseline) field. write the name of the project. 1. The PRO must have possession of the MSR no later than the final working day of a month. . information within it is often hard to find quickly. Its brevity. Exhibit 13-1. abundant white space. It is best used for procedures involving one person. One final note. In the management estimate at completion (MEAC) date field.1 After completing the MSR. playscript (Exhibit 13-3). write the difference in days between the MEAC and the original finish date. record the actual progress to date plus the remaining estimate of the work to be completed. if applicable.. The sequential format. Then attach the remaining copy to the original and submit both to the Project Review Office (PRO) at mail stop 78H1. and simplicity make it easy to follow and find information. In the total cost estimate field. In the date field.g. As Exhibit 13-1 demonstrates. using the month/day/year format (e. write the original start date using the same format as the one for the date field. It is therefore important to complete all fields and submit the form on time. Also. The MSR must be completed to track and monitor the performance of your project. it causes eyestrain.
longer; however, we deleted the instructions for the last five fields to spare our readers.
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Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Kleim and Irwin S. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98
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Exhibit 13-2. Sequential format. Monthly Status Report Form Instructions: Complete each field according to the procedure Completing the Monthly Status Report Form, below. Make a copy for your records and forward the original to the Program Office, mailstop 3X-41. Project: A Schedule: Start Baseline: C Finish Baseline: D Management Estimate at Completion Date: E Variance: F Budget: Original Total Cost Estimate: G Estimated Cost to Date: H Actual Cost to Date: I Management Estimate at Completion: J Variance: K Overall Performance Evaluation: L Completing the Monthly Status Report Form This procedure describes how to complete the Monthly Status Report form. 1. Obtain a copy of the form from the project office. 2. Answer each field on the form by matching the applicable letter below with the corresponding one shown in the figure on the next page. A. Name of the project B. Date you completed the form Date: B
C. The original start date in month/day/year format D. The original finish date in month/day/year format E. The date reflecting actual progress-to-date plus the remaining estimate of the work to be completed in month/day/year format F. The difference in days between the management estimate at completion and the original finish date G. The original estimated cost for the project H. The original estimated cost up to a specific date I. The costs accrued up to a specific date J. The actual costs accrued up to a specific date plus the remaining estimated costs to complete the project K. The original total estimated cost minus management at completion cost L. Your opinion about the overall progress of the project as well as a description of the major cost, budget, requirements, and technical issues impacting the project Exhibit 13-3. Playscript format. Processing the Monthly Status Report Form The procedure describes how to process the Monthly Status Report Form. It does not explain how to complete it. For that, refer to the procedure Completing the Monthly Status Report Form. PROJECT MANAGER 1. Obtain a copy of the Monthly Status Report Form. 2. Complete the Monthly Status Report Form. 3. Date and sign the form. 4. Make two (2) photocopies. a. Retain one copy for the project history file. b. Attach the other copy to the master document. PROGRAM OFFICE 1. Review the Monthly Status Report Form for completeness. 2. If incomplete: a. Prepare a memo noting the shortcomings. b. Attach a copy of the memo to the master document. c. File the copy. d. Return the memo and master copy to the project manager. 3. If complete: a. Date-stamp the master document and photocopy. b. File the master copy. c. Return the copy to the project manager. As with the sequential format, the playscript format (Exhibit 13-3) has a step-by-step appearance and possesses the same structure. Similarly, its brief style, abundant white space, and simplicity make it easy to follow and to find information. It is best used for procedures involving two or more people. The item-by-item format, shown in Exhibit 13-4, has all the characteristics and advantages of the sequential and playscript formats. It works best, however, when a procedure covers a mixture of topics. 3. Prepare, review, revise, and publish the procedure. This step should involve as much participation as possible by members of the team, so as to seek buy-in from those who must follow the procedures. Here is an outline of a typical procedure: I. Purpose II. Scope III. Contents IV. Approvals
V. Appendices Exhibit 13-4. Item-by-item format. Handling All Reports for Competitive-Sensitive Projects This procedure describes how to handle reports generated for projects designated proprietary. I. Cost Report A. Review the report. B. Store one copy of the report in a secure room, drawer, or safe. C. Shred any additional copies. II. Schedule Report A. Review the report. B. Store one copy of the report in a secure room, drawer, or safe. C. Shred any additional copies. III. Monthly Status Report A. Complete the report. B. Upon receiving the date-stamped copy from the program office, shred the original. C. Store the retained copy in a secure room, drawer, or safe. 4. Follow the procedures. At first the comment might sound academic; however, many projects have written procedures, let alone plans, that no one follows. In the end, the procedures serve no function other than to occupy a bare spot on a shelf.
Many times, pictures and diagrams are preferred over text or are treated as supplements to text. Flowcharts indeed are worth a thousand words. Flowcharts are easier to understand than written procedures and communicate more with less. However, even using flowcharts requires effort. It takes time to prepare them. They must be updated to maintain relevancy. And users and management must buy in to them if the project manager expects people to follow them. When developing flowcharts, keep the following points in mind. 1. Use symbols consistently. Provide a key to the symbols. 2. Put the flowcharts under version control. Different versions can quickly be released, thereby confusing people. 3. Use a software toot to generate the diagrams. Revisions will be easier and the charts clearer. 4. Keep it simple. Avoid putting too much on a page. A cluttered page can be as mentally taxing as large blocks of small text on a page. There are a number of flowcharting techniques. Some charts show the flow of control (e.g., do step 1, then step 2, and, if positive, do step 3). Others show the flow of data (e.g., the use of early and late dates and durations to calculate float). Exhibits 13-5 and 13-6 have flowcharts showing flow of control and data flow, respectively.
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Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. And there are usually too many forms of too many varieties. 2. Perry sees their value in managing his project. follow these four steps: 1. and conduct postimplementation reviews. Unfortunately. The instructions for completion and distribution are unclear. assignments. estimated labor usage. The fields do not flow logically. and publish the flowchart. This step is the same for procedures. Forms capture and communicate information. just as you would with written procedures. Forms Although many people dislike completing forms. they can quickly end up covering a bare spot on a bookshelf. Like procedures. review. They also provide audit trails to help learn from past experience. 3. Determine the topic. and status of activities. compile statistics. followed by data flow diagrams. Follow the flowchart. Prepare. Flow of control is the most popular. forms can capture information on such topics as activity descriptions. revise. . many forms are not user-friendly. 4. They ask for way too much information. Kleim and Irwin S. Determine the type of diagram and whether it is a substitute or a complement to a procedure. Ideally. problem identification and tracking. labor and nonlabor costs. change management. forms should have these qualities: • Be logically organized • Be readily available • Not exceed one page • List a source and destination • Have clear and concise instructions for completion and submission • Have adequate space for filling in information • Request only the necessary information For use in project management. Activity estimating. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- When flowcharting.
g. Distribute it either electronically or in hard copy. On computer disk or tape. Data flow. capturing schedule or cost data). 2.. to people who can complete it and to others who will use data that it captures). memos. Determine its purpose (e. Perry prepares the forms in their final form. Identify the exact data to capture. revisions). • Hard copy. 3. for either electronic use or as printed hard copies.. It requires investing in and maintaining a technology infrastructure (e. Traditional papers. Reports The right amount of feedback can make the difference between the success and failure of a project. Electronic copies can reduce the need for storage space. reports. Exhibit 13-6. 7. • Electronic copy. 8. Determine the topics requiring forms. Circulate the form for evaluation (e. Prepare the instructions for its completion. These are topics for which he will need information throughout the project. Unfortunately. lower labor-intensive actions (e. 4. As with procedures and flowcharts. 1.g. 2. although less so with the recent advances in electronic storage. Electronic storage has its challenges. Hard copy backups have been the norm. he also chooses an open layout that is easy to use.. Determine who will complete the form and who will process it.g. Prepare a draft of the form (e. usually typed or printed. Flow of control. training people to use the technology. and dealing with administrative issues such as disaster recovery and backup.g. Here are some guidelines on how to prepare a usable form: 1. Perry will obtain input from the major participants. Design the forms. It has the advantage of being familiar. Perry performs four steps to draw up forms for his project. difficult to keep current. using a graphics or spreadsheet program). 6. When designing the forms. 10. 4. the downside is that it can be costly to maintain. here. and make updating easier. Determine its source and destination. Reports . Distribution Methods There are essentially two ways to present forms. 5. 3.g. Perry gives everyone involved a chance to revise the forms and sharpen their design. labor-intensive to revise. Make revisions. highly prone to human error. if necessary. Distribute a first draft of the forms. 9. local area network or Web site).Exhibit 13-5. and takes up file space. too. Determine the number of copies and how the copies will be made. electronic copies still remain susceptible to human error. Each form includes instructions on submitting the completed form and also handling changes to the form at a later date. and the like. 11... Reproduce the form. This action increases people's buy-in and their willingness to use the forms. Exhibit 13-7 is an example of a well-defined form.
Memos Many people hate to write memos. and relevancy. and interviews recipients to determine their informational needs. He reviews the statement of work for reporting requirements. cost reports. they might have too much and be distracting. And they give feedback to everyone involved about their contributions to the project. other times. he wants to minimize frustration by keeping the reports helpful and concise. 3. Mailstop 3X-41. and resource usage reports. Project Name: Date: Schedule: Start date (baseline): Finish date (baseline): Management Estimate at Completion Date: Variance: Budget: Original Total Cost Estimate: Estimated Cost to Date: Actual Cost to Date: Management Estimate at Completion Cost: Variance: Overall Performance Evaluation: For reports to offer these advantages. logic. Overall performance evaluation. It offers traceability. For each report. in case he needs an audit trail or to develop lessons learned in the project. Weekly? Biweekly? Monthly? Ad hoc? 5. He determines the frequency of generation. because a well-written memo can have tremendous impact on coworkers. Sometimes the reports will not contain enough information. Will he need reports on the schedule? Costs? Quality? Typical reports are activity relationship reports. A memo provides a record of results. histograms. Because generating reports takes time and effort. network diagrams. 7. determines the readership for each report. they must have certain characteristics. project status reports. however. keeping in mind clarity. It encourages commitment to an idea or cause. He identifies the topics. He obtains feedback. he will generate these reports via a software package on a personal computer to give him the ability to experiment with communications modes. That's unfortunate. They help project managers monitor and track individual and overall performance. Exhibit 13-7. Perry performs the following seven steps: 1. indicating when to take corrective action. It . problem reports.are vehicles for giving reliable feedback. Reports communicate information. He lays out the report. They must: • Be easily understood • Be produced and available in a timely manner • Have timely. He remembers to keep the report simple and focuses on obtaining the information that's needed. Often. He stores a copy of each report. 2. 6. meaningful information • Not be too numerous To use reports on his project. bar charts. Monthly Status Report Form Instructions: Complete each field according to the procedure "Completing the Monthly Status Report Form. 4." Make one copy for your records and forward the original to the Program Office. Perry determines information requirements and the means to collect it. He distributes the reports.
Above all. All rights reserved. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. . memos are excellent tools for communicating with other people. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.raises issues and helps resolve them.
It provides the project manager with the opportunity to "get the word out. Finally." especially about matters that directly affect project performance. Kleim and Irwin S. Thus. legible. record an accident. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title To fulfill these purposes. giving the who. it answers questions and dispels rumors before they arise. a memo should contain a date. direct. memos must be clear. Date: February 28. what. subject. a newsletter can be invaluable. informing everyone of important happenings and giving new information. ----------- Newsletters Not every project is big enough to warrant its own newsletter. when. A newsletter can enhance communications. where. For large projects. and organized. however. Exhibit 13-8. Exhibit 13-8 is an example of a well-written memo. raise an issue and get it resolved. however. information on a response if desired. or schedule events. Memos can be prepared and sent electronically or via hard copy. and signature. It also serves as a record of significant activities and accomplishments. and why of a subject. Perry will always prepare a memo to clarify a policy or subject. addressee. Example of a well-written memo. 19XX To: Gina Davies Cynthia Fralusinski Raymond Leazowitz David Rockford Vy Toon Hank Wilson Henry Winkless Eva Brewster Larry Eisenberg 713-1 714-2 713-2 713-3 714-3 715-1 716-8 716-7 715-4 cc: Subject: Planning Meeting for Bridal Shower .Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. message statement. concise. document the results of a meeting.
proofreading. and distributing a newsletter. It is an essential reference book for project management. by topic or date. by means of a check-in/check-out sheet. reports. by accident. prepare and bring a list of action items to share with the group.) Finally. He identifies their contents. or all previous versions. completed forms. In any form. 2.. relevant. That's why he establishes them as early as posible. challenges. there is no restriction on content other than being useful. These files can be a drawer in a filing cabinet or a directory on a personal computer or file server. Writing. Perry Project Manager. Smythe Wedding Mailstop 713-4 There are. talents that are not too common apparently. including team successes. biographies of participants. is no easy task. as being only recent sets of schedules. they provide the ability to reconstruct situations for an audit trail. e. A newsletter can cover many topics.g. such as phone numbers and task listings. He makes their location obvious and provides the information needed to access them. minutes of meetings. The project manual. e.. He controls their removal. network diagrams. 4. To ensure that does not happen. He designates an area where everyone can access the files. people who can write and edit. does more than provide its readers with useful information. project managers lock the files in their drawers or do not store them on the file server. and the internal customer. For example. work estimates. Ideally.. thereby making accessibility difficult. and work breakdown structures. They help reduce the learning curve of new team members. It is also a communication tool.g. we will hold a planning session for the Smythe bridal shower in the Rainbow Conference Room on the second floor of the Corporate Headquarters Building. Perry performs four basic steps to set up project history files: 1. statements of work. He determines their organization. responsibility matrices. several issues related to publishing a newsletter. Of course.g. important documentation can be lost or misplaced. too. and new techniques developed. 3. to submit articles for the publication. as they review titles to become familiar with critical issues and they provide background information for further work. Project history files frequently contain: bar charts of schedules. the manual should be prepared early on and be maintained throughout the project cycle. Project Manual It is often handy to have certain information readily available. If you have any questions or comments. enabling people to interact efficiently and effectively. review problems. The key to keeping a newsletter active is to encourage team members. by writing an announcement and distributing it via newsletter or e-mail. e. . drafts of documents. He also establishes a procedure for removing and tracking files to avoid losing or misplacing documentation. the newsletter can become a political rather than a communications tool. he might provide a check-in/checkout sheet that people sign when removing and returning a file.On March 10. procedures. Exhibit 13-9 is the table of contents for the Smythe Project manual. either in hard copy or electronic form. and satisfy audit requirements. e. serving merely to pacify political sensitivities. Everyone should have ready access to it. please feel free to contact me at extension 4127. (Often. from the start to the end of the project. and readable. History files During the fog of managing a project. however. however. printing. memorandums.g. Prior to the meeting. he assigns someone to maintain the files. For example. That encourages people to read it and feel it is not a propaganda rag.. whether in hard copy or electronic form. It is time-consuming and labor intensive to develop. Perry sets up project history files. Perry must keep the files up to date. It requires. Perry knows that a project manual can be that reference.
g. . 1. 4. e. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. He organizes the contents.. by using the size of the team as the basis. He seeks feedback from the users of the manual. arranging them by topic or phase. All rights reserved. He publishes and distributes the manuals. by providing tear sheets on which they can submit suggestions. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.g. 3. He determines the contents.. Perry performs these six steps.. by interviewing team members or reviewing the statement of work. e.. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. He assigns responsibility for maintaining the manual.. 6.g.g.g.To compile the project manual. 2. electronically or as hard copy. e. to someone working on a noncritical task. e.. He determines the number of copies. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. e. e. 5.g.
like the history files. The project library also stores company and project-specific policies and procedures. arranging documents by title. Table of contents for the Smythe Project manual. He knows that the content of documents should be current. He determines the organization. Exhibit 13-9. e. or author. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title The Project Library The project library. e.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. 4.g. by providing a check-in/check-out sheet. concise..g. e. The major difference is that the library contains more than project management information. He determines the location of the library. and related books. clear.g.g. and organized to be useful to team members. code. He ensures. and technical documentation. history files. He identifies the contents. that the documentation is accessible to everyone. Perry recognizes that the key is to have the right amount of documentation to satisfy the right needs. such as through a project manual or library. e.. Perry follows these steps to set up the library: 1. too.. 3. journal publications. he also determines the procedures for accessing material. As he did to set up the history files. newsletters. by interviewing team members for their suggestions. providing a readily accessible site. ----------- Determining the Paper Trail's Length Too much or too little documentation can negatively affect a project. Kleim and Irwin S. 2.. stores information. He controls the removal of documents. .
REPORTS Samples relating to these topics: 1. Documentation matrix D. Project declaration III. POLICIES. Qualities 4. PROJECT BACKGROUND INFORMATION A. People 2. Qualities 4. Other VI. INTRODUCTORY SEGMENT A.Table of Contents I. Other V. If developing procedures. Costs 5. APPENDICES Questions for Getting Started 1. Costs 5. OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE TOPICS IX. Other VII. People 2. AND WORKFLOWS Copies relating to these topics: 1. Other VIII. Statement of work B. did you: • Identify the topics? • Determine the types of procedures needed? • Receive reviews by all relevant people? • Distribute the procedures? • Document the procedures? • Place the procedures under configuration control? • Seek feedback? . FORMS Copies relating to these topics: 1. Phone listings B. Who to contact for revisions II. RESPONSIBILITIES A. Functional priorities C. Qualities 4. PROCEDURES. Purpose of the manual B. How to use the manual C. REFERENCE LISTINGS A. Scheduling 3. Costs 5. Organization chart B. People 2. Scheduling 3. Job descriptions and responsibilities IV. Scheduling 3.
did you: • Determine the contents? • Determine the organizational structure? • Assign responsibility for maintaining them? • Establish a procedure for accessing. where. did you: • Determine what forms you need? • Design each form according to the characteristics described in this chapter? • Determine how people can obtain a copy of the form? • Determine how and where people can submit a completed form? • Institute a way for people to provide feedback on the forms? 4. If developing forms. what. If developing reports. If you decide to publish a newsletter. when.2. and returning them? 9. If you elected to set up project history files. conciseness. and why questions? • Check for clarity. signature block. did you determine: Who will prepare the newsletter? • The frequency of the publication? • Who must review it prior to each publication? • The topics? • The layout? • The method of distribution? 7. directives. If you need to prepare a memo. did you: • Identify the topics? • Determine the types of diagrams to use? • Issue standard templates? • Determine whether the flowchart will supplement or replace a procedure? • Distribute the flowchart? • Seek feedback? 3. electronic copy. and structure? 6. Web site? • Determine the contents? • Develop a structure. did you: • include a date. removing and replacing them? • Communicate their location and procedure for accessing.that is. If developing flowcharts. did you: • Determine the contents? • Determine the filing system? . legibility. reflected in the form of a table of contents? • Determine the number of copies? • Select the mode of binding? • Assign responsibilities for keeping the manual current? • Set up a format for reviewing the contents? • Seek feedback? 8. subject title. removing. If you decide to have a project manual. address. and purpose statement? • Answer the who. If you decide to set up a project library. did you: • Determine the method for keeping the manual -. hard copy. did you: • Determine the necessary types of reports to use? • Design each report according to the characteristics described in this chapter? • Inform everyone who need to receive the reports? • Develop a distribution list? • Determine the frequency of generation for each report? • Determine where to store the reports? • Seek feedback from users? 5.
removing.• Assign responsibility for maintaining it? • Establish a procedure for accessing. and returning material? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. removing. and replacing material? • Communicate the location and procedure for accessing. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. . All rights reserved.
whiteboards. Often overlooked. This includes setting up a project office. network diagrams. paper. Since the project office will also be a meeting place for team members. technical drawings. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 14 Team Dynamics and Successful Interactions The organization functions of the project manager's job extend well beyond developing the team. Perry puts on the walls of his visibility room his bar charts. . holding regular meetings. minutes of key meetings. responsibility matrices. and the like. it has cubicles for working and conference rooms to hold meetings. Kleim and Irwin S. too. and other communications equipment. the history files. the reality is that many projects. Despite employing a Web site and other computer technologies for communications. The project manager also needs to set up the elements for facilitating team dynamics—in other words. It is like a computer network control center where all information flows in and out. making presentations. and the project library. screen. Some advance planning in this regard can make managing the project much smoother. In addition. ----------- Set Up the Project Office Since his project is comparatively large and has high visibility. and other project-related activities. recognition awards). statements of work. making it all work.g. training sessions. maps. called a visibility wall or visibility room. is the realization that the project office is a communications center. and using people skills to encourage team members to reach the project goal. easel pads. he'll need a central location to manage the efforts. allocating resources. Essentially. even those with a project office. process flows. organization charts. sticky notes. fax. writing instruments. lack such simple resources. as well as storage space for hard-copy forms.. photographs (e. Perry's ideal office has telephones. Perry sets up a project office.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. This wall or room is where all project documentation is showcased. paper clips. and work breakdown structures. the project office has tape. and providing documentation. While this all sounds like common sense. In this communications center is a very important tool. There is equipment such as easel stands. estimating costs. viewfoils. overhead projector with extra bulbs. and tables with a sufficient number of chairs.
Remaining issues III. The status review is held regularly (e. The walls serve no purpose if no one looks at them. All team members receive information from the project manager and share additional data and insights. Previous red-letter events/milestones B. Exhibit 14-2 is an agenda from one of Perry's status reviews. weekly or biweekly). 2.. Background A. usually after a red-letter day or significant event (e..g. checkpoint review. Problems and challenges C. Open forum Exhibit 14-2. often spontaneously by team members. or ad hoc meeting. The checkpoint review is held at specific points in time. Decision whether to proceed as is. The purpose of the status review is to collect information to determine progress in satisfying cost. differently. and quality criteria. Achievements/successes B. the staff meeting is held regularly. especially if he is using high-quality graphics. there are occasional ad hoc meetings. Exhibit 14-3 is an agenda from one of Perry's staff meetings. completion of a major milestone). Remaining issues V. On a sheet of paper. Its purpose is to determine what has been done and decide whether to proceed or cancel the project.what goes on the walls depends on what Perry deems important for everyone to see. Checkpoint review agenda. Exhibit 14-1 is an agenda from one of Perry's checkpoint reviews. Perry draws a picture of what goes on which wall. Perry applies five rules to ensure efficient and effective meetings. and they will consume a large percentage of everyone's time. Exhibit 14-1. In addition. Whether conducting a staff meeting. status reviews. Challenge in the past II. This way people have a reason to review the walls. 1. These meetings are usually one of three basic types: checkpoint reviews. Agenda April 7. . Plan in advance. 19XX I. The idea is to resolve an issue or communicate information. Perry remembers the following points. When setting up a visibility room. Status review agenda. Like the status review. Perry will hold meetings in the room and refer to the items posted.g. Conduct Meetings There will be meetings frequently. and staff meetings. 3. Lessons regarding this event A. This prevents rework and reduces costs. schedule. status review. Use the walls. Exhibit 14-4 is an agenda from one of the Smythe Project's many ad hoc meetings. Keep the walls current. The ad hoc meeting is held irregularly. his actions enforce the importance of the information on the walls. or halt IV.
Issues of concern • Schedule • Quality • Budget • Other C. he communicates the importance of the meeting and increases the likelihood of people honoring their commitments. Even if it is an ad hoc meeting. It keeps the meeting focused and ensures that it is productive. 19XX I. 3. He makes sure the meeting doesn't become a platform for someone's pontification. 19XX 1. 4. Information A. Agenda March 3. Budget C.Agenda February 28. Quality II. and copies of documents to distribute. Previous Table of Contents Next . including himself. Announce the meeting. He comes with the right supplies. he informs people about the purpose of the meeting. An agenda is a logical listing of topics to cover. Input to status regarding: A. Open forum IV. Upcoming issues and events E. 5. Encourage participation. Issues and concerns regarding: A. Be prepared. He will follow an agenda like the ones in Exhibits 14-1 through 14-4. Schedule B. He notifies attendees about the meeting in advance. He gives everyone the opportunity to contribute. This way there's no last-minute searches for equipment or extra copies. Schedule B. Next Meeting 1. Recognition D. Budget C. Take notes and distribute the minutes afterwards. Open Forum F. Other III. 2. equipment. Quality D. Staff meeting agenda. Announcements B. By taking notes and converting them into minutes. Next meeting Exhibit 14-3. Prepare an agenda. but avoids letting anyone dominate the meeting.
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Description of situation or problem A. or to the customer. How ----------- . When D. Agenda June 11. They involve communicating. Why F. Ad hoc meeting agenda. either among themselves. Alternative courses of action IV. Plan to implement course of action A. These presentations require more than standing in front of people and talking. Who B. to senior management. Where E. When D. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Give Effective Presentations Perry and his team will be giving presentations. Select appropriate course of action V. Previous red-letter events/milestones II. Kleim and Irwin S. Why F.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Where E. What C. What C. 19XX I. Who B. How III. Background details A. Exhibit 14-4.
VI. Follow-up meeting Perry will likely have to give three fundamental types of presentations. The first is a presentation to persuade. He will, for example, probably have to convince senior management to provide more resources. The second type of presentation is to inform. He will probably have to communicate information, for example, to senior managers about cost and schedule performance. And the third type is to explain. For example, he might have to instruct people on project management tools and techniques. Of course, team members will likely have to give the same types of presentations. Whether you are a project manager or team member, as a presenter you must follow six fundamental steps: 1. Know yourself and the audience. Find out about the audience to ascertain your commonalities and differences. You can get useful information, for example, by interviewing people who know audience members. Follow up by making a list of what you share and don't share with the audience. This knowledge will prove useful in preparing the presentation. 2. Perceive your audience and how it perceives you. Look at ways to influence the audience to see you in a favorable light. This will make it easier to communicate your message. You can win the audience over, for example, by expressing values or experiences you share with its members. 3. Determine the type and structure of the presentation. Answer all the who, what, when, where, and why questions pertaining to your topic. Determine if your presentation is meant to inform, persuade, or explain. Then formulate your overall strategy to achieve the goal of your presentation, and your tactics for executing that strategy. 4. Develop the material. Build your presentation. Determine the content and logically arrange it. For example, you can arrange topics chronologically or by level of importance. Also incorporate visual aids, statistics, and other materials. 5. Rehearse. Practice as if you were actually giving the presentation—do a dry run. Try to improve your delivery. This is also the time to become familiar with the location for the presentation—room size, lighting, sound equipment, and so on. Rehearse there, if you can. 6. Deliver the presentation. You have polished your delivery, eliminated any poorly designed visual aids and distracting mannerisms (e.g., pacing about with your hands in your pockets or playing with pocket change). You should encourage and be prepared to answer questions. You might elicit questions from a reluctant audience by asking a question yourself.
Apply Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills, also called people skills, play an integral part in the success of every project. Whatever gets accomplished is done by people and their interactions, so interpersonal skills can seriously impact results. Interpersonal relations embrace three primary skills: being an active listener, reading people, and dealing with conflicts effectively. Being an Active Listener One of the best communication tools a project manager can have is active listening. It means listening genuinely to what the speaker is saying—in short, focusing on what is said and how it is said. Active listeners: • Avoid interrupting the person except to clarify a point. • Give listening cues (e.g., nod the head or use an expression) to indicate involvement in the conversation. • Are not preoccupied with something else during the conversation (e.g., working on documentation while the other person talks). • Do not change the topic abruptly during the conversation. • Do not daydream while the other person talks. • Pay as much attention to body language as to the oral message. • Remove all distractions (e.g., radio playing in the background). The key is to be active, not passive, by becoming fully engaged in what is being said. Reading People
It would be nice to know the true motives of people; however, that is impossible, since many people are not open and honest. Project managers, therefore, must identify the real issues and motivations of people. Fortunately, there are tools to help project managers understand the motivations of people. Unfortunately, these tools do not always work, owing to the vagaries of human nature. Still, many project managers find them useful. One tool is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator for personality preferences. This identifies personality types based on a combination of four preferences: extrovert (outward) versus introvert (inward), sensing (actual) versus intuitive (sixth sense), thinking (structuring information) versus feeling (personal), and judging (organized) versus perceiving (spontaneous). These categories are useful, but require a good understanding of the preferences. This approach does not specify which personality is better or worse or which one is good or bad. It states only that people have a preference that is reflected in the way they deal with reality, their environment, and their relationships. An excellent resource for using this indicator is Please Understand Me: Character and Temperament Types, by David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates. Another popular tool is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, described in Chapter 4. This model is easier to use, since it identifies people's needs according to hierarchical order: physiological (food), safety (shelter), social (acceptance), esteem (sense of importance), and self-actualization (becoming). The satisfaction, or lack of earlier needs, dictates the motivations of people.
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Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Kleim and Irwin S. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98
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Another popular, though less widespread, personality tool is Robert Transactional Analysis Transactional analysis, or TA, describes how people interact with each other via ego states. An ego state is a combination of feelings and experiences that manifest themselves in the way people consistently behave. Essentially, behavior reflects one's feelings and experiences. TA posits three ego states: parent, child, and adult. • The parent ego state reflects parental feelings and experiences, like being critical and directive. • The adult ego state reflects being realistic and objective when dealing with people. • The child ego state reflects childlike behavior, like trying to please, uncontrollable laughter, or rebelliousness. The interaction between two people reflects a transaction. There are several types of transactions between people, with some being parent-to-parent, parent-to-child, and parent-to-adult. Such transactions can be detected through body language and verbally. An excellent book on TA is Born to Win: Transactional Analysis with Gestalt Experiments, by Muriel James and Dorothy Jongeward (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1987). Bolton's social style matrix. Bolton divides social styles and personal expectations into two dimensions: assertiveness and responsiveness. Assertiveness is the energy or effort individuals invest in influencing others. Responsiveness is the energy or effort individuals invest in controlling their emotions when dealing with other people. The combination of assertiveness and responsiveness creates social stereotypes: analytical (logical), driver (determined), amiable (diplomatic), and expressive (spontaneous). Bolton's topology does not say which social style is better or worse, or which one is good or bad. It simply states that people have to deal with life in general and social environments in particular. For more information, see Social Style/Management Style by Robert and Dorothy Bolton. There are, of course, a plethora of theories about people and how to understand them, from Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung to B. F. Skinner and Frederick Herzberg. The key is to find a model or tool that works best for you, then apply it in your own circumstances.
An interesting and often reliable side concept about people is their body language. According to motivational experts, our body language reveals more about us than what we say. Some experts estimate that body language makes up 70 to 90 percent of a conversation. This means you need to pay attention to facial expressions, body movements, posture, and eye movements. A mastery of the art of reading body language can help the project manager discern whether people are truly committed to the project or providing honest status information. There are two caveats about relying on body language. The first is to look at body language in totality—that is, avoid relying on one body movement alone. The other is that cultural differences can mislead in the interpretation of true motivations. In some cultures, for instance, it is acceptable behavior to stand closer together or to maintain eye contact while in others it is not. A misinterpretation can result in real problems. Perry keeps this thought in mind, since the Smythe wedding will occur in Italy; body language in Italy can have entirely different meanings from that in the United States. Deal With Conflict Effectively Conflict is a way of life and it can surface anytime during the project cycle. Conflict can arise over sharing people, equipment, supplies, or money; over goals and specifications; between personalities; over differences of opinion; and even over power. The potential for conflict is highest, however, at the beginning, when a project manager competes for resources or when difficulties arise over contractual requirements. And conflict at the beginning can lead to even more difficulties later if it is not addressed properly. The potential for conflict is high, too, at the end of the cycle, when participants face schedule pressures. Conflict in and of itself is not bad. It can alert project managers to problems that must be addressed. The challenge is to manage the conflict in a manner that leads to project success rather than failure. Project managers, like all people, deal with conflict differently. Some project managers avoid it, letting it smolder. Some project managers give up every time a conflict surfaces. Other project managers deny that conflict exists at all. And some masterfully blame others. These are all defense mechanisms. Nevertheless, they do not deal with the conflict. All these mechanisms manage to do is avoid conflict or push it into the background.
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Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Kleim and Irwin S. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98
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The question, then, is how to deal with conflict constructively. Since it really centers on people, it makes sense to view conflict as primarily a people issue. Perry takes several actions to respond to conflict. 1. He diffuses the charged emotion within himself. If he has to, he will do something as simple as count to ten before doing anything. 2. He diffuses the charged emotions in other people. He will calm down people by calling for a cooling-off period, especially when emotions run high. 3. He identifies the facts of the situation to determine the cause of the conflict. He avoids comments that can be viewed as taking sides or being accusational. 4. He applies active listening. He listens for the facts to acquire an objective assessment of the situation. Active listening helps to avoid being "pulled into" the conflict. 5. He acknowledges any anger that may be present, while focusing on the merits of the conflict. If anger is justified, he acknowledges it. 6. He keeps everyone focused on the cause of the conflict. He avoids the tendency to blame someone or to rationalize it away. 7. He keeps the big picture in focus. He asks himself what the best way is to resolve the conflict so as to achieve the project goal. 8. He sets a plan for resolving the conflict. He also remains objective. 9. He seeks participation in the resolution. Unless an impasse occurs, he lets the people decide on a mutually agreeable solution. That builds bridges and commitment to the solution. 10. He encourages a win-win solution, not a win-lose or lose-lose. With a win-win solution, emotions will subside and there will be little or no room for bitterness.
If that were not enough. that the responsibility lies with everyone to exercise positive team dynamics throughout the life of the project. however. and effective use of conflict management techniques can go a long way toward producing positive results for a project. likes to "shoot holes" in any schedule proposal. The staller is the customer who is required to make a decision and takes forever. balloon. negativist. If holding checkpoint review meetings. In addition. and staller. did you: • Decide to have agendas? • Determine the locations? . all these categories of difficult people are present. good communication and interpersonal skills. Robert Bramson identifies what he calls the hostile aggressive. did you: • Decide to have agendas? • Determine the locations? • Determine how to notify attendees? • Decide to have minutes taken? • Determine the necessary equipment and supplies? • Make an effort to get everyone's participation? • Determine length of the meetings? 4. If holding status review meetings. super-agreeable. The super-agreeable agrees to perform a task by a certain date but changes his mind based on who he talked with last. Questions for Getting Started 1. causing the project to be delayed. for example. In his superb book Coping with Difficult People (New York: Dell Publishing. In the project environment. The hostile aggressive. Dealing with difficult people under such circumstances just adds stress as they try to bring their projects in on time and within budget. clam. did you: • Develop a layout? • Determine the contents? • Determine its purpose? 3. Perry realizes. Setting up an adequate project office contributes to effective teamwork in any project-oriented team. If setting up a project office. 1981). project managers must deal with different types of difficult people.Handling Difficult People Project managers work under pressure. Dr. with little formal authority over people. com-pleat complainer. If setting up a visibility wall or room. did you: • Decide to have agendas? • Determine the locations? • Determine how to notify attendees? • Decide to have minutes taken? • Determine the necessary equipment and supplies? • Make an effort to get everyone's participation? • Determine length of the meetings? 5. bulldozer. If holding staff meetings. Getting Teamwork to Work How people on a team interact can influence the results of a project. did you: • Develop a layout? • Determine the contents? • Determine the location? • Determine who will work there? • Determine the necessary equipment and supplies? 2.
If giving presentations. meaningful material? • Rehearse? • Give a successful delivery? 8. How well do you deal with conflict? What approach do you take to deal with it? On an individual basis? On a team basis? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. . did you: • Determine the types to give? • Determine your audience? • Recognize the key perceptions? • Prepare the logical structure? • Develop clean. If holding ad hoc meetings.• Determine how to notify attendees? • Decide to have minutes taken? • Determine the necessary equipment and supplies? • Make an effort to get everyone's participation? • Determine length of the meetings? 6. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. All rights reserved. Are you an active listener? 9. Can you "read people"? Do you need a way to do that? What is that way? 10. did you: • Decide to have agendas? • Determine the locations? • Determine how to notify attendees? • Decide to have minutes taken? • Determine the necessary equipment and supplies? • Make an effort to get everyone's participation? • Determine length of the meetings? 7.
He knows from the physicist's view of the universe that entropy can occur. This is especially the case when there is no previous infrastructure in place or when the team members lack experience. or the team. From the data he can determine project performance — specifically. to think that he can sit back and remain idle. this can result in gross misjudgments. And the keys to tracking and monitoring performance are status data and status assessments. Perry is confident that he can control his project. Unfortunately. He does that best by tracking and monitoring performance. the project manager will likely rely more on intuition and informal methods for data collection. status data are often not collected well. how well the goals of the project are being met. the project team may be using incompatible computing tools and converting the data requires considerable effort and expertise. So he responds—not reacts—to changing circumstances. he knows all about Murphy's law. He can reduce his and everyone else's frustration and anxiety by providing feedback. Perry. ----------- Collect Status Data Status data offer several advantages for Perry. plan. He can also determine how efficiently work is being done. Though there's some merit under certain circumstances. and organizational infrastructure. Kleim and Irwin S. If the project manager. It instills confidence in everyone that the project is under control. He . he can maintain communications and information sharing among the participants. Failure to understand the scope can result in problems determining what data are needed. is not one of these project managers. Likewise. The task can be labor intensive and time-consuming. that the project manager is monitoring its pulse. Also. lacks the expertise or knowledge of collection. however. there may be an inappropriate assessment. Teams using older software and hardware particularly find this situation complicates data collection.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. He understands the importance of reliable data. Finally. The style of the project manager can affect data collection. fortunately. Quite the contrary. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 15 Performance Assessment: Tracking and Monitoring With a solid project definition. the project manager may not have a good grasp of the project's scope. If she prefers to "shoot from the hip" or rely less on administration. He is not naïve enough.
But as the number of team members increases. One-on-one sessions work best for collecting data just prior to a status review. however. discussed in Chapter 13. so that at the meeting he can discuss the current status. he could. Collecting data on forms presents a challenge. He uses status reviews to verify the accuracy of the data collected in one-on-one sessions and via forms. and quality measures. enter the data into a computer. the forms are computer-based and team members can forward them electronically for quick. and relying on your own judgment regarding status. The other is that forms may get lost. Still. Also. There are problems with collecting data at status review meetings. If people do not see the value of data collection. Reliability implies consistent results—in other words. many project managers rely on informal methods. not even himself. • A standardized set of tools to collect and compile the data. These are threats to data validity because they influence the data being inputted and the information being derived. failing to account for changing circumstances. Both problems grow in magnitude as the number of team members gets larger. • A solid information infrastructure. using word of mouth. The project manager must hear what he needs to hear and not what he wants to hear. Informal modes are quicker and involve less administrative hassles. Ideally.must have certain prerequisites in place to do meaningful assessments. and undue influence by the personality of the data collector. Team members complete the forms with status data and submit them to the project office for processing. Perry collects data prior to the status review. If peer pressure does not overtake a status meeting. which in turn slants the results? Some validity errors include inconsistent application of measurement tools. since it affects how the data will eventually be formatted and reported. Perry keeps two main concepts in mind: reliability and validity. With proper technology. the data age. the project manager remain objective and not influence the reports. and forms. resulting in a greater chance of error. does the data yield reliable results? Validity involves the approach or tool used to collect data. For example. and decide an appropriate action to take. He assigns responsibility for collecting data to someone who has a good understanding of data collection techniques. Data Validity and Reliability When collecting data. schedule. make an assessment. The meeting covers cost. It is also important to remember that while collecting status data. the data collected in one-on-one sessions could be more subjective than if gathered in a group setting. This distinction is important. Peer pressure can directly or indirectly force people to fudge the data in order to paint an optimistic or pessimistic picture. one-on-one sessions. so does the time needed to collect data and. But the data collected may not be objective. generate the necessary reports. and determine corrective actions. more objective data will likely be available as people question the reports. Methods of Collection Perry uses formal and informal modes for collecting data. Collecting data must be meaningful on both individual and group levels. as time passes by. Forms are another way to collect data. . He sets up a process for identifying. collecting. thereby introducing bias. and compiling data that will be reliable and valid. Biased data lead to biased assessments. • Clear value in collecting data. at the meeting. assess the program. they will be reluctant to expend the effort. Informal modes of data collection include holding ad hoc sessions. The status review. But he also keeps his ears open for additional information. will bother to collect data. Perry decides to use both formal and informal modes of data collection. Does it influence the results. using a collection tool that guarantees a particular result. sometimes the meetings can skew results. He knows that a mixture of incompatible hardware and software will cause frustration levels to rise and nobody. The data are then compiled. Formal modes include status reviews. easy compilation. since some people often procrastinate. Getting the forms submitted on time is one problem. • Available expertise. The project manager or her representatives meet with each person individually to collect status data. they are the path of least resistance. is held regularly.
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the problem is that the last 10 percent proves the most difficult. looking back (history) and looking forward (the future). giving a misleading impression. figuring perhaps no one will know or the project manager will eventually leave before anyone finds out. Rather than give honest data. • The "good news" effect. Kleim and Irwin S. • The Hawthorne effect. Garbage in. A key concept behind assessing status is variance. Then the task slides past its completion date.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. cost. some people lie. • The "90 percent syndrome. Looking at past performance is called tracking. for its remainder. Assess Status With reliable and valid data. The formula is quite simple: Variance = planned — actual . Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title ----------- There are other examples of how collection efforts can negatively influence data reliability and validity. Faulty data collection can have a big impact on project performance. Some team members always exaggerate. Of course. • Overly negative or positive data. and quality. Some team members tell the project manager what she wants to hear. bad data lead to poor decision making. Hence. Good data lead to good decision making. Both are important for determining where the project has been and where it will be if the current level of performance continues. Perry assesses status via two principal reviews. Perry focuses on three areas: schedule. garbage out: the quality of output is only as good as the quality of input. projecting into the future using past performance is called monitoring. The problem is that what was done last may not be significant. • Lies. the project manager does not get a balanced view. Assessment involves determining how well the project has and will achieve its goals. the difference between what is planned and what has actually occurred up to a specific point." Team members say they have 90 percent completed a task. saying too much or too little has been done. Perry can assess overall project performance. it stays 90 percent complete. usually good news. What was accomplished just prior to collection influences a person's estimate of the amount of work done.
respectively. He calculates it for each task. If the difference between the planned and the actual is a negative number. The monitoring portion is the estimate at completion.1. This variance tells Perry whether he has spent more time than planned on a task up to a specific point in time. Determining Variance The tracking portion of the variance calculation is the actual to date. too. _____ Duration Early Start Early Finish Actual Start (days) Task Actual Finish Estimate at Completion .1. Smythe Project Budget Sheet $ in Thousands April 16.3 Identify limousine service to reception 6. which in turn is accumulated to give the total estimate at completion for the entire project. a way to treat them as an integrated entity.1. or quality perspective. which in turn is accumulated to give the total estimate at completion for the entire project. There is. Quality variance is discussed in Chapter 16. A variance is a signal to investigate the situation and determine whether to take action.1. then the project is proceeding as expected. _____ Actual to Underrun Overrun Date 360 192 Task 6. He calculates it for each task. called earned value. It is the difference between planned and actual start and end dates. A positive value is called an underrun and a negative one is called an overrun.1. Earned value consists of three basic variables: Exhibit 15-2. A positive value represents an ahead-of-schedule condition while a negative one represents a behind-schedule situation. The deviation in itself may not necessarily mean something is wrong—it can indicate something good. Exhibit 15-1 shows examples of cost variances on the Smythe Project. Exhibit 15-1. Smythe Project Schedule Sheet April 16. cost and schedule variances were treated independently.4 Coordinate limousine service to reception Budget to Date 168 Total Budget 840 Estimate at Completion 1. Exhibit 15-2 has some examples from the Smythe Project. however.1.1 Identify limousine service to church 6. whether from a cost. then the project is not progressing as anticipated. Cost variances. schedule. Earned Value In the previous section.2 Coordinate limousine service to church 6. Cost variance is calculated by using this equation: Cost variance = budgeted cost — actual cost The equation result tells Perry whether he has spent more money than planned up to a specific point in time.1. It is important to note.1. assuming the current rate of progress is maintained. It is the preferred way to measure project performance.032 56 104 48 280 328 168 110 58 840 782 56 124 68 280 348 Schedule variance follows the same pattern.If the difference between the two is zero or a positive number. Project schedule sheet. however. the remainder of this chapter deals with cost and schedule variances. it is based on actual progress to date plus the remainder of work to do. that variance is a deviation from what is expected.
or group of tasks. All rights reserved.6. The budgeted cost for work performed (BCWP) is the estimated cost that is approved for a task or group of tasks. up to a specific point in time. it is the estimated value of the work scheduled.1 Identify limousine service to church 6. In other words.1. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. it is the estimated value of the work completed up to a specific point in time. to be completed up to a specific period of time. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. . Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.2.5 Arrange for valet service for church April 1 April 3 3 April 2 April 5 April 5 April 7 April 7 1 April 9 April 11 April 4 April 6 3 April 6 April 7 April 7 April 7 April 8 2 April 7 April 9 April 9 1 • Budgeted cost for work scheduled • Budgeted cost for work performed • Actual cost of work performed The budgeted cost for work scheduled (BCWS) is the estimated cost for a task.1. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.2.1 Determine transportation requirements to church 6.2 Coordinate limousine service to church 18.104.22.168. that are scheduled to be performed for a specific time period. In other words.1.1. or group of tasks.2 Coordinate transportation to church 6.1. The actual cost of work performed (ACWP) is the actual costs accrued for a task.
the best approach is to convert the cost variance and schedule variance to percentages: CV % = (BCWP .300 (or ACWP) = .20. indicating a cost overrun SV = 200 (or BCWP) .BCWS) / BCWS = (200 .220 (or BCWS) = . indicating behind schedule For ease of calculation.100.300) / 200 = -50%. and ACWP are all instrumental in calculating the cost variance (CV) and the schedule variance (SV). After calculating the BCWS. indicating a cost overrun SV % = (BCWP . indicating the task is behind schedule The values are then plotted cumulatively over time for all three variables as shown in Exhibit 15-3. BCWP. Kleim and Irwin S.220) / 220 = -9%.ACWP) / BCWP = (200 . and the ACWP. BCWP.ACWP) / BCWP SV % = (BCWP . Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title The BCWS. Again.BCWS) / BCWS For the Smythe Project example (using $ in thousands): CV % = (BCWP . Here are the calculations for both: CV = BCWP .ACWP ----------- SV = BCWP .Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. this can be performed for one task or the entire project. which in turn are used to assess individual and project performance.BCWS For the Smythe Project example (using $ in thousands): CV = 200 (or BCWP) . Perry can determine in what combination of the following circumstances he might find the project: BCWP = BCWS On Schedule .
indicating schedule performance is not very efficient since the result is less than 1. When collecting data for determining cost and schedule status. did you determine: • Expertise needed? • Mode of collection (e. which are calculated as: CPI = BCWP / ACWP or planned costs / actual costs SPI = BCWP / BCWS or planned costs scheduled costs Smythe Project example ($ in thousands): CPI = BCWP / ACWP = 200 / 300 = .00. This can be performed for one. If greater than 1. The BCWS.91. regularly keeps a "pulse" on the schedule and cost performance of the project. BCWP. If the CPI and SPI are less than 1..00. If a variance exists. a group. When collecting data. Perry knows that and ensures that metrics also exist to measure quality. or all tasks on the project.00 = BCWP / BCWS = 200 / 220 = . Perry. then performance needs improvement. When assessing status. The measures for doing so are the cost performance index (CPI) and the schedule performance index (SPI). a variance can exist for quality as much as it does for cost and schedule. therefore. He collects and analyzes data to ensure that plan and reality match as closely as possible. formal versus informal)? • Obstacles you will face? • Tools to do the job? • Type of information infrastructure you want in place? • Ways to communicate the value of collecting status? 2. did you identify the threats to reliability? To validity? How will you deal with those threats? 4. and ACWP also are useful for determining overall project performance. Questions for Getting Started 1.00.00 SPI The measure of performance is determined by how close the calculated value approximates 1. Of course. then performance exceeds expectations.g. In regard to status reviews. did you determine whether to collect data prior to or during the meetings? 3. Making Performance Assessment Count A project plan serves no purpose if no one knows or cares if it is being followed. he determines whether to take corrective action.66. what variables will you look at? Variances? Cost variance? Schedule . indicating cost performance is not very efficient since the result is less than 1.BCWP < BCWS BCWP > BCWS BCWP = ACWP BCWP < ACWP BCWP > ACWP Behind Schedule Ahead of Schedule Meeting Cost Target Cost Overrun Cost Underrun Exhibit 15-3 Earned value.
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He seeks agreement on what metrics to use. He must set up a process for collecting data. So Perry takes the following actions. he defines quality as service that satisfies a defined degree of excellence. however. so Perry defines the word in terms of his project. In their simplest form. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 16 Quality Assessment: Metrics In Chapter 15. quality is satisfying the requirements set by the Smythe family. 2. Perry knows that metrics do not happen spontaneously. then analyzing the results. Perry developed ways to assess performance with regard to cost and schedule variances. Focusing on his customer's requirements. quality metrics measure the relationship between the number of errors and a unit of measure. An error is the difference between what is expected and what has occurred—in other words. a variance. Perry can determine the measurements to use. and establish baselines for future projects. as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of processes for building a product or delivering a service. ----------- Introduction to Metrics There are two basic categories of metrics. Establishing measurements for quality is a way to identify opportunities to reduce waste. Of course. qualitative and quantitative. he also interviews the customer and examines the metrics used for earlier projects of a similar nature. He determines what to measure. Qualitative and quantitative metrics can be used to measure the satisfaction of the customer's requirements. noncalibrated measures. determine how the project is achieving its goals. Examples include financial analysis and parametrics. There are quantitative and qualitative metrics. These metrics are objective. Qualitative metrics are intangible. These metrics are subjective.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. calibrated measures. ascertain trends. 1. Metrics are the tools and techniques he will use to track and assess quality. Quality can have several meanings. Quality assessment is the other element in monitoring performance. Examples include degree of customer satisfaction and degree of importance. simple . After consulting the customer and reviewing project documentation (the statement of work). Quantitative metrics are tangible. The statement of work provides much information. In terms of the Smythe Project. Kleim and Irwin S.
establishing the metrics would be extremely difficult. Perry follows five steps to measure quality: (1) identifying what needs to be measured. or examples from other companies against which to compare his results.and complex. The cycle is shown below. the PDCA cycle can be applied to any decision-making endeavor. The Act is making any changes to improve the process or metric. In reality. and (5) communicating the results. support may decline. The project team may want to measure technical aspects. they produce useless results. The Do is turning the plan into reality by executing it. On the Smythe Project. also known as the PDCA Wheel or the Deming Wheel. it ensures stepwise refinement of the plan. rank those processes and select the most important top ten. The Collection and Analysis of Data Perry must build a good database. This means collecting data regularly and using comparable methods over time. business considerations should be first. Perry reviews project and technical documentation. including statistical knowledge. Check. Without data he cannot do much. These include project management software. He obtains the software to perform the metrics. the audience will largely dictate what metrics to use. a KPI is the number of complaints about the bridal shower. Perry has the expertise to collect good data. To identify KFIs. PDCA A useful concept for performing metrics is the Plan. and technical performance. A way to determine business metrics is to identify key project indicators. The Check is determining if the improvement or metric is working. database applications. analytical prowess. People must see the value of a metric. Managing a project lends itself to application of the PDCA cycle. customer satisfaction is the quality metric. Without buy-in. he must have buy-in for whatever methods he chooses. and modeling packages. process management. The Plan is developing an approach for improving a process or implementing a metric or both. with selected representatives. Do. Ultimately. Whatever the metrics chosen. project plans are continually revised to reflect reality. (3) compiling the data. valid data. But having good project management disciplines in place will help in collecting reliable. Perry is interested in measuring his project management. there are multiple ways to identify what needs to be measured. determine all the processes involved in project management. otherwise. He reviews the history of similar projects. and communications skills. (2) collecting the data. Perry answers the following questions for each measurement tool: • Who is the metric for? • What purpose will it serve? • How often will the measurement be taken? • What is the formula? • What is the data source? . 3. If the data lack reliability and validity. Perry must exercise discipline when implementing the metrics. In any question of determinants. Act cycle. He meets with people directly as well as remotely connected to the project. they will not support the collection efforts or respect the results. In any event. Then. Senior management and the customer may want measurements of customer satisfaction. (4) analyzing the data. Of course. These are elements of a project that contribute to successful completion of a project. or KPI. This cycle repeats throughout the process or measurement. Also. He selects benchmarks. Without these skills. Identify the Measures As noted earlier.
He also uses alternative sources like the Internet for data in the public domain and available through think tanks. which would influence the results. such as data originating from a person or system that he dislikes. All rights reserved. Compile the Data Perry must put the data into a usable format.Collect the Data Perry uses data from the project data repository created by his project management software. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. while information is data in a meaningful form. reviews it to determine any anomalies (e.g. and memos. While doing this. control charts. For example. checksheets. Data are raw. scattergrams. . Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. One of his first actions is to cleanse the data. he avoids introducing bias. alphabetic characters in a numeric field) and ensures that it has all the decimal points in the right place. he removes data to which he might respond subjectively. Perry has several tools to convert data into information. thanks to input from status review. including Pareto charts. Perry sorts the data. He can access completed forms. identifying bad (irrelevant) data and standardizing it (putting it into the same format).. and trend charts. In addition to the data repository. he searches the project history files and project library for relevant data. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. past reports. He ensures the data are current. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. histograms.
here's an example for building one. with emphasis on reducing erratic behavior." thereby indicating an anomalous situation. . specifically variance from the average.. Each occurrence is recorded in an interval identified. Pareto chart example. as shown in Exhibit 16-4. Checksheet example. Control charts. The checksheet also graphically displays information in the form of a histogram. The highest bar has the greatest likelihood of being the cause of the problem.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. as shown in Exhibit 16-1. Exhibit 16-2. identify normal and anomalous situations. The information identifies what intervals have the greatest and least number of occurrences. as shown in Exhibit 16-2. the abnormal relationships are "outside the bunch. Kleim and Irwin S. Scattergrams. Normal relationships are "bunched together". ----------- Exhibit 16-1. like the scattergrams. number of complaints) on the y-axis. The analyst collects data from these six hotels and compiles them in the table on pages 157 and 158. A bar chart (not a Gantt chart) shows the major categories or elements on the x-axis and the prioritized numbers of a result (e. Checksheets are documents that record the frequency of distribution of incidents. As with the scattergram. the focus in on variation. as shown in Exhibit 16-3. sometimes called scatter or correlation charts.g. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Pareto charts display information to determine the potential causes of a problem. Upper permissible and lower levels of variation are identified. Six hotels are interested in knowing the average number of complaints during the summer season. show the relationship between two variables. To better understand control charts.
Using trend charts can be dangerous as well as useful. On the one hand. Trend charts track past performance and forecast results based on history. Below is a table showing the compilation techniques employed and flags for assessing issues dealing with quality. Analyze the Data After compiling the data." and the upper and lower limits of the control chart. the equation is: Thus. See the control chart in Exhibit 16-5 for a plotted graph. they enable long-range planning and playing "what-if" scenarios. the average number of complaints for Hotel D is out of control because it falls outside these boundaries. Exhibit 16-5. Exhibit 16-4. He reviews diagrams and looks at statistical compilations. 270 divided by 6 equals 45. As shown in Exhibit 16-6.Exhibit 16-3. Perry analyzes it. On the x-axis is a time span and on the y-axis is the value of a variable. thus. Compilation Technique Flag . the analyst determines the "average average. Control chart example. Histogram example. The "average average" is the sum of the averages divided by the sample size. On the other hand. The equation for the upper control limit is The equation for the upper control limit is For the lower control limit. thereby permitting forecasting. or N (the number of hotels participating). Hotel A B C D E F Average Number of Complaints 30 40 60 80 35 25 270 Before drawing the control chart. Scattergram example. they require assuming that the future environment will be as in the past. the chart shows the relationship between two variables.
median. Standard deviation is another useful calculation. mean. Trend chart example.Pareto chart Checksheets Scattergram Control chart Trend chart Tallest bar indicates the largest "driver" for the cause of the problem. The calculation is shown in Exhibit 16-9. and standard deviation. . on page 161 is a table of customer responses to a hotel survey of customer satisfaction. respectively. Perry will use several standard statistical calculations—specifically. thereby indicating possible erratic. For example. the latter indicating a problem vis-à-vis normal behavior. The mean is the average of the values for items in a group of data. The most frequent occurrences and anomalies. Exceeding the upper control limit or going below the lower control limit. mode. Then he selects the midpoint between the end of the first and the top of the fourth quartile. the limousine service providing transportation for the Smythe wedding from the church to the reception wants to know the travel time between the two locations. Exhibit 16-6. In our example. or four equal parts. indicating a potential problem if the trend continues. The median is best used when extreme values in the frequency distribution could distort the data. The hotel wants to know the results of their questionnaire. The mean is best used when the original data are large enough not to be skewed by extreme values. Upward or downward slope of the line. In other words. When analyzing the data. The analyst counts down the array until he identifies the final item in the first 25 percent and then calculates up the array. uncontrollable behavior of a process. The mode is used to avoid distortion by extreme values. Longest frequency of occurrences for a variable. mode. The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a series of numbers. It determines the degree that each occurrence in a frequency distribution is located from the mean. The median is a position average at the midpoint for a frequency distribution. thereby reflecting the focus of attention. it measures dispersion. by quartiles. median. Exhibits 16-7 and 16-8 are examples of how to calculate the mean. after forming an array. and standard deviation. easy way to analyze data is to divide the data into quartiles. The data they collected for five transportation times in minutes are shown below: Another quick.
and methods. An example fishbone diagram is shown below: The fishbone diagram helps you determine if additional research is necessary to verify a cause.Fishbone Chart Not all quality measurement tools are quantitative. manpower. is a diagramming method that identifies the cause of a problem by connecting four M's: machines. and methods. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. . Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. manpower. materials. At the end of the fishbone is a description of the effect of the problem. materials. All rights reserved. In addition. also known as the Cause and Effect Diagram. you can use the diagram to determine another process that will reduce problems associated with machines. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. The fishbone chart.
10. Perry arranges the numbers in column A from low to high: 9. Median The median is the middle number in a list of numbers. Perry arranges the numbers in column A from low to high: 9. Mean. Mean The mean. which is 10. 10. and mode calculations. 12. or average. For our example.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. travel time between the two locations is 10. which is the average travel time between the two locations. Thus the . or average. 19. 10. Kleim and Irwin S. Again. median. The middle number of these five numbers is the third number. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Rating Poor Value 1 2 3 4 5 Number of Customer Responses 5 0 25 30 40 25 Quartile 1 5 0 20 (of 25) Quartile 2 5 0 25 20 (of 30) Quartile 3 5 0 25 30 15 (of 40) ----------- Fair Good Very Good Excellent 50 75 Exhibit 16-7. 19. Mode The mode is the number occurring most frequently in a list of numbers. Thus the median. 10. The formula is: Average time = sum of column A/N = 60/5 = 12. The number occurring most frequently is 10. is calculated by summing the numbers from column A (60) and then dividing by the number of samples taken (also called N). 12.
therefore. Perry needs 20 of those 25 to calculate the first quartile. Perry now begins to calculate the first quartile. he is consistent when collecting and reporting the information. Is there an agreed-upon definition of what constitutes quality? 3. The following calculates the quartiles using the example in the table. which equals 75 responses.5). that it is imperative to define and get agreement upon what quality means. he might state that the information in the trend chart assumes that the project will proceed at the current pace. and 15 of the 40 excellent responses to equal 75. He now needs to add the 5 "poor" responses. 0 "fair" responses. Perry is still 20 responses short of the first quartile. From the next higher class. The first quartile. or 100 divided by 2. 100 divided by 4 equals 25. For example. The Results of Data Analysis After converting his data into information and analyzing it. Did you get agreement on what metrics to use? Exhibit 16-9. Did you get agreement on what to measure? 4. which in turn provide a baseline for managing change. he is 20 responses short (25 ." there are 25 responses. Whichever method he chooses. he will have a credibility problem with the metrics. Questions for Getting Started 1. He now needs to add the 5 "poor" responses.8 Perry calculates the second quartile by taking the "first-half" of the responses. he portrays the data honestly and openly. is 25. he must go to "fair. Perry determines a quartile by taking the total number of customer responses (100) and dividing it into fourths. 25 "good" responses. Perry knows. Also. Quartile example. "good. Thus. Exhibit 16-8." the next class. Thus. or average. what metrics are necessary. which equals 50. Finally. Do you know exactly what the customer's requirements are? If relevant. he states his assumptions—he does not hide them. Otherwise. Summing Up Quality Assessment Collecting and analyzing metrics takes considerable time and effort. From the table on page 161. however." 30 "very good" responses. He does that in several ways. The formula for the second quartile is: 3 [the "good" rating] + 20/30 [from the "very good" rating] = 3." and 20 of the 30 "very good" responses to equal 50. Standard deviation calculation. which has 0 responses. such as in a presentation or by sending e-mail. and how to calculate them prior to taking the first step. 25 "good" responses. therefore. When 0 is added to 5. or three-fourths of 100. The formula for the third quartile is: .7 Perry calculates the third quartile by taking the first three-fourths of the responses. He does not outlay charts or other information to cover up or skew the messages. Consistency ensures timely and useful information. 0 "fair" responses. travel time between the two locations is 10. The "poor" rating contains five responses. Perry win communicate the results. the internal customer? The external customer? 2. The formula for the first quartile is: 1 [from the "poor" rating] + 20/25 [from the "good" rating] = 1. He then proceeds to implement metrics for the project.mode.
" This means that 50 percent of the customers gave the hotel a rating of "very good" or lower.7. Are business considerations the major determinants of what metrics to use? If not. If using checksheets. If developing Pareto charts. Have you identified what databases to use for metrics? Are the data reliable and valid? 6. how will you get that expertise? 7. did you cleanse the data? Standardize the data? 14. or 50 percent of the respondents. gave the hotel a rating of 3. Do you have a plan for communicating the results? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. which is approximately "fair. did you define the x. did you define the x." The second quartile. did you get buy-in to the metrics you plan to develop? 11. have you developed a formula? Did you get buy-in to the formula? 13.and y-axes? The flags to look for? 15.8. All rights reserved. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. 75 percent of the respondents rated the hotel between "very good" and "excellent. Have you identified your key process indicators (KBIs)? 12. Have you identified the expertise needed to perform the metrics? Is that expertise available? If not. When using data for calculating metrics. If developing a trend chart. Do you plan to use qualitative or quantitative metrics or both? 10. which is almost "very good. For quantitative metrics. If developing a histogram. 5. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. If developing a control chart. 25 percent of the respondents. did you define the x. did you determine the intervals to record each occurrence? Do you plan to display this information in the form of a histogram? The flags to look for? 16." This means that 75 percent of the customers gave the hotel a rating between "very good" and "excellent" or lower. gave the hotel a rating of 1. For the third quartile. How often do you plan to collect metrics? 9. did you identify the upper and lower control limits? The flags to look for? 18.and y-axes? The flags to look for? 19. .4 Hence. or the first quartile. how will you get those tools? 8. Do you need to calculate the mean? Median? Mode? Standard deviation? Quartile? 20.4 [the "very good" rating] + 15/40 [from the "excellent" rating] = 4. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited.and y-axes? The flags to look for? 17. Have you identified the hardware and software tools to do metrics? Are those tools available? If not.
It takes time to develop and implement an infrastructure to detect. Perry must meet certain requirements. Bad data lead to bad information. Perry must make decisions regarding any variance. ----------- Managing Change The key to handling project changes is to not resist them but to manage them. which in turn can result in bad decisions. Presumably he has chosen such team members. 3. review. Kleim and Irwin S. Perry knows that managing change is not easy. evaluate. He must have people who are adaptable to change. or make new plans for part of the project. valid information. Finally. but realists. he must determine . The baseline is the criterion against which to judge actual performance. He must have reliable. but if not. They should not be reactionaries or revolutionists. To deal with these obstacles and challenges. Each action he will take significantly impacts project execution. The variance is the difference between what is supposed to be and what is. A project environment is dynamic. take corrective action to get back on schedule. and changes will have to be made. it allows him the opportunity to adjust or modify plans so the goals remain realistic.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. It helps him maintain control by providing feedback on what is and should be happening at each step. He must have baselines to measure against. and quality. schedule. Of course. Yet he knows that nothing goes exactly according to plan. not static. according to plan. 2. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 17 Managing Changes to the Project Ideally. Those decisions might be to do nothing or to make changes. The right information in the right form at the right time is not readily available and in some cases is nonexistent. It helps Perry focus on the plan by identifying variances. Perry would like the Smythe Project to proceed as smoothly as possible — that is. making it difficult to get an accurate snapshot. 1. and respond to changes. Perry puts in place good change management disciplines that will help him determine whether to implement contingency plans to deal with unanticipated events. Managing change makes good practical sense. The baselines typically relate to cost. The project is constantly moving ahead.
processes. for example. • A corrective change is nice to have but unnecessary. or deferral. If necessary. 1. or corrective. Seek feedback while implementing the plan. 6. a project proceeds according to its baselines. analyzing. • A minor change is one that does not fit in the major category. Perry establishes a series of baselines. Develop several alternatives. or acceleration of the scheduled completion date. Exhibit 17-1. Examples include across-the-board cuts in budget. 3. • A major change dramatically affects schedule. 4. and quality. An example might be addressing an overlooked "nice-to-have" specification. when the time is less and the impact more acute. It is a "show stopper. such as a weighted point scheme. for example. Select the alternative that promises to provide the greatest payoff. get buy-in for your plan. The customer.how to deal with anyone who is overly resistant to change. the decision must be purposeful. or quality of the desired result. Perry develops a classification scheme for such changes. However. Types of Changes To identify whether a change is necessary. Decision-Making Basics As a project manager. This feedback will help you to refine the plan and indicate how well you are achieving the objectives. A priority can be either major. In the project environment. The medium. and monitoring the implementation of changes. but the change is not doable without substantial changes to the schedule." Generally. Develop and implement a plan. or quality. This infrastructure should also include people who are responsible for identifying. Whether major. variances can occur. . 4. from identification to disposition. Then you rank the alternatives by score. baselines are set for schedule. and procedures for reviewing. analyzing. Examples include a small change in the specifications or requirements. In other words. budget. minor. Many changes are internal. 2. The alternative with the highest score is the one you select. Approved request form. He classifies them as major. How do you determine which alternative that is? By developing a method. however. you will make decisions throughout a project. Brainstorm either by yourself or with team members. Perry assigns each change a priority. Ideally. Other changes originate from external sources. typically an electronic or hard copy form. the project manager analyzes and evaluates the nature of a change. expansion of the scope of the project without increasing the budget. and responding to changes. and procedures to team members. minor. Perry will need to have a medium for capturing changes and tracking their fate. arbitrarily reduce funding or change scope. 5. First. Be able to look at circumstances and determine if a decision is necessary. The hardest decisions with the most risk come during latter phases. such changes are major changes. such as adjusting how a task is done because of an unrealistic specification. would like to significantly change the specifications. Determine your objectives. He must establish an infrastructure to manage change. tracking. too. Remember the following basics of decision making. Since a project manager rarely has command and control over team members. processes. is shown in Exhibit 17-1. but not necessarily. these people should help with scheduling. minor. to evaluate how well each alternative satisfies the objectives. and the project manager must decide how to respond to those variances. He must communicate these policies. budget. cost. reviewing. or corrective. He must institute policies. and responding to change. The customer or senior management may. Know when a decision is required. Baselines are agreed-upon points of reference. • A high priority change demands immediate attention. Usually an anomaly or variance to a plan signals the need for a decision.
than just categorize and prioritize changes. . and customer representatives. does not alone make decisions or change categories and priorities. • A low priority change is addressed. however. These changes include "nice-to-have" features or offers in a product or service. It approves or disapproves the changes. and it assigns responsibilities for executing these changes. and quality. it must be addressed before the project ends. All rights reserved. respectively. The people on the change board are typically the project manager. selected team members. However. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.• A medium priority change does not require immediate attention. of course. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. It also analyzes the impact of such changes on cost. Perry. if time permits. He forms a change board. The change board does more. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. which consists of people responsible for classifying and prioritizing changes. schedule. An example is an important but small change to the specifications.
2. where. He and everyone else must have patience. Procrastination and indecisiveness can convert a problem into a crisis. when. Either case. Other people fear being blamed for the circumstances that led to the replanning. There is a tendency for project managers to think that ever-thing is fine up front. Likewise. Replanning is redoing the project plan by making wholesale changes to cost. First. and quality and requires corrective action. replanning will break synergy. Replanning takes effort and diagnosing past performance can be sensitive. what. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Corrective Action Sometimes the contingency plans do not work or an unanticipated event occurs. it makes more sense to follow a realistic plan. 4. Replanning If corrective actions are inadequate. He must have sufficient data to define the problem and determine a solution. it impacts cost.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Perry must address certain prerequisites. and quality factors. 2. He must respond quickly. Some people do not want to replan. The team is also more effective in achieving the project goal. why. If not. He must recognize that corrective action occurs throughout the project cycle. 1. . only to be surprised toward the end that corrective action should have been taken earlier. He must act quickly. the team works more efficiently because the changes have reduced confusion. schedule. Perry must address some challenges. but so will good data. 5. It will also detract from productivity. This means taking steps to get the project back on track. ----------- To take corrective action. He must distinguish between causes and symptoms. even under the old plan. There are several reasons for replanning. 3. 1. especially if it answers the who. and how of the situation. schedule. it only adds frustration. He must seek feedback on the corrective action taken. Kleim and Irwin S. To replan well. The feedback should indicate whether the problem disappeared. Using good analytical techniques can help. He must have reliable and valid data to determine whether replanning is necessary. Perry knows the next step: replanning. 3.
and it becomes more costly to do any rework. where. if you will. He records the description of the event. Focus on defining the problem. Many unknowns are expected and the momentum is just beginning. Perry. No matter what plans or baseline he establishes. The changes also have positive and negative impacts. The same can be said for cost. Do not confuse symptoms with causes. Here are some rudimentary steps for solving problems. 2. Reliable contingency plans don't just happen. Summing Up Change Management The project environment is not static. Look at the big picture and then narrow to the issue. You may have addressed the cause but perhaps not in a way that completely fixes the problem. schedule. Problem Solving Life is full of problems. and quality? When replanning. when. Develop a plan. During the early phases of a project. and quality. answering the who. what. Keep personality out of the picture. 4. All this affects the schedule. These problems can overwhelm the best project managers. determine the variables or factors that indicate whether a problem exists. and the appropriate response. to approach identifying and solving problems systematically. therefore. and projects have their share. 3. including their potential impact. Exhibit 17-2 Contingency plan form. quality. quality. Perry remembers that there is no such thing as a free lunch. That is. Contingency planning involves developing responses to situations that have a good probability of occurrence and could impact project performance.4. Devise a miniature project plan. For the Smythe Project. and how. Perry develops a contingency form. time preparation. He also knows that change affects costs. of course. replanning is easier. Contingency Planning Ideally. failure to recognize that fact can cloud your objectivity in developing a meaningful solution. it is more difficult to replan during the latter phases. as Perry well knows. Define the problem in one or two sentences. schedule. which in turn reduces productivity. its impact on cost. Seek feedback. Will the replanning be expensive? How much time and other resources will be required to replan? When must replanning be complete? What impact will replanning have on cost. to implement a solution. Do not let your emotions rule you and do not jump to conclusions. The momentum is faster. or a . A positive impact is satisfying the customer. It is important. It is easy to misdiagnose the problem by focusing on a symptom. people are rushing to accomplish major milestones. If he decides to schedule. Define the situation. shown in Exhibit 17-2. Feedback will help you to refine your plan and achieve your solution. They require having information about possible events. 5. He does replanning as early as possible. 6. decides to change the logic of the network diagram because the Smythe family wants to have the bridal shower two weeks earlier. Sliding of tasks on the critical path is an example. 5. He understands the impact that replanning will have. The Smythe family also wants to increase the number of attendees by 20 percent and add more events. 1. there will be negative and positive effects. its probability of occurrence. and feedback indicating when the events do occur. risk assessment (see Chapter 12) provides the basis for good contingency planning. Liking or disliking someone usually has nothing to do with a problem. why. for instance. schedule. and people factors. However. Perry knows that he will have to evaluate and implement changes. Keep your cool. a negative impact is temporarily slowing the momentum of the project. but also the scope of the project.
.combination of them. Did you establish a change management infrastructure that includes a means for: • Classifying changes? • Prioritizing changes? • Evaluating changes (e. the projected impact. monitoring. If doing contingency planning. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. otherwise. and the appropriate response? • Make sure the plans are readily available? • Assign someone responsible for upkeeping and executing the contingency plan? • Receive input from the people affected by the contingency plan? • Obtain and assess relevant feedback from the individuals affected by the contingency plan after it has been implemented? 4. quality) of the project are affected by the replanning? The negative and positive impacts? • Determine resource requirements and their availability for resource planning? • Determine the data and information requirements for replanning? • Obtain input from all of the people affected by the replanning? • Obtain feedback from all the affected people once the new plans went into effect? 3. determine and document the probability of occurrence. All rights reserved. and addressing changes? • Communicating changes? • Following up on changes? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. cost. Questions for Getting Started 1. did you: • Determine exactly what caused the need for corrective action? • Determine the most appropriate corrective action and implement it? • Receive input from the people affected by the corrective action? • Set a "blockpoint" date for the corrective action to be implemented? • Communicate the corrective action in advance? • Seek feedback after the corrective action was implemented? 2. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.. change board)? • Documenting changes? • Tracking.g. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. .g. If replanning. did you: • Determine what is the cause for replanning? • Determine what areas (e. change will manage him and he can quickly lose control. schedule. He is determined to manage change. If you decided to take corrective action. did you: • Determine and document the possible events using the risk assessment? • For each event.
while Exhibit 18-2 lists reasons for success. Leading • Avoiding conflict • Burning out of team members • Delaying decision making • Lacking cooperation • Lacking customer involvement • Lacking senior management support • Communicating poorly • Setting unrealistic expectations Organizing • Lacking resources • Lacking accurate knowledge and expertise • Having unclear authorities and responsibilities Controlling • Failing to deal with a changing environment • Failing to manage change • Overemphasizing on technology issues at expense of business issues • Competing too much for resources ----------- Defining • Having ill-defined. Exhibit 18-1 sums up the management reasons for failure. too small a scope • Having incomplete or unclear requirements Closure . Some communications. coordination.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. consuming all monies within the budgeted amount. Despite overwhelming success. and giving the Smythe family exactly what they wanted. Exhibit 18-1. lack of management support. others end in disasters. Some common reasons why projects end poorly are changing market conditions. politics. Some end successfully. and implementation problems arose. Unlike other weddings. Kleim and Irwin S. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Chapter 18 Project Closure All projects eventually end. the Smythe Project ended successfully: the wedding proceeded as planned. and poor management. not everything worked perfectly. Fortunately for Perry. and projects Perry handles in the future will benefit from what he learned. Common reasons for project failure. technical problems. meeting all milestone dates on time. the team's morale was extremely high up to the very end. lack of cooperation from clients. lack of resources. too large.
Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. Common reasons for project success. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. unrealistic plans • Finding errors too late • Failing to learn from past problems Exhibit 18-2. All rights reserved. Leading • Having the support of senior management • Obtaining customer involvement • Maintaining realistic expectations • Encouraging and sustaining a sense of owner ship by all participants • Having commitment and cooperation of all participants • Having a team with requisite knowledge and expertise • Promoting integrity Defining • Chunking the project into manageable pieces • Keep the scope well-defined • Clear definition of requirements • Focus on customer • Clear mission and objectives Planning • Focusing evenly on technical and business issues • Developing meaningful plans • Having more frequent project milestones • Having shorter flow time • Simplifying Controlling • Having a documented change management in place • Holding regular and frequent meetings • Avoiding scope "creep" • Taking regular measurements of performance Closure • Releasing people correctly to minimize impacton morale and performance Organizing • Assigning responsibility for well-defined deliverables • Having a good communication infrastructure in place • Having clear lines of authorities and responsibilities Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. .Planning • No planning • Poorly formulating plans • Having unclear.
Exhibit 18-3. these data help Perry ascertain what did and did not go well.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. which includes: A. contains unsubstantiated claims and personal grandstanding. Objectives. which includes: A. Kleim and Irwin S. like ----------- . operate more efficiently and effectively. Present title page. Managers of similar projects in the future can refer to what is in the document and. Original release date D. Document number C. Present table of contents. Many times. and other information of a project. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Learning From Past Experience Perry collects and compiles statistics from the project by using the project data repository. the document is poorly written. Present introduction. To ensure that these shortcomings do not appear. but also helps to identify their own strengths and weaknesses. Lessons-Learned Document I. The outline for a lessons-learned document is shown in Exhibit 18-3. Goals B. Document title B. But these advantages can be realized only if the document is well prepared. The lessons-learned document captures the successes. and is filed in an inaccessible place. Outline for a lessons-learned document. consequently. The lessons-learned document not only communicates useful information to future project managers. challenges. He plans to include the information in a special document. Section headings B. which includes: A. Mainly the measurements used during the project. Scope C. Relevant page numbers III. Appropriate signatures and date II. Perry takes the following actions.
He especially uses the information in the project history files. pp. which has exceeded twice its original cost estimate. This includes collecting documents and data. information systems (IS) projects seem to get special attention. 73 percent of the companies it surveyed had inadequately defined project plans. and met all user requirements. 3." Computerworld. It's no surprise. 118. In the late 1980s. called the Market to Collection Project. December 12. whose responsibility is to ensure that it is not forgotten and apply its contents to similar projects in the future. The state of Washington stopped developing a system that would process driver's licenses and vehicle registration. Then there is the Oregon Driver and Motor Vehicle Services project. On Budget.• Technical • Business D. however. which includes a wrap-up of the project 1. He solicits input from project participants for ideas and information to include in the document." System Development.3 3"Pesky Projects. . revealed some sobering statistics about projects with more than 64. passed its scheduled completion date by two years and exceeded its budget." Computerworld. Political actions E. He assigns someone on the noncritical path to do the preliminary work for preparing the document. The "average" project was more than a year late and the cost was double the estimate. 1994. If an organization is large. 1-6. Capers Jones. California had even more disastrous results while developing a large PC-based network—the project was millions of dollars over budget and lasted over twelve years. 1994. Present summary. This ensures a more objective and complete document. April 1987. the project was several years behind schedule and millions of dollars over budget. 4. what went wrong. president of Software Productivity Research. He submits the document to senior management. These examples may be more common than first realized. the success rate drops. and what was done. and what might have been done otherwise. finishing on time and within budget. This approach allows Perry to handle concurrent activities during project closure. And as with Washington. Roadblocks V. Since he collected and organized data throughout the project. Critical items C. The private sector has had its share of failures. Information Systems Projects: A Lesson for Everyone Although project failure appears in all industries. He has team members review the draft to preclude any biased content. and what went right. as well as preparing the draft. California had a Department of Motor Vehicles project that blew its schedule and exceeded its budget. Their record of successes and failures has been referred to by some as a crapshoot.1 Almost seven years later. within budget. valid measures throughout the project. Do not blame the public sector. this action is easy.000 lines of code. 2. The news is replete with examples of IS projects having disastrous results. 5. Major milestone deliverables D. History/background information IV. He identifies other sources of information. This task is easy since he has collected reliable. Activities B. the Standish Group announced that IS development projects succeed only slightly more than 1 percent—that is. IS Projects Come in On Time. April 11.2 1"Software 2"Few Productivity and Quality. The Xerox IS project. Less than 25 percent had well-defined and practical project management processes. He ensures that the data are useful. What are the major contributors to such dismal results? According to the Center for Project management. p. which include: A. Present events. He noted that less than 1 percent finished on time.
All rights reserved. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. . Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.
Expectancy theory states that successful performance depends on people's expectations of rewards. He is timely. people may depart prematurely and leave tasks unfinished. While conceptually simple. Kleim and Irwin S. He appears fair and consistent. a person's expenditure of effort depends on his or her expectations of reward. what the most meaningful recognitions would be. Perry knows in reality its implementation is difficult.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. In other words. He then releases only those without work. Perry must release the people who have worked on the project. or add unnecessary labor costs. He presents the recognitions and rewards within a reasonable time to gain maximum . If released inefficiently and ineffectively. These are difficult to determine. morale might fall and productivity decline. 4. whether extrinsic or intrinsic. The only way to avoid those circumstances is to be as objective as possible. 3. since people sitting idle will in time interfere with the others' productivity. morale problems can occur. and what rewards are within his power. So he reviews the responsibility matrices and schedule to determine the remaining work. If a person expects a financial reward and receives a nonfinancial one. spread rumors. 1. He remembers the expectancy theory. Since it is a matrix environment. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Releasing People and Equipment At closure. 5. 2. Even the appearance of being unfair or inconsistent can cheapen a recognition or reward. He determines the values and behaviors he wants to reward. still Perry follows some basic principles when giving recognition and rewards. It is hard to forget the past or divorce yourself from the personalities of the individuals. He strives for objectivity. Perry knows that prematurely releasing people may mean losing them permanently. ----------- Recognizing and Rewarding People No project is complete without recognition for outstanding performance. Perry also ceases use of any unnecessary equipment or facilities. Releasing people is not simple. He must decide whether to reward individuals or the team or both. If several people gave outstanding performances. He uses objective criteria for measuring results. If there's a feeling of pending disaster. he gives them equal recognition and rewards. He rewards these values and behaviors that best satisfy those of the company.
Some Guidelines for Future Projects Throughout the project. If preparing a lessons learned document. however the degree of application remains a matter of judgment. 2. he avoids them. especially if a person feels shortchanged. and expertise. If he gives recognitions or rewards long after completing a milestone. If a project of a similar nature has never been done. If the environment is constantly in flux. the more important it is that project management be used. the more procedures and schedules should be in place. The greater the complexity of the final product. then the project must be adaptable to change yet retain the focus on the goal. Did the statement of work give a real portrayal of what had to be done? Was the planning sufficient and could I have anticipated problems better? What procedural changes would I make next time? These are tough questions and often there are no definitive answers. Nevertheless. therefore he was continually asking himself. Project managers must use their judgment. such rewards may be all they are entitled to dispense. For example.motivational value. before the project gains too much momentum. The project managers should identify and implement as many elements as early as possible. experience. therefore. then there's a greater likelihood that management may be stymied. 7. The costlier the project. In the end. the project manager makes the decisions regarding management of his or her project. The six functions of project management are critical to success. building a state-of-the-art information system is more complex than building an outdoor shed. The longer the project. 6. 3. the more discipline needs to be imposed on the project. Larger project teams present greater challenges for coordination and communication. It makes sense. 1. For example. These guidelines can help the project manager decide what tools and techniques should be applied and to what degree. not the end themselves. In other words.000 one. In fact. the more important it is that all procedures and schedules be in place. The more dynamic the project environment. If collecting and compiling statistics. 5. Project management tools help achieve focus and adaptability by evaluating the impact of changes as they appear. for example. previous experience leads the way to greater efficiency and effectiveness. Questions for Getting Started 1. He does not rely on monetary rewards. If the project lacks clarity of purpose. even impossible. Perry kept a balance between the classical and the behavioral aspects of the project. For example. a $1 million project is more important than a $10. the more important it is that project management disciplines be in place. He knew that a detailed work structure or formal change control procedures are simply tools for completing his project. there are some general guidelines that are useful for making good judgments. Money provides only short-term satisfaction and can prove divisive. then coordination. The more ambiguity there is about a project's scope. The project manager must define the goal of the project and develop a path for achieving it. did you: . a fifty-person project is more difficult to coordinate than a five-person one. He uses a variety of nonfinancial rewards. did you: • Determine all the sources of information? • Decide whether the data are reliable and valid? • Determine what is required to make the data meaningful (if it is not)? 2. however. they are the means to an end. the more important it is that management disciplines are in place. and other key activities become difficult. from plaques to dinners to trips. Using these tools requires good judgment. The "we'll do it later" syndrome takes over and often results in key elements never being implemented or implemented in a mad rush at the last minute. For many project managers in a matrix environment. The larger the project team. Project management disciplines help ensure that inefficiencies do not occur. that the monies for the larger project are all accounted for and justifiable. The former requires greater coordination of personnel and resources. 6. A lack of precedence requires that more discipline be in place. A large monetary investment indicates a project's level of importance—for example. communication. which is based on their knowledge. Along with more time to complete a project is the tendency to overlook the need for good project management. they lose their meaning and impact. 4.
• Determine all the sources of information? • Prepare an outline? • Take steps to ensure its objectivity? • Submit it to senior management or other people who might use the information in the future? 3. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. did you determine the criteria to identify what should remain and what should be redeployed? 5. . When releasing people. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. did you: • Determine whether to reward the entire team or select individuals or both? • Seek to be objective? • Appear fair and consistent? • Determine what recognition and rewards approaches are available to you? • Match the expectancy of recognition and reward with the type sought by the team or individuals? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. did you determine the criteria to identify who should remain and who should be redeployed? 4. When recognizing and rewarding people. All rights reserved. When releasing equipment.. facilities. etc.
garbage out. producing reliable information rather than garbage in. In short. and reuse data from similar projects. presents some challenges. reducing the learning curve.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Some of these challenges include getting people to understand the purpose of the programs. and the licensing agreements must be fair. and ensuring that the software program supports the project and not that the project supports the software. produce reports rapidly and consistently. But the advent of local area networks. In the past. In addition. You also can use software to allocate resources and calculate costs. despite its obvious benefits. the software must be available at a reasonable price. automated project management is going through immense changes. Current—and future—applications will drastically change the way projects are completed and help ensure their completion on time and within budget. today's software can go quite far in helping project managers be more effective in their job. the scope was fairly narrow. increasing people's receptivity to the output. Kleim and Irwin S. you must also have the right hardware. Web technologies. You can use project management software to calculate early and late dates for each task and to determine the critical path. ----------- . and utilities on hand. Of course. operating software. Today. The discussion in this chapter visualizes the structure of present-day automated project management in the form of a three-level pyramid. identify inconsistencies with data. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Part III Project Management Enhancement Chapter 19 Automated Project Management Project management software can help you generate a project plan quickly. you can use word processing software to draft the statement of work and a spreadsheet program to estimate the hours needed to complete the project. and mobile computing have expanded the scope of automated project management dramatically. as shown in Exhibit 19-1. perform "what if" scenarios. too. Using project management software. software was used to build schedules and calculate costs.
• Establish a baseline. That serves only as an excuse for poor project management.Exhibit 19-1 Automated project management structure. Personal Computing Systems Building a program plan and doing risk assessment requires an automated project management package. database. You must make the decisions. good carpenters never blame their tools. The software. schedule to measure against. It happens because of you. the number of records insufficient. . • Assign multiple resources to a task and generate resource histograms for each resource and composite ones. Many project managers have a tendency to blame the tool when things go awry. • Provide standardized reports and have ability to tailor and custom-build. You must take action to get back on track. To choose a software package. will not do these things for you. it is. and spreadsheet programs. It will help you track performance and take corrective action. It is an aid. • Build a project repository. • Define and change the logic relationships between tasks as well as the lag value for all network diagrams. believe that the software makes or breaks a project. It will help you communicate with people. if necessary. • Detect logic errors in network diagrams and identify the problem. consider your needs. as an old saying goes. • Offer a common user interface that enables using other application packages easily. • Perform "automatic" resource leveling. or target. Software is simply a tool to help you manage a project. • Perform "what if" scenarios to determine the impact of the cost and schedule milestones. Many a project has failed despite the availability and use of the best project management software tools. especially inexperienced ones.g. however. PC packages have the capabilities of larger systems but can be used at PC level. this belief is as unrealistic as the idea that a paintbrush makes a good painter or a pencil makes a good writer. What the Software Won't Do Many project managers. Unfortunately.. There are software packages at the minicomputer or mainframe level. pie charts and Pareto diagrams) using data from the repository. and the learning curve too long for most limited-term projects. • Create bar charts for multiple levels of the work breakdown structure and have the ability to tailor and custom-build. • Generate graphics (e. but their purchase or lease costs often are too high. you must provide the leadership to bring a project in on time and within budget. In other words. If this sounds like preaching. • Use with other well-known word processing. • Choose different types of network diagrams that provide multiple displays of information. • Provide calendaring capabilities that can be modified to suit specific circumstances. A project manager might likely have the following requirements: Typical Software Needs and Wants • Cover a large number of tasks. You must communicate. After all. not because of the software. It will help you make decisions. and heed the warning. an enabler—if you use it correctly. easiest on a personal computer.
Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. . All rights reserved.Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.
Sample software evaluation.. and interview subject matter experts. Package A Calculated (Weight × Value) 6 (3 × 2) 6 2 Package B Calculated (Weight × Value) 9(3 × 3) 6 2 Package C Calculated (Weight × Value) 3 (3 × 1) 4 1 ----------- Requirements Build a project repository Add level number of tasks Select different types of network diagrams Provide standardized re-ports and ability to modify each one Establish baseline schedule Create and tailor bar charts Define and change logic relationships Assign multiple resources to tasks Perform automatic re-source leveling Weight Value 3 2 1 2 3 2 Value 3 3 2 Value 1 2 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 6 1 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 6 6 9 3 3 3 2 1 3 9 9 3 4 3 9 . Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Assign a value to each software need to reflect its relative priority. sales brochures and magazine reviews). experiment with demos to see how well they satisfy your needs.g. as shown in Exhibit 19-2. Exhibit 19-2.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Kleim and Irwin S. tally the results of your investigation and select the best package based on the total score. Then collect literature (e. Finally.
g. People working directly on the project team (e. find several popular packages. Identify the needs and wants in the software package. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. How easy is it to learn the package? Will the vendor provide basic training? 3. How well can the package be integrated with other popular applications and other projects (e. Follow the same process when selecting risk management software. A typical scenario is for the project application software to reside on the client. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. more often than not the computing environment is distributed. what happens if it goes out of business after you have invested in its product? 5. How long has the vendor been in business? If not long. or be at a mini.or mainframe computer level. or PC. is the software an enabler? Once the package is selected and delivered. tailor your presentation to reflect these different needs. core team members) need a more detailed understanding of the capabilities and outputs than senior management and the customer. All rights reserved. Should you buy individual packages or multiple packages? If the latter. First. data can be shared among multiple users as well as provide uniform data management. level. The client/server environment has substantially affected project management as a complementary or supplementary tool for new technologies such as telecommuting. spreadsheets)? Will it require complex programming to share data? 6. How long is the learning curve? Will it help the team focus on the work rather than on satisfying the needs of the software? In other words. A distributed computing architecture is client/server. ensure that team members understand how to use the software and provide the output. some or all the application processing may reside at the client.Grand Total 32 46 45 Remember that selecting the right package involves more than performing mechanical steps. or be shared with a server.. What type of support services are there? Is there a support line? Is there a charge for consultation? Is it available 7 by 24. And third. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. hardware and software cost less since the preliminary work is done at the client level.. Second. twenty-four hours a day? 4. and groupware. 1. apply an objective approach to select the right software. will you receive a discount? 2. This architecture offers several advantages. That is. Hence. Some leading project management and risk management software packages are shown in Exhibits 19-3 and 19-4. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. and ensure that people using the software are trained sufficiently.g. of course. users have a user-friendly interface while simultaneously having access to considerably more power and data than on a PC. The need and level of understanding depends on the audience. The agreement. whereby processing power is split among different levels in a systems architecture. the major processing and data occur on the server. meaning seven days a week. Distributed Integrated System Although there are excellent packages for project management. . mobile computing.
it takes leadership to get people to use the PMM. such as Productivity Plus (P+) by DMR.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. software (e. Slow transmission speed can increase costs. people work on projects via personal computers in their homes. and many of them are financial. Telecommuters must have technological tools. and cellular phone. pager. Project Management Methodologies In some situations. Telecommuting reduces the need for office space. There are also potential performance problems. standardized approach for managing projects. printer. The PMM must be flexible in its application. And it improves communications. It provides a consistent.g. the Practical Project Management Methodology (P2M2) by Practical Creative Solutions and KLR Consulting. A PMM does not guarantee success. And this leadership should come not from just the project manager but also from senior management. There are challenges to telecommuting. Some PMMs are stand-alone. It allows people to accomplish more in less time. from project management to word processing. Sometimes the methodology is developed in-house. Commitment comes just as much from the top as it does from the rank and file. laptop or workstation). meaning they're not part of a much bigger methodology—for example..g. which is oriented toward software development.. requiring ----------- . terminal emulation). other times it is purchased from an outside firm. It must also be documented and accessible. Finally. a PMM offers several advantages. Kleim and Irwin S. Other PMMs are part of a much bigger methodology. There is corruption and other degradations of data associated with transferring data across telephone lines. projects can make use of a project management methodology. It sets the groundwork for compiling data. it should present information clearly and concisely. or PMM. including a personal computer (e. plus saves time and commuting dollars for the individual. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Telecommuting Increasingly. Project managers must ensure that telecommuters have the current software. They provide their services and expertise electronically. They also need training and perhaps technical support to resolve connections problems and answer advanced application quieries. modem. and it should be supported via training and vendor assistance. Whatever its origins. thanks to fewer interruptions and a flexible work schedule.
Inc. Considered useful for small to large projects. Contact Primavera Systems. It gives team members the flexibility to work at different locations. Mobile Computing Like telecommuting. Considered useful for medium to large projects.com Scitor Corporation 333 Middlefield Road 2nd floor Menlo Park. Project Workbench provides an extensive project planning and control system. Microsoft Project for Windows A planning and controlling package that generates standard and tailorable charts and reports. It enables determining the probabilities for completing a project on schedule and within budget. CA 94025 (800) 533-9876 www.com ABT Corporation 361 Broadway New York. Inc. Considered useful for medium to large projects. CA 94065-1128 (415) 591-5676 //ourworld. CA-Superproject A project management package that is very resource driven and provides extensive graphics and reporting capabilities. Inc. One Computer Associates Plaza Islandia.msn. NY 10013-3998 (212) 219-8945 www. Two Bala Plaza Bala Cynwyd.com/ homepages/jerardra Rank-It . Leading risk management software packages. and managing multiple projects. Exhibit 19-4. Considered useful for small to large projects. Considered useful for small to medium projects.primavera.com Results Management A suite of project management products.installation of high bandwidth lines. Project Scheduler 7 for Windows A project management package noted for ease of use. PA 19004-1586 (610) 667-8600 www.scitor. Project team members can be on the road and still contribute to deliverables. Leading project management software packages. It also provides e-mail and Web publishing functionality. PA 19004-1586 (610) 667-8600 www. mobile computing is a result of advances in client/ server technology. of which Project Workbench plays a key role. Risk assessment software that enables applying precedence diagramming (not to be confused with precedence network diagramming for schedules) for identifying and ranking threats and processes and associated controls. resource handling capabilities.com Jerry Fitzgerald and Associates 506 Barkentine Lane Redwood City. Two Bala Plaza Bala Cynwyd.com Computer Associates International.compuserve.primavera. WA 98052-6399 (425) 635-7155 www. and enables them to work at a remote location and still provide timely results. Exhibit 19-3. NY 11788-7000 (800) 225-5224 www. Package Monte Carlo for Primavera Description Risk analysis software that is used with Primavera Project Planner.abtcorp. Contact Primavera Systems. Microsoft Project for Windows works well with other Microsoft products.com Microsoft Corporation One Microsoft Way Redmond. Package Primavera Project Planner (copyright) Description A comprehensive planning and control package.cai.
Program Management Solutions. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. One Cabot Road Suite 190 Hudson. It enables applying Monte Carlo simulation to determine the probability to complete tasks.Risk + Risk analysis software to use with Microsoft Project for Windows. Pacific Coast Highway Suite B-177 Redondo Beach. All rights reserved. 553 N.prog-mgmt. . MA 01749 (508) 870-0070 www. Inc. CA 90278 (805) 898-9571 www. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.com Redpoint Software.com Total Risk An integrated risk management package for monitoring and controlling risk by creating a "virtual data warehouse.rpsi. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited." Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Inc.
Groupware is often not enterprise-wide. electronic meetings) • Workflow (e.g.. PCMCIA cards. document management) • Personal and group calendaring and scheduling • Real-time conferencing (e. ----------- . Its software components fall into one of these categories: • Electronic mail and messaging over a network • Information sharing (e. software (e.g. it is used within a smaller organization.. There must be a substantial initial investment in hardware and software. work unit. and drivers. network devices. too: skyrocketing communications costs. Like telecommuting and mobile computing. A mobile computing workforce requires laptops. such as a department. training. docking stations. using mid-range and personal computer-based computing. The costs can be high. there are challenges to mobile computing. There are other factors. and support to resolve technical problems. Kleim and Irwin S. automation of common business functions) To function in a groupware environment. and software (which often includes two or more categories). batteries.g. All this increases project costs and adds to flow time.. And there is the time and money to ensure the data security and restrictive access to corporate networks.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Of course. adapters. it requires support personnel to resolve technical difficulties and answer inquiries. applications.g. groupware computing enables the sharing of applications and data. Groupware improves the communciation and distribution of information. CD-ROM attachments. cabling. or project.. team members need microcomputers or workstations. modems. communications). It capitalizes on trends toward decentralization of computing. Groupware Computing Thanks to client/server architecture and the movement toward flatter organizational structures. additional servers to handle demand. servers. printers. as well as upgrade efforts and training. But groupware also presents its challenges. It requires a commonality of software and data.
etc. Java. Many projects establish Web sites. consistent. HTML [hypertext markup language]. • Use language that is familiar to everyone. not distract. HTML (hypertext markup language). • Have text free of spelling and grammatical errors. ensure that it is clear. and a database management system (e. The information likely to be on a Web site is: • Cost and time estimates • Forms • Lessons learned from previous projects • Meeting schedules • Memorandums • Phone and contact listings • Procedures • Reports • Risk assessment • Schedules (bar and network) • Statement of work • Work breakdown structure .g. define acronyms and jargon. Many companies apply Web technology in the form of intranets. primary difference between the Internet and an intranet is that the latter uses a firewall. Web Site Design The enthusiasm for Web technology has hit just about every organization. • Keep hypertext and navigational links to a minimum and current. Finally. which provides hypertext links to contents throughout the site and navigational links to other pertinent sites. audio. confusing. To develop a Web page for your project. and simple. The technology for using the Internet or an intranet is varied. It gives people access to information that was once difficult to obtain. or server. restricted basis. concise. it furthers communication through e-mail or conferencing at relatively low cost. A Web site is what people inside and outside of the project access to send or obtain information.Web Technology The Internet is revolutionary technology that ties organizations and projects together. It has tools (browsers. • Use color sparingly to emphasize main points and draw attention. Internet technology is used on a smaller. Your Web pages should: • Follow a logical structure rather than appear as a hodgepodge of unrelated data. and irrelevant. Quite often. • Use plenty of white space to increase readability and minimize bandwidth use. Even medium-size projects are building their own Web sites. A project typically has one Web site for people access. but they share common requirements: • Workstation and browser for each user • Database servers • Expertise in SQL (structured query language).. and video to support the main focus of the site. the Web pages of these sites appear cluttered. CGI (common gateway interface). relational) • Operating system at the workstation • Protocols (such as HTTP. TCP/IP) for communications Web technology is truly an enabler of projects. to regulate or screen communications—hence. relevant. The broad. • Use graphics.) that are relatively easy to use and piggyback on an existing communications network and client/server infrastructures.
. if necessary. Use good spelling and grammar. Unless they were masters at time management or could read quickly. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. To reduce the volume of e-mail you receive. topic or person). With the ease of using e-mail. • Set aside some time during the day to address messages. To lessen the e-mail volume.Taming the E-Mail Beast In the past. in many respects. it was not uncommon for project managers to find a pile of memorandums on their desks.g. Today. except the memorandums are in electronic form. Ensure the receiver can print an attached file. Include your name and/or organization on the message. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited.. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. the volume of memorandums has become worse. All rights reserved. they found themselves overwhelmed. Ensure that the contents of the message move from major to minor points. 6." meaning: 1. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. 2. the same challenge exists. 5. 4. Keep the message to minimum length. emphasize that team members use "e-mail etiquette. • Establish a scheme for determining which messages are more important than others (e. Consolidate your messages to the receiver. 3. • Store messages for later reference onto a hard drive or floppy disk. you can: • Distribute a style guide on e-mail and guidelines for everyone on the project.
project managers must restrict access and take measures to prevent a virus from being downloaded. 8. 4. and data. then the project manager must train someone or hire the necessary support.. Insufficient bandwidth can result in problems like long response time at peak periods of usage. especially on highly visible.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. 7. enable access to databases. There are several issues the project manager needs to address. Especially for highly proprietary projects. HTML. 5. Placing documents on a Web site may be all right if generated internally.g. The right technological infrastructure must be in place to use Web technology. Infrastructure. With technological power at their fingertips. team members can be tempted to surf the Internet. password protection. including ways to author and deploy documents for the site. sufficient RAM. Although a key attraction of Web technology is its ease of use. and distribute updates to application software. the Web site can be the place to broadcast messages. all of which use bandwidth and challenge the overall capacity of the supporting network infrastructure. 3. Unless someone already has expertise in Web-related areas (e. and establish an infrastructure before deciding whether to take ----------- . keeping it current is another. hardware with sufficient capacity (e. and encryption are some ways. Java). Copyright laws. it can add to the overall cost of a project. and software for assessing data created by legacy systems. but they can be costly. issues of fair use and ownership arise. Content management. Security. which can result in nonproductive time and effort as well as access to unrelated data and software. politically sensitive projects. many team members find themselves gun-shy and may experience longer than usual learning curves. Web technology goes beyond accessing and transferring text. 1. Setting up a Web site is one thing. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title In addition. Kleim and Irwin S. User confidence. Sufficient bandwidth. video. Firewalls. The project manager needs to define his requirements upfront. 6. Productive use. but if the documents have been developed by another organization. Despite the advantages of Web technology.g. There must be someone on the team to refresh the site to ensure that its content and links stay meaningful. It involves using static images.. processing speed). Training can help resolve this issue. 2. Support. Project managers must provide standards and guidelines for using this technology. audio. look at the existing technological and knowledge capabilities of his team members.
its use does not guarantee success. Videoconferencing offers many advantages. plan. organize. Some major capabilities of PC-based videoconferencing include: • Multipoint conferencing and point-to-point conferencing • Providing system diagnostics • Setting up address books • Sharing applications • Transferring files • Whiteboarding (e. To get started in videoconferencing. that using the right software or other tool—and using it right—helps clear the path to a successful project outcome.. there are incompatibilities between points owing to protocol differences. nor does it define. The technology then includes: • Additional microcomputers for multiple-site conferences to manage interaction • Audio board supporting speaking and listening • Cabling • Digital camera • Microcomputer.g. several challenges remain. H. If looking for a risk management software package. However. ghostlike.g. It encourages collaboration and communication. especially ones with team members spread over a wide geographical area. People like Perry. and white-boarding • Videoboard Project Automation: Recognizing the Limitations A technological tool like a software package can make managing a project easier and the manager more efficient and effective. The technology is immature. electronic diagramming) However. Other times. however. did you: • Define your requirements? • Determine how you will go about selecting the package? .320 for ISDN [Integrated Services Digital Network] and H. headset for individual interaction • Modem for phone lines • Software that provides control settings for audio and video quality. preparing for videoconferencing can be costly. preferably a Pentium • Microphone for group interaction. did you: • Define your requirements? • Determine how you will go about selecting the package? • Consider value-added issues like vendor support? Training? Warranties? 2. control. or close a project. do that. Perry realizes. causing competition for bandwidth. with powerful personal computers and digital networking. Today. Numerous projects have failed although armed with top-notch software. The sound often is not synchronized with the image. Many projects. Perry recognizes that a tool does not lead. and. supports standard protocols (e. Finally.. videoconferencing takes place on a much smaller scale. and so he selects such tools carefully. too. and jerky images. transferring data. the start-up costs alone can be up to three to four times the cost of a workstation.324 for Plain Old Telephone Service [POTS]). and not some silver bullet. Sometimes. and encourages real-time planning rather than relying on passive media like documentation and e-mail. If looking for a project management software package. Questions for Getting Started 1. sharing applications. the transmission slows dramatically during high usage periods. are increasingly using videoconferencing.advantage of Web technology. project managers should have a fully configured setup at a sending and receiving site. Videoconferencing Videoconferencing once could occur only in a large facility equipped with a vast array of electronic gadgetry. reflected in often blurry.
5. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited.g. 4. 6. All rights reserved. • Determine the type of risk analysis and assessment approach to take? • Consider value-added issues like vendor support? Training? Warranties? If you are working in a client/server environment. did you: • Determine the necessary hardware and software requirements? • Determine the necessary level of technical support? • Determine how to deal with issues related to hardware and software performance? If team members are using mobile computing. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.. did you: • Determine the necessary hardware and software requirements? • Elect to set up a Web site and determine its layout and contents? • Determine what ways to use Web technology (e. broadcast messages. 7. did you: • Determine the necessary hardware and software requirements? • Determine the necessary level of technical support? • Determine how to deal with issues of data backup and recovery? Security? Compatibility of hardware and software as well as distributing upgrades? If team members are using groupware computing. sharing applications. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. access databases)? • Determine the necessary level of technical support? If team members are using PC-based videoconferencing.g.. whiteboarding)? Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. . 8. did you: • Determine the necessary hardware and software requirements? • Determine the necessary level of technical support? • Determine ways to overcome hardware and software compatibility and upgrade problems? If team members are using Web technology. did you: • Determine the necessary hardware and software requirements? • Determine the necessary level of technical support? • Determine the desired uses of the technology (e.3. did you: • Determine the necessary hardware and software requirements? • Determine the necessary level of technical support? • Determine how to deal with issues related to hardware and software performance? If team members are telecommuting.
2.1.2 Arrange for facilities 1.1.2 Entertainment/Music 18.104.22.168 Determine type of food/beverage 1.1.1 Bachelor Party 1.1 Conduct bachelor party 220.127.116.11.2 Bridal Shower 184.108.40.206.2.2 Arrange for food/beverage 1.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L.220.127.116.11 Arrange for entertainment/music 1.1.3 Food/Beverage 1.1.4 Party 184.108.40.206 Entertainment/Music 1.2.1 Location 1.2.1 Determine type of entertainment/music 1.1.1 Determine location 1.1.3 Food/Beverage 1.3.2 Arrange for entertainment/music 1. Kleim and Irwin S.1.1. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Appendix Case Study Work Breakdown Structure 1.1 Determine location 1.2.1 Determine type of entertainment/music 126.96.36.199 Arrange for facilities 1.1 Location 1.4.0 Parties 1.1 Determine type of food/beverage ----------- .
2.3 Mail invitations 126.96.36.199.2 Prepare announcement 2.2.2 Select type of invitation 2.0 Photography/Videography 3.1 Invitations 126.96.36.199.1.g.1.4.3 Mail invitations 2.1.3 Mail invitations 188.8.131.52 Determine whom to invite 188.8.131.52 Select type of invitation 2.3 Arrange for videographer .22.214.171.124.22.214.171.124 Select type of invitation 2.1 Determine type of food/beverage 1.4 Reception 1.1.1 Conduct bridal party 220.127.116.11 Arrange for facilities 1.2 Entertainment/Music 1.3 Mail invitations 2.1.2 Select type of invitation 220.127.116.11.3 Reception 2.2 Arrange for food/beverage 1.2 Arrange for food/beverage 18.104.22.168 Determine portfolio 3.3.2 Mail thank you cards for bridal shower 2.1..1.1 Determine type of entertainment/music 1.1.0 Stationery 2.3.2 Arrange for entertainment/music 1.2 Bridal shower 2.4 Party 1.3 Mail announcement to newspapers 2.1 Location 1.1.1 Mail thank you cards for bachelor party 2.1.3. newspaper) 18.104.22.168 Engagement participants 3.3.3 Mail thank you cards for reception 2.1 Determine whom to invite 2.2 Arrange for photographer 22.214.171.124.1 Determine location 220.127.116.11 Announcement of Engagement 2.1 Bachelor party 2.1.1 Determine whom to invite 2.3.1 Conduct reception 188.8.131.52.3 Thank you cards 2.1 Determine whom to invite 2.3 Reception 184.108.40.206 Wedding 2.1 Select whom to contact (e.18.104.22.168.4.4 Mail thank you cards for wedding 3.1.3 Food/Beverage 1.4.
3.1.1 Tuxedo 5.2 Safeguard gifts 184.108.40.206 Select hairstyle 5.2 Fit veil 5.2 Wedding portraits 3.3 Arrange for videographer 3.3.1 Select veil 5.1.3 Determine favors 4.1 Gown 5.1 Select tuxedo 5.2 Bridal shower 22.214.171.124.1.1.3 Veil 5.1 Bride 22.214.171.124.1 Determine portfolio 3.2 Fit headpiece 5.2 Coordinate with cosmetician 22.214.171.124 Arrange for photographer 3.4 Distribute favors 4.2 Arrange for photographer 3.3.2 Arrange for videographer 3.1 Collect gifts 4.2 Groom 5.1 Collect gifts 4.2.1 Select headpiece 5.2 Coordinate with hairstylist 5.2.2 Safeguard gifts 4.4.5 Makeup 5.1.3 Determine favors 4.1.2 Tailor tuxedo .4 Bridal shower 3.1 Bachelor party 4.2 Headpiece 5.3 Determine favors 4.4 Distribute favors 126.96.36.199 Collect gifts 18.104.22.168.3.1 Arrange for photographer 3.1 Select gown 5.1.4 Distribute favors 4.2.0 Attire 5.2 Arrange for videographer 126.96.36.199.126.96.36.199.184.108.40.206 Reception 184.108.40.206.2.2 Tailor gown 5.3 Bachelor party 3.1.0 Gifts and Favors 4.4.1 Determine cosmetic requirements 5.2.4 Hairstyle 5.1.2 Safeguard gifts 4.3.2.
5 Determine location for honeymoon Arrange for transportation to honeymoon location Arrange lodging for honeymooners Develop itinerary for honeymooners Depart for honeymoon 10.2.1.1.3 Determine transportation requirements to and from reception 6.0 Flowers 11.1 188.8.131.52.1.1.4 Coordinate transportation requirements to and from reception 6.1.1 Determine floral requirements 8.1.3 Identify limousine service to reception 6.2 18.104.22.168.0 Honeymoon 9.2 10.2.1.1.1 Bride and groom 6.2 Coordinate floral delivery 8.3 Pay florist 9.2.2 Coordinate transportation to church 6.1 Identify limousine service to church 6.6 Arrange for valet service for reception 7.2.0 Transportation 6.1 Pay for church service 7.1 Pay parking fees for wedding 7.1.3 10.1.6.2 Parking 7.2.3 Pay florist 8.2 Coordinate floral delivery 8.2 Pay parking fees for reception 8.1.1 10.2 Guests 6.1.4 Coordinate limousine service to reception 18.104.22.168 Reception 8.1 Determine floral requirements 8.1 Church service 7.1 Determine transportation requirements to church 6.2.1 License 11.2 Coordinate limousine service to church 6.4 9.5 Arrange for valet service for church 6.5 Develop guest list Coordinate lodging Coordinate transportation (ground and air) Arrange for food and beverages Send letter of contact regarding services 11.2.4 10.3 184.108.40.206 Wedding 6.2 Coordinate with civil authorities .0 Guests 10.2.1 Prepare wedding license 188.8.131.52 Wedding 8.0 Fees 7.0 Flowers 8.1.
2 Identify best man 14.3 Identify maid of honor 14.3 Coordinate with jeweler 12.1.2 Identify who will toast the newlyweds 15.1 Determine requirements from bride 12.4 Deliver ring to bride 188.8.131.52 Engagement ring 18.104.22.168.1.3 Set up decorations at reception area 16.1.1 Set up registry at church 12.1.1 Determine lighting requirements 13.0 Decorations 15.2.1 Identify who will be in receiving line 22.214.171.124 Wedding 188.8.131.52 Food/Beverages 16.0 Lighting 13.2.3 Set up decorations at church 15.2.2 Wedding ring 12.2.5 Identify ring bearers 14.4 Deliver ring to bride 12.2 Reception 18.104.22.168.1.1 Determine lighting requirements at church 13.3 Install lighting 22.214.171.124 Determine decoration requirements at reception area 15.1.2 Determine requirements from groom 12.3 Coordinate with jeweler 220.127.116.11 Rules 14.1 Identify bridesmaids 14.2 Registry 11.6 Identify ushers 14.0 Rings 12.2 Coordinate lighting requirements at church 13.2.2 Determine requirements from groom 12.1 Determine decoration requirements for church 15.2.2 Reception 15.2.3 Install lighting at church 13.1 Determine requirements from bride 12.2 Coordinate set up of decorations at reception area 15.4 Identify flower girls 14.1.2 Reception 13.1 Wedding 15.2 Coordinate set up of decorations at church 15.1 Reception .5 Deliver ring to groom 13.2 Coordinate lighting requirements 13.1 Wedding 14.1.
5 16.0 Cake 18. .1 Coordinate with reception area owner the date and time of rehearsals 19.2 Coordinate with receiving line and toaster the date and time of rehearsals 22.214.171.124.3 Conduct wedding 18.1 18.0 Rehearsals 19.1.2 Coordinate with wedding party the date and time of rehearsals 19. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited.1 Wedding 19. time.4 16.1 16.2.2 18.1 Coordinate with church the date and time of rehearsals 19. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc.2.2 Reception 19. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement.3 16.2.4 Determine requirements for cake Submit requirements to bakery Arrange for delivery of cake to reception area Coordinate serving of cake 19.2 126.96.36.199.1.2 Coordinate with church specific requirements regarding service 17.3 18.0 Church 17.6 Determine food requirements Coordinate food delivery Coordinate serving of food Determine alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages Coordinate beverage delivery Coordinate serving of beverages 17.3 Conduct first wedding rehearsal 19.4 Conduct second wedding rehearsal 19. All rights reserved.3 Conduct first reception rehearsal 19.1. and number of attendees 17.1 Contact church of choice regarding date.1.1.4 Conduct second reception rehearsal Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions.1.
an accompanying bar to reflect the flow time or duration. posture. and quality. Kleim and Irwin S. facial expressions. for each one. baseline Agreed-upon points of reference. and moving from right to left through a network diagram. bar or Gantt chart A charting approach that displays a list of tasks and. body movements. backward pass Using the durations and dependencies in a network diagram. assessing status Determining how well the project has and will achieve its goals and objectives. actual cost of work performed (ACWP) The actual costs accrued for one or more tasks up to a specific point in time.g. baselines are set for schedule. ----------- . and eye movements). arrow diagram A charting approach that uses nodes to represent events and arrows to describe the task between the nodes. In a project environment. budgeted cost for work performed (BCWP) The estimated value of the work completed up to a specific point in time. body language The physical movements that account for 70 to 90 percent of our conversation (e.Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. beginning with the very last task. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Glossary of Project Management Terms active listening Genuinely hearing what the speaker says. budget.. budgeted cost for work scheduled (BCWS) The estimated value of the work scheduled. to calculate the late start and finish dates.
if time permits.g. medium-priority Revisions that do not require immediate attention. managing changes to baselines.) A measure in place to mitigate. or quality. It involves collecting and assessing status. the idea of a project arises and preliminary cost and schedule estimates are developed at a high level to determine if the project is technically and economically feasible. and responding to circumstances that can negatively impact project performance. change. usually after a red-letter date or significant event (e. high-priority Revisions that demand immediate attention. change. floor space. checkpoint review A type of session held at specific times. control chart A diagram that identifies normal and anomalous situations — specifically a variance from an average. cost variance . change. or correct the impact of a threat. controlling The function of project management that assesses how well a project meets its goals and objectives. manpower. minor Revisions that do not fit in the major change category. component A basic element of a system. insurance. prevent. change.g. checksheet Document that records the frequency distribution of a number of incidents. change. constraint date The time mandating that a task may have to begin or finish on or by a specific date. major Revisions that dramatically affect schedule. cause and effect diagram A charting approach to identify the cause of a problem by identifying the interrelationships among the four M's: machines.. and methods.burdened labor rates Rates that include the cost of fringe benefits (e. change board The people responsible for classifying and prioritizing changes. cost. corrective action Steps taken to get the project back on track.g.. During this phase. releasing people. client/server environment A computing architecture where some or all application processing may reside at the client (e. closing A function of project management that involves compiling statistics. contingency planning Tentative responses to situations that have a good probability of occurrence and could impact project performance.or mainframe computer level). and preparing lessons learned.. low-priority Revisions that are addressed. microcomputer level) or be shared with a server (e. concept phase The first phase of the project cycle.. mini. control (n. nonlabor overhead).g. materials. corrective Revisions that are nice to have but unnecessary. change. completion of a major milestone).
early finish date The earliest time a task can be completed. data flow A diagramming technique showing the flow of data through a system. earned value The integration of cost and schedule to determine the level of progress. and most pessimistic variables to calculate the time anticipated to complete a task.The difference between budgeted and actual costs. objectives. critical path One or more paths through the network diagram with tasks having zero float. completes before the next one. . distributed computing A computing environment where processing power is split among different levels in systems architecture. or successor. free The time that an activity can slide without impacting the start date of its successor. finish-to-start dependency The relationship between tasks whereby an earlier activity. It involves determining the overall vision. team members. expected time Using the most likely. expectancy theory Successful performance depends on the expectations of rewards. diversity A work environment tolerating a variety of backgrounds. duration The flow time of a task. materials and specialized labor). scope. fixed cost Unalterable charge owing to changes in work volume (e. the customer. including race.. goals. float. most optimistic. and deliverables of a project. and religion..g. that a person has. dissatisfier Psychological desire that if not satisfied will negatively impact motivation. whether extrinsic or intrinsic. can begin. direct costs Charges directly related to the building of a product (e. finish-to-finish dependency The relationship between tasks whereby they must finish around the same time. nationality. ethnicity. feedback loop The flow of information between the project manager. defining The function of project management that determines exactly the purpose and boundaries of a project. or predecessor. Tasks with free float appear on the noncritical path. efficiency Whether a project is consuming more or fewer resources than expected. and senior management. effectiveness Whether a project is achieving its goals and objectives. responsibilities. cost of facilities usage). delegating Having a person act on behalf of another individual.g.
histogram A graphical depiction of resources being or that have been utilized. global efficiency factor (GEF) estimate A technique that incorporates nonproductive time into an estimate. Gantt chart See bar chart. safety (shelter). to regulate or screen communications. histogram. installation phase A time in a project cycle when the final product is delivered to the customer. forward pass Using durations and dependencies in a network diagram and moving from left to right through a network diagram. histogram. hierarchy of needs A psychological model of motivation developed by Abraham Maslow. intranet Basically the same computing technology as that used to operate the Internet.float. or server. The primary difference between the two is that an intranet uses a firewall. The high points are called peaks and low points are called valleys. unleveled A histogram with an irregular shape. beginning with the very first task to calculate the early start and finish dates. It identifies people's needs according to this hierarchical order: physiological (food). form Document that captures and communicates information. and self-actualization (becoming). social (acceptance). job enrichment Structuring or assigning tasks and responsibilities to give a person the opportunity to actualize. which include a statement of work. groupware computing A computing environment allowing the sharing of applications and data. leveled A histogram with the extreme peaks and valleys smoothed out. implementation phase A time in a project cycle when the execution of the plan achieves the goals and objectives. total The time that an activity can slide without impacting the project completion date. work breakdown structure. and schedule. indirect cost Charge not necessarily related to the building of a product (e.g. Internet technology Electronic technology that ties together communities throughout an organization. esteem (sense of importance).. job rotation Moving a person from one job to another to increase his overall awareness or exposure. consisting of many peaks and valleys. rent and taxes). key project indicator (KPI) Element of a project that contributes to its successful completion. flowchart Pictures and diagrams used for displaying processes and procedures. useful for providing audit trails. job enlargement Increasing the number of tasks and responsibilities to perform on a job. . formulation phase A time in a project cycle when complete project plans are developed. item-by-item format procedure Procedural documentation that contains a mixture of topics.
and other information of a project. . usually 3 to 5 percent of the total estimate for the project. signature block. late finish date The latest time a task can be completed. when. usually the higher levels in the work breakdown structure. calibrated measures that are objective. purpose statement. management estimate at completion (MEAC) A combination of actual expenditures to date plus the remaining estimate to complete the project. subject title. metrics. by team members. it will negatively impact motivation. leading The only function of project management that simultaneously occurs when executing the other five functions. noncalibrated measures that are subjective. addressee. metrics. challenges. meaning that if not present to a sufficient degree. memo A brief document that should contain a date. what. ad hoc A type of meeting that is held irregularly. Michigan studies Management research that revealed two types of supervisory styles that can affect motivation: production and employee centered. late start date The latest time a task can begin. mean The average of the values for items in a group of data. staff A type of session that is held regularly. quantitative Tangible. where. lessons learned document A medium for capturing the successes. management reserve A fund set aside to address unexpected costs. It involves inspiring people to accomplish goals and objectives at a level that meets or exceeds expectations. meeting. mobile computing An information systems environment that enables team members to work at remote locations and provide timely results. meeting. it should also answer the who. qualitative Intangible. median A position average at the midpoint for a frequency distribution. managerial level The detail that is "rolled up" to higher levels for reporting purposes. metrics Tools and techniques to determine standards and track against them.lag The gap between the end of one task and the start of another. often spontaneously. milestone chart The outlay on a Gantt chart that shows an icon or symbol for the occurrence of an event rather than a bar for durations. maintenance factor A dissatisfier. matrix structure Resources from functional organizations that are shared with other projects. and why of a subject. All team members meet to receive information from the project manager and to share additional data and insights.
Myers-Briggs type indicator A psychological tool that identifies personality types based on the combination of four preferences: extrovert versus introvert. including time and a half and double time. . nonrecurring costs A charge that appears only once (e. personality The composite set of characteristics that make up a person's behavior. Pareto chart A diagram that displays information to determine the potential causes of a problem. clarifying relationships among parties. between the tasks. most optimistic estimate The effort to complete a task under the best or ideal circumstances.. organizing A function of project management that orchestrates the use of resources cost-effectively to execute plans. nonburdened rate The labor cost minus the cost of fringe benefits and overhead. assigns who will perform them. It involves activities like assembling a team. ninety (90) percent syndrome 90 percent of a project is completed. McClelland that found people have a need to achieve. the purchase of equipment). the degree varies from person to person. monitoring Projecting into the future using past performance. meaning psychological desire that if addressed will positively impact performance. thinking versus feeling. and judging versus perceiving. most likely estimate The effort (usually in hours) to complete a task under normal or reasonable conditions. overrun A positive value for total estimate-at-completion. sensing versus intuitive. and setting up project history files.g. overtime labor rate The charge that exceeds 40 hours per week. preparing procedures.mode The value that appears most frequently in a series of numbers. most pessimistic estimate The effort to complete a task under the worst conceivable circumstances. planning A function of project management that determines the steps needed to execute a project. creating a project manual. while the last 10 percent consumes most of the flow time. network diagram A chart displaying the logical relationships. motivational factor A satisfier. participative management A managerial approach for getting people involved by getting their input or feedback prior to making a decision. newsletter A communications tool that keeps everyone abreast of important happenings and information. or dependencies. narrative format procedure Procedural documentation that communicates information in essay style. and identifies their start and completion dates. It serves as a record of activities and accomplishments. n Ach A theory by David C.
procedures Documentation that provides detailed information on performing tasks. project management. It uses three estimates to complete a task: most likely.. precedence diagramming method See program evaluation and review technique. and techniques used to lead. and most optimistic.g. most pessimistic. plan. It involes applying an overall productivity factor to the estimate for all tasks. schedule. knowledge. project announcement A memo that is widely distributed to announce the beginning of a project. It is best used for procedures involving two or more people. project leadership Inspiring people to perform in a manner that meets or exceeds expectations. predecessor task A task that precedes the occurrence of another task. reading people Understanding the true motives of people by their actions.. classical approach The use of three standard items (cost. productivity adjustment percent (PAP) An estimating approach that applies the global efficiency factor on a larger scale. project cycle The set of phases for completing a project. establishing and conducting appropriate meetings. or file server that stores important documentation. control. senior management. pharmaceutical. Each task and the entire project have a start and stop date. a directory on a personal computer.g. information systems. recurring cost Charge that appears regularly (e. product breakdown structure (PBS) A delineation of the segments that constitute the final product or service. project management The tools. quality A service or product that satisfies the requirements and expectations of the customer. project A discrete set of tasks performed in a logical sequence to attain a specific result. project communications Establishing an infrastructure for disseminating information. and engineering industries). long-term payments for facilities). project manual A compendium of reference material for a project. project office A central location established to manage a project. and close a project. program evaluation and review technique (PERT) A precedence diagramming method often used in nonconstruction environments (e. project library A central means for storing information.playscript format procedure Procedural documentation that is similar to the sequential format. define. client. project history file A drawer in a filing cabinet. It involves setting up the project office. sponsors. organize. project manager the person who interacts with myriad people (e. and applying interpersonal skills.. and team members) to achieve the goals of a project. giving effective presentations.g. . and quality) to determine the success of a project.
risk. long-term A threat that has an impact in the distant future. acceptable Allowing a threat to negatively affect a task on the non-critical path. manageable A threat that can be managed. risk reporting . qualitative An approach for managing risks that relies on judgments using criteria to determine outcomes. controlling. report A feedback mechanism to communicate information. analyzing. risk control Deciding what action to take to prevent or mitigate the impact of a risk. schedule. resource profile A graphic display of the planned or actual use of one or more resources over the duration of one or more tasks. quantitative An approach for managing risks that relies mainly on statistical calculation to determine risks and their probability of occurrence. risk. unmanageable A threat that can't be managed. short-term A threat that has an immediate impact. among tasks. unacceptable A threat that negatively affects a task on the critical path. resource allocation The distribution of materials. risk management. its risks. risk. risk analysis Identifying the components of a project.. risk. risk. risk. risk management The process of identifying. and reporting risk. labor. risk acceptance Accepting a risk rather than preventing or mitigating its impact. etc. risk. external A threat that originates from outside the scope of a project. internal A threat that originates from inside the scope of a project.regular labor rates The wage rate amount earned for less than or equal to 40 hours per week. risk adaptation Taking measures that will mitigate a risk's impact. risk. risk management. risk evaluation Collecting information and determining the adequacy of controls. replanning Redoing the project plan by making wholesale changes to cost. risk avoidance Taking action that will keep a risk from seriously impacting a project. and quality. risk identification Recognizing the major elements of a project and their associated risks. and the controls that should be or are in place.
assertiveness and responsiveness. sequential format procedure Procedural document that presents information. statement of understanding (SOU) An informal statement of work. The result of scheduling is a diagram showing the logical sequence and the calculated dates. It measures dispersion. start-to-start dependency The relationship between tasks whereby two or more of them begin around the same time. risk transfer Letting someone else assume a risk. train people on them. It requires making one-time estimates to complete a task. develop standards to measure performance. and quality criteria set for a project. scientific wildly assumed guess (SWAG) estimate The most popular but most unreliable estimating technique. Sometimes called a scatter or correlation chart. scattergram A graphic that shows the relationship between two variables. span of control The number of people that a project manager can effectively manage. sustaining phase A time in a project life cycle where the product is under the customer's cognizance and an infrastructure exists to maintain and enhance it. standard deviation The degree that each occurrence in a frequency distribution is located from the mean. satisfier Psychological desire that. will have a positive impact on performance. synergy . successor task An activity that starts after the completion of a previous one. and separate work between management and workers. if addressed. rules of exchange Communications etiquette. steering committee A group of people providing general oversight of and guidance of the project. scientific management Identifying the most efficient tasks to perform a job. status review A type of session to collect information to determine progress against cost. stretching Assigning people to tasks that challenge them. statement of work (SOW) An agreement between the customer and project's leadership on the exact definition of the project. social style matrix A psychological or sociological tool that divides social styles and personal expectations based upon two dimensions. scheduling Logically sequencing tasks and then calculating start and stop dates for each one.Informing team members and senior management of risks and their associated controls. schedule variance The difference between planned and actual start and end dates. schedule.
trend chart A graphical chart to display past performance and forecast results based upon the history. which will be used for rollups when reporting to management. broad-to-specific. Theory X A style of management that takes a negative view of human nature. usually greater than the sum of the individual inputs.The output of a group. threat The occurrence of an event that negatively affects a project. variance The difference between what is planned and what has actually occurred up to a specific point in time. vision An idea of a desired result in the future. vision statement A document describing what the project will achieve. tracking Looking at past performance. visibility wall or room A place where all project documentation and other related information are showcased. telecommuting People participating on projects using personal computers at their homes. It is the lowest level in the work breakdown structure. Theory Y A style of management that takes a positive view of human nature. work package level The tasks or subtasks that will be used for assigning responsibilities. Previous Table of Contents Next . It is top-down. work breakdown structure (WBS) A detailed listing of the deliverables and tasks for building a product or delivering a service. and tracking progress. technical level The lower level of the work breakdown structure that contains the actual tasks to perform. and hierarchical. underrun A negative value for total estimate-at-completion. task breakdown structure (TBS) A top-down listing of tasks to build a part or perform an aspect of a service. task force structure A group of people assembled who are dedicated to completing a specific goal. constructing schedules. videoconferencing People interacting across geographical regions using video as the medium. vulnerability The inherent degree of weakness of components. variable cost The charge that varies depending upon consumption and workload.
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January 1997. October 1995. "Primavera. Sparrius. Karl." Software Development." Software Development. "Consultants: Judging the Potential for Excellence. Sorgenfrei. Stuant. Ease of Use Expanding Project Management Base. 1995. "Assess White-Collar Skills in the New Economy. Ken." InfoWorld. Peter. May 1. Wang. May 1997. October 23. "Leadership for the Internetworked Business." Computerworld. "Painless Dismissals. Tapscott. January 1997. "How to Keep Control of Big Development Projects. Resistance?" PM Network." Harvard Business Review. Smolens. 1997. and Dave Yesua. Don. 1996. Venick. July 1997. Riskier. ——. "Lights! Camera! Project Management. "Managing Software Maniacs. Jeff. Weldon. 1995. November 13." PM Network." AS/400 Systems Management. "Good Results Yield . November-December 1996. Wiegers." Network World." Information Systems Management. David C.. Perrier. . "Endangered Species: Project Methodologies. November 25. Sullivan. "IS-Friendly Project Management." Computerworld. October 1996. "A Project Aide on CD-ROM. Surveyer. Jr." Client/Server Computing. Martin. September 16. October 1997. January 9. Steve. Summer 1995. Weitz." Information Week. John. Kristina B. Wigglesworth. October 14. November 1996. Jacques. 1996." Information Week. "Seekers and Scalers: The Future Leaders. November 29. . March 31. February 12. "You Can't Manage What You Don't Understand." Computerworld. "A Mutual Understanding. 1996." Software Development. David. "Planning a Career. Stewart L." Project Management Journal (reprint)." Datamation. 1995.1996. "What the Fortune 500 Know About PM Best Practices." Training and Development. Toney. Better. "Using the Internet for Project Management. "The Human Side of Management. "Separating the Wheat from the Chaff." Training. Wallace. Jim. Lee. Stokes. "Group Schedulers Run Gamut. John A. 1993. ——. February 15. Walsh. ——. 1996. Jess. February 1996. "Managing Distributed Projects with Panache." Information Week. "Five Keys to Making Your OO Project Succeed. White. Stamps. "Mapping Out the Project Approval Process. Matt. 1996." Client/Server Journal. March 1994." PM Network. Stein. May 1996." Network World. February 1997." Computerworld. Lori. Frank. Whitaker. 1995. "New Features. "Metrics: 10 Trap to Avoid. Ad. January 1997. "The Adaptable Workforce. Sullivan." Information Week. February 5. Randall P. Thomas A. David. ——. The." CEO. . 1996. "Project Management Tools. and Ron Watson. Bob. "The Internet: Faster. March 20. March 1997." Fortune. March 1. 1995. Anthony P." HR Magazine. Tom. 1997. June 2." Datamation." Client/Server Journal. Stewart. Weissman. "Rewards and Recognition for Teams." Object Magazine. October 1996. Teal. "Living on Shaky Ground. 1996. Tate. "The Push and Pull of Getting Project Approval. January 1994. Thomas." PC Week. Wells. "How to Hire a Consultant. April 1. Venturato. "It Stalls at Xerox. Microsoft to Face Off on Project Management. 1995." PM Network. Anne. Priscilla. Stone.
1996. Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. Mrach 1. Mickey. Wolleat. . "Virtual and Real Organizations: Optimal Paring." Computerworld. 1995. Wyatt. Williamson. and Leonard Sayles." Systems Management. Yourdon. "Demystifying the Black Art of Project Estimating. Wood." Computerworld. Candee. October 23. November 18." Application Development Trends. "SWAT Teams: Life on the Edge. Stan. May 8. Ed. August 1996. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. "Helluva Project. 1995. William. "How to Assess Risk. Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc." PM Network. Lamont. Linda. Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. 1995. "Surviving a Death March." Computerworld." Software Development. 1996. Zawrotny. July 1997. Wilson.Wilde. July 1995. All rights reserved. Yeack. J. January 16. Robert." CIO. "Getting a Grip on Groupware." Information Week. October 1995. "The Limits of Power. R. "Perfect Harmony.
Project Management Practitioner's Handbook by Ralph L. 137-138 budget and cost calculations. 102-104 kinds of costs. 135 agenda. 188-189 needs and wants associated with. structure of. 79 automated project management. 76 example of. 79 example of. example of. 185-186 what software won't do. 79-81 definition of. 101 when too high. 185-186 three-level pyramid. process of. 79-80 Bolton. Kleim and Irwin S. 104 ----------- . 100-102 management reserve in. 135 definition of. Robert. 187 backward pass. 100 standard formulas of. 76-78 definition of. Ludin AMACOM Books ISBN: 0814403964 Pub Date: 01/01/98 Search Tips Advanced Search Search this book: Previous Table of Contents Next Title Index ad hoc meetings. 77 bar (Gantt) chart. 100-105 how to calculate. 185-199 distributed integrated system. 132 arrow diagramming method (ADM). 79 roll-ups used in. 189-197 evaluation.
139-140 constraint dates. 87-88 contingency planning. 78 definition of. 12-207 background of. 13 organizational structure in. 6 control charts. 6 closure. 17-19 proposal. 16-17. 108 concept phase. 6. 6. 12 GWI organizational chart. 43 steps. 43. 172 contract employees. 171-172 example. ix. 158 control (phase of project management). 39 decision-making. 132 checksheets. 155-156 example. 191 checkpoint review meetings. 103 burdened vs. 179 component (risk). 9. 132-133 agenda example. 43 control. nonburdened labor rates. 155-156 definition of. 175-182 lessons learned. 109 core team. 75 consultants. 8 conflict resolution. example of. 87-88 definition of. 6 controlling risk. 156 classical vs. 171-172 definitions of. 6-7 close (phase of project management). 179-180 releasing people. 155-156. 162 Decide-X. 78 data compilation. 155 example. 201-207 CA-Superproject. 85 case study. 78 example of. 62 critical path. 13-14 work breakdown structure. 168 . 102 burnout. 12-13. behavioral approaches. 176-179 recognition and rewards.worksheet. 133 definition of. 158 definition of.96 project manager selection.
101 float. 121 qualities. 112-130 flowcharts. 69-70 obtaining. 125-126 memos. 117 data flow example. 11 finish-to-finish. 161 fixed vs. 63 factors to consider. 119 forms. 118 steps in creating. 72 example of. 122-123 earned value. 78-79 definition of. 8 . 119-122 guidelines for preparing. 117-118 advantages of. indirect costs. 119 pointers. 149 budgeted cost of work scheduled. 118-122 history files. 63-70 benefits and challenges. variable costs. 101 documentation. 73 example.define (phase of project management). 74 finish-to-start. 128 project manual. 119 formulation phase. 64-69 feedback loop. 149 budgeted cost of work performed. 112-117 project library. 195 estimating. 6 difficult people. 78-79 flowcharts. 73-74 definition of. 78 types of. 67 types of. 149 calculations. 149-151 definition of. 148 e-mail. 72-73 definition of. 124-125 procedures. 117-118 forms. 78 example of. 126-128 reports. 148-151 actual cost of work performed. 120 flow of control example. 68 reevaluating. 73 fishbone chart. 123-124 newsletters. 140 direct vs.
78-79 Gantt chart. 87 history files. Frederick.forward pass. 14 management reserve. 26 lessons-learned document. 4 leadership. 176-179 advantages of. 179 outline of. 48 principles. 90 leveled. 87. 137 histograms. 26 vs. 84. 75-76 definition of. 126 implementation phase. 177 letter request. 34 hierarchy of needs (Maslow). 48 unstructured. 79-81 global efficiency factor (GEF). 48 job enlargement. 126 definition of. management. 176 definition of. 137-139 interviewing. 36 lag. 136-137 conflict handling. 192 Hawthorne effect. 48 structured. 126 requirements for maintaining. 25 reasons for lack of. 85 leveling. 176 developing. 8 installation phase. 76 free float. 83-87 definition of. 86-87 unleveled. 85. 177. 36 job rotation. 36 job enrichment. 100 . 136-140 active listening. 8 interpersonal skills. 73 lead (phase of project management). 22-27 conceptual understanding of. 83 example of. 139-140 people reading. 64-65 groupware computing. 84. 146 Herzberg. 126 steps for setting up. 76 example of. 35. 22-24 factors that determine. 24-26 theories of.
Abraham. 146 Monte Carlo for Primavera. 80 mobile computing. 133-134 rules of conduct. 35 McGregor. 159 meetings. 134 types of. 159 median. 170-171 requirements. 36 by job enrichment.162 calculation of. 80 example of. 36-37 by personal goal attainment. 36 by participation. 153-162 Michigan studies. 162 definition of. 34-38 by delegation. 159. 37 by stretching. 169-170 replanning. 152 steps in data collection and analysis. 36 by job enlargement. 191 mode.159. 162 definition of. 38 . 166-174 approved request form. 132 memos. 123 example of. 35-36 Microsoft Project for Windows. 190 metrics. 152-165 actions for collecting data. 159 monitoring. 162 calculation of. 192 motivation. 167 corrective-action challenges. 166-167 types of changes. 123-124 advantages of. 35. 162 definition of. 94-95 McClelland. 191 milestone bar chart. 137 matrix structure. 36 by job rotation. David. 35 mean. 159. 37 by personality/task match.managing project changes. 124 methodologies. Douglas. 152-153 categories of. 16-17. 80 definition of. 168-169 Maslow. 132-134 agendas. 162 calculation of. 44. 37 by recognition.
155 example of. 144 personal behavior theorists. 89 other types of. 145-146 methods of collection. 6 outsourcing. 36 PDCA cycle. 72 newsletters. 124-125 advantages of.theories of. 121 . 71 example of. 134-136 types of. 108 problem solving. 137 n Ach theory (McClelland). 125 organize (phase of project management). 156 participation. 155-156 definition of. 135-136 Primavera Project Planner. 79 presentations. 79-81 relationships/dependencies in. 89 overtime. 89 definition of. 72 definition of. 71-79 advantages of. 26 personal goal attainment. 49 network diagram. 154 performance assessment assessment. 71 bad signs of. 114-117 key insights for preparing. 37 PERT. 34-38 Myers-Briggs type indicator. 124-125 topics of. 34-36 to enhance performance and participation. plan (phase of project management). 135 steps in. 144 prerequisites. 125 issues in. 85 Pareto charts. 72 logic change example of. 112-117 definition of. 35 negotiating. 146-151 data validity and reliability. 171 procedures. 191 probability (risk). 6 precedence diagramming method. 112 examples of. 124 distribution methods for. See program evaluation and review technique. 89 steps in.
178 phases of. 4-6. 18-19 types of. 131-132 Project Scheduler 7 for Windows. 113. 116 sequential format. 65 program evaluation and review technique (PERT). 128 steps of. 191 proposals. 8-9 project manager.175-176 project announcement. 178. 175-176. 66-69 benefits of. 67 calculation of. 128 project office. 6-7. 113-117 item-by-item format. 128 project management. 13-14 components of. 113. 180-181 acceleration of. 4-7 introducing. 59 productivity adjustment percent (PAP). 90 definition of. 127 table of contents example. 113 steps in. 16. 20 skills of. 180-181 information systems projects. 68-69 project. 164 Questions for Getting Started automated project management. 7-9 reasons for success or failure of. 4 functions of. 160-161. 90. 53-54 example of. 7-9. 113. 5 phases of. 113. behavioral approaches.10 definition of. 117 narrative format. 54 purposes of. 53-54 project library. 115 product breakdown structure. 66-67 key points of. 198-199 . 126-128 advantages of. 13-14 types of. 128 definition of. 18-20 characteristics of. 127 steps in compiling. 9-10. 113-114 playscript format. 116-117 procedural formats.requirements in. 4 guidelines for the future. 10 classical vs. 19 powers of. 16 project manual. 4. 14 quartiles.
151 vision and motivation. 83-85 level loading in. 45 work breakdown structure. 170-171 prerequisites for. 170-171 reasons for. 109 quantitative approach in. 99 tracking and monitoring. 104-105 case study. 102 reliability of data. 106 . 163-165 resource allocation. 54-55 team organization. 192 recurring vs. nonrecurring costs. 170 reports. 101 regular vs. 107 four-step process of. 173-174 closure. 191 risk management. 122 steps in. 122-123 characteristics of. 181-182 documentation. 14 resource allocation. 84 steps in. 129-130 estimating. 110 risk analysis. 70 interactions. 110 risk control. 91 risk management. 123 request for information. 111 scheduling. 61-62 Rank-It.budget and costs. overtime rates. 145-146 replanning. 82-91 heuristics for. 21 change management. 82-86 Results Management. 106-107 key concepts in. 141-142 metrics. 109 risk adaptation. 108 factors that increase risk exposure. 14 request for proposal. 106 risk identification. 122 example of. 108-109 qualitative approach in. 83 histograms for. 106-111 categories of risk. 106 risk avoidance. 109 risk acceptance. 81 statement of work and project announcement.
155. 192 staff meetings. 71 scientific wildly assumed guess (SWAG). 47-48 section descriptions and purposes of.risk reporting. 53 information contained in. 163 calculation of. 159-160. 109-110 Risk+. 192 risk reporting. 106. 132. 64 scientific management (Taylor). 134 definition of. 159-160 start-to-start. 73 statement of work/statement of understanding. 74 resources for. 157 definition of. 50-52 flowchart of. 110 risk transfer. 34 self-directed work teams. 163 definition of. 157 scheduling. 110 ways to handle risk. 77 logic of. 71-81 definition of. 79-80 definition of. 138 software (project management). 71 time factor in. 26 social style matrix. 110 definition of. 110 roll-up bar chart. 71 tasks of. 79 example of. 48-53 status data. 71 reasons for not doing. 134 agenda for. 71 scope of. 47 example of. 47 definition of. 132. 73 group participation in. 106. 132 standard deviation. 71 duration/flowtime in. 73 definition of. 98 situational contingency theorists. 143-145 . 80 scattergrams. 73 example of. 106 example of. 71. 48 outline of. 46-53 answers to five W's. 191 software (risk management). 155 example of. 47 introduction for draft of.
148 underrun. See program evaluation and review technique. 197 technology in. 147 schedule variance. 159 example of. 93-94 Taylor. 26 transactional analysis. 40-42 style of. 196-197 capabilities of. 147 cost variance. 8 SWAT teams. 97 telecommuting. 189-190 Theory X and Y (McGregor). 42-43 team organization. 132-133 agenda example. 34 validity of data. 196-197 advantages of. 78 total risk. 146 estimate at completion. 97-98 task breakdown structure. 97-98 types of structure in. 38-42 characteristics of. 98 SWAT team. 146 trait theorists. 147 videoconferencing. 92-93 self-directed work teams. 59 task force structure. 147 definition of. 192 tracking. 97 visibility wall/room. 147-151 actual to date. total float. 160 two-factor theory of motivation (Herzberg). 108 three-point estimating technique. 34 team building. 138 trend charts. 93-95 virtual teams. 132 sustaining phase. 92-99 preliminary requirements of. 17. 39 team diversity. 197 virtual teams. 132 . Frederick. 35 threat (risk). 159-160 definition of.status review. 44. 145-146 variance. 95. 147 overrun. 95. 133 definition of.
195-196 site contents. 31 example of. Read EarthWeb's privacy statement. 58-60 product breakdown structure. 57 task breakdown structure. 194 site design. 132 vision. 59 work package level. 56 developing. 56-61 80-hour rule. 132 pointers. 59 reasons for failure of. All rights reserved. web technology key issues. 59 Previous Table of Contents Next Products | Contact Us | About Us | Privacy | Ad Info | Home Use of this site is subject to certain Terms & Conditions. . Reproduction whole or in part in any form or medium without express written permission of EarthWeb is prohibited. 33 vulnerability (risk). Copyright © 1996-2000 EarthWeb Inc. 194 work breakdown structure (WBS). 33-34 keeping focus.definition of. 31-34 advantages of. 32 facilitating and expediting performance. 32-33 definition of. See work breakdown structure. 32 communicating. 108 WBS. 56-62 benefits of. 58 examples of. 56-57 definition of.
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