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Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Practical Grammar and Composition Author: Thomas Wood Release Date: September 11, 2007 [EBook #22577] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION ***
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PREFACE This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching some classes in English in the night preparatory department of the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond the everyday needs of the practical man. Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical work. It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment has at times been intentionally rather formal. Abundant and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent
intervals throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises have been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical points have been made very extensive. The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement of principles and in the working out of details great originality would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business English. To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation of certain parts of their texts. Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. Above all, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, Superintendent of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement and painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript and in reading the proof of the book. T.W.
--SENTENCES--PARTS OF SPEECH--ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE--PHRASES AND CLAUSES II.--NOUNS Common and Proper Inflection Defined Number The Formation of Plurals Compound Nouns Case The Formation of the Possessive Case Gender III.--PRONOUNS Agreement with Antecedents Person Gender Rules Governing Gender Number Compound Antecedents Relative Interrogative Case Forms Rules Governing Use of Cases Compound Personal Compound Relative Adjective Miscellaneous Cautions IV.--ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Comparison Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs Improper Forms of Adjectives Errors in Comparison Singular and Plural Adjectives Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives Double Negatives The Articles V.--VERBS Principal Parts Name-form Past Tense Past Participle Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Active and Passive Voice Mode Forms of the Subjunctive Use of Indicative and Subjunctive Agreement of Verb with its Subject Rules Governing Agreement of the Verb Miscellaneous Cautions Use of Shall and Will Use of Should and Would Use of May and Might, Can and Could Participles and Gerunds Misuses of Participles and Gerunds Infinitives Sequence of Infinitive Tenses Split Infinitives Agreement of Verb in Clauses Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb Model Conjugations To Be To See VI.--CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS Independent and Dependent Clauses Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative
--THE PARAGRAPH Length Paragraphing of Speech Indentation of the Paragraph Essential Qualities of the Paragraph Unity Coherence Emphasis X.--CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION Rules for Capitalization Rules for Punctuation IX.--SENTENCES Loose Periodic Balanced Sentence Length The Essential Qualities of a Sentence Unity Coherence Emphasis Euphony VIII.--LETTER-WRITING Heading Inside Address Salutation Body of the Letter Close Miscellaneous Directions Outside Address Correctly Written Letters Notes in the Third Person XI.--PHRASES AND CLAUSES .--ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.Pronouns Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs Conjunctions Placing of Correlatives Prepositions QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR VII.--THE WHOLE COMPOSITION Statement of Subject The Outline The Beginning Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition Unity Coherence The Ending Illustrative Examples Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech Selection from Cranford List of Books for Reading XII.--PARTS OF SPEECH.--WORDS--SPELLING--PRONUNCIATION Words Good Use Offenses Against Good Use Solecisms Barbarisms Improprieties Idioms Choice of Words How to Improve One's Vocabulary Spelling Pronunciation GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION ***** CHAPTER I SENTENCES.
five. Words have different uses in sentences. SENTENCES are of four kinds: 1. The parts of speech are as follows: 1. PARTS OF SPEECH. You shall take that book! or. SUBSTANTIVES. PRONOUN. I. that. . INTERROGATIVE. a sentence that expresses a command. a word used as the name of something. as. as. make. According to their uses. justice. or interrogative sentence that expresses violent emotion. In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects together. DECLARATIVE. a sentence that tells or declares something. 2. imperative. 2. 2. it. Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech. many. do. tall. a declarative. as. an. as. a word used to state something about some person or thing. 3. a word used instead of a noun. good. surprise. IMPERATIVE. Harry. That book is mine. Pittsburgh. NOUN. EXCLAMATORY. and the are words used to modify nouns or pronouns. see. 4. as. but are usually called ARTICLES. A SENTENCE is a group of words that expresses a single complete thought. or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns. The words a. or anger. a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. as. silence. such as terror. Nouns. Can that book be mine? 3. Bring me that book. he. a sentence that asks a question. are called by the general term. box. VERB. ADJECTIVE. They are adjectives.1. think. as. 3. man. pronouns. as. Is that book mine? 4.
A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of more than one predicate used with the same subject. between.5. 7. to some other preceding word. that is. and to show the relation of the substantive to that word. and sentences. INTERJECTION. if. often. as. PREPOSITION. Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah! Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence. as. Man walks. In this sentence. or. a word used to express surprise or emotion. as. and walks is the predicate. This is called a COMPOUND SUBJECT. clearly. The same is true of the predicate. Such a word is called an EXPLETIVE. there is a simple subject and a simple predicate. The man BOTH WALKS AND RUNS. CONJUNCTION. as. 6. slowly. Thus. there is a modified subject and a modified predicate. The SUBJECT of a sentence is the part which mentions that about which something is said. THE MAN AND THE WOMAN walk. phrases. in. a word used to modify the meaning of a verb. as. There may be. Man walks. . by. man is the subject. may consist of the subject alone. beyond. very. in the sentence. although. In the following sentence there is an expletive: THERE are no such books in print. 4. but helps to fill out its form or sound. or of the subject with its modifiers. a word used to join a substantive. more than one subject connected with the same predicate. as a modifier. an adjective. The subject may be simple or modified. as. and. A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. or another adverb. also. a word used to connect words. In the sentence. and serves as a device to alter its natural order. clauses. 8. The PREDICATE is the part which states that which is said about the subject. ADVERB. but. The essential or PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are the Subject and the Predicate. The good man walks very rapidly.
there is an adverb. It must not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial modifier. The attribute complement is usually a noun. as.5. ADJECTIVE and ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS may consist simply of adjectives and adverbs. Besides the principal elements in a sentence. there are SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. These verbs that require objects to complete their meaning are called Transitive Verbs. or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. to complete their sense. pronoun. Some verbs. is required to complete the meaning of the transitive verb carry. was. I carry a BOOK. I hold the HORSE. He is THERE. the object. the Object Complement. condition. I am WELL. although it may be a phrase or clause fulfilling the function of any of these parts of speech. so. the Adjective Modifier. The attribute complement usually follows the verb be or its forms. The verb used with an attribute complement. In the sentence. and good complete the meanings of their respective verbs. also in the sentences. and the Adverbial Modifier. etc. ." or complete the meanings of verbs are called COMPLEMENTS. because such verb joins the subject to its attribute. is called the COPULA ("to couple") or COPULATIVE VERB. My friend is a STUDENT. not an attribute complement. condition. and I touch a DESK. The ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the verb by stating some class. well. are. The man is GOOD Student. by stating some class. will be. In the sentence. is. Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning. need to be followed by some other word or group of words. the objects horse and desk are necessary to complete the meanings of their respective verbs. book. This object is called the OBJECT COMPLEMENT. or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives or adverbs. or attribute of the subject. These words which "complement. or adjective. These are the Attribute Complement.
as adverbs. a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The . a sentence consisting of a single statement. is. Sentences. since it merely states something of minor importance in the sentence. I AM COMING. He OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN TOLD. There are also Verb-phrases. He lives IN PITTSBURG. contains both a subject. Mr. The letter is IN THE NEAREST DESK. A VERB-PHRASE is a phrase that serves as a verb. A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. as. I. The man was tall. A PHRASE is a group of words that is used as a single part of speech and that does not contain a subject and a predicate. COMPLEX. 7. the one making the most important assertion. as. Smith OF THIS PLACE is the manager OF THE MILL. are classified as follows: SIMPLE. Clauses may be used as adjectives. and as nouns. as. and a predicate. saw. The man THAT I SAW was tall. A clause used as a noun is called a SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. as. Noun Clause as object: He said that I was mistaken. 8.6. COMPOUND. This clause. The PRINCIPAL CLAUSE. consists of a preposition with its object and the modifiers of the object. Examine the following examples: Adjective Clause: The book that I want is a history. always used as either an adjective or an adverbial modifier. Adverbial Clause: He came when he had finished with the work. as. Noun Clause as subject: That I am here is true. that I saw. as. The clause. He SHALL BE TOLD. a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The man walks. is called the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. as to their composition. The man that I saw is tall.
We gladly accepted the offer which he made. 11. (5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If it is a prepositional phrase. 3. stone. they are important. and other materials. or adverbs. or compound. There are few men who do not try to be honest. 6. determine whether they are used as nouns. 8. and Watch the little things. (6) Classify every sentence as simple. adjectives. 10. (3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object complement. and are constructed in various styles. and shall soon join you. Only intelligent and reasoning work is worth while. In city and in country people think very differently. and men may go. 4. 13. EXERCISE I In this and in all following exercises. 9. Houses are built of wood.man is tall and walks rapidly. If they are subordinate clauses. 14. 2. and rests little. Men may come. 12. but I go on forever. She is still no better. but we hope that there will be a change. determine whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb. be able to give the reason for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. brick. (2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate. 1. To live an honest life should be the aim of every one. It was I who told him to go. In the following list of sentences: (1) Determine the part of speech of every word. I am nearly ready. 7. To be or not . 5. Who it really was no one knew. Let each speak for himself. complex. but all believed it to have been him. The path of glory leads but to the grave. He works hard. (4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional phrase or a verb-phrase. and the modified subject and the modified predicate.
English. a place. such as. and pronouns. A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they do here. It may be the name of a person. The variation in the forms of the different parts of speech to show grammatical relation. (2) Write eight sentences.to be. John. 18. Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate. By a great effort he managed to make headway against the current. a thing. 23. CHAPTER II NOUNS 9. I have nothing to say. 15. EXERCISE 2 (1) Write a list of six examples of every part of speech. each containing an attribute complement. or of some abstract quality. people. justice or truth. Beyond this. A PROPER NOUN is a noun that names some particular or special place. (3) Write eight sentences. 17. or thing. INFLECTION DEFINED. each containing an object complement. 19. . 22. 24. in each using some form of the verb TO BE. followed by an adverbial modifier. A COMMON NOUN is a general or class name. nouns. A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of something. The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained memory. that is the question. as. person. Use adjectives. Alas! I can travel no more. Though there is some inflection in English. Rome. I think that I saw a brother of his in that place. 11. is called INFLECTION. 10. In truth. 16. 21. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. 25. A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study. 20. It is I whom you see. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. Full often wished he that the wind might rage. Jews. (4) Write five sentences.
selves. The most important of the latter class are: buffalo. wolf. safe. tornado. ch. as. 6. Most nouns ending in f or fe add s. goose. hero. u) add s. wharfs. echo. as. torpedo. coach. as. armies. valley. man. etc. life. . valleys. woman. staff. as. flamingo. Most nouns ending in o add s. tomato. 7. stove. scarf. elf. When y is preceded by a consonant (any letter other than a vowel). as. sty. or x.) 5. NUMBER is that quality of a word which shows whether it refers to one or to more than one. characters. The others are: beef. SINGULAR NUMBER refers to one. geese. sheaf. The noun is inflected to show number. calico. ox. army. coaches. Letters. cargo. ponies. A few change f or fe to v and add es.. thief. as. wishes.grammatical relation is usually shown by position rather than by inflection. PLURAL NUMBER refers to more than one. (soliloquy. negro. 4. glass. loaf. and gender. cameos. that's. t's. boy. motto. women. add the apostrophe and s ('s). PLURALS OF SINGULAR NOUNS ARE FORMED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING RULES: 1. embargo. stoves. pony. as. self. volcano. glasses. leaf. 13. Most nouns add s to the singular. figures. A number of nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es. as. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular way. y is changed to i and es is added. as. Nouns ending in s. wish. wife. 6's. colloquies are exceptions). half. calf. veto. 2. potato. e. sties. as. i. o. shelf. safes. c's. mulatto. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel (a. wives. oxen. fox. foxes. volcanoes. add es to the singular. sh. wharf. 12. scarfs. men. soliloquies and colloquy. (Wharf has also a plural. case. boys. 3. cameo.
Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way as do other nouns. 9. men-servants. Senators Webster and Clay. 10. child. In a few compound words. (Dr. whether it precedes or follows the descriptive part. Browns. as. (Mr. mouse-traps.). is in most cases the noun that changes in forming the plural. tooth. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural. the Misses Brown. both parts take a plural form. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. as. 11. etc. as. . gross. Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural. feet. and Drs. Sometimes both are made plural.foot. either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. 12. as. man-servant. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used. lice. deer.). as. series. Miss Brown. either two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. the two Mrs. louse. The most important are the following: BROTHER brothers (by blood) brethren (by association) CLOTH cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments) DIE dies (for coinage) dice (for games) FISH fishes (separately) fish (collectively) GENIUS geniuses (men of genius) genii (imaginary beings) HEAD heads (of the body) head (of cattle) INDEX indexes (of books) indices (in algebra) PEA peas (separately) pease (collectively) PENNY pennies (separately) pence (collectively) SAIL sails (pieces of canvas) sail (number of vessels) SHOT shots (number of discharges) shot (number of balls) 13. knights-templars. mice. mothers-in-law. except Messrs. knights-errant. children. knight-templar. teeth. the three Henrys. mouse. COMPOUND NOUNS are those formed by the union of two words. the Miss Browns. means. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural the form that they have in the language from which they are taken. 8. The principal noun of a compound noun. as.
rope-ladder. CASE. memento. strata. vortex. money. automata. veto. axis. alumni. country-man. president. medium. and the singular.focus. hypothesis. grandmother. x. of every plural noun. sailor-boy. chief. foci. major-general. negro. belief. axes. sheep. consult an unabridged dictionary. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. the Possessive. vertebrœ. hanger-on. media. spoonful. terminus. majority. if any. why. genus. the form used in address and as the subject of a verb. attorney-general. theses. pride. phenomenon. joy. 14. ellipsis. pea. The OBJECTIVE CASE. and the Objective. datum. Miss Smith. thesis. EXERCISE 3 Write the plural. wolves. data. analyses. ratios. knight-templar. arch. phenomena. stratum. News. automaton. The NOMINATIVE CASE. knives. alumni. Mary. hypotheses. appendix. termini. survey. thanks. When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above. charity. head. feet. if any. oases. appendices. lily. vortices. ellipses. geese. fungi. puppy. piano. proceeds. Since no error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative or the objective cases of nouns. genera. formula. the form used as the object of a verb or a preposition. attorney. alumnus. of every singular noun in the following list. . oasis. brethren. cupful. minimum. mathematics. goods. studio. strata. son-in-law. analysis. hero. fungus. formulœ. Mr. man-servant. Anderson. crises. vertebra. crisis. vortex. no further discussion of these cases is here needed. go-between. There are three cases in English: the Nominative. half. scissors. minima. 4. oxen. knight-errant. Note those having no singular and those having no plural.
Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing. office. persons'. 5. The Senator from Utah's seat. writers. writers'. for goodness' sake. etc. the lawyer's. Charles's book. persons. 7. as. men's. as. Odd Fellows' wives are invited. Charles's partner's mother's house. 3. It is better to say the hands of the clock than the . for appearance' sake. as. the house of the mother of Charles's partner. Generally. 4. 2. John's. Brown and Smith's store (the store of the firm Brown & Smith). Some singular nouns ending in an s sound form the possessive by adding the apostrophe alone. Frances's dress. the sign of the possessive is added to the last word only. pupil. man's. as. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and s ('s). as. 15. the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made. John. pupil's. In stating possession in the plural. 6. man. or a group of words treated as one name. instead of. When a compound noun. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE RULES FOR THE FORMING OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE: 1. then one should say: Carpenters' tools sharpened here. as. is used to denote possession. In the forming of this case we have inflection. Plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by adding only the apostrophe ('). But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe and s ('s) even if the singular noun does end in an s sound. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately preceding the word naming the thing possessed.The POSSESSIVE CASE. Charles and John's mother (the mother of both Charles and John). men. Smith. nouns representing inanimate objects should not be used in the possessive case. Father and mother's house. the mistress's dress. the form used to show ownership. as.
say. man-servant. The wives of Henry the Eighth. 16. my friend John. EXERCISE 5 Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4. John the student. 6. men-servants. The farm of my mother and of my father. The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott. EXERCISE 6 Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase form to the possessive: 1. NOTE. The dog of both John and William. 14. coat. goose. and in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the last word. The expression somebody else always occurs in the one form. EXERCISE 4 Write the possessives of the following: Oxen. Miss Jones. 5. EXERCISE 7 Correct such of the following expressions as need correction.--One should say somebody else's. The shortcomings of Alice. The poems of Robert Burns. ox. 9. The ships of Germany and France. The credit of Jackson & Jones. man. dogs. brother-in-law. The recommendation of Superintendent Norris. insert them in the proper places: . 15. 8. 7. no one else's. Similarly. 11. 12. Maine. not somebody's else. The lives of our friends. 2. boy. The act of anybody else. If apostrophes are omitted. 10. The dog of John and the dog of William. Jackson & Jones. The garden of his mother and sister.clock's hands. etc. 3. The home of Mary and Martha. everybody else's. The coming of my grandfather. boys. attorneys-at-law. 4. The signature of the president of the firm. 13. Mayor of Cleveland. shoe. men.
France's and England's interests differ widely. He walked to the precipices edge. but their use is now being discontinued. as. Those referring to things without sex are in the NEUTER GENDER. 17. the lawyers. the principals. poetess. They sell boy's hats and mens' coats. as. 16. CHAPTER III PRONOUNS 17. Those meaning females are in the FEMININE GENDER. 16. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its ANTECEDENT. 14. 10. 12. 4. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. administrator. In this sentence book is the antecedent of the pronoun it. My daughters coming. John's books and Williams. The only regular inflection is the addition of the syllable-ess to certain masculine nouns to denote the change to the feminine gender. Five years imprisonment under Texas's law. -Ix is also sometimes added for the same purpose. Morton. Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or pronouns that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. Jones & Smith. The Democrat's and Republican Convention. and the noun of masculine gender used to designate both sexes. 5. 3. 13. 8. and John is the antecedent of his. administratrix. poet. signature. In nouns gender is of little consequence. 18. 7. The feminine forms were formerly much used. 2. The moons' face was hidden. Wine is made from the grape's juice. author. I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's. My friends' umbrella was stolen. These students books. 6. 11. Both John and William's books were lost. 15. John's wife's cousin. My son's wife's aunt. PRONOUNS SHOULD AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS . office. Those nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the MASCULINE GENDER. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun. authoress. GENDER. This student's lessons. 9. 18.1. JOHN took Mary's BOOK and gave IT to HIS friend.
or size. 20. it. Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. its. us. Study carefully the following rules in regard to gender. are . Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns the use of pronouns. referred to by HE. their. yours. our. or the person or thing spoken about. their. its. Neuter: it. mine. him. we. them. EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE GENDER OF PRONOUNS: MASCULINE. his.IN PERSON. Feminine: she. thee. 2. she. PERSONAL PRONOUNS are those that by their form indicate the speaker. when those things are regarded as if they were persons. her. Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON indicate the speaker. HIS. IN ORDER TO SECURE AGREEMENT IN GENDER IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW THE GENDER OF THE NOUN. which are now little used. theirs. thy. TO WHICH THE PRONOUN REFERS. ours. GENDER. Pronouns of the THIRD PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken of. These rules apply to the singular number only. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength. hers. they are: you. theirs. The following pronouns indicate sex or gender. Pronouns of the SECOND PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken to. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. your. they are: I. thine. his. Masculine: he. power. the person spoken to. him. these are: thou. they are: he. 19. me. etc. my. GENDER OF PRONOUNS. they. There are also the grave or solemn forms in the second person. and ye. sublimity. AND NUMBER. her. and HIM: 1. since all plurals of whatever gender are referred to by they. hers.
and peace. destroyed them all. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. NEUTER. as. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. 2. HER. according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess. 2. referred to by SHE. They are then said to be of COMMON GENDER. or neuter. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine. . as. WINTER. The WOLF seeks HIS prey. An animal named may be regarded as masculine. SLEEP healed him with HER fostering care. The JURY gives its VERDICT. 3. or HERS: 1. referred to by IT and ITS: 1. as. EVERY ONE brought HIS umbrella. FEMININE. The MOUSE nibbled HER way into the box. gentleness. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males. as. as. There are no pronouns of common gender. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit are neuter. EACH OF THE PUPILS of the Girls High School brought HER book. The COMMITTEE makes ITS report. as. The BIRD seeks ITS nest. The WOLF is the most savage of ITS race. hence those nouns are referred to as follows: 1. as. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter. Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. 3. as. are feminine.masculine. 2. feminine. IT is a pretty child. when spoken of as if they were persons. with HIS chilly army. MY CLASS-MATE(known to be Harry) is taking HIS examinations.
The cause of the error is failure to realize the true antecedent. gender. as. Neither John nor James brought THEIR books. Let EVERYBODY keep THEIR peace. but are often improperly used when only singular pronouns should be used. and number: 1. should read. HE is misinformed. be in the plural. John and James brought THEIR books. If ANYBODY makes that statement. Neither the Mormon nor his wives denied THEIR religion. When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and. Two or more antecedents connected by or or nor are frequently referred to by the plural when the singular should be used. the pronoun must. If any one wishes a longer time. This sentence is wrong. . Neither John nor James brought HIS books. the pronoun must be in the plural number. A more common source of error than disagreement in gender is disagreement in number. 22. as. as. Let EVERYBODY keep HIS peace. By masculine pronouns when there is nothing in the connection of the thought to show the sex of the object. If ANYBODY makes that statement. should read. both any and body. EXERCISE 8 Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper pronouns. also. The sentence should read. but if one of the antecedents is plural. 2. When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor. the pronoun must be in the singular number. COMPOUND ANTECEDENTS. denote the singular. Similarly. theirs. the parts of the word.work. Let every PERSON bring his book. Has everybody finished ---. See that there is agreement in person. and them are plural. THEY are misinformed. their.3. NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. 21. They. Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. Anybody refers to only one person.
sewing. The rock lay on ---. Consumption demands each year ---. The fox dropped ---meat in the pool. Nowhere does each dare do as ---. The hen cackled ---. I have used both blue crayon and red crayon. 42. The rat ran to ---.book.to the Pierce Building. 22. Nobody did ---.own seat. Let each bring ---. 36. 35. 4.hole. Many a man has (have) lost ---. 28. If any one wishes to see me.side. 50. 19.money in speculation. The elephant placed ---.prey. 26. 6.numbers. The panther sprang from ---. Let each take ---.task. 51. The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through ----.right to a seat. 21. 3. 23.thousands of victims.will be punished. 47. Every kind of animal has ---. 32. Despair seized him in ---. 39.discoveries.powerful grasp. Let sleep enter with ---. 7.hand. John or James will favor us with ---.bit of meat. 30. Spring set forth ---.duty more readily than I. The child did not know ---. 5. Every animal has some weapon with which ---. 34. 20. Two men were present. 38. Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about ----. If John and Henry whisper (whispers) ---. 43. 48.enemies. Let each girl in the class bring ---. 31.cage.pleases (please). How does the mouse save ---. Death gathers ---.saw. 11. 44. 15. Each believed that ---.self (selves).unfailing harvest. 46. Neither the captain nor the . Let every man and every woman speak ----mind. Some man or boy lost ---. The canary longed to escape from ---. Summer arrays ----self (selves) with flowers. 24. 27. 52. 33. Truth always triumphs over ---. but ---. Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in ---.bring it to me. Company H was greatly reduced in ---.does (do) not write so clearly as white.mother. The cat never fails to catch ---. If any boy or any girl finds the book.natural enemies. 25.great foot on the man's chest.company.beauties.lurking place. 29. but neither would tell what ---. Everyone has to prove ---. Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance of ---.had been elected a delegate to the Mother's Congress. 45. 16. 37. The dog seemed to know ---.healing touch. Let each bring ---. The cat came each day for ---.master was dead. 9.loudest.chairman to report the matter. Nobody should deceive ----selves (self). 10.will be punished. 12. 18. 40.self (selves) from being caught? 49. The committee instructed ---.can. Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked ---. send ---. 14.book. Let every boy answer for ---. If John or Henry whisper (whispers) ---. 41.let ---. 17.life. Let any boy guess this riddle if ---.can defend ----self (selves).hat. 13. let ---.hold up ---. 8.
That may be used with antecedents denoting persons. fate. walrus. He . earth. But and as are sometimes relative pronouns. bear. 25. which should be used. moon. WHOM SHE MEANS. Germany? 23. There are. sorrow. and is the proper relative to use when the antecedent includes both persons and things. which. sun.offering. thatand what. EXERCISE 9 By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following nouns? Snake. as. I do not know. It is WHAT (that which) he wants. because it should be used whenever the relative clause limits the substantive. compound relative pronouns. 53. whom she means. someone. unless who or which is of more pleasing sound in the sentence. everybody. seldom properly refers to persons. artist. flower. 24.soldiers showed ----self (selves) during the fight.dinner. It always introduces a substantive clause. and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb know. If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see ----. Every man or boy gave ---. Relative Pronouns are pronouns used to introduce adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. whose and whom) should be used when the antecedent denotes persons. death. In the sentence. That is known as the RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE. Harvard University. fox. In the sentence. student. 55. foreigner. whom). baby. the relative clause. that I mentioned. when used as a relative. Who (with its possessive and objective forms. the relative clause is. and is equivalent to that which. is an adjective clause modifying man. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. When the antecedent denotes things or animals. friend (uncertain sex). mercy. child. The man THAT I MENTIONED has come. also. What. In the sentence. animals or things. Every man and every boy received ---. The relative pronouns are who (whose. which will be mentioned later. 54. friend (known to be Mary). care.
Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln that was killed by Boothwas one of the world's greatest men. in the sentence. which. which is about history. the relative clause. who . 26. It adds an additional thought of the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. NOTE. The book THAT I WANT is that red-backed history. Who and which are known as the EXPLANATORY or NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. Restrictive relative clause: The book that is about history has a red cover. the restrictive relative clause is. we see that the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence incomplete. has a red cover. is the easiest to learn. that did the act. Compare the following sentences: Explanatory relative clause: That book. and should be used ordinarily only to introduce relative clauses which add some new thought to the author's principal thought. who was one of the world's greatest men. Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln. Spanish is the easiest language to learn. though not fully so important as the principal thought. In this sentence the principal thought is. that I want. When who and which are thus used as explanatory relatives. 27. was killed by Booth. is a thought. without the relative clause the sentence clearly would be incomplete. and limits the application of book. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. defines what is meant by man. WHICH IS THE LEAST COMPLEX LANGUAGE. which is the least complex language. The interrogative pronouns are.is the man THAT DID THE ACT. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question. Similarly. Spanish. The relative clause.--See §111. is more nearly coördinate than subordinate in its value.
He purchased ---. 23.pleased me most and ---.will vote for him.was a Frenchman was very much excited. The intelligence ---.I have is yours.it has cost. 36.thing is it ---. He ---. That is a characteristic ---.writes out his lesson does all ---.you just saw came from our town. 5. 14. ---. The horse was one ---.you used is now ruined.I need. Such ---. He maintains that the book ---. 6. 33.is my coachman is sick. There are few ---. The carriages and the drivers ---. which and what may be used with any antecedent. 19.makes him seem almost rude. (See §111): 1. The best hotel is the one ---.he always sings. 34. whom).all are praising. 4. The wagon and children ---. 15.he wished.is worthy of that honor? 11. 32. There is no cloud ---. which.everyone talked about. 3. John ---. 2. ---.has not its silver lining. 30.you want? 13. It is the same dog ---I bought. This is the man ---. 27. The man and horse ---. All the men and horses ---. and what. Intelligence ---.lost the book? 20.everyone said.you see pass here every afternoon. Was it you or the cat ---made that noise? 31. Who is it ---. That man ---. It is the same song ---. 29. The kindly physician ---. . It is neither the party nor its candidate ---. They inquired ---. Who was it ---. 9. (Does which or that have the more pleasing sound here?) 7. 25. who should be used only in reference to persons. 17. animals. 24.he had hitherto not manifested now showed its presence.he was going to do.gains support. That is ---. In respect to antecedents. That is ---.can be expected. ---. The man ---. EXERCISE 10 Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted in each of the following sentences. 21. It is just such a thing ---.wears a cap is a foreigner.inspires little confidence. The pleasure ---.is nearest the station. Insert commas where they are needed.I had never ridden before. It is the same tool ---.did they seek? 18. 28.was so greatly loved is dead.education gives the man ---. He is a man ---. persons.he displayed was remarkable.we had were lost.I used all day. 8.has it is a sufficient reward for the trouble ---.you ordered yesterday have arrived. 10.does he expect of us? 26. 12.(whose. 22. 16. 35. or things.
a verb other than an infinitive. US. . SHE. ME. whom. has in the sentence. Objective: me. See 3 under Objective Case.28. you. ye. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. mine. and interrogative pronouns have distinctive forms for the different cases. The case to be used is to be determined by the use which the pronoun. not its antecedent. THEM. theirs. yours. note that himis the object of the verb name. ARE ONLY PROPER WHEN THE OBJECTIVE CASE IS DEMANDED. The outline should be mastered. It is only with these pronouns that mistakes are made in the use of the nominative and objective cases. In the sentence. I name HIM. thine. thou. thee. us. her. whose. In the sentence. they. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb. THOU. although coming at the first of the sentence. THEY. HIM. AND HER. THEE. our. it. WHOM do you seek. that is. THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: 1. HE. 29. AND WHO ARE ONLY PROPER WHERE THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED. except when her is possessive. their. THE FOLLOWING OUTLINE EXPLAINS THE USE OF THE DIFFERENT CASE FORMS OF THE PRONOUNS. Note the following different case forms of pronouns: Nominative: I. your. It will be noted that. its. him. his. hers. ours. she. Some personal. In the use of pronouns comes the most important need for a knowledge of when to use the different cases. you. who. Possessive: my. it. ye. whom is grammatically the object of the verb seek. while some forms are the same in both the nominative and objective cases. them. I. her. WHOM. thy. WE. he. relative. and the failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence is one of the most frequent sources of error. These forms must be remembered. we.
as. it is said to be in APPOSITION with that other substantive and takes the case of that word. They believed her to be ME.) THE POSSESSIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: When the word is used as a possessive modifier. He spoke of ME. He denied it to have been him. to have been seen. 3. to. as. as. I desire HER to hope. For WHOM do you take me. I told HIM to go. He told (to) ME a story. They spoke of HER being present. nevertheless. 2. 3. is not always expressed. 4.2. to see. Let HIM (to) go. as. THE OBJECTIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: 1. Examples: It is I. as. Have HER (to be) told about it. They watch US. is a word used in the predicate explaining or stating something about the subject. (See Note 2 below. An attribute complement.--When a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive and is used to explain it. Thus. The book is HIS (book). used. He named ME. to be. The infinitives are the parts of the verb preceded by to. NOTE 2. as in direct address or exclamation. The man was HE. When it is an attribute complement. to go. The sign of the infinitive. The people were THEY of whom we spoke. as explained in Chapter I. HIM whom you see there.--The attribute complement should always have the case of that subject of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. It was given to John Smith. expressed or understood: as. in the . When it is used without relation to any other part of speech. as. as. It is THEIR fault. The objective case is. She deceived THEM. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of the infinitive to be. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb. When it is the object of a preposition. NOTE I. When it is the subject of an infinitive. etc.
me. EXERCISE 12 In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words in italics: 1. he is properly in the nominative case. 11. 17. May James and I me go to the circus? 4. I am taken to be he him. it is always in the nominative case. 13. I me among the rest. 14. Who spoke? I me. Between you and I me things are doubtful. we. thee. He asked you and I me to come to his office. him is properly in the objective case.sentence. You suffer more than me I. The one that is he him wears a brown hat. whom. since the only subject that is expressed in the sentence is I. He is a man who whom all admired. He is . But in the sentence. He introduced us all. mine. us. 6. See if there is any mail for Mary and me I. My brother and I me drove to the east end of the town. in the nominative case. Everyone has failed in the examination except you and I me. she. him. He promised to bring candy to Helen and I me. 21. They think it to be I me. theirs. they. Will you permit James and I me to go to the play? 5. 18. who. 22.--Where the relative pronoun who (whom) is the subject of a clause that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition. since there is an expressed subject of the infinitive. them. All have gone but you and I me. he. John. 20. Neither you nor I me can teach the class. 19. 2. it could not have been me I. NOTE 3. which is in the objective case. 16. EXERCISE 11 Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following pronouns: I. 8. I should hate to be HE. our. Was it I me that you asked for? 9. Thus the following sentences are both correct: I delivered it to WHO owned it. its. thou. Bring home WHOEVER will come with you. This is the student whom who all are praising. 12. Who made that noise? Only I me. No. 3. 7. whose. I could not wish John to be HIM. 15. 10.
57. they are honest. 62. 31. Our cousins and we us are going to the Art Gallery. 52. It could not have been we us who whom you suspected. is responsible for this error. Who whom do you consider to be the brightest man? 55. 36. 41. 42. The teacher told you and she her to stay. It was he him who whom the manager said ought to be promoted. It was either he him or she her that called. Who whom do you think is the brightest man? 56. They sent letters to all who whom they thought would contribute. I did not speak of either you or she her. 69. 68. He thought it was her she. The superintendent. This money was given by John who whom you know is very stingy. They can't play the game better than we us. 46. 28. Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and us we to take dinner at her house. 44. 39. All were present but John and he him. 40. 71. 23. It seems to be . 70. but it was him he and William who did it. 63. 37. It is in fact he him. My brother and she her were allowed to go by my father. 26. Between you and I me. Father believed it was she her. They do tell thee thou the truth. 60. They are more eager than we us since they have not seen her for a long time. He still believes it to be them they. 67. Between a teacher and he him who whom he teaches there is sometimes a strong fellowship. If they only rob such as thou thee. Turn not away from him he that is needy. The throne was held by a king who whom historians believe to have been insane. Who whom did he say the man was? 53. I thought it was her she. they tried to shield him. She told John and me I to study. 61. He cannot learn from such as thou thee. There are many miles between England and we us. 35. Mother knew it to be her she. 66. Who whom did he say the judge suspected? 54. 25. I wish you were more like he him. The property goes to they them. 32. The teacher told you and him he to stay. 34. My father allowed my brother and her she to go. we know it was them they. who whom. I did not see that it was her she. What dost thou thee know? 59. Because of his him being young. 58. 38. 50. We saw John and she her. It is unpleasant for such as they them to witness such things. 64. 45. 33. 48. I thought it to be she her. 65. 51. 29. You are nearly as strong as him he. 49. I cannot doubt. 47. It was through she her that word came to me I. it is my opinion that him he and John will disagree. 24. must be discharged. 30. 27. We us boys are going to the ball game. The teacher told you and I me to stay. Neither Frances nor she her was at fault.one of those men who whom we call snobs. 43.
Who whom do men say that he is? 79. MYSELF. I do not know to who whom to direct him. 103. (All these sentences are in the correct form. Do you think I me to be her she who whom you call Kate? 88. as. It was not us we from who whom it came. He. They them and their children have gone abroad. MYSELF and John will come. 97. He is a man in whom who I have little faith. 74. It was not they them. Who whom do you think him he to be? 80. Let me tell thee thou. Choose who whom you please. 82. but. He did it for HIMSELF. 100. 81. 75.he. as. I hope it was she her who whom we saw. 84. The book is for who whom needs it. said so. Tell who whom you choose to come. but. 105. Who whom is that for? 86. The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to their emphatic and reflexive use. They invited John and MYSELF. They invited John and ME. Will he let us we go? 98. Send who whom wants the pass to me. Can it be she her? 101. as. Is he the man for who whom the city is named? 106. It could not have been him he. I should like to be he or she. 76. etc. They are used to add emphasis to an expression. It came from they them who whom should not have sent it. 92. She her and I me are going on the boat. Who whom did you say did it? 94. Thou thee art mistaken. 73. He mentioned HIMSELF. 102. I know it was they them who whom did it. 96. We escorted her mother and her she to the station. herself. Who whom do you think I saw there? 91. Do not say. 95. Who whom are you going to collect it from? 78. themselves. Do not say. HIMSELF. 99. Some who whom their friends expected were kept away. How can one tell who whom is at home now? 85. They are also used reflexively after verbs and prepositions. I should hate to be he. itself. 89. 107. If any are late it will not be us we. The man on who whom I relied was absent.) 72. You are as skillful as she her. 87. Give it to who whom seems to want it most. The COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS are formed by adding selfor selves to certain of the objective and possessive personal pronouns. 93. 90. thee thou wilt do wrong. myself. 77. I do not know who whom the book is for. 104. I. Who whom am I said to be? 83. 30. John and I will come. . Let them they come at once. did it.
The book is for you yourself and I me myself. 6. 4. The teacher hisself himself could not have done better. herself. them. EXERCISE 15 Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic or reflexive forms. 11. EXERCISE 14 Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Yourself you and John were mentioned 2. ourselves. 31. theirself. I have my OWN book. itself. He came by hisself himself. 12. 3. EXERCISE 13 Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following simple and compound personal pronouns: Myself. I'll bring my gun. Our friends and we us ourselves are going out to-night. their. Punctuate properly.The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms. themselves. as. or your. 9. Bring your OWN work. Punctuate properly. He has a home of his OWN. because it itself and the engine were not properly adjusted to each other. and you bring your'n yours your own. himself. Herself she and her husband have been sick. 13. 14. him. but for the sake of emphasis own with the ordinary possessive form is used. (See §108): 1. He thinks you yourself and I me myself should bring the books. her. our. her. his'n. In place of these use simply his. your'n. They themselves and their children have gone abroad. 8. her'n. That book is his'n his. I. Henry and I me myself are in the same class. me. 10. 5. their'n. She told Mary and me myself to go with her herself. theirselves. (See §108): . 15. Let them do it theirselves themselves. 7. The machine failed to work well. You play the violin better than he himself. There are no such forms as hisself.
and whoseso.use.property he finds there. The horse is to be for ---. ---.he says is worthy of attention.pay for it. (See §29 and Note 3. 2. 8. whosoever. ---. whatever. 7. and what. 2.you wish. There are certain words.they nominate. He will take ---. 5. 33. 12.you like.can have done it? 12. 21. 10. ---.I wish. she is honest. whomsoever. 4. ---. 13. whosoever. These forms must be used whenever the objective or possessive case is demanded. He said it to ----. 5. He ---. 4.you take will suit me. whoever. 8.1. that is not true. 22.they may choose. ---.will do it.candidate is elected. I tell you.is nominated.she takes after.he may be.he thinks best. It will be noted that whoever. We will refer the question to ---. 19. whomever. and possessive forms. so. 18. ---. whoso. whosoever. He may take ---. I will vote for him. 16. 10.they do is praised. Let them ---. it was not he. ---. ---. 9. 20. ---. 9. 3.it may have been. whomever. Give it to ---you think needs it most.said so. and whomso. 15. who. Let them name ---. which.they think will win. you may take ---. called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 23. etc.) EXERCISE 16 Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound relatives: 1. 3. 6. I will be satisfied. Those books are my ----. or soever to the relative pronouns. I will give it to WHOMEVER I find there. It was between him and ---. whosesoever. The horse is to be for the use of ----. 32. I do not wish ---. He promised to ask the question of ---he found there. ---. There are the two chairs.book.else may be said. He deceived ----.will look after her. ---. 24. as. whosoever. That. 7. ---. I will not vote for him. 6. one should say.to be prominent.he cares to. You may have ---. which . will you vote for him? 17.you may name.does that is a partizan. 25. 14.was with him. 11. The COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS are formed by adding ever. ---. is ---. He may name ---. and whoso have objective forms. he is no gentleman. ---follows him will be sorry. Thus. 11. I ---. I shall receive presents from ---. We ---. It belongs to me ----.
Use but what when but is a preposition in the sense of except. few. He has no money . not I and James were present. and should. none. In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. as. The sentence might be changed to. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. although they are properly adjective in their meaning. One (there is a possessive form. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS: 1. 5. as. This is a frequent error in speech. 2. the nouns which they modify are never expressed. 6. ones). other. The pronoun I should always be capitalized. etc. SHE said. that. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns in the same sentence. as. this. There is no doubt BUT THAT he will go. and IT was made of wood. The antecedent of it is not clear. John. one's. as. Again. James and I were present. A CAT. those. Use but that when BUT is a conjunction and that introduces a noun clause. HE did it. The grammatical inference would be that the yard wore the blue ribbon. many. because. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same relative pronoun to introduce them. 34. be placed second.are regarded as pronouns. WHICH wore a blue ribbon. 4. as. these. 3. The antecedent of his is very uncertain. or Mary. Note the following sentence: A cat was found in the YARD WHICH wore a blue ribbon. He sent a box of cheese. former. was found in the yard. as. A man told his son to take HIS coat home. as. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary. some. and a plural form. Such errors are frequent. The book THAT we found and the book THAT he lost are the same. when used as part of a compound subject. THOU wilt do this whether YOU wish or not. Note the uncertainty in the following sentence.
8. How can you say that when thou knowest better? 2. I have no fears but what it can be done. which annoyed the preacher. 20. That is the man whom we named and that did it. 11. Mother she said I might go. 19. Mary told her mother she was mistaken. 5. 9. This is the book that we found and which he lost. The train it was twenty minutes late. She told her sister that if she could not get to the city. Avoid using you and they indefinitely. There are no men in the room but that can be bought. Sarah asked her aunt how old she was. 16. 22. ours and hers. EXERCISE 17 Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the cautions above stated: 1. Jones went to Mr. Those is the adjective which should be used in its place. 17. THEY make chairs there. Those people. Them people. Smith and told him that his dog was lost. 23. as. 10. 4. Them there should be corrected. May I and Mary go to the concert? 3. Which should not be used with a clause or phrase as its antecedent. Then Jack and George. Bring them books here. they went home. Chairs are made there. 14. WHICH I did. yours. Napoleon. Both the following sentences are wrong: He sent me to see John. 15. as.but (except) WHAT I gave him. 18. I have faith in everything but that he says. 7. not. Mr. He asked me to write to him. Instead. 12. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns. 7. its. 10. which I did. I have no doubt but what it was done. ONE seldom hears of such things. Them are all wrong. 8. 13. Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short. . for if he should leave him he would be angry. 21. Their whispering became very loud. theirs. YOU seldom hear of such things. 9. she thought she had better go home. say. Them is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. The man cannot leave his friend. 6. Grant thou to us your blessing.
38. Keep them people out of here. sweeter. which we did. 26. as. They use those methods in some schools. as. 24. . 35. It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white. The chair was also their's.he threw his armies across the Rhine. better. 36. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both their forms and their use. They are both our's. lovelier. she said that she didn't know but what she would go. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate the degree of modification they express is called COMPARISON. 47. 25. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. You never can tell about foreigners. She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like. 34. He went to his father and told him he had sinned. 33. COMPARISON. He has everything but that he needs. There is a slight difference between mine and your's. 32. Tell I and John about it. Which of the two is her's? 48. true. faster. 45. He does everything but what he should do. 42. or another adverb. The POSITIVE DEGREE indicates the mere possession of a quality. fast. It's appearance was deceitful. Thou knowest not what you are doing. 28. 40. lovely. Dost thou know what you doest? 44. 36. 31. It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon. Aunt. An ADVERB is a word used to modify a verb. The cabin needed to be swept. truer. You can easily learn history if you have a good memory. sweet. 41. an adjective. 43. good. They say that is not true. There are three degrees of comparison. It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen. 30. 46. which was done. How can you tell but what it will rain? 37. 27. The COMPARATIVE DEGREE indicates a stronger degree of the quality than the positive. 39. CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 35. The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow. 29. A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes.
The SUPERLATIVE DEGREE indicates the highest degree of quality. an adverb should be used. What is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming woman. and less beautiful. beautiful. means. the y is changed to i before adding the ending. The sentence. and the sentence should read. many more most old older. that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. more beautiful. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely different words in the comparative and superlative. most beautiful. but may be used as an adjective. first good. as it stands. He talks well. as. ill. She looks charming. If the word ends in y. Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are said to be compared regularly. least beautiful. most of them are compared by the use of the adverbs more and most. CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. To convey that meaning. She talks FOOLISH. last little less least much. and since talks is a verb. elder oldest.--Badly and forth may be used only as adverbs. Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Note the following: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bad. prettier. loveliest. prettiest. because here the word to be modified is talks. evil. 37. the adjective. The sentence. badly worse worst far farther. best. and the superlative by adding est. as. truest. should have been used. the adverb foolishlyshould be used. . sweetest. Wellis usually an adverb. latter latest. further farthest. well better best hind hinder hindmost late later. In regular comparison the comparative is formed by adding er. is wrong. and vice versa. by the use of lessand least. She looks CHARMINGLY. fastest. 38. He seems well. as. furthest forth further furthest fore former foremost. as. if the comparison be a descending one. An adjective is often used where an adverb is required. charming. Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables. or. eldest NOTE. as. pretty.
and wherever the word. He talks warm warmly on that subject. 23. He was terrible terribly angry. That violin sounds different differently from this one. (adverb). He was in a terrible terribly dangerous place. 32. 9. and The train runs SMOOTHLY. The roar of the wind was awful awfully. 34. The track is SMOOTH. Thus. 8. 26. 35. 29. 37. My health is poor poorly. 13. EXERCISE 18 In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the proper word to be used: 1. 21. and His work is HARD (adjective). the adverb has the additional ending ly. 4. 30. You are exceeding exceedingly generous. 27. The boat runs smooth smoothly. 38. The wind roared awful awfully. The man acted strange strangely. 15. 14. 10. He is a remarkable remarkably poor writer. 2. 11. The bird warbles sweet sweetly. 5. 25. Write careful carefully and speak distinct distinctly. Speak slow slowly. 18. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. 16. The music of the orchestra was decided decidedly poor. I am in extremely extreme good health. The typewriter works good well. where the adjective and the adverb correspond at all. 6. They felt very bad badly at being beaten. That can be done easy easily. both the following sentences are correct: He works HARD (adverb). The dead Roman looked fierce fiercely. 33. The soldiers fought gallant gallantly. 22. He behaved very proper properly. He . The fire burns brilliant brilliantly. 12. She is a remarkable remarkably beautiful girl. He struggled manful manfully against the opposition. He acted bad badly. 39. She looks sweet sweetly in that dress. as. He talks plainer more plainly than he ever did before. 3. 17. I can wear this coat easy easily. 20. an adjective should be used. whatever its location in the sentence. modifies a noun or pronoun. 7. (adjective). I didn't study because I felt too bad badly to read. I can speak easier more easily than I can write. But. 31. 28. The roses smell sweetly sweet. The sunset looks beautiful beautifully. 19. Speak gentle gently to him. Have everything suitable suitably decorated. He is sure surely a fine fellow. I have studied grammar previous previously to this year. usually. 24. 36.
7. but all the time looked eager eagerly about him. We found the way easily. That is easy easily to do. 42. 40. 8. 45. In every case show what they modify: 1. masterful. He stood thoughtful thoughtfully for a moment and then went quiet quietly to his tent. She looked cold. Be careful in your study of these sentences. careful. 5. 41. 13. carefully. EXERCISE 20 Write sentences containing the following words correctly used: Thoughtful. We arrived safe. thoughtfully. 3. sweetly. He looked angry angrily at his class. Speak gently. The sun shone brightly all day. sweet. He looked good. Let your speech be gentle. 39. graciously. eager. The water lay smooth in the lake. He walked down the street slow slowly. 11. 2. 6. 40. The train runs smoothly now. 4. 14. hardly.works well good and steady steadily. She looks coldly about her. His coat fits nice nicely. cool. 46. EXERCISE 19 The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly used. 47. hard. We found the way easy. rapidly. That coin rings true truly. IMPROPER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. Study these sentences carefully. 15. The wrong forms in the following list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms: RIGHT WRONG everywhere everywheres not nearly nowhere near not at all not much or not muchly ill illy first firstly thus thusly much muchly unknown unbeknown complexioned complected . He moved silent silently about in the crowd. He went over the work very thorough thoroughly. 44. 9. coolly. 10. 12. The sun shone bright at the horizon. rapid. The music sounds loud loudly. ungainly. He looked well. masterfully. gracious. eagerly. 43. We arrived safely. 16.
Observe carefully the following rules: 1. To say. The discovery of America was more important THAN ANY OTHER geographical discovery. not He is the LARGEST of the two. equally. more perfect or most perfect. 7. 10.EXERCISE 21 Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. 3. This machine is better THAN ANY OTHER machine. is incorrect. ERRORS IN COMPARISON are frequently made. A thing may be round or perfect. It is wrong to say. not one machine or some . The discovery of America was MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY geographical discovery. He is the most honest OF HIS fellow-workmen. or. but to say. lack of energy. She goes everywheres. He is the most honest OF ALL the workmen. universal. because all machines are meant. 2. But. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual. It all happened unbeknownst to them. for that is saying that the discovery of America was more important than itself--an absurdity. one must not be included in the other. 5. 4. This machine is BETTER THAN ANY machine. is wrong. One should not say. He is the largest of the three. 9. He is a dark complected man. To say. but it cannot be more round or most round. when two objects are used in the superlative. 2. and second. The causes are firstly. perfect. They came unbeknown to me. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. one must be included in the other. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know. is right. One should say. 3. is correct. but. When two objects are used in the comparative. You do the problem thusly. as. 11. He is nowhere near so bright as John. Use the lesser quantity first. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express absolute quality--adjectives that cannot be compared. One should say. 6. ignorance. 41. Not muchly will I go. He is the LARGER of the two. 8. round. This machine is the BEST OF ANY machine (or any other machine). for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. But it would be right to say. He is more honest THAN ANY of his fellow-workmen.
man in history. if not the greatest. 3. EXERCISE 22 Choose the correct word from those italicized: 1. 14. The other is the worse worst behaved of the two. Similarly. John is as good. After comparatives followed by than the words any and allshould be followed by other. John or Henry? 5. After superlatives followed by of. any and other should not be used. He is one of the greatest. is correct. Of Smith and Jones. Which is the larger largest of the two? 7. John is as good than she. Which was the hotter hottest. 2. 12. The prettier prettiest of the twins is the brighter brightest. 4. John is as good AS. Smith is the wealthiest wealthier. were left out. EXERCISE 23 Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. yesterday or to-day? 15. If the clause. 4. 6. Smith and Jones. He was the most active of all his friends. if not better than she. My mother is the oldest older of four sisters. if not better than she. Which can run the fastest faster. This is the duller dullest season of the year. Avoid mixed comparisons. if not better. Of the two men. Of two burdens choose the less least. Which is the larger largest number. The older oldest of the three boys was sick. To say.machines. It could be corrected to read. health or wealth? 10. it is wrong to say. 11. 13. b. Which is the more most desirable. 2. Note the following rules in regard to the use of other in comparisons: a. He is the brightest of all . this sentence would read. This machine is the BEST OF machines (or the best of all machines). Which is the best better of the six? 8. six or seven 9. the first former is the better best known. That is the cleaner cleanest of the three streets. Give a valid reason for each correction: 1.
8. 22. John is taller than any boy in his class. two. can be used only with plural nouns. if not the most useful metal. 6. SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES. 5.. New York is one of the largest.. 21. 29. lead is the heaviest. Those sort of men should be that . 28. this is the largest. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states. Paris is the most famous of any other European city. each. He was. of all others. Which has been of most importance. many. The orange is the best of all the fruits. That book is as good if not better than mine. Some adjectives can be used only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. John is taller than any other boy in his classes. 19. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania. That is the most principal thing in the lesson. The adjective pronouns this and that have plural forms. The orange is better than any other fruit. 31. etc. if not the largest city in the world. Such adjectives as one. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states. 24. 25. In many cases. 4. 23. sundry. 11. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States. The orange is better than any fruit. 35. 15. can be used only with singular nouns. Of all other fruits the orange is the best. FEW are seen. various. SEVERAL have come. 30. etc. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania. He was more active than any other of his companions. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. Such adjectives as several. and the adjective thus acquires the force of a pronoun. This apple is more perfect than that. Iron is the more useful of the metals. every. To say those kind is then incorrect. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia. This apple is rounder than that. 9. theseand those. Of all the other American Colleges. the noun which the adjective modifies is omitted. 42. 26. 33. Iron is the most useful of the metals. 27. 16. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. steam or electricity? 17. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate. 13. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures. 18. 14. No fruit is so good as the orange. 34. the most clever. Of iron and lead. 12. 20. It should be those kinds. 32. That theory is more universally adopted. Iron is among the most useful. 7.his brothers. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania. 10. This apple is more nearly round than that. as. 3.
He is six foot tall. 17. EXERCISE 24 Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. I like those kind of fruit. 15. Have you heard these news? 6. 12. 11. The Sahara Desert has several oasis. Those two statements contradict one another. EITHER AND NEITHER are used to designate one of two objects only. The four brothers love ONE ANOTHER. Little children should love each other. ONE ANOTHER when referring to more than two. Some ten box of shoes were on the train. no one. There were fifteen car-load of people. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle. 13.sort of men or those sorts of men. 23. 20. I have not seen him this twenty year. ANY ONE of the three boys may go. Either law or medicine is his profession. 10. If more than two are referred to. 8. 14. 4. 43. 18. 21. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. 19. The poem has six verse in it. any one. 9. 22. 24. 2. How can he associate with those sort of men? . Are they those kind of people? 7. He lost several pound. 44. EACH OTHER should be used when referring to two. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it. 5. none. Be able to give reasons: 1. use any. There are a few crisis in every man's career. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly. He rode ten mile. 16. 3. These kind of books are interesting. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as London. Note the following correct sentences: NEITHER John nor Henry may go. Either of the five will do. Several phenomenon marked his character. Note the following correct sentences: The two brothers love EACH OTHER.
ever. 11. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before? 10. The adverb only requires especial attention. also requires care and thought. A black base-ball player's suit was found. 13. In the placing of adjective elements and adverbial elements in the sentence. almost. 5. The placing of the words. and quite. I never expect to see the like again. 12. merely. 6. one should so arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. EXERCISE 25 Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences: 1. 8. Wrong: A man was riding on a horse wearing gray trousers. 3. PLACING OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. Generally onlyshould come before the word it is intended to modify. 9. 15. I only paid five dollars. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns. People ceased to wonder gradually. He only found the book. scarcely. 14. hardly. I only need ten minutes in which to do it. I never wish to think of it again. Acetylene lamps are only used now in . Right: A man wearing gray trousers was riding on a horse. I have only done six problems.45. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke. and note the differences in meaning. 7. Compare the following correct sentences. The school is only open in the evening. Only he found the book. He found only the book. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia. 4. 2. He found the book only.
Wrong: There don't none of them believe it. Right: It was so dark that we could hardly see.. 46. etc. only. I know hardly what to say. neither. Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence. He only spoke of history. Right: There was only one person present. haven't. Hardly. 17. and but (in the sense of only) are often incorrectly used with a negative. that is. scarcely. none. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. Examine the following sentences: Wrong: It isn't no use. are all negative words. is called a negative statement. means that we have some books. Wrong: We didn't do nothing. He merely wanted to see you. The mistake occurs usually where such forms as isn't. nothing. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color. 16.the country. Compare the following right and wrong forms: Wrong: It was so dark that we couldn't hardly see. 19. EXERCISE 26 Correct the following sentences: . The words. are used. 20. We have no books. never.. I was merely talking of grammar. since the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert. don't. We haven't no books. they serve to make denials of statements. or We haven't any books. 18. Wrong: There wasn't only one person present. The proper negative form would be. I am here is called an affirmative statement. and an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. etc. not of art. A denial of that. not of English literature. not. I am not here.
On the street are A brick and A stone house. 20. I haven't seen but two men there. They are not allowed to go only on holidays. Silence is golden. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I. 6. 23. 21. regarded as distinct from each other. 9. 27. 8. THE ARTICLES. A and an are called the INDEFINITE ARTICLES. She can't only do that. because they are used to limit the noun to any one thing of a class. There isn't no one here who knows it. as. It is better to not think nothing about it. 12. In the sentence. and the. He hasn't none of his work prepared. Where two nouns refer to the same object. 17. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was.1. 25. I can't find it nowhere. the author and creator of the universe. the article need appear only before the first of the two. 11. 3. 13. 47. my opinion is that there wasn't no fire. as. God. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began. as. the article should appear before each. 5. the sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed of brick and stone. He wasn't scarcely able to walk. Don't never do that again. since the article is used only before the first of the two adjectives. 2. an. He doesn't do nothing. He was elected to the office of President. in the sentence. the effect of this repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. There isn't but one person that can make the speech. The is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE because it picks out some one definite individual from a class. 14. 7. or. 10. I didn't see no fire. They didn't find no treasure. But. 15. a book. I can't think of nothing but that. 16. I can't hardly prove that statement. a chair. A. He can't hardly come to-night. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife. 4. the article is repeated before each adjective. We could not find but three specimens of the plant. There isn't no use of his objecting to it. . as. 26. But a or an is not used to denote the whole of that class. There isn't nothing in the story. She couldn't stay only a week. I didn't feel hardly able to go. 29. 19. On the street is A brick and stone house. There shan't none of them go along with us. But where the nouns refer to two different objects. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all. 22. He can't hardly mean that. 24. are called Articles. 18. 28.
48. saw and adze). 20. 4. 9. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the association. made up his outfit. 19. The third of the team were hurt. 6. one of these forms could not be used before all of the words. 13. etc. Where did you get that kind of a notion? 2. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical. That is a sort of a peculiar idea. He is a funny kind of a fellow. Since a house is singular.He bought a horse and a cow. 12. Generally it is better to repeat the article in each case. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the sentence. Thus. Lock the cat and dog up. 8. a kind of house. Say instead. 5. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper. 7. . What sort of a student are you? 16. and AN adze (not An ax. He was too wrapped in thought to notice the mistake. then the article must be repeated before each. one should say. 15. Before those beginning with a vowel sound an is used. it can have but one kind. whether or not it be the same. He was operated upon for the appendicitis. A saw. Bring me a new and old chair. He planted an oak. She is an eager and an ambitious girl. 17. 10. A is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel sound. 3. 14. Poor: I am very insulted. He was accompanied by a large and small man. a sort of man. The boy and girl came yesterday. The noun and verb will be discussed later. Such improper omission is frequently made when very or too are used with past participles that are not also recognized as adjectives. AN ax. He is dying from the typhoid fever. 18. Do not say. Neither the man nor woman was here. He received the degree of a Master of Arts. Read the third and sixth sentence. EXERCISE 27 Correct the following where you think correction is needed: 1. as. 11. maple and ash. kind of A HOUSE. in a succession of words. If.
These are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS. may be called the NAME-FORM. brave. each. I have talked. ever. Be sure that they are used correctly. EXERCISE 28 Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. I talk. evidently. latest. To these variations. straight. neither. I talked. I shall have talked. see. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the time of the action as past. awful. . larger. new. finally. as. The following are name-forms: do. Verbs also vary to indicate completed or incompleted action. and may and have are the auxiliaries. The First Principal Part. pass. none. terribly. hard. etc. He MAY HAVE GONE home. lovely. either. The full verbal statement may consist of several words. never. and the other words the AUXILIARIES. Both. etc. charming. only. one. In the sentence above. as. almost. the name TENSE is given. present. 50. perfect. which indicate the time of the action. come. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. He was too much wrapped in thought to notice the mistake. or future. only. go (gone)is the principal verb. The last word of such a verb phrase is called the PRINCIPAL VERB. since it is the part by which the verb is referred to as a word. oldest. walk. as.Right: I am very much insulted. hardly. CHAPTER V VERBS 49. Here the verb is may have gone. every. extreme. I shall talk. very. but. A VERB has already been defined as a word stating something about the subject. newly. charmingly. scarcely. very.
In other tenses. The verb behas two . seen (see. as. It runs. where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form some other tense of the principal verb. The dog trots. The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (may. It is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. as. the name-form is used to form what is called the PRESENT INFINITIVE. etc. We shall come. walked. These verbs that add ed are called Regular Verbs. may. By preceding it with the word to. You see. can. if present at all. or it may resemble one or both of them. as. He has gone (perfect tense). You can see. will. passed. These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. I hope to see. THE NAME-FORM. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both the name-form and the past tense. I go. set (set. Examples: He has(present tense). come (come. saw). The Third Principal Part is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. 51. Examples: done (do. might. did). came). Some verbs have no s-form. done (do). The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present tense. determination. We come. etc. saw (see). as. should. shall. I wish to go. or the SINGULAR form. possibility. to assert action in the present time or present tense. The verb form is often entirely changed. must. She comes. is usually constructed by adding s or es to the name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person. as. will. set). He goes. shall. It is formed by adding ed to the name-form. Horses should run. came (come). pushed.The Second Principal Part is called the PAST TENSE. is used with all subjects. as. when unaccompanied by auxiliaries. Horses run. He has been seen.) to assert futurity. the s-form is in the auxiliary. Examples: I may go. possession. What may be called the S-FORM of the verb. except those in the third person singular. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the past tense.
THE PAST TENSE FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH AN AUXILIARY. etc. to have gone.. tore. I done. I sung. The past participle is used to form the Perfect Infinitives. and so no error could result from their confusion. One could not then properly say. I seen. The s-form of have is has. In regular verbs. seen. therefore. e. i. The third principal part. would be grossly incorrect. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate. or which have both regular and irregular forms. to have been seen. I have saw. The list should be mastered thoroughly. IT SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH ANY AUXILIARIES. sung. 53. I have went. To say. to have seen. They were wore. CAN NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. To use it so. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most important irregular verbs. and that THE PAST PARTICIPLE FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. wore. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS . and wasin the past tense. the past tense and past participle are always the same. 52.irregular s-forms: Is. the past participle. It was tore. saw. 54. in the present tense. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect forms are often used. on the other hand. however. is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which are always regular in their forms. The student should bear in mind always that. The following are past tense forms: went. as. The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies. etc. The following are distinctly past participle forms: done. only to irregular verbs. of course.
(Changed to past tense). The guests begin to go home. The guests have begun to go home. MODEL CONJUGATIONS of the verbs to be and to see in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter.Name-form Past Tense Past Participleawake awoke or awaked awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought bid (to order or to greet) bade bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid blow blew blown break broke broken burst burst burst choose chose chosen chide chid chidden or chid come came come deal dealt dealt dive dived dived Name-form Past Tense Past Participledo did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk or drank drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen flee fled fled fly flew flown forsake forsook forsaken forget forgot forgot or forgotten freeze froze frozen get got got (gotten) give gave given go went gone hang (clothes) hung hung hang (a man) hanged hanged know knew known lay laid laid lie lay lain mean meant meant plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved ride rode ridden raise raised raised rise rose risen run ran run see saw seen seek sought sought set set set shake shook shaken shed shed shed shoe shod shod sing sang sung sit sat sat slay slew slain sink sank sunk speak spoke spoken Name-form Past Tense Past Participlesteal stole stolen swim swam swum take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn throw threw thrown tread trod trod or trodden wake woke or waked woke or waked wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote written NOTES. . The idea would be amply expressed by I ought to go. I had ought to go is incorrect. and then so as to use the past participle: Example: (Original sentence). (Changed to past participle). The guests began to go home. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. EXERCISE 29 In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to use the past tense.--Ought has no past participle.
The cows eat grass. 32. 56. 41. Those clothes tear readily. His mother chides him for his misbehavior. They teach all the elementary branches there. You speak too rapidly to be easily understood. 39. 14. They get no money for their services. The sheriff hangs the murderer at noon. Water freezes at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. They tread the grapes in making wine. 52. 42. 40. My servants break many dishes. My mother bids me to say that she will be here at six. 25. You forget that we have no right to do that. 35. Jones drinks this wine very seldom. They lie in bed until eleven. 58. You do so much more than is necessary. 2. 6. 3. 46. 20. His friends plead strongly for him. I do not know. 34. Our books lie on the mantel. They raise no objection. 17. 43. They drive over to Milton once a week. 27. 54. They choose their associates. 19. The swallows all fly into the chimney at evening. The blacksmith shoes horses. 28. 33. If they prove their innocence. EXERCISE 30 . 37. 9. 26. I deal there this week. The noise wakes me. 23. I know of nothing more worrying. 44. 22. They forsake the cause without any reason.1. 36. The ball goes to the opposing team. I see the parade. I swim one hundred yards very readily. 61. 10. 8. You hang the rope on the tree. He begins to think of strange things. The roof sheds water in all storms. You sit very quietly. 18. 12. John comes in and lays his books on the desk. Cæsar gives them no answer. 60. 53. 7. 16. 38. 49. You take all subscriptions for the concert. 51. 5. I awake early every morning. I always wear old clothes in which to work. John runs very rapidly. She writes to her mother daily. 55. They draw lots for the watch. 13. 15. 45. The box bursts open. 48. Why they rise so late. 57. 4. Who throws paper on the floor? 59. Do you know what they mean by that? 11. The children beseech me to go with them. 47. He runs up the road. She lays the knife on the table. they should be discharged. 31. The politician vigorously shakes all hands. 30. They set their chairs in a row. The Gauls flee before Cæsar. 24. He comes here every day. 21. The boys dive beautifully. Few men steal because they want to. Cæsar seeks to learn the intention of the enemy. Smith bids fifty dollars for the chair. 29. They weave the best rugs in Philadelphia. 50. The choir sings for each service. They drive a sorrel horse. Cæsar bids him enter.
He ---. 19. Twice last summer he ---. wore. He formerly ---. correctly used: Begun. EAT. give. BREAK.three hundred miles on its first trip. He fell and ---.his new friends just as he had ---. BLOW. How can he ---. BEGIN. We were ---. During the battle the shells frequently ---. He almost ---.to enter. saw. 13. chose. The wind ---.as much as her sisters. Her father ---. That it has ---. forsook. FLY. The wind does ---. The reports ---. 17.so far is sufficient proof of its success. She ---. dealt. They have ---.very well. 20. He ---.his leg.her enough to make it up. COME. written.about all day. 11. torn. 10.the auctioneer will not hear him. DRAW. He has always ---. threw. Oaken casks have often ----. sung. Before explaining the game. he ---.when he wishes. 8.to disturb him a little. 18. The man was ---stiff. FLEE. broke.all last night. He often ---. rode.to school to-day. pleaded. 4.to feel hurt over them. Thou canst not say I ---. drew.Write original sentences containing the following verbs. The cornetist ---.out the cards. knew.that? 15. The ship was ---.very poorly. 14. 9.with all his might. given. bidden. DO.to-night. blew. come.off the bridge. She was not ---. BID.us frequently about our actions. froze. slew.her less because of her extravagance. He ---. BURST. They ---. 12. 3. It is well that his neck was not ----. DEAL. FORSAKE.all the others. 2. FREEZE. went. gave. The picture was ---. He evidently ---. EXERCISE 31 Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences.wisely.us a pleasant good day. ran. flew. DIVE. dived.to act at once. He has ---.right over us.everything which the others had not ----. 7. but I think that now he ---. Since the cashier has ----. CHIDE. But. 5. 6.him president. The horse was ---.twenty miles. He ---.himself. woven. The air-ship ---. bad. seen. wrote. Let him ---. shod. The proprietor ---.by a famous artist. shook. hanged. GO. taken. 16. She ---- . swum. DRIVE. spoke. GIVE. he now ---.terrifically sometimes.it to death. He ---. He was never ---. No matter how much he ---. The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of each group: 1.it. they think that a warrant would be useless.to death so easily because he had been so long without food.it.earlier heretofore.at nine to-day. It may ---. CHOOSE. driven.
races all his life. PLEAD.in another race. 27.school every day. 38.by a horse which never before ---. SHAKE.very rapidly. SEEK.goods from the store.for ten years. He ---.several times. TAKE. he has never ---. RUN. The dog ---. whether or not he ---. 32.at the paper until it was ---. Though they claimed that they always ---. 25.to her. He was not ---.in forty fathoms of water. WEAVE.up everything he finds.a long distance. He has ---. Now they ---. and they ---. He first ---.me for him before. he ---. MEAN.to do right. 28. 23.all through the slums for him. 41.anything about that.to by any member of the family. The detectives ---. 22.hands with all who came. 24.the race as though he had ---. 21. He ---. WEAR. I was ---. The choir ---. 37. TEACH.it before.at least once a month.him a thief in the eyes of the people. No one ever ---. John ---. EXERCISE 32 Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences: . PROVE. STEAL. They ---. SHOE. but I ---.him.the coat and vest for six months. He ---to me just last week. He was ---.when he was eighteen years old. 35. says he ---. They ---. That play is the best I ever ----. even if he was not ---. THROW. They say that they ---. They ---.for him several times that day. The trousers were ---. 40. 26. During the day his hand was ---. The stone ---.so to the satisfaction of the jury. SEE.the best in the country. This carpet was ---. Everyone believes that he has frequently ---. Smith. WRITE.him in the better parts of the city.from Larimer this morning. The entire army was ---. The manufacturers say they never ---. 34.the ship in 1861. 39. she was really never ---. this is the first time I ever ---. The mother ---. They always ---.the anthem as they had never ---. KNOW.with Blank's shoes. Although he has ---. 36.entirely out in a month.he was married.as if they had ---.by them. 33. John ---. SING. He ---.that he cannot live. SPEAK.yesterday. He ---. She has ---.two men skulking along the road.an hour for her son's life. 31. The race was ---. TEAR.entirely to pieces.as soon as it is in the water.every day this month.it I do not know. who has just arrived.five hundred times. 30.to do so. As long as I have ---. and has always ---.it well. RIDE. Soon after that race.at Philadelphia. No criminal was ever more eagerly ----. The money was ----. He ---. SINK.anyone. 29.a better one. The ship was ---.
21. spoke. in which the action does not go to a receiver. 3. He begun to take notice immediately. The words have been spoke in anger. 13. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of the action. blew. come. He was immediately threw out of the room. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth. stole. He said he come as soon as he could. The horse was drove ten miles. The horse was rode to death. knew. I have broke my ruler. In both these sentences. 55. chose. wrote. drove. 10. hung. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. . The verbs in these sentences. froze. He was very much shook by the news. I have went to church every day. 56. 11. are transitive verbs. slew. He makes chairs. as. She run around all day and then was sick the next day. flew. forgot. went. Chairs are made by me. The umbrella was blew to pieces. tore. I never seen anything like it. 9. I see. the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object or receiver of the action. threw. drew. hang. are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS. I have never did anything so foolish. drunk. 6.1. 22. He KILLED the horse. shook. I am seen. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject as the doer of the action. 12. I done it. rode. as. 8. I KEEP my word. The matter was took up by the committee. The horse has been stole from the owner. came. 2. gave. and all similar verbs. 7. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the action. All others. 19. give. He plead all day to be released. 17. Jones was chose as leader of the class. as. done. sung. Goliath was slew by David. Was the river froze enough for skating? 14. 18. I have been seen. 5. 4. wore. ate. 15. EXERCISE 33 Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly used: begun. only transitive verbs can have both active and passive voice. I tell. 16. took. broke. 20. I am told. did. run. forsook. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box.
He was woke (waked) by the noise. wake. meaning to deceive. has for its principal parts. however. I laid the book down. He was awoke by the noise. and note the reasons why the second form in each case is the correct form. lied. lied. and He set out for Chicago. and fall. He raised in bed. lie. He has felled a tree. Only the first. then. awake. of each pair can have an object or can be used in the passive voice. The river has raised. arise. They sat themselves down to rest. Wake me early to-morrow. Lie. waked woke. and the second is intransitive.57. He rose in . waked awake (to cease to sleep) awoke. The river has risen. awaked awaked fell (to strike down) felled felled fall (to topple over) fell fallen lay (to place) laid laid lie (to recline) lay lain raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised (a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen set (to place) set set sit (to rest) sat sat The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive. The most important of these verbs are the following: sit. lay. Lie. I have laid down. I lay the book down (past tense). rise. fell. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent error. Note again the principal parts of these verbs: wake (to rouse another) woke. The present participle of lie is lying. with this meaning is seldom confused with liemeaning to recline. regarded as correct: The sun sets. NOTES. raise. Compare the following sentences. The moon sets. set. WRONG RIGHT Awake me early to-morrow. He has fallen a tree. by reason of usage.--The following exceptions in the use of sit and setare. I have lain down. lie.
The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. 10. 11.here until I return. 9. 3. He sat the chair by the table. I set the chair there.in the west. sit. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation. set. awake. 13. lied. The sun ---. I set there. 3. 2. 12. felling. I sat there. lain. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. waking. He lay the papers before the judge. raised. 4. Please ---. 2. wake. awaked. He laid down to sleep. To have been awaked then would have been sad. rise. lie (to deceive). Let him lie there until he wakes. EXERCISE 35 Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong: 1. 5. The shower has lain the dust. laying. I sat the chair there. fell (to topple over). 6. lying. 14. rising. sitting. 4. lay (to place). woke. I ---. raising. The sun has sat in the golden west. sat. 20. fallen. 5. EXERCISE 36 In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms of the verbs indicated: SIT AND SET 1. falling.in that seat all the evening. setting. 17. He was still ----ting there on my return. To have waked then would have been sad. awaking. Let sleeping dogs lay. felled. 16. lie (to recline). Falling trees is his amusement. they renewed the journey. Waking at dawn. laid. He has laid in bed all morning. EXERCISE 34 Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the following words: Lie. 15. 19. He has set there all day. 18. arose. The judge laid the papers aside.bed. 8. 7. . raise. He awoke everybody at daylight. He will sit out on his journey this morning. The river has risen four feet.
The chair was ---.his books on the desk.down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my journey.at twelve. He always ---his books on the desk. He ---. I will ---.He ---.his hand. ----ing is a sin. I do not know why he ---. The flag . 7. He was engaged in ----ting out flowers. 12. She told me to ---. 21.down. 6. Now I ---. 7.down this afternoon to rest. I ---. The scene of the play is ---. 10. and his father knew it. 15.behind the barn waiting for dawn. James ---. ---. 13. 8. Will it not be well for you to ---.them there every morning. 9.my chair by the window and ---. 20.in order that I might see better.here until I call my mother. 26. 23. 14. His books have sometimes been ----ing there before I arrive.that on the table? 22. Last evening we ---at the table for more than an hour. 5. After he ---. All their hands were ---. 11.there all the afternoon. He just now ---. 14. 13. 3.there. The tramps ---. How can she ---. His books have sometimes ---there all day. 18.your hand if you know. 8. She told me to ---. When we are weary.in bed until eleven.so early. 16. 8. ---. He has ---. 7. I have frequently ---. I ---. 18. He has ---.without the slightest hesitation.down. He has repeatedly ---. 2. ----ing down is a good way to rest. 12. 15. I ---. The moon ---. LAY AND LIE 1. She ---the hen on some eggs and she remained ---. They have all ---. 3. 25. 20. I ---. 10. 24.the lamp on the table.down and feel much better. 11. ---.up until twelve. 19. 4. Fido.there? 19.still for so long? 21. I ---.out for home yesterday.me down to sleep.to his father. The floor was ---.by an expert carpenter. He ---.their hands.there.there all day. 2. 17. RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) 1. 10. I ---.the bucket on the rock above the bridge. 6.the matter before the teacher.at once. ---.down and talked to me. He has ---. By whom has the lamp been ---.down he remembered that he had left a letter on his desk.about the matter. we ---.down and rest awhile.down for a while? 11. ---. Who ---. The bread would not ----.down. I usually ---. 9. 17.in bed until late every morning.by the desk. Everyone ---. 5. I had ---. 4. 16. and I ---.and go unto my father. 6. The price of meat has ----.in rural Pennsylvania.early to-day. I have ---.on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. 9.
so early. It is hard to avoid ----ing on the ice. the INDICATIVE MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth.himself from the condition into which he had fallen. ----ing down is a small matter to the young. Who ---. 18.at eight. 9. 8. There are several modes in English. 7. The sun ---. I myself shall see to ----ing it then. He had himself ---. The whole country-side seemed to ---. 20. It is unpleasant to ---.at six o'clock. 3. when living.the window? 17. AWAKE AND WAKE 1.me very early. 5.across the road. 6. this morning? 8.and answers. You say that you have never ---. and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt. MODE.rapidly.so early.an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful strength. His brother did not wish to be ---. he seemed to try to do so again. To ---. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. Gladstone. ---. After he ---once. 4. 15. 10. 2. 11.after nine? 7. ----ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. 5. Let the tree be ---. I did not see him----. 14. 6. FELL AND FALL 1. The safe was ---. The curtain is to ---.him. 58.so early. but only between the indicative and subjunctive modes is the distinction important.at dawn. 9. 12. He would not say who ---.his brother.a tree each morning for exercise. 11. He was ---. Have them ---. He tried to ---. ----ing everybody up by their noise is an every night occurrence. 12. Will you please ---. 3.from the roof of the porch.often is to be expected in learning to skate. ---. He is ---rapidly to prominence.at once.was very carefully ----.to the earth by a blow from a club. 4. 16.by means of a rope. The river ---. 2.me early. . 13. To ---.one's self by one's boot-straps. 19. Not a shot is fired but a bird ----. This morning I ---. 13. The boy ---. It is like trying to ---. He has often ---. Generally speaking.and march to the front of the room. He went upstairs and ---. 10.
Other conjunctions may be used. lest it seem.59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense. instead of having the s-form in the third person singular of the present tense. indicative. he runs. it seems. as. she sees. it) was they were SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE If I be If we be If I were If we were If thou be If you be If thou were If you were If he (she. In other verbs the subjunctive. NOTE. it will be noted that the form be is used throughout the present tense. have been used in the second person singular. he has. has the name-form. The indicative mode would be properly used in the following sentence.. The places in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of the verb be. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. Strictly speaking. etc.--It will be noticed that thou art and thou wast. though she see. these are the proper forms to be used here. when the statement is . and in the present tense of active verbs. even though you areand you were. NOTE. it) be If they be If he (she. it) is they are he (she. subjunctive. or the verb may precede the subject. if he have. etc. it) were If they were If is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive depends. 60.--An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive.. The following outline will show the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive of be: INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE I am we are I was we were thou art you are thou wert or wast you were he (she. and the form were throughout the past tense. if he run. are customarily used in addressing a single person. In the subjunctive of be.
CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN. I might be charitable. If it was were near enough. and be able to give a definite reason for your choice. or the verb precedes the subject. Similarly: If he is rich. if. lest. 2. Were I rich. The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions. It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of use. But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's mind. But it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive mode. If I was were only wealthy! 4. 5. since its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. although. and five which illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular. In some of the sentences either form may be used correctly: 1. He acts as if it were was possible always to escape death. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT. . or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to fact or as untrue. he ought to be charitable. EXERCISE 38 Choose the preferable form in the following sentences. some of the best writers no longer use its forms. then he is a criminal. though. then all statements are true. EXERCISE 37 Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in the third person singular without an auxiliary. This passing of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged. Most directly declarative statements are put in the indicative mode. If you are be right. in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: If those statements be true. If I were was in his place. the subjunctive is used. I should study medicine. 3.regarded as true: If that evidence is true. Note the two sentences following. I should walk.
22. 8. present indicative. bring him to dinner. ask him to pay the bill. it moves. he will find me at home. Though he were was king over all the earth I should despise him. 13. she goes. I should jump. 27. Singular subjects are used with plural verbs. He runs. If this be is wrong. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. Would that I was were a bird. 21. If he ever tell tells the truth. 24. Unless he takes take better care of his health. If your father comes come. singular. If a speech is be praised by none but literary men. I can't come. 61. Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs. then all love of country is wrong. I should dislike her. and plural subjects with singular verbs. 32. The other auxiliaries have no singular forms. 15. 30.then the book is wrong. he conceals the fact. 11. he will insist on paying me. If that is be his motive. and so can cause little confusion. 17. I stay at school. If she was were at home. 10. it is bad. 6. he would come. Though she was were an angel. you would act differently. The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form. 12. If your father was were here. 14. Though this seem seems improbable. 28. If he come comes. If to-morrow be is pleasant. 9. If it rains rain. 31. If he be is there. as. Though Mary be is young. and is not a source of confusion. he is unworthy. it is true. and occurs only in the third person. we shall go driving. 26. If he be is honest. I did not hear of it. If the father pays pay the debt. 29. Is. If it snow snows. he will be released. Was were it necessary. he will die. The most frequent error is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Take care lest you are be deceived by appearances. 25. 16. was. she is a writer of note. she would say I might go. he makes no sign of his presence. 23. If my mother was were here. 18. and has are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. he remained poor. 20. Am is used only with a subject in the first person. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the true number of the subject. If he was were I. 19. Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: . If he be is honest. Though he was were very economical. 7. If he be is there. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. he has not shown it.
The following sentences are all correct: The assembly has closed its meeting. require singular verbs. when used alone as subjects. is that IT IS THE MEANING AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. pair. etc. Some nouns. and one. as. either. trousers.A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not were shipped). are treated as plurals. . A man and a woman HAVE been here (not has been here). news. The general rule to be borne in mind in regard to number. some. that. etc. as. the noun is often omitted. always require plural verbs. either singular or plural in meaning. politics. error is often made by using the wrong number of the verb. The whole family are sick. also. few.. as is true throughout the subject of agreement in number. Boxes ARE scarce (not is scarce). When this is done. many. means. Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning. assembly. and some may take either singular or plural verbs. Each. as. neither. tongs. none. are. forceps. When WERE the brothers here (not when was)? 62. this. Any. committee. those. jury. The assembly are all total abstainers. Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. each. singular in form. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. these. according to the sense in which. Many. though in meaning they are singular. In most of these cases. The whole family is a famous one. measles. All. family. In the use of the adjective pronouns. This rule also applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns. reason will determine the form to be used. they are used.
9. 13. tribe. choir. dollars. news. by giving a reason. days. months. Examine the following sentences. ARE. WAS. Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by the firm. army. The whole tribe was destroyed. A pair of gloves has been lost. The jury have agreed. but they have differed in regard to one matter. IS. pains. none. Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection. goods. The family is large. 8. 2. The society is divided in its opinion. A great number was present. flock. such. that. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. The regiment were almost all sick. EXERCISE 39 In each of the following sentences. The society meets each month. 6. gallons. class. committee. mumps. mob. What means were used to gain his vote? 14. The army was defeated. nobody. The committee has presented its report. everybody. EXERCISE 40 Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs. gallows. GOES. . carloads. each is correct: Three drops of medicine is a dose. those. former. vitals. WAS. tons. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. victuals. A number were unable to be present. The tribe were scattered through the different states. latter. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. HAVE. many. Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. COMES: One. 11. herd. this. 21. GO. HAS. 3. measles. RUNS.When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. RUN. 10. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. 16. all. justify the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the noun: 1. 15. 5. 17. 4. HAVE. ashes. crowd. The family are all at home. Two hundred pounds was his weight. any. The number present was great. 7. dregs. few. thanks. 20. these. 22. 18. COME. fleet. group. some. other. bushels. 12. pincers. 19. A variety of persons was there.
THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT: 1. 6. When a verb separates its subjects. The men WERE slain. the verb should be singular. 63. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others. the plural form of the verb should be used. the verb should be in the plural. 4. Either one or the other IS he. WAS to blame. and also the leader. No help and no hope IS found for him. 3. it should agree with that subject to which it applies. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to mean two distinct things. as. The employee. WERE to blame. When the verb applies separately to several subjects. as. The leader WAS slain and all his men. each in the singular. EXERCISE 42 Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences: . The boy. John and Harry ARE still to come. as. When the verb applies separately to several subjects. The employers. as. and not the employee. Neither the boy. DESERVES praise. as. it should agree with the subject nearest to it. Each book and each paper WAS in its place. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound subject. Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise. as well as his sisters. French and German literature ARE studied. and not the employers.EXERCISE 41 Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or THEY should be used in referring to the subject. Neither one nor the other IS he. nor his sisters DESERVE praise. 2. some of which are singular and some plural. as. it should agree with the first. 5.
7. 3. 25. Either the man or his children was were lost. 41. 43. The daughters. Money. 39. is are sure to be invited. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter is are coming. Every adult man and woman has have a vote. and also her pupils. 21. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth was were the author of that poem. 38. Neither sincerity nor cordiality characterize characterizes him. 12. 40. 9. Each of the trustees has have a vote. 23. Aunt Mary. 4. 31. The boy and the girl have has come. The ambition and activity of the man has have been the cause causes of his success. 17. The cat and all her kittens was were at the door. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary is are coming. if not culture. Each man and each woman was were present. 18. a woman. Brain power. 19. and a child is are comprised in the group. Neither he nor I are is am going. 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother is are at home. 34. but not Aunt Mary. The car and all its passengers was were blown up. Neither James nor I are is to go. 36. 6. Hard and soft coal is are used. and not her mother. but not her daughters. 35. The pupils was were cut off by the fire. Everyone of these chairs is are mine. 27. Dogs and cats is are useless animals. and also the teacher. gains gain a way. Henry. Tennyson. 42. Old and new hay is are equally good for horses. 14. Book after book was were taken from the shelves. 24. and not his sister. The teacher and also the pupils were was embarrassed. 16. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters is are coming. Neither James nor they are is to go. 30. 2. Bread and milk are is frugal but wholesome fare. is are coming. were was the author. 26. The pupils and also the teacher were was embarrassed. 28. 20. The children and their father was were on the train. is are coming. Each boy and girl bring brings books. as well as money. 10. talk talks. 13. The teacher was were cut off by the fire. No preacher and no woman is are allowed to enter. 11. not Wordsworth. 8. Either the children or their father was were lost.1. Matthew or Paul are is responsible for that belief. 32. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER: . 33. Mary. 5. A man. 29. Each day and each hour bring brings new questions. 22. 37. Either the soldier or his officers is are mistaken. 64. Our success or our failure is are due solely to ourselves. is are coming.
when was you in the city? 11. 9. they are. they were. The thief. 5. as. 2. Ain't and hain't are always wrong. with all his booty. EXERCISE 43 Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong: 1. who. The book. 12. You was there. The proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances is does. Don'tcannot be used with he or she or it. was destroyed. Do not use a singular form of the verb after you and they. The ship. they was. etc. Such colloquial contractions as don't. They was never known to do that before. should not be used at all in formal composition. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an adjective phrase. He is one of those men THAT ARE to be trusted. The art gallery. sale. 5. Both of the following sentences are correct: He is the only one of the men THAT IS to be trusted. not.. may refer to one or more than one. with all her crew. One should say. 4. A barrel of apples were sold. that. He doesn't. not man don't.. This is one of the books that is always read. When the subject is a relative pronoun. were lost. not it don't. with all its errors. not he don't.1. 8. In the sentence. etc. John. John. is valuable. not boxes. Who they was. with all its pictures. 10. 3. was captured. 2. etc. no such contractions are recognized. man doesn't. or with any other singular subject in the third person. it doesn't. the number and the person of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb.. is the subject of the verb. How many were there who was there? 6. This is one . I ain't coming to-night. The SALE of boxes was increased. He don't know his own relatives. etc. 13. was you not? 3. Say: You were. 4. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with not. can't. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. you was. not do. It is to be remembered that the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form. 7. I couldn't tell.
All the crop were lost. There were four men. There seem to be few here. 19. 7. Everyone of these farms are mine. 35. with his whole army. . A variety of sounds charms the ear. There comes the children. as you will see. surrender. Mary. 22. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. Question after question were propounded to him. 26. One of them are gone. 17. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. A variety of recitations were given. 25. 20. 15. 18. 27. 28. 30. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes.of the mountains which are called "The Triplets. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. The "Virginians" is a famous book. A black and a white horse was in the ring. 40. The end and aim of his life are to get money. Mathematics are my most interesting study. 2. 15. 16. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. each of which were sent by a different bank. Neither of the letters were received. 41. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. 5. 16." 14. The committee have adjourned. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. 13. 18. where was you yesterday? 31. At that time the morals of men were very low. 21. That answer. 29. Three fourths of his time are wasted. 8. 4. 17. 32. 14. 23. 6. The jury is delivering its verdict. The whole box of books were shipped. Were either of these men elected? 36. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. 9. 11. Lee. "Cows" are a common noun. 34. EXERCISE 44 In the following sentences correct such as are wrong: 1. 37. The gallery of pictures are splendid. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. 12. 20. The hands of the clock is wrong. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. A black and white horse were in the ring. 39. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. Farm after farm were passed by the train. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. The committee disagree on some points. 3. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the school. There seems to be a few here. 33. 38. 19. 24. hain't right. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. 10. Such crises seldom occurs.
is a source of very many errors. action which the speaker means to control. In interrogative sentences shallshould always be used with the first person. not that. 43. use shall with all other subjects. 66. is wrong. 44. 47. The following outline will show the correct use of shall and will. i. Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: I will come in spite of his command.. except in dependent clauses and questions: To indicate simple futurity or probability: Use shall with I and we. 46. It shall not happen again. 65. Neither John nor Henry have come. 42. It will rain before night. Either this book or that are wrong. with their past tenses. I think you will want to be there. To indicate promise. Either those students. e. shall and will. Use will with I and we. The use of the auxiliaries. threat. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. 48. This book. Examine the following examples of the correct use of shall and will: Statements as to probable future events: We shall probably be there. This book and that is wrong. In the second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected in the answer. or command on the part of the speaker. or this book is wrong. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning. 45.The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. use will with all other subjects. determination. I promise you. You shall go home. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. Either this book or those students is wrong. Examine the agreement in the use of shall and will in the following .
is wrong. Willshould. I promise you. He is sure they . Shall you be there? I think I shall (probability). You will then go to Philadelphia. He thinks that you will be able to do it. They assure us that they SHALL come. Will he do it? I think he will (assertion).questions and answers: QUESTIONS. 12. The auxiliary. Further examples: I suppose we shall have to pay. the money shall be raised. He will surely come to-morrow. be the auxiliary in the dependent construction. Will you promise to come? We will come (promise). therefore. 4. How shall you answer him? 13. If he shall go to Europe. We WILL come. 5. it will be his tenth trip abroad. 7. 67. 9. In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use shall with all subjects. 14. 2. You shall never hear from me again. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 3. He has decided that John shall replace the book. I shall probably go if you wish. in a principal clause would be will. 8. We shall return by way of Dover. I think I shall ride. Shall your son obey the teacher? He shall (determination). I will have it in spite of all you can do. 10. If you shall go away. They assure us that they WILL come. We think we shall come to-morrow. then. The sentence. 6. In dependent clauses which are introduced by that. expressed or understood. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. The direct assurance would be. the auxiliary should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were a principal clause. and the sentence should read. EXERCISE 45 Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences: 1. who will run the farm? If I shall die. 11. Shall I miss the car? You will miss it. I will go if you wish. I shall die as an honest man. ANSWERS. I feel that I shall not live long. Examples.
If you ---. 23.be disappointed.be there before the curtain rises.never sell my library. Shall you be there? 17. If he shall ask. ---. 22. 19.they probably be there? 35. 16. We ---do it for you. They ---. 29. I fear that he will fail to pass. 7. 3. We promise.be there when you need it.probably suffer for it. 14. 15.stop. ---. Will you be there? 19.decide what to do about that at our next meeting which ---.go with you. I ---. 5. When ---. 10. 16. I doubt that he will pay. ---.be in class until ten. He says he shall be there. ---.be orderly and attentive.go anyway.return next year. It ---.you please fetch me a paper? 36. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? 18. 21. I ---. ---. she ---.drown.go with you. I ---. 28. 27. ---.probably be refused. 24. we ---return.we be permitted to go? 18. I hope that we ---. 2. 31. Perhaps we ---. If I fail I ---. 4. 26. 13. 11.you be busy to-night? Yes. I ---.be . 30. 15.I ask for your mail? 33.do as I say. We think she will soon be well. No. ---. You ---. If you ---.be lost.be there in time. We ---. We have promised that we will do it.I put more wood on the fire? 12.rain soon. 17. He is sure that I will come.I find you in your office? 38.go to the river for a boat ride. Will all be there? 20. We are determined that they shall pay.you be twenty years of age? 27. ---. I ---. ---. I ---. but I ---. I ---. I think we ---. 41. 40. 23. shall I refer him to you? EXERCISE 46 Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL: 1.be very grateful to you if you ---. I ---. I think it ---. no one ---. 25. ---. 32.help me.we ever see you again? 28.I go or remain at home? 20. 26. 25.probably fail to pass the examination. go there again.sing to-night. If no one assists me. 39.not impose on you in that way. He has promised that he will be there. I ---. think I ----. I think I ---. ---. I ---. We ---.ask her. When ---. 34. I ---. 8. Where ---. 21. never. 6. ---.be obliged to take an examination.we stop for you on our way downtown? 37.we join you? 24.never.you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes.will come. You ---.never do it if I can help. We expect that they will bring their books.find the work easy.do this.my men begin work to-day? 9. I don't. It is demanded that the pupils ---.you stop at Chicago on your way West? No. I ---. 22.
68. 54. and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause.not happen anyway. They assure us that we ---.you be sure to be there? EXERCISE 47 Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent clause.I go with you? 44. He says that he ---. 46. 63. They say that they ---.be elected. He requests that you ---. He fears that he ---. 72.probably not go. Should is used with I and we. 58. 56.meet you.promise to do in the matter? 75. and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause. and would with other subjects. He tells me that he thinks that he ---. I tell you that she ---.go to school. They say that they ---.take cold.not come. 52. ---.go as a matter of duty. Do you say that you ---. 71. 65.do it in spite of anything done to prevent. She asks that it ---. Does he say that he ---. The book says that ---. It is thought that his death ---. and should with other .go away. Would is used with I and we.never enter this house again. I fear that I ---. ---. 66. 73.be wrong. A story is told that ---. 50. 42. John says that ---. to express mere futurity or probability. Does John write what he ---.be present? 67.be here to-day.not come.it make any difference to you? 43. Should and would are the past tenses of shall and will. He writes that he ---. It is believed that the emperor ---. 62. 64. Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause. He says he fears he ---. He ---.miss his train.take cold.come? 69.surely come? 74.find good stores in Berlin.probably live to be past sixty. 70. They say they ---.please stay here. 47. 45. and have corresponding uses. She says that I ---. It is believed that they ---. Wright says his father ---become famous. 60.die.come to-day at seven o'clock. ---. 55. 59. you ---.in October.probably be present.have to retract. No. John thinks he ---. 61. Does she say that she ---. She is determined that he ---. 68. Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five in which WILL is used.not seriously change things. 53. SHOULD AND WOULD. 48. 49. 51.be sent at once. He is determined that he ---. I told you that I ---.gain little credence. 57.
This would often occur when he was preaching. what should you do? 10. He said that he would come at once. we should not come.subjects. as. What would they do in the city? 18. 6. 13. I would go with him. He promised that he would be at the meeting. to imply duty. We would often take that road. He decided that it should be done. 9. Would is often used to indicate habitual action. If that should happen. EXERCISE 48 Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following sentences: 1. 7. 20. 12. . we should be foolish. 16. 15. I should be displeased if he would act that way. Examples: Futurity: I should be sorry to lose this book. If I should say so. Should is sometimes used in the sense of ought. She asked if she should write the letter. he would dislike me. we would not come. He said that we should have been at the meeting. I should see the president of the class. If you were I. 8. 21. He should have gone to her aid. 17. Should he come. I feared that they would not come. to express conditional promise or determination on the part of the speaker. 5. 19. It was expected that they would be here. She assured us that she would attend to it. 4. 14. If we should be afraid of the storm. 2. She agreed that it would be right. They would usually stop at the new hotel. You should have seen his face. 3. It was promised that it should not occur again. We should have been at the meeting. Volition or determination: If it should occur. as. 11. She said they would write the letter. We should be ruined if we did that. He should know his duty better than that.
Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently. ---. 6.be done now.not do it. 21. I think I ---. 22. 19.I bring my opera glasses? 14. You ---. They were anxious that we ---. Had Lee known that. under those circumstances. If it ---.they dare to attempt opposition? 27. He ---.come late.storm.have easily deceived her.not miss the train.have voted it down. 17. I ---. he ---. it ---.not accept.you go about it? 28. Mary ---. 16. 29.EXERCISE 49 Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences: 1. He said he ---.have done it. 26. He ---. Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions. 32. 35.never have known it. we ---.like to see the game. 8. 24.like to go at once. 30.often come to class with no books. 7. ---probable not have been elected. I believed that he ---. On what date ---. He said that it ---.have changed our whole history. ---. How ---.go swimming.be drowned if I ---. I ---. 23.not enjoy it.you like to see the game? 13. If that had become known. 31.never have been invited. 5.be much pleased to meet him.like to go.come late.do such a thing. It was feared that they ---. 11.it make any difference? 18.come. and five in which WOULD is used dependently. It ---. and five in which SHOULD is used dependently. If we ---. She ---. EXERCISE 50 Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently. 9. We ---. 3. 12. . We believe that we ---. 4. I fear I ---.have inconvenienced me.that come? 20.you think him capable of such a trick? 25. 15. I knew I ---not be here on time. we ---. we ---. ---. If they had proposed it.never have surrendered. They say it ---. 34. 33. and five in which WOULD is used in questions. I ---never have believed she ---. To think that he ---. 2.not start.surely have been ruined. I suppose I ---.have changed our whole history. but. She thinks they ---. ---. Lincoln.do such a thing! 10. ---.never have come.
69. 10.we hand in the work? 70. seen. with its past tense. 12. That ---. John.John go with me? 11. We ---. refers to the ability or possibility to do a thing.we come into your office? 5.be true. What ---. ---. Several people ---. What ---. and must be used in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT. as. having been seen.stay as long as you wish. May. Generally. CAN AND COULD. having seen.use the same book. could not come. 71. ---. I believe the statement. as. You ---. seeing.I go home? 2. 6. I told OF HIS WINNING the race.not be done in a week? 13.not be relied on. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms. AFTER HIS ASSERTING it. came early. the PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY. HAVING BEEN INVITED TO DINE. When ---. In the following sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: He.we get tickets at that store? 3. . with its past tense. while the participle is always used adjectively. These two words are often confused.often hear the noise. The past participle has already been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb.he do to prevent it? 15. ---. You ---. etc. ---. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS.afford to delay a while. The verb form in all these cases is called a participle. EXERCISE 51 Fill the blanks in the following sentences: 1. 14. 1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the sentence. ---. Can.you finish the work in an hour? 7. is properly used to denote permission.the mountain be climbed? 4. but it ---. ---. having played. could. How ---you say such a thing? 8. 9. BEING SICK. playing. but differs in that. might. the GERUND IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY. being seen.
" It is wrong to say. Right: I spent a week in Virginia. and then a week at Atlantic City. I decided to remain at home. Examine. Owing to confusion between the gerund and the participle. The dish was broken. and to the failure to realize that the gerund can only be used substantively. Compare the following: Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages. Right: He had to rewrite several pages. followed by a week at Atlantic City. 2. The dish was broken as a result of its fall. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition. 3. because resulting does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. thus causing him a great deal of trouble. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence or clause. A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive . and frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. the following examples: Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia. the objective case of a modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund.Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known as the "dangling participle. A participle preceded by thus should not be used unless it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. and was thus caused a great deal of trouble. also. following it by a week at Atlantic City. Right: Having been sick. Right: He had to rewrite several pages. 4. Compare the following: Wrong: Having been sick. RESULTING from its fall. thus experiencing a great deal of trouble. Right: I spent a week in Virginia. But it would be right to say. it was decided to remain at home.
To think of them they their having been seen there! 11. it may be used without grammatical connection to the sentence. Right: In copying the exercise. You should have heard him his telling the story. What is the use of you your reading that? 5. 8. The beauty of . he made a new start. Right: After seeing his mistake. I made a mistake. 6. I heard OF JOHN COMING. as. 13. John John's going to school takes all his evenings. EXERCISE 52 In the following sentences. The idea of his him singing is absurd. 7. He his him being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. Wrong: By writing rapidly. and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. What is the object of Mary Mary's studying French? 12. 10. When a gerund and a preposition are used. a mistake was made. choose the proper form of the substantive from those italicized: 1. He him his selling it was very unexpected. the phrase should be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it modifies. In traveling. 15. Do you remember me my speaking about it? 4. 5.case. Right: By writing rapidly. sold the farm. Exception: When the gerund phrase denotes a general action. Wrong: In copying the exercise. the work can be finished. 3. Say. I heard OF JOHN'S COMING. 9. not. He spoke of John John's coming down. good drinking water is essential. a new start was made. you can finish the work. He him his being now of age. It its being John was a great surprise. You should have heard his him telling of the story. 2. What is the use of them they their talking so much? 14. Compare the following wrong and right forms: Wrong: After seeing his mistake.
we disappointed him. Moving slowly past our window. you try to hold me responsible. By reading aloud to the class. For see and play as model verbs. Intending to go to the theater. No letter was written for more than a week. he told John to stay after class. 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. 17. thus causing him to lose a great deal of valuable time. 16. 8.James James's writing got him the position. 15. EXERCISE 53 Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following sentences. Not having the lesson prepared. 13. . INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word to and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. 6. After telling me the story. 12. In general. He was taken into the firm. John John's coming was a surprise. 11. He had to wait several hours for the train. I left him. other verbs follow the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. causing considerable anxiety. thus showing our interest. the infinitives are as follows: PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE to see to be seen to play to be played PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE to have seen to have been seen to have played to have been played The word to is frequently omitted. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. On hearing that. a new plan was made. 10. Having assented to your plan. 72. 7. He had heard about me my coming to-day. 5. owing to the need of an experienced architect. Expecting us to come. 2. He asked him to make the plans. We listened attentively to his lecture. 9. the whole afternoon was spent in town. 14. they do not gain much. we saw a great load of lumber. thus gaining an increased income. 4. See §107 for rule as to punctuation: 1. correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety.
SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. Right: It was bad to be discovered (same or later time). the PERFECT INFINITIVE should be used. Right: It is bad to have been discovered (earlier time). the PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used. he believed himself to have been defeated for the office (earlier time. Right: I should like to have gone (earlier time). since the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors.) EXERCISE 54 In the following sentences choose the proper form from those italicized: . Right: When he died. Right: I should have liked to go (same or later time). Examine the following examples: Wrong: I should have liked to have gone. 2. Wrong: It was bad to have been discovered. 73. Right: She did not believe her son to have committed the crime(earlier time).It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses. The wrong tense of the infinitive is frequently used. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb. The following rules should be observed: 1. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb.
74. EXERCISE 55 Correct the following split infinitives: 1. 13. He was willing to sing to have sung alone. He proposed to greatly . 8." Compare the following: Bad: He seemed to easily learn. 12. 17. They agreed to finish to have finished it yesterday. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. 18. I was sorry to have heard to hear of John's death. 14. 9. I am eager to have seen to see it. care should be taken to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial modifier between the parts of the infinitive. He expected to have spoken to speak here to-morrow. In the sentence. 15. Blackstone is said to have failed to fail at the practice of law. 21. 10. 6. We were asked to have waited to wait. 5. 7. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. 2. I should have liked to meet to have met you. He was foolish enough to have spoiled to spoil six negatives. I intended to write to have written long ago. Mary was eager to have gone to go. Good: He is said to have run rapidly along the street. 4. 16. Good: He seemed to learn easily. Bad: He is said to have rapidly run along the street. His policy was to never offend. This error is called the "split infinitive. I am pleased to meet to have met you. Should you have been willing to go to have gone with us? 3. It would have been hard to accomplish to have accomplished that result. He wished to in this way gain friends. 6. 5. He wished to have met to meet you. 20. Nero is said to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned. 3. The Civil War is said to cause to have caused more loss of life than any other war. 4. The game was intended to be played to have been played yesterday. I wanted to have attended to attend the convention. 7. Nero was seen to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned. 8. It would be terrible to be lost to have been lost in the forest. 2. 11. 19.1. This was to be done to have been done yesterday. Mary tried to quickly call help. 22. SPLIT INFINITIVES.
5. I saw John. I have heard of his being here. but I have not seen Henry. 75. and really did everything possible to stop his son. Examine the following: Wrong: He has tried to do. The verb . 76. the parts of the predicate should agree in tense. Right: I have hoped and have worked to gain this recognition. 8. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. 2. 10. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world as I. Right: I hoped and worked to gain this recognition. PAST TENSE SHOULD FOLLOW PAST TENSE. 14. 7. Wrong: I hoped and have worked to gain this recognition. 11. in fact. Right: He tried to do. 13. In a compound predicate. 6. 4. 12. but has not wished to see Henry. I have believed and usually taught that theory. and. but have not succeeded.decrease his son's allowance. never saw its equal. He desired to see John. I went last week and have gone again this week. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. We have needed you and did our best to find you. 9. 3. but did not succeed in getting his money. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. I have never seen its superior. but not saw him. AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Right: He has tried to do. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that. EXERCISE 56 Correct the following sentences: 1. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. and really has done everything possible to stop his son. and really did everything possible to stop his son. but has not yet arrived. She has succeeded in getting his promise. John was sent for.
11. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. Bad: He was told to go where he ought not.or some of its parts are often omitted. as you please. 3. 9. do it or not. She may go if she wishes or not. 2. 8. the verb or any other part of speech should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. I am We are2. 12. I did what I ought not. CONJUGATION OF TO BE PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM. 77. I think she is older than John. 7. [*]Thou art (you are) You are3. Good: He was told to go where he ought not to go. EXERCISE 57 Correct the following sentences: 1. We want to see him more than Henry. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. BEEN INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Person Singular Number Plural Number1. I asked him to do what I should not have. We wish him better luck than Mary. 10. 5. Good: He was told to go where he should not go. WAS. This omission sometimes makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. He is They are . I admire Mary more than John. or I like him better than I LIKE John. You may. As a matter of good usage. This sentence may have the meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: I like him better than John DOES. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE. I like him better than John. We think of you oftener than mother. I should hate him worse than you. 6. 4.
He has been They have been PAST PERFECT TENSE (Had with the past participle. Thou shalt be You shall be3. Thou wast or wert You were3.) 1. I was We were2. are used also in the second person singular. you are. and 67.[*]) . thou art. you were. but customarily the forms of the second person plural. I shall be We shall be2.) 1. etc. etc.] PAST TENSE 1.] FUTURE PERFECT TENSE (Shall or will with the perfect infinitive. Thou hadst been You had been3. are the proper forms in the second person singular. see §§ 65.[Footnote *: The forms. In these model conjugations the forms of shall are given with the future and the forms of will with the future perfect. He shall be They shall be [Footnote *: To determine when to use shall and when to use willin the future and future perfect tenses. These distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the model conjugations. thou wast. He was They were PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (Have with the past participle. been.[*]) Person Singular Number Plural Number1. thou hast. be. He had been They had been FUTURE TENSE (Shall or will with the present infinitive. I had been We had been2. have been. been.. Thou hast been You have been3. I have been We have been2. you have.. 66.
] . He will have been They will have been [Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense. Thou wilt have been You will have been3. (If) thou were (If) you were3. (If) he were (If) they were PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (Have. (If) he be (If) they be PAST TENSE 1.[*]) [Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative. lest. been. unchanged. (If) I have been (If) we have been2. (If) he had been (If) they had been FUTURE TENSE (Shall or will. (If) thou had been (If) you had been3. been.1. See §59. although.) Person Singular Number Plural Number1. though. unchanged. I will have been We will have been2. (If) thou have been (If) you have been3. (If) I be (If) we be2. with the past participle. (If) he have been (If) they have been PAST PERFECT TENSE (Had.) 1. unchanged. (If) thou be (If) you be3.] SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (Generally follows if. (If) I had been (If) we had been2. with the past participle.) PRESENT TENSE 1. with present infinitive be. etc. (If) I were (If) we were2.
can. As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode see §§ 68 and 69. or must be PAST TENSE (Might. (If) I shall be (If) we shall be2.1. could. I might. can. canst. or must be2.) 1. would. I may. would. or must be You may. been thought best to use it in these model conjugations. Thou mightst. or wouldst. could. They might. with the present infinitive. or must. could. It has.*) 1. (If) I shall have been (If) we shall have been2. would. (If) thou shall be (If) you shall be3. could. or shouldst be should be3. could. or must be We may. The conjugation with shouldor would is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE. would. however.) Person Singular Number Plural Number1. The conjugation with must (or ought to) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. with the perfect infinitive. unchanged. be. can. or must be They may. (If) he shall have been (If) they shall have been POTENTIAL MODE[*] [Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many authorities on grammar. can. Thou mayst. have been. and the potential forms are regarded as of the indicative mode. couldst. or or should be should . can. with the present infinitive. You might. can. He may. or We might. (If) thou shall have been (If) you shall have been3. could. He might. be. (If) he shall be (If) they shall be FUTURE PERFECT TENSE (Shall or will. or should. would. or should be should be2. or must be3. would.] PRESENT TENSE (May.
have been. can.be PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (May.) IMPERATIVE MODE[*] [Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural. would. SEEN INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple . could. with the perfect infinitive have been. with the perfect infinitive. SAW. or must.] Be INFINITIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE To be To have been PARTICIPLES PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE Being Having been GERUNDS (Same as participles) CONJUGATION OF TO SEE PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE. or should. For forms substitute have been for be in the present potential.) PAST PERFECT TENSE (Might. For forms substitute have been for be in the past potential.
Person Singular Number Plural Number1. I saw We saw2. Thou wast or wert seeing You were . He is being seen They are being seen PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple 1. Thou art being seen You are being seen3. Thou art seen You are seen3. He is seen They are seen Progressive 1. I was seeing We were seeing2. I am seeing We are seeing2. He did see They did see Progressive 1. I am being seen We are being seen2. I am seen We are seen2. Thou didst see You did see3. I do see We do see2. He saw They saw Emphatic Person Singular Number Plural Number1. I see We see2. He is seeing They are seeing PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE Simple 1. Thou seest You see3. Thou art seeing You are seeing3. Thou sawest You saw3. I did see We did see2. Thou dost see You do see3. He sees They see Emphatic 1. He does see They do see Progressive 1.
) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be. I was seen We were seen2.) Progressive (Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect indicative of to be. Thou wert or wast being seen You were being seen3. I was being seen We were being seen2.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be. Thou wast or wert seen You were seen3. He was seeing They were seeing PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE Simple 1.) .seeing3. He was seen They were seen Progressive 1. He was being seen They were being seen PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.) Progressive (Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.
) FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute see for be in the future indicative of to be.) Progressive (Substitute have been seeing for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.) SUBJUNCTIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE .) Progressive (Substitute be seeing for be in the future indicative of to be.) FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute be seen for be in the future indicative of to be.) FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute have seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.) FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute have been seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.
(If) he be seen (If) they be seen PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple 1. (If) he saw (If) they saw Emphatic 1. (If) he see (If) they see Emphatic Person Singular Number Plural Number1. (If) thou saw (If) you saw3. (If) I did see (If) we did see2. (If) he do see (If) they do see Progressive 1. (If) I saw (If) we saw2. (If) thou were seeing (If) you were seeing3. (If) he be seeing (If) they be seeing PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE 1.Simple Person Singular Number Plural Number1. (If) thou be seen (If) you be seen3. (If) thou did see (If) you did see3. (If) I were seeing (If) we were seeing2. (If) thou be seeing (If) you be seeing3. (If) I be seeing (If) we be seeing2. (If) he were seeing (If) they were seeing PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE . (If) I be seen (If) we be seen2. (If) thou see (If) you see3. (If) I see (If) we see2. (If) I do see (If) we do see2. (If) thou do see (If) you do see3. (If) he did see (If) they did see Progressive 1.
) FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute see for be in the future subjunctive of to be. (If) he were seen (If) they were seen PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.) . (If) I were seen (If) we were seen2. (If) thou were seen (If) you were seen3.) Progressive (Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.1.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.) Progressive (Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.
Progressive (Substitute be seeing for be in the future subjunctive of to be.) Progressive (Substitute be seeing for be in the present potential of to be.) FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute be seen for be in the future subjunctive of to be.) POTENTIAL MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute see for be in the present potential of to be.) .) PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute be seen for be in the present potential of to be.) FUTURE PERFECT--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute been seen for the future perfect subjunctive of to be.) FUTURE PERFECT--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute seen for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.) Progressive (Substitute been seeing for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.
) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute have been seen for be in the present potential of to be.) Progressive (Substitute be seeing for be in the past potential of to be.) Progressive (Substitute have been seeing for be in the present potential of to be.) Progressive (Substitute have been seeing for be in the past potential of to be.) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute have seen for be in the present potential of to be.PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute see for be in the past potential of to be.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE .) PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple (Substitute have seen for be in the past potential of to be.) PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute be seen for be in the past potential of to be.
Progressive to be seeing. Emphatic do see. PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE Simple to be seen . Progressive be seeing. PASSIVE VOICE be seen INFINITIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple to see.(Substitute have been seen for be in the past potential of to be.) IMPERATIVE MODE ACTIVE VOICE Simple see.
PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE Simple to have been seen.PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple to have seen.] PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE Simple having seen Progressive . PARTICIPLES PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE seeing PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE being seen PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*] seen [Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice. Progressive to have been seeing.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions. but. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. what. who. when. RELATIVE ADVERBS. where. and. as. etc.. DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs. AND PREPOSITIONS 78. such as. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as . such as. etc. or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses. hence. or by relative pronouns. although. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses. etc. CONJUNCTIONS.having been seeing PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE having been seen GERUNDS PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE seeing PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE being seen PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE having seen PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE having been seen CHAPTER VI CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. and should have the nominative form who. not the case required by any word preceding it.nouns. the sentence. not the object of wonder. pronouns. (Disagreement in number. Right: We know whom we mean. Wrong: Do you know whom it is? Right: Do you know who it is? (Attribute complement. adjectives. Wrong: You may give it to whoever you wish. Give it to WHOMEVER they name. He gave it to WHO had the clearest right. The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces. but a further mention of this fault may well be made here. is right. I wonder WHO will be chosen. is correct. The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. .) Wrong: Everybody who were there were disappointed. is wrong. because whomever is the object of they name.) 79. or adverbs. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29). Right: You may give it to whomever you wish. The sentence. Corrected. I wonder WHOM will be chosen.) Right: Everybody who was there was disappointed. Examine the following sentences: Wrong: We know who we mean. (See §7. because the relative here is the subject of will be chosen. Thus. because who is the subject of the verb had. and therefore in the nominative case. it reads.
16. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. I saw who whom was there. He was chosen one of the four speakers who was were to speak on Commencement Day. Who are you looking for? NOTE. Whom who was called "The Rail Splitter?" 14. 18. Give it to whoever whomever you please. He is one of those fellows who are is always joking. 13. It was for whomever whoever was present. 80. Who whom did you see? 6. 21. When. I am the one of the three men who is am are guilty. Who whom do you wish to see? 2. Ask whomever whoever is nearest the door. Do you not know whom who it was? 15. Say. Care must be taken. 10. Everyone else who was were there was were lost. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. to use the proper case. it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form. 7. One of the books which was were brought was one hundred years old. That is one of the birds that is are very rare. Only one of the men who were was on board survived. Some writers justify the use of who in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom.Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. Give it to one of the men who whom is found there. John did not know whom who to ask. 23. 11. None of those who were was wanted was were there. The one of those who were was wanted was not there. To who whom did you give it? 25. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. the object is training in grammar. Why did he not ask whomever whoever was there? 8. 24. Whom are you looking for? not. Who whom was it you saw? 5. I am not among those who whom were was there. 20. Who whom can tell the difference? 9. 12. 3. 22. EXERCISE 58 In the following sentences. choose the proper forms from those italicized: 1. It is better to use a . then. 19. 17. It was one of the books which were was being sought by the librarian. 26. as in this book. 4. You will please write out the name of whoever whomever you want.
the conjunctive adverbs. and then fell asleep. Bad: I'll be down next week. 3. and also I shall bring Jack along. 82. so they indicate lack of application. Good: I'll be down next week. 5. Do not use a WHEN or a WHERE CLAUSE in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun. Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars. I was sick . Compare the following: Bad: He was turning the corner. he suddenly saw a car approaching. Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. 81. and also.WHENCLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence. 4. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. Bad: He read for a while. 2. then fell asleep. I shall work until nine o'clock. Bad: When the news of the fire came. Good: He read for a while. Good: When he was turning the corner. Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course. So. Bad: The boys' grades are low. Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. then I shall retire. also I shall bring Jack along. Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning. Good: The boys' grades are low. it was still in the early morning. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. I am studying German. EXERCISE 59 Correct the following sentences: 1. also French. to state the time of an event. and so indicate lack of application. when suddenly he saw a car approaching. should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless and or but be used in addition to the adverb. then.
Death is when one ceases to live. so I shall have to cease work. when the equality is denied. CONJUNCTIONS. He is NOT SO old AS I. FOR it was along the line of his ambition. It was a new book WHICH (not and which) interested him very much. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: He likes geometry. AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause. She is brighter than HE (is bright). or It was a new valise. It was a new valise AND differing much from his old one. 9. AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. 7. After not do not use as when asis an adverb. and differed very much from his old one. BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. The correct form is. This "and which" construction is a frequent error. He loves good music. 11. FOR the book interested him. so should be used in its place. BUT studies it hard. BUT fails in algebra. 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. As is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted. the error will be apparent. He told half of the story. the second as is a conjunction. . also good pictures. and then never with the first one. and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. so I couldn't come to the office. Dinner is ready. He is AS old AS I. but the denial should be. Say instead. The sentence would then read. He read all night. and which should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause. is correct. but. Similarly. It was a new valise. 8. Similarly. differing much from his old one.all day. I am as large as he (is large). then he suddenly stopped. The first as is an adverb. THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: I am as large AS HIM. 10. He is taller than I (am tall). I am as large as HIM (is large). A restaurant is where meals are served. He is AS tall AS I. If it is supplied. as. 83. There are certain conjunctions. The verb in these sentences is omitted.
Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. you cannot pass. except. 3. 6. but did not come back. Good: Neither would he offer reparation nor would he apologize. but stayed all night. 5. Wrong: This she would not do except (unless) we promised to pay at once. Wrong: I acted just like (as) all the others (did). 4. should be followed by OR. 85. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. like. EITHER. I read as much as him. EXERCISE 60 Correct the following sentences: 1. we harnessed the horses. We are better players than them. when used as a conjunction. not only--but also. Bad: He would offer neither reparation nor would he apologize. Good: He would offer neither reparation nor apology. Bad: He not only brought a book. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. 84. The prepositions without. Wrong: Directly (as soon as) he came. should be followed by NOR. and the adverb directlyshould not be used as conjunctions. Mary is as old as her. He . Neither should never be followed by or. as. when used as a conjunction. but also a pencil. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech.NEITHER. 2. such as neither--nor. Wrong: Without (unless) you attend to class-room work. The correlatives. should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. He walked to the next town. Good: He brought not only a book but also a pencil. either--or.
16. 12. 18. nor did he care for athletics. like. 20. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. Neither she nor I was present. 13. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each: agree with a person differ from (person or thing) agree to a proposition differ from or with an opinion bestow upon different fromcompare with (to determine value) glad ofcompare to (because of similarity) need ofcomply with part from (a person) confide in (to trust in) part with (a thing) confide to (to intrust to) profit byconfer on (to give) prohibit fromconfer with (to talk with) reconcile to (a person) convenient to (a place) reconcile with (a statement) convenient for (a purpose) scared bydependent on think of or about Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. 7. 10. than. for he is very interesting. 11. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. PREPOSITIONS. so--as. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. 14. They work harder than us. I admire Mary more than she. neither--nor. The men neither interested him nor the places. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. 86. as--as. 25.became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. This cannot be done except you are a senior. except. 15. not only--but also. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be . There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining. for he has traveled so much. EXERCISE 61 Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used: When. Directly he came we launched the canoes. He has traveled more than me. He took an interest neither in studies. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. 17. 24. 21. 8. 22. John is not as tall as you. either--or. where. Neither John or James is as tall as you. 19. We like him very much. 23. He dresses just like I do. 9. directly. without.
Illustrate an adverbial clause. AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR SENTENCES. and compound sentences. PARTS OF SPEECH. Bad: He is a dealer and shipper of coal. An adjective phrase. EXERCISE 62 Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of §86. Good: He is a dealer in and shipper of coal. sh. ch. figures. NOUNS. An adjective clause. Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of §86. x. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. complex. What is an object complement? Illustrate.omitted: continue on down until covered over inside ofoff of outside ofstarted out where to? wish for to come remember ofmore than you think for Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence. etc. What are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. or z? In y? In f or fe? In o? Of letters. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s or in an s sound? Of a compound .
the superlative? Illustrate each. Neuter. What pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after everybody? After some one? After some people? After two nouns connected by or? By nor? By and? What are relative pronouns? Name them. Paris is larger than any city? Reason? Paris is larger than all cities? Reason? Paris is the largest of any other city? Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by every? By two? By various? By each? With how many objects may either be used? Neither? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant by a double negative? Illustrate. and when but what? May them be used adjectively? May which be used with a clause as an antecedent? May which and that. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. May one say. or who and that be used in the same sentence with the same antecedent? ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. He is the largest of the two? Reason? He is the larger of the three?Reason? He is the largest of all? Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. Feminine. What is its effect? What is the definite article? . the comparative. What is comparison? What is the positive degree. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person.noun or of a group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the difference between common and proper nouns? PRONOUNS. Illustrate. With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. May one say. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? May thou and you be used in the same sentence? When should but that be used.
Should a when clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? May so.VERBS. in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense? CONNECTIVES. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of be differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with don't. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate. then. and that? What form of the verb is used after you? After they? When are shalland should used with I and we? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. see. or also be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May and or but be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow than or as? Should neitherbe followed by nor or or? . can't. which. write. come. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use of sit and set.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural verb after who. Of lay and lie. Of rise and raise. expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of may and might from can and could. drink. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Illustrate. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. etc. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. begin. go. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs. What form is used in dependent clauses introduced by that.
) 27.) 14. (68. This is John's book. (63-5.) 35. (83. (67.) 31. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. for . (34-4. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) 4. Neither of the three is well. (45. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (29. He only spoke of history. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) 19. Seeing his mistake. The members of Congress watch each other.) 17.) 39. He is determined that he shall go away. The barrel bursted from the pressure. The boys.) 43. (13. (43. (38. Mary asked her mother to wash her face.) 11.) 38.) 25. I am believed to be him. (42. The play progressed smooth until the last act. in parenthesis.) 33.) 24. (29. Mary was eager to have gone.) 15. I feared that they should not come. (71. (40.) 30. He is six foot tall. (68. (22. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. Mother's and father's death. Some one has forgotten their umbrella.) 40.) 37. (29.) 5.) 8. She showed the dish to Mary and I. Neither John nor James brought their books. (73. If you were I.) 20. This is the lesser of the two evils. (20. (73. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.) 13. (54. He sings very illy.) 21. not of art. (15-4.) 7. We would like to go.) 2. (48. She is very discontented.) 29.A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR EXERCISE 63 Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. I was not urged further by him.) 3. as well as their teacher. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep for them to work. (38. Who did the man say he was? (29. (68. is to be praised. I am believed to be he. Shall my work soon begin? (66. (54.) 34. He deserved the place.) 36. Will the dog bite? (66.) 6. (41-3.) 22. Can I use your pencil? (69. I fear that I will take cold. (64-1.) 23. is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question involved: 1.) 44.) 10. what would you do? (68. (44. (67. (71.) 9. (46.) 18. (67.) 42. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. It is an error and which can't be corrected. After each sentence.) 32. (40. I am eager to have seen it. He said he should come if he could. (22. His clothes look prettily.) 41.) 28.) 12.) 16. I think it shall rain soon.) 26.
It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. I was told to set here. he has not shown it.) . Horne's and Company's Store. (64-5.) 74. Either Adams or Monroe were president.) 85. It weighs several ton.) 45. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (41-4. (29. (54. (67. (15-4.) 61. Goliath was slew by David. (15-4.) 66. I can't hardly see to write. He eat all there was on the table. (26. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (32. I not only told him. An axe is the tool which they use. (47.) 52. Death is when one ceases to live. Myself and mother are sick.) 68.) 91. (46.) 65.) 98. The horse which we drove.) 53.) 49.) 75. John is one of the people who comes each night. (30. It is a queer kind of a book. if not better than she.) 90. (34-4. and it was made of tin. He sent a chest of tea. (15-4.) 72. He sent his son abroad. You had ought to go home. If anybody creates a disturbance.) 77. will you vote for him? (32.) 60. (54.) 70. Washington.) 88. He laid on the couch all day. (15. (15-5. You may give it to whoever you wish.) 63. The pump was froze fast. (84. (21. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. This is the man who wants the ticket. Awake me early in the morning. (54. (30. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (57.) 96. If he be honest. John's and William's dog. (42. (13-12. It is him. 34-5.) 83. (63-4.) 64.) 46. (42. (71. (83.) 55.) 97. I don't like those kind of people.) 48.) 67.) 82.) 95. John's employer's wife's friend.he is well educated. for he has been through Oxford University. The paper was addressed to John and herself. John is not as bright as Henry. Neither they nor Mary was there. (26.) 76. Everybody's else mail has came.) 84. (47.) 47. The murderer was hung at noon. (57. (81.) 73. but also Morton.) 71. (26.) 79. (40. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper.) 62. being anxious for his health. Choose who you please. (47.) 89.) 94. (29. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1. Germany and France's ships. and the horse which you had last week are the same. (15-6. (54. (31.) 59. (54.) 80.) 58. the general and the president.) 50. I sat my chair by the window. (41-3. He did it hisself. It don't make any difference about that. (54. Wagner was never too rattled to play.) 56. (57. (60. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (26. I sat myself down to rest.) 93. (34-6. Whoever is nominated.) 87. I do not question but what he is right.) 51. (22. (57.) 54. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (83.) 78. was born on February 22d. (34-6.) 81.) 92. have the police put them out. (57. 54. John is as good. I think I will find the work easy.) 86.) 69.) 57. (48. (64-4.
except we pay his expenses.) 119. (13. (38. (63-3.) 134. (57.) 132. He awoke at nine.) 147.) 110. (83. no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. . (34-2.) 116.) 142. If it rains.) 150. (79. (62. (57.) 102. were wrong. (64-4. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones.) 120.) 114. (60. We started out for the city at noon. When was you there? (64-2.) 127. He has fell from his chair. (63-1. (41-3.) 138. (13-13. (62. (34-3.) 113. Without the safety catch is raised. Neither German or French is taught there. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (29.) 105. American and English grammar is alike. He is as tall as me.) 126. The ship. (29. I wish I was a bird. (38. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (57. I will raise and go to my father. (34-8.) 106.) 148.) 152. I stay at school. (79. Such things make him terrible nervous. I wish you were more like she. and not his parents. The family is all at home. 54. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. I like her better than you. (41-3.) 130. (34-9. which kept me awake. (57. The army were defeated. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. This train runs slow. (60. If I was you.) 103. (63-2. Who do you want? (79. destroyed them all. (75. They make pottery in Trenton. He is the only one of the members who pay dues.99. (80. Was it necessary. (21. (76. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29. were lost. the gun can't be discharged. (46. (64-1. (62.) 144. Let him lay there. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. The horse run the mile in two minutes. The knife has laid there all day.) 136.) 115. He won't come. (57.) 135. (85. Which is the best of the two? (41-1. (57.) 123. The Indians.) 124. (29.) 112.) 133.) 141.) 107. The boy.) 104.) 137. (60.) 125.) 108. The jury has agreed. 40. with all its passengers. The production of oranges were encouraged.) 129. (76.) 100. (64-3.) 131.) 111.) 146.) 101. Neither John nor her will come. We have needed you and did our best to find you. She may go if she wishes or not. William and Mary has to go to the city.) 143. (20. (54. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. The noise of the street was very loud. By law. (75. I should jump? (60.) 151. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (85.) 109.) 117. with her frost. Iron is more useful than all metals. Winter.) 149. (34-8. I should go at once. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (83. (57.) 139.) 145. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college.) 121.) 122.) 128. You hear such statements everywheres. The price of meat has raised.) 118.) 140. they hid behind trees.
Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. as.) CHAPTER VII SENTENCES 87. if there is a succession . feeling his weakness. sentences are too long. as well as after government. 90. he had nearly restored parliamentary government.) 154. Frequently. and tried to win back popular favorby concession after concession. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (34-3. Napoleon felt his weakness. Jones is a gentleman. SENTENCE LENGTH.) 153. but often contrasted in meaning. involved and hard to follow. the untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. since periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought. and concession. but. 89. favor. The PERIODIC SENTENCE holds the complete thought in suspense until the close of the sentence. On the other hand. and balanced. and trying to win back popular favor by concession after concession. nearly restored parliamentary government. The BALANCED SENTENCE is made up of parts similar in form. The LOOSE SENTENCE is so constructed that it may be closed at two or more places and yet make complete sense. Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use. (86. The king. As to the length of the sentence there is no fixed rule. had. at his fall.(86. He is a man. at his fall. Classified as to their rhetorical construction. he said they should kill him. weakness. as. until. 88. and are. periodic. in their thought. sentences are considered as loose. Compare the following periodic sentence with the loose sentence under §87: Napoleon.
At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower class fear a revolution. They visited the town where their father had lived. 2. The members of the council were appointed by the king. periodic sentences may not be clear. 6. His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in the . and while there. because they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government. A society and institutions that had been growing up for years was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution.of short sentences. One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their meaning and accurate in their construction. 3. 8. periodic. and that class turned to Napoleon. He draws and sketches with tolerable skill. Galileo was summoned to Rome. or balanced. 5. and five balanced sentences. Loose sentences may be clear. or search out in your reading. Change all loose sentences to the periodic form: 1. and held office only at his pleasure. imprisoned. five periodic sentences. He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting and continuing the ascent on foot. determine whether each sentence is loose. EXERCISE 64 Compose. 9. procured the key to the house in which he had been born. but paints abominably. 4. five loose sentences. 7. choppiness and roughness are the result. EXERCISE 65 In the following sentences. and forced publicly to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun.
10. 12. but advanced little intellectually. in such communities the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate business. and that he had said would take longer this time. In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford space in their vaults for valuables. EXERCISE 66 Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well constructed long sentence: 1. and a far harder one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states. 2. because he had started on a trip that usually took ten days. 13. Germany is moving in the same direction. pains. after all. He read much. 16. Especially.family. for all the facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment in his mind. History should be a part of the course in all schools. although the reformers find it a hard task to influence public opinion. It develops the memory. It . they cannot afford it merely to accommodate their patrons. with all its troubles. Is this thing we call life. but many would gladly see him overthrown merely as an example. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries of age. holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy. Hence. worth living? 14. It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon first became very prominent by defending the convention against a mob. and woes. 15. 11. Few men dislike him. His coming home was very unexpected.
They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. More likely. 9. 4. Its great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw the election either way. He never desired a higher education. Peters limped slightly. Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving point. and to talk in a peculiar style. The castle was now being transformed into a national museum. This forest is formidable and complicated. He was moving about shaking hands right and left. This point is called the present. to doubt the truth of numbers. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner. until one knows to which party New York will fall. Otherwise. 8. 6. They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or clothing. It divides the past from the future. Therefore. However. in time. The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. It causes one. Our forefathers were devout. 5. This was possible because of the money bequeathed to him by his father. 10. They passed the old castle. He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. It gives culture as no other study can give it. Yet they gloried in their liberty. It had left him no need for a great earning capacity. he cannot tell how the election will result. it was because of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind. The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest of statistics. They were easily shocked in many ways. he looked well and happy. This was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. 3. 7. they permitted many liberties in the application of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays be strongly disapproved or resented. It was almost unrecognizable. .broadens the intellectual view.
15. He was determined to get to his home. and Euphony.11. The pleasantest month is June. He courted almost certain death. Coherence. It has flowers. Unity . 13. He converses earnestly with the staff officer. The man looked at the ladder. The car was about to leave the terminal. It has mild weather. The commander again looks toward the hills. The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the wheel. The hill is on the east. At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. There he was out of reach. Something seems to excite his apprehension. His face was already scorched by the fire. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess. 17. and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Smith was financially embarrassed. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang onto the railing. He looks for a long time. The most important political question has been the tariff question. These things seem to flood one's soul with peace and contentment. are those of Unity. He had by this time reached the base of the fountain. UNITY. 91. This has been most important for ten years. Then the two look more than once toward a poplar tree. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general thought. It is important because it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts. He believed he could reach it. They rushed at him with a yell. Emphasis. There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. 16. He balanced himself by touching the brackets which held the lamps. 12. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only its top half shows. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. It is still rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. 14. aside from correctness.
Bad: The house sat well back from the road. he has a fine library. Good: I do not think that is an easy problem. I think. Avoid long straggling sentences. Bad: Jones lives in the country. though it has but twelve hundred people) that has no school-house. Good: The house sat well back from the road. I am told. He has a fine library. and . and its owner was a married man. Bad: That is not an easy problem. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. at least so I am told.demands. a. Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the team. a. Its owner was a married man. Good: I am told that he could not under any circumstances be elected mayor again. but. I think. is not an easy problem. that is. 2. 1. Avoid the "comma blunder". Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. b. Good: He could not. that closely related thoughts should not be improperly scattered among several sentences. also. the management excluded almost all. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should not be embodied in one sentence. b. Good: That. Good: Jones lives in the country. just before the last game. be elected mayor again under any circumstances. Good: Jones lives in the country and has a fine library. or should be connected by a conjunction. Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances. Bad: This is a city (it is called a city. do not use a comma to divide into clauses what should be separate sentences.
Do not change the point of view. Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running through it. and lost most of their interest. 3. 4. Good: The town has two railroads running through it. Also. Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher. Bad: The stage took us to the foot of the hill. Bad: Edward came. with the exception of John. so that the students were reluctant to support the team. three trolley lines. but John never appeared. in the second it is themes. a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the institution. where we were met by our friends. Good: This fact was true of all of us. and they were handed in to the teacher. Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. With the exception of John. and this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust. Good: Edward came. for its diploma admits to all colleges. and also three trolley lines. and we walked from there to the top. (In the first part of the sentence. Its diploma admits to all colleges.) Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher. Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is a good school. where our friends met us.only a few who had influence were allowed to enter. EXERCISE 67 . the subject is we. Bad: We completed our themes. Good: That it is a good school is not without proof. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are closely and logically connected with one another. and wewalked from there to the top. Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. But John never appeared. Good: We were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage. Bad: This fact was true of all of us.
12. we seized our grips and started on a trip which was so long and eventful. I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school and high school. But. besides there are a number of steel mills. and so. I felt little inconvenience afterwards. . In the East the people are conservative. and though the first ride made me stiff. though I am not sure) and then taught for three years. One may reach Boston in two ways. While Smith is thoroughly dishonest. 9. And it is hard to understand why he didn't succeed. in the West. 8. My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons. and gave us an experience that was very valuable in our work. which we took up on our return in the fall. and I also worked on the farm in the summer. 3. Women (and Christian American women. The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago. but as enjoyable as any two months we had ever spent. John had plenty of energy and ambition. so she says. 4. when our checks came. The town has a fine public library. 11. 7. and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars. too) frequently try to evade the customs laws. He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard. Jones is a man to be respected. Of the firm Jones & Smith. they are radical and progressive. 10. it is very good. 2. 5. This is one of Hugo's novels. 6. Either by water or by rail.Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles of unity: 1. I frequently had ridden on a bicycle.
but we did not care to stay on account of the weather. which was in the back of the house. The country people were the chief patrons of the store. He was the man that I had mentioned. I haven't any fear. He was a very big and very strong man. if it is at all possible. Every year they sell three hundred sets. And. which was a collie. to sleep. 20. . 17. 23. he should have made a great football player. would go when he was told and sit on it. West helps to write the letters. 25. I don't think. Washington was president of the United States. and because it was an out-of-the-way place. 18. He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully many) who never do what they promise. The box sat under a tree. He accomplishes everything he undertakes. I can't go. 21. and never gossips. But Hamilton guided its financial policy. but the dog never lost patience. and the dog. and the service was fine. 24. and Mr. and no one could call him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing so. The food was good. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies in English. 15. who had been recommended for the position. 19. 22. 16. hence he is an agreeable companion. which was rainy most of the time. He then went to his room. and his books were found there the next day. He will surely be elected.13. 14. Although no small amount of trade came from the town. He converses intelligently and pleasantly.
and was ninety years old. 30. and it was discovered that they were going in the wrong direction. there you have it all. 27. and so many long treasured questions to ask. and in the afternoon we drove all over the valley. 28. I had not previously thought of going to college. They stopped and asked us the road to Milton. of which I had a great number. and all my time (at least most of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues. but neither of us grew tired. 36.26. 29. and finally a college was selected which seemed to suit me. because there were so many things to converse about. Each past twenty-five years of age. these. He died of smallpox. it may perhaps be. and we were camping twenty miles north. So that we could tease him very little without making him angry. and John left in the evening. so I went there in the fall to study chemistry. There were twenty boys in the class. 35. 31. as Milton lay south of Williamsport. He was very sensitive. There are a great number of stations along this short line of railroad. Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give us a room and board. do little business. He has been proved a gambler. He is in every way honorable. and the next day John came to spend a few hours with me. 33. and then I went to bed. however. at least so far as money matters are concerned. . That day my cousin went home. He will most likely be suspended. 32. but now I was enthusiastic on the matter. 34. and many of which I knew by heart from having gone over them so often.
. And pleased everybody with his performances. Right: He was greatly troubled because several of his dogs hadthe mange. Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled because they had the mange. He gave me this book which you see. I am reading a book. it is very interesting. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. The magician was present. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. 1. 42. Because he liked music. They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps. John was considered an odd fellow. 39.37. then he closed the book to think it over. 40. and I have been able to get a vast amount of information out of it. He read his lesson carefully. 43. 44. Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange. 41. It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. He is the most peculiar person I ever met--in the last few years at least. COHERENCE. 38. When he was in school. and his father was dead. 2. 92.
containing over fifteen hundred pieces. Right: The dog. it would be hard to explain." By this term is meant the placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. had been inlaid by his father. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word which it modifies. Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a book made in the mission style. Avoid the "squinting construction. Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission style. which has since died. Wrong: It would be hard to explain.Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front foot which has since died. b. Right: He was sitting in a chair made in the mission style and was reading a book. Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his father. Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been inlaid by his father. Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was. 3. . if you were to ask me. containing over fifteen hundred pieces. a. Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died. Right: The table. what the trouble was. was bitten on the front foot. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable.
5. Prohibitionists. and never will be successful. Socialists. Good: I decided to do the work that night and to write it out on the typewriter. Express similar thoughts. Democrats. Wrong: It is no concern to him. Wrong: He not only received money from his father. Wrong: The man never has. Use a summarizing word. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their office.4. etc.. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. Right: He received money not only from his father. in a similar manner. to collect the parts of a long complex sentence. in general. when connected in the same sentence. 6. and never will be successful. but alsoreceived it from his mother. . Bad: I decided on doing the work that night. both--and. Republicans. Wrong: He neither brought a trunk nor a suit-case. are frequently not placed next to the expressions they are meant to connect. Neither--nor. Right: The man never has been. Right: He brought neither a trunk nor a suit-case. 7. and to write it out on the typewriter. Right: It is of no concern to him. See §84. Right: He not only received money from his father. but alsofrom his mother. and Populists--all were there. but alsohis mother.
for onealways increases his trouble by doing so. The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load. and that you pass an examination. large and small. to call. 6. 3.Bad: Textbooks are going out of use in the modern law schools. Good: Textbooks are going out of use in the modern law schools. He is home. they are still used in some of them. but some schools still use them. 4. 8. old and young. I only knew John. 9. John told his father that his coat was too tight for him. feeling playful. 7. I laid aside my paper. Bad: One should never try to avoid work in school. Good: One should never try to avoid work in school. 10. When the dog came on the porch. The statute requires that one study three years. Tell the doctor. EXERCISE 68 Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the following sentences: 1. Good: Though textbooks are going out of use in modern law schools. He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary. Good: One usually only increases his troubles by trying to avoid work in school. 5. Rich and poor. good and bad. 2. if he comes before seven. for you always increase your trouble by doing so. . but in some they are still used. Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state. were in the assemblage.
26.11. The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up. It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature. 23. Mrs. 24. 22. 17. In taking the census innumerable errors are made. 14. and he was not entirely to blame for it. 20. 19. Smith wants washing. It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected. 15. The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was that he used the wrong book. Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the professor. They are required to report both on their way to work and coming home. He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman. 27. The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire. 16. Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of . They said they saw them coming before they saw them. 18. You made the same mistake that you now make last week. A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear. John was not punished because of his ill health. 12. I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors. 21. thus making the result unreliable. 25. A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away from home as a result of a druggist's mistake. 13.
He has to stop for rest. 29. wants a picture of her children painted very badly. 31. 41. We tried to study. clothes. and you mail it back to the printer. 32. He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the farm. 33. 42. a watchman is on duty every night. in this way limiting what can be done. Taking all precautions. They knew all that was to be learned. laundry. I do not care either to see you or Henry. One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce. 40. and horses are forbidden to trot over them. We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara Falls and Canada. which I did. The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them. Mrs. and amusements. The bicycle was easy to learn to ride. including John. 37. Mathematics is not only necessary. 39. and to avoid getting too far ahead. 35. 30.composition was taken up. 34. Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges. . X. John told Henry that he thought he needed help. but didn't do any. but also languages. room. After having read the proof. 43. Board. it is rolled up. are higher there than here. 28. 38. 36.
she would be called. Being out of work. I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front door step. 51. Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched. EMPHASIS. 93. He came leading his dog on a bicycle. Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually. Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet. He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his business card. He built a house for his wife with seven windows. 54. 61. 52. and in the end failed. 46. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged . 53. if she were needed. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful manner. 47. When wanted he sent me a letter. The child the parent often rebuked. 60. 50. Mary told her mother. Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us. 55. Mrs. 58. 56. 59. I started to school. 45. He tried to study unsuccessfully.44. He bought a horse when ten years old. 49. and as I did not wish to loaf. Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty. 57. 48. He neither told John nor his father. I knew him as a physician when a boy.
did nothing right. all living things were destroyed. have the most important come last. who. Changed: From a thick tree not far back of our camp a lonely owl shrieked. EXERCISE 69 . cats. Good: He is universally praised. dogs. Smith bids me say that he regrets that a slight indisposition in health precludes his granting himself the pleasure of accepting your invitation to come to your house to dine. and not a thing could be seen. horses. Bad: Mr.that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the minor details subordinated. Good: Mr. Bad: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable. horses. Good: He was a student. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in emphasis. Good: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable. Where it is suitable.. arrange words and clauses so as to produce a climax. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. i. Smith bids me say that he regrets that sickness prevents his accepting your invitation to dine. all living things were destroyed. dogs. Bad: He was a student who did nothing right as a rule. 1. as a rule. Bad: Human beings. Good: Cats. e. 4. human beings. 2. Bad: He is universally praised by all people. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick tree not far back of our camp. 3.
Railway companies. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night. and men were slain without pity. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money. 5. Books were his constant companions. Few were superior to him as a sculptor. although some have not. 12. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness. which falls upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view. . it would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom.Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles of emphasis: 1. was killed by being run over. The field was so wet that we could not play on it. Will you please start up the machine. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since. 6. 8. and even hack lines were affected by the change. rock. and he was with them always. 11. cable companies. 10. 13. 7. except occasionally. if I can. He tried to do right so far as we know. Most of the students have done good work. gaunt mass of stones. 3. All his friends were collected together. women. 2. That great. 9. 4. is known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain. and earth. 14. without stopping at all. 15. Children. trolley companies.
She worries about what to wear wherever she goes. 3. Those are our books. else it would not have served so well. . 94. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. 5. 6. 2.16. error was made. EUPHONY. Most of the time he does the most he can. 4. 1. In the problems. Every time there was a chance for error. The well must have been well made." 8. Bad: He commanded his son to obey his commands. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said. Bad: They went for a walk in order to talk. Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. 2. 3. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else. 7. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound. EXERCISE 70 Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony: 1. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can be capable of such work. "Truth is stranger than fiction. he solved one once.
) 6. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (92-5. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues. and receipts. and tried to move it by all of them pushing. Mars may be readily seen in the evenings. and have failed. papers. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water.9. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book. just above the horizon. (92-6.) 4. 13. In the East.) 2. Books. I tried to learn to write plainly. Not only should we go to church. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise. In parentheses after each sentence is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set forth: 1. One is sure to become dull in mind.) 7. it may be. (91-1. He is sick as a result of the picnic.) 10. if you fail to exercise. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. checks. 11. and it tells the story of a young Russian couple. He acted very sillily. (93-1.) 3. were burned. (92-2.) 8. 10.) 9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium. but also prayer-meeting. money.) 5. A GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES Revise the following sentences. 12. (93-1. records. (94-2. (92-7. EXERCISE 71.) . and ill in health. (92-4. (91-2. In his letters there is something fine in every line.
(91-3-a. (91-3. (92-3-b. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (93-1. and started on a career of crime again. (91-1-a.) 20. now four years only are to be spent in college. (92-7. if not elevating. .) 13. No criticism was made of the object. (92-5.) 24. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation. Instead of six. There one can see miles and miles.) 16. but he didn't think of criticizing that. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (94-3. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining. (92-3-b. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the rule) fail to notice the misery about them.) 19.) 15. He threw the stone at the window. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment.) 12. For there are no mountains. By the judge's mistake. since his own parents were of the German peasantry. he was made a free man. (94-1. (92-3-b.) 22. (91-4. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine.) 14. He arose suddenly upsetting the table.) 18. she never failed in her duties for more than five years.11.) 25. Bridget was a faithful servant. And then he ran. John the lion killed. (94-1. (91-1-b.) 26. She was of ordinary family. you will have little trouble in pronunciation. but of the means.) 17.) 21.) 23. (92-2.
Paris. (92-2). and the hotels are on Market Street. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. (93-1. (92-2. Not only is the book interesting. John. (91-3.) 34. 96. the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when used .) 27. he will not mention to any one his faults. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. French. we had supper. Main Street is very long. but it is instructive also.(92-3-a. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. (92-4. Two of the company were killed in the battle. Parisian.) 28. Capitalize. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns. I secured a horse and went for a ride.) 31. etc.) 33. Different from most persons. but delighted. (91-1. (91-3. May not only he be satisfied with the result.) CHAPTER VIII CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION 95. For a storm soon came upon us. 29.) 35. But we did not get very far. and after my return. The others escaped without a scratch. France. (91-4. also.) 32. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost.) 30. (92-2.
the postmaster of Kelley Cross Roads. and of every complete sentence that is quoted. common nouns in phrases used as proper nouns. my Uncle John. except the last. 97. etc. The Trail of the Lonesome Pine. East.separately. of every line of poetry." 99. Capitalize the first word of every sentence. mother. but simply to make the meaning clearer. Capitalize the names. The Discovery of America. never punctuate where no punctuation is . words used to name the Deity. Capitalize the important words in titles of books. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION 101. nobly planned. when used with proper names of persons. the Postmaster General. Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads. Bishop Anselm. Madison Square. and the words I and O. Professor Morton. along the river. EXERCISE 72 Secure five examples under each of the above rules. if Uncle writes. 98. along the Hudson River. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake. The Master of Ballantrae. if my uncle writes. Capitalize also. Capitalize the words. father. South. He said. Father John. but not oh unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. Bible and Scriptures. my uncle. 100. and West. North. Uncle Sam.. when referring to parts of the country. or when used without a possessive pronoun to refer to some definite person. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately. the words. "Is it I whom you seek?" He said she was a "perfect woman.
Alas! It is too late.needed. Do not. smoked. He talked and smoked and read. The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: The Period (. and Fridays. The Interrogation Point (?) 103. precede the series by a comma. Thursdays.) 102. Fire if you dare! The Comma (. and read. He talked. Tuesdays. unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not interrogative nor exclamatory. (2) after every abbreviation. and (3) after Yes and No when used alone. The Exclamation Point (!) 104. and blue flag. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. however. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence or expression.) 105. Ours is a red. Use the interrogation point after every direct question. Wrong: He lectures on. white. .
Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. An old colored man. upright man. use the dash or parenthesis. Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. Muncy. An honest. did you see Mary? After having done this. he will do it. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed out of its natural order. and participial phrases. 108. By the way. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that are thrown into the sentence. is not spelled the same as Muncie. come here.Right: He lectures on Tuesdays. Note 1). Thursdays. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or phrases. To most people. . and Fridays. 106. Pennsylvania. Morton. A soiled red dress. 110. 109. Indiana. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same noun. John. If the break is very marked. thus taking a decisive step. the principal of the school. 107. He was told to see Dr. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see §29. this will seem absurd. but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the noun. or a geographical name that limits a preceding name. If it is possible.
113. unless such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence. He did not stop. (See §§ 25 and 26. and William the umbrella. who has been working in the bank. He can sing well. I the hat box. Use the comma to set off short.) Mr. 114. informal quotations. 111. cannot be done without permission from the police. though. Gardner. even if you have made a mistake in the work. though I called repeatedly. were injured. and I do not like to urge him. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses. But: The Mr. . 112. Two men. 115. unless the connection be close. if you will permit me to explain. He. when. He doesn't wish to sing. sang at the church. Your solution is right in method. Gardner whom you know is his brother. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence when those members are short and closely connected in their thought. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses introduced by such words as if. Chase and Arnold. but he seldom will sing in public. Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that are united by a simple conjunction. but not to set off restrictive clauses.That. But: You are wrong when you say that. John carried the suit-case. said it. himself.
) 118. "Good morning". such as. This sentence. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions." 116. but. can be improved by changing the order.. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by a conjunction. however. not boys who simply come to school. for example. we admire the man that succeeds. so to speak. Cæsar had his Brutus. Such a man. The Semicolon (. 117. we cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. Charles the First.William said. . Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation. when some of those parts are punctuated by commas. I have told you of the theft. then.. 120. or whenever something clearly is omitted. then he shall probably return to college. We want students. his Cromwell. also. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases. for example. however. but I have yet to tell you of the reason for it. But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend. "Hello. only when it is desirable to indicate a very definite pause. can seldom be found. . as honest men." was Henry's greeting. As men. He says that he shall teach for two more years. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex sentence. etc. 119. but.
and wine. that is. and legal subject matter.. consideration. or after a word. it is too cold. when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions. before an enumeration. and dinners. the Republican. thus. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter.. accordingly. and wine. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. namely. and dinners. (See §161. agreement.Wrong: He spends his money for theatres. the Prohibition. 122. such as. etc. besides. however. as. I am mailing it to you to-day. Mr. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation. namely. and for his family he has not a cent. Use the semicolon before the expressions. which are in apposition with a general term. viz.) The Dash (--) . hence. phrase.e. I do not care to see the game. simple in form. when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms. and the Socialist. therefore. etc." There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties.. besides. The Colon (:) 123.. or sentence that constitutes an introduction to something that follows. 124. and for his family he has not a cent. Right: He spends his money for theatres. etc. the Democratic. I think he will be here. 121. John is sick. i. or before their abbreviations. At present there are four prominent political parties.
130. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely some part of a sentence. The Parenthesis Marks ( ) 129.125.--all were there. Socialists. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that is thrown into the sentence. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or construction. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up the preceding part of a sentence. but we expect no one else. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other mark of punctuation. Captain--what did you say your name is? The man I met--I refer to Captain Jones--was in the naval service. We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been very anxious to do so). and Populists. He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. Democrats. They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. Prohibitionists. I am pleased to meet you. 126. When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis. but is grammatically independent of it. Republicans. Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. 127. . 128. I was always lacking what I needed most--money.
" 133.The Bracket [ ] 131. 137.'" 134. 135. His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. he said." Right: "You may do as you wish. or to indicate one's own literary invention. "Charity suffereth long. Howard [his cousin] to deliver the address. The Bible says. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence of a single continuous quotation.. 'England expects every man to do his duty. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation in the following sentences: Wrong: "You may do as you wish. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise. "if you only wish to do right. titles of books." The Quotation Marks (" ") 132. proverbial phrases. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language of another. if you only wish to do right. The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words than those of Nelson at Trafalgar." . quotation marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last." he said. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within a quotation. 136..
No rule can be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the hyphen. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. 140. and to-night. Doesn't. Never divide words of one syllable. Proper division: in-tend. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. pro-pose. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. etc. nor short words." she asked? Right: "Can you come?" she asked.Wrong: "Can you come. Never divide words except at the end of a syllable. superin-tendent. In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like expressionby placing ex on one line and the rest of the word on the next line. Only custom determines. such as. though. For instructions as to . through. Always use a hyphen with to-day. superint-endent. What's the matter? The Hyphen (-) 139. besides. EXERCISE 73 Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. prop-ose. expres-sion. The Apostrophe (') 138. over. and always put the hyphen at the end of the first line. also. expre-ssion. Can't. not at the beginning of the second. to-morrow. Wrong division: int-end. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a line. See §§ 13 and 15.
the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general of great military training 10. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations because it is a very small town 2. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so 12. will that be satisfactory was his question 4.paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore and taft 14. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to new york city 8. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not 5. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion was represented 11. whats the matter with you john 6. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven and nine 13. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh 3. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the knell of parting day 7. the verse to which you refer is as follows the boast of heraldry the pomp of power all that beauty all that wealth eer gave await alike the inevitable hour the paths of glory lead but to the grave . he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church 9. see §§ 143 and 144: 1.
that is wool not cotton as you seem to think . a noun is the name of something as william france book cat 16. such a man for example was lincoln 29. william if you gear me answer 21.15. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure 23. in the first problem divide in the second multiply 19. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she understood 22. he is called the peerless leader 28. that too is a mistake 31. that may be true but i still doubt it 24. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at seven at latest 17. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period 20. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved 26. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it 30. the different points discussed are these first the history of the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and third the result of the theory 18. mary said yes but helen said no 27. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close 25.
for this you will need a piece of clean white paper 49. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river 51. he is a good student and also a great athlete 41. oh that is what you mean is it 48. the english are stolid the french lively 33. he gave me a red silk handkerchief 42. those are all good books but none of them will do 39. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three 45. moreover naxon the cashier has fled 47. having assigned the lesson he left the room 43. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history .32. such an opinion i may say is absurd 35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late 36. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god 50. royers address is danville illinois 44. in that case let us have war 34. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray henry esmond 40. he means the house that has green shutters 38. i had classes under the president dr harris 46. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot 37.
Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without the marks of punctuation selections from books. . a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything. the north quickly recovered from the civil war 53. he said then why are you here 55. 59. NOTE. and afterwards inserting the proper marks. he was told to ask the principal professor morton 57.52. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man 58. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their country could no longer raise a picked army 56. he told mother to write to my uncle about it 54.
Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. If paragraphing is too frequent. should constitute a separate paragraph. It gives rest to the eye of the reader. There is no fixed rule governing the proper length of the paragraph. but usually. For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made. paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions. PARAGRAPH LENGTH. it will not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. it forms one of a number of subtopics. the paragraph may constitute the whole composition. no paragraph need be more than three hundred words in length. each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. 142. This rule should be always followed in writing a conversation. it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. The paragraph groups in a logical way the different ideas to be communicated. In a narrative. together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part.CHAPTER IX THE PARAGRAPH 141. Paragraphing should not be too frequent. Where the general subject under discussion is very narrow. 144. This. however. each direct quotation. The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend the thought to be expressed. If the whole composition is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. The PARAGRAPH is a connected series of sentences all dealing with the development of a single topic. In a letter. is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose--to aid in gaining clearness. and makes clearer the fact that there is a change of topic at each new paragraph. 143. PARAGRAPHING OF SPEECH. Examine the following: . probably. but. by making each minute subdivision of equal importance.
The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence after some introductory words. in the following paragraph. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: Unity." "Then have some more. 145. because. the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity. what do you think of our Scotch broth?" "Madam. was thought to have banished the snakes from the island. It founded religious houses and monasteries. very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm than the Irish. to Germany. a zealous priest. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. and Emphasis. Johnson. During the meal the hostess asked: "Dr. Thus. UNITY. He had stopped at the house of this family for a meal. not content with the religious work in Ireland." said the woman. See example under §144." was the answer. Coherence. No other sentence should be so indented. that. The first sentence of each new paragraph should be indented.. Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. 146. St. as in the second paragraph of the example just given. "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs. and to the Alps and Apennines.A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which Dr. Patrick. So enthusiastic were the Irish. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one subject. and was helped to the national dish. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic... and should include nothing which does not have a direct bearing on that subject. the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland. . INDENTATION OF THE PARAGRAPH.
not only must all the ideas brought out in the paragraph deal with the same topic. and . The topic sentence need not be a formal statement of the subject to be discussed. bold.unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. systematic order. magnificent. To rule was not enough for Bonaparte. It may be developed by repetition. by illustration. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the beginning of the paragraph. by adding details and specific instances to the general statement. there are various ways of developing it. The topic of the paragraph should be determined. HOW TO GAIN UNITY. From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train the next morning. to overpower men's souls. Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running from Cleveland to Detroit. I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. and should be clearly indicated by a topic sentence. but also. Each possesses the quality of unity. they must be developed in some consistent. but may be any sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. Thus. or by showing cause or effect. one should not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey. subject. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. by presenting proof. and manner of expression. With the topic determined. Wrong: In returning to the University. 148. in describing the route followed in a certain journey. A certain point of view should be generally maintained as to tense. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. by striking. He wanted to amaze. 147. The first sentence is the clearest and best place for it. If unity is to be secured. to dazzle. Examine the following paragraphs.
where resorted to. by Washington Irving. To govern ever so absolutely would not have satisfied him. and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for enjoyment. by the suddenness of its new creations. while they circumscribe our wanderings. the short gloomy days and darksome nights. He wanted to reign through wonder and awe. the soft voluptuousness of summer. At other times we derive a great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. From Christmas. which should strike men as a prodigy." The song of the bird. we turn our gratifications to moral sources. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be . We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society. the breathing fragrance of spring. by Channing. the murmur of the stream. 149. our friendly sympathies more aroused. and which. by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye. Our thoughts are more concentrated. Heart calleth unto heart. should awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency inspires. and heaven with its deep delicious blue and its cloudy magnificence--all fill us with mute but exquisite delight. shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad. But in the depth of winter. by the grandeur and terror of his name. Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere. and make him the theme of every tongue. and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. COHERENCE. and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social circle. and we draw our pleasures from the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of our bosoms. Power was his supreme object. when Nature lies despoiled of every charm. if he must have governed silently. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape. the golden pomp of autumn. There is something in the very season of the year that gives a charm to the festivity of Christmas. which should shake old thrones as an earthquake. furnish forth the pure element of domestic felicity. and wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow. From The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte.unanticipated results. but power which should be gazed at as well as felt. and. earth with its mantle of refreshing green.
will do. Where vividness or some other quality does not gain coherence in the sentence. Then said the father: "Thus. The first is interesting and easy to read. of idea to idea. The whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together--it must not consist of disconnected pieces. while it is no less interesting and equally valuable in its contents. and help to keep in mind the paragraph topic. he told the lads. and you are undone. my sons. but tried in vain. Therefore. Examine carefully the following selections. after having tried in vain to reconcile them by words. In addition to this I think you will find it cheaper in price. it. and that it be so constructed that it may be readily grasped by the reader. however. 150. indeed. take the better one. They all tried. must be clearly brought out. it is usually gained by the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind the effect of the preceding sentences. he gave them the sticks to break one by one. in this way. Either. by no means lacking in the value of the information it presents. or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the paragraph. A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family. Note the italicized words of coherence. by reason of its not being so profusely illustrated. you are a match for all your enemies. These words may be of various sorts. to take it up and break it. also. But the second. seems to me far more logical and scholarly in its construction. Itis. but differ and separate. etc. Thisthey did with the greatest ease. thought he might more readily prevail by an example. or which show the bearing of the sentence on the paragraph topic. as. Sometimes the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph. but since you have a choice. So he called his sons and bade them lay a bundle of sticks before him. I should advise you to procure the second for your study. Then having tied them up into a fagot. I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the two booksyou have named. one after another." Æsop's .perfectly clear in its meaning. HOW TO GAIN COHERENCE. untying the fagot. and note in each case how they aid the flow of thought from sentence to sentence. as long as you remain united. The relation of sentence to sentence. this view. Then.
Fables. Examine also the selections under §§ 205 and 206. 151. EMPHASIS. The third quality which a paragraph should possess is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on the reader the effect of the paragraph. EXERCISE 74 The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student. These topics are intended to apply only to isolated paragraphs--"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that more than one paragraph is unnecessary. Write paragraphs: 1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, and giving your reasons for the refusal. 2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general appearance and then the details. 3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie. 4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play. 5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance.
6. To prove that the world is round. 7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.) 8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city life than in country life. Write paragraphs on the following subjects: 9. My Earliest Recollection. 10. The Sort of Books I Like Best. 11. Why I Like to Study X Branch. 12. My Opinion of My Relatives. 13. The Man I Room With. 14. Why I Was Late to Class. 15. What I Do on Sundays. 16. How to Prevent Taking Cold. 17. How to Cure a Cold. 18. My Best Teacher. 19. My Favorite Town. 20. Why I Go Fishing. 21. My Favorite Month. 22. What Becomes of My Matches. 23. Baseball is a Better Game than Football. 24. The View from X Building.
25. Why I Go to School. 26. My Opinion of Rainy Days. 27. My Most Useful Friend. 28. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties. 29. Why I Like to Visit at X's. 30. The Police Service of X Town.
LETTER-WRITING NOTE TO TEACHER.--For the purpose of training in composition, in the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing is the field in which almost all written composition will be done after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be made one of the chief fields for composition work. In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. Others will readily occur to the teacher. THE HEADING 152. POSITION OF HEADING. In all business letters the writer's address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an inch from the top. This address and date is called the HEADING. In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at the beginning in all letters is more logical
and customary. Never write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end of the letter. 153. ORDER OF HEADING. The parts of the heading should be sufficient to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, should the above order be varied. Examples: Wrong: March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street. Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first line and the date on the second. Wrong: January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania, The Hotel Lafayette. Right: The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania, January 19, 1910. 154. PUNCTUATION OF HEADING. Place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street address, after the town address, after the state address, and after the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number of the year. Examine the correct address under §153. 155. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS. Avoid the use of abbreviations in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the business letter. It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: St. for Street; Ave. for Avenue; Apart. for Apartments; Chi. for Chicago; Phila. for
Right: Hardie Apartments. Do not use the sign # before the street number. Pa. Right: 229 Market Street. not words. Wrong: September the Ninth.. Do not use st. Right: September 9. and should begin flush with the margin at the left side of the page... Do not write the date thus: 9/10/10. See §§ 75 and 76. Wrong: March 10th. 1909.. Pbg. 1910. and a little below the level of the heading. Wrong: 229 Market. . Pittsburg. See model letters under §174. Right: March 10. 1909. THE INSIDE ADDRESS 156. Do not omit the word Street. In strictly commercial letters the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being sent should come at the beginning of the letter. Nineteen Hundred and Nine.Philadelphia. POSITION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. 1910. Right: September 8. after the number of the day. Pa. The second line of the inside address should be set in a little from the margin. Wrong: Hardie Apart. Represent the numbers by figures. rd.. etc. Wrong: 9/8/09.
In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters the inside address may be omitted. 157. PUNCTUATION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In punctuating the inside address, place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or country. Examine the correct inside address under §174. 158. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE INSIDE ADDRESS. Do not omit the town, city, or state address from the inside address. Wrong: Mr. E. P. Griffith, My dear Sir: Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith. Muskogee, Oklahoma. My dear Sir: Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith, 221 Fiji Avenue, Muskogee, Oklahoma. My dear Sir: Do not omit proper titles. Wrong: R. R. Stolz, Muncy, Pennsylvania. Right: Mr. R. R. Stolz, Muncy, Pennsylvania. When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title Mr., before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute a partnership or trading name. Right: Jones & Smith, (firm name) New York City. Gentlemen: Right: Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (not a firm name) New York City. Gentlemen: Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr. Abbreviations of titles placed after the name, such as,
Esq., D.D., A.M., etc., are proper. Do not use Mr. and Esq. with the same name. Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but it is better form to write the name in full. United States of America may be abbreviated to U. S. A. Wrong: Merch. Mfg. Co., N. Y. C. Gentlemen: Right: The Merchants' Manufacturing Company. New York City. Gentlemen: Wrong: Mr. William Shipp, Bangor, Me. Dear Sir: Right: Mr. William Shipp, Bangor, Maine. Dear Sir: Do not place a period after the title Miss. Miss is not an abbreviation. THE SALUTATION 159. POSITION OF SALUTATION. The salutation should begin flush with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See correctly written letters under §174. 160. FORM OF SALUTATION. The salutation varies with the form of the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, Dear Sir, Dear Madam, or My dear Sir, My dear Madam. For a group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, Gentlemen, Dear Sirs, Dear Madams or Mesdames are used. In less formal business letters such salutations as, My dear Mr. Smith, or Dear Miss Jaekel may be used. In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for friendly letters: My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear
Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, Dear Friend, etc. It is considered more formal to prefix My to the salutation. It is over formal to use simply Sir or Madam in any letter, or to use Dear Sir or Dear Madam when writing to a familiar friend. If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as Dear Brown, Dear John, etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close of the letter, or to omit it. 161. PUNCTUATION OF SALUTATION. Punctuate the salutation with a colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. 162. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE SALUTATION. Use no abbreviations except Dr., Mr., Mrs. Do not use the abbreviation Dr., when that title is used as a final word in a salutation. Wrong: My dear Maj. Wren: Right: My dear Major Wren: Wrong: My dear Dr.: Right: My dear Doctor: Do not use a name alone as a salutation. Wrong: Mr. W. W. Braker: Will you please inform ... Right: Mr. W. W. Braker, Muncy, Pennsylvania. Dear Sir: Will you please inform ... In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first word of the salutation. Wrong: My Dear Sir: Right: My dear Sir:
Wrong: My very Dear Friend: Right: My very dear Friend: Wrong: Dear sir: Right: Dear Sir: THE BODY OF THE LETTER 163. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE LETTER. In friendly letters much latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. 164. FORM OF BODY. The body of the letter usually begins on the line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model letters under §174. In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the subject of a separate paragraph. 165. FAULTS IN BODY OF THE LETTER. In letters that are intended to be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should the "telegraph style" be adopted. Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no chance to look up man. Will do so soon. Good: I have received your letter of the tenth. I have had no chance as yet to look up the man, but I will do so soon. Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. Tele. Good: Address in care of John Smith, Manager of the Pennsylvania
. don't. There is no objection to beginning a letter with I. Do not try to avoid its use by omitting it from the sentence. Bad: In reply will say . Excepting in letters of a formal nature.. Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. there is no objection to the use of colloquial expressions such as can't. avoid the use of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out and . should not be omitted when necessary to the completeness of the sentence. Good: In reply I wish to say . It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun I in the letter. etc... money order for $2. I. Good: We have received your letter . Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition.Telegraph.. however.. ($2).. Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand.. Same is satisfactory. Bad: Your favor received . but by substituting a different form of sentence. Good: We enclose post office money order for two dollars. Good: We have read your plan. Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary. Bad: We have read your plan. O. and it is satisfactory. though care must be taken not to carry this caution to extremes. Bad: Enclose P. Good: Your letter of the 10th is at hand.
we are .often almost meaningless... but are often used when they are both inappropriate and unnecessary... 167. Awaiting your further orders... We take pleasure in informing you ... such as. In reply would say . we are ... The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: . The complimentary close should be written on a separate line near the middle of the page. Please find enclosed . Thanking you for the favor... We beg leave to advise . Such expressions as the following ones are not wrong.. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE. FINAL WORDS. we are .. In answer to your favor of the tenth . We beg to acknowledge receipt of your favor .. These expressions are not wrong... Your esteemed favor is at hand.. I am . but are often used when not at all necessary. A waiting your further orders. Appropriateness is the only guide to the choice of a complimentary close.. We beg to suggest . Thanking you again for your kind assistance... THE CLOSE 166.... etc. and should begin with a capital letter. In reply permit me to say .. Business letters frequently close with some final words..
. try. Very truly yours. 169. Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of the page. 3. (Mrs. Your loving son. In beginning the letter. etc. respy. 1. The letter should be so signed as to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. Very truly yours. and after it the name of the writer. yrs. William Jones). place the address and date an inch and a half or two inches below the top of the page. The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman. write on the pages in their order. In formal letters it is customary for a woman to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the following manner: Sincerely yours. Example: D.Yours respectfully. Affectionately yours. Caroline Jones. Appleton & Company. Yrs. Yours truly. Yours very truly. such as. and.. per J. In using a four-page sheet. In the correctly written forms of letters under §174 observe the . Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch or more beyond the margin. FAULTS IN THE CLOSE. it should indicate whether she is to be addressed as Miss or Mrs. W. In signing a company name write first the name of the company. (Miss) Matilda Stephens. Yours cordially. MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS 170. Very truly yours. Do not use abbreviations. if a woman. Miller. The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: Yours sincerely. THE SIGNATURE OF THE WRITER. Yours very truly. 168. 2. 4.
nor too far to one side. Compare the following forms of addresses: Bad: Col. See §155. 200 John Street. THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS 171. N. Trenton. . always place a period after it. If an abbreviation ends the line. Place the address on the envelope so that it balances well. Trenton.indentation of the lines. Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. and a comma after each preceding line. Avoid the use of abbreviations except those that would be proper in the inside address or in the heading. Good: Colonel William Point 200 John Street Trenton. POSITION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. New Jersey Bad: Chas. New Jersey. Wilkinsburg. too close to the bottom. No letters or sign at all should be used there. Point. Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. The body of the letter should begin on the line below the salutation. The salutation should begin flush with the margin. See addressed envelope under §173.. See §§ 155 and 158. FAULTS IN THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS. whether the other lines are punctuated or not. place a period at the end of the last line. If it is used. the second somewhat set in. PUNCTUATION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. 172. Punctuation may be omitted at the end of the lines of the address. and some distance in from the margin. Pa. 173. J. Wm. The first line of the inside address should be flush with the margin. Jones. c/o Edward Furrey. #200 John St. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand corner. Do not have it too far toward the top. Good: Colonel William Point.
Wassel. Esquire. be able to secure what you want from H. M. January 12. New York. Cambridge. My dear Sir: I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law books. Wilkinsburg. Massachusetts. Very truly yours. I shall consider it a very great favor. Weaver. 1909. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. Good: For the President of Bucknell University. Danville. Edward Furrey Wilkinsburg Pennsylvania Bad: Rev. however.Good: Mr. My dear Professor Morton: We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system of keeping students' records. Mr. I have been told that you have worked out a card method that operates successfully. January 12. of Bucknell Univ. CORRECTLY WRITTEN LETTERS 200 Mead Avenue. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention of selling them. Royer. A.] 174. . 1909. If you can give me any information in regard to your method. He has advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. Walter Bertin Good: The Reverend Walter Bertin Bad: Pres. Illinois. B. Charles M. Muncy. Robert D. Pittsburg. Howell. Charles Jones In care of Mr. You may. Pennsylvania. Commonwealth Building. A properly arranged address: [Illustration: Mr. 201 Tenth Street. Pennsylvania.
next . How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? If you can come at that time. 6556 Broad Street. January 12. Dunlop. A. He may be counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to undertake. Braddock. Heidenreich. I should like to have you come out and take dinner with me some evening. 1909. Pennsylvania. 1910. The time you mention. Very sincerely. March 30. E. J. Philadelphia. Michigan. Pennsylvania. 173 State Street. 1909. The Lafayette. Philadelphia. My dear Walter: I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. Hagon: I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. Braddock.Very sincerely yours. To whom it may concern: It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character. Harris A. Vandine. Morton. 1909. Harry B. Pennsylvania. Detroit. will you please write or telephone to me sometime before Tuesday? Very cordially yours. January 23. Hutchins. My dear Mrs. Before I go. ability and attainments of Mr. Paul B. Professor E. Pennsylvania. My dear Paul: I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with you before you take final leave of the city. March 31. Sylvester D. He has been a trusted personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. Plotts.
for the prospect of talking over old times with you is delightful. 223 Siegel Street. Fleegor. New York.Wednesday evening. of the sort listed in your catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. New York City. Dear Sirs: Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of your tapestries and carpets? I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association Building. June 5. I was more than pleased to receive your invitation. Anna R. I understand that institutions of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. The Acme Tapestry Company. February 28. Fleegor. Napoleon. for which please send me one of your small cook stoves. Pennsylvania. May 10. C. Very truly yours. Pennsylvania. Walter Powell. 1910. Alverton. It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this stove as much as possible. Syracuse. The Merchant's Electric . this city. 1910. Sincerely yours. The American Stove Company. (Mrs. since it is urgently needed in a summer cottage that I have for rent. C. Will you please tell me if this is true? Very truly yours. is entirely satisfactory to me. Ernest Burrows. Ohio. Gentlemen: With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars. 1908. on Arlington Avenue.) Lewisburg.
May 21. which was taken out about ten years ago. Illinois. 1910. Gentlemen: I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. and am now engaged in conducting a store. Stevenson. If you wish references as to my character and ability.Wiring Company. Johnston. Ohio. Norfolk. Harvey H. Danville. May you find happiness and prosperity in your new location. I would refer you to Mr. and am in my sophomore year. in order to maintain the validity of my policy. Virginia. Harry E. McCormick. Lately I have changed occupations. The Jefferson Life Insurance Company. If. Wilkinsburg. November 10. 1908. Respectfully yours. This summer I want to secure practical experience in electric wiring. Gentlemen: I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. Mary E. my occupation is stated to be carpenter. William R. Pennsylvania. Lewisburg. Philadelphia. But do not forget that your old friends are still living and will always be interested in your welfare. and to Mr. I am at present taking a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University. In that Policy. Salary is a very slight object to me in this work. and I shall be willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer me. Superintendent of the Street Railways Company. My dear Norman: I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you of my sincere pleasure in the news. Your affectionate cousin. Drawsburg. the . Pennsylvania. Indiana.. Wilkins. It is my plan to gain some practical experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations occurring in my course. 223 Holbrook Avenue.
1907. and G. Scranton. N. the addresses of George English. Your conclusion. Dear Aunt Emily: You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. Vienna. and have already . but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. My dear Elliot: Will you please send me. Germantown. I am happy to say. The Anglo-American Hotel. but Vienna lacks only the reputation. I expect to be married sometime in June. Very truly yours. what that value is. I discovered. March 19. Pearse. and if so. as I thought. April 20. 1909. This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding invitations are to be looked for. will you please have the proper entry made. Mr. is a correct one. Charles R. Arthur J. I was surprised to find it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. Harris. Elliot.change of occupation should be recorded on your books. Austria. James R. Cordially your friend. it certainly does not lack the fashionable and frivolous air. Pennsylvania. The other day in one of the shops here. We had really intended. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity. Still more was I surprised to find what a festive. I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash surrender value. Wilkinson. a very fine miniature. stylish place it is. I purchased it to present to you. Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city. Bunnell Building. to spend the entire months of March and April in Berlin. as soon as you conveniently can. Shepherd. Ira S. and thought it a place of little interest. Colorado. as I wrote to you.
Spell out all dates. 110 Braddock Avenue. at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. CORRECTLY WRITTEN NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON. Mrs. NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON 175. Mr. 1020 Highland Street. at two o'clock. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday. .sent it by post. Mary. salutation. Pennsylvania. 176.. but suppose it is because we so suddenly changed our address. It ought to reach you as soon as this letter. or signature. or Dr. The necessity of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. Never use any heading. Washington.. Use no abbreviations except Mr. Your affectionate niece. followed at the left side of the paper. June the fifth. May the twenty-fifth. It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds of notes in the third person. Stuart. Bucknell University. Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. May the twenty-seventh. We have not received the usual letter from you this week. June the first. Morton's company on Tuesday evening. June the first. by the time and the place of writing. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance of Mrs. Leighou's company at dinner on Sunday. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. June the tenth. Mrs. The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of Professor and Mrs. Such a note contains nothing but the body of the note. Use no pronoun but that of the third person.
9. A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place. 2. complaining of their delay in delivering a package to you. Leave no doubt. thanking him for the entertainment afforded you on a recent visit to his house. telling him of the chance meeting with some friend. etc. inquiring what dictionary they publish. Explain the venture. 3. time. 8. X. A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation. describing to your parents your school. A letter to a friend. A letter to Mr. Have every letter complete in all its formal parts. A letter to the X Book Company. and stating your qualifications. A letter to your home. A letter to a friend. . 5. 12. A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering a canoe that you are building.EXERCISE 75 Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway station. 7. 11. Explain your needs. 10. A letter to the X Express Company of your town. the prices. 4. asking him for a position in his office. etc. 6. A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has befallen him. A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture that you are thinking of entering upon. Fill in details according to your own fancy: 1.
A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in your town. A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in an examination. A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently heard. A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend.13. 22. 17. 26. 20. 21. 15. etc. A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. 23. A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable to go with you. A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it. A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which . A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time. 27. as. 14. prices. A letter stating your opinions on some public question. A letter describing some new acquaintance. etc. inquiring about courses of study given. A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year. A formal third person acceptance of such invitation. A travel letter describing your visit to various places of interest. 29. 16. prohibition. A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school. 19. A letter to the X school. 25. woman suffrage. A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some organization to which you belong. 28. 24. 18.
or an exposition. 32. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive than the composition. 33. your new acquaintances. 31. A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one general subject. CHAPTER XI THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 177. A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics of a dog which you have lately bought. occasion. 30. Arrange the topics and make the transition as smooth as possible. whether the composition be a narration. 35. your work. your recent visit to the theater. A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school of some national holiday.happened at school during his absence. lecturer. your meeting an old friend. 34. 178. but should be limited to cover . STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place. a description. The following general principles applying to the construction of the whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced writer. A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of your school. address. A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe the place. etc. Care should be used in the statement of the subject.
Paragraphing for Emphasis. Picnics. As soon as the material for the composition is in hand. so in the writing of an essay or theme.only what is discussed. topics properly subordinated. at least. instead of a big subject. the outline should be made. were discussed: Definition of Paragraph. which will determine what different things are to be discussed. Unity in the Paragraph. Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation. there should be made some plan or outline. How to Secure Coherence. In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different subtopics. Paragraphing of Speech. The Topic Sentence. Length of Paragraph. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition. Too Frequent Paragraphing. Examples of Unity. 179. By the inexperienced writer. If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order. THE OUTLINE. a carefully made plan is necessary before entering on the construction. and a suitable proportion secured in their discussion. Compare the above list of topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical outline. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine. Examples showing how Unity is Purpose of the Paragraph. THE PARAGRAPH . and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. if anything creditable is to be attained. Destroyed. a composition should never be begun until an outline has been formed for its development. Coherence in the Paragraph. For a small essay. a sorry result would have been obtained. Only by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be gained. The Paragraph Theme. How Picnics Help the Doctor. Photography. How to Secure Unity. take some limited phase of that subject: Too broad: College. Emphasis in the Paragraph. not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Properly limited: A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power.
its general style of architecture. 2. 4. 5. one might first describe in a general way its size. . and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. and the impression it makes on the observer. A too detailed outline tends to make the composition stiff and formal. Examples showing coherence. so long as it is a logical and natural one. 3. The topic sentence. Its definition and purpose.1. though other arrangements may frequently be followed with very good reason. How to secure unity. Coherence. as above. is the best order in which to present them. The use of the outline is not restricted to an expository composition. 180. that of cause and effect. Places of emphasis in the paragraph. Its length. Thus. Definition. Definition. The relation may be that of chronology. Often a general description is given. Unity. Paragraphing of speech. Usually. Its essential qualities. Development of topic sentence. Paragraphing for emphasis. that of general statement followed by details. How to secure coherence. Too frequent paragraphing. but is also necessary in narration and description. in describing a building. B. or any other relation. The paragraph theme. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. Examples showing how unity is destroyed. Examples showing unity. A. The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement and to avoid confusion and repetition. Then more particular description might be made of its details of arrangement and peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. Emphasis. in a narration. These topics or subtopics should all bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. and then followed by a statement of various details. It should be sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter. Practical construction of the paragraph. To secure this end the outline should present a few main topics to which all others either lead up or upon which they depend. In a description different methods may be followed. the order of time in which events occurred. C. The outline should not be too minute and detailed.
The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main topics. 181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine the following methods of beginning. THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in all the literature of American self-praise. MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. THE USES OF IRON No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as iron. The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference to the title. Bad: THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
There is a rapidly growing belief that this study has too large a place in our high-school courses of study. Good: THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL There is a rapidly growing belief that Latin has too large a place in our high school courses of study. 182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's relation to the subject. A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. 183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent. Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion.
There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: (Last sentence of first paragraph) ... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. (Second paragraph) The mischief, however, recoiled on the unhappy people of this country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense of the war was enormous--much beyond any former experience. (Third paragraph) And yet, what has the British nation received in return for this expense.... ... I was now enabled to see the extent and aspect of my prison. In its size I had been greatly mistaken.... (Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) The second of the essentials of the paragraph, coherence, demands that.... Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe the following: (Paragraph 7)
... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the enumeration of what has already been done toward building good roads. (Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of this important result, which are now being seriously discussed. (Paragraph 9) The first of these plans is ... The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of this, By way of exception. Examine the selection under §187. 184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development of the story. Examine the following endings: Ending of a theme on The Uses of Iron: Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which it is constantly put--uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since lost its claim to that title.
Ending of a story: John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. "Good-bye," he said. And then he was gone, forever. Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. 1. How I Spent my Vacation. 2. Shall Final Examinations be Abolished? 3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools. 4. My Qualifications for a Position. 5. The Uses of Iron. 6. Paul Revere's Ride. 7. The City Park. 8. My Town as a Place of Residence. 9. The Value of Railroads. 10. Why I Believe in Local Option. 11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride. 12. Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted? 13. My Youthful Business Ventures. 14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party. 15. Various Methods of Heating a House. 185. Below is given in full Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech. It is perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with especial reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of the words of coherence have been italicized. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as the final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. Butin a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here; but it can never forget what they did
here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 186. Small Economies, from Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford. I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small economies--careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction--any disturbance of which annoys him more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and
faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new--one that I picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is not waste. Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in the dark, or by firelight--and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation for a friend who might come in any evening (but who never did), it required some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The candles took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and extinguish it and to light the other before they had become too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of the evening. One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, according to my
CHAPTER XII WORDS. Stones of Venice--Ruskin. as a matter of general education. Ivanhoe--Scott. 187. . Hyde--Stevenson. Lincoln--Douglas Debates. A LIST OF BOOKS FOR READING. The Luck of Roaring Camp--Bret Harte. Lorna Doone--Blackmore.usual custom. one must have a good working vocabulary. Bunker Hill Oration--Webster.. The Sketch Book--Irving. Rip Van Winkle--Irving. Tales of a Traveller--Irving. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Irving. Autobiography--Franklin. Henry Esmond--Thackeray. he must employ only words that are in good use. Most of them are books that. Silas Marner--Eliot. The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table--Holmes. Conspiracy of Pontiac--Parkman. The American Commonwealth--Bryce.. Certain Delightful English Towns--Howells. Non-fiction: Sesame and Lilies--Ruskin. The Spy--Cooper. These books are of a varied character and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in their English. He must know words and be able to use them correctly. A History of the English People--Green. To write and to speak good English. he must be able to choose words and phrases that accurately express his meaning. Fiction: Treasure Island--Stevenson. Views Afoot--Taylor. The Declaration of Independence. The Blue Flower--Van Dyke.. should be read by everyone. Critical Periods of American History--Fiske. The Scarlet Letter--Hawthorne. and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly the words that he uses. Tales of Mystery and Imagination--Poe.--SPELLING.--PRONUNCIATION 188. Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan. Twice Told Tales--Hawthorne. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. The Man without a Country--Hale. Robinson Crusoe--Defoe. Kidnapped--Stevenson. On Conciliation with America--Burke. Uncle William--Lee.
192. Barbarisms. AVOID NEWLY COINED EXPRESSIONS OR NEW USES OF OLD EXPRESSIONS. (3) Present. Examples of obsolete words: methinks yesterwhiles twixt yclept afeard shoon 2. 190. OFFENSES AGAINST GOOD USE. The following rules may be given on this subject: 1. A word is in good use when it is used grammatically and in its true sense. have since passed out of general use. in use by good authors and writers in general. There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at the present time. The offenses against good use are usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms. present or national use. is that it be in good use. Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. and is also: (1) Reputable.WORDS 189. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. Obsolete words are words that. AVOID OBSOLETE WORDS. though many of these words may in time come into use. The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient to make a word reputable. This rule might also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are at present time passing out of use. the use must be general. once in good use. GOOD USE. not foreign or local in its use. a barbarism. Examples: . SOLECISMS are the violations of the principles of grammar. is a word not in reputable. used by the writers of one's own time. (2) National. BARBARISMS. The second offense against good use. The first essential that a word should have. and Improprieties. 191.
A foreign word should not be used until it has become naturalized by being in general.an invite an exposé a try enthuse a combine fake A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from a noun. sometimes come into good repute and usage. The safest rule is to avoid slang expressions because of their general bad taste and because of their weakening effect on one's vocabulary of good words. AVOID VULGARISMS. reputable use. or a noun from a verb. AVOID FOREIGN WORDS. Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very prevalent in its use even by educated people. Slang words. but not current or differently understood in another locality. Examples: guess (think) reckon (suppose) near (stingy) smart (clever) tuckered (tired out) lift (elevator) tote (carry) ruination (ruin) 5. AVOID PROVINCIALISMS. AVOID SLANG. Examples: locomote suicided derailment pluralized burglarized refereed 3. it is true. but the process is slow. Examples of slang: grind swipe booze long green on a toot dough pinch peach dukes . the use of the foreign words usually indicates affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: billet-doux (love letter) conversazione (conversation) ad nauseam (to disgust) distingué (distinguished) ad infinitum (infinitely) entre nous (between us) 4. Provincialisms are expressions current and well understood in one locality. Such words as the following are always in bad taste: chaw nigger your'n gal flustrated hadn't oughter haint dern his'n 6. Vulgarisms are words whose use shows vulgarity or ignorance. Since there are almost always English words just as expressive as the foreign words.
AVOID CLIPPED OR ABBREVIATED WORDS. entre nous. fess up. locomote. outclassed. twain. tuckered. to watch out. technical words permissible in technical writing. per se. orate.7. a rig. Examples: pard (partner) rep (reputation) doc (doctor) cal'late (calculate) musee (museum) a comp (complimentary ticket) 8. nary a one. incog. suicided. his'n. guess. Such words are usually clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. cuss. a boom. cute. burglarized. and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in dialect stories. callate. afeard. pluralized. railroaded. enthused. Obsolete words would be permissible in poetry or in historical novels. chink. puny. peradventure. on tick. down town. bike. booze. in hock. The use of such words is another form of vulgarism. mal de mer. bug-house. photo. When in doubt consult a good dictionary: Chaw. spake. eld. chic. AVOID TECHNICAL OR PROFESSIONAL WORDS. exam. distingué. WHEN BARBARISMS MAY BE USED. . tollable. alter ego. galoot. to rattle. Examples: valence hagiology allonge kilowatt sclerosis estoppel 193. disremember. dole. a combine. zoo. ruination. ain't. corker. hadn't oughter. busted on the bum. secondhanded. yclept. swipe. nouveau riche. rep. In the foregoing rules barbarisms have been treated as at all times to be avoided. an invite. But barbarisms may sometimes be used properly. EXERCISE 76 Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list an expression that is in good use. gents. reckon. a right smart ways. prof. complected. quoth. dern. deceased (verb). erst. up against it. cinch. tote. forsooth. getable. cracker-jack. grub. get left. a poke. a try. biz. mesalliance. dub. mayhap. classy. fake. yore. mucker. pants. swell. and in a measure true of their use in composition of a special nature. grind. near. on a toot. in cahoot. This is true of their use in general composition. knocker. opry.
It will be published inside of two months. I finally got shut of him. or a solecism. 34. 30. 6. There is little difference twixt the two. 194. Their clothes are always tasty in appearance. Not muchly will I go. and devise for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. 37. 32. 26. is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. He bought a poke of apples for his lunch. 38. I feel pretty tollable today. 2. 40. It's a right smart ways to Williamsport. 25. 21. 12. 16. He was the beau ideal of soldier. There ain't a sightlier town in the state. I never saw such a bum show. 14. since the fields covered by the three terms . 27. I hadn't thought on that. 8. In many cases an offense against good use may be called a barbarism. Let me say en passant we did not ask for the tickets. Even at that time John had a bad rep. Practice using the good expressions that you have made. 31. Methinks you are wrong. They can go everywheres. Do you like light-complected people? 10. she belongs to the nouveau riche. All were ready for breakfast before sun-up. 23. 11. You wot not what you say. 19. 24. John is a crazy cuss. 9. 3. 33. EXERCISE 78 Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences: 1. 15. 5. If I had as much long green as he has. Brown runs a pretty classy store. He was treated very illy. I reckon all will be able to get seats. but he is very near. The teacher spake sharply to her. 29. née Smith. an impropriety. He spends all his time grinding. I had never orated before. He left the room unbeknown to his mother.EXERCISE 77 Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use. I could of jumped across. The third offense against good use. an impropriety. Come now. 22. 20. 13. That woman is the Countess of Verdun. Do you callate to get there before noon? 18. 17. 35. If manners are any indication. IMPROPRIETIES. 39. Smith's new house is very showy. 7. The duke and his wife were travelling incog. I didn't go for to do it. That can't be done nohow. He ate the whole hunk of cake. He has money. fess up. 4. You make such dumb mistakes. I wouldn't be such a tight-wad. 28. 36.
AUGUR. spelling or meaning of words. I cannot ---. See Glossary. The crime was ---. In his speech the labor leader boldly ---.her. 2. 2.by being committed in cold blood.the invitation. 4. He ---.these? 3. 1.his mother.from the list of those condemned. 2.without a hitch. 3.somewhat overlap one another. 1. EXCEPT. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the proper words: ACCEPT. 1. How was the bank ---.your gift. 3. ALLUDE. Have you no books ---.(to) no names. AGGRAVATE.a reform from the present condition? 2. IRRITATE.(to) certain events which he dared not name directly. to presage. ARGUE.by the indictment of its president? 4. AFFECT. MENTION. EFFECT. The following exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting from the confusion of two similar words. 4.by lack of proper food. 1. 4. His illness was ---. The sad news will seriously ---. 3. Will your plan ---. To argue is to state reasons for one's belief. The children do everything they can to ---. Cicero was not ---. That passage in his book delicately ---(to) his mother.me. See Glossary. He ---. See Glossary at end of book. under except. Her manner ---. To augur means to foretell.(to) his recent arrest. . EXERCISE 79 Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following divisions. Many improprieties have their origin in the similarities in sound. See Glossary under effect. The attorney ---. The change of schedule was ---.
Her darkening looks ---.me. school teaching was for a time his ----. 2.the money in payment of a note.1.will establish itself.to sell books this summer.the property as his. A vocation is one's principal work or calling.to finish it as soon as he can. One's friends may endow him with a good ----. While preparing for his life work. See that your ---. I ---. INTEND. ASSERT.at length on any subject.that I am innocent. 3. 4. 4. They ---their right to the land. He ---.to flow at the rate of a gallon a minute. John walked ---. but not with a good ----. ---. The cashier ---. never his ----. The ministry should be one's ----. The reported quarrel ---. CLAIM. 2. The oil is ---. 3.you.me was a tree. In this community his ---. 3. It should not be confused with assert. 1. Beside refers to place.is right. Slander may ruin one's ----. 3. Law is his ----. 1. 2. but it will not destroy his ----.is excellent. REPUTATION. 5.that you were born in America? . Besides means in addition to. BESIDE. Intend means to have formed the plan to do something. See Glossary. An avocation is something aside from or subordinate to that principal calling. Is there nothing ---.this to do? 3. The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ----. He will ---. Do you still ---.that the work will take ten years. To claim means to make a demand for what is one's own. He sits beside you. He ---. as. who else was there? 2. VOCATION. 4. 1. 1. To calculate means to compute. John ---. 3. CHARACTER. and your ---. ---. 2. He ---.ill for the army. AVOCATION. but politics is his ----. to adjust or to adapt. 1. 2.a quarrel. 4. CALCULATE. 4. BESIDES.
3. 5. In the colonies each governor had his ----. The advisers gave him ---. See Glossary. EMIGRATION. 1. Do ---. Such a place is not fit to be called a ----. CONSUL. Recite it as ---.time? 5. as. The ---. Did you have a ---.injured when the machine broke.Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act. She prepares a ---. even if she does not write ----.were elected to manage the affairs of the state. 2. The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of ----. or advice that is given.is in Lewisburg. A council is a group of persons called in to hold consultation. though sometimes an adjective. 3. She talks very ----. Counsel means an adviser. He has several miserable ---. Consul is an officer of the government. In criminal cases the accused must be provided with ----.into the United States is greatly restricted. Foreign ---. The treatment of the royalists caused a great ---. IMMIGRATION.discouraging thing was his indifference. 4. Good is an adjective. I was ---. as a lawyer. I ---- . 2. Almost is an adverb meaning nearly. Mr.paper. 1.what you are doing. 4. HOUSE. Well is usually an adverb. 1. The United States has a ---.that he rents. 2.which they intend to make their ----. 3. He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old ----. WELL.time for him to come.of the citizens of the United States to Canada is becoming a matter of concern.when he desired it. 1. Are you well to-day? 1. 3.as you can. 2. 4.COUNCIL. but his ---. In Rome two ---. They have recently bought a ---. 4. 6. The ---. 4. GOOD. Our ---. 2. 5. 3. Heim lives here now. HOME. MOST. It is ---. Home means a place that is one's habitual place of residence. ALMOST.from France. COUNSEL. House means only a building. Most never has this meaning.in every important foreign port.
Mad means insane.me here for a while. His manner of speaking makes me ----.come of it? LOAN. LIKELY.at noon. What will ---.is something that one ---. The president's car will ---arrive at noon. Lincoln could do a thing ---that. ---. The noise almost drove me ----. She thinks of it ---. 5. Do not ---. 2. 1. AS.of money loses both itself and friend. As a preposition it is correct. LET. etc. He is ---. . 3. but it may be used as an adjective.me your knife? 3.to see such behavior.that danger disturb you. It makes one ---. He is likely to come. Read ---.to arrest for doing that. Liablerefers to an unpleasant or unfavorable possibility. ANGRY. PROBABLY. Continued exposure makes one more ---. 3. I shall ---. Other men could not do ---. Like should not be used as a conjunction in the sense of as. LEND. 6.to write to us? 5.to another. 4.him go so early. and lend only as a verb. 2.of fifty dollars. 1. This book I ---. under leave. LEAVE.of the books are torn. Is he ---. 4. Does she look ---me? 4. He looks ---. Will you ---. MAD. 1. 3. It is ---. It is wrong to say.missed the car. 6. Do as I do.I thought. 2. uncontrollably excited through fear. A ---. it should not be used as equivalent to likely. A ---.to serious illness. Do like I do. 1. LIABLE. Loan should be used only as a noun. 3. 5. It should not be used for angry or vexed. 2. but right to say.with you. Will his employer ---. 5. 6. 2. as. See Glossary. LIKE. I wish to obtain a ---.to rain to-day.James. ---me help you with your coat. It is better to avoid using likely as an adverb. 1. ---. 4.Lincoln did. Probably refers to any sort of possibility.James does.
The man was never before ---of having done wrong. When do you ---. How ---. 1." not "yours ----. 3. 4. The ---. Sometimes they have as ---. RESPECTFULLY." and "ornate. SUSPECT. Respectively means particularly. 3. It was ---.informed the faculty of their desire. ---. Much refers to quantity.as fifty in a class. Their shares were ---. The class ---. Near is an adjective. 1. a holiday. The man was ---.of the trouble comes from his weak eyes. The scientist needs highly developed powers of ----. or a rule. You must ---. 2.that he will come. 3.so old as John. See Glossary under learn. Expect means to look forward to.to be careful. They are ---. He ---. Observation means to watch. 3. 3. many to number. Do you use ---.insane with worry.of the astronomer proved the theory. Respectfully means characterized by high regard. These three kinds of architecture were characterized ---." 2.finished? 2. LEARN. Observance means to celebrate. 1.is of value to one's bodily as well as to one's spiritual health. NEARLY. 1. relating to each. Observation applies to a fact or an object. The ---. 2." 3. 1. 5. nearly an adverb.of the sanitary regulations was insisted upon. to keep. observance to a festival.as "severe. to look at.to finish the work? 4. RESPECTIVELY.noon when Blucher came. 4.the end of the porch. Suspect means to mistrust. MANY.marbles did the boy have? NEAR." "graceful. TEACH. I ---.two hundred dollars and five hundred dollars. He must ---.him to be careful. To .MUCH. 2. 2. Mary is not ---. EXPECT.his brother of hiding his coat. Sunday ---. 4. Sign your letter "Yours ----. OBSERVATION. Is the work ---. 1. OBSERVANCE.horses on the farm? 4.
sensitive couple. determined some. 3. TRANSPIRE. It properly means entirely. Transpire does not mean to happen. It means to become gradually known. credible wait for. into EXERCISE 81 Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the following sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence: 1. pay noted. 1. part materialize. person. two access. 1. limitation plenty. consciousness evidence. 4. 4. firm limit. 5. The book is ---. many. VERY. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good dictionary. something fix. humane prescribe. That is ---. delusion folk. HAPPEN. 3. plurality portion. The student has remarkable . illusion. That statement assertion was made by an eye witness. discover human. The train ran ---. 2.slowly for most of the distance.in the last ten years. accession future. exceptional in. 3. We were ---. testimony identity. enough of majority. family conscience.in the village. notorious creditable. identification party. We experienced a succession series of hindrances. Who ---. No more important event than this has ---. wait on exceptionable. 2. It ---. proscribe bound. QUITE. Quite is not in good use in the sense of very or to a great degree. EXERCISE 80 The following list includes some groups of words that are often confused.a class to study is a difficult task.your class to-day. solicitude invent. She knows everything that ---. Have you ---.unable to reach the city any sooner. common foot. It has now ---. somewhat. 2.easy to do. 4. mend mutual. skilled sensible.---. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses: practical. subsequent allusion.finished your work.that he had secretly sold the farm. appear solicitation. to leak out.easy to study.that some money was stolen.
They impugn false motives to me. 9. They claim that the assertion cannot be proved. 6. 7. The dog's suffering was alleviated relieved by the medicine. The union unity of the clubs is remarkable. 14. 10. 3. The acts actions of the president were closely watched. The balance of the essay was uninteresting. 17. EXERCISE 82 Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each of the following sentences. How could any one be guilty of such a cruel action. 4. He waited on waited for his mother. and yet these expressions are among the most forcible ones in the language. One cannot comprehend the enormity of a billion of dollars. 17. IDIOMS. The invention of electricity has revolutionized all manufactures. They expect that she wrote the letter. 19. 12. When in doubt consult a dictionary: 1. There are in English. Shall you except the invitation? 4. a number of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of grammar or rhetoric. The import importance of his words is not fully understood. 11. The man needed a new stimulus stimulant. These . 7. 13. 12. and are continually used by the best writers. I shall leave you go at noon. 8. The advancement of the army was very slow.ability capacity. That certainly was not a human humane action. 15. 19. He was greatly effected by the news. 11. 8. Edison discovered the phonograph. 14. His consciousness pricked him. 10. as in other languages. 195. No one can accurately predicate what the weather will be. 16. 16. 18. We are quick to impute impugn motives that we think to exist. 20. He persuaded advised me to consult a lawyer. His behavior was funny odd. 5. In my estimate estimation the cost will be higher than fifty dollars. By questions they tried to eliminate the true story. 9. 13. The majority of the illustrations are good. 5. That is the latest last letter. Many complements were paid to her beauty. They finally located the criminal in Dravosburg. Sabbath observation was then very strict. He was convinced convicted by John's argument. 18. Who learned her to sing? 15. The plan seems practical practicable. He was captivated captured by her unusual charms. 6. 2. The completeness completion of the work brought many congratulations.
but the first. and rests solely on usage. Idiomatic: He strove with might and main. Compare the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic expressions that succeed them. Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out of every two. Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole. Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole. The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: . Speak louder. The second expression in each group is in accord with the strict rules of composition. Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. because they contribute great ease and force to composition. Unidiomatic: He strove with might. But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions is a fine one. (Might and main are two words of the same meaning. Idiomatic: More than one life was lost. the idiomatic. Unidiomatic: More lives than one life were lost. Speak more loudly.) Idiomatic: He lectured on every other day. On the contrary. There is probably little danger that the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. is far more forceful. Idiomatic: Speak loud. Unidiomatic: The book about which I read.expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. their use is to be encouraged. Idioms are not to be avoided. Care must be taken not to go beyond the idiomatic. Idiomatic: The book which I read about.
Never so good. Do you feel like a little candy? See what my foolishness has brought me to. That is all I ask for. Get rid of. Must needs. Get used to. I must get up by noon.He was standing at the door in his shirt sleeves. What part of the city will they settle in? What was the house built for? John needs a match to light his pipe with. Whether or no. . John was a poor shot. I can't go either. I don't think it will rain (I think it will not rain). By all odds. What are you driving at? Hard put to it. She walked out of the room on her father's arm.
One should choose not merely a word that will approximately express the thought." Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly given to this offense of fine or bombastic writing. If the bell rings answer the door. I can come only every other day. CHOICE OF WORDS. Try and do it. Examples: FINE WRITING SIMPLE STYLE Was launched into eternity Was hanged Disastrous conflagration Great fire Called into requisition the services Sent for the doctor of the family physician Was accorded an ovation Was applauded Palatial mansion Comfortable house Acute auricular perceptions Sharp ears A disciple of Izaak Walton A fisherman 2. The thief took to his heels. I take it that you will be there too. and yet still be objectionable because they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. Come and see me. 196. The words in which a thought is expressed may not offend against good use. since they call to the mind a definite image.You forget yourself when you speak so harshly. CHOOSE SIMPLE ENGLISH WORDS and avoid what is called "fine writing. The following suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: 1. In some cases general words may be used to advantage. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GENERAL AND SPECIFIC TERMS. . Compare these sentences: The high color of his face showed his embarrassment. but the one word that best expresses it. but more often specific words should be used.
He was a tall. heavily proportioned man. He was a man of large frame. He was a fat man. He was a man six feet four inches tall and heavy in proportion. AVOID HACKNEYED PHRASES. expressions that have been worked to death. . His crime was robbery. It was a building of impressive beauty. 4. The use of words that are too strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. The infuriated beast. It was an impressive building. Examples: His paternal acres. He was a large man. It was a building of impressive size. 3. AVOID OVER-STATEMENT OF FACTS. Examples: Poor: The concert was simply exquisite. His fault was robbery. Poor: She was wild over the mistake.His crimson face showed his embarrassment. Better: She was much annoyed by the mistake. Better: The concert was very good.
EXERCISE 83 For each of the following expressions devise the best simple English expression that you can: 1. The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal altar. 2. Pugilistic encounters. 19. TWISTED. Maternal ancestor. Dissected the Thanksgiving bird. ANNOYED. 6. 23. Solemnized the rites of matrimony. 15. At the witching hour of midnight. and UNDOING. 25. Twirler of the sphere. The green eyed monster.The gentle zephyrs of springtime. and then comparing the force of the various words in each group. The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers. 7. 9. 20. Shuffled off this mortal coil. Failed to materialize at the banquet. 17. 3. Fraught with tremendous possibilities. Wended his way. Individual was precipitated. 24. 22. The devouring element was checked. Applauded to the echo. Caudal extremity. 5. . 10. 21. Finger of scorn pointed at him. WEAKNESS. 18. Tendered him a banquet. 8. Study the specific nature of these words by grouping about each of them other words of somewhat similar meaning. 13. EXERCISE 84 In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see §186) observe the use of the following words: HUMAN. Performed his matutinal ablutions. HANKS. 11. 14. Pedal extremities. Amid the plaudits of the multitude. Piscatorial sport. Tonsorial artist. Was gathered to his fathers. Passed to his long home. Presided at the organ. 12. This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from any careful writer and studying the words that he has used. 4. Partook of a magnificent collation. 16.
7. 4. CONSTRUCT GOOD ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS for all the slang. The few following suggestions may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: 1. To hear his voice makes me feel funny. and then use the good expressions instead of the bad ones. In addition to these books. John is a professional man. lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed for general reference. IN YOUR WRITING AND SPEAKING USE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE THE NEW WORDS THAT YOU ACQUIRE. fine writing. 8. The play was simply exquisite. . 4. Such arrogance is unendurable. 10. 2. 9. 11. 6. The opposing team was completely annihilated. and hackneyed phrases that you meet. 197.EXERCISE 85 Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression that will be less general or less exaggerated: 1. Crabbe'sEnglish Synonyms and Fernald's Synonyms and Antonyms are good books of reference for this purpose. pronunciation. Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to carry with them a small note book or card on which they note down to be looked up at a convenient time words concerning which they are in doubt. 2. Only when these three things are grasped about each word. Only by a knowledge of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. 3. does one really know the word. That is a good book. words of similar form and meaning. We had a great time. Learn the meaning. A noise caught our attention. His manners are horrid. 5. 3. and spelling of each new word that you meet. STUDY SYNONYMS. HOW TO IMPROVE ONE'S VOCABULARY. We had a perfectly gorgeous time. She is nice looking. CULTIVATE THE DICTIONARY HABIT.
24. healthy. difficulty. purpose. Healthful. wholesome. chicane. apparent. Hatred. 8. 19. vanity. joy. 16. fraud. tuition. an effort has been made to arrange them in groups in order that they may be more easily remembered. labor. Where possible. clear. 2. TRY TO GET THE ONE WORD that will best express the idea. intend.5. Observe. assassinate. EXERCISE 86 Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups of synonyms. The following is a list of words that are frequently misspelled or confused. famous. ancient. Word. 11. censure. Obvious. precept. happiness. Abandon. dislike. occasional instead of occasion. Instruction. obsolete. 14. 15. accede descend pressure accident fascinate misspelled accommodate . 23. 13. Maxim. obstacle. Noted. Balance. aged. power. evidence. 18. Silent. 29. Discover. 3. model. Accede. The word with an added ending has been used in most cases in place of the bare word itself as. 20. education. notorious. cunning. 26. training. 12. SPELLING 198. forsake. rest. sample. 4. Pride. scholar. slay. rule. watch. throng. Love. Capacity. 7. antiquated. drudgery. testimony. 27. prominent. READ GOOD BOOKS and good magazines. speechless. Hardship. 30. Blame. 6. 5. agree. 28. desert. yield. and read them carefully. murder. mute. swarm. Work. toil. Old. 22. pleasure. acquiesce. Multitude. like. fetch. law 21. ill-will. CULTIVATE THE SOCIETY of those who use good language. conceit. antique. Delight. plain. ability. 25. 7. remainder. carry. expression. 9. pupil. term. invent. dumb. Proof. 6. task. hindrance. Propose. humor. eminent. enmity. criticism. Kill. Trickery. crowd. Wit. 10. 17. Student. Example. pattern. Construct sentences in which each word is used correctly: 1. A few rules have been included. Bring.
rub. benefiting. the consonant is not doubled. Similar to the above are. beset. sob. permit. robbers. beneficial. Similar are: . robbed. commit. infer. occur (occurrence). benefited. repel. impel. prefer. but not before -ence. rob. conferred. conference. or if the last syllable is accented. refer. double the final consonant before the ending -ed and -ing. impelling. confer. conferring. abhor (abhorrence). impulsion. If these words are not accented on the last syllable. as. transmission. transfer. transmitting. robbing. benefit. omit. mob. excel (excellence). transmit. compel. transmitted. defer. remit. impel.mischievous possession accordance miscellaneous accuracy muscle recollection succeed susceptible dispelled occasional miscellaneous occur existence monosyllable experience intellectual across sentence parallel amount embellishment apart foregoing wholly arouse forehead woolly village already forty villain all right foreign till forfeit amateur formally perpetual grandeur formerly persuade perspiration appal fulfill apparatus willful police appetite policies approximate guardian opportunity guessing presence opposite precede disappoint imminent preceptor disappearance immediately accommodation fiend choose commission siege chosen grammar friend inflammation yielding boundary recommend elementary summary seize symmetrical receive final committee receipt finally usual ledger succeed usually legible proceed ascend assassin recede ascent dissimilar secede discerning essential accede discipline messenger intercede discontent concede discreet necessary supersede descent necessity passport 199. Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. if monosyllables. impelled. skid. as.
arrived. receive. 204. -ce. acknowledged. judge. Similar are: gauge. Words in -dge do not retain the e before endings. as. manage. preceded. mercy. recede. arranging. Words ending in silent e drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel. or -se. tame. concede. penny. arriving. woe. 200. believe. construe. received. study. receiving. as. busying. peace. Similar are: nudge. precede. 202. Similar are: duty.differ. Similar are: move. 201. Words ending in -ge. model. grieve. summon. finance. arrangement. arrive. deceive. pity. acknowledging. business. weary. arrange. seize. arrival. argue. balance. acknowledgment. Most words ending in y preceded by a consonant change yto i before all endings except-ing: busy. WORDS OF SIMILAR SOUND: . use. blame. precede. supersede. receive. 203. rue. relieve. come. vary. amuse. service. busied. pursue. retain the e before endings: as. write. preceding. perceive. acknowledge. arrange. conceive. precedence.
a as in hate i as in high u as in use a as in hat i as in hit u as in run e as in me o as in old oo as in boot e as in met o as in hop oo as in foot When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes most naturally to the tongue.canvas (cloth) principle (rule) canvass (all meanings except cloth) principal (chief) capitol (a building) stationary (immovable) capital (all meanings except building) stationery (articles) counsel (advice or an adviser) miner (a workman) council (a body of persons) minor (under age) complement (a completing element) angel (a spiritual being) compliment (praise) angle (geometrical) 205. a AS IN HATE: WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION alma mater alma mater apparatus apparatus apricot apricot attaché attasha' audacious . The following list is made up of words that are frequently mispronounced. 207. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS: annual laundry schedule awkward leisure separate beneficial lenient Spaniard decimal license speak exhilarate mechanical specimen familiarize mediæval speech fiber medicine spherical fibrous militia subtle genuine motor surely gluey negotiate technical height origin tenement hideous pacified their hundredths phalanx therefore hysterical physique thinnest icicle privilege until irremediable prodigies vengeance laboratory rarefy visible laid rinse wherein larynx saucer yielding PRONUNCIATION 206. The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short sounds of the vowel. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation.
i AS IN HIGH: . vahz. or vaz veracious verashus vivacious vivashus 208. not fawlt bade bad catch not ketch defalcate defal'kate. e AS IN MET: again agen against agenst crematory krem'atory deaf def. not grum rapine rap'in rational rational sacrament sacrament 209. not klick creek krek. not krick either eether (preferable) mediocre mediocre naïve na'eve (a as in arm) neither neether (preferable) precedence prece'dence precedent prece'dent (when an adjective) predecessor predecessor predilection predilection premature premature quay ke resplendent resplen'dent sacrilegious sacrilegious. a AS IN HAT: alternative alternative Arab Ar'ab. not fawl dilletante dilletan'te forbade forbad granary granary program pro'gram. not like hero measure mezhure.audashus ballet bal'la blasé blaza' blatant blatant chasten chasen Cleopatra Cleopatra compatriot compatriot gratis gratis or grahtis harem harem or hahrem heinous hanous hiatus hiatus implacable implakable nape nap née na négligé naglezha' patron patron protégé protazha' résumé razuma' tenacious tenashus tomato tomato or tomahto valet va'la or val'et vase vas. not def heroine heroin. not arab arid ar'id asphalt asfalt. not -religious series serez sleek slek. e AS IN ME: amenable amenable clique klek. not ma metric metrik precedent prec'edent (noun) prelate prel'at presentation prezentation sesame ses'ame steady stedy. not wepon 212. Ä AS IN ARM: aunt änt behalf behäf calf käf calm käm half häf laugh läf psalm säm 210. not slick suite swet. not like boot 211. not stiddy tenet ten'et weapon wepon.
appendicitis appendicitis biennial biennial biography biography bronchitis bronkitis carbine carbine decisive decisive demise demise dynasty di'nasty finis finis grimy grimy hiatus hia'tus inquiry inqui'ry long-lived long-livd peritonitis peritonitis privacy privacy short-lived short-livd simultaneous simultaneous tiny tiny. not teny 213. o AS IN HOP: choler koler dolorous dolorous florid florid molecule molecule obelisk obelisk probity probity solecism solesism solstice solstice stolid stolid 216. u AS IN US: constable kunstable courtesan kur'tezan hover huver iron iurn monetary munetary nothing nuthing wont wunt (different from won't) . not zoo 215. oo AS IN BOOT: bouquet booka' canteloupe can'taloop coup d'état koo data' coupon koo'pon ghoul gool hoof hoof roof roof root root route root routine rootine wound woond 217. i AS IN HIT: bicycle bi'sicle breeches briches breeching briching feminine feminin genuine genuin hypocrisy hipok'risy italic ital'ik Italian italyan maritime maritim pretty pritty puerile pu'eril respite res'pit tribune trib'un 214. not like owl molecular molecular ogle ogle trow tro vocable vocable zoology zoology. u AS IN USE: accurate ak'kurat culinary kulinary gubernatorial gubernatorial jugular jugular 218. o AS IN OLD: Adonis Adonis apropos apropo bowsprit bowsprit brooch broch not broosh compromise compromize jowl jol.
not ongwe finale finah'le foyer fwaya' massage masahzh naïve nah'ev papier maché papya mahsha piquant pe'kant prima facie prima fa'shie pro tempore pro tem'pore régime razhem' . not ark arch fiend arch. as in get orchid orkid oust owst. WORKS CHIEFLY OF FOREIGN PRONUNCIATION: WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION bivouac biv'wak chargé d'affaires shar zha'daffar' connoisseur connissur dishabille dis'abil ennui onwe. or choor Messrs. not oost peculiar peculyar pecuniary pekun'yari perspiration not prespiratian prestige pres'tij or prestezh' pronunciation pronunzeashun or pronunsheashun saucy not sassy schedule skedyul semi not semi theater the'ater not thea'ter turgid turjid usage uzage usurp uzurp vermilion vermilyun wife's not wives Xerxes zerxes 220. Hele'na) inconvenience inconvenyence Israel izrael. meshyerz or mesyerz Mineralogy -alogy. WORDS WITH A SILENT LETTER: almond ahmund chasten chasen chestnut chesnut glisten glissen kiln kill often ofen ostler osler poignant poin'ant psalter sawlter salmon samun schism sism soften sofen subtle sutle sword sord thyme time toward tord 221. not issrael jeans janes joust just or joost larynx lar'inx' or la'rinx. not alien ameliorate amelyorate antarctic antarktik anti not anti archangel arkangel archbishop arch. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS. not ard Beethoven batoven Bingen Bing'en blackguard blag'gard Bowdoin bodn brougham broom business bizness caldron kawldron calk kawk Cayenne kien' courtier kortyer cuckoo kookoo dilemma dilem'ma directly not directly dishevelled dishev'ld Don Juan Don Juan or hooan drought drowt drouth drowth extempore extempore (four syllables) familiarity familyarity gaol jal genealogy -alogy. not ark architect arkitect awkward awkward. or choor oleomargarine g is hard. not -ology gemus genyus Gloucester gloster gooseberry gooz.219. adobe ado'ba algebra not bra alien alyen. not larnix literature literature. not -ology nature nature. not goos Hawaiian Hawi'yan (a as in arm) Helena hel'ena (except St.
WORDS ACCENTED ON THE SECOND SYLLABLE: WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION abdomen abdo'men acclimate accli'mate acumen acu'men albumen albu'men artificer artif'iser bitumen bitu'men chicanery shika'nery illustrate illus'trate incognito inkog'nito incomparable incom'parable indisputable indis'putable inexorable inex'orable inexplicable inex'plicable inhospitable inhos'pitable inquiry inqui'ry irrevocable irrev'ocable misconstrue miscon'strue nitrogenous nitroj'enous opponent oppo'nent pianist pian'ist refutable refut'able syllabic syllab'ic telegraphy teleg'raphy vagary vaga'ry Yosemite yo swm' i te 225. not zeus 223. not areal athlete two sylables. not valuble vaudeville vodvil Zeus zus. four syllables interest not intrust interesting not intrusting ivory not ivry omelet not omlet realm not rellum separable not seprable ticklish two syllables. not diffrunt elm not ellum helm not hel um history three syllables. not ality conduit condit or kundit. two syllables casualty kazh'ualte. not tickelish valuable valuable. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE LAST SYLLABLE: . not ath e lete attacked attakt.222. not dooit different three syllables. not imp?ous industry in'dustry inventory in'ventory lamentable lam'entable mischievous mis'chievous obligatory ob'ligatory pariah pa'riah peremptory per'emptory preferable pref'erable Romola Rom'ola vehemence ve'hemence 224. not histry honorable not honrable hygienic hy gi en' ic. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE FIRST SYLLABLE: admirable ad'mirable alias a'lias applicable ap'plicable bicycle bi'sikle chastisement chas'tisement construe con'strue despicable des'picable desultory des'ultory disputant dis'putant exigency ex'ijency explicable ex'plicable exquisite ex'quisite extant ex'tant formidable for'midable Genoa jen'oa gondola gon'dola harass har'ass hospitable hos'pitable impious im'pious. WORDS OFTEN PRONOUNCED WITH A WRONG NUMBER OF SYLLABLES: aerial aereal.
AGGRAVATE. It establishes a prec'edent. Right: I should like to be able to do that. Wrong: I should admire to be able to do that. Aggravate means to make worse. WORDS WHOSE PRONUNCIATION DEPENDS ON MEANING: accent Accent' the first syllable. To project' from. learned He learned (one syllable) to sing. aged An a'ged man. A learn ed man. blessed The bless'ed saints. Let them be blessed (one syllable). project A new proj'ect. Do not use aggravate in the sense of irritate or disturb. Properly aged wine (one syllable). Place the ac'cent upon the first syllable. GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS ADMIRE. . precedent A prece'dent place. Do not use admire in the sense of like. converse Did you converse' with him? Is the con'verse true? desert The sandy des'ert. They desert' their friends.address address' adept adept' adult adult' ally ally' commandant commandänt' (ä as in arm) contour contour' dessert dessert' dilate dilate' excise eksiz' finance finance' grimace grimace' importune importune' occult occult' pretence pretence' research research' robust robust' romance romance' tirade tirade' 226. contrast The strange con'trast. Contrast' the two.
Right: I am the man who digs your garden. Wrong: I am the man as digs your garden. I allow to be back before noon. AS. Do not use as for the relative pronouns who and that. Wrong: He alluded by name to John Milton. or intend. Do not use as in the sense of since or because. Right: I cannot come. . Do not use allude in the sense of refer. Right: His impudence irritates me.Wrong: His impudence aggravates me. ALLOW. I intend to be back before noon. or are not. is not. Not that I remember. Do not use allow in the sense of assert. I am sick now. Ain't and hain't are never proper as contractions of am not. say. Right: He alluded to Milton by the term "Blind Poet. Not as I remember." ANY. ALLUDE. To alludeto a thing means to refer to it in an indirect way. AIN'T. AS. Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see any. Wrong: He allowed that he had better start. Do not use any in the sense of at all or to any degree. Wrong: I cannot come as I am sick now. Right: He said that he had better start. Right: I cannot come because I am sick now.
AWFULLY. There is no such word. Right: There is bad feeling among the members of the class. Do not use badly in the sense of very much. Right: John lives beside his mother. Wrong: We have had an awfully good time. That is a verypretty dress. Beside means next to. AWFUL. . Besides means in addition to. Do not use this form for attacked. Substitute other and more accurate expressions. BLOWED. BESIDES. BETWEEN. That is an awfullypretty dress. These are two very much overworked words. Wrong: There is bad feeling between the members of the class.AT. ATTACKTED. BESIDE. Do not use at for in with the names of large cities Wrong: He lives at Philadelphia. there are three sons. Wrong: She wanted badly to come. Do not use blowed for blew or blown. Right: Besides the daughters. BADLY. Right: We have had an exceedingly nice time. Do not use between when referring to more than two objects. Right: She wanted very much to come. Right: He lives in Philadelphia.
Right: He bound himself to pay three hundred dollars. Do not use calculate in the sense of think. Right: He is the better of the two brothers. Do not use but after a negative in the sense of only. See §46. Wrong: He is the best of the two brothers. Reputation means the morality that others believe one to possess. Charactermeans one's moral condition. Wrong: There isn't but one apple left. Wrong: He was bound to go skating. Do not confuse these two words. Right: He is the best of the three brothers. BUT. May denotes permission. . Use better. expect. Best should be used only when more than two are referred to. REPUTATION. CLUM. Do not use best when only two objects are referred to. Right: He was determined to go skating.BEST. Right: There is but one apple left. Do not use bound for determined. See §69 Wrong: Can I speak to you for a minute? Right: May I speak to you for a moment? CHARACTER. Do not use can to denote permission. BOUND. or intend. It denotes ability or possibility. CALCULATE. There is no such form of the verb climb. CAN.
amusing. Use some expression that is more accurate. Demand should not have a person as its object. Do not use considerable in the sense of very much. DISEASE. Do not use decease as a verb in the sense of die. DECEASE. . Right: Finally. See §40. Wrong: The property of the diseased will be sold at auction. Right: He demanded payment from John. The deceased means a person who is dead. Do not use down as a verb in the sense of defeat or overthrow. Do not use complected for complexioned. the second sickness. Wrong: This lesson is considerable better than yesterday's. Wrong: He demanded John to pay. pretty. Do not confuse decease and disease. Do not use don't with a subject in the third person singular. The first means death.COMPLECTED. CONCLUDE. Use the preposition from after different. CONSIDERABLE. DOWN. DIFFERENT. Wrong: The diseased will be buried at four o'clock. See §64. DECEASE. Do not use conclude in the sense of forming an intention. etc. DON'T. Right: I was forced to conclude that I had made an error. A much overworked word. not than. DEMAND. I decided to go home. CUTE. He demanded that John pay. as. Wrong: His father deceased last year.
Either you or John hasdone it. Right: The Italians emigrate from their country.Wrong: Our football team has downed every other team in the state. (Pronounced drownd. Right: The news affected him seriously. Do not confuse effect and affect. EITHER. IMMIGRATE. Wrong: The members of the regiment helped each other. Right: The effect of this news was to cause war. Right: Any one of the three will do. Right: Our football team has defeated every other team in the state. Affect means to disturb or have an influence on. Wrong: Either of the three will do. Drownded is not a proper form of the verb drown. Do not confuse emigrate and immigrate. EFFECT. Say drowned. Wrong: The affect of this news was to cause war. See §43. . Either you or John havedone it. or to cause a thing to be done. See §44. Do not use either with reference to more than two objects. Do not use each other to refer to more than two objects.) EACH OTHER. Effect means a result. nor follow it by a plural verb. EMIGRATE. To emigrate means to go out of a place. DROWNDED. to immigrate means to come into a place. AFFECT. Right: The members of the regiment helped one another. Wrong: The news effected him seriously.
Right: I cannot accept such slovenly work. Wrong: I can not sleep except it is quiet. Right: I suppose you have read that book. a large number are Italians. Wrong: I studied enough that I could recite the lesson. EVERYBODY. Except means to exclude. See §85. Do not use enthuse in the sense of to create enthusiasm. EXCEPT. Do not follow enough by a clause beginning with thator so that. EXPECT. Do not use except for unless. ETC. stands for et cetera. Accept means to acknowledge. Do not confuse these two words. . Do not use expect in the sense of suppose or think. Wrong: He tried to enthuse his audience.Right: Of those who immigrate to America. and means and so forth. Etc. Wrong: I except your apology. EXCEPT. ACCEPT. Wrong: I expect you have read that book. Right: He tried to arouse enthusiasm in his audience. ENOUGH. ENTHUSE. Everybody should not be followed by a plural verb or a plural pronoun. See §21. Right: I studied enough to recite the lesson. Do not spell it ect. Do not use it in composition that is intended to be elegant.
Do not use the word at all. Firstly should never be used. FIRST-RATE. Funny is an overworked word. Do not use from with whence. Say gentleman or man. . Say man. Right: That does very well. hence and thence. Wrong: The book is fine for class-room work. See §40. Say first. however. GENT. Right: It is singular that he died. Do not use fine in place of some more definite word. Fineis a much over-worked word. Do not use first-rate as an adverb in the sense of very well. Right: He is a first-rate fellow.FINE. Do not use funny for singular or strange. Wrong: From whence have you come? Right: Whence have you come? From where have you come? FUNNY. FROM. Right: The book is well adapted for class-room work. Do not use gentleman to denote sex only. Do not use former when more than two are referred to. Wrong: It is funny that he died. See §41. Say first. Wrong: That does first-rate. FORMER. to denote a person of refinement. FIRSTLY. GENTLEMAN. Gentleman is properly used.
Right: We have had a very pleasant time this afternoon. Wrong: We have had a grand time this afternoon. Right: After much study I have got my lesson. HAVE. Right: I suppose the trains are late to-day. Wrong: I can not hardly believe that. GOT. It is another over-worked word. Do not use got with have or had to indicate merely possessionor obligation. Do not use had with ought. Do not use have after had. Right: Mr. Got means acquired through effort. GRAND. You must do it. Do not use hardly after a negative. Do not use guess in the sense of think or suppose. . Right: I can hardly believe that. Right: Can you guess the riddle? HAD OUGHT. Wrong: I have got the measles. Lincoln was a gentleman in the true sense of the word. Wrong: I guess the trains are late to-day. See §54. Right: I have the measles. Wrong: If I had have been able to go. You have got to do it. GUESS. Do not use grand in place of some more definite and accurate expression.Wrong: Only gentlemen are allowed to vote in Pennsylvania. See §46. HARDLY.
Do not confuse hung and hanged. Wrong: It is one kind of a mistake. Wrong: He was condemned to be hung. Do not use humbug as a verb. Right: He exercised in a gymnasium. KIND.Right: If I had been able to go. It is properly used to . Do not confuse in and into. Right: He went into the house. HUMBUG. Wrong: He has humbugged the people for years. Wrong: I do not like those kind of plays. IN. Right: The picture was hung in the parlor. INTO. KIND OF A. Right: It is one kind of mistake. Do not use a or an after kind of. Do not use illy for the adverb ill. LADY. Right: I do not like that kind of play. Do not use lady to designate sex only. ILLY. See §40. Do not use heighth for height. See §47. HUNG. HEIGHTH. Do not precede kind by those or these. Right: He was condemned to be hanged. Hanged is the proper word to use in reference to executions. Wrong: He went in the house.
. Right: It is likely to rain to-day. Do not confuse learn and teach. Johnson a colored woman? Right: Mrs. See §57. Wrong: Will your mother leave you go? Right: Will your mother let you go? Right: I shall leave my trunk in my room. Do not use latter to refer to more than two objects. LEAVE. and a lady. See §41. Let means to give permission. Learn means to acquire knowledge. Do not use liable for likely. LATTER. Use last. Wrong: He can learn you as much as any one can. Right: He is liable for all that he has agreed to pay. Teach means to impart knowledge. LEARN. Leave means to let remain. Right: He can teach you as much as any one can. Wrong: It is liable to rain to-day. Do not use lightning as a verb in place of lightens. Johnson a colored lady? Right: Is Mrs.indicate persons of refinement. Wrong: Is Mrs. Do not confuse lay and lie. LAY. Johnson is a colored woman. LIGHTNING. LIABLE. Do not confuse leave and let.
Mutual means . MUCH. it lightnings frequently. Do not use much for many. Do not use lot in the sense of a great number or a great deal. MUTUAL. Do not use Mrs. LIKE. Right: He has done the most of the work. Manyrefers to number. Right: It looks like a mahogany chair. Wrong: A lot of people were there. Asis a conjunction. Wrong: As much as five hundred people were present. Mrs. She talks a lot. Do not use lit on in the sense of met with or discovered. Right: I have almost completed the book. Right: During the storm. Mrs. MRS. Do not confuse mutual and common.Wrong: During the storm. Do not use like for as. MOST. as. Wrong: He doesn't talk like he did yesterday. it lightens frequently. Doctor. Much refers to quantity. Right: As many as five hundred people were present. Wrong: I at last lit on this plan. President. Professor. Like is a preposition. Right: He doesn't talk as he did yesterday. Wrong: I have most completed the book. before titles. Do not use most for almost. LIT ON. Mrs. LOT.
Do not use nerve in the sense of impudence. Neither of the two arehere. Right: John and William had a mutual liking for each other. Wrong: He ran near all the way to the station. Right: John and William had a common liking for Mary. NEWSY. Right: I am not going anywhere. Right: He ran nearly all the way to the station. Wrong: I am not going no place. Notorious means of evil reputation. NERVE. Right: No one of the three could come. See §46. Neither of the two ishere. Do not use no place after a negative. NO GOOD. I came nearlymaking the same mistake. I came nearmaking the same mistake.interchanged. Do not use neither with reference to more than two objects. Wrong: The book is no good. NEITHER. NO PLACE. . Wrong: Neither of the three could come. nor follow it by a plural verb. Do not use notorious in the sense of famous or noted. Wrong: John and William had a mutual liking for Mary. NOTORIOUS. NEAR. Do not use newsy in the sense of full of news. Do not use no good in the sense of worthless or not good. Do not use near for nearly. I am going nowhere.
Wrong: I must write the letter and have it over with. Right: Several notorious thieves were arrested. PANTS. Wrong: Outside of James. Guard against the improper use of only after a negative. Do not use photo for photograph. . See §46. OVER WITH.Wrong: Gladstone was a notorious statesman of England. Do not use of for have in such expressions as could. might have. should have. Wrong: There are not only four books on that subject. all had a good time. Do not use nowhere near for not nearly. Right: There are only four books on that subject. Right: James was nowhere near the scene of the fire. See §40. ONLY. Do not use over with for over. PHOTO. Do not use the word pants for trousers. have. Right: Aside from James. Wrong: Nowhere near so many people came as were expected. Right: Not nearly so many people came as were expected. Wrong: If I could of been there. Do not use outside of for aside from. all had a good time. etc. OF. NOWHERE NEAR. OUTSIDE OF. Right: If I could have been there.
Principal means leader. PLACE. Wrong: I shall walk a little piece with you. He is quite able to do it. Do not use place after any. Wrong: He feels very poorly.PIECE. in the sense of anywhere. POORLY. Do not use plenty as an adjective or an adverb. every. Wrong: I will go providing you can get tickets for three. Right: Money is plentiful. the most important. PRINCIPLE. Do not confuse principle and principal. PLENTY. everywhere. nowhere. Right: I can not find it anywhere. Right: I will go on the condition that you get the tickets. Right: I intend to tell all I know. no. etc. Principle means a rule or truth. . He is plenty able to do it. PRINCIPAL.. Wrong: I propose to tell all I know. Do not use poorly for ill or bad. PROVIDING. PROPOSE. etc. Do not use providing for if or on the condition. Do not use propose in the sense of intend. Wrong: I can not find it any place. Wrong: Money is plenty. Do not use piece in the sense of way or distance. chief. Right: I shall walk a little way with you.
See §46. Say instead seldomor seldom. RISE. SELDOM EVER. SAME. Wrong: After the play we will come right off. Right: After the play we will come at once. Do not use scarcely after a negative. Right: Your mother said that you should come home at once. Do not use same as a pronoun. Wrong: Fires seldom ever occur. Do not use seldom with ever. . Do not use say in the sense of order or command. Right: I will write the letter and mail it at once. SCARCELY. RECOMMENDATION. if ever. Right: There was scarcely a pound of meat for us all. RECOMMEND. SAY. Right: Her employer gave her a good recommendation. Wrong: I will write the letter and mail same at once. Do not use recommend as a noun. RIGHT OFF. RIGHT AWAY. Recommendation is the noun.RAISE. Wrong: Her employer gave her a good recommend. See §57. Wrong: Your mother said for you to come home at once. Wrong: There was not scarcely a pound of meat for us all. Do not confuse raise with rise. Do not use right away or right off in the sense of immediately.
Do not use shut of in the sense of rid of. so more could see and hear him. (That is not a relative here. Do not use a after sort of. SIGHT. Right: He plays the violin a little. SIT. Right: A great many people flocked to hear him. Wrong: All such persons who think so will soon see their mistake. See Kind of a. Wrong: We are shut of him at last. if ever occur. See Kind. Right: He spoke in the open air. SORT. SOME. so that more could see and hear him. Do not use some as an adverb in the sense of somewhator a little. SO. Right: All such persons as think so will soon see their mistake. Do not precede sort by these or those. See §57. Fires seldom. SORT OF A. Do not use so alone as a conjunction.) . SET. which. Say so that. Right: He spoke with such force that we were compelled to listen. SUCH. Wrong: A great sight of people flocked to hear him. SHUT OF. Do not follow such by who.Right: Fires seldom occur. Do not use sight in the sense of many or much. Wrong: He plays the violin some. Do not confuse these two words. or that as relatives. Wrong: He spoke in the open air.
THOSE THERE. Wrong: Bring me them there books. Do not confuse these two expressions. Right: I did not think that the book was so small. Wait for means to await. ETC.TASTY. WAIT ON. Right: You are very much mistaken. There and here. Do not use them there for those. Do not use very alone before a verb or a participle. Right: He is too much excited to listen to you. in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. Do not say three first. TOO. THREE FIRST. Wait onmeans to serve. THAT. VERY. WAIT FOR. TWO FIRST. Right: Do not wait for me if I do not come at noon. Right: Bring me those books. THAT THERE. Wrong: Do not wait on me if I do not come at noon. but first three. Do not use that as an adverb. THEM THERE. There can be only one first. THESE HERE. . Wrong: He is too excited to listen to you. THIS HERE. Do not use tasty in the sense of tasteful. Do not use too alone before a verb or a participle. Wrong: I did not think the book was that small. Wrong: You are very mistaken.
without and. Aggravate. rule against. adjective pronouns. . omission of. An. Apostrophe. for refer. Glossary. defined. confusion with adjectives. for effect. quotation from. (§121). As. explained. clearness of. of pronouns. general use of. double negative. explained. for like. of relative pronouns. errors in comparison. Attackted. Glossary. with plural nouns. Glossary. punctuation of (§102). Articles. as a relative pronoun. Apposition. Glossary. And. use of. Since the EXERCISES follow throughout the subjects treated. Do not confuse wake and awake. for between. compound. case of (note 2). Glossary. Allude.WAKE. of verb and subject. placing of. use of article. for except. Auxiliary verbs. AWAKE. Glossary. Glossary. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. A. for assert or intend. Also. confused with adverbs. Antecedents. defined. Appositives. Ain't. Accept. conjunctive. Adjectives. agreement of pronouns and. Glossary. use of. punctuation of (§122). Glossary. in letters. Attribute complement. exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject in this text index. Any. Glossary. explained. for like. of verb in clauses. mispronunciation of attacked. improper forms of. INDEX References are to pages. Agreement. list of irregularly compared. for irritate. defined. of pronoun and antecedent. Abbreviated words. forms of. as conjunction or adverb. Affect. distinguished from adjectives. Glossary. Adverbs. for at all. list of irregular. Arise. use of. for augur. punctuation of (§116). Active voice and passive voice. singular and plural. Among. Æsop's Fables. for since. At. errors in comparison of. with possessive nouns. comparison of. punctuation of (§108). explained. of adjective and noun. See §57. with possessive pronouns. indefinite. punctuation of two or more adjectives modifying same noun (§106). Glossary. Abbreviations. use of article. explained. capitalization of proper. Admire. shall and will. distinguished from adverbs. Allow. Argue. for in. Glossary.
agreement of verb with. model conjugation of. use of hyphen with (§140). how to gain in paragraph. Common gender. rules for forming possessive. Awake. case forms of pronouns. Glossary. defined. for badly. of the letter." misuse of c|o for." in letters. Glossary. Blowed. when proper. irregular forms in. Glossary. . for awfully. rules to aid in. case forms of relative pronouns. rule against. for but what. rules for. Between. Beside.should and would. Comparative degree. can. subordinate or dependent. Comparison. Concluded. may. Cases. Choice of words. Complected. Body. Bible. for reputation. and could. Close of letter. Best. of verb in. Coherence. use of. words of. Books for reading. Can. in reference to more than two things. outline for use of case forms. for council. "Comma blunder". Conditional clauses. Balanced sentence. Glossary. case of word in apposition. Glossary. with a negative. Considerable. defined. for complexioned. for vocation. Avocation. Complex sentence. Comma. Brackets. in letters. correlatives. Bad. defined. classified and defined. Beginning of the composition. principal or independent. Contractions of not. Climax in sentences. by Channing. Compound subject. "Cant expressions. substantive. for to form an opinion. Glossary. manner of comparing. in formal composition. errors in. Compound sentence. for besides. for wake. for intend. for determined. of whole composition. Glossary. adverbial. Clum. for blew. use of. for assert. Glossary. misuses of. Glossary. for among. Glossary. illustrations of in paragraph. Glossary. to introduce two succeeding statements. list of. Barbarisms. by Washington Irving. or counsel. relative. Glossary. personal. Compound pronouns. for better. degrees of. Compound nouns. But. as a relative pronoun. misuse of. Complimentary close. punctuation of (§114). Consul. for considerably. use of. rules for forming plurals of. Claim. of nouns and pronouns. of paragraph. of sentence. quotation from. But that. adjective. when and where clauses. with a dependent clause. Colon. agreement. rules for avoidance of. Clauses. for climbed. Confusion of adjectives and adverbs. Conjunctions. Character. defined. Character of Napoleon Bonaparte. Clipped words. capitalization of (§100). Bound. "In care of. Compound words. Capitalization. Calculate. might. Glossary. Awful. quotation from. explained. Christmas.
Father. punctuation of (§111). Final words. adverbial modifier. Glossary. Degrees in comparison. of ending of whole composition. 119.. Emigration. Cute.Co-ordinate clauses. Ending of whole composition. Glossary. Each other. in paragraphs. counsel and consul confused. clever. Gender. Glossary. Subordinate elements: attribute complement. Effect. punctuation before. misuse with more than two objects. object complement. Either. Dash. misused as a conjunction. Directly. Glossary. Double negatives. Glossary. Glossary. Dictionary. Except. Decease. by Mrs. Glossary. for accept. Funny. by a when or where clause. Glossary. Glossary. Could. capitalization of (§100). (§§118. of beginning of whole composition. for affect. Don't. Correctly written letters. Gaskell. value of its use. Glossary. use of. of correctly written letters. Glossary. misuse as a verb. Enough. Euphony. Glossary. defined and classified formation of feminine from masculine. Glossary. First-rate. East. Expect. for fell.. for everywhere. subject. (§§122. etc. Form of letters. Correlatives. Glossary. Former. Fell. Different. capitalization of (§99). classified. Dependent and conditional clauses. misuse after Mr. followed by a plural form. of nouns and pronouns. model conjugations of. Explanatory relative clauses. 120). Disease. For. for immigration. in sentences. misuse with more than two objects. Everywheres. Fine. selection from. Glossary. for pretty. 113). defined. Glossary. Glossary. Glossary. Etc. Emphasis. From. Euthuse. adjective modifier. Cranford. for singular. of outline of whole composition. Copulative verb. (§§119. Demand. Glossary. Glossary. Expletives. Either-or. 120). in letters. Feminine gender. Down. with than. Drownded. placing of. use of. in sentence. Foreign words. Everybody. Council. "Fine-writing". Elements of the sentence: Principal elements. 123). predicate. Glossary. Definition. Examples.. mispronunciation of drowned. Exclamation point. Firstly. for fall. punctuation of (§114). Fall. Glossary. . Division of words at ends of lines (§139). used to introduce two succeeding clauses. Esq. punctuation of (§§112. for suppose. misspelling of.. Glossary. Enumerations. use of.
placing of. Glossary. see Transitive. Hung. Glossary. placing of gerund phrase. Like. Glossary. Have. for let. Geographical names. misuse with gerund. Loan. for well. Latter. Glossary. Glossary. Liable. Got. Guess. rules for sequence of infinitive tenses. of paragraphs. Lit on. Good use of words.gender of pronouns. Kind. confused with last. with a negative. Inflection. Lay. for height. ought. Home. use of. Glossary. with noun or pronoun modifier. Glossary. use of. capitalization of (§100). Good. Glossary. misuse as a conjunction. confused with hanged. i. use of. explanation of. Glossary. Lend. Intransitive verbs. Glossary. Glossary. Glossary. confused with hung. His'n. Interrogation point. Interjection. Improprieties. Lady. Gettysburg speech. use of. Glossary. Glossary. in letters. Heading. Lie. Him. Glossary. Glossary. confused with emigration. outside address. punctuation of (§108). notes in third person. explanation of. Interrogative pronouns. Glossary. Indentation. inside address. Kind of a. Grand. for think. Hardly. punctuation of (§107). Illy. for teach. Her'n. Order of. Lightning. confused with loan. Had. Leave. Glossary. I. Glossary. Hyphen. Humbug. Introductory words or phrases. confused with lie. of paragraph. Glossary. Infinitives. misuse with demonstratives. Hackneyed expressions. confused with lay. for at home. confused with house. Letter writing. of paragraph. Glossary. Glossary. by Lincoln. in letters. Immigration. miscellaneous directions. general rule against. misuse after had. forms of. Improving one's vocabulary. Learn. salutation. Hisself. Loose sentences. Here. Hain't. Idioms. Hanged. Grave forms of personal pronouns. Heighth. Imperative mode. e. Glossary. split. In the letter. confusion with participle. of letters. In. for likely. rules for. Gerunds. confused with lend. Glossary. of sentences. Gent. cases used with. heading. offenses against. General terms. punctuation of (§122). defined. . Inside address of letters. close. Length. Glossary. confused with into. Gentleman. Glossary. Lot for a great deal. body of letter. illustrations of correctly written letters.. with plural modifiers.
punctuation of (§102). Mrs. of relative pronouns. Paragraphing of letters. Mother. Only. obligative. defined. confused with noted. explanation of. No good. confused with observation. unity in. confused with nearly. participal. imperative. capitalization of (§99). too frequent use of. explained. of nouns and pronouns. case of. explanation and use of. sign #. Glossary. No. Outline. gender of. O and oh. coherence in. Neuter gender. Object complement. Glossary. Newly coined expressions. of prepositions. punctuation in case of (§117). indentation of. for many. Glossary. with a negative. Obsolete words.Mad. of pronouns. Objective case. of pronouns with compounded antecedent. Number. footnote. rule against. model conjugations of. use of. Mutual. Parenthesis marks. Neither-nor. Ought. Glossary. length of. Other. Glossary. explanation and use of. Glossary. rules for forming plurals of nouns. Most for almost. placing of. Notes in the third person. One another.. Glossary. Past tense. rule against. dangling. of important words. Nouns. Observance. for composition. Parts of speech. Over with. Glossary. Glossary. Newsy. Participles. Outside of. Modifiers. misuse with more than two objects. note. infinitive. North. Number. agreement of verb and subject in number. Passive voice and active voice explained. plural. (§138). Omission. of adverb much. Glossary. Might. use of. common. model conjugation of. Nowhere near. at beginning of sentence. indicative. Over-statement of facts. forms of. potential. Name. Outside address. Near. defined. Glossary. Not muchly. proper. use of. defined. defined. for worthless. classified. Not only--but also. form of verb. Neither. Past participle. for angry. defined.. singular. punctuation of (§122). Mode. Paragraphs. of pronouns. of. use of in comparison. subjunctive. Notorious. definition of. emphasis in. number of. in letters. Glossary. when used. Obligative mode (footnote). Much. capitalization of (§100). when used. of verbs. Muchly. Nerve. used for. Glossary. placing of. confused with common. Pants. . No place. Messrs. Order of heading in letters. Nominative case. of letters. Of. confusion with gerunds. Namely. capitalization of (§100). May. Masculine gender. for not nearly. illustration of.
body. definition and rule against use of. defined. with compound antecedents. adjective. in whole composition. case forms of. Placing of adjectives and adverbs. Prepositional phrase. Professional words. proper use of. essential: Of sentences. compound personal pronouns. used as conjunctions. prepositional. defined. punctuation of (§115). compound. Glossary. euphony. verb. Predicate of the sentence. Positive degree. rules for forming possessives of nouns. in sentence. Glossary. list of. classified. of complimentary close. unnecessary use of. Glossary. Plural number. Glossary. use of common and of grave forms of. Pronouns. Glossary. Raise. words given wrong sounds. introduction of successive. gender of. words of foreign pronunciation. explained. use of case forms of. Quite. coherence. Glossary. Personal pronouns. Plenty. (§§132-137). confused with rise. use of. explained. explained. of outside address. relative. Poorly. Principal verbs. for intend. for very. salutation. Point of view. Proper nouns. words of similar spelling. defined. capitalization of (§95). Piece. punctuation of adverbial phrases (§116). Relative causes. confused with recommendation. Glossary. Place. words given wrong accent. for if. Propose. explanation and forms of. defined. Pronunciation. Quotations. unity. Provincialisms. Principal. of inside address. when used. Period. in letters. Principal parts of verbs. compound relative. lists of frequently mispronounced words. (§131). classified. Punctuation. omission of. explained. use of. in letters. Quotation marks. (§123). rules for forming plurals of nouns. compound personal. Glossary. Photo. punctuation of (§111). antecedent of. Proper adjectives. defined. number of. of heading. defined. interrogative. Periodic sentence. Potential mode. inside address. confused with principle. Glossary. Prepositions. capitalization of (§95). use . for ill. unity. Providing. heading. Recommend. Glossary. Position. Of paragraphs. of salutation. outline of. agreement with antecedent. defined. predicate. emphasis. rules for. Qualities. in paragraph. Of whole composition. coherence. Phrases. (§121). emphasis. explanatory or non-restrictive.preceded by thus. rules determining gender of. cases in. Possessive case. rules for use of. defined. unity. unnecessary use of. outside address.
interrogative. Technical words. confused with character. confused with sit. Glossary. Some. Should and would. defined. Slang. misuse as a pronoun. in questions. Right away. after you and they. Specific terms. of words of similar sound. use of. loose. Glossary. S-form of verb. Some. infinitive. Simple sentence. use of. of whole composition. capitalization of. compound. use of. South. statement of. defined and explained. Glossary. agreement of verb and subject. for order or command. capitalization. confused with raise. for many. simple. use of. placing of. case and number of. misuse in comparing only two things. rules for. declarative. Glossary. Subject of sentence or clause. Reputation. division of words into. length of. Suspect. defined. agreement of verb with. (§127). misuse as an adverb.. use of. use of. Sight. explained. periodic. So. use of. balanced. with plurals. relative pronoun as. Glossary. for tasteful. Singular number. essential qualities of. Scarcely. "Squinting construction. of (§100). model conjugations of. complex. slipshod construction of. Seldom ever. Series of words. with a negative.of when or where clause. Tasty." in . Sentences: defined. Sit. Right off. exclamatory. (§139). Such. Singular form of verb. punctuation of. Shut of. Somebody else's. restrictive. paragraphing of. Say. compound. (§100). in dependent clauses. Glossary. Salutation. Glossary. Synonyoms. value of. (§109). Sequence of tenses. model conjugations of. Glossary. use of. Glossary. Solecisms. Repetition of similar words or syllables. past tenses of. for expect. Sentence elements out of natural order. Respectfully. in clauses. for rid of. Shall and will. Semi-colon. compound. confused with respectively. Glossary." Street. lists of words frequently misspelled. Glossary. Glossary. in composition. Glossary. Relative pronouns. Sort of a. Glossary. in principal clauses. Superlative degree. Glossary. imperative. Similar expressions of similar thoughts. Subject matter of letters. Spelling. explanatory or non-restrictive. Rise. Summarizing word. with different antecedents. Simple words. Set. confused with set. punctuation of. Signature of writer. Subjunctive mode. in letters. explanation and use of. Glossary. "Telegraph style. in letters. Sort. Rev. Scriptures. Syllables. Glossary. Speech. omission of in letters.
Tense. use of article. misuse of. Glossary. Glossary. Them. (§100). confused with avocation. with what antecedents. and these sort. with what antecedents used. good use of. That is. indefinite use of. to-night. Unity: Of paragraph. with what antecedents used. paragraph composition or paragraph theme.. misuse of. That. improper use of after demonstratives. (§139). explanation of. Without. Words. Whole composition. capitalization of. hyphens with. slang. list of. Unnecessary words. What. for those. auxiliary. Very. Well. clipped or abbreviated. use of. Third person. Titles. Where. confused with good. Three first. participles. Unbeknown. abbreviations of. (§122). Glossary. Too. Wait on. Glossary. for happen. how to improve vocabulary of. Thusly. . Vocation. with clause or phrase as antecedent. Two first. Those kind. Wake. beginning of. of coherence. To-day. explained. Verbs. illustrations of. in place of figures in letters. punctuation of. idioms. professional. Glossary. how to gain. Transitive and intransitive verbs. Try and. transitive and intransitive. (§§ 96. sequence of. Glossary. Of sentence. to-morrow. Who. Title of whole composition. rules for improvement of. Glossary. principal. Than. There. Glossary. Vulgarisms. theirselves. Which. 97). Ways. Transition. capitalization of. Glossary. agreement of verb in clauses. pronunciation of. for unknown. agreement of verb and subject. foreign. theirself. misuse as a conjunction. notes in the. division of at ends of lines. Their'n. voice. Vocabulary. Transpire. with singular verb. with what antecedents used. use of. When. as a restrictive relative. Of whole composition. use of auxiliaries. Weak beginnings and endings of sentences. choice of. use of. Will. They. defined. confused with awake. West. use of. omission of verbs or parts of. mode.letters. explained. The. Verb phrase. (§122). in whole composition. principal parts. provincialisms. punctuation of. confused with wait for. ending of. viz. gerunds. model conjugations of to-be and to see. infinitives. principal parts. see shall. Then. simple English. confusion of. spelling of. (§140). newly-coined. technical words.
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