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Media bias in presidential elections: a meta-analysis
Version of Record online: 10 JAN 2006
DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02866.x
Journal of Communication
Volume 50, Issue 4, pages 133–156, December 2000
Additional Information
How to Cite
D'Alessio, D. and Allen, M. (2000), Media bias in presidential elections: a meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 50: 133–156. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02866.x
Publication History
- Issue online: 10 JAN 2006
- Version of Record online: 10 JAN 2006
- Abstract
- References
- Cited By
A meta-analysis considered 59 quantitative studies containing data concerned with partisan media bias in presidential election campaigns since 1948. Types of bias considered were gatekeeping bias, which is the preference for selecting stories from one party or the other; coverage bias, which considers the relative amounts of coverage each party receives; and statement bias, which focuses on the favorability of coverage toward one party or the other. On the whole, no significant biases were found for the newspaper industry. Biases in newsmagazines were virtually zero as well. However, meta-analysis of studies of television network news showed small, measurable, but probably insubstantial coverage and statement biases.


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The modern day Indian car buyers are increasingly concerned about the safety aspect rather than getting carried away by the exterior design and gadget-loaded cabin. Do safety features of a car influence your buying decision? Or is it just the mileage and price?


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Share the post "Groves plans on forcing Froch to fight hard in first six rounds"
George Groves (19-1, 15 KO's) doesn't plan on changing his battle tactics for his rematch with IBF/WBA super middleweight champion Carl Froch (32-2, 23 KO's) on May 31st. Groves says he's going to start fast just like he did last time they fought in November, and force Froch to either take punishment for the first 6 rounds or fight back.
Either way, Groves thinks he'll come out ahead, because Froch will either gas out or walk onto a big shot and get knocked down or out.
"If he comes out and tries to be cautious and not throw so many punches, well then he's still not going to be doing anything to keep me off of him, which is frightening for him," Groves said to Talksport.com. "He's just going to walk into shots. He's going to have to punch his way out of bad situations and then walk on to even bigger shots. What he's got just isn't good enough. He's a caveman."
Froch probably won't be able to do much in the first 6-7 rounds if Groves does decide to go after him the way he did last November. Froch doesn't have the hand speed or the defense to do well against Groves in the early part of the fight. Froch accepted the rematch, but only because he was kind of put in a situation where it was impossible to walk away from it.
The money was too good, and the fans badly wanted to see the two fighters go at it again. Froch probably feels that he can wear Groves down sand get him in the same situation he was in the 9th round when the referee Howard John Foster stopped the fight, albeit prematurely in the minds of many boxing fans. But if Groves doesn't wear down, and if he doesn't get hurt by one of Froch's big home run punches, we could see Froch in a world of hurt in this fight, and likely to be stopped.
Groves has the kind of power to where he can stop Froch outright and win early if he connects with a big enough shot. Groves had Froch on his backside in the 1st round and if there was a little more time left in the round, he might have been able to stop him.
Groves needs to be on his guard to be careful to avoid getting hit with Froch's big right hands. If he's going to play with fire by going after Froch, he could get burnt if he's not solid with his defensive skills.


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Brief Summary
The Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is relatively small even for a hummingbird, but can be quite aggressive in defending a patch of flowers at which it feeds. Like many hummingbirds, Rufous Hummingbirds often preferentially visit red tubular flowers. This species breeds farther north than any other hummingbird, all the way up to south-central Alaska and southern Yukon. Of all the western hummingbirds, the Rufous Hummingbird shows up most often in eastern North America. Rufous Hummingbirds breed around forest edges, streamsides, and mountain meadows and winter mainly in pine-oak woods in Mexico (although some winter along the Gulf Coast in the southeastern United States and casually northward throughout much of the eastern United States). This species is closely related to Allen's Hummingbird (Selasphorus sasin), which breeds mainly in coastal California. Females and immatures of these two species are nearly impossible to distinguish in the field, but adult males can usually be distinguished by back color (typically solid green in Allen's and mostly rufous in Rufous).
Although the male Rufous Hummingbird's courtship display has been described as tracing a steep U or vertical oval, climbing high and then diving steeply, with whining and popping sounds at the bottom of the dive, Hurly et al. (2001) report that this is not accurate for many populations and likely is true for none. In their observations, males made J-shaped dive displays that were concave upward during both the climb and the dive. Males produce a high-pitched whine during dives. Toward the bottom of the arc, they produce a distinctive pulsing sound (chu-chu-chu-chu), and then end with a buzzing or "rattle" sound during the waggle. The male also performs a shuttle-flight display a few centimeters above an intruder, usually a female perched in low vegetation, hovering in a horizontal orientation and throwing himself from side to side with his head facing the female and his tail describing an arc on the order of 130°, and approximately 40 to 50 cm in length, in the horizontal plane. A characteristic throbbing buzz can be heard as the male moves from side to side. A single male may mate with several females.(Hurly et al. 2001)
The nest of a Rufous Hummingbird is typically well concealed in the lower part of a coniferous tree, deciduous shrub, or vine. It is generally less than 5 m above the ground, although it may be as high as 10 m. Built by the female alone, it is a compact cup of soft materials held together with pieces of spider web and lined with plant down, The outside is camouflaged with pieces of lichen. Old nests may be repaired and re-used. The clutch of two (sometimes one, possibly rarely three or even four) white eggs is incubated by the female alone for 15 to 17 days. The female is also solely responsible for feeding the young after hatching. Age at first flight is around 21 days.
This species is widespread and abundant, although there is some evidence of recent declines.
(Kaufman 1996; AOU 1998)
A mature rufous hummingbird is about 7-9 cm in length, has an 11 cm wingspan, and weighs between 2 and 5 g. Males have an iridescent red throat, a dull reddish back, and an orange tail with pointed black tips. Females have a white throat with a few red feathers, a green back and head, and an orange, green, and black tail. Rufous hummingbirds feed on flower nectar, small insects, and tree sap. Males can be identified by their aerial display during courtship in which they make a series of steep, J-shaped dives that end at the same point. Males are territorial year-round.
This bird can be found in the winter from Southern California, through Mexico, and along the northern Gulf Coast. In the summer, it breeds from southern Alaska southward to northern California, south central Idaho, and western Montana. These birds frequently visit the eastern states and have the northernmost range of any hummingbird. Selasphorus rufus is declining over most of its range.
Rufous Hummingbird, Selasphorus rufus, is found in western and coastal North America from March through August, and migrates to Mexico in the winter months of October through February (Johnsgard 1983).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
National Distribution
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Breeding
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Breeding
Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) Breeding range extends from southern Alaska, southern Yukon, British Columbia, and southwestern Alberta southward through Washington, Oregon, and western Montana to northwestern California and Idaho (Calder 1993, AOU 1998).
Winter range extends from coastal southern California (rarely), Sinaloa, Chihuahua, southern Texas, and Gulf Coast (east to western Florida) south to southern Baja California and southern mainland Mexico (e.g., Oaxaca, Veracruz (Calder 1993, AOU 1998). Individuals often occur ouside usual species range.
Coded range extent refers to breeding range.
- Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, D. Roberson, T. A. Fredericks, B. L. Sullivan, and C. L. Wood. 2014. The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.9. Downloaded from http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/
Physical Description
The adult male rufous has a white breast with greenish back and crown. The back is sometimes glossed with metallic bronze-green. The pileum (the top of the head from the bill to the nape) is bronze-green, and the gorget (collar) is bright orange-red. The chin and throat is a shiny metallic scarlet color. The bill is long, straight, thin, black or dark brown in color. The feet are a dusky color. The adult female rufous has a metallic bronze-green back, and the pileum is a little duller than the male rufous. From the chin and the throat, down to the breast of the female, is a dull white color. Rufous Hummingbird has a body length of about 7.3 to 9.1 cm (2.87 to 3.58 in), and weighs around 2.8 g to 4.0 g (0.097 to 0.141 Oz). Unlike other birds that have large sound-producing muscles extending from the windpipe to the chest bone,the rufous has two sets of small vocal muscles in the trachea (Johnsgard 1983; Toops 1992; Sayre 1999).
Range mass: 2.8 to 4 g.
Average mass: 3.37 g.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Average basal metabolic rate: 0.06853 W.
Length: 10 cm
Weight: 3 grams
During breeding season, Rufous Hummingbirds are found in forests, on seed-tree harvest units, riparian shrub, and spruce-fir habitats. During the winter, it lives wherever flowers are present. It migrates to lowland stream bottoms, foothill brush land, seacoast and high mountain meadows (Johnsgard 1983; Paige et al. 1999).
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; mountains
Habitat and Ecology
- Terrestrial
Comments: Breeding habitat includes coniferous forest, second growth, thickets, and brushy hillsides, with foraging extending into adjacent scrubby areas and meadows with abundant nectar flowers (AOU 1998); habitat is chiefly secondary succession communities and forest openings (Calder 1993). On national forest lands in northern Idaho and western Montana, this species was most commonly detected on clearcut and seed-tree harvest units and in post-fire habitats; also riparian shrub, cedar-hemlock, and spruce-fir habitats (Hutto 1995). It had a higher probability of detection in cut rather than uncut forests (Hutto and Young, unpublished).
This hummingbird also is associated with old-growth coniferous forest stands. In western Oregon, it nested in 16-120 year-old second-growth and older than 120 year-old mature forest (Meslow and Wight 1975). In northern Idaho cedar-hemlock, it was significantly more abundant in selectively harvested and old-growth stands than in old-growth stands recently fragmented by clearcuts (Hejl and Paige 1993). In Oregon Cascades Douglas-fir forests, it was positively associated with stand age where old-growth stands included numerous small openings, and it was found in stands with large to very large western hemlocks (Gilbert and Allwine 1991). In two Washington Cascades studies, its occurrence in old-growth (200-700 years old) was double or nearly double that in young (40-80 years) or mature (80-190 years) forest stands (Carey et al. 1991; Manuwal 1991). Old-growth stands showed greater spatial diversity and midstory cover, and lower canopy cover (Carey et al. 1991). Abundance was higher in mesic and dry old-growth Douglas-fir stands than in wet stands (Manuwal 1991).
Nests are placed in trees, shrubs, or vines, about 1-15 meters (usually less than 5 meters) above ground (e.g., in blackberry bush, huckleberry bush, overhanging vine, alder, drooping branch of conifer, among roots of fallen tree, crown of deciduous tree; Johnsgard 1983). Baltosser (1989) observed that areas with both greater quantities and more predictable nectar supplies supported more hummingbird nests; this pattern may also apply to rufous hummingbird.
Habitat in migration and winter includes open situations where flowers are present (AOU 1998). During southward migration, this species uses mountain meadows and disturbed habitats with Castilleja spp, Aquilegia formosa, Epilobium angustifolium, Delphinium spp. Penstemon barbatus, Monarda menthaefolia, Linaria vulgaris, and Cleome serrulata (Calder 1993). In Mexico, it occurs in pine woods with abundant flowers and flowering shrubs; in open country with scattered trees and shrubs; suburban gardens, parks, vacant lots (Edwards 1972). Nonbreeding habitat also includes oak forests interspersed with pine and juniper between 2,300-3,000 meters; higher oak-fir forests; shrubby secondary succession habitats; arid thorn forest; brush at farm and roadside edges with Salvia spp.; scrublands and disturbed oak woodland (Calder 1993).
Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Route from Mexico to Alaska is longest migration of any North American hummingbird (True 1993). Stopover habitats are critical for accumulating resources required for migration.
Migration patterns coincide with weather patterns and flowering times (Calder 1993). Rufous hummingbirds migrate northward along the Pacific Coast and through lowlands west of the Rockies in winter and early spring (Calder 1993), arriving in California in late February-early March, Oregon by March 1, Alaska by mid-April. Southward migration is chiefly through mountains of Cascades/Sierras and Rocky Mountains. Southward migrants were observed in Colorado over a 6-week period in July and early August (Calder 1993). Arrival in southern Arizona/New Mexico occurs by late July/August and in central Mexico by August/September (Baltosser 1989; Calder 1993). Males migrate before females and juveniles (Phillips et al. 1964).
Trophic Strategy
The Rufous Hummingbird consumes flies, ants, small beetles, tiny wasps and other small insects for a source of protein. Nectar is its most important food source for energy. It also drinks sap from the holes made by the Red-naped Sapsuckers for an extra food source. It feeds on nectar from several different flowering plants, such as honeysuckle, scarlet sage, horsemint, and black locust. This hummingbird is attracted to red and tubular flowers, preferring flowers that are spread farther apart giving it needed space for the beat of its wings. It eats about 1/2 to about 3 times its body weight. The Rufous Hummingbird feeds on nectar a minimum of sixty times a day. It consumes numerous small meals instead of a few big meals. It consumes nectar from flowering plants with its fork-like tongue at 13 licks per second ( Johnsgard 1983; Toops 1992; Chloe 1999; Sayre 1999; Gates and Gates 2000).
Comments: Diet includes nectar, insects, and tree sap from sapsucker wells. This species obtains nectar from a wide variety of flowering plant species, (e.g., columbine, scarlet gilia, penstemon, paintbrushes, sage, lilies, larkspurs, heaths, currants, salmonberry, honeysuckles, fireweed, horsemint, toad-flax, snapdragon, bee-flower, and others (Calder 1993). Arrival on southward migration in southern Arizona and New Mexico coincides with blooming and high abundance of Agave spp. (Baltosser 1989).
Experimental manipulation with feeders in successional forest habitat showed that rufous hummingbirds preferred the greatest available sucrose concentrations, ranging from 20 percent to 60 percent, and preferred nectar sources at greater heights (2-3 meters; Blem et al. 1997).
Insects are important sources of fat, protein, and salts; these are obtained by hawking, gleaning, and in tree sap (Calder 1993).
Population Biology
Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300
Comments: This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations).
Global Abundance
>1,000,000 individuals
Comments: Total population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 1,000,000. Rich et al. (2004) estimated population size at 6,500,000.
General Ecology
This hummingbird actively defends feeding and nesting territory both inter- and intraspecifically (Cody 1968; Baltosser 1989; Calder 1993). Banding returns show the species has strong fidelity to breeding sites, wintering sites, and migration routes (Calder and Jones 1989; Calder 1993); it has been shown to have strong spatial memory for nectar sites (Hurly 1996). Rufous hummingbirds establish and defend territories around nectar sources on breeding sites, migration stopovers, and wintering sites. Migrating birds can gain an average mass of 0.23 g per day, and conserve energy by going into torpor at night (Hixon and Carpenter 1988). Feeding territory size depends on flower density and fluctuates with the rate of weight gain possible from nectar availability and the cost of territorial defense (Kodric-Brown and Brown 1978; Gass 1979; Carpenter et al. 1983). Feeding territory sizes range from 32 to 3,300 square meters (Gass 1979; Kodric-Brown and Brown 1978). Calder (1993) notes that banded birds have been recaptured at feeders 2 kilometers apart in summer.
Breeding densities reported range from 0.17 to 2.6 nests per hectare (Horvath 1964 cited in Calder 1993). In Oregon Coast Range Douglas-fir forests, densities reported at 0.16 birds per hectare in young stands, 0.13 birds per hectare mature stands, and 0.33 birds per hectare in old-growth stands (Carey et al. 1991). Average relative abundances reported on BBS routes range from 0.83 to 4.94 birds per 25-mile survey route (Sauer et al. 1997). In winter, 95 individuals captured in 12 nets over two days in a pine-oak post-fire succession habitat in Sierra de Manantlan Biosphere Reserve, Jalisco, Mexico (Calder 1993).
Baltosser (1983, cited in Miller and Gass 1985) reported high egg and nestling predation (25 percent to 58 percent) in four species of hummingbirds; however, nest predation is apparently unstudied in rufous hummingbirds. Predation on adult hummingbirds is not likely to play a large role in adult mortality (Miller and Gass 1985; Calder 1993).
Some observers suggest that artificial feeders may increase populations above natural levels by providing food beyond flowering seasons (see Calder 1993) or encouraging birds to delay migration past availability of natural foods. Feeders may also subject birds to predation, disease, or collision with windows. However none of these factors are fully studied or quantified (Calder 1993).
Life History and Behavior
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Comments: This hummingbird is capable of altering energy balance by employing nocturnal torpor.
Life Cycle
These hummingbirds have the longest known avian migration proportional to their body size, migrating over 1,500 km from Alaska to Mexico. Migration occurs between March and May. Nests are open cups placed in a shrub or on a small twig or branch of trees like conifers. Clutch size is two eggs. Upon hatching, the birds are helpless and naked.
Life Expectancy
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 107 months.
Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
The breeding season for the Rufous Hummingbird begins in April and ends in July. The peak of the season usually occurs in May. The male will mate with several females during the breeding season. The male arrives at the desired breeding territory 2 to 3 weeks before the females. He attracts the female by climbing high into the air (20 to 45 m (75 to 150 ft)) then diving toward the female, pulling out of the dive and arcing back up into the sky after bottoming out within 2 or 3 inches of the female. During this mating display his wings are flapping at a rate of 200 wing beats per second, which creates the unique metallical "buzzing" sound heard during these displays. The female signals acceptance of the male as a mate by displaying the white tips of her tail. Copulation lasts only 3 to 5 seconds (Johnsgard 1983; Toops 1992; Chloe 1999).
The female builds her nest in blackberry vines, huckleberry bushes and other well protected overgrowths. Nests are built of mosses, leaves, and lichens woven together with spider webs. Rufous Hummingbirds usually lay two eggs about 1.3 cm (1/2 in) in size. The eggs take anywhere from 12 to 14 days to hatch, and the young leave the nest about 1 week after hatching. The female fiercely defends her nest from predators, while the male plays no role in defending or raising the young. (Johnsgard 1983; Toops 1992; Chloe 1999).
Range time to hatching: 12 to 14 days.
Average fledging age: 7 days.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous
Average eggs per season: 2.
- Chloe, 1999. "Hummingbirds" (On-line). Accessed August 12, 2000 at http://www.mschloe.com/hummer/huminfo.htm.
- Johnsgard, P. 1983. The hummingbirds of North America. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Toops, C. 1992. Hummingbirds: Jewels in Flight. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, Inc.
Clutch size is two. Young are capable of first flight about 20 days after hatching (Terres 1980). Bent (1940) reported of instance of as many as 20 nests only a few yards apart in second-growth. Individuals may re-use a nest in subsequent years (Bent 1940, Calder 1993).
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Selasphorus rufus
The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.
There are 5 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.
Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.
See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Selasphorus rufus
Public Records: 5
Specimens with Barcodes: 5
Species With Barcodes: 1
Conservation Status
This widespread, abundant species is in no immediate danger of extinction. It is, like all hummingbirds, protected by the U.S. Migratory Bird Act and in CITES Appendix II.
US Migratory Bird Act: protected
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix ii
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Year Assessed
National NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure
NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Reasons: Large range in western North America; large population size; many subpopulations; tolerates and even benefits from common types of habitat alteration; some evidence suggests a slow overall decline, but better information is needed on trends.
Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)
Comments: Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data indicate a slow decline over the past several decades, with most of the decline before the mid-1990s. No other evidence indicates that the species is declining, and the degree to which BBS data accurately reflect overall population changes for this species is unknown.
Global Long Term Trend: Unknown
Comments: Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data for 1968-2007 indicate a significant survey-wide decline averaging 2.4% per year; this amounts to a 61% decline over this time period. However, number of individuals per route tends to be quite low for this species. BBS abundance (average number of individuals per route) declined from 1.4-2.1 in the 1960s and 1970s to 0.8-0.9 in 2000-2007, so the decline was only about 1 individual or less per route.
Degree of Threat: Low
Comments: No major threats have been identified. Habitat alterations by humans often improve conditions for this species.
Restoration Potential: Still a relatively common species, so potential exists for increasing populations, but full potential unknown until causes for declines better understood. Protecting food plants in migration, breeding, and winter habitats from degradation would be an important component of a restoration program. Given the loss of old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest and the centuries-long prospect of restoring old-growth stands, further research is needed to understand this species' relationship with old-growth and breeding success in younger-aged forest stands.
Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Little information available on landscape relationships, such as patch size and area sensitivity. Ranked at moderately high risk of local extinction from forest fragmentation (Lehmkuhl et al. 1991). In northern Idaho, negatively associated with fragmented old-growth cedar-hemlock forest, and more abundant in continuous old-growth (Hejl and Paige 1993). Will nest in coniferous forest and forage in nearby meadows and openings, using ecotones and seral habitats that supply food resources. Positively associated with old-growth coniferous forests and forages in early successional habitats and forest openings, but the full spectrum or configuration of habitats important to the species' survival are not fully known. An ample supply of nectar-producing flowers is likely a limiting factor. In the fall, populations migrate south along mountain corridors using high flowering meadows which would be critical to protect from degradation (USDA Forest Service 1994). Regional to international perspective is important given the species' high mobility throughout the seasons following phenology of flowering plants.
Management Requirements: Activities that reduce nectar or insect food sources may be detrimental, such as pesticides and herbicides, some grazing practices, or eradication of flowering shrubs such as RIBES or MANZANITA spp. (USDA Forest Service 1994). Flora of mountain meadows should be protected and grazing in these habitats avoided where it reduces nectar-producing plants.
TIMBER HARVEST: Effects of timber harvest need further study. Density and occurrence positively associated with old-growth coniferous stands in Cascades, Oregon Coast Range, and northern Idaho (Carey et al. 1991, Gilbert and Allwine 1991, Manuwal 1991, Hejl and Paige 1993). In one study, showed a negative response to recent fragmentation of old-growth by clearcuts (Hejl and Paige 1993). In the Rocky Mountains, was more abundant in clearcuts with tall shrubs and in partially cut harvest units than in untreated coniferous forest habitats; equally abundant in low shrub clearcuts as untreated forests (Hejl et al. 1995).
Calder (1993), however, suggests that clearcuts increase seral flower abundance beyond what would normally be found under the forest canopy or in natural openings. Hutto and Young (in prep) suggest that harvest units and other human-altered environments with vegetation structures that do not occur in natural seral habitats may serve as "ecological traps" that attract birds with elevated food resources, but become detrimental to reproduction and survival due to increased predation or brood parasitism. Whether reproductive success in harvest units differs from natural forest stands has not been studied.
GRAZING: Grazing effects mostly unstudied. A negative response to grazing in aspen riparian habitat in California and Nevada reported by Page et al. (1978, cited in Saab et al. 1995). Would be detrimental where grazing reduces nectar-producing shrubs and forbs.
Management Research Needs: Much research has been done on physiology and the coevolution of hummingbirds and flowers, but many areas of natural history and ecology unknown. Further study needed on lifespan and survivorship; disease, nest predation and other sources of mortality; philopatry, territory and home range size; details of habitat relationships; limiting factors. Very little known about the causes of long-term declines in the Pacific Northwest. Need research on effects of land management activities such as timber harvest and grazing, particularly impacts on food resources, nest predation, reproductive success, and survival. Need further research on habitat relationships throughout seasons, such as the importance of old-growth forest stands, successional habitats, or other habitats to breeding, foraging, and survival. Need an understanding of landscape relationships, such as patch sizes, area sensitivity, juxtaposition of nesting and foraging habitats. Information on threats on stopover and wintering sites; further description of migration routes; and details of habitat use during migration and winter all needed. Need information on direct and indirect effects of pesticides, herbicides, and other toxins.
Global Protection: Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed
Comments: Many occurrences are in protected areas.
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Rufous Hummingbirds play an important role in pollinating at least 129 plant species (Paige et al. 1999).
Rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus) have been called the most important hummingbird pollinator in western North America. This is because rufous hummingbirds migrate from Alaska to Mexico, pollinating plants the entire journey. As the birds stop along nectar corridors to eat they inadvertently collect pollen and transfer it to another plant, often times moving genetic material great distances. In the 1960s these birds were seen pollinating the giant trumpets (Macromeria viridiflora) plant in Arizona, the first documented case of a hummingbird pollinating a member of the Boraginaceae family in western North America. M. viridiflora is a tall perennial herb with yellow tubular flowers. The hummingbird probes the floral tubes by fitting its bill into the upper part of the floral tube and extending its tongue to reach the nectar in the narrow, lower part of the tube. Pollen then becomes dusted on the hummingbird's bill and is inadvertently transferred when the bird moves from plant to plant eating nectar. The hummingbird's role as a pollinator during migration is believed to have influenced the speciation of California flowers. This species of hummingbird is declining throughout its range, and the loss of nectar corridors across its migration route may continue to threaten this bird.
Rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus) have been called the most important hummingbird pollinator in western North America. This is because rufous hummingbirds migrate from Alaska to Mexico, pollinating plants the entire journey. As the birds stop along nectar corridors to eat they inadvertently collect pollen and transfer it to another plant, often times moving genetic material great distances. In the 1960s these birds were seen pollinating the giant trumpets (Macromeria viridiflora) plant in Arizona, the first documented case of a hummingbird pollinating a member of the Boraginaceae family in western North America. M. viridiflora is a tall perennial herb with yellow tubular flowers. The hummingbird probes the floral tubes by fitting its bill into the upper part of the floral tube and extending its tongue to reach the nectar in the narrow, lower part of the tube. Pollen then becomes dusted on the hummingbird's bill and is inadvertently transferred when the bird moves from plant to plant eating nectar. The hummingbird's role as a pollinator during migration is believed to have influenced the speciation of California flowers. This species of hummingbird is declining throughout its range, and the loss of nectar corridors across its migration route may continue to threaten this bird.
Stewardship Overview: Classified as a moderate conservation priority on the Partners in Flight WatchList due to population trend and localized winter distribution (Muehter 1998). A long-term population decline is evident from BBS data in the Pacific Coast populations in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and northern California for 1966-1996, but the reasons for this decline are a puzzle. Some suggest that the species has benefited from feeders and non-native flower plantings in suburban gardens, and possibly from timber harvest practices that have increased the availability of early seral habitats, but how these changes have actually affected demographics is unquantified. Given the species' association with old-growth coniferous forests in the Pacific Northwest (see Carey et al. 1991, Gilbert and Allwine 1991, Manuwal 1991, Hejl and Paige 1993) further work needs to be done to illuminate habitat relationships and causes of declines. Most aspects of management effects and needs unknown.
Species Impact: No adverse impacts to humans or other species known. An important plant pollinator, however, and co-evolved with many hummingbird flowers. Grant and Grant (1968) list 129 plant species in western U.S. that are pollinated by hummingbirds.
Rufous hummingbird
The rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is a small hummingbird, about 8 cm (3.1 in) long with a long, straight and very slender bill. These birds are known for their incredible flight skills. Some are known to fly 2,000 mi (3,200 km) during their migratory transits.[2]
The adult male has a white breast, rufous face, upperparts, flanks and tail and an iridescent orange-red throat patch or gorget. Some males have some green on back and/or crown. The female has green upperparts with some white, some iridescent orange feathers in the center of the throat, and a dark tail with white tips and rufous base.
The female is slightly larger than the male. Females and the rare green-backed males are extremely difficult to differentiate from Allen's hummingbird. This is a typical-sized hummingbird, being a very small bird. It weighs 2–5 g (0.071–0.176 oz), measures 7–9 cm (2.8–3.5 in) long and spans 11 cm (4.3 in) across the wings.[3]
They feed on nectar from flowers using a long extendible tongue or catch insects on the wing. These birds require frequent feeding while active during the day and become [torpor|torpid] at night to conserve energy. Because of their small size, they are vulnerable to insect-eating birds and animals.
Their breeding habitat is open areas and forest edges in western North America from southern Alaska to California. This bird nests further north than any other hummingbird. The female builds a nest in a protected location in a shrub or conifer. The male aggressively defends feeding locations within his territory. The same male may mate with several females. The males can become very aggressive towards the females.
They are migratory, many of them migrating through the Rocky Mountains and nearby lowlands in July and August to take advantage of the wildflower season there. They may stay in one spot for considerable time, in which case the migrants, like breeding birds, often aggressively take over and defend feeding locations. Most winter in wooded areas in the Mexico state of Guerrero, traveling over 2,000 mi (3,200 km) by an overland route from its nearest summer home—a prodigious journey for a bird weighing only three or four grams.
This is the western hummingbird most likely to stray into eastern North America. In the United States, there has been an increasing trend for them to migrate southeast to winter in warmer climates like Florida or on the Gulf Coast, rather than in Mexico. They are known to land in the Turks and Caicos Islands. This trend is the result of increased survival with the provision of artificial feeders in gardens. In the past, individuals that migrated eastward toward Canada and the northern USA in error would usually die, but now they often survive as they seem to spend more time in the warm Gulf Coast and Florida. Provided sufficient food and shelter is available, they are surprisingly hardy, able to tolerate temperatures down to at least −20 °C (−4 °F), so they can be seen in late fall in places like the Upper Midwest, Great Lakes, and upper New England. As winter comes birds in these areas normally head to the warmer Gulf Coast and Florida.
Most hummingbirds that migrate east are juvenile birds and may occasionally be adult females but are very seldom adult males. Since juvenile or female are essentially indistinguishable from Allen's hummingbirds unless they are examined in hand, many of the eastern vagrants are classified as "rufous/Allen's hummingbird". However, a majority are believed to be from the Rufous species.[3]
Research on hummingbird hovering[edit]
In 2005, a research team led by Dr. Douglas Warrick of Oregon State University used trained rufous hummingbirds in a study to determine the mechanics of hummingbird hovering. The study employed digital particle imaging velocimetry to capture the bird's wing movements on film, which enabled the discovery that the hummingbird's hovering is achieved due primarily to its wing's downstroke (which accounts for 75% of its lift) rather than its upstroke (which makes up the additional 25% of the lift).[4][5]
- ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Selasphorus rufus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
- ^ "Rufous Hummingbirds: The Queen of Flying among Migratory Birds". news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
- ^ a b "Rufous Hummingbird". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
- ^ "Master fliers of the bird kingdom". BBC. 27 June 2005. Retrieved 30 October 2009.
- ^ McCall, William (2005-06-24). "Study says hummingbirds fly more like birds than insects". Seattle Times/Associated Press. Retrieved 2009-10-30.
Names and Taxonomy
Comments: Constitutes a superspecies with S. sasin (AOU 1983).


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Table of Contents
I. Introduction (Hanah)Technology has revolutionized communication in the workplace. The computer has become the foundation and the median for how technology has transformed the means by which people communicate in the workplace. The way one's employer chooses to communicate with his/her employees and the operations of daily procedures are illustrating the recent implementations of electronic communication altering every aspect of the workplace.
According to Merriam Webster, the definition of Communication is-" A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior to reach a common understanding" The key words in the definition is that the information communicated must be understood.
With the rapid advancement of the utilization of technology in the workplace, it is vital that organizations use the appropriate method to communicate to increase the success of the organization.
II. Email (Yasemin and Kurt)
Eighty percent of business communication is through e-mail, so it is important to learn as much as possible about e-mail so that we can use it to our best advantage (Davis, 2009, p.73).
A. Brief History of E-mail (Kurt)Email, like other innovations that have occurred over the last century, was created long before the general public and commercial enterprise adopted it. Ray Tomlinson is credited with sending the first email in 1971. ("History of Business Email") Email in its original form was a very primitive version of what the business world uses today. Email was first used by scientist and researchers to transmit data back and forth across large distances so that teams of scientist could work together across the globe. The form was DOS and consisted of binary numbers that needed to be decoded. Because the use of email was so rigorous it prevented its wide use in the business world. Over time with the development of computer processing capabilities and eventually the internet the use of email became a much more attractive communication tool for the business world and would change the world of business forever.
Email began to be adopted by the business community in the early 1980's with IBM setting up its own intranet.
("History of Business Email") This allowed for communication to be done internally while employees were able to log in to the main frame in the same geographic location. While this allowed for time to be saved it still place a location restriction on the project. As the development of the personal computer increased the number of users and the mobility of the company's workforce, it then moved into usage of a local area networks (LAN) to allow for the communication to be accessed from other places with in a small area such as a office campus. Then companies began to form wide area networks (WAN), which could be accessed from virtually anywhere a secure connection could be made. More and more companies began to see the increased capabilities of the their workforce with the increased volume of information that email provided and now virtually all commerce uses email in some form of its operations.
The image below shows the path of a typical email message. ("Email")
B. Pros of E-mail (Kurt)
Email is credited as the leading form of communication coming out of the the "e-revolution." Email is a great technology for communicating in commerce because it is very inexpensive, efficient and is still developing into richer formats.
All businesses operate in a world where they have to choose from scarce resources. The cost of email compared to it's efficiency is why email has been so widely adopted by the business world. Today a company can set up its own server to handle its email messaging or choose from one of countless email services provided by companies such as Yahoo, Google and Microsoft that all provide email servicing for free. Before the adoption of email all business was done either face to face or over the phone. This not only took up valuable time but also came at a high cost for the phone service. Another problem is that in order to have this communication you need both parties to be free to engage in the conversation. With email a message can be sent after the sender composes it but the receiver can read or decode the message when he or she has time. This allows for communication to occur more fluidly and freely.
Email is was one most credited vehicles for the globalization of the worlds economies. With the ability to send information anywhere on the planet virtually instantly the speed of business was changed forever. An employee in the United States could send a message to a colleague in Japan and receive a reply with in minutes with most of that time spent on composing the reply rather that the delivery of the message.
C. Cons of Email (Yasemin)Because e-mail lacks facial expressions and other verbal cues, it is very easy for e-mails to be misinterpreted. This can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts in the long run.
E-mail loses its efficiency when it involves back and forth discussion. Sometimes it may be better to use another form of communication such as face to face interaction, instant messaging, or telephone calls (Moore, 2008, p.8).
An example of inefficient e-mail communication use is shown below:
E-mail #1 (from Susan to Veronica)
What do you think of the ABC Company as a provider of the computer training we need?
E-mail #2 (from Veronica to Susan)
I don't know much about them. What other like companies have they helped with this type of training?
E-mail #3 (from Susan to Veronica)
I don't know. I'll find out. Do you know anything about their curriculum or trainers?
E-mail #4 (from Veronica to Susan)
I know a little bit about their approach to adult learning, and I don't know anything about their trainers, And that's critical because the trainer will make or break even the best curriculum, especially in a subject like this, where it's technical, hands-on, and potentially tedious if not presented well.
The example e-mails above were quoted directly from "The Good, the Bad, the Ugly: E-mail Communication," written by Ronnie Moore.
Privacy is a main concern when communicating via e-mail in the workplace. Mangers have a right to view e-mails that are sent from work e-mails, and this could result in termination of employment. It is important to make sure e-mails are appropriate. Avoid writing jokes or racist or sexist comments (Moore, 2008, p.9).
Another problem with e-mail communication is technology failure. When the internet servers are not working, or maintenance is being performed, it is difficult to keep businesses running if they solely communicate via e-mail.
Many times, employees get bombarded with hundreds or even thousands of e-mails. It may be difficult to prioritize which e-mails should be read first. Some businesspeople look at the subject lines to decide which e-mails they will read and respond to first.
D. Statistics on E-mail Misuse (Yasemin)
1. Miscommunication and E-mailThere are many causes of miscommunication in the workplace. Language is a major cause for miscommunication. Simply using the wrong pronoun in a sentence may confuse the receiver as to whom the sender is referring to in the message (Davis, 2009, p.75). Cultural differences may also cause misunderstandings through online communication. For example, some cultures may take humor and sarcasm offensively. It is important to request clarifications if there is a misunderstanding to prevent further issues. "Spamming (advertising), dissing (speaking ill of someone), flaming (insulting) or shouting (all capital letters) may be unacceptable in some cultural contexts" (Davis, 2009, p.77). Fast paced cultures expect responses to e-mails quickly, whereas other cultures make take their time to respond because they do not understand the urgency (Davis, 2009, p.78). "Even when both parties to the email message are communicating in a common language, grammatical errors, word order or syntax, the use of jargon, or errors in punctuation and spelling may cause messages to be misinterpreted" (Davis, 2009, p.80). "When individuals fail to communicate effectively and information is incorrect, delayed, or misinterpreted, work delays or work stoppages naturally follow. In one study, e-mail miscommunication was shown to put group performance more at risk than groups using face-to-face communication" (Davis, 2009, p.81).
2. Dealing with MiscommunicationCommunication problems through e-mail may arise, so it is important to understand various techniques to dealing with these issues. Some businesses will use face-to-face meetings or another communication media such as Skype to resolve the communication issues. Another way businesses alleviate problems is by asking for clarifications and trying to communicate more frequently (Davis, 2009, p.83). Sometimes none of these approaches will work, so businesses will try to find another person to contact about the information requested or they will simply use the same data in the past to make their decisions (Davis, 2009, p.83).
3. E-mail and Termination of EmploymentE-mail is an efficient tool for communication in the workplace, but it must be used with caution. According to the Journal of Accountancy, three out of ten employers fired their employees for e-mail misuse (2008, p.26).
The pie chart below shows the top reasons employees were fired because of e-mail misuse in the workplace.
The content of the above pie chart came from the Journal of Accountancy.
Most employers monitored e-mail usage through technology, while about 40% of employers hired an individual to read the e-mails sent (Journal of Accountancy, 2008, p.26).
Computer monitoring by employers includes:
- Tracking content, keystrokes, and time spent at the keyboard (45%)
- Reviewing computer files (43%)
- Monitoring external blogs to see what is being written about the company (12%)
- Monitoring social networking sites (10%)
E. E-mail Etiquette (Yasemin)
- When writing a business e-mail, it is important to have a proper subject line. This will help the recipient prioritize the order in which he or she will read and respond to e-mails. Another tip is to change the subject line when there is a back and forth communication between two people.
- It is also important to have a salutation when starting an e-mail. An example of a salutation would be "Dear Ms. Smith." After many e-mails have been sent, it is okay to leave out the salutation.
- Proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling must be used in e-mail messages. A message in caps lock is inappropriate for business e-mails and is often associated with yelling or screaming. If a particular sentence of the message is important consider bolding it instead.
- Try to be concise. Wordy e-mails waste time and are considered unprofessional. Read the e-mail several times before it is sent to check for excessive wording. Try rephrasing sentences to make them more concise.
- Avoid jokes in e-mails. They can be taken the wrong way and cause unnecessary conflict.
- Avoid using emoticons. They are unprofessional and should not be used in the workplace.
- Try to respond to e-mails within a reasonable time frame.
- Delete older messages when responding to an e-mail. This will eliminate clutter and keep the e-mail looking professional.
- Explain the attachments that are being sent in an e-mail. This will keep the recipient worry free about receiving viruses.
- Close your e-mail by thanking the recipient for his or her time. An example of a proper closing would be "Best regards." (Notice that the r in regards is lower case.)
- Place your contact information at the bottom of the e-mail. This will help others contact you in other ways if needed, and it also establishes your credibility.
F. Tips to Managers (Yasemin)
- Make sure all employees have proper training regarding e-mail usage in the workplace, such as content, tone, style, grammar, and punctuation. Employees can attend workshops to receive adequate training. This will help sustain good business relationships and maintain productivity.
- Inform and compose a contract in which employees understand proper use and misuse of e-mail and consequences of inappropriate actions. Employers should explicitly state that e-mail usage at work is not private to protect business information and avoid lawsuits.
IV. Instant Messaging use in the workplace (Safoora)
Instant messaging, shorthand IM, is a developed communications service that enables the exchange of messages in text through Web-based sites or downloadable software applications in real-time.
This tech-savvy business tool has invaded and changed the workplace. Ever since the 1990s, employees started sneaking IM in to the office, but today, more and more companies are endorsing IM (Mamberto, 2007).
Casual and more prompt than email, IM fosters broader collaboration among coworkers and colleagues in businesses all over the world.
A. Brief History and Overview
1. History of Instant Messaging
The system of instant messaging has been developed and innovated over the span of three decades. Following the development of the internet in the 1950s, peer-to-peer protocols (P2P) were developed in the 1960s. This computing and networking system allowed users to send and receive private messages from other clients that logged in to the same computer (Hoyos). Later in 1982, a company named Quantum Computer Services operated an online service called Quantum Link, which created the first bare-bones version of instant messaging, which they called "On-Line Messages" (Hoyos). These messages could only be sent between their current clients.
In 1991, Quantum Link changed its name to America Online (AOL). Six years later, AOL was hailed as the goliath of Internet Service Providers and had more than 30 million subscribers in several continents (Holahan, 2006). By then, many new IM services,such as ICQ, were already in development. AOL had developed what would lead to an entire new era of IM, AOL Instant Messaging (AIM).
- AIM débuted in 1997
- Yahoo launched its own Yahoo! Messenger in 1998.
- MSN in debuted 1999, and a host of others throughout the 2000s.
- Google Talk was released in 2005.
2. General Functions of IM
The capabilities of instant messaging have greatly expanded over the years, and new innovations are still on the rise. IM has even worked its way into mobile communication. Many cellphones and smartphones now offer downloadable versions of IM services.
The most common features that most IM services provide include:
- Group chat, which allows users to chat with multiple persons
- Reception of email notifications
- Photo sharing
- File-sharing
- Several personalization options, such as customizable profile icons, screen interfaces, emoticon sets, status updates, and greetings.
- Importation of contacts
- Telephone functions
- Video chat functions
- Radio listening
- Archiving of IM conversation logs
- Connection to Facebook chat
Instant messaging technology is constantly changing. Based on Tyson and Cooper's collaborative findings, new features and innovations are constantly rolling out for several IM providers:
- Google Talk: users can drag files, folders, and photos directly onto the chat window, which show up instantly in their friend's chat window.
- Windows Live Messenger: allows instant-messaging between Xbox 360 gamers.
- Pidgin: users can IM, transfer files and share photos with contacts in AIM, ICQ, IRC, Google Talk, Windows Live Messenger and Yahoo! Messenger. Its "Buddy Pounce" feature sends notifications when selected contacts change their online status or send IMs.
- Universal IM providers Meebo and eBuddy are Web-based; therefore downloading software is not required.
- Qnext: friends can listen to each other's music files without having to download them.
- AOL: introduced a plug-in for IM users who have WiFi capabilities—their locations are tracked using WiFi hot spots, and users can open a map to find where people on their buddy lists are.
B. How can IM be a valuable asset to a business?
Over the years, instant messaging has proven to be quite a valuable business tool. It successfully supports informal communication and is easily accessible by millions worldwide, fostering greater global collaboration.
Some of the ways IM brings convenience to the workplace include:
- Offers efficient, real-time communication between two or more users. In this way, IM helps all sorts and sizes of businesses all over the world considerably in carrying out tasks more proficiently. This form of communication allows people in the workplace in need of a swift response to send messages quickly and efficiently. For instance, take a larger corporation with several branches and departments. If the Operations Department had to reach an employee in another department, an IM would allow one to see the status and availability of that worker, and for that worker to instantly send a notification or request to whomever. If a person had to leave the desk, he or she could simply update his or her status as "away", so one would not waste time reaching the person through IM at that moment. In this way, communication in the workplace through instant messaging would be more smooth and speedy.
- Increases productivity. Time and energy is saved at offices by helping workers receive immediate answers to questions. The whole workplace becomes more productive in conducting business once tasks can be done in a time-saving manner. Coworkers signed on to IM could readily send quick, and to-the-point messages, without going through the hassle of writing up an entire email, playing the voice-mail game, or searching for one another in person. Ideas can be exchanged right on the screen, for everyone in the chat room to see, and conversations can also be logged and saved.
- Minimized disruptions. A recent study by researchers at Ohio State University and University of California, Irvine found that workers who used instant messaging in the workplace reported less interruption than coworkers who did not. Their research showed that instant messaging was often used as a substitute for other, more disruptive forms of communication such as the telephone, e-mail, and face-to-face (F2F) conversations (Ohio State University, 2008). Using instant messaging can lead to more conversations online, but the conversations are kept briefer and shorter.
- Multitasking. Coworkers can use IM while carrying out other activities such as taking telephone calls, or processing documents and email.
- Less intrusiveness. Coworkers can coordinate their conversations at their own convenient times. Many are also more comfortable with this informal method of communication for simple, impromptu conversations with colleagues and prefer IM over F2F communication (Isaacs).
- Online monitoring. Companies retain the legal right to monitor the daily and online activities in the workplace, which includes instant messaging logs.Employers look to record important communications, control information leaks, and discourage cyber slacking (Tynan, 2004).
C. How can IM use in the workplace be counterproductive?
According to Rory Welch, CEO of ArcMail (Johns, 2011), "Instant messaging is clearly valued by businesses of all sizes today. But the proliferation of this communication medium also comes with an increased need to properly address regulatory compliance, e-discovery and liability protection issues."
- Compliance risks- IM may decrease productivity by being disruptive and sidetracking workers from tasks. Using IM inappropriately or accessing objectionable Web sites could expose the employer to lawsuits for fostering a hostile workplace environment (Tynan, 2004).
- Security risks- IM is also prone to hacking, phishing, and scams. Worms and viruses may be spread throughout a corporate network if proper precautionary measures, such as installing firewalls and following safe protocols, are not taken.
- Trade-secret leakage- Employees may accidentally or deliberately spill confidential corporate information.
D. IM EtiquetteAs with every communication medium, good IM habits and manners should be practiced in the workplace. The following general good rules are based off the ideas of Brandon D. Hoyos:
- Courteously ask for availability-For instance, take the question, "Hey Ann, are you busy? I have a quick question about the department's status report." This asks about the coworker's status and also drops the query in the same line which saves both people time.
- Mind your own availability status-Let coworkers now what you are up to
- Go easy on the acronyms-coworkers may not necessarily know what certain acronyms stand for, so opt for proper English.
- Realize when mediums of communication need switching-If conversations become too prolonged and complex, a telephone conversation or F2F meeting may be more efficient. If issues are explained better in words, email would save everyone time.
- Keep a professional screen name.
- Keep your IM's professional and business-friendly.
- Remember to log off your account.
E. Tips to Managers
- Managers who choose to allow IM should opt for secure enterprise networks
- Establish and enforce guidelines about general IM usage policies.
- Inform employees to safeguard the company's and their own personal information.
- Do not click on suspicious files or attachments.
- Regularly scan the IM software and update filters.
V. Telephone Conversations (Ashley)
Even with the dramatic rise of e-mail technology, the telephone is still a major method of communication in today's workplace. Verbal communication is necessary when conveying emotion or feeling or evaluating the situation. The message does not need to be permanent, but it can help to get started on an idea that may change. Using telephone communication is necessary if there is a time urgency, a deadline for information, or if immediate feedback is needed.
A benefit of telephone communication is that it is easier to convey a longer message by speaking rather than an email to where the email may be too long or overwhelming for someone to read. But it may be help if you also follow up with an email after the conversation that just summarizes the topics covered during the conversation along with a plan of action. The use of the telephone provides an easy and convenient way to overcome the two principal barriers to communication: time and distance. Telephone conversations has a high information richness as compared to other forms of communication in the workplace. Whether from office to office, coast to coast, or country to country, a telephone allows for virtually instantaneous voice communication.
The benefits of telephone communication in the workplace is senders and receivers can see or hear beyond just the words that are used. In addition, receivers also can sense the sender's body language or tone of voice. Because a telephone conversation is a form of synchronous communication participants have the opportunity to ask questions and provide feedback. This in turn enables agreements to be reached more quickly than they could be by an exchange of letters, memos, or email. Telephone calls should also end pleasantly, focusing on agreements and on who will assume responsibility for taking appropriate action.20
VI. Video Conferencing (Mariela)
A. History of VC
Just like email and instant messaging, video conferencing has become a world wide used technology that not only gives you instant ability to communicate with a customer or another one of your locations but also gives you the ability to have a conversation face to face. Although, video conferencing is nothing out of the ordinary now a days it was anything but normal back in the mid 1900s when it was introduced. Video conferencing was introduced at the 1964 World's Fair that took place in New York. In 1970 At&t introduced the very first Picturephone but at the moment it was not something that seemed of reach and at a rate $160 a month it was too expensive for customers.15("Video conferencing history," )
In a couple of years Ericsson gives a demonstration of the first trans-Atlantic LME video telephone call. After Ericsson Network Video Protocal and Packet Video Protocol both helped with the developing of video conferencing but their use of it was for laboratory and private corporate usage. Before then, Tokyo and Osaka had established video conferencing in 1976 and in 1982 IBM Japan took video to another level and started video conferences with the U.S.15("Video conferencing history," )
In 1982 Compression Labs introduced VC to the commercial market but at a cost, $250,000 with a rate of $1,000 an hour. In 1986, PictureTel stepped into the picture and introduced a more affordable system at $80,000 with a rate of $100 per hour.15("Video conferencing history," )
In 1991, the first PC-based conference system was introduced by Pictel and the cost was dropped dramatically compared to the earlier version, it was $30 per hour, and the system itself was only $20,000 and came in black and white. Then Dartnet connected a "transcontinental IP network" in the U.S. and the U.K. and not long after free services and software became widely available for VC and most are still around at present day.15("Video conferencing history," )
In following years VC would keep evolving, thus, making changes to our business world. MAC and Windows would both give the public the ability to have VC right at home through PCs and messaging systems on the web. As the internet became more widely used around the globe so did VS, a surgery was able to take place in 2003 with the surgeon being overseas, education was transformed by offering courses through video streaming giving students more choices on courses. In 2004, a Linux-based free VC and NetMeeting-compatible was released and in April Applied Global Technologies introduced the first webcam that tracks the voice of the speaker and easier to have conversations. Later that same year WiredRed Software was the first to develop multipoint video. In 2008, under the name of Nefsis, WiredRed announced a cloud-based, online service and in 2009 incorporated a product that gave the ability to share videos and other files during a video conference.15("Video conferencing history," )
It is clear that VC has improved since 1964 and even in modern times it is still evolving and improving by the minute. Thanks to VC we are able to keep in contact by not only having conversations but by able to make eye contact almost as good as face-to-face conversations.
B. Pros
1. Able to reach other companies that may be too far to visit16(Yuan, 2008)
Traveling is expensive and sometimes it takes too long to get somewhere if you need a response right away. VC give you the opportunity to be right in your office and have the ability to talk with someone on the other side of the globe without having to sit in a plane for who knows how many hours.
2. Can have a conference with a group of people rather than one on one.16(Yuan, 2008)
If you need to speak to multiple people and do not have the time to plan a meeting and travel to where ever you need to go then with VC you can have an instant meeting and able to listen to everyone's opinion. If you try to use IM with a large crowd it will become overwhelming with all the text you need to read and people constantly sending IM's.
3. Able to see body language as well as able to hear the tone of voice.17("Video conferencing pros," )
When using email or IM it is sometimes difficult to portray your emotions because the other person is not able to see your body language or your facial expressions and this, sometimes can cause confusion. Through VC you can portray emotions and facial expressions causing no confusion and able to get your point out easier.
4. Can work on the same projects together.16(Yuan, 2008)
With busy schedules it is sometimes hard to get together and work on group projects together. VC gives everyone the ability to listen to everyone's opinions and work on the project together without having to go meet at the office.
C. Cons
1. Can be costly.16(Yuan, 2008)
VC may not be as expensive as traveling (at times) but it can be. You need internet connection and PCs, maybe even camera for the older computers. You need security for your connection and conferencing systems. If something breaks down then it needs to be fixed fast.
2. No human eye contact like in face to face.16(Yuan, 2008)
No matter what nothing can be as good as a face to face conversation. Having someone right in front of you is different than having a webcam that is conferencing live between each other. Some people prefer to have the person they are making a deal with in front of them rather than on other end of the webcam.
3. Sometimes can be delays because of service connection.17("Video conferencing pros," )
Technology is not 100% reliable at all times. If there is a black out or a strong storm and the electricity goes out then your connection will not work and you will not be able to use your equipment. Even if there is electricity your internet connection may not be working properly or it may just be having a slow connection speed day.
4. Equipment breaks down.17("Video conferencing pros," )
Things break that is reality and we are not able to do anything else but to fix it. If something happens to your equipment and you need it immediately then you need to fix it soon. Depending on the problem it may take a couple of days until your equipment is ready then you are not able to have a meeting. If your equipment is damaged permanently then you need to buy new equipment that will just cost money.
VII. Conclusion (Hanah)
Throughout the years, technology has been utilized in the workplace to enhance communication between co-workers. Communication has become the fundamental component of an effective means of contact between the various levels in an organization facilitating organizational success. Specifically for those that hold a leadership position, effective communication is vital for an organization as communication allows the manager to dictate what needs to be accomplished to his subordinates. As previously mentioned, communication paired with technology in the workplace has increased efficiency, dramatically improved quality and competence of contact between departments, and has led various organizations to success. Medians of technological communication has created an ease of presenting, sharing imperative documents, sending messages promptly to one's targeted audience, etc. Technology has provided a wealth of opportunities and expansion in the workplace and will continue to do so in the near future so long as organizations persist in the implementation of using technology to bridge communication in the office.
VIII. References
1. Davis, A. S., Leas, P. A., & Dobelman, J. A. (2009). Did You Get My E-mail? An exploratory Look at Intercultural Business Communication By E-mail. The Multinational Business Review, 17(1), 73-98. Retrieved from http://libproxy.utdallas.edu/login?url=http:search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=trudb=bth&AN=50318143&site=ehost-live
2. Email Etiquette. (2011). Retrieved from Purdue OWL website: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/636/01/
3. Holahan, C. (2006, July 31). Will less be more for aol? Bloomberg BusinessWeek, Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/jul2006/tc20060731_168094.htm
4. Hoyos, B. D. (n.d) A "quantum" leap for aim. About.com, Retrieved from http://im.about.com/od/imbasics/a/imhistory_3.htm
5. Hoyos, B. D. (n.d) Im: The timeline. About.com, Retrieved from http://im.about.com/od/imbasics/a/imtimeline.htm
6. Hoyos, B.D (n.d) Eight Etiquette Rules for Using IM at Work. About.com, Retrieved from http://im.about.com/od/imetiquette/a/imworkrules.htm
7. Isaacs, E. (n.d.). The character, functions, and styles of instant messaging in the workplace. AT&T Labs, Retrieved from http://usabtest.extraweb.ru/literature/Isaacs-CSCW02-p11-isaacs.pdf
8. Johns, P. (2011). Rise of instant messaging in the workplace drives demand for corporate archiving to ensure data protection and regulatory compliance . PRWeb, Retrieved from http://www.prweb.com/releases/2011/10/prweb8871501.htm
9. Mamberto, C. (2007, July 24). Instant messaging invades the office . The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118523443717075546.html
10. Moore, R. (2008, April). The Good, the Bad, the Ugly: E-mail Communication. Cost Engineering, 50(4), 8-9. Retrieved from http://libproxy.utdallas.edu/ login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=32478131site=ehost-live
11. Ohio State University (2008, June 3). Instant Messaging Proves Useful In Reducing Workplace Interruption. ScienceDaily. Retrieved November 25, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2008/06/080603120251.htm
12. Tynan, D. (2004, October 06). Your boss is watching. PCWorld, Retrieved from http://www.pcworld.com/article/118072/your_boss_is_watching.html
13. Tyson, J., and Cooper, A. "How Instant Messaging Works" 28 March 2001. HowStuffWorks.com. <http://communication.howstuffworks.com/instant-messaging.htm> 21 November 2011.
14. Watch What You Say... and Write. (2008, November). Journal of Accountancy, 206(5), 26. Retrieved from http://libproxy.utdallas.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=35026281&site=ehost-live
15.Video conferencing history (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nefsis.com/Best-Video-Conferencing-Software/video-conferencing-history.html
16.Yuan, C. (2008, december 02).Video conferencing - the pros and cons of video conferencing. Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?Video-Conferencing---The-Pros-and-Cons-of-Video-Conferencing&id=1748546
17. Video conferencing pros and cons.(n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.teach-ict.com/gcse_new/communication/comm_methods/miniweb/pg16.htm
18. History of Business Email. (n.d.). retrieved from http://www.videojug.com/interview/history-of-business-e-mail-2
19. (n.d.). Email. Wikipedia, Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email
20. Wanish, Heather. Telephone Etiquette in the Workplace. Retrieved from: http://heather-rothbauer-wanish.suite101.com/telephone-etiquette-in-the-workplace-a102901


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(This story first ran at PressConnects.com) BALTIMORE — At 26 years old, UFC light-heavyweight champion Jon Jones admits it is difficult even for him to realize he could soon be considered the best fighter in the history of mixed martial arts. But it's a reality (…)
When the loaded UFC 200 pay-per-view gets underway it will be two of the best heavyweights in the world kicking off the show. No. 3-ranked* Cain Velasquez (13-2), according Bleacher Report's June MMA read news >>
When the loaded UFC 200 pay-per-view gets underway, it will be two of the best heavyweights in the world kicking off the show. No. 3-ranked Cain Velasquez (13-2), according to Bleacher Report's June read news >>
Cain Velasquez seemed completely unstoppable not all that long ago. His wrestling was too good. His hands were too heavy. His gas tank was too deep. He could outwrestle strikers, outstrike wrestlers read news >>
Cain Velasquez fields questions from the press before his upcoming UFC 200 fight against Travis Browne at Wednesday's pre-fight press conference. read news >>
Former UFC heavyweight champion Cain Velasquez wasted little time re-establishing his position in the division, taking out Travis Browne at UFC 200. read news >>
After more than a year away from the Octagon, Cain Velasquez is back in the heavyweight conversation with a first-round TKO win over Travis Browne on the main card at UFC 200 on Saturday. Bleacher Re read news >>
Former heavyweight champion Cain Velasquez returned to the Octagon on Saturday on the UFC 200 main card against contender Travis Browne. read news >>
After defeating Mark Hunt at UFC 200, Brock Lesnar said he would like another shot at Cain Velasquez. Of course, there is one caveat to that. read news >>
Following his first-round finish of Travis Browne at UFC 200, former heavyweight titleholder Cain Velasquez wants to fight the winner of champion Stipe Moicic and Alistair Overeem. read news >>


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Wipika Kiteboarding was the original kiteboardering company, founded by the LEGAIGNOUX Brothers. The Wipika Trademark is now for sale.Read More »
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In a press release, the IKA has announced today that competitors who participate in non-IKA/ISAF contests will not be eligible to compete in IKA events. This means that riders who compete in KPWT events will not be able to also compete in PKRA events.Read More »
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For the past few years Canadian custom snowboard maker Sheldon DeCosse has used his skills and custom manufacturing facilities to design and produce the ultimate snow kiteboard. Working with top athletes from all over the world, specifically with the top names in Norway, Sheldon has been able to design a board that serves the specific needs of progressive snowkiters, while also making the board fun to ride downhill.Read More »
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Hourly - Intermediate ($$) - Est. Time: More than 6 months, 10-30 hrs/week - PostedSkills: Twitter Marketing Copywriting Facebook Marketing Lead generation
Looking for someone who is able to write FLUENT english. Would like someone who can help me plan my entire social media calendar for the month, and help to execute with me. I am interested in 1) Engagement, 2) Lead Generation, and 3) Exponential Follower Growth Would include helping to write copy as well as posting via Buffer / Hootsuite to Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook. Should be comfortable using tools like Buffer and Hootsuite to schedule social media posts. Someone with a really good understanding of Strategy, willing to collaborate with me to build a calendar that makes sense and is engaging, is what I'm looking for. Please show past experiences of the sort, your copy writing samples, and any graphic design work that would work for social posts (if applicable - small things like canva will do - if you don't have this, no big deal - im a designer). Looking for a longterm consultant to help heighten my social media presence, and really grow my audience and follower numbers on all platforms. Engagement is key, here. Looking for a Social Media Guru, who can help take the load off of me as an entrepreneur and help gain more quality leads. Possibility that we could do other work with my myriad of clients is very likely! Rock my socks, superstar!


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Busy working moms are teaming up to bring you the best tools, tips, and tricks to help get you and your family organized, healthy and happy.
Eliece, owner of Organized Mom, is an elementary school teacher and mom of 4 children. Her children range in age from 12-23, so she is learning how to balance an ever changing home environment as teens leave home and juggle many extra curricular activities. Time management, schedules, and planning are essentials in her life to keep family and work life rolling.
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NH Montevideo Columbia
NH Montevideo Columbia
Hotel Guest Rating: 8.0/10
Rambla Gran Bretaña, 473
Montevideo 11000
Hotel Freebies Available*
• Free Internet Available show dates
NH Montevideo Columbia
Located in Montevideo´s historic neighbourhood of Ciudad Vieja, NH Montevideo Columbia offers tasteful rooms with free WiFi access. The property features panoramic views of Río de la Plata river and is within walking distance of several tourist attractions.The elegant rooms at the NH Columbia have LCD TVs, air conditioning and a minibars.The hotel includes a stylish bar-restaurant, offering regional and international cuisine. Guests of NH Montevideo Columbia can relax in the hot tub and enjoy massage treatments at the wellness centre. Fitness facilities are also available to all guests.Free parking is possible on site and shuttle services can be arranged for a surcharge.NH Montevideo Columbia is 350 metres from Solis Theatre and 400 metres from El Cabildo. Independencia Square is 550 metres away. ...read more
Top Amenities (see all)
- Fitness centre
- Business centre
- Restaurant
- Room service
NH Montevideo Columbia Amenities
- 24-hour front desk
- Air conditioning
- Airport shuttle (surcharge)
- Bar
- Bicycle rental
- Breakfast in the room
- Bridal suite
- Business centre
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- Currency exchange
- Dry cleaning
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- Free WiFi
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- Non-smoking throughout
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- Shuttle service
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- Solarium
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Hotel Information
Based on local tax laws, Uruguayan citizens must pay an additional fee of 10%. This fee is not automatically calculated in the total costs for the reservation.Please note that on Sunday and local public holidays, when booking a breakfast-included rate, breakfast is available until 12:00 and late check out is possible until 15:00
Hotel Guest Reviews of the NH Montevideo ColumbiaOur hotel ratings and reviews are from real hotel guests. Priceline.com ensures that its reviews are guests-only by proactively sending hotel surveys to customers after they've completed their hotel stays. In the post-stay surveys, priceline.com hotel customers are asked a number of questions about their stay and the hotel. On a scale of 1-10 with 10 being the best, the survey asks guests to rate their overall experience and specifically rate the hotel's cleanliness, staff and location. Priceline.com does not allow site visitors to post unsolicited hotel reviews.
Silvio from Sao Paulo, Brazil
December 8, 2014
Solo Traveler
December 8, 2014
Solo Traveler
well located hotel near from teatro solis and sarmiento street.room very comfortable , nice view . staff very kind
bathroom with shower inside the bathtub .
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from $83


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Marvel Assembles an Official Title for Third "Avengers" Movie
Comic Books, Film
Comics shops are like any other retail establishments, I guess, in that there are good ones and bad ones. The difference between comics shops and coffee shops, though, is that people seldom accuse coffee shops of being unwelcoming to women. The food may be bad, but everyone's money is the same color to them.
Comics shops, on the other hand, have developed a reputation for being uncomfortable places for anyone who isn't a straight white male. I used to live down the street from a place like that, and I quit shopping there because of it—but that was in 1986.
That's why I have mixed feelings about the Tumblr Safe Spaces for Comics Fans. On the one hand, I think it's great to have a place for people to recommend (or warn against) particular shops. On the other hand, just by its very existence, it perpetuates the notion of comics shops as unfriendly to women, gay people, and people of color, and I'm not so sure that stereotype is true any more. Are there bad stores? Yes there are, but if you look at the blog, most of the comments are positive, with people giving shout-outs to local comics shops that treat them well. I think—I want to think—that this reflects reality. I want to think that the default is a friendly comics shop with good customer service for all its customers, and that places like this are the exception. The problem is that the bad places are more visible—that photo in the link has been reTweeted and reblogged all over the place—while the good places get taken for granted. So I guess in the end I am glad that the Safe Spaces Tumblr exists, if only as a place to recognize the retailers who get it right.
@BrigidAlverson said: "developed a reputation for being uncomfortable places for anyone who isn't a straight white male"
What a racist thing to say. One can only imagine the grief you'd get if you inserted any other racial group in place of "white".
@vjj I wasn't aware that any other racial group had perpetuated centuries of oppression on the rest that, even in the most "enlightened" countries, society is still trying to shake off.
Sadly, I see the reason for Tumblrs like this.
@vjj, the Tumblr specifically mentions PoC (people of color) as one of the groups they are focusing on. I didn't make it up.
I think it will be a persistent stereotype for a long time to come, especially with them being reinforced in pop culture (I'm looking a you, Big Bang Theory).
@vjj It's not racist because it is an accurate observation of the market demographics at that time, one that still remains dominant, and that can be perceived as intimidating to members outside that group (in bad shops obviously).
@Alexa There are plenty of examples in history, in the same vein as you're mentioning; centuries of Arab slavery in Africa with a plethora of source material from the time that notes the racial superiority of Enlightened Arab muslims and the inferiority of blacks, though I know you only meant us here. Not trying to start a flame war or anything, just responding to your statement that you didn't know of any examples.
I must say that at least here in NYC, I've never felt uncomfortable in a comic shop in the 40 years I've been buying my comics in one. Previously, I got my comics at a local drugstore. Back in the '70s, there weren't too many female shoppers at the LCSs I visited, but now, the staff is as diverse in my current LCS (a shoutout to Forbidden Planet NY!) as the clientele. All anyone seems to care about is whether or not you can pay.
@Alexa – responding with frothing anger gives feminism a bad name.
I am a lifelong egalitarian, no one should be rewarded or hurt for their gender, race, or sexual orientation, and no one should be punished for past sins that they have no control over.
These tumblr-based trends are slightly disturbing by how militant they seem
@Alexa (Ladies Making Comics)
I am a white male and I, nor any of my white male friends, haven't done any of the things you speak of nor do I support them.
Judge people based on who they are, not based on what their ancestors may or may not have done.
@Ben, I'm aware of other historical examples– as you said Arabs over sub-Saharan Africans, various African tribes and nations claiming superiority over others, etc. But my point is that European subjugation of other races was on such a monumental and global scale that racial categories are not sociological transitive properties as @vjj was trying to suggest.
@mike, the fact that you refer to what I said as "frothing anger" says more about you than me. I was referring to a simple historical fact about how white European males spent centuries subjugating anyone else they came across (I point to the Crusades, the colonization of the Americas and the genocide of the Natives, African slavery, the 19th century "scramble" for Africa where European powers carved up the continent for their own gain, the British Empire in general), and that Western society is still shaped by those centuries of racism. Hence why it's not racist to suggest that people of color might not feel comfortable in a predominantly white space.
Also to @Cylon, you and I (as another white person) continue to benefit greatly from the centuries of exclusion of people of color from the halls of political and economic power. It's not something that you can disown or disavow. Western society has made progress with regards to its treatment of people of color, but it is blind and foolish to claim it is equal and that society has completely healed itself of institutionalized racism. Africans have been on the North American continent as long as Europeans have. But it was only 4 years ago that one became the leader of a North American country– and he still gets more death threats than the president before him.
To suggest that racism no longer exists, or that just because you personally are not racist you have never benefited from it, is a demonstrably false and harmful statement to make because it blinds you to continuing racial injustices– Why are people of color more likely to live below the poverty line, or be sent to prison, or drop out of school, or make less money overall than white people? These are all actual problems in modern Western society and they won't be solved by white people patting themselves on the back for not being racist and claiming no responsibility for the sins of their fathers.
@Alexa, you're right, "frothing anger" was not the right phrase. I was using anecdotal evidence through my past experience with followers of your blog. It was wrong of me, but it is the same anecdotal evidence that makes people think that there is a real problem in comic book store, not a media perpetuated stereotype. (Then again, I am sensitive to these issues, but have not seen anything bad in the NYC stores I shop in)
I am fighting the same fight that you are. My problem is exclusion does more harm to the people who don't understand the cause than good for the oppressed. And most of the people that follow your tumblr engage in the sort of back patting that you speak against.
And, for the record, I never stated that anything was racist. That could be seen as a "have you stopped beating your wife?" fallacy on your end
@Alexa, I was just teasing a you a bit; and only because @vjj said "hey, that'd be racist if you said that about non-whites," and you jumped straight to centuries of oppression. And that's what @mike was saying too: that comes across as a bit angry. And technically to @vjj, it is "racist" in that we're talking about race and public perceptions, but if even she said it about another race, it'd be racist? Not so much.
Just because one race dominates a field doesn't make something racist in and of itself, and neither does the realization that outreach can be done to make things, like comics, more accessible to an audience that might not be aware of them, and in some cases, that are outright exclusionary (like bad comic shops).
Here's an example: whites make up a majority of registered bone marrow donors at 73%, and African Americans make up 8%. If a White child needs a transplant, there's an 85% chance a match will be found, 18% or less for minorities. It'd be racist to assume the system was intentionally set up this way, since it wasn't. The NAACP has outreach programs and drives to raise awareness, and get people registered, and save lives, and quite frankly, everyone should register (even if the actual transplant process can be quite discomforting).
So a tumblr to raise awareness of shops that have outreach or events dedicated to groups that traditionally have lower representation?
My gym has a women's workout area only for women that feel uncomfortable with the co-ed areas, but not one for guys. And now I'm rambling. Though that's a draw because so many gyms are male-dominated it wouldn't be hard to find one that de facto caters to men. I also live in an area with more Muslims than the national average, and the women prefer that as well.. Is that sexist? I had a Muslim gentle comment on the bus that if government will recognize gays marrying, will they let Muslims have their traditional marriage with multiple spouses? I lied an told him only Christian LGBQT would be allowed to marry… his English wasn't that good and I thought it was funny.
And we are so far away from comics now, and why I try to never read comments in general, because it goes from comic shops can be intimidating- that's racist- no, cuz slavery.
As a white guy, I just want to say I support what Alexa has said in this thread, and don't support Ben, Mike, or any of the other dudes posting here that clearly have axes to grind (and enjoy mansplaining)
To go back to Brigid's point, I work in a comic store, and while we have a diverse clientele, and we try to keep the store friendly to people from all walks of life, it can still be a struggle to maintain that inviting atmosphere. Groups like Safe Spaces for Comics Fans are great. Hopefully comic stores see things like the group and try to improve their businesses. More diversity equals a greater pool of people that could potentially be spending money in your store. And at no penalty to your current clientele.
Published in 1997, sent to every Diamond retailer account.
Neil Gaiman, as always, boils it all down into a great metaphor:
"Women feel as uncomfortable in these places as most men do when inexorable circumstances cause them, blushing, coughing and staring nervously at the floor, to spend any amount of time in the lingerie department of a large department store."
If you want to read of a similar situation in a graphic novel:
"The Cute Girl Network" by MK Reed, Greg Means, and Joe Flood
Due out next Fall via First Second Books. (I read an advance copy. Order it today! 9781596437517)