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20 Years of Spain in the European Union (1986-2006)
Design and layout: Distinctum, S.L. Printed by: Artegraf, S.A. Publisher: Elcano Royal Institute and European Parliament - Office in Spain Legal number: M. 13967-2006 ISBN 84-689-7384-X
Elcano Royal Institute c./ Príncipe de Vergara, 51 28006 Madrid Telephone: 91 781 67 70 Fax: 91 426 21 E-mail: email@example.com
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
Letter from Gustavo Suárez Pertierra, Chairman of the Elcano Royal Institute Letter from Josep Borrell, President of the European Parliament Letter from José Manuel Barroso, President of the European Commission Letter from José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, President of the Government of Spain Introduction Acknowledgements 20 Years of Spain in the European Union Economy: 20 facts for 20 years Society: 20 facts for 20 years Politics: 20 facts for 20 years Annex Bibliography
5 6 8 9 10 15 16 17 59 101 142 159
4 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .
when our application for membership was formally presented just a few weeks after the first free elections to be held in our country after a hiatus of more than 40 years. The first is undoubtedly the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. However. and as a result of the famous 'Munich Conspiracy' following which the Parliamentary Assembly of the European Communities adopted the Birkelbach report. economic and social life in Spain. Spain's accession to what is now the European Union also presented an opportunity to overcome long decades of isolation and impotence on the international stage. but also with democracy and freedom. has proven to be entirely compatible with the common project we Spaniards have drawn up on the basis of the values enshrined in our Constitution.When the men and women of my generation look back over the changes that have taken place in Spain since the end of the dictatorship and the proclamation of Don Juan Carlos in 1975. The other is Spain's accession to the European Community on 1 January 1986. Although difficult to quantify. we tend to focus on two important events that stand out over all others. we can talk not only about Spain becoming more European. Since then. especially outside Spain. Indeed. In short. democratisation and Europeanisation can be considered to be the two major achievements of the considerable development of our country over these last two decades.org 5 . This was evident once again in 1977. In reality. as well as its internal and external security. but also about the European project becoming a little more Spanish. many of us associated the European Communities not only with modernity and socio-economic progress. It would appear. both events were closely related. this has in turn resulted in Spain having increasing influence on the Union's institutions and decisions. After 1962. it is not always sufficiently clear. Indeed. therefore. Gustavo Suárez Pertierra Chairman of the Elcano Royal Institute www. the Spanish people realised that only a fully democratic Spain would be accepted as a full member. that there are more than enough reasons for looking in greater detail at what participation in the European Union has meant for Spain. that is the primary objective the Elcano Royal Institute hopes to fulfil with the publication of this interesting and timely work. the Europeanisation of political. that in addition to facilitating our political and economic convergence with the countries around us. the founding text of our current democratic system. which the Institute I have the honour of chairing wanted to commemorate by publishing this work. As such.realinstitutoelcano.
In 1985 Spain had 2 117 km of motorways and dual carriageways. achieving the euro and the Economic and Monetary Union. The European Union has also provided Spain with an important democratic culture. Spain has undergone the most extensive transformation and modernisation of its history. universal healthcare. today it has 13 000 km. Spanish society has broken all the stereotypes. etc. Thanks to Community solidarity and the collective efforts of all its people. economic and political relations it has with other nations around the world. and right throughout the process of European integration. thereby enabling Europe to speak with one voice throughout the world. political and. Spain has also brought to the EU its Mediterranean and Latin American dimension. Since the beginning. Our accession to the EU brought with it the definitive opening-up of our economy and greater presence on the international stage. and stepping up cooperation in the area of external policy. changing the image of it held by the rest of Europe. unemployment is under 10% and Spanish GDP is around 90% of the average of the EU 15. Twenty years ago Spanish inflation was around 10% per year. most notably. Moreover. the introduction of progressive tax systems. and almost 100% of the average of the EU-25. creating a European area of security and justice. the expansion of third-level public education. the laws on gender equality. social terms has been extraordinary. 6 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . in the course of this period Spanish society has been greatly modernised through the widespread and rapid integration of women into the workforce. Since its entry into the EU. unemployment was over 17% and GDP was approximately 71% of the Community average. Spain has shown great enthusiasm for completing the single market. and the special cultural. Today inflation is 3%.The impact of Spain's 20 years of integration in the European Union in economic.
painting. '20 Years of Spain in the European Union (1986-2006)'. music. At this time of reflection on the future of Europe. Josep Borrell President of the European Parliament www.org 7 . social and political transformation and reflects the story of a success: Spain's integration in the European Union. literature. but also. published by the Office of the European Parliament and the Representation of the European Commission in Spain in collaboration with the Elcano Royal Institute. and above all.realinstitutoelcano. its objective is not only to take stock and provide an analysis of what has been achieved.In the course of these 20 years. Spain has been at the forefront of culture in Europe with its contributions to our common heritage through its cultural and linguistic diversity. reveals the data behind this profound economic. cinema. art and gastronomy. This publication. to provide a basis for the debates that will enable us to consider the future of the European Union from a Spanish perspective.
The people of Europe are in the middle of a process of reflection – reflection on what we are. This work seeks to offer some assistance in this respect by providing an objective compilation of the changes in the principle economic. Nonetheless. has Europe become more Spanish or has Spain become more European? This debate is interesting from an intellectual point of view. on our values and on the direction of our common project. José Manuel Barroso President of the European Commission 8 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . thereby facilitating an analysis that is appropriate in this current phase of European integration. Spain is today an open country with a dynamic economy that has enormous influence in the European Union and throughout the world. At a time when the European Union's wealth has increased. economic and cultural point of view. And that reflection is taking place while the European Union is endeavouring to complete its largest enlargement process. but alongside its economic and social disparities. Interpretation of the information is left to the readers and I hope that this work proves to be a useful tool for them and a source of inspiration and reflection. with the accession of more than 10 new countries in a short period of time. freedom and security of its citizens and all the citizens of Europe. social and political indicators in Spain in the last 20 years. It is generally accepted that Spain has undergone unprecedented changes in the last 20 years from a social. for which I have the honour of writing a prologue. and that has transformed from a land of emigration into a land of immigration. is a unique contribution to the celebrations of the 20th anniversary of the accession of Spain and Portugal to the European Communities. it might be interesting to look at elements that enable us to understand what European integration has meant for Spain – a country whose per capita income has risen from 70% to 90% of the Community average in 20 years. but it is of relative importance. What is vital is being able to understand how Spain's process of integration in Europe has contributed to the welfare.This publication. with the highest level of net immigration per capita in the European Union. it was difficult to find a systematic summary of indicators that enabled an objective analysis of how these 20 years in the European Union had affected the lives of the Spanish people. While reading this work readers will probably ask themselves a question that is linked to one of the traditional questions of the philosophical and political debate in Spain: in the last 20 years. This work seeks to fill this gap.
by working resolutely to strengthen relations with Latin America and the third countries of the Mediterranean. Enlargement has been accompanied by advances in the process of European integration. it is difficult to find in our modern history a period of political stability. Spain has made a vital contribution to promoting that integration. There is no question that Spain today is more modern. It has undoubtedly been a positive experience both for Spain and for what is now the European Union. which will very soon be joined by Bulgaria and Romania. and we therefore want to remember what these 20 years have meant and keep alive the debate on the challenges Spain and Europe are facing and the solutions the European Union can provide. by encouraging the creation of an area of freedom. Twenty years is a sufficiently long period to enable us to take stock of what has been achieved. more prosperous and more united than the Spain that joined the European Communities 20 years ago. José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero President of the Government of Spain www. the European Union has grown from 12 to 25 countries. security and justice or improving economic and social cohesion. both internally.org 9 . As far as Spain is concerned. This publication by the Elcano Royal Institute should prove very useful in focusing and promoting this debate.1 January 2006 was the 20th anniversary of the accession of Spain and Portugal to the then European Communities. economic growth and social welfare such as the one we have experienced since 1986. History does not stop. For its part.realinstitutoelcano. and in terms of relations with third countries.
The sharp increase in social spending and public investment in healthcare and education have consolidated the welfare state at a level hitherto unknown in Spain. both nationally and internationally. As a result. Spain is today the eighth largest economy in the world. while remaining rigorous with regard to the use of sources. it has never been presented as a whole in a single publication and from the perspective of the impact of Spain's accession to the European Union. Moreover. Spain has successfully completed a process of unprecedented political. some 20 years ago. it has become a country with a more prominent global position and major multinational corporations. In the social and demographic field. data and figures. and the third examines the political transformations. Spaniards thus enjoy an extremely high standard of living. thanks to which it has moved from the less-developed periphery of Europe to the more influential centre of European politics. The text has been divided into three sections: the first looks at the economic modernisation of the country. from being a net beneficiary of European funds. after 20 years of integration the Spain of 1986 is barely recognisable in the Spain of 2006. Consequently. in addition to being one of the most open and dynamic economies in Europe and an exemplary member of the euro zone. It aims to do this simply. In that time. in a short space of time Spain has gone from being a country of emigration to having more than 3 600 000 registered foreign nationals. with one of the highest life expectancies in the world. the second focuses on the major social and demographic changes.Introduction This publication seeks to take stock of the economic. inflation. The 60 indicators presented therefore provide a categorical overview. Spain's economic. Spain is close to becoming a net contributor. Although the information presented in this work is already available to the public. in a manner that is visually attractive. social and political changes experienced by Spain as a result of its accession to the (then) European Communities in 1986. and from being a beneficiary of foreign direct investment. the 20 indicators that best reflect the magnitude and importance of these changes have been picked out. economic and social modernisation. Spain has practically reached the average income of the 25 EU Member States. Spain has undergone rapid modernisation. Its political system. social and political transformation has been spectacular. In each of these three important sections. The new levels of 10 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . have today become deeply and irreversibly Europeanised. From being a country with an income of around 71% of the European average. interest and debt into line with those of its European partners and having sorted out its public funds. and accessible to the general public. as well as its economic and social life. having more or less brought its rates of employment. The last 20 years have also witnessed the large-scale (though still incomplete) integration of women in the workforce.
characterised by political turbulence. huge satisfaction with the process of decentralisation and the emergence of a very strong current of international solidarity. the considerable solidity of the feeling of identification with. 20 short but intense years after that historic event. the end of its segregation in the European context. social and cultural achievements. economic and social failure. the information provided in the final part of this publication demonstrates. has succeeded in securing its place at the forefront of those countries most committed to international development. included a traumatic Civil War and culminated in a long period of dictatorship. after the death of General Franco in November 1975. first the transition to democracy and then integration in the Union closed a century that began with the 1898 'disaster'. a process through which Spain. Now. the successful Spanish transition and Moncloa Pacts of 1977 were important in achieving these goals. and supports. there is no doubt that Spain's participation in the process of European integration has made a vital contribution to its internal political stability.org 11 . and international isolation. peace and security. This all reflects. Finally. The vitality of its culture and its language. subsequently.income and welfare in Spanish society have been reflected in a sharp increase in consumption of cultural goods and in Spaniards' commitment to the environment. traditionally absent from the international stage. Therefore. Its accession was thus the culmination of a democratisation process that had begun a decade before. its economic and www. and it came to symbolise the end of a long cycle in the country's history. above all. imply a horizon that is radically different to that of the introverted and isolated Spain of the past. it is clear that Spain's full political. fairer and more democratic world. in 1999. Fourteen years later. subsequently.realinstitutoelcano. It also demonstrates the extent to which the people of Spain have developed new political activities and values. values that mirror a well-consolidated democratic. with its integration in the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). and support for. There is no doubt that the economic reforms adopted in the 1960s on the basis of the 1959 Stabilisation Plan and. However. the process of European integration in Spain. Spain's accession to the Community brought with it an end to the country's longstanding alienation from Europe and the intro- duction of an active policy of greater European influence in all areas of Spain's political. From a historical perspective. Spain was to achieve full integration in Europe and. together with a substantial increase in its presence and visibility throughout the world. economic and social maturity could only be reached after joining the Union. added to values that reflect an active commitment on the part of the people of Spain to a more open. economic and social life. political culture. economic. it is difficult to find a period in Spain's past so brimming with political.
and its European and international prominence. the people of Spain are now among the minority of inhabitants of the planet who 12 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . The competitive pressure of the Union's market forces has required difficult adjustments. In a country that is very reluctant to congratulate itself and not used to self-indulgence. and even emotional foundations on which Spain's integration in Europe is based demonstrates without a shadow of a doubt that the European project is a project that has been shared by all of society. despite how it might seem. it adopts a purely national perspective. all in all. The information presented in this publication also shows that the path taken has not been easy. from a political and institutional perspective. political and social success. but in a positive sense: as a consequence of the desire. Firstly. democracy and prosperity enshrined in the 1978 Constitution. later. the efforts and the sacrifices of these last 20 years. to balance the most asymmetric aspects of Spain's Treaty of Accession and. it is useful to examine from the appropriate perspective what these last 20 years have meant. is entirely coherent with the common project Spaniards have drawn up on the basis of the values of peace. the successive Spanish Governments worked tirelessly. there is no doubt that it is impossible to recognise in the data here any trace whatsoever of the socalled 'problema de España'. a high capacity for achieving collective goals. but as a country with huge economic dynamism. the adjustments needed for European integration have been extremely extensive from the point of view of the high number of Spanish regions and production sectors involved. to secure for Spain a place among the EU's major states. for example. The considerable solidity of the political. economic and social life. and that. first of all. a great desire for change. which has also benefited so many of its citizens. This publication fulfils a dual purpose at present. its success must not be attributed to any one particular government. that in spite of the high levels of financial contributions received from the EU budgets. It is important to remember. not in the negative sense in which this term has been used about our character and development over the years. Spain today is therefore an exceptional country. strategic. As such. because it is difficult to find anywhere in Spain's history a period of such economic. analysis of which consumed so much energy for such a long time. and has meant maintaining a high and steady rate of modernisation.social modernisation. Similarly. The full Europeanisation of Spain's political. Be this an objectifiable phenomenon or a mere subjective construction. enormous international appeal and. success was never guaranteed. The data presented here portrays Spain not only as a country that is recognised as being on a level footing with those around it. economic. but to society as a whole. and its internal and external security.
At the beginning of the 1980s many Europeans saw the incorporation of Spain and Portugal. thus. environmental pressure or the new security conditions that prevail at a global level. In spite of reservations. perspective. with the help of the data provided in this study. as a heavy burden that would encumber the European Union in the economic and political spheres and in terms of its capacity for external action. against a broad and stable backdrop of freedoms. a European success. over and above complicated relations with its neighbour Morocco and a history of mass emigration to Europe. but also provided it with access to funds that proved to www. political cultures or social structures were way behind the generally accepted practices in the prosperous and democratic Europe of the European Community was left to one side. when the final phase of a long historic process of Europeanisation began. All of this was set against a backdrop of political instability.org 13 . recognising what has been achieved is essential in coping with the challenges of the future. as it should rightly be. from a more European.enjoy high levels of economic and social welfare. A collective success of the Spanish people. and the levels that have been achieved. Given the pessimism and distrust that prevail in many of our neighbouring countries. the case of Spain should serve as a reminder of all that can be achieved when Europe functions and the societies feel involved in the European project. Spain's income. marked by the attempted coup in 1981. meant that consideration of whether or not it would be appropriate to admit new countries whose welfare levels. to the accession of Greece. Spain's European partners not only allowed it to join. At a time when Europe has lost faith in itself and seems incapable of coping adequately with the double challenge rep- resented by the 'enlargement/constitution' coupling. demographic and social changes. Consolidating democracy in Southern Europe. Secondly. examination of both the initial levels in 1986. in addition. Spain's success is also. Faced with the parallel challenges posed today by phenomena such as economic and financial globalisation. not just Spaniards. an extremely difficult terrorist situation and an isolationist tradition in the area of foreign policy. for example. the results of 20 years of Spanish integration in the European Union should instil pride and satisfaction among all Europeans. was less than 75% of the Community average and its unemployment rate was double the European average. the ultimate objective of the support for the candidacies of the three countries.realinstitutoelcano. or should we say pro-European. Rather than fuelling vain triumphalism. it seems logical to presume that a country that has overcome such vast and difficult challenges as those faced by Spain in 1986 has every reason to feel confident about the future. should generate optimism and confidence.
intensifying its Mediterranean dimension and providing it with a Latin American dimension that it was lacking. such as Italy. Spain joined the third stage of EMU under the same conditions as the rest of the countries. Without Spain. Defying the prejudices of those who considered it a natural member of a 'Club Med'. it is difficult today to imagine economic and social cohesion. It is difficult to imagine the modern Spain without Europe. bringing with it others. They are the Marshall Plan from which Spain never benefited. which between 1986 and 2004 have totalled EUR 211 billion (in 2004 prices) have accounted for 0. but it has also enriched the Union. Spain has been a loyal and committed partner. Spain has become significantly more European. In return. European citizenship or the importance of the area of freedom. in modernising the country's economy and helping it on the path towards political. but Europe must recognise itself in this success and look to the future with confidence. and the amalgamation of its interests in so many areas. The information presented here endorses this standpoint.be crucial. together with the structural reforms undertaken. 14 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . economic and social convergence. security and justice. It is still appropriate today to highlight the synergy between the EU and Spain. which had seemed more convinced that it would be possible to 'stop the clock' and postpone the entry into force of the euro. European funds.8% of GDP in 20 years. incapable of imposing any discipline. 300 000 jobs and around EUR 5 275 per inhabitant over that period (approximately EUR 260 per inhabitant per year).
and Narciso Michavila.org 15 . Secondly. the Office of the European Parliament. the Representation of the European Commission in Spain and the Secretary of State for the European Union of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation for its invaluable collaboration. but not least. Teresa Jurado. Alicia Sorroza. Álvaro Castillo Aguilar. Juan Jesús González.realinstitutoelcano. Centre for Sociological Research. Thirdly. Félix Moral and Joan Font. Emilio Luque. Last. Ministry of Finance and the Economy. we would like to thank the working group set up by members of the Elcano Royal Institute. Ana Charro. Professors César Colino. During the course of successive meetings. March 2006 Sonia Piedrafita is a researcher in the Political Sciences and Administration Department of the UNED. although the final responsibility for the project fell to the Europe section of the Elcano Royal Institute. the Language and Culture section (Jaime Otero) and the Demography & Population section (Rickard Sandell).Acknowledgements This publication would not have been possible without the collaboration and dedication of numerous people and institutions. finally and very specially. it helped to shape and develop the project through numerous comments and observations. Instituto Cervantes. we would like to thank Peter Deutsch (Distinctum) for his excellent work in editing the text and graphics. Spanish National Distance University (UNED). Federico Steinberg is an Economics Professor in the Autonomous University of Madrid. We would like to thank the following people in particular for their assistance: Clara Crespo Ruiz de Elvira. Carlos Asenjo. the Cooperation and Development section (Iliana Olivié). Jesús Roldán and Javier Salido. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation. Madrid. Alexandra Issacovitch. Salvador Parrado and Antonia Ruiz. José Ignacio Torreblanca is a Political Sciences Professor in the UNED and the Senior Analyst for Europe in the Elcano Royal Institute. Firstly. many people and institutions assisted us in compiling the data required for this publication. Enrique González. Institute of Strategic Studies of the Ministry of Defence. and. www. the work presented here would not have been possible without the active collaboration of the International Economy section (Paul Isbell).
16 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .
Economy: 20 facts for 20 years www.realinstitutoelcano.org 17 .
GDP in the EU 15 only increased at a faster pace than Spain's during the 1992-1994 recession. Spain has consolidated its position as the eighth largest economy in the world and one of the most dynamic economies in Europe.000 per capita in 2005. During its 20 years in the EU. it rose to more than EUR 23. From less than EUR 8.7% in 2005.9%). 18 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . All in all. while that of the EU 15 has grown by 47.000 per capita before accession to the EC. Moreover. which was longer and more pronounced in Spain than in the EU.6% in total. which is equivalent to 99% of the average income of the enlarged Union. the Spanish economy's share of the EU economy as a whole (EU 15) rose from 8% in 1985 to 9. the Spanish economy has experienced a total GDP growth of 17 percentage points more than the European average (Spain's GDP has grown by 64. Growth and wealth Per capita gross domestic product (GDP) (calculated at purchasing power parity in euros at 2005 prices) increased substantially between 1985 and 2005. In fact. with a GDP of more than EUR 930 000 million in 2005.1.
Statistical Annex. Table 6.realinstitutoelcano. Statistical Annex. spring 2005.GDP and per capita GDP. Banco de España and author.org 19 . trend and growth Source: Eurostat. Source: Eurostat. Table 10. spring 2005. www.
It rose from 71% of the average income of the EU 15 in 1985 to more than 90% in 2005. too. since data from Eurostat. there is debate about the concrete figures. it should be noted that between 1985 and 2005 there was a significant reduction in the discrepancy of the per capita income of the various autonomous communities in relation to the Spanish average. which implies that the inequalities between the regions have been reduced1. some times differ from data from other sources. Thus.2% of the EU 25 average (known as the 'statistical effect' of enlargement). Income convergence Spain has achieved an extremely important real convergence of its per capita income with the EU average. From a regional perspective. there has been a strong process of convergence. as Spain's per capita GDP is now 99. Similarly. 1 Although all studies show the fast convergence in the per capita income. The greatest convergence took place between 1985 and 1990 (the early years of EC membership) and between 1997 and 2005 (coinciding with Spain's integration in the Economic and Monetary Union). in 20 years the disparity between Spain and Europe in terms of income has been reduced by almost 20 points. 20 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . which have been disaggregated by region only since 1990.2. as a result of which various autonomous communities have exceeded the average income of the EU 15. The accession of 10 new Member States to the EU in 2004 (all with incomes lower than that of Spain) provided a further boost to Spain's convergence with the EU.
89 109.5 66.27 59.22 65.27 100.79 53.98 71.2 81.46 63.9 101.48 68.55 90.25 76.18 79.3 58.11 62.5 69.3 57.11 100.98 67.07 2004 100 89.01 94.63 66.68 104.14 82.47 2000 100 84.26 57.45 70.06 70.Per capita income convergence Regional income convergence by autonomous community 1985 EU 15 Spain Andalusia Aragon Principality of Asturias Balearic Islands Canary Islands Cantabria Castile and Leon Castilla-La Mancha Catalonia Valencian Community Extremadura Galicia Community of Madrid Region of Murcia Community of Navarre Basque Country La Rioja Ceuta Melilla 100 71.39 51.66 91.74 65.39 111.75 91.91 97.41 83.6 52.1 106.26 Source: 'Evolución Económica de las Regiones y Provincias Españolas en el Siglo XX'.16 74.72 75.36 66.41 114. Source: Eurostat and author.82 80.14 84.8 87. Funcas and author. www.44 95.55 89.63 1995 100 79.51 110.67 61.73 70.26 98.83 101.14 72.69 127.34 69.48 66.47 88.71 73.89 78.org 21 .18 104.58 95.38 103.14 83.89 99.37 109.27 86.56 81.74 73.92 73.98 59.42 72. Fundación BBVA.29 80.49 97.98 69.5 74.06 93.08 73.27 45.69 74.59 59.1 54.realinstitutoelcano.28 92.87 111.1 65.07 1990 100 76.45 83.85 101.13 105.96 80.33 77.7 71.99 84.28 104.96 86.13 72.92 87.16 79.52 92.
as they have made it possible to finance a large number of social and regional cohesion projects and infrastructures that have complemented the con-siderable efforts of the various governments to modernise and build the welfare state. which are significantly poorer than the EU 15 Member States. This represents approximately 0. Spain will become a net contributor to the Community budget in 2010. In fact.8% of Spain's GDP each year (if calculated in euros at 2004 prices. from 2007 Spain will have to cope with a substantial reduction in these funds since they will be allocated primarily to the enlargement countries. 22 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Thus. along with Ireland.131 million at current prices from the EU (contributions minus receipts). Financial relations between Spain and the EU Since 1986 Spain has received a net total of EUR 78. according to the financial perspective for the period 2007-2013. Maintaining such high levels of growth without the EU funds is therefore one of the major challenges Spain will face in the future. the total net figure comes to EUR 93. Nonetheless. Spain is the country that has made the most effective use of its European funds.3.350 million). These transfers have been essential for the transformation of the Spanish economy.
Financial relations between Spain and the EU Source: 'Construir Europa desde España'.org 23 . www. pp. 63-65.realinstitutoelcano. Elcano Royal Institute.
Navarre. as a result of the dynamism of the economy and the labour market reforms. Moreover.7% according to the data of the Economically Active Population Survey. Spain is no longer the EU country with the highest unemployment rate and lowest level of labour market participation. the reduction in unemployment has not been linear. In fact. After falling to 13% in 1990-1991. almost double the European rate. La Rioja. 24 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Spain is not far from full employment for men. whose methodology differs from that of Eurostat). nor has it followed the same trajectory in all the autonomous communities. Twenty years later this figure had fallen to 10.6% per year. Unemployment In 1985 Spain's unemployment rate stood at around 18%.4. three times that of the EU 15. since 1997 the rate of job creation in Spain has averaged 3. bringing the Spanish unemployment rate down to a level near that of the EU 15.6%) continues to be more than 5 points higher than unemployment among men (6. although unemployment among women (11. they are to a large extent caused by the low geographic mobility of Spanish workers. Catalonia and Madrid have almost full employment. These differences cannot be put down solely to the different levels of economic growth. while Aragon. it reached its highest point (20%) in 1994 and then fell by almost 10 points in 10 years.6%). Indeed. However. the Basque Country.3% (8. Significant disparities remain from a regional perspective: Andalusia and Extremadura have unemployment rates of around 15%.
Table 3. www. Spring 2005.org 25 . Statistical Annex.realinstitutoelcano.Annual unemployment rate (%) Source: Eurostat.
26 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . their share of GDP fell after Spain joined the EC. which demonstrates that one of the unresolved elements of the Spanish economy is improving the competitiveness of goods and services sold abroad. trade from Spain was boosted by both the economic openness that followed the 1959 Stabilisation Plan and the signature of the agreement with the Common Market in 1970. Exports rose with the devaluations of the peseta between 1992 and 1994. has been the catalyst for this process. Portugal and the United Kingdom). France. with the GDP share of exports and imports of goods and services increasing sixfold. especially the United States and the Asian economies. Spain's integration in the European Union. this trade increased once more. Italy. reaching its peak in 2000. in 1986. In 2005 more than 70% of Spain's external trade took place with EU states and focused on a small number of countries (Germany. Although exports have grown every year. accounting for 30% of GDP in 2000. Nonetheless. Subsequently. as a result of Spain's accession. Openness to trade In the last four decades. the contribution of exports to GDP continues to be 10 points higher in the EU than in Spain. thus increasing exports to countries outside the EU. the Spanish economy has undergone a remarkable process of openness.5. The other major challenge is to diversify the geographical destination of exports. in its different phases and forms. Initially. because GDP grew at a faster rate than exports.
Statistical Annex. spring 2005.realinstitutoelcano. Table 36. www.org 27 .Degree of openness (% exports in relation to GDP) Source: Eurostat.
when Spain's accession to the EC resulted in foreign direct investment in Spain totalling 1. data harmonized in euros are available only since 1990 because the Bank of Spain has only reconstructed the series up to that date. peaking in 2000. The majority of this investment has taken place in Latin America (and to a lesser extent the EU). 28 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .5% of Spanish GDP and more than 6% of national investment. Direct investment Another characteristic of the openness of Spain's economy has been the globalisation of its companies. during which foreign investment totalled on average 4% of Spain's GDP and 16% of total national investment. when the globalisation of Spanish firms speeded up. However. according to the Global 500 ranking drawn up by Fortune magazine. together with its economy's capacity to attract investment .6.e. Following the privatisations of the major Spanish public companies. when direct investment abroad totalled EUR 59. The period from 1998 to 2002 saw another wave of foreign investment in Spain (generated by the reduced risk following Spain's integration in the Economic and Monetary Union). 2 Since a technological change took place in the accounts of the balance of payments in 1995. Spanish businesses made huge investments abroad. Over the course of this period Spain went from having five companies in the 500 largest companies in the world (in terms of income) in 1998 to having eight in 2005. especially during the period from 1986 to 1992. Until 1996 foreign direct investment in Spain exceeded Spanish investment outside the country. it was after 1997 that Spanish direct investment abroad exceeded foreign direct investment in Spain.344 million (almost 10% of GDP). i.
www.org 29 .Spanish investment abroad and foreign investment in Spain Source: Banco de España.realinstitutoelcano.
7. and the difficulties encountered in reducing it. that of the European Central Bank. highlighting the extent to which economic convergence with the EU and access to the Economic and Monetary Union have been an objective shared by all of Spanish society. Inflation Although Spanish inflation is still approximately one point above that of the euro zone. the reduction in salary growth. In any event. 30 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . This success in controlling inflation must be attributed to the credibility of the Banco de España (independent since 1994) and. the decrease in the cost of capital (lower interest rates) and the reduction of debt and the public deficit have made it easier to limit the price increase. enabling Spain to achieve the price convergence needed to join the euro in 1999. With the exception of the recovery of prices between 1989 and 1992. In addition. huge efforts have been made to reduce this gap. since the creation of the euro. the existence of a permanent price differential between Spain and the EU 15. inflation has been falling continuously. which was almost six points in 1986 . 3 Private consumption deflator is used. pose a constant risk of loss of competitiveness.
realinstitutoelcano. www. online database.org 31 .Inflation Source: Eurostat.
which were around 20% in 1983. enabling the Spanish economy to reduce the cost of capital and fall into line with European rates. It is perhaps in the area of mortgage rates that Spaniards have witnessed most clearly the benefits of Spain's membership of the Economic and Monetary Union. Long-term rates have followed a very similar path. when the Banco de España became independent.8. Interest rates Short-term interest rates (three-month interbank interest rate) and long-term interest rates (yield on Spanish 10-year bonds) have both followed a very similar path. at around 4-5%. Shortterm rates. and even fell below those of the EU in 1998 and 1999. they decreased due to the prospects of Spain's integration in the monetary union. fell to 12% in 1986 and to 8% in 1994. 32 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . This reduction has made it possible to reduce significantly the financing costs for the Spanish economy. experiencing a dramatic fall after 1990 and converging with those of the euro zone after 1999. After an upturn in 1995.
Statistical Annex.realinstitutoelcano.Interest rate convergence Source: Eurostat. www.org 33 . spring 2005. Table 50.
Public accounts Spain's time as a member of the EU has partly overlapped the period in which the infrastructures have been modernised and the welfare state has been consolidated in Spain.9. the Spanish economy has made considerable efforts to rebalance the public accounts with a view to fulfilling the convergence criteria laid down in the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty) and entering the third stage of the Economic and Monetary Union on the same footing. after falling from 6. which has enabled public resources to be used for other types of investment. reaching 68% of GDP in 1996. the level of consolidated government gross debt grew by 26 points of GDP between 1985 and 1996. very close to the EU 15 average. Provision of these public goods has required substantial public funding. To this end. rose once again to total 7% of GDP in the period 1993-1995. This debt reduction has cut both the cost of financing the Spanish economy and the burden of interest payments on the government debt.2% of GDP in 1985 to 4% of GDP in 1992. In addition. almost 20 points below the EU 15 average. however. government debt. 34 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . These efforts were reflected in Spain achieving the goal of a zero deficit in 2003 (three points below the limit laid down in the EU's Stability and Growth Pact) and reducing public debt to 46% of GDP. Since then.
Tables 75 and 77.realinstitutoelcano.org 35 .Government deficit and debt Source: Eurostat. spring 2005. Statistical Annex. www.
in contrast to the EU's most prosperous countries. Spanish public spending has increased significantly in relation to GDP over the past 20 years. In order to overcome this social deficit.10. Nevertheless. Public spending At the beginning of the democratic period in 1978. As a consequence. healthcare and social security benefits. comparatively speaking. Considerable funding has also been made available to modernise the transport and energy infrastructures. which represented 25% of GDP in 1978 but had risen to 34% by 1985. Spain had a paltry welfare state. which reflects a welfare state that. is still largely reliant on families and the private sector. 36 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Since then. especially visible in terms of funding for education. increased to 45% (11 points) only 10 years later. public spending. the level of public spending in Spain has remained stable at around 40% of GDP. it is still some seven points below the EU 15 average.
2005. www. Table 74. Statistical Annex.Public spending in relation to GDP (%) Source: Eurostat.org 37 .realinstitutoelcano.
it continues to be almost six points below the EU 15 average and is even lower than the average of the OECD countries. the percentage of GDP that citizens pay on average through the various types of taxes. 38 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . In short. Consequently. but they still pay less than the EU average. At the end of the 1970s. which are countries with lower levels of fiscal pressure. Spain had levels of taxation that were similar to those of developing countries. fiscal pressure rose from 27% in 1985 to 35% in 2004. but it has today become a modern country in which taxes play a fundamental role as a mechanism for the redistribution of income and promotion of equal opportunities.11. Fiscal pressure The requirements in terms of funding for public spending have significantly increased fiscal pressure in Spain. i. which include the United States. Spaniards pay more tax now than they paid 20 years ago.e. Nonetheless. Mexico and Australia.
Fiscal pressure: Tax revenue as a % of GDP Source: OECD.realinstitutoelcano.org 39 . Revenue Statistics. www.
In addition. Renewable energy sources and gas have increased their share.12.5% and 13% respectively of the total (in the EU these percentages are 6% and 24%).5 million to almost 3 million barrels of oil equivalent per day. making greater use of renewable energies. accounting at present for 6. This increase is due to the rise in Spanish production and consumption over the years. rising from 1. The share of nuclear energy has remained stable (around 10%). consumption of primary energy in Spain doubled. for the Spanish economy is to reduce its dependency on oil. requiring increasing levels of energy consumables. Between 1985 and 2004. diversify its energy sources. today more than half of the primary energy consumed still comes from oil (in the EU this figure is 40%). The challenge. As in 1985. Energy Consumption of primary energy in Spain portrays two characteristics: a continuous increase in consumption and constant dependency on oil. therefore. 40 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . and improve consumption efficiency (which is still 20% lower than the EU average). Spain has not yet managed to diversify its energy sources. while consumption of coal and hydroelectric power has fallen.
Primary energy consumption Source: British Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy 2005 and author.realinstitutoelcano. www.org 41 .
000 kilometres in 1985 to almost 10. which has made it possible to improve communications. 42 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . from 2.000 in 2002. motorways and dual carriageways comprised 6% of all roads in 2002. As a result of public investment and the funds received from the EU. compared with just 1% in 1985. As a result of this increase. Kilometres of motorway One of the focuses of the modernisation of the Spanish economy has been the improvement of transport infrastructures. the number of kilometres of motorway and dual carriageway has increased fivefold in the last 20 years.13. cut transport costs and reduce the price of goods and services.
Kilometres of motorway and dual carriageway Source: Eurostat. www. online database.realinstitutoelcano.org 43 .
the challenge for Spain is to complement the 'sun and sand' tourism model with other forms that generate greater income (since a decrease in the average income per tourist has been observed in recent years). The data broken down by autonomous community reveals a steady increase in the number of tourists in all the regions.14. Moreover.000 million in 2005. after France. In spite of these excellent results. while in 2005 it generated approximately 12% of GDP and 10% of all employment. Even in 1978 it accounted for 9% of GDP. the income generated by tourism totalled EUR 46. from 33 million to 66 million per year. in the past it has made it possible to restore in part the current account of the balance of payments. This has enabled Spain to consolidate its position as the second tourist destination in the world. Madrid. Catalonia. The total number of tourists (from within and outside the Community) has doubled since Spain joined the EU. based on a more diverse choice of leisure. 44 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Moreover. cultural and sporting activities. the Balearic Islands. Tourism Since the 1960s tourism has been one of the key sectors of the Spanish economy. which has a structural deficit in Spain. notably Andalusia. the Valencian Community and the Canary Islands.
Number of tourists.org 45 .realinstitutoelcano. online database. total and by autonomous community Source: Eurostat. www.
despite the fact that tourism generates a balance of services surplus. when the devaluations of the peseta paved the way for an increase in exports (reducing their price in foreign currencies) and a decrease in imports (pushing up the price in the national currency). In fact. the impossibility of devaluing the currency following the introduction of the euro and the decline in the competitiveness of Spanish exports have pushed up the current account deficit to levels that are historically very high. however. in the last 20 years Spain has only had a surplus (capacity for external financing) in 1985-1986 and 1996-1997. i. Given that a 1% increase in domestic demand is associated with a 3% increase in imports. the growth of the Spanish economy. and it implies that Spain has needed external financing practically every year. Need for external financing The deficit of the current account of the balance of payments is one of the structural problems of the Spanish economy. around 6% of GDP. Membership of the euro and the Spanish economy's capacity to obtain financing from external sources mean that this deficit is not of concern in the short term. policies to improve the competitiveness of exports are required.e. In recent years. 46 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .15. the periods of growth of the Spanish economy are associated with an increase in the current account deficit.
www.Balance of payments current account deficit (% of GDP) Source: Eurostat.realinstitutoelcano.org 47 . online database.
High-technology exports One of the reasons for the persistence of the balance of payments deficit in Spain is the small proportion of Spanish exports that incorporate high technology: these account for only 6% of the total and their percentage has not increased since 1990. falls short of the EU average. The problem stems from the fact that Spain has not been able to increase to any great degree the production of such goods. like Greece and Portugal. These types of exports require high levels of knowledge. 48 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . nor can it export them. Spain. which is around 18%.16. as a result. While other EU countries have succeeded in increasing the share these exports occupy of the total (notably Ireland. with a share of 30%). and to command high relative prices. capital and skilled labour and therefore tend to be in high demand abroad.
Percentage of high-tech exports in relation to total exports Source: Eurostat. www.org 49 .realinstitutoelcano. online database.
The low productivity is due to the widespread use of temporary contracts. quality of capital. given that it exceeded the EU average in 1985. The low productivity also reflects the insufficient use of new technologies. Temporary contracts generate a high level of rotation of staff. The increase in employment in Spain has been accompanied by a reduction in the growth rate of productivity per person employed. Productivity The stagnation of productivity is another aspect of the Spanish economy that has yet to be resolved.17. which prevents them from undertaking the necessary training to become more productive. Total factor productivity is around 92% of the EU average and is displaying a worrying downward trend. education and experience of the workforce or entrepreneurship of the population). which only exceeded the EU average in 1985 and 1993 and has been below 1% per year since 1996. 50 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . which in 2005 accounted for 31% of all contracts of wage earners. which measures all the intangible elements that are not covered by the combined productivity of the use of labour and capital (capacity for organisation and innovation. more than double the EU rate (13%). The same can be said of total factor productivity.
Levels and growth rates of various productivity indicators in Spain Source: Summary of Economic Indicators of Real Convergence. www.org 51 . online database. Source: Eurostat.realinstitutoelcano. Banco de España.
Technological effort Various indicators of the technological and modernisation effort demonstrate that the Spanish economy is still lagging behind the EU 15 average. Although progress has been made in the last 20 years. The sole indicator for which significant progress has been registered is that of human capital stock. However.18. Spain only files 18. for every 100 patents filed on average in each of the EU countries. public and private investment in research. and the technological capital stock as a percentage of GDP are scarcely more than 50% of the European average. the variable that reveals the extent to which Spain has fallen behind in relative terms is the number of patents. which is calculated as the number of patent applications per million inhabitants that citizens file with the European Patent Office. a variable in which Spain reaches 92% of the EU 15 average. 52 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .e. which measures the percentage of the working age population with higher education qualifications. Although the number of patents filed has doubled in the last 20 years. Spain still files less than 20% of the EU 15 average. which explains its low productivity and the lack of dynamism of its exports. i.
Banco de España. www.org 53 .realinstitutoelcano.Levels and growth rates of various productivity indicators in Spain Source: Summary of Economic Indicators of Real Convergence.
In 1985 Spain invested just 0.12%. 54 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . there is still a considerable gap: Spain invests just 1. This type of investment is crucial in promoting innovation and increasing the value added of goods and services. Twenty years on and although Spanish expenditure has risen faster than that of Europe.57% of its GDP in R&D.19.59% of its GDP in R&D. while the EU 15 invested 1. the United States invests 2. and improving the citizens' income and welfare. South Korea invests 2. it should be noted that other developed countries have an even greater commitment to research than the EU.95% of GDP. Research and development The indicator that best summarises the extent to which Spain has fallen behind in relative terms in the area of technology is investment in research and development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP. In addition.91% and Japan invests 3. This situation means that Spain needs to make additional efforts to ensure that it is at least on a level footing with the other EU countries in terms of investment in R&D.86%. boosting productivity. For example.07% of GDP while the EU 15 invests 1.
R&d expenditure&D
Source: OECD, online database.
20. Lisbon indicators
In 2000 the Council of the European Union approved the so-called Lisbon strategy, which lays down the objective for 2010 of making the EU 'the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion'. This reflected the concern about the fact that the European economy was becoming less competitive and losing its capacity for innovation compared with the United States (from 1996 productivity in the EU began to grow at a rate lower than that of the United States, and since then the breach between the two regions has widened, to the extent that in 2005 productivity per person employed in the EU was 88% of that of the United States). As a result, various objectives were set out, in relation to which the Spanish economy is performing less satisfactorily than the average of the other EU economies. Expenditure on both information and communication technologies and R&D in Spain is some 50% of the EU average. The rate of employment among women and the number of people who complete secondary education are 18% below the EU average; productivity per hour worked is 83% of the EU average; and finally, Spain emits 53% more greenhouse gases. This means that the Spanish economy is faced with having to catch up with the other EU countries in relation to the variables that will define the characteristics of a dynamic, innovative and competitive economy in the 21st century.
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
Degree of compliance with a number of key Lisbon indicators
Source: 'Construir Europa desde España', Elcano Royal Institute.
58 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .
Society: 20 facts for 20 years www.realinstitutoelcano.org 59 .
At the other end of the scale lies the Principality of Asturias. has remained below 60 000 per year. or the difference between births and deaths.1. Andalusia and Catalonia are the three autonomous communities that have experienced the greatest population increases. Castile and Leon. Population change In the last 20 years. As natural growth. due primarily to the change in natural growth and the migratory balance in these regions. 60 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . particularly after 1996. These autonomous communities have received less immigration and they have higher levels of emigration. the majority of this increase can be attributed to the considerable increase in immigration into Spain. the Basque Country and Extremadura. whose population is lower now than it was in 1986. Madrid. Galicia. Spain's population has grown by more than five and a half million people. over 1 million inhabitants in all three cases. followed by the Valencian Community. from 38 473 418 inhabitants in 1986 to 44 108 530 in 2005. they are all presently experiencing negative natural growth rates. In addition.
realinstitutoelcano. www.org 61 .Total population and population by autonomous community Total population of Spain Source: Compiled from INE data.
for the most part due to two processes that have taken place at the same time. as in other developed countries. Population structure The growth of the Spanish population has been accompanied by substantial changes to its structure. is losing its pyramidal shape and becoming more and more like a tree. which.2. The recent growth in immigration has generated a slight increase in Spanish fertility. which represents the older population. has become much broader. As a result. which began in the middle of the 1970s before peaking and then stabilising in the middle of the 1990s. Firstly. there has been an unprecedented decline in fertility. while the apex. especially among women. the base of the pyramid has become much narrower. but this contribution has barely any impact on the shape of Spain's population pyramid. Secondly. life expectancy has continued to climb significantly and continuously. 62 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .
org 63 .realinstitutoelcano.Spanish population structure Source: Compiled from INE data. www.
Galicia and Aragon are to some extent caused by the emigration of young people from these communities to others with more dynamic economies. the high ageing and dependency rates in Asturias. the Canary Islands. also implies an increase in the dependent population. which is common to almost all the EU Member States and the other developed countries of the world. Melilla. Castile and Leon. which has to support the State pension system. Ageing and dependency Spain's population stands out as already being one of the oldest populations in the European Union and in the world. migratory movements can also contribute to this trend. 64 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . For example. High dependency ratios generally mean a considerable economic burden on the working population. the ageing process has scarcely begun and it is therefore expected that the ratio between people over the age of 65 and people under the age of 15 will continue to grow. Ceuta.3. However. Even so. The rise in the ageing rate is due primarily to a decrease in the fertility rate and an increase in life expectancy. Murcia and Madrid have the lowest levels of ageing and dependency. This ageing process. The dependency ratio measures the population aged over 65 as a percentage of the working-age population (all people aged between 15 and 64).
org 65 .realinstitutoelcano.Ageing index Dependency index Source: Compiled from INE data. www.
Murcia and La Rioja. The autonomous communities that have experienced the largest increase in their foreign population in relation to their total respective populations have been Madrid. Italy and Spain were the OECD countries with lowest net balances. the foreign population per 100 000 inhabitants has risen from under 100 to over 1 000. Valencia. At the beginning of the 1990s. This trend was reversed at the beginning of the new century. Portugal. to the extent that Spain has become the OECD country with the highest net migration balance.4. The lowest figures are recorded in Ceuta. The net migration balance represents the difference between immigrants and emigrants in a country per 1 000 inhabitants. In the short space of a decade. Navarre and Extremadura. Melilla. This can be attributed to two phenomena: the return of emigrants and the rise in immigration. while Germany was the top country of destination for immigrants. 66 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Migration Many of the demographic changes in Spanish society are closely related to the change in migratory movements since Spain's accession to the EU.
org 67 .realinstitutoelcano.Net migration balance *2002 or most recent year available Source: Compiled from OECD data. www. Foreign population Source: Compiled from INE data.
more than 2 700 000 immigrants hold residence permits. the Valencian Community and Andalusia. while immigrants subject to the general scheme (non-Community) reside mainly in Catalonia and Madrid. Madrid. Community residents are concentrated mainly in Andalusia and the Valencian Community.5. According to the data of the National Statistics Institute. Given that registered immigrants totalled just over 540 000 in 1996. Immigration characteristics In Spain. which represents around 8% of the Spanish population. The autonomous communities with the largest numbers of immigrants are Catalonia. North Africa and the non-EU countries of Europe. this means that Spain has taken in more than 3 million immigrants in the last decade. Of these immigrants. principally Latin America. 68 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . traditionally a country of emigration. while 72% come from other parts of the world. local authorities have now more than three and a half million registered foreigners. approximately 28% come from the Community.
realinstitutoelcano. www.Change in immigration in the last decade Immigration per autonomous community (2005) Source: Compiled from Eurostat and INE data.org 69 .
On the other hand. medical advances enable women to have children later in life.64 and 1.6. the widespread decline in the average number of children per woman in the last 20 years has been more dramatic in Spain. however.27 and 1. and the rate is now below the European average (1. Maternity and fertility Although the maternity and fertility indicators have evolved in a similar fashion in Spain and in the rest of Europe. the age at which they usually have their first child is continuing to rise as a result of the social and labour changes that have taken place.60 respectively).50 respectively). On the one hand. caused by two main factors. It is worth noting. that in recent years the fertility rate across Europe has recovered somewhat as a consequence of the growth in the immigrant population and greater efforts to help women reconcile family and professional life. the changes have been much more pronounced in Spain. which exceeds the European average in both cases. Another common trend has been the rise in the average age of mothers at childbirth. 70 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Although the fertility rate in Spain in 1985 was slightly higher than the Community average (1. This trend is again much more marked in Spain.
org 71 .Maternity and fertility Source: Compiled from Eurostat and INE data. www.realinstitutoelcano.
it is the extraordinary performance of the life expectancy subindex that continues to stand out. and GDP (calculated on the basis of per capita income). education (which encompasses the literacy rate of the population aged over 15 and the combined primary.7 years). The improvement in the literacy and enrolment rate. The Index is drawn up on the basis of three subindices: life expectancy (which takes into account life expectancy at birth in each country). with a life expectancy of 77. secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio). Of the 177 countries. after Sweden. 72 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Spanish women have the highest life expectancy in Europe (83.2 years. However. Spanish men are in second place. together with the growth in GDP. Spain currently comes in at number 21 in the world ranking. having seen its HDI rise continuously since joining the EU. have contributed significantly to this trend.7. Human development and quality of life The Human Development Index (HDI) is a synthetic indicator prepared each year by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to measure the level of development and quality of life of countries worldwide.
82 0.99 0.94 0.87 0.99 0.77 United Kingdom (15) 0.97 0.Human Development Index ex L pe ife in cta de n x cy Ed u in cat de io x n G in DP de x H D I HDI change.853 0.91 0.78 0.org 73 .862 0.95 0.96 0.867 0.89 0.90 0.949 0.96 0.97 0.930 0.94 0. 1980-2003 Luxembourg (4) Sweden (6) Ireland (8) Belgium (9) Netherlands (12) Finland (13) Denmark (14) France (16) Austria (17) Italy (18) Germany (20) Spain (21) Greece (24) Portugal (27) Slovenia (26) Cyprus (29) Czech Republic (31) Malta (32) Hungary (35) Poland (36) Estonia (38) Lithuania (39) Slovakia (42) Latvia (48) 20 03 0.79 0.912 0.943 0.89 0.97 0.94 0.93 0.98 0.95 0.realinstitutoelcano.96 0.94 0.941 0.94 0.95 0.82 0.99 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.96 0.82 0.86 0.85 0.939 * In brackets: world ranking Source: United Nations Development Programme.87 0.938 0.93 0.934 0.874 0.99 0.91 0.941 0.99 0.87 0.88 0.83 0.95 0.97 0.89 0.852 0.92 0.97 0. Human Development Report.77 0.87 0.80 0.89 0.82 0.92 0. www.90 0.849 0.89 0.96 0.94 0.904 0.90 0.89 0.949 0.945 0.00 0.85 0.99 0.99 0.88 0.88 0.97 0.97 0.836 0.91 0.858 0.96 1.946 0.79 0.90 0.904 0.86 0.891 0.91 0.928 0.936 0.
that figure is now over 20%. Marriage and family During the last 20 years. many of the children born today (more than 26%) are not children of married couples. although still below that of other EU countries. Since the 1980s. The type of household in Spain has also changed significantly and family units consisting of a couple without children or with one or two children have become the norm. marriages are less stable and the number of divorces. There has also been considerable growth in households comprising one person or one adult with one or more children as a consequence of the social changes mentioned above. particularly with regard to two very relevant aspects. is rising steadily. In line with the European trend. the number of adults who decide to live alone has also risen considerably. Secondly. As a result. Whereas in 1985 the average age at which a person first married in Spain was lower than the European average. In 1980 only 9.2% of married couples got divorced.8. it is now the same for men (30.90 years respectively).20 years) and higher for women (28. 74 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . marriages have changed too. Similarly. men and women now marry at an older age. due primarily to the proliferation of alternative forms of family units. such as common-law couples or single-parent homes.30 and 27. family life and the types of households in Spain have undergone dramatic changes. the nuptiality rate is falling. Firstly.
90 2002 20.org 75 . Source: Compiled from Eurostat and INE data.82 5.50 EU 15* 31.81 28.96 26.48 2002 Variation 100.07 4.30 24.50 Variation 13.50 0.10 41.50 1995 28.09 EU 15 14.85 2002 30.20 16.20 5.00 2.75 *The average divorce rates for 1985 and 1995 have been calculated without the Irish data. Variation 118.97 11.30 27.41 Number of divorces per 1 000 inhabitants: 1985 1995 Spain 0.Marriage statistics Tipo de hogar 1991 Number of marriages per 1 000 inhabitants: 1985 1995 Spain 5.10 EU15 5.90 23.20 30.60 30.41 16. www.00 2002 26.46 Number of divorces per 100 marriages: 1985 1995 Spain 9.20 Women Spain EU 15 24.00 Variation 233.realinstitutoelcano.00 2002 1.50 Source: Compiled from Eurostat and INE data.63 EU 15 27.15 Average age at first marriage: 1985 Men Spain 26.79 26.77 2.60 Variation -2.20 28.80 EU 15* 1.52 2002 5.24 39. Economically Active Population Survey and Household Budget Continuous Survey.01 Proportion of births outside marriage: 1985 1995 Spain 7.
Catalonia. almost six points below the European average. which was an extremely low 33% in 1987. The activity rate among women. Many jobs have been created. As far as the autonomous communities are concerned. Activity and employment rate Spain's total activity rate has undergone an important process of convergence with that of the EU 15. 76 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . in terms of both activity and employment rates. has grown much faster than the total. unemployment among women continues to be considerably higher than in the EU as a whole.9. the dynamic is similar to the overall trend in Spain. Furthermore. There has been a similar change in terms of the employment rate. rising almost 20 points since 1987 and totalling around 69% (two points lower than the EU average). The highest levels of employment are to be found in the Balearic Islands. This demonstrates that although women's participation in the labour market has increased dramatically. but in spite of this. it is still only 57%. however. Madrid and Valencia. further efforts are needed to achieve full convergence with the EU. Spanish women between the ages of 25 and 34 with children under the age of 6 tend to give up work more frequently than women in the EU as a whole.
realinstitutoelcano.Activity rate Source: Compiled from Eurostat data.org 77 . Economically Active Population Survey www. Tasa de ocupación Source: INE.
This sector also has the lowest level of unemployment. Labour market Between 1982 and 2002. a difference of 40%. the level of accidents in the workplace continues to be 50% higher than in the EU (although there has been a significant improvement given that it was 75% higher in 1994). together with the industrial sector. 78 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Firstly. there is still a large wage gap between men and women. the average annual salary was EUR 22 169 for men and EUR 15 767 for women. The increase in the proportion of employment in the services sector reflects the modernisation of Spanish society and economy over the last 30 years. Secondly.10. which has not fallen in recent decades. Spain's labour market still displays two worrying elements from a social perspective. while unemployment in that sector has increased. the share of employment in the agricultural sector has fallen to less than half. Nevertheless. According to the most recent data available. In addition. the number of people employed in the services sector almost doubled.
Labour market Source: INE. www.realinstitutoelcano.org 79 . Economically Active Population Survey. Accidents in the workplace Source: Eurostat.
Spain still requires additional efforts to achieve full convergence. it is still less than 40% of the European average. although spending on social housing has increased fivefold from very low levels. but it is still less than 70% of the average of the EU 15. education and housing. All in all. in 2005 it scarcely reached 60% of the EU 15 average. Social expenditure Social expenditure in Spain has risen by more than 10 points in the last 20 years. and it should be noted that health quality in Spain is one of the highest in Europe. 80 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .11. The most significant progress has been made in the areas of health. there has been an important process of real convergence in the area of social expenditure. Furthermore. Indeed. which includes the countries with the most advanced welfare states in the world. from initial levels below the EU average. However. Increases in social security expenditure have been less dramatic.
Summary of Economic Indicators of Real Convergence. www.Social expenditure Source: Banco de España.realinstitutoelcano.org 81 .
12. Health professionals
Since joining the EU, Spain has succeeded in consolidating one of the best public health systems in the world. Although spending has not yet reached the EU average, the Spanish system has some of the highest quality indices in the Union. The rise in the number of doctors, nurses and pharmacists per 100 000 people in the last decade is a good example of this transformation. The number of professionals in all categories has risen in every autonomous community. The increase in the number of doctors has not been as dramatic because the initial figures were already high. The spectacular rise in the number of dental surgeons should also be highlighted. Whereas there were only 28 dental surgeons per 100 000 inhabitants in 1992, there are now more than 46.
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
Health professionals per 100,000 inhabitants
Source: INE.
13. Social benefits
The increase in social expenditure and the quality of life has been accompanied by a rise in social protection, which has been reflected not only in the extension of the level of cover but also in the increase in benefits. Indeed, both the social benefits and healthcare received per inhabitant have grown continuously and steadily since Spain entered the EU. Whereas every Spanish citizen received on average EUR 1 794 per year in social benefits and EUR 425 in healthcare, these figures have increased to EUR 3 291 and EUR 813 respectively. The consolidation of the welfare state is also evident in the growth in unemployment benefit and pensions received by Spaniards. Social expenditure in these areas in relation to the total number of unemployed people and pensioners has also doubled in the last decade.
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
Social benefits Source: INE.realinstitutoelcano. www.org 85 .
which is one of the Lisbon objectives. In spite of this success with higher education.14. In 2003 there were 133 women at university for every 100 men. Greece and Portugal. has also risen in Spain and exceeded the European average. Spain's results are below the European average. which assesses scientific. in the PISA report produced by the OECD. one and a half points over the European average. both in Spain and in the rest of Europe. reading and mathematical literacy of second-level students. Since 1998. Women have played a key role in consolidating this trend. the percentage of mathematics. it currently stands at almost 30% of the university population. Education Between 1991 and 2002 Spain managed to exceed the EU 15 average in terms of the percentage of the population with university qualifications. 86 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . This figure rose from 10% in 1991 to 25% in 2002. surpassing only those of Italy. However. technology and IT graduates. social sciences and health continue to be the preferred specialities among undergraduates.
www.realinstitutoelcano.Education Source: Compiled from Eurostat and OECD data.org 87 .
Cultural activities The rise in income and welfare levels experienced by Spanish society has generated an increase in the time and money citizens devote to leisure and cultural activities. the amount of computer equipment. video cameras. theatre and libraries more often than they did in 1990. However. Spaniards read more newspapers. TV use and museum visits have remained constant (at levels similar to those of the EU 15). cameras and stereos has increased to match the EU 15 levels. listen to more radio and go to the cinema. while the number of musical instruments and books read have fallen in both Spain and Europe. 88 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . In addition.15. Spain exceeds the European average as regards the number of books and stereos. videos. For example.
Survey on Cultural Habits and Practices in Spain.realinstitutoelcano.Cultural equipment Cultural activities Source: Ministry of Culture.org 89 . www.
the Basque Country. while the lowest indices are in Castilla-La Mancha. the highest indices of press circulation are in Navarre. Television continues to have the largest audience (more than 90%). Extremadura and Andalusia. 90 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Madrid and Catalonia. Cantabria. Media The audience of the various media (not including the Internet) has not changed significantly since Spain joined the EU. which indicates that the structural change in the consumption of information took place before 1986. approximately half in fact.16. Although the number of people who read daily newspapers rose from 29% to 43% between 1988 and 2005. followed by radio and magazines (almost 60%) and daily and Sunday newspapers. Spaniards read less written press than the EU average. As far as the autonomous communities are concerned.
96 42.68 56.24 54.3 120.26 31.org 91 Source: Compiled from INE and AIMC data.000 inhabitants 200 150 100 50 0 216.30 32.6 Galicia Asturias Cantabria Basque Country C.91 38.43 91.1 87. General Media Study.Audience size by type of medium 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1988 1990 Television Radio 1995 Daily newspapers 2000 Sunday newspapers 30.3 130.02 33.09 55.87 29.98 54.4 129.6 104.2 58.66 55. 52.1 104.14 89.3 .8 129.5 103.5 65.60 58.9 Per 1.7 148.25 87.8 108.45 87.realinstitutoelcano.77 53.50 31.68 60.57 71.83 36.4 69.22 35.8 93.20 92. of Navarra La Rioja Aragon Madrid Castile and Leon Castilla-La Mancha Extremadura Catalonia Valencian Community Balearic Islands Andalusia Region of Murcia Ceuta and Melilla Canary Islands EU 15 Spain www.6 65.7 160.9 104.35 Percentage Magazines Press circulation index (1997) 250 216.9 188.79 56.5 174.
Spain could make additional efforts to achieve full convergence with Europe. Spain is in fourth position in the EU 15 in terms of the number of traffic fatalities. Belgium and Portugal. In relation to its total population. surpassed only by Greece. improve infrastructures. In spite of the significant efforts made to increase road safety education. Road safety Substantial efforts have been made in both Spain and the EU to reduce the number of deaths caused by road accidents and they achieved a 50% decrease between 1991 and 2004. modernise vehicles and raise quality and safety standards since joining the EU. 92 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . that difference has been reduced to 29. Although the number of road traffic deaths at the beginning of the 1990s per million inhabitants in Spain exceeded the European average by 64.17.
realinstitutoelcano. www.Road fatalities Source: Compiled from CARE (Community Road Accidents Database) data.org 93 .
Production and consumption of various substances that deplete the ozone layer have fallen. Environment Spain has made considerable efforts to reduce its levels of atmospheric pollution in the last decade.18. particularly CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). which reflects its growing commitment to the environment. 94 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Spain continues to emit 50% more CO2 than the EU 15 average. which means that additional efforts are necessary to comply with the commitments in the Kyoto Protocol. production and use of which are four and a half times lower than they were in 1992.
realinstitutoelcano. Emisiones de C02 Source: OECD.org 95 . www.Production and consumption of substances that deplete the ozone layer Source: Ministry of the Environment.
Spain is in third place in the EU 15 in terms of the number of cubic meters of water per capita obtained for irrigation and purifica- tion for domestic use. Although. Water Spanish society's commitment to the environment is also reflected in its use and consumption of water. which represents 18. and always necessary. totalling approximately 59 litres per inhabitant per day. resource. However. relatively speaking. behind only Portugal and Italy. 96 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . falling from 46 250 million cubic metres in 1985 to less than 40 000 million today. Spaniards are becoming increasingly aware of the need to reduce as far as possible consumption of this often scarce.19. there continue to be water losses in the distribution network. Water use efficiency has resulted in a considerable decrease in collection for irrigation and purification.7% of the volume of water supplied per inhabitant per day (258 litres). it is important to remember that the countries in Southern Europe need much more water for irrigation than the rest of Europe.
realinstitutoelcano. www.org 97 . and from 1995 for Belgium Source: Compiled from data in the OECD Factbook 2005. data has been used from 1980 for Portugal and Ireland.Water Water collected for irrigation and purification * For the 1985 series.
which doubled between 1991 and 2000 and has exceeded the EU 15 average since 1998. while controlled waste disposal rose from 49% to 60%. Between 1991 and 2000. Waste The growth in the Spanish economy has been accompanied by a significant rise in the production of urban solid waste. uncontrolled waste disposal fell from 31% to 7%. Spain has also made remarkable efforts to improve the elimination and recycling of this waste. values that have been strongly influenced by membership of the EU. This has been facilitated by greater public awareness of the need to promote sustainable development and protect the environment.20. 98 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Nevertheless.
realinstitutoelcano. www.org 99 .Municipal solid waste production 1991 MSW elimination systems 2000 MSW elimination systems Source: Compiled from INE and Eurostat data.
100 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .
realinstitutoelcano.Politics: 20 facts for 20 years www.org 101 .
102 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . coinciding with Spain's integration in the third stage of the Economic and Monetary Union. in the period that began in 1998. as time has passed. and very importantly. The solidity of the support for the integration process is such that during the years immediately after accession Spaniards supported the process even when only a very small minority (scarcely 9%) believed that it was economically beneficial for Spain. pro-European sentiment in Spain has always been above the European average. to the extent that today an overwhelming majority (64%) believes that Spain benefits from European integration (which puts Spain 22 points over the European average). but one that puts Spain way ahead of some of its key partners.1. a figure that is not just the highest achieved in these last 20 years. Similarly. With the exception of the 19931994 period. Support for the process of integration Proof of the extent to which the European project and the national project have been the two sides of the same coin is the fact that Spaniards' support for the process of European integration has always been among the highest in the Union. This was particularly evident in the years immediately after accession. Subsequently. but also. such as Germany. support for the process of integration is now 16 points higher than the European average. the people of Spain have begun to see clearly the benefits of integration. characterised by a difficult economic situation in Spain. France. Italy or the United Kingdom.
www. 27. 47. 51. 41.realinstitutoelcano. 49.Support for the process of European integration Source: Eurobarometers 25. 53. 33. 37. 57 and 61.org 103 . 31. 45. 29. 39. 55. 35.
2. Feeling European
For reasons connected to both our recent history and the very visible benefits generated by the process of European integration, Spaniards' level of identification with Europe is very high. While in other EU Member States European identity is poor or shaky, almost 65% of the Spanish population shows signs of identifying with Europe, which puts it 10 points above the European average (EU 15). Spain's successful integration into the Union has undoubtedly reinforced this feeling, and the years of economic prosperity in particular swell the ranks of pro-Europeans. Specifically, Spain's participation in the euro clearly had a remarkable impact, as it was during the years 1999-2000 that the highest level of identification with Europe (76%) was recorded. All of
the above confirms the notion that European identity, vital in terms of support for the integration project, is fuelled by both historical experiences and values and the tangible benefits generated by integration. In the last two years, however, coinciding with the crisis surrounding the negotiation and ratification of the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, the feelings of identification with Europe have lessened somewhat in Spain, to the extent that in the EU-25, European identity among Spaniards is barely 60%, slightly above the average.
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
People who feel European (EU 15)
Source: Eurobarometer 62 (2004), p.94.
By country: 2004
*Figures on European feelings have been obtained by adding three categories: those who feel "Europan and national"; "national and European"; and "only European" Source: authors' elaboration from Eurobarometer 62 (2004), Question Q43a www.realinstitutoelcano.org 105
3. Confidence in the European institutions
Spaniards' confidence in the European institutions is among the highest in the Union. From an initial level comparable to that of the other Member States, confidence in the European institutions has grown steadily from the 1990s to the present day. This increase is especially marked in relation to the European Parliament, in which people have practically twice as much confidence compared with the Council or the European Commission. The increase in Spaniards' confidence in the European institutions is all the more striking as it has occurred at a time when the rest of the people of Europe are losing confidence in the Union's three most visible institutions. It is also worth pointing out that, according to the Eurobarometer 63 data (spring 2005), 76% of Spanish citizens believe that the European Parliament plays an important role in the Union, followed, in order of importance, by the European Commission (69%), the European Central Bank (68%), the Court of Justice (67%) and, finally, the Council of the EU (66%).
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
realinstitutoelcano.org 107 . www.Confidence in the European institutions Source: Eurobarometers 39. 51 and 61.
relationship between enlarging and deepening. The pro-European sentiment among Spaniards was evident once again during the recent process involving the preparation of the European Constitution. this figure having peaked at 74% in 2004 (Eurobarometer 62). the general public in Spain does not seem to share that assessment as it is seems decidedly in favour of both the process of deepening the European project and its enlargement to include other countries.4. Only Greece demonstrates greater average net support for the enlargement. according to the Eurobarometer 63 data (spring 2005). this figure is 10 points higher than the average. support among Spaniards for the most recent EU enlargement to include the Central and Eastern European Countries. compared with the European average of 68%. in particular for historical reasons and out of a sense of solidarity. since 68% of the people are in favour of political integration. due primarily to that country's particular interest in the accession of Cyprus. Thus. In addition. Deepening / enlarging It is often said that there is an ambiguous. the number of Eurosceptics in Spain is considerably lower than the European average (13% compared with 28%). approximately one out of every six Europeans [sic] wants to see political integration. As regards political integration. if not contradictory. while only one out of every four [sic] is openly opposed to it. 108 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Nonetheless. In Spain. is the second highest in the Union. which was supported by 72% of the population.
Net support for enlargement (2000-2004) Source: Eurobarometers 54. www.org 109 . 59. 56. 57. 58. 55.realinstitutoelcano. 60 and 61.Support for the European Constitution Source: Eurobarometer 62 (autumn 2004).
sitting at levels of around 66% for the EU 15 and 75% for the 10 new members. The graphs demonstrate how support for both the common foreign and security policy (CFSP) and the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) has not only increased steadily in recently years but has also grown faster than in other Member States. but by autumn 2001 this figure had risen to 77%.5. The role of the European Union in the world Support for the common foreign and security policy (CFSP) in the European Union is very high. security and defence. the percentage of Spaniards who were in favour of the defence policy being determined jointly with the EC rose from 38% to 51% in the period between 1994 and 2001 (Eurobarometers 41 and 56). Similarly. In 1989 only 58% of the Spanish people believed that foreign policy should be determined jointly with the EC. with levels at around 75% in the EU 15 and 85% in the 10 new members (Eurobarometer 63. Support is even higher in relation to the security and defence policy. of the high levels of satisfaction and identification with Europe held among Spaniards. 6 points above the European average (Eurobarometers 32 and 56). spring 2005). is their ever-clearer preference for granting the European Union substantial competences in the area of foreign policy. and at the same time a consequence. 110 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . which has resulted in 69% and 70% support for the CFSP and ESDP respectively. a reflection. As far as Spain is concerned.
41.org 111 . By country: 2005 Source: Eurobarometer 63 www. 48. 56 and 61.Support for the common foreign and security policy Source: Eurobarometers 38.realinstitutoelcano.
Europeanisation was always seen as something that would finally enable Spain to consolidate its democratic institutions and overcome a past marked by divisions. Support for decentralisation to the autonomous communities has also continued to grow. Proof of this came in 1994-1995 when the political crisis marked by the end of the cycle of Socialist Party Governments (1982-1996) saw the indicators of satisfaction with the functioning of democracy fall below 40%. the preference for democracy as the form of government remained unchanged and maintained particularly strong support (around 80%).6. 112 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . The Spanish people's support for the democratic system has been consolidated by Spain's membership of the EU: in 1984 it was the preferred option of 69% of Spaniards. however. would be capable of developing and consolidating stable democratic institutions. rising from 56% to over 74%. Historically. but this figure had risen to more than 84% by 2004. Political culture Democratisation and European integration have always been closely linked in Spain. when Spain applied to join the (then) European Community in 1977. the data from the Centre for Sociological Research (CIS) demonstrates that in the last 20 years democracy has been overwhelmingly established as the only feasible option for Spanish society. Nevertheless. internal conflicts and authoritarianism. our partners in the Community wondered if a country like Spain. it is evident that these hopes were well-founded given that the democratic period that began with the 1978 Constitution is the longest in Spain's history. with a limited democratic tradition. Looking back. Nevertheless. The solidity of the political culture and democratic preferences of the people of Spain is today unquestionable.
Satisfaction with the political system Source: Compiled from CIS data. www.org 113 .realinstitutoelcano.
and overwhelming satisfaction with. the autonomous communities have twice as many civil servants as the General State Administration.7. the importance of which cannot be underestimated given that.200. in a very short period of time. Whereas in 1979 the General State Administration managed 91% of public spending. Descentralización Spain's recent history is also the history of a far-reaching process of political and administrative decentralisation in a country traditionally characterised by centralism. whereas in 1990 the number of civil servants working for the General State Administration was twice that of the administrations of the autonomous communities. today that figure is exactly the reverse: with almost 1. today this percentage is 54%. This is reflected in the data of the Centre for Sociological Research. It is therefore possible to declare without any doubt that the autonomous system established in the 1978 Constitution has made it possible to deal with the territorial issue within margins characterised by efficiency. respect for identities and support of the citizens. Decentralisation has posed a challenge of enormous magnitude. the recent process of decentralisation. 114 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .000 employees. which demonstrates public support for. In addition. the central government has transferred to the autonomous administrations a very significant proportion of its financial and human resources.
org 115 . Statistical Gazette of the Personnel Working for the General Government for the period 2000-2005.realinstitutoelcano. www. Employees working for the public administrations Source: Compiled from data from the Ministry of Public Administration.Distribution of public spending between the levels of government Source: Compiled from data from the Ministry of Finance and the Economy and the MAP. Statistical Gazette of the Central Personnel Register for the period 1990-2000.
However. participation in politics. In the last 20 years. as we all know. also clearly reflect the type of values that prevail in the society. tolerance towards diversity and international solidarity. 116 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . in more advanced societies. inflation harms in particular the most vulnerable people. Spaniards' concerns have gradually moved away from the area of physical and economic security and focused increasingly on postmaterialist values (participating in politics or protecting the freedom of expression). a society's level of economic uncertainty in relation to the concern of inflation is usually measured. citizens' tend to develop activities that give priority to so-called 'postmaterialist' values that are closely related to aspects such as the enjoyment of freedom. citizens' concerns are usually dominated by so-called 'survival' values. In order to obtain comparable data for various countries. Change in values In societies facing economic or political crises. one the State is capable of guaranteeing collective and individual security and stabilising the economy. since.8. whether these concerns relate to civil matters or to crime and organised crime. In the same way. citizens' concerns about order being maintained.
Fundación Santa María.' 'España 2000. entre el localismo y la globalidad'. Juan.org 117 .Priority National Objective Source: Díez Nicolas. www.realinstitutoelcano. 'La Escala de Postmaterialismo como medida del cambio de valores en las sociedades contemporáneas.
with this percentage reaching 40% in Scandinavia. politics represent an excellent indicator of the extent to which a society is modernised. Naturally.9. Moreover. and others that hover around the 25% mark. such as Germany and France. the progress made in terms of the improvement in women's representation in the parliaments of the autonomous communities has been even more dramatic.3% in Arab states. and access to. which means that only one in four members of parliament is female. Comparatively speaking. Women's access to politics Women's participation in. this means that Spain has 5% more MEPs than the average in the European Parliament. only just behind the Scandinavian countries and ahead of states normally considered to be less traditional than Spain when it comes to gender. 118 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . As a result. Special attention has obviously been paid to improving women's representation in the democratic institutions in Spain. although there are still considerable differences between autonomous communities such as the Valencian Community and Castilla-La Mancha that are almost at the same level.4% of the members of national parliaments worldwide (2006 data). but falling to just 8. According to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). the differences are striking. which puts it in seventh place in the world. on average women account for only 16. Spain is in an excellent position: women account for 36% of the members of the Congress of Deputies.
European Parliament. www. 1983-2003).Presence of women in parliament Source: Women's Institute (Women in Numbers.org 119 .realinstitutoelcano. Congress of Deputies and Senate.
there has been a very significant increase of late in the contributions from the public administrations.36% of the combined GDP of the EU 15). There has also been notable growth in recent years in the phenomenon of voluntary service and a steady rise in the number of salaried staff employed by NGOs specialising in development issues. more than double what the United States donates (EUR 16.000 million.10. the European Union is today the largest donor of development assistance in the world. private donations to nongovernmental organisations for development (NGOD) have increased fivefold.16% of its GDP). Moreover. In the short period of time that has passed since 1991. to the funding of development-related actions. both at State level and at regional and local level.000 million in 2004 (0. 120 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Taking into account the efforts of all the European countries and the Commission itself. or 0. having donated a total of EUR 35. Solidarity The change in values in Spanish society is particularly evident with regard to international solidarity.
www.Income of Spanish NGOs Source: CONGDE report on the NGOD sector (2004).realinstitutoelcano.org 121 .
and according to the PACI (Annual Plan for International Cooperation). As a result.35% in 2006.11. It affects all the OECD members. As the graph shows. Spain's development assis- tance efforts are on a par with the average of the member countries of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC). Consequently. Today Spain is a donor country and its contributions have tripled in the last 20 years. Its efforts are therefore far from complete: Spain is still some way from fulfilling the commitments made to achieve the United Nations Millennium Goals to eradicate poverty in all its forms. the percentage of GDP allocated to ODA increased to 0.31% in 2005 (EUR 2. this problem is not specific to Spain. which. between the time of the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) and the Millennium Declaration (2000). Development assistance A significant aspect of the globalisation of Spain's values and policies in the last 20 years is clearly the importance given to development assistance policies. it is expected to reach 0.600 million). reduced their relative average development assistance efforts considerably. 122 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .25% in 2004 and 0. Thirty years ago Spain was a recipient of official development assistance (ODA).
org 123 . www.Official Development Assistance Source: Compiled from data from the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation.realinstitutoelcano.
the Centre for Global Development (CGD). immigration policies. Nevertheless. has created the 'Commitment to Development Index'). foreign and security policies. democratic development. an independent foundation based in the United States. a hugely useful instrument that evaluates countries' development cooperation policies as a whole using various criteria: level of Official Development Assistance (ODA). and support for the use and transfer of new technologies. policies on foreign investment. its policy of promoting foreign investment. knowledge and new technologies. environmental policies. the CGD highlights Spain's open markets. However. its regularisation processes for illegal immigrants and its policies for the dissemination of information. 124 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Spain occupies 17th place among the donors in this Index. Commitment to development Multilateral institutions constantly assess developing countries in terms of their economic policies. the most important aspect is that Spain is one of the countries that has made most efforts in recent years (taking into account that the efforts made since 2004 have not yet been incorporated in the latest index). the CGD highlights various areas in which improvements are still necessary: the level of assistance remains low in relation to income and part of the assistance is still 'tied' through trade credits. market access for exports from developing countries. in order to asses the commitment to development of the most advanced countries. social policies and much more.12. From the opposite perspective. In addition.
realinstitutoelcano. www.org 125 .Commitment to Development Index broken down into sections Source: Centre for Global Development.
Between 1985 and 1995 Spain opened 13 embassies and consulates. IMF. NATO. etc. and today there are 3. In addition. trade offices and representations in multilateral bodies reflects a global vocation that contrasts notably with a recent past characterised by isolationism. 87 consulates general and 30 missions in international bodies. The number of embassies.) have experienced a significant increase. 126 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . between 1985 and 2005 the total number of diplomats rose by almost 25%. to which were added a further 18 between 1995 and 2005. Spain's deployment abroad now totals 115 embassies. Spain has built up an important global presence. World Bank.134 Spanish officials working in international bodies (three quarters of whom – 2. Deployment abroad In the last 20 years. the majority in the new EU Member States.13. from 674 in 1985 to 838 in 2005. from trade advisers to civil servants in the various international bodies (UN. consulates. Spain has strived to broaden and consolidate its foreign deployment in order to adjust it to the level of a middle power with increasing international influence at both a political and an economic level.365 – work for the European Union). All in all. all of the other categories of Spanish representatives abroad. Finally.
org 127 .realinstitutoelcano.Deployment abroad Source: Compiled from data from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. www.
between 1989 and 2005. almost 60. such as Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. aid for reconstruction and. 618 army representatives have acted as international observers in missions in almost 20 countries. In addition. In some cases.14. International missions The participation of Spain's armed forces in international missions testifies to the fact that the values related to peacekeeping. humanitarian aid. in short. Between 1991 and 2005. The complete Europeanisation of foreign policy has also implied the presence of Spanish troops in unprecedented situations in Africa and Asia. 128 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .000 Spanish soldiers were deployed across a total of 12 countries. the determination to build a safer and more democratic world have been central to Spain's foreign policy over the past 20 years. Spain has been present on the ground without interruption for many years. as well as the participation of Spanish troops in missions under the auspices of both the United Nations and NATO.
org 129 .International missions Source: Compiled from data from the Ministry of Defence. www.realinstitutoelcano.
Modernisation of the armed forces Spain's accession to the Atlantic Alliance marked the beginning of an important process of modernisation of its armed forces. and equipment and training procedures. 130 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . which took its first steps at the end of the 1990s. command and control systems. This adaptation process has implied important changes in terms of organisation and doctrine. involving Spain to a greater extent and helping to strengthen these modernisation efforts. One of the most relevant aspects has been the change from a territorial structure to a functional structure in order to fulfil the established missions and objectives.5%). the development of a common security and defence policy in the EU. although total defence expenditure continues to be low in relation to other NATO countries (1. Similarly. The result is that in the last 10 years Spain has gone from having a conscript army that was barely interoperable at international level to having a totally professional army that is integrated in the multinational structures. Subsequently. known as the Helsinki Goal 2010. the percentage of expenditure on equipment and materials has grown in order to respond to this new challenge.15. established objectives in terms of the military capacities to be achieved within the Union.2% of GDP compared with the NATO average of 2. which now enable Spain's armed forces to operate in a combined unit under multinational mandate with the armed forces of other countries.
Defence expenditure used for modernisation *The Czech Republic.org 131 . Hungary and Poland did not join NATO until 1999 Source: United States Department of Defence. Allied Contributions to the Common Defence.realinstitutoelcano. www. Distribution of defence expenditure The NATO average was calculated on the basis of the available country data Source: Compiled from NATO data.
the Spanish armed forces. 132 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .16. and rose to 11. Almost 70% of the women work in the army. with 16. 16% in the air force.060 members. while the European countries closest to Spain are France (12. 200 are non-commissioned officers and 15.9% in 2000. In short.5% respectively. 977 are officers (5% of all officers). which is equivalent to 13. have succeeded in attracting and integrating a growing number of women. from 0. Looking at the categories.134 are members of the troops and seawomen. Women's presence in the armed forces has increased dramatically in the last 15 years. Only Canada and the United States surpass Spain.5% in 2005 and 13. 11% in the navy and the other 3% in the joint bodies.5% today.8%). Mujeres en las Fuerzas Armadas Spain is the European country with the largest proportion of women in its armed forces: 16. in addition to becoming more professional and more modern.1% in 1991 to 8. Holland (9%) and the United Kingdom (9%).311 out of a total of 121. putting Spain in a very favourable international position.5%.9% and 15.
realinstitutoelcano. www. Observatorio de la Mujer en las Fuerzas Armadas.Women in the Spanish armed forces Comparison with other NATO countries in 2005 Source: Ministry of Defence.org 133 .
Spanish is today a very important asset of what is known as 'soft power'. the average percentage of people with Spanish as their native tongue is over 90%. forming the fourth largest group of native speakers after speakers of Mandarin Chinese. which total 35% and 28% respectively. much greater than the proportion for French or English. which provides the states who benefit from it with legitimacy and more room for manoeuvre in international relations. In 2005. The growing presence of Spanish as an international language would not have been possible without the support the various governments have provided to the Instituto Cervantes. Spanish in the world Spain's global presence and vocation is supported by the appeal of its language and its culture. it is predicted that the number of native Spanish speakers will rise to 400 million in 2010 and exceed 20 million in the United States. which has opened 61 branches around the world since 1992. some 350 million people had Spanish as their mother tongue. in addition to being one of the official languages of the United Nations.17. the European Union and the regional organisations in the Americas. 134 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . English and Hindi. In the countries where Spanish is an official language. In addition. Spain is the official language in 20 countries (only English and French are official languages in more states).
realinstitutoelcano. www.Institutos Cervantes around the world Speakers around the world.org 135 . change and projection Source: Instituto Cervantes Yearbook Source: Compiled from data from the Instituto Cervantes.
3% to 32% in the last five years. there were less than 3 million in Spanish. It is important to note.8% to 6%. this figure had risen to 80 million by 2005. Contrary to what is happening with English. this figure has fallen from 72% to 44%. the proportion of Internet users who have English as their first language has fallen from 51. representing one quarter of the linguistic community on the Internet. 136 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . from 5. while the proportion of pages in Spanish has doubled. According to a recent FUNREDES study. however. Similarly. the proportion of users whose first language is Spanish has risen in the last five years. according to Global Reach data. Spanish included. Although there were scarcely 200. surpassing even German. French and Italian-speaking Internet users.18. that whereas in 1998 there more than 122 million web pages in English.000 Spanish-speaking Internet users in 1996. the proportion of material in English on the Internet is falling to the benefit of other languages. Spanish on the Internet Although in the last decade the estimated number of English-speaking Internet users has grown from 40 million to more than 300 million.
Internet users by language Population connected to the Internet by language (%) Source: Global Reach.biz. www.org 137 . http://global-reach.realinstitutoelcano.
From a society in which the majority of the population scarcely spoke one foreign language or none at all. Moreover. 38% of Europeans speak English. 138 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Moreover. Language teaching As Spain's process of opening up to the world has unfolded. According to the Special Eurobarometer on languages in the European Union. particularly once they reach secondary school. while 8% speak Spanish. 44% of the Spanish population could speak at least one foreign language in 2005. Spain has transformed into a society in which young people learn at least one language from nursery school and. English has gradually been gaining on French.19. according to the same survey. then French and German (14% each). compared with the EU 25 average of 56%. in many cases at least two languages. and has become the most popular foreign language in Spain. now the fourth most commonly spoken language after English. significant efforts have been made by Spanish society to improve its command of languages.
realinstitutoelcano. www.Second language in secondary school Students learning 2 or more foreign languages Source: Compiled from Eurostat data. 'Europeans and their Languages'.org 139 . February 2006. Most commonly spoken foreign languages in the EU Number of foreign languages spoken Source: Special Eurobarometer 243.
thanks to its language. understanding Europe and identifying with it. The success of the Erasmus programme among Spanish students is such that virtually one in five Erasmus students in Europe today comes from Spain. but also in terms of their way of looking at the world. and to improve university training are clearly reflected in the unparalleled success of the Erasmus programme. of course.000 European students in Spain account for more than 20% of all Erasmus students in Europe. the 'real solidarity' that would provide the foundations for the European integration referred to in the Schuman Declaration more than 50 years ago. as well as knowledge of the situation in other countries. The experience of living and studying in the European Union that these young university students are gaining will undoubtedly be crucial in terms of their future careers. That is. At the same time.20.000 Spanish university students benefited from the Erasmus programme in 2003-2004 academic year. Specifically. but also its culture and lifestyle. Spain has become a hugely attractive destination for the Erasmus students from other EU Member States: the 25. more than 20. 140 20 Years of Spain in the European Union . Erasmus The efforts to improve language learning.
Spanish Erasmus students Erasmus students in Spain Source: Compiled from data from the Ministry of Education and Science www.org 141 .realinstitutoelcano.
Annex 142 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .
GDP at market prices (thousand million euros) Spain EU 15
Sp a 15 nis G hG D D P P (% /E Sp ) U an (2 is 00 h 5 pe eu r c ro ap s i it n aG PP D P) P
Economy Table 1. Change in GDP and Spanish per capita GDP
Economy Table 2. Spanish GDP at market prices (thousand million euros)
Spanish GDP at market prices (thousand million euros)
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
297.4 316.5 342.2 375.4 414.9 450.6 485.6 504.9 503.2 525.6 522.9 552.0 582.5 620.6 674.3 723.2 760.8 812.0 852.8 894.4 934.3
3,712 3,933 4,145 4,512 4,928 5,311 5,787 6,032 6,050 6,344 6,293 6,614 6,965 7,300 7,677 8,206 8,515 8,815 8,920 9,316 9,654
8.0 8.0 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.4 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.8 8.8 8.9 9.2 9.6 9.6 9.7
7,950 8,434 9,097 9,959 10,988 11,900 12,787 13,263 13,183 13,739 13,636 14,353 15,101 16,077 17,459 18,543 19,424 20,510 21,497 22,260 23,087
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Source: Eurostat, Statistical Annex, spring 2005, Table 6, Banco de Spain and author
297.4 316.5 342.2 375.4 414.9 450.6 485.6 504.9 503.2 525.6 522.9 552 582.5 620.6 674.3 723.2 760.8 812 852.8 894.4 934.3
Source: Eurostat, Statistical Annex, spring 2005, Table 6, Banco de Spain and author
Economy Table 3. Real per capita income convergence. GDP at current prices in PPP. EU-25=100
Economy Table 4. Real capita income convergence per GDP at current prices in PPP. EU 15=100
Economy Table 5 Interest rates (%)
Short-term interest rates (3-month interbank rate) Spain EU 15 EU 25 Spain EU 15
Long-term interest rates (10-year bond yield) Spain EU 15
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
87.4 89.0 89.1 88.5 88.1 88.1 88.3 88.3 89.9 93.1 92.7 93.7 95.7 99.3 98.6 99.2
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
71.6 71.9 73.7 74.3 75.4 76.3 77.2 79.1 78.8 78.6 78.9 79.3 79.5 80.8 83.4 83.3 84.1 86.4 89.5 89.7 90.1
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
12.2 11.7 15.8 11.6 15 15.2 13.2 13.3 11.7 8 9.4 7.5 5.4 4.3 3 4.4 4.3 3.3 2.3 2.1
10.6 9.1 8.8 8.5 10.8 11.7 11 11.3 8.6 6.7 7 5.4 4.9 4.7 3.5 4.7 4.4 3.5 2.6 2.5
13.4 11.4 12.8 11.8 13.7 14.7 12.4 11.7 10.2 10 11.3 8.7 6.4 4.8 4.7 5.5 5.1 5 4.1 4.1
11 9.2 9.4 9.3 9.8 11.1 10.2 9.6 8.3 8.4 8.8 7.5 6.3 4.9 4.7 5.4 5 4.9 4.2 4.3
Source: Eurostat
Source: Eurostat, Statistical Annex, spring 2005, Tables 49 and 50
Source: Eurostat
20 Years of Spain in the European Union
Economy Table 6. Number of tourists, millions
an d Ca Le st on ill aLa Ex M tr an em ch ad a ur Ca a ta lo ni a Va le nc ia n Ba Co le m ar m ic un Isl ity A an nd ds al us ia Re gi on of M Ce ur ut ci a a
A st ur ia s Ca nt ab ria Ba sq ue Co un N av tr y ar re La Ri oj a A ra go n M ad rid
G al ic ia
1990 1995 2000 2004
1.496 0.579 0.527 0.855 0.321 0.200 1.194 3.976 2.287 1.110 0.749 5.229 2.621 3.680 5.664 0.417
Ca st ile
1.575 0.464 0.539 0.938 0.327 0.242 1.152 4.289 2.142 1.059 0.645 6.027 2.757 4.913 6.809 0.440 0.054 0.035 3.023 37.429 2.528 1.051 0.896 1.480 0.566 0.406 1.764 5.781 3.579 1.847 1.100 10.163 4.499 6.688 11.168 0.767 0.067 0.032 4.901 59.283 3.676 1.181 0.942 1.734 0.628 0.438 1.918 6.479 4.017 1.899 1.030 11.559 5.866 6.869 12.535 0.926 0.068 0.040 5.028 66.831
Source: Eurostat, online database.
Economy Table 7 Financial relations between Spain and the EU
million euros (current prices) contributions receipts balance million euros (1999 prices) contributions receipts balance million euros (1995 prices) contributions receipts balance million euros (2004 prices) contributions receipts balance
1986 666.52 616.04 -50.49
1987 825.19 1,043.36 218.17
1988 1,340.26 2,298.27 958.01
1989 1,726.71 2,813.94 1,087.23
1990 2,251.99 2,970.80 718.81
1991 3,280.32 5,618.23 2,337.94
1992 3,893.36 5,861.67 1,968.31
1993 4,451.10 6,787.83 2,336.74
1994 4,828.53
1995 3,702.23
1996 4,441.48
1997 5,409.11
1998 5,234.82
1999 5,028.67
2000 6,650.06
2001 6,776.93
2002 8,193.28
2003 8,496.65
M el ill a
nd 2.252 33.237
9,275 10,130.21
6,913.44 10,535.74 2,084.91 6,833.51
9,928.72 10,403.52 11,136.75 10,489.46 10,961.19 12,287.20 15,320.16 16,858.81 16,179.46 15,759.58 174,784.17 5,487.24 4,994.41 5,901.94 5,460.80 4,331.13 5,510.27 7,126.88 8,362.16 6,904.32 5,629.37 78,201.66
1986 1,234.54 1141.04 -93.50
1987 1,452.56 1,836.59 384.04
1988 2,232.26 3,827.86 1,595.61
1989 2,685.86 4,377.03 1,691.17
1990 3,257.72 4,297.55 1,039.83
1991 4,426.81 7,581.83 3,155.02
1992 4,910.73 7,393.37 2,482.65
1993 5,398.53 8,232.65 2,834.11
1994 5,647.97
1995 4,130.54
1996 4,786.73
1997 5,697.48
1998 5,384.52
1999 5,028.67
2000 6,430.12
2001 6,304.73
2002 7,364.63
2003 7,429.30
2004 7,889.10
8,086.70 11,754.62 10,700.52 10,958.16 11,455.24 10,489.46 10,598.67 11,431.06 13,770.71 14,741.00 13,761.66 13,039.43 179,475.14 2,438.73 7,624.08 5,913.78 5,260.67 6,070.71 5,460.79 4,168.55 5,126.33 6,406.08 7,311.70 5,872.57 4,657.72 79,400.64
1986 1,106.53 1,022.72 -83.80
1987 1,301.94 1,646.15 344.22
1988 2,000.79 3,430.94 1,430.15
1989 2,407.36 3,923.16 1,515.80
1990 2,919.91 3,851.92 932.00
1991 3,967.77 6,795.64 2,827.86
1992 4,401.52 6,626.73 2,225.21
1993 4,838.74 7,378.97 2,540.23
1994 5,062.31
1995 3,702.23
1996 4,290.38 9,590.94 5,300.56
1997 5,106.69
1998 4,826.18
1999 4,507.23 9,401.77 4,894.54
2000 5,763.36
2001 5,650.97
2002 6,600.97
2003 6,658.93
2004 7,071.05
7,248.16 10,535.74 2,185.85 6,833.51
9,821.87 10,267.40 4,715.18 5,441.22
9,499.65 10,245.73 12,342.78 13,212.45 12,334.67 11,687.32 160,864.71 3,736.30 4,594.76 5,741.81 6,553.53 5,263.62 4,174.75 71,167.29
1986 1,451.44 1,341.51 -109.93
1987 1,707.76 2,159.27 451.51
1988 2,624.45 4,500.38 1,875.94
1989 3,157.75 5,146.03 1,988.29
1990 3,830.07 5,052.58 1,222.52
1991 5,204.55 8,913.88 3,709.33
1992 5,773.49 8,692.32 2,918.82
1993 6,347.01 9,679.04 3,332.04
1994 6,640.26
1995 4,856.24
1996 5,627.72
1997 6,698.48
1998 6,330.53
1999 5,912.16
2000 7,559.83
2001 7,412.41
2002 8,658.53
2003 8,734.56
2004 9,275.14
9,507.46 13,819.80 12,580.50 12,883.40 13,467.81 12,332.36 12,460.76 13,439.39 16,190.10 17,330.86 16,179.46 15,330.33 211,007.25 2,867.20 8,963.56 6,952.78 6,184.93 7,137.28 6,420.20 4,900.92 6,026.98 7,531.57 8,596.30 6,904.32 5,476.04 93,350.59
Source: S. Sosvilla (FEDEA) for the Elcano Royal Institute
Ca na ry Isl Sp an ai ds n
2005 Total 96,602.56 2005 Total 8,381.70 100,074.51 2005 7,512.57 Total 89,697.42 2005 Total 9,854.29 117,656.66
9 35.3 35.5 7.1 1.3 9.8 27 26.7 6.8 29.3 4.1 3.1 28.6 10.4 17. Statistical Annex.9 28.1 34.2 8.3 21 22.8 7.2 14.3 7.1 13.1 1 1.3 10.4 6.6 8.8 1.Economy Table 8.4 27.1 2 1.8 18. Annual unemployment rate (Eurostat definition) Economy Table 9 Exports as a % of GDP Economy Table 10.1 1.1 17 15.8 18.3 16.1 9.7 17.2 12.3 35 36.2 27.3 3.3 11.8 26.5 5.6 2.3 8.8 9.6 4.9 35.6 11.2 1.1 3.5 3.9 8 8 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 21.8 11.6 1.6 19.8 1.6 5. Table 3 Source: Eurostat.1 5.9 26. Annual inflation rate (%) Final private consumption deflator EU 15 Spain EU 15 Spain Spain EU 15 Difference between Spain and EU 15 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 17.4 9.8 18.3 10.2 2.8 18.1 25.7 27.8 0.9 13.9 13.5 30 31.1 3 2.3 1.9 27.5 30.9 18.6 23.9 4.7 27. online database 146 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .9 17.6 7.5 4.4 3.1 1.6 2.3 16.9 2.3 2.1 1.1 9.1 3 2.4 10 10.3 9.2 28 26.5 4.1 29.4 10 10.2 16.9 0. Spring 2005.8 6.3 16.5 0.9 5.6 18.8 2.8 2.6 6.8 1.5 2.7 4.9 31 27.3 5.9 32.2 32.2 1 Source: Eurostat.4 3.6 7.8 15.2 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 8.6 1.1 1.9 5.6 3.4 3.8 3.3 2 2. Statistical Annex. Table 36 Source: Eurostat. Spring 2005.2 7.1 1.5 0.6 7.2 27.
873 1.879 2.638 65.388 1.024 4.478 1.2% -3% 16% 25% 25% 33% 15% -1% 147 .100 329.084 5.335.183.894 42.842 41.534 527.198 501.964.280 562.289 59.772 1.086.669.955 40.852.327 5.968.715 2.309 1.151 3.732.244 2.124.780.499.070.391 522.108.995.791 41.218.055 44.885 760.040 68.717.449 1.466. Population by autonomous community 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 38.675.254 19 va 86 ria -20 tio 05 n 19 86 19 96 Source: Compiled from INE data www.116.329 1.202. Change in total Spanish population Society Table 2.598 40.184.887.437 1.064 43.572 52.004 77.725.472 2.645 218.692.090.767 -2.530 7.872.889 39.186 680.472 260.762.160 40.582.143 65.115 39.496 6.136.022.529 2.473.060.622 264.197.712.234.606.952 -71.844.572 -11.org Pe va rce ria nt tio age n 20 05 15% 16% 7% -3% 44% 34% 8% 13% -3% 17% 16% 26% -0.488 1.097.249 520.849.820 39.016.131 1.Society Table 1.187.140 38.576 1.732 -35.846 5.849 6.418 38.664 1.789.108.541 -82.790.269.394 39.083.realinstitutoelcano.009.788 515.379 1.206 75.137.027 1.055 39.274 41.978.782 39.394 7.112.125 959.669.684 44.508.541.027 84.900 2.933 1.568 10.546 1.112 1.530 Nacional Andalusia Aragon Asturias Balearic Islands Canary Islands Cantabria Castilla-La Mancha Castile and Leon Catalonia Ceuta Valencian Community Extremadura Galicia La Rioja Madrid Melilla Murcia Navarre Basque Country Source: Compiled from INE data 38.510.268 39.276 4.571 13.941 5.076.098.742.837.792 593.473.295 1.198 301.651 40.087.574 2.979 39.006.418 6.460.894.796 4.420 2.667 2.551 302.682 1.229.060 1.635.635 983.799 1.100 39.
599.033.000 1.934 1.730.731 571.370.977.291 2.035 1.956 1.084.108. Population by age group (Population structure) Society Table 4.223.837 1.963 1.611.121 838.303 411.184 997.881 497.019.927 418.874 449.996 1.720 1.532 1.841 Source: Compiled from INE data (Municipal Register) and Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs (Immigration Statistical Yearbook) Source: Compiled from INE data 148 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .773 675.674 740.116 672.563.365 914.448.742.034.000 637.647.477.258.693 1.085 748.986.165 379. Change in immigration in the last decade (g R en e er sid al en sc ts he m e) Re (C s o id sc mm en he u ts m nit e) y Re gi st er ed 1986 Age 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85 and over Male 1.045 572.041.079 996.271.186 1.610 538.526 1.518.153.715 1.850 1.879 1.444 1.846 659.517 1.993.015.954 923.199 1.306.221.305.634 1.914 1.091 319.374 419.218.430.657 1.109.614.132 1.558 380.287 1.233 213.326 3.463 1.893 911.023.918 894.189 2005 Female 1.180 1.108.367 1.011 1.Society Table 3.524 1.885.676.087 1.261.659 1.108.100 1.362 1.664.583 107.015 661.329 1.564 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 542.195 1.176.160 Male 1.427 1.269.524 1.295.739 530.541 876.857.528.168 3.327 332.255 338.657 277.711 1.977.288 979.127.179.079.733 1.932 Re sid en ts 219.976 1.955 475.001 1.855.895 1.700.111.894 590.173 1.868 Female 1.060 1.579.179 826.738.057.319 1.946 2.329 895.294 1.222.194 384.250 780.496.796.593 1.958.326 1.976 1.074.842 663.489 1.041 1.657 1.720 382.700.813 719.553.314 600.735 244.145 235.647 801.131.397 1.224 1.840 1.657 1.984 609.324.048.
281 28.626 8.9 78.6 76.260 165. Immigration by autonomous community (2005) (g R en e er sid al en sc ts he m e) (C om R m esi un de ity nt sc s he m Re e) gi s Society Table 6 Activity rate (%) To ta l te re d fe m al e Sp ai n m al e To ta l Sp ai n Sp ai n EU Catalonia Community of Madrid Valencian Community Andalusia Canary Islands Murcia Balearic Islands Castilla-La Mancha Aragon Castile and Leon Basque Country Galicia Navarre La Rioja Asturias Extremadra Cantabria Ceuta and Melilla 484.772 117.6 57.3 78.3 56.5 78.437 4.0 63.194 66.6 62.9 65.033 17.928 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 58.1 56.848 91.3 78.210 118.4 58.428 63.341 20.568 3.007 131.0 61.8 77.785 3.847 209.7 75.879 59.realinstitutoelcano.014 5.565 14.0 52.797 25.893 3.2 67.668 39.9 53.207 222.6 59.558 77.0 50.9 59.1 70.273 83.692 6.7 70.1 67.2 76.9 56.8 78.8 55.9 58.7 67.521 195.471 13.3 78.4 63.894 69.986 798.0 80.480 74.1 48.3 68.Society Table 5.075 26.7 EU 67.0 60.363 49.526 18.114 27.7 77.2 77.016 156.125 9.864 439.4 64.4 57.6 62.9 41 42.2 69.985 420.9 76.2 48.6 39.4 75.6 Source: Compiled from Eurostat data Source: Compiled from INE data (Municipal Register) and Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs (Immigration Statistical Yearbook) www.1 80.300 21.4 79.9 50.752 581.3 47.1 58.675 54.5 60.904 780.1 78.3 67.077 32.6 68.6 55.9 69.223 96.2 61.4 79.1 55.2 67.9 68.318 72.0 78.3 77.987 21.4 78.0 78.2 67.2 69.882 31.105 131.754 12.0 76.7 66.4 43.0 61.270 115.9 78.6 78.547 5.org EU fe m al e m al e 149 .149 19.483 114.
290.54 55.2 2.85 3.05 5.93 90.62 7.23 57.58 55.42 31.91 35.92 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 29.22 30.436.36 33.41 10.91 56.49 89.25 6.91 2.65 72.52 29.667.269.36 36.33 691.871.291.43 2.33 776.206.79 55.766.7 4.60 184.108.40.206 37.07 2.71 425.05 31.05 6.796.9 6.89 527.07 90.46 6.034.73 7.96 55.57 643.516.09 75.75 7.74 8.987.43 89.66 55.378.87 32.29 90.437.72 59.755.70 92.68 Source: Eurostat Source: General Media Study.676.11 56.20 89.02 38.9 2. Audience per type of medium ne w sp ap Su er nd pl a s em y su en p ts m ag az in es EU 15 Spain 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 3.90 56.4 3.89 37.92 6.00 7.74 42.64 592.T pe ota ri lb nh en ab ef ita its H ea nt l pe th ca ri nh re ab be ita ne nt fit s pe Ol pe ns d-a rs ion ge on p >6 er 4 U ne be mp n l un p efi oym em ers t p en pl on er t oy ed Society Table 7.38 6.553.23 89.5 7 7 5.41 2.32 734.795.689.45 86.71 36.58 32.09 30.83 38.897.21 53.45 54.7 2.30 613.07 33.4 4.88 2.14 91.06 554.56 6.91 32.83 2.40 91.3 5.14 36.39 71.94 58.59 37.39 29.28 32.240.38 53.47 57.62 6.20 36.7 3.88 2.88 5.42 89.77 51.794.87 6.00 5.25 52.924.9 3.81 56.3 3.518.70 91.64 514.5 2.98 56.53 55.6 3.24 60.42 31.89 6.26 2.26 36.153.50 da ily 30.35 54.8 2.148.7 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Source: INE 1.540.44 3.65 57.22 89.37 485.68 55. Standardised index of accidents in the workplace Society Table 8.65 36.00 54.37 5.586.77 58.57 .321.44 39.617.47 90.5 5 4.96 8.41 54.910.78 2.21 87. Basic indicators of social protection indicators (euros) Society Table 9.18 54.91 31.87 35.83 33.51 4. Asociación para la Investigación de Medios de Comunicación 150 20 Years of Spain in the European Union te le vi sio n ra di o 87.93 36.30 35.10 60.483.93 7.72 10.24 9.43 71.338.959.97 813.
Society Table 10.210 5.00 201.839 7.767 2. Consumption and production of substances that deplete the ozone layer Co n of sum CF pt Cs io 2 n Co n of sum TC pt C1 ion Co n of su H mp CF t C io Co s3 n n of sum ha p lo tio ns n Co m et ns hy um lc p hl tio or n of of or m Spain EU 15 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 227.200 4.00 150.00 146.00 163.realinstitutoelcano.20 106.570 5.80 119.664 428 399 242 301 49 61 46 23.00 139.908 12.00 144.600 4. Road fatalities Society Table 11.172 19.703 0 0 0 0 0 0 226 nd 312 nd 397 530 nd nd nd 83 16 4.405 5.27 125.532 6.00 128.474 210 66 0 0 0 0 0 0 326 244 72 81 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 Source: Ministry of the Environment Source: CARE (Community Road Accidents Database) www.347 4.07 128.00 143.27 84.27 135.845 3.93 136.400 6.943 2.816 27.017 4.47 118.847 12.200 4.00 163.435 5.org 151 .544 27.000 6.00 129.292 30.40 120.00 143.00 135.836 19.93 91.424 6.540 9.00 113.60 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 25.000 4.53 113.40 142.000 nd nd Pr o of du TC ctio C1 n Pr o of du H cti CF o Cs n Pr o of du CF ctio Cs n 371 400 412 600 741 492 948 915 916 355 214 14.803 15.277 6.80 152.00 142.
80 Source: Compiled from INE and Eurostat data.375 60 707 1. For the 1985 series.346 3.533 67 1.349 34.00 437.889 30.363 1.00 328. Source: OECD 152 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .695 7.149 9.216 4.000 46.00 380.205 11.561 1.00 531.689 12.250 5.00 546.176 2.00 516.970 11. Production of MSW (municipal solid waste) Water collected (million m3) 1985 Water collected per capita (m3 per capita) 2002 2002 EU 15 kgs/day Spain kgs/day Portugal Italy Spain Greece Belgium Netherlands France Germany Finland Austria Ireland Sweden United Kingdom Luxembourg Denmark 10.000 3.442 8.544 8.500 52.006 2.887 41.00 497.070 2.496 8. Denmark and Portugal.200 38.00 390.932 38. data has been used from 1995 for Belgium and from 1980 for Ireland.00 512.97 579.02 365. Water collected for irrigation and purification Society Table 13.00 555.090 980 960 830 730 560 530 460 450 440 330 300 230 140 130 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 nd nd nd nd 483.36 598.Society Table 12.090 56.50 355.00 365.
Use of water by autonomous community w Vo at lu er m av e ai of la bl e Fr om co lle wa ct te ed r w at er Su rf ac e G ro un dw at er O th re er so w ur at ce er s 59 71 86 53 63 51 44 56 65 48 94 57 55 41 41 62 39 73 87 18.org di Wa st t rib er ut lo io st n in ne th tw e Pe or w rce k di a n st te ta rib r g ut los e o io t i f n n (% ) Society Table 14.0 32.litres/inhabitant/day National total Andalusia Aragon Principality of Asturias Balearic Islands Canary Islands Cantabria Castille and León Castilla-La Mancha Catalonia Valencian Community Extremadura Galicia Community of Madrid Región of Murcia Community of Navarre Basque Country La Rioja Ceuta and Melilla Source: INE 381 435 479 363 314 340 406 443 390 349 388 405 344 327 318 382 543 411 400 270 244 235 233 194 185 400 351 318 188 300 220 306 322 136 359 413 418 400 184 181 205 195 49 21 358 246 172 96 107 166 226 312 97 175 362 395 53 76 61 29 38 125 61 41 99 133 87 179 54 72 10 37 184 23 23 236 10 2 1 0 20 103 1 6 13 5 14 0 8 0 2 0 28 0 111 258 266 279 244 224 225 343 316 265 253 239 291 236 250 222 300 277 244 184 w Vo at lu er m su e o pp f lie d To ho us eh ol ds O th er us es 167 184 169 161 130 135 185 168 184 183 163 163 143 166 149 152 149 136 139 91 82 110 83 94 90 158 148 81 70 76 128 93 84 73 148 128 108 45 www.4 19.0 28.9 14.realinstitutoelcano.3 23.5 17.2 23.1 12.5 17.1 15.4 15.7 21.9 22.3 11.1 18.2 19.6 16.1 153 .5 18.
00 57.50 49.00 53.00 73.00 38.50 69.00 84.30 63.00 52.50 64.70 71.00 81.00 79.80 65.60 74.50 56.00 71.60 .20 51.00 69.00 63.90 73.00 62.00 80.00 60. Do you believe that your country benefits from membership of the EC/EU? Politics Table 2.20 84.00 56.10 74.40 82.00 72.00 63.Spain(%) EU (%) Spain(%) EU (%) EB-25 EB-27 EB-29 EB-31 EB-33 EB-35 EB-37 EB-39 EB-41 EB-45 EB-47 EB-49 EB-51 EB-53 EB-55 EB-57 EB-61 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 9 14 24 27 57 58 44 35 38 39 39 45 48 66 53 63 69 46 49 52 55 59 59 53 47 46 42 41 46 44 47 45 51 47 EB-40 EB-42 EB-44 EB-46 EB-47 EB-50 EB-52 EB-54 EB-56 EB-58 EB-60 EB-61 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 55 61 56 54 52 63 63 76 59 65 69 65 56 63 57 51 51 54 52 60 53 59 57 56 1984 1986 1987 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 (1) The result was obtained by combining the percentage of people who responded that they saw themselves as European and their respective nationality (and vice versa) and European only Source: Compiled from Eurobarometer data Source: Compiled from CIS data Source: Compiled from Eurobarometer data 154 20 Years of Spain in the European Union % S tio ati ni sfie ng d w in of d ith Sp em th ai o e n cr fu Pr ac nc ef y fo er rm de s o mo f g cra ov cy Su er to nm o of pp th to d or ec t t ent er th e h co e a ntr e p m ut al ro m on isa c un o ti es iti mo on s es u s Politics Table 1.00 56.00 46.00 55. Support for the process of European integration. Feeling of European identity Politics Table 3.00 74. Satisfaction with the political system 43.80 85.
Politics Table 4.205 828.961 625.812 540.456 425.983 565.843 355.496 918. 'La Escala de Postmaterialismo como medida del cambio de valores en las sociedades contemporáneas. entre el localismo y la globalidad'.391 367.294 188.8.131.526 756.571 904.798 514.946 541.716 1. Priority National Objectives (% scale of 4 items) M ai n or tai de ni r ng F in igh fla tin tio g n G re at er in pa po rt lit icip Pr ic a ot s tio e n of cti ex ng pr fr es ee sio do n m ad m St in at ist e ra tio n A Co uto m no m m un o iti us es 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 1.785 563.474 637.607 333.273 536. Juan.249.834 889.384 537.realinstitutoelcano.728 552.693 563.101.255 915. Fundación Santa María.498 547.176 721.org 155 .656 366.016 921.460 593.999 1.453 600.196 887.400 460.659 1.492 558.218 705.283 126.96.36.1990 531.032 371.156 450. Source: Compiled from CIS data www.159.989 544.927 1.054 460.548 374.951 1.097 899. Employees working for the public administrations Politics Table 5.' 'España 2000.392 au Lo th ca or l iti es 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 43 41 40 42 38 35 35 39 39 33 29 27 26 28 28 26 30 32 29 26 25 26 25 28 16 15 15 16 18 19 21 20 19 21 23 23 10 11 13 13 12 12 13 13 15 17 19 20 Source: Díez Nicolas.041 932.771 620.190.
52 0.44 0.51 0.10 0.20 1.7 United Kingdom 0.24 0.96 0.3 4.01 1.48 0.45 0.12 0.22% 0.27% 0.47 0.96 1.7 4.8 4.947.35 0.39 0.82 0.40 0.45 1.63 0.34% 0.15 1.64 0.00 Tr ad e % O D A 1.16 1.57 1.73 0.24% 0.60 0.24 0.64 962.93 0.4 0.33% 0.96 0.9 4.1 0.08 934.13 1.04 1.44 1.50 0.51 1.735.41 0.15 1.97 0.28 0.055.07% 0.17 1.26 0.22 1.7 +0.43 0.22 1.30% 0.08% 0.28 1.48 0.2 -0.36 0.319.05 1.16 1.0 +0.15% 0.70 0.61 0.31 0.66 0.41 0.29 0.25% 0.69 0.73 0.73 0.4 +0.49 0.29 1.32 0.59 0.71 0.75 0.69 0.18 0.4 +0.0 .69 0.74 0.05 1.24 1.5 5.61 1.24% 0.26% 0.7 +0.71 1.53 0.2 +0.72 0.77 0.58 0.3 6.71 788.75 0.23 0.71 0.6 6.59 0.78 Source: Compiled from AECI Source: Compiled from data from the Centre for Global Development 156 20 Years of Spain in the European Union V 20 ari 03 at -2 ion 00 5 -0.53 1.30% 0.23% 0.E D ur ne os ta ) In ve st m en t Im m ig ra tio n En vi ro nm en t Se cu rit y Te ch no lo gy In sc de or x e A (S OD pa / in PI ) B 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 0.903. Spanish Official Development Assistance Política Tabla 7.4 5.28% 0.17 1.58 0.3 +0.3 +0.80 1.27% 0.250.52 0.60 0.88 0.5 4.817.33% 0.0 +0.008.53 0.9 4.41 0.4 -0.23% 0.67 0.9 4.62 0.5 5.73 0.45 0.72 1.18 1.3 5.39 0.66 0.11 1.67 0.8 5.72 0.33 0.43 0.21% 0.17 1.75 1.56 6.35 996.38 0. Commitment to Development Index % (M A ed OD ia / CA PIB D ) To ta (M l A ill O .091.1 +0.76 0.75 0.37 0.1 0.65 1.70 1.32 1.15 0.20 1.5 +0.80 Denmark Netherlands Swedeen Australia Norway New Zeland Finland Austria Germany Canada United States Switzerland Portugal France Belgium Spain Italy Ireland Greece Japan 1.17 1.5 5.52 0.47 0.25% 0.0 5.9 4.36 0.53 0.26 1.23% 0.41 0.33% 0.35 1.62 0.57 0.24% 0.97 0.34 1.22% 0.66 1.32% 0.2 2.75 0.90 0.67 0.84 0.36 205.37 0.37 0.99 1.41 0.83 0.37 0.30 0.Politics Table 6.11 393.33% 0.93 1.79 0.56 0.25% 0.16 0.28% 0.3 +0.1 +0.22% 0.18 1.60 0.25% 0.20% 0.72 0.30% 0.7 6.32 0.53 0.69 0.88 0.24 0.72 0.42 0.18 0.24% 0.5 5.16 1.85 0.25% 198.48 591.68 0.23% 0.22% 0.88 1.7 -0.279.2 +0.
00 43.00 24.05 0.00 35.00 30.00 38.00 9.00 220.00 42.00 300.20 2.30 14.00 0.40 9.50 3.00 37.00 7.00 39.00 14.00 72.00 19.80 1.00 48.00 48.00 28.00 80.00 3.90 17.00 0.80 288.00 11.00 160.00 10.00 28.00 70.80 13.00 231.00 26.00 22.20 4.00 25.00 233.00 0.01 0.80 5.00 0.00 280.00 71.00 78.00 2.realinstitutoelcano.00 0.50 1.00 66.10 0.00 50.00 20.00 17.10 1.00 35.20 0.00 31.00 53.70 12.00 Source: Compiled from Global Reach data www.00 0.00 148.00 20.00 49.00 103.00 23.00 40.00 0.00 91.00 62.org 157 .00 105.00 61.02 0.00 24. Internet users by language (millions) English Chinese Japonese Spanish German French Italian Korean Portuguese 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 40.00 40.00 70.80 9.00 192.00 35.Politics Table 8.50 6.20 1.00 32.00 21.00 85.20 2.00 18.
076 12% 13% 14% 15% 17% 18% 20% 21% 79.794 7.914 19.217 101.842 99.167 15.906 36.138 2.314 51.456 27. Erasmus students 240 1.824 21.258 20.362 73.999 93.453 11.405 5.694 62.999 93.158 17.244 9.096 98.442 4.543 10.262 13.642 79.407 84.689 Source: Compiled from MEC data 158 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .034 7% 11% 11% 12% 12% 11% 11% 12% 12% 14% 14% 15% 16% 17% 17% 17% 17% 3.1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 Sp an i st sh ud Er en asm ts u s = % st o ud f en Spa ts ni ou sh t o Er To f t asm ta ot u lE st al s ud ra en sm ts us Politics Table 9.822 107.067 8.617 116.403 18.874 85.381 16.468 14.842 99.197 16.841 12.289 24.217 101.096 98.978 18.874 85.617 116.822 107.297 17.689 E st uro ud p en ean ts E in ra Sp sm ai us n % ch o oo f E se ras Sp mu ai s n st as ud a en To de ts ta st w in h lE at o U io Er n as m us st ud en ts 9.168 3.537 10.
org). J. García Delgado (Civitas. Requena (Alianza Editorial. Torreblanca (Documento de Trabajo. No 826. Data has also been taken from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD. For an analysis of the income convergence (national and regional) and financial relations between Spain and the EU. the INE (INEbase).org 159 .bde. Ministry of Culture. González and M. and '¿Adiós a los fondos? Claves para entender la posición de España a la hora de negociar el presupuesto de la UE para 2007-2013' by J. and the Statistical Annex of the European Economy. Herce (Documento de Trabajo. www. 'La política de cohesión europea y la economía española: Evaluación y prospectiva' by S. see 'Lecciones de Economía Española'.Bibliography For further information… Economy Most of the economic statistics in this work come from Eurostat. available at www. published by the European Commission twice a year. for a somewhat more comprehensive analysis of the various areas of the Spanish economy. the National Statistics Institute (INE. Alcaide Inchausti (Fundación BBVA. Madrid. November 2005). 'Recent demographic developments in Europe' (Council of Europe Publishing. Madrid. 2005). I.eurostat. various years). Madrid.realinstitutoelcano. and the articles compiled in '75 Años de política económica española y de Técnicos Comerciales y Economistas del Estado' (Información Comercial Española. the OECD (especially its Factbook). There is also a series of publications that analyse the various aspects of the social changes Spain has undergone since joining the EU.oecd. No 811.ine. and the 'Immigration Statistical Yearbook' (Observatorio www. L. notably: 'Three decades of social change in Spain'. Elcano Royal Institute). Elcano Royal Institute).es). A. www. 2002). Sosvilla-Rivero and J.eu. de la Dehesa (Información Comercial Española.cec. 2005). 2003). see: 'Evolución Económica de las Regiones y Provincias Españolas en el Siglo XX' by J. 2005). the Banco de España (in particular its numerous indicators of Spain-EU real convergence. December 2003). edited by J. both its Internet database ( (http://epp. 'Encuesta de hábitos y prácticas culturales en España' (Fundación Autor. Most of the statistics are available on the web pages of these institutions. Brussels. Finally. Madrid. 'Women in Numbers 1983-2003' (Women's Institute. DT 21/2005. the surveys carried out by the Centre for Sociological Research (CIS) and the various editions of the Human Development Report produced by the United Nations Development Programme.es) and the Fundación de las Cajas de Ahorro (FUNCAS). DT 52/2004. see: 'Balance de la economía española en los últimos veinticinco años' by G. For an excellent analysis of the transformation of the Spanish economy since 1978. Society The data used to draw up the section on society has for the most part been taken from the statistics prepared by Eurostat. Madrid.int/). coordinaated by J.
For a study on European identity in Spain. Hay (Siddharth Metha Ediciones. 2/2005). Madrid.cis.oecd.es). Barcelona. data from the following sources has been used for the section on politics: 'Anuario del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores' (www. CIS (www. 1995). 160 20 Years of Spain in the European Union .int/comm). Finally. M.org).Permanente de la Inmigración. Story and R. Heywood (Palgrave. I. Sorroza (Report by the Elcano Royal Institute. The figures concerning the attitudes of the general public in Spain towards the process of European integration come from Eurobarometer (http://europa.eu.nato.es). Elcano Royal Institute). various years). 'España en Democracia: 1975-2000' by C. www.mae. Gillespie (Alianza Editorial.ipu. 'La séptima potencia: España en el mundo' by M. Díez Nicolás (Fundación Santa María. 2003). Madrid.es). 2001).es/mujer). Madrid. MacMilan. Rodrigo. various years). T.es). 2000). notably: 'Spain and the Process of European Integration. Centre for Global Development (www. 'La política europea de España' by E. Spanish Agency for International Cooperation (AECI. the data reflecting the changes in political values in Spain may be consulted in 'La Escala de Postmaterialismo como medida del cambio de valores en las sociedades contemporáneas' by J.es). 1996). Closa and P. 'España en Europa: Historia de la adhesión a la CE. NATO (www. 'Desafíos: La Unión Europea ante su ampliación'.org). J. Gaviria (Ediciones B. There is also a series of books that analyse Spain's process of European integration from different perspectives. OECD Development Assistance Committee (www. Ministry of Public Administration (www. Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. Barcelona. 1957-1985' by J. Politics For an assessment of the significance of Spain's 20 years in the EU and for a detailed analysis of the challenges of the future. London. 2003). Barcelona. see 'Construir Europa desde España: los nuevos desafíos de la política europea' by C. 1999). Powell (Plaza y Janés Ed. Madrid.int). InterParliamentary Union (www.cgdev.mde. Crespo MacLennan (Palgrave. compiled by J.map. DT 61/2004. In addition. and 'Memoria de la Legislatura' of the Ministry of Defence (various terms). Powell. Ruiz Jiménez (Documento de Trabajo. Bassols (Estudios de Política Exterior.org/dac). 'Las relaciones exteriores de la España democrática' by F. 'Spain and the European Union' by C. Women's Institute (www. 'Military Balance' (International Institute for Strategic Studies. Torreblanca and A. Observatorio de la Mujer de las Fuerzas Armadas (www.aeci. Madrid 1995). see 'La identidad europea de los españoles: sentido pasado y presente de la identificación con Europa en España' by A. Barbé (Ariel. 2004). 1957-85' by R.mtas. J.
europarl.www.int/spain .es EUROPEAN COMMISSION Office in Spain http://europa.org EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT Office in Spain www.realinstitutoelcano.eu.
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