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Gerben A. van Kleef and Jens Förster New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching Terence Lovat New Thinking for Social Marketing Susana Marques Translating Design Thinking for Scientists Cindy Beacham vii 1 Chapter 2 39 Chapter 3 65 Chapter 4 97 Chapter 5 121 139 155 171 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Index . Hogan and Zachary Stein Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking Janina Marguc.CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1 Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills and Emotional Dispositions Required in the 21st Century Christy Folsom A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making Andrea Migone Structuring Thought: An Examination of Four Methods Michael J.
Learning new ways of thinking and teaching presents a challenge for teachers who have more traditional classroom expectations.PREFACE Psychology has long influenced our thinking about teaching and learning. and Skinner) were more about not thinking than what we now consider to be the thinking processes necessary for life and work in the 21st century. analysis. The narrow boundaries of behaviorism have given way to the complexities of critical thinking. creativity.Psychology has long influenced our thinking about teaching and learning. earlier influences of psychology on education (Thorndike. planning. and an openness to diversity. and selfevaluation. respectful communication. connection making and the self-management skills of decision making. creativity. Chapter 1. This new landscape of teaching and learning goes beyond traditional practice and requires different and strenuous intellectual demands. analysis. The narrow boundaries of behaviorism have given way to the complexities of critical thinking. connection making and the self-management skills of decision-making. Pavlov. our 21st century world requires social-emotional skills that support collaboration. This book focuses on raising the awareness of scientists and other readers to a form of thinking called design thinking. Additionally. motivational and cognitive consequences of insurmountable obstacles and their impact on the thinking process. earlier influences of psychology on education were more about not thinking than what we now consider to be the thinking processes necessary for life and work in the 21st century. planning and self-evaluation. However. Since few have experienced this kind . as well as major findings regarding the affective. However. Watson. These expanded skills are expected to be part of each student's education.
The TIEL Curriculum Design model provides such a framework making these complex thinking and emotional processes accessible to teachers and to their students. and often more difficult. flexible decision strategies. an acronym for teaching for intellectual and emotional learning. is learning to design and implement daily lesson plans and long-term units that consistently provide opportunities for students to develop complex thinking processes. teachers and teacher educators need opportunities to gain understanding and mastery of these complex processes. Teachers and teacher educators need a framework that clarifies the thinking and emotional components that form the infrastructure of 21st century learning and teaching. depending on the situation. In addition. Chapter3. The same applies to scientific thinking.A fundamental thinking skill is the ability to see the structure of thought. Awareness of the structure of thought begins with an intuitive description of the elements and relations that constitute a decision-making process and a description of the relationship between the structure and function of thought. Contreras of learning in their own schooling. The flexibility of Rational Expectations allows for the modeling of 'forward thinking'. synopsis and punctuated equilibrium can be modelled using rational expectations and policy-makers can employ them according to their needs and preferences. This chapter will address three questions: How has psychology influenced education during the last century? Why is there so little evidence of the integration of thinking and social-emotional learning into the curriculum and instruction in many classrooms? What is the TIEL model and how can it help pre-service and in-service teachers design learning experiences that integrate thinking skills and emotional learning into daily classroom curriculum? Chapter2. to construct a structural map of everyday decision-making processes. and gives them the ability (and potential) to act strategically by modifying their policy according to the changes in the issue at hand.I argue that policy-makers rather than using a single decisionmaking modle employ. Incrementalism. This allows for objective analysis of everyday decisions and it enhances structural awareness in those who map the thinking process and in those who read the maps. and . as a first step. Regardless of how one judges the quality of everyday decisions in light of the goals being pursued. it is useful. critical comparison and evaluation. informed actors. is a synthesis of the thinking operations from Guilford's Structure of Intellect theory and Dewey's writings on qualities of character.viii David A. TIEL. Scientists advocate a particular position in the academic field and explicit mapping of their arguments enhances structural awareness.
It also introduces new findings that show how obstacles influence the more basic ways in which people perceive and conceptually process information from their environment. . Chapter5. such as a fallen tree blocking the road to work or life circumstances that make it hard for an adolescent to obtain a university degree. Those can be big or small. description. It will draw especially on a range of research insights into effective teaching based on application of these findings. to refute the narrow assumptions and findings of conventional educational research and to assert that effective learning requires a response that is as much about affect and social dynamics as about cognition. Chapter4. What are the effects of such obstacles? Could it be that obstacles have an impact beyond the very task or goal people with which they interfere? The present chapter reviews major findings regarding the affective. it highlights possible directions for future research and discusses the role of people's cognitive responses for dealing with life's obstacles. including the emerging 'new neurosciences'. The chapter will explore the research findings of the new neurosciences and the implications of their new thinking about thinking for effective teaching. the mapping of decision making is a worthwhile goal. analysis and synthesis. empathic character and self-reflection as being at least as significant to learning as the indisputably important technical skills of recall.Since the early 1990s. In so doing. and especially cognitive consequences of insurmountable obstacles on the one hand and potentially surmountable obstacles on the other hand. In 1994. We suggest that technological advances may allow us to merge various different though mapping techniques and further enhance an interdependent set of graphicacy skills that may help to support decision making and adaptive action in context. motivational. it challenged the erstwhile dominant thinking about thinking and its ramifications for teaching. there has been a concentration of effort aimed at maximizing student achievement in school education and rectifying the debilitating effects of failure. re-defining learning to incorporate into the notion of 'intellectual depth' matters of communicative competence. This chapter presents a case for the cultivation of graphicacy skills in this context.People encounter myriads of obstacles throughout their lives. a Carnegie Corporation Taskforce on Student Achievement drew on new research in a variety of fields. a skill that is becoming increasingly prominent and even necessary as part of expert decision making in many fields of applied science. Overall. Finally. We describe four thought mapping techniques that offer considerable power and potential to elucidate and enhance thinking and decision making abilities.Preface ix communication in the field.
Chapter7. new challenges and has deep implications for the theory and practice of social marketing. . design and education. providing guidance on the use of design thinking across the entire organization. including design and society. The overall purpose of this chapter is to raise the awareness of scientists and other readers to a form of thinking called design thinking. as twenty-first century realities may require the participation of everyone to have a say in our designed world. design and organizations. design has been viewed as an activity for design professionals. or systems to address the needs of firms and individuals. It is a complex shift that requires fundamental changes not only in values and assumptions but also on resources. Social marketing is still dominated by prescriptive interventions. namely. The term has been familiar to many design disciplines and most recently has been touted by members of the business community as a mindset for an entire organization. the focus of design has been the intentional creation of products. The shift from transactional to relational thinking opens new opportunities. Contreras including drawing on data from a number of research projects from the Australian Government's Quality Outcomes and Values Education Programs. and design and the designer. The first section of this chapter will review the design thinking literature across different levels of activity. One of the sub-disciplines of design is that of design management. this transactional logic is incapable of responding to the complexities of contemporary multi-option. understanding design thinking. Chapter6. and envisioning the future. What is a scientist to do with this information? This section will be organized in three sub-sections. pluralist societies. structures. in which there will be no universal agreement on a single way of life. The second section will suggest ways to help scientists understand and use design thinking. the relevance of design thinking.This article establishes that a new way of thinking is needed in the field of social marketing and that change demands a shift from transactional to relational thinking.x David A. Why should scientists be interested in design? One reason is an ethical one.Historically. however. Relational thinking can help to de-construct the taken-for-granted ―truths‖ and fundamental contradictions in current thinking as it provides a new logic that sees consumers not as targets. but as the main drivers of the value creation process. Typically. skills. competencies and organizational structures.
Watson. Since few have experienced this kind of learning in their own schooling. 1-38 ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers. United States of America ABSTRACT Psychology has long influenced our thinking about teaching and learning. our 21st century world requires social-emotional skills that support collaboration. NY.In: Psychology of Thinking Editor: David A. Pavlov. connection making and the self-management skills of decision making. However. earlier influences of psychology on education (Thorndike. City University of New York. These expanded skills are expected to be part of each student's education. and an openness to diversity. The narrow boundaries of behaviorism have given way to the complexities of critical thinking. and often more difficult. and self-evaluation. This new landscape of teaching and learning goes beyond traditional practice and requires different and strenuous intellectual demands. teachers and teacher educators need opportunities to gain understanding and mastery of these complex processes. respectful communication. Inc Chapter 1 LEARNING TO TEACH THE COGNITIVE SKILLS AND EMOTIONAL DISPOSITIONS REQUIRED IN THE 21ST CENTURY Christy Folsom Lehman College. pp. creativity. Additionally. is learning to design and implement daily lesson plans and long-term units that consistently provide opportunities for students to develop complex thinking processes. planning. . analysis. Learning new ways of thinking and teaching presents a challenge for teachers who have more traditional classroom expectations. and Skinner) were more about not thinking than what we now consider to be the thinking processes necessary for life and work in the 21st century. Contreras. In addition.
earlier influences of psychology on education (Seifert & Hoffnung. 2005. 1970) address the thinking processes taking place in classrooms like the ones just described. studies. Thorndike & Hagen. Friedman. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. engaging. 1996. and engaged . 1985. reflective. 2006). 1991) were often more about not thinking than what we now consider to be the thinking processes necessary for life and work in the 21st century (Darling-Hammond. 2000. Sternberg. studios. 1997. 1992. The research of many psychologists (Gardner. The field of psychology has long influenced our thinking about teaching and learning. The TIEL Curriculum Design model provides such a framework making these complex thinking and emotional processes accessible to teachers and to their students. galleries. Cunningham. 2006.. xiv) Such classrooms have thinking at the core of the curriculum and support healthy social-emotional learning as students learn rigorous content. However. field research sites. Torrance. TIEL. (Darling-Hammond. The narrow boundaries of behaviorism have given way to an emphasis on the cognitive complexities of .2 Christy Folsom Teachers and teacher educators need a framework that clarifies the thinking and emotional components that form the infrastructure of 21st century learning and teaching. and newsrooms…[places of ] shared inquiry [where] students are engaged in initiating and assessing their ideas and products…feel supported in taking risks and thinking independently. theaters. This chapter will address three questions: How has psychology influenced education during the last century? Why is there so little evidence of the integration of thinking and social-emotional learning into the curriculum and instruction in many classrooms? What is the TIEL model and how can it help pre-service and in-service teachers design learning experiences that integrate thinking skills and emotional learning into daily classroom curriculum? INTRODUCTION School reformers in the 1990s envisioned schools as Exciting places: thoughtful. Marzano. laboratories. Pink. Wagner.. places where meaning is made…places that resemble workshops. 1997. Thorndike. p. is a synthesis of the thinking operations from Guilford's Structure of Intellect theory and Dewey's writings on qualities of character. an acronym for teaching for intellectual and emotional learning.
Teachers and teacher educators need assistance in taking up arms in the needed revolution in how teachers teach and how students learn. and an openness to diversity. 1977. Riding & Sadler-Smith. ethical behavior. his intelligence. the deep understandings of thinking that form the foundation of this revolution have not been made readily accessible to teachers and teacher educators (Curry. Therefore. 2009b. 1997. 1980). 1997. creativity. Isaksen & Firestein. 2005. so they need opportunities to gain understanding of and facility with these complex processes. 1981. These expanded skills are expected to be part of each student's education (Partnership for 21st Century Skills). creative. 1981. Kohlberg. 1997). Smith & O'Day. Torrance. Additionally. respectful communication. Treffinger. This new landscape of teaching and learning goes beyond traditional practice and requires ―different and strenuous intellectual demands‖ (Hammer & Schifter. 2002) and creativity (Folsom. While psychologists have been at the forefront of this revolution. and the selfmanagement skills of decision making. Richards. multidimensional learning (DarlingHammond. Vare. 442) as well as attention to the moral-ethical dimension of education (Cross. Treffinger. 1991). Central in this new landscape is learning to design complex curriculum and implement daily lesson plans and long-term units that consistently provide opportunities for students to develop complex thinking processes.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 3 critical thinking. 1983. teaching thinking and fostering social-emotional development must become integrated into daily classroom teaching and learning. and the forms of his growth‖ (p. p. and self-evaluation. Complex pedagogy involves the conscious planning of curriculum and instruction that integrates the processes that facilitate the development of children's intellectual and social-emotional capacities with subject matter content. Bruner (1965) wrote of the revolution ―in our understanding of the nature of man. Darling-Hammond. Few teachers. Folsom. his capabilities. have experienced this kind of learning in their own schooling (Little. Guilford. many classrooms have not reaped the benefits of research in complex intellectual processes such as self-regulation (Zimmerman. teacher educators. . 1975. Torrance. 2009a. his passions. The outcome for students is complex. our 21st century world requires social-emotional skills that support collaboration. connection making. planning. If students are to be ready for the complex world in which we live. 2001. 1993. 2001. 114). Learning new ways of thinking and teaching presents a challenge for teachers who have more traditional classroom expectations. 1983). analysis. or those who are preparing to teach. 1979).
1991.4 Christy Folsom The TIEL Curriculum Design model. 1997). As the new field of psychology gained traction. Costa (2008) reminds us that ―nobody has to ‗teach us how to think' just as no one teaches us how to move or walk‖ (p. published widely and taught in textbooks. 20). However. 2000). Teaching for Intellectual and Emotional Learning. researchers have shown that teaching can increase one's ability to think more clearly and insightfully (Beyer. Three questions will be addressed: How has psychology influenced education during the last century? Why is there so little evidence of the integration of thinking and social-emotional learning into the curriculum and instruction in many classrooms? What is the TIEL model and how is it helping pre-service and in-service teachers design learning experiences that integrate thinking skills and emotional learning into daily classroom curriculum? INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY ON EDUCATION Everyone can think. the early field of psychology contributed to this state of affairs. Building on the earlier work of Binet. In the late 19th century. is a framework that helps inservice and pre-service teachers design instruction that includes the teaching of thinking and emotional learning. Thorndike's theories. Marzano. helps teachers and teacher candidates who are preparing to teach create daily opportunities for students to develop their thinking processes and increase their social-emotional learning. Smith. In this chapter. While some students needed the intellectual rigor . I will share how the TIEL Curriculum Design model. 1969. 1993. attention to thinking in relation to education increased. Yet. Sternberg. it was believed that mental ability was developed through the subjects studied in school. subjects that were traditionally thought to build mental acuity and discipline. classrooms where a wide range of thinking is expected and promoted have not been the norm. and furthermore. convinced many educators in the first decades of the 20th century that mental abilities were little affected by school studies. In the early 20th century. Thorndike developed intelligence tests that were used to determine what students would learn Latin and geometry. they did not transfer outside the narrow confines of what was studied (Ravitch. since the development of our current school system in the early part of the 20th century. Thorndike determined through his research that it mattered little what was studied as those with the greatest ability would develop their thinking through any subject. Paradoxically. 1982. 1993. Lewis & Smith.
Goleman. high ability students benefited from new curriculum designed to foster the critical and creative thinking of America's brightest students (Guilford. Gregson and Higgins (2005) provide a brief history of this time period placing Piaget's theory of cognitive development as the most influential on education. set the stage for schooling that focused on a narrow band of thinking.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 5 for college entrance. Guilford's Structure of Intellect theory expanded greatly on the multidimensional view of thinking that had been proposed by Thurstone (1947). In the early 20th century. and products provided a view of learning that involved five operations of thinking that interact with four kinds of content to result in six kinds of products. at this time. Those in special education adapted this research to develop programmed learning and . real-life experiences. Educators. High ability students also benefited from the research on cognition. schools were places to prepare a burgeoning immigrant population with basic skills and the ability to follow directions as they went to work in factories. 1981). 1972. 368). Elliott. Those in the field of special education used this research to design methodologies that addressed strengths and weaknesses in students' cognitive processing. At the middle of the century. In the 1970s and 1980s. The new science of education. Sternberg. Nevertheless. Tannenbaum. 1985. at the same time. educators such as Parker and Dewey advocated schools that fostered thinking through project work.. that initiated new possibilities for both psychologists and educators (Gardner. Moseley. based on psychological research. the two viewpoints overlapped. 1985. 1961). In 1936. During this ―space race‖ period that encompassed the launching of Sputnik and landing men on the moon. shifted their attention to behavorism with its emphasis on ―clearly specified objectives and rewards‖ (Moseley et al. contents. Guilford's three-part theory that included operations. psychologist Leta Hollingworth opened a school for highly gifted children in New York City that featured a curriculum that focused on challenging students' thinking as they learned about their surroundings through investigation and research (Tannenbaum. a previously neglected area for psychologists. with a focus on information processing. An emphasis on cognition continued into the 1960s and 1970s. a curriculum that fostered thinking was not necessary for the others (Ravitch). Schools were rigid and uninviting places. p. Guilford (1950) opened the way for the study of creativity. Torrance. Over the last sixty years. while its influence on education has fluctuated. 1983). 1995. the influence of research in psychology on cognition has grown. 2005. 1983). and attention to student interest (Cremin.
general education—and at all levels of education (Bransford. Lane & Pierson. 2009a. sought to provide intellectual nourishment for academically and intellectually gifted students. Again. Those in special education investigated how teaching their students the self-regulatory processes of goal-setting. planning. Handelsman. 1993. educators concerned with narrowing learning opportunities. 1998). While methodologies that focused on control and a narrower band of thinking was adopted in general education classrooms. 2007. 2007. During the late 1970s and 1980s. the concepts and actions of thinking are now addressed in all areas of education— special education. Miller & Pfund. 1984). While gifted education and special education embraced the research that supported methodologies grounded in intellectual processes early. With such voluminous research on thinking. entered its ―halcyon days‖ (Borland. and environments that support critical and creative thinking in classrooms has increased exponentially since Guilford's work in defining the many dimensions of thinking. 1977). and metacognition improved the educational achievement of children with learning disabilities (Moseley et al. Hoffman. Noddings. special education and gifted education led the way in applying this new research on thinking styles to instruction. Van-Tassel Baska. 1991. Carter. 1975. The new concepts of executive brain function and metacognition refocused attention on thinking in learning (Moseley et al. Stang. The research on thinking skills. 1997). reemerged as an avalanche of research on cognitive learning styles took place during the 1980s and into the 1990s (Rayner & Riding.). and instructional frameworks. 2003. research in the social-emotional and moral aspects of teaching and learning increased (Gilligan. Brown & Cocking. Wiggins & McTighe. gifted education. thinking styles. Erickson. 1991. CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION IN CLASSROOMS Two questions arise.6 Christy Folsom skills training. decision making. why is there still so little evidence of conscious attention to the teaching of thinking and social-emotional learning in . thinking styles. During this time. Fink. the pendulum swung back to an emphasis on cognition. Kohlberg. first used by Allport in 1937. gifted education. Tomlinson. Folsom.. 2000. 2005). 1996) as programs with an emphasis on critical and creative thinking proliferated. As a result. The term learning styles. Educators of gifted children used the new research in cognition to design curriculum and instruction methodologies (Renzulli. 2009. 1999.
Marzano. and offer that critical thinking ―entails awareness of one's own thinking and reflection on the thinking of self and others as an object of cognition‖ (p. Zohar (2004) notes that teachers are unable to define fundamental concepts in critical thinking. Zohar. 2009a). 2001). (1993) provide another definition. Zimmerman. At least four reasons for this emerge from the research. and have difficulty explaining their own thinking. Lewis and Smith (1993) combine concepts from several definitions with a focus on outcome to construct their definition. 136) Second. 1996. 1993. 1993. during. teachers lack understanding of the terms higher order thinking and critical thinking. She found that those who came to a teacher education program with the notion that knowledge is . and organizing]‖ (p. Higher order thinking occurs when a person takes new information and with information stored in memory interrelates and/or rearranges and extends this information to achieve a purpose or find possible answers in perplexing situations. Underbakke. 270).Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 7 many of the classrooms where children of all abilities spend the majority of their school time? Why is there so little understanding of how to integrate the teaching of thinking and social-emotional learning into daily curriculum? While special education and gifted education have long considered research on cognition important to educating children. the beliefs and perceptions of teachers about teaching and learning can prevent the teaching of thinking in classrooms. general education has been slower to include much of this research into curriculum planning (Lewis & Smith.‖ Kuhn and Dean (2004) acknowledge the wide range of definitions. Borg & Peterson. 158). in a longitudinal study of teacher preparation programs spanning the time period before. Darling-Hammond. It is clear that teachers begin teaching with a knowledge deficit concerning thinking processes and how to develop learning experiences that integrate the teaching of thinking with content (Ashton. Hollingsworth (1989). 1997. First. 1993. Degani & Vaaknin. do not have a clear knowledge of which thinking skills students need to learn. 2002. (p. Underbakke et al. and after the fifth year. Folsom. Marzano (1993) names three major skills involved in higher order thinking: ―self-regulation. critical thinking. selecting. This is not surprising as Cuban (1984) noted that defining the terms used to refer to thinking is a ―conceptual swamp. 139) with subject matter content. Higher order thinking is ―identifying and using these operations of thinking [interrelating. and creative thinking‖ (p. found that it is difficult for preservice teachers to change their beliefs about teaching.
Zohar (2004) also found that the ability to teach thinking comes up against beliefs about teaching.. 94). learning strategies. 2000. 2002). Zimmerman. Teachers have not been adequately prepared to teach and discuss thinking in their classrooms. Zhang). There is fourth reason that teaching thinking in classrooms does not match the proliferation of research on the topic. Sarason (1982). Rayner & Riding.. planning.. His research shows that middle school teachers with a teacher-directed transmission view of teaching that emphasizes convergent thinking found it difficult to use constructivist methods that encourage a wider range of student thinking. Included in higher order thinking are the self-regulatory skills of goal setting. 2007. p. and if they had learned. 2009a. was surprised by the missing discussion of thinking and learning in classrooms he visited. self-evaluation (Folsom. 1993) ideas of the program more easily than those who came with the view of teaching as transmission of information. Yet. 1997. Nevertheless. Agran & Hughes. Stang et al. and critical for those with learning disabilities. A third reason that teaching thinking is not widespread in classrooms is that the research on thinking. time management. Another misperception that prevents teachers from integrating thinking into their instruction is that higher order thinking is only for the highest achieving and advanced students. they would not have time in their . these studies are not organized and made available in a way that is accessible to teachers who have limited time to read and consider research. and thinking styles is overwhelming. decision making. 2009. When he asked teachers to explain. 1997. Underbakke et al.8 Christy Folsom constructed by the learner through experience could modify their thinking and actions to the constructivist (Brooks & Brooks. 2005. as Kuhn and Dean (2004) point out. teaching thinking. Wehmeyer. while these skills are important for all students to learn. Many psychologists have analyzed and synthesized studies to provide clarity (Harpaz. they told him that nothing in their teacher preparation programs had prepared them to address thinking in their classrooms. necessary for gifted students. selfevaluation. 1993. these self-regulatory skills are not widely taught in general education classrooms. All of these self-determination skills are important for students with disabilities to learn in order ―to live a quality life and assume primary control and responsibility for myriad life activities‖ (Stang et al. Those who understood teaching as linear and teacher-directed found it challenging to allow students to struggle in solving a problem or to carry on discussions that helped students come to their own conclusions.. The researchers agree (Zhang. Moseley et al. 2002). Riding & Sadler-Smith.
Teacher education programs commonly teach constructivist methods that open space for a wide range of thinking through inquiry. 22). learning to integrate thinking into classroom curriculum requires deep changes in thinking about teaching and learning. p. (b) new conceptions of teaching consistent with this complex view of students. p. 1990) in ways that help teachers become conscious of these thinking processes. Yet. Yet. in short supply for teachers. and reflection (Brooks & Brooks. emotional. as cited in Kuhn & Dean. 69) is stressful while attending to daily teaching responsibilities. the ―period of cognitive dissonance while less effective practices are replaced with new practices or while new practices are integrated with old‖ (Folsom. Goodlad. teaching teachers to teach thinking must become one of the highest priorities of education‖ (p. Education Leadership. Ashton (1996) includes the social-emotional dimension with the cognitive. 1993). 269). collaboration. (1993) emphasize that if ―teacher performance is the most powerful link to higher order thinking in students. 2009a. Adding to the challenge in teacher preparation. she includes (a) interaction of social. 2008). and (d) new conceptions of motivation and assessment. TEACHER PREPARATION Learning about the fundamentals of thinking and how to integrate the teaching of thinking into curriculum and instruction must be introduced effectively in teacher preparation programs. It is difficult for teachers to alter their thinking and teaching methodologies while managing the exigencies of a classroom filled with thirty children. Time.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 9 schedules to include discussions of thinking. and cognitive forces in learning. have recently devoted full issues to the integration of thinking into classroom curriculum (Social Studies. In her description of the ―wide range of ―knowledge and experiences not typically included in teacher preparation programs‖ (p. decision making. In addition. Yet. Underbakke et al. the higher order thinking that constructivist methods support is seldom made explicit in instruction or visible in the teaching of curriculum design (Folsom. Fortunately. few teacher education . (c) new conceptions of intelligence. critical questioning. educational organizations make research on thinking available to teachers. 138). Journals. 2009a. According to Kuhn and Dean (2004) understanding what these the higher order thinking skills are that students need to learn is one of the major ―unresolved problems of education‖ (Bereiter. is an important factor in learning new teaching skills. 2008. whose primary audiences are teachers working in schools.
While theories and frameworks of thinking and creativity (Bloom. an acronym for Teaching for Intellectual and Emotional Learning. Sternberg & Grigorenko. 2001. 2005.. Moseley et al. and learning styles (Curry. 1985. curriculum development and thinking. While there is much literature on thinking and the teaching of thinking in journals focusing on research. TIEL. Treffinger et al. 1983). Sternberg. (Fasko. psychologists have pointed out the limitations of his model (Horn & Knapp. there has been little help in bringing these concepts simultaneously into the teacher education process. I found eight articles addressing the teaching of thinking distributed throughout five journals. 1977. The TIEL Curriculum Design model makes these complex thinking and emotional processes accessible to teachers and to their students (Folsom.. 1985. Torrance. 2002).10 Christy Folsom programs are providing the knowledge and skills necessary for teachers to effectively teach these skills and dispositions within the curriculum of the classroom. 2001). One criticism that pertains especially to teachers is the complexity of Guilford's model limiting its use as a practical pedagogical framework. thinking skills. Yet. Hayes. there is comparatively little found in journals that focus on teacher education. I performed a search through 21 journals from the last 20 years that included Teacher Education in the title. Using the words thinking. and special education. 1956. teaching thinking. is a synthesis of the thinking operations from Guilford's (1977) Structure of Intellect theory and Dewey's (1964) writings on qualities of character. 2009a). 1973. 1983. While titles and words do not always reveal all that is written on a subject. by deconstructing SI to its component parts. 1991. Riding & Cheema. gifted education. Teaching for Intellectual and Emotional Learning (TIEL) provides a framework that clarifies the thinking and emotional components that form the infrastructure of 21st century learning and teaching. 1985. 1984. Gardner. it is an indication of the imbalance between the research on teaching thinking and the application in teacher education. 1963) contain components of Guilford's work. Sternberg. Zhang. the elements that . TIEL: MAKING COMPLEX PEDAGOGY ACCESSIBLE TO TEACHERS While both psychologists and educators have realized the close relationship between the cognitive and psychosocial aspects if learning.
Teacher candidates learn to see planning not simply as sequencing interesting activities. explain the relationship between each intellectual component and the corresponding social-emotional component. The thinking operations include cognition (research. as Dewey (1964) referred to them. remembering. planning. connecting the concepts provides a fresh perspective on teaching and learning. and understanding‖ (p. Cognition and Reflection Cognition. (developing a product that involves logical thinking. and the self-management processes of decision making. gathering information). memory (recall. helps teachers think in new ways about how they will plan for students to obtain information. risktaking. evaluation (critical thinking. empathy. Components of the TIEL Model While the underlying theories that form the TIEL model are not new. and self-evaluation). discovery. one right answer). and imagination). 197) include appreciation. Description of the TIEL Model The TIEL model is represented by the TIEL Curriculum Design Wheel (see Figure 1). 48). and reflection. The model is depicted graphically by a color-coded wheel divided into ten segments that include five thinking operations from Guilford's (1977) Structure of Intellect Theory and five qualities of character described by Dewey (1964). and creativity become clearer. defined by Guilford (1977) as ―discovering. and connection-making). ―qualities of character‖ (p. and give examples of questions that can assist teachers in planning more complex learning activities for their students. The contents of the model are derived from the fields of psychology and educational philosophy. assessment. mastery. a graphic organizer that serves as a visual and semantic guide to the intellectual and social-emotional processes. and divergent production. The social-emotional characteristics or. higher order thinking.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 11 underlie the intellectual processes of critical thinking. (developing a product that involves creativity. ethical reasoning. but as a means to help . I define each of the components of the TIEL model in more detail. In the following section. knowing. convergent production.
He stated that ―there can not be observation in the best sense of the word without reflection. observing. nor can reflection . and researching that lead to knowing and understanding. to reflection.12 Christy Folsom students develop the intellectual skills of questioning. Figure 1. Using the TIEL framework as a guideline for curriculum planning helps teachers ask themselves important questions as they plan. gathering information. How will I plan for students to gather information in ways that will help them develop understanding? What questions will I ask that will help students develop a variety of thinking skills? What questions might students ask about this topic? Dewey (1964) connected the intellectual skill of observation. TIEL curriculum design model. important in acquiring information.
15). Sternberg. How can this concept be connected to something that is familiar to the students? How can students develop their memory skills within this content area? How can I help students make connections between concepts and thinking processes across multiple subject areas? While memory serves us academically. Yet. 1998. 1977. The thinking skills included in evaluation include ―comparing and judging‖ information (Guilford. .Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 13 fail to be an effective preparation for observation‖ (p. Sprenger. Questions that help teachers reflect on the teaching of empathy include: How can students develop empathy during this study? What experiences have students had that will help them develop empathy for others and for themselves? How can I help the students care deeply about their work? Evaluation and Ethical Reasoning Evaluation and ethical reasoning are central in complex teaching and learning. one's own experience‖ (Jersild. p. The TIEL framework helps teachers recognize that memory goes well beyond the recall of information and encourages a broader range of questions. p. it also forms the well of empathy in each of us. Wolfe. The TIEL Curriculum Design Wheel visually reminds teachers to plan opportunities for their students to reflect on their learning. Jensen. Memory stores information. 2001). facilitates recall. Noddings (2003) states. and allows us to make connections between concepts and experiences (Guilford. to feel compassion for another requires that ―one must draw upon one's own capacity . How can I plan for my students to reflect on the information and concepts they are learning? How can learning this content help students learn about themselves? How can I help students reflect on the intellectual and social-emotional processes of their learning? Memory and Empathy Memory is the glue that allows us to use our experiences to learn. 1985. An awareness of memory as an important source of our feelings for others and for ourselves helps teachers consciously link the intellectual skills of memory to the emotional development of empathy. ―Sharing the suffering of others contributes to our own fulfillment as human beings‖ (p. or empathy and caring. is an important ―aim of education‖ (p. 1955. Dewey (1964) states that the development of human sympathy. 127). 128) and ―reaching decisions or . 196). . This awareness can help teachers understand more clearly how students bring experiences that profoundly influence their learning and behaviors in the classroom. 1977. 197). 1999.
involves a broad production of information. p. Guilford (1977) states that convergent production is a kind of productive thinking that seeks for ―one correct answer‖ as well as logical and deductive thinking. and promotes self-directed learning. or ―unswerving moral rectitude‖ (Dewey. and fairness? How can I use group project work to help students develop capacity for ethical reasoning? Convergent and Divergent Production It is useful to discuss the thinking operations of convergent and divergent production together in order to clarify the importance of balancing these two kinds of thinking in the classroom. 1964. The TIEL model makes visible the self-management skills of decision making. formulate a plan to accomplish a goal. teachers prepare them to ―evaluate how they think and behave well beyond the classroom‖ (Bain. and self-evaluation that are often expected. planning or evaluating one's actions. 253) includes the kind of fluent and flexible thinking students need to succeed in today's complex society. The opportunity to choose motivates. Marzano (1993). 92) and generating information with an ―emphasis on variety and quality of output‖ (Meeker. 158) and are necessary for higher-order thinking to take place. on the other hand. Teachers can ask themselves questions that insure that these self-regulation skills are included in their curriculum. and self-evaluation ―render any activity more thoughtful and more effective‖ (p. 1979. states that the processes of decision making. "no minor innovation‖ (Richards. but infrequently taught in any explicit way. respect. Where can students make decisions within this content study? How can I teach students to set criteria that will help them evaluate their work? What projects will provide an opportunity for teaching students how to plan? Ethical reasoning. 1979. yet combined with empathy and appreciation.14 Christy Folsom making judgments concerning criterion satisfaction‖ (Meeker. make decisions use criteria. 17). 2001. Divergent production. planning. When students learn how to analyze ideas. is evaluation anchored by qualities of character. mastery and appreciation will also be discussed together. where can children become aware of decisions based on honesty. 94). planning. The TIEL framework reminds teachers to dig deeply into content and ask the following questions: In the course of this study. 20). The corresponding qualities of character. 197). opens opportunity for exploring options. weighing options. p. resulting in ―alternative ideas‖ (p. p. p. Divergent production. however. p. Making ethical decisions requires the same evaluative skills of setting criteria. Guilford. and evaluate their own work. 2004. cautioned about considering convergent .
Within the context of the TIEL model. 1995. p. Students who experience repeated failure in mastering school skills develop a ―lack of confidence in themselves as learners‖ (Weiner.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 15 production to be only about ―problems that have a correct answer‖ as the ―interplay between convergent and divergent processes‖ is necessary for creative thinking (Osburn & Mumford. Goodlad. What facts are important for students to learn about this topic? Where can students best practice sequencing and organizational skills in this study? How can I plan for students to use their creativity within this content area? Where can I teach students how to use flexible thinking? How can I design assessment that includes both convergent and divergent learning? Mastery and Appreciation While convergent and divergent thinking are important intellectual skills. each corresponds to a social-emotional characteristic that is important for students to develop. Understanding the importance of helping students develop both convergent and divergent thinking skills encourages questions that help teachers plan learning activities that balance the two kinds of thinking. How can I help this student develop mastery in academic skills in order to help him gain selfconfidence as a learner? How can I support students' development of personal mastery in the area of social-emotional qualities? How can this study help . Meeker. Gehrke. First. 1984. students who are not challenged intellectually in school can also experience feelings of confusion. 1992. 1986). an integral part of their teaching. Resnick. and standardized testing require right answers. 174). p. there are two ways to consider mastery. Linear sequential thinking that focuses on one right answer is the most prominent kind of thinking in the educational system (Berliner & Biddle. Fer. Sarason. empathy. 1982. mastery is most often associated with convergent production in school. mastery and appreciation. assessments. Knapp. ethical reasoning. 71). teachers need to consider the relationship between mastering school skills and the development of social-emotional characteristics. 2004). frustration. 1999. Guilford need not have concerned himself that convergent thinking would be neglected. Zohar. The following questions can help teachers make the qualities of character. & Sirotnik. teachers need to be conscious of helping students develop social-emotional self-mastery that includes reflection. and appreciation for others as well as for themselves. 2006. 1995. and defeat leading to a loss of confidence that can inhibit the development of social-emotional characteristics that students need to be successful learners (Rimm. Similarly. Second. 1987. 2007. Because assignments.
the examples included here are from a preservice teacher. ―Why is there so little apparent correlation between education and creative productiveness?‖ (p. 444). is using the TIEL model to integrate a wide range of opportunities for thinking and social-emotional learning into daily curriculum through lesson planning. pointing out the lack of creativity in classrooms. Using the workshop model. While the students in our teacher education program include inservice teachers as well as preservice teachers. The term teacher candidate and teacher will be used interchangeably to distinguish those who are preparing to teach from the students in elementary classrooms. included in this chapter. Using the TIEL model to design lesson plans helps teacher candidates experience creative productiveness as well as plan for their students to experience creative productiveness in their learning. Guilford (1950). 1997). The TIEL model helps fill the gaps indicated in this question in three ways.16 Christy Folsom students develop an appreciation for differences and diversity in themselves and others? How can art and music support the learning of content while helping students develop an appreciation for the arts? DESIGNING LESSONS: INTEGRATING THINKING AND SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL LEARNING INTO DAILY CURRICULUM In his 1950 American Psychological Association address. minds-on‖ learning experiences for students (Darling-Hammond. The TIEL lesson plan format follows a workshop model structure that helps teachers plan for ―hands-on. Examples from a teacher candidate's lesson plan and her reflections on teaching will to explain the TIEL lesson plan format and how the components address the thinking processes and social-emotional learning described in the TIEL Curriculum Design model (see Figure 2). The first is awareness. teachers give a short group lesson involving direct instruction and discussion followed by a longer work time for hands-on practice with concepts and skills taught in the ―mini . 2009a). planning. The third. The second is to help teachers and teacher candidates develop project-based curriculum that include teaching students the self-organization skills of decision making. The TIEL model can help teacher candidates become conscious of thinking and social-emotional learning in themselves and others and to become aware of the relationship of thinking to curriculum and learning. asked. 2006. and self-evaluation (Folsom. 2005.
and assessment. While candidates can start at any point in their planning. the sequential format helps them ―learn to create . lesson procedure. lesson objective. TIEL lesson plan format. The lesson plan format is sequential with an emphasis on relationships among the components that include a unit goal. inquiry aims.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… lesson. practice.‖ 17 Figure 2.
planning. and self-evaluation that students will use in creating their culminating project. criteria for evaluation. and self-management lessons that teach students the decision making. 185). A project-based unit includes lessons that teach the essential concepts and skills of the unit. Unit Goal The unit goal places the lesson within the context of a project-based unit of study. The first component. the third component. and skills to be learned in the unit. and the self-regulation skills of decision making. and self-evaluation skills they will use in creating their culminating projects. explains the topics. states the culminating project of the unit that will be an assessment showing the students' understanding of the unit's content. 2005. The fifth component. Figure 3. Example of goal from a teacher candidate's lesson plan. connected learning experiences‖ (Darling-Hammond & Bransford.18 Christy Folsom coherent. includes thinking and social-emotional processes from the TIEL Curriculum Design model that students will use and develop during the unit of study. The goal includes the topic and concepts to be learned in the unit. planning. product. The second. the culminating product that will act as an assessment showing student understanding of the content of the unit. content. Process. An analysis of the five components of the goal for the unit on Ancient Egypt are as follows: . gives information about the learning activities of the unit. a culminating project the stsudents will create to show understanding of the concepts and skills taught. The following lesson plan is part of a project-based unit on Ancient Egypt. The unit goal includes five components. The fourth component. context. p. states the basic criteria for evaluating the final product. concepts.
Criteria for evaluation are included in the goal to clarify what is expected of the students and to provide them with the standards they need to monitor their own work (see Figure 3). Appreciation. appreciation. culminating project to be completed by the students to show understanding of the concepts and processes taught throughout the unit. accurate The TIEL Curriculum Design model helps teachers become more explicit about the process component of the unit goal. and self-evaluation in the goal helps teachers recognize the connections between activities that foster higher order thinking and what those thinking skills are. Content: history. one of the qualities of character found in the TIEL model. 2002). Lesson Objective The lesson objective. self-management skills of decision making. politics. geography. self-evaluation (using criteria). included in the cognition section of the TIEL Wheel. Criteria for evaluation: artistic.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 19 Context: after lessons on Ancient Egypt based on the six social studies disciplines and the New York State Standards. 2007). pertains to one particular lesson within the unit. 2002. is used in the goal to emphasize deep understanding over surface learning. is included in the goal to convey the importance of developing appreciation for what the students are studying. dates in chronological order and the divergent processes involved in creating an information card for the group . Including the skills of decision making. Stang et al.C.. The term understanding.. planning. 2000. Wehmeyer et al. written in a style similar to the goal (Handelsman et al. and creating Product: the brochure. the process of creating a timeline.E. Zimmerman. and culture of Ancient Egypt Process: understanding. the objective includes understanding the concept of chronological order within a time period. The term self-evaluation skills from the evaluation section of the TIEL Wheel focuses attention on self-determination or self-management skills that are often neglected (Rogers. In this introductory lesson that involves creating a timeline for a study of Ancient Egypt. and the criteria for evaluating the completed timeline.. The objective asks teachers to state what students will do to show understanding of the skills and concepts to be learned in the lesson. The lesson includes the important interplay between the convergent processes required to place B. planning. 2009. informative. economics.
included in the TIEL component of evaluation. Example of lesson objective from a teacher candidate's lesson plan. The fourth element is the assessment product. placed correctly on the classroom timeline . Including the criteria for evaluation in the objective helps novice lesson designers become aware that the self-regulation skills of planning and self-assessment. shows originality. are an essential part of the lesson (see Figure 4). In addition. The lesson objective. like the unit goal. and concepts that the students are to understand and apply. Fifth. stating what the students will do or create that will show their understanding of the content. includes five components. includes the thinking and socialemotional processes that students will use and develop within the lesson. facts. The context provides information about the learning activities in the lesson. process. Second. Context: after analyzing pictures of objects from Ancient Egypt Content: chronological order of events within Egypt's major historic time periods Process: understanding.20 Christy Folsom timeline that will become part of the larger class timeline. criteria for evaluation. content states the topic. meets criteria Product (assessment): individual timeline card Criteria for evaluation: an important event within a time period. creating. Third. skills. an image. Figure 4. there is a positive relationship between planning and creativity as shown by Osburn and Mumford (2006) in their research on training interventions. three facts. states criteria for evaluating the assessment product of the lesson. The following is an analysis of the components of the objective for the timeline lesson.
Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills…
One of the greatest challenges in designing lessons is addressing learning differences of the students in the classroom. Including differentiation in the lesson plan helps teacher candidates think about the students in the class who struggle with learning or physical disabilities, those who are gifted learners, and in some cases, those who have a combination of learning challenges. The candidate planning this lesson considers how she will group students as well as the teaching strategies of inquiry, modeling, and setting clarifying criteria. All are examples of effective teaching methods that are effective with all students (Jordan, Schwartz & McGhie-Richmond, 2009). Materials are included in this section because modifications in materials and resources are often needed to address specific learning needs of the students. For example, materials that students read to gain information about the content can be adjusted for different reading levels (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Example of differentiation from a teacher candidate's lesson plan.
Inquiry Aims
This section provides a place for teachers to visually consider all aspects of the TIEL components as they develop questions. The sections for the inquiry aims are highlighted in the colors of the TIEL Wheel to help candidates make sure their questions represent a balance of thinking and social-emotional opportunities. In her review of research on the impact of thinking skills on teachers, Baumfield (2006) found that when teachers
Christy Folsom
planned with thinking skills in mind, they asked more open-ended questions, dialogue in the classroom changed, and the teachers thought more carefully about the questions they asked. The purpose of inquiry aims is reflected in a quote by a teacher participating in Zohar's (1999) research on metacognition, ―Now I am thinking that before each lesson I must think ‗What is my purpose?' in each question I intend to ask‖ (p. 425). Inquiry aims are conceptual, open-ended questions that represent the wide range of thinking and social-emotional processes found in the TIEL model. The inquiry aims scaffold the lesson as they become the initiating questions in the discussions throughout the lesson plan. This will be further discussed in the section on lesson procedure. In the timeline lesson, the cognition question (pink) focuses the students attention by asking them what they observe when the teacher shows them the pictures of Egyptian artifacts. The memory question (blue) helps the teacher determine what students already know about the topic and the connections they can make to this prior knowledge. Most teachers are familiar with this process from the K-W-L (Know-Want to KnowLearn) chart (Ogle, 1986). The evaluation question (green) sets the stage for establishing criteria for evaluating the product created during the independent or group work. Candidates are encouraged to include two evaluation questions in the inquiry aims. One focuses on the content and asks students to analyze information, compare and contrast, or critically evaluate an idea or action using evidence to support their position; the other evaluation question addresses the processes of self-regulation such as setting criteria, setting a goal, or planning their work. This lesson includes two inquiry aims in the evaluation section: What evidence gives you some information about the time period of each object? What are the criteria for evaluating the individual timeline? In this lesson, the teacher candidate has asked both a convergent question that addresses the concept of chronology and a mastery question that focuses on the skills being developed during the lesson. The teacher draws the last inquiry aim from the qualities of character portion of the TIEL Wheel as she inquires into the students' appreciation for the country and time period they are studying (see Figure 6).
Lesson Procedure
It is in the lesson procedure, containing the motivation and the lesson presentation, that the concepts of the lesson are developed through show/discuss sequences. Show refers to the information and how that
Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… information is presented to the students.
Figure 6. Example of inquiry aims from a teacher candidate's lesson plan.
For example, in the motivation/connection section, the teacher plays Egyptian music to focus the students and initiate the lesson. Discussion questions are the questions that the teacher plans to ask to guide the exploration of the content. The inquiry aims are used in the procedure. For example, in the motivation after the teacher candidate plays Egyptian music, she asks a cognition question: What do you hear? She follows that question with a memory question that focuses on connections: Can you make any connections to any other types of music that you have heard? The inquiry aims are used as primary questions to initiate the discussion and scaffold the lesson. In the lesson presentation, the teacher shows the pictures of objects to the students and asks similar cognition and memory questions: What do you see? What connections can you make to what you already know about Ancient Egypt? These primary questions are followed by secondary questions that follow up the initial observations and connections and probe for more detailed information. What are the objects? How do you know what they are? What specifically tells you? What do the objects represent? Why do you think they represent that? What questions do you have about the objects shown in the pictures? After exploring the content, the teacher asks the first evaluation inquiry aim that calls for critical thinking about the content: What evidence gives you some information about the time period of each object? (see Figure 7) This question leads into the independent
1997)—before asking questions. The show/discuss sequences help teachers consider what method of providing .24 Christy Folsom and group work in the practice section. auditorily. the ―show‖ is a reminder to accommodate for the various learning styles in the classroom by presenting information in a variety of ways—visually. Second. First. holistically. and sequentially (Riding & Sadler-Smith. Figure 7. Example of lesson procedure from a teacher candidate's lesson plan. The show/discuss sequences serve two important functions in the lesson plan. they help the teacher think purposefully about the questions that will be asked during the lesson.
Independent/group Work During the work time the students use the computers. and all cards in group are organized in chronological order. During the guided practice the teacher groups and regroups students as needed and clarifies any management instructions. the teacher candidate created five groups based on her plans for differentiation (see Figure 8). The teacher gives the students the opportunity to observe (cognition) a sample of the work that they will do and sets criteria (evaluation) to make sure that expectations are clear. and other books provided to find key objects and events that occurred during their assigned time period. how they are following the criteria set as a class. the teacher and the students develop the criteria for evaluation together. This section of the lesson plan includes guided practice. who needs help selecting information. In this lesson. shows originality. The teacher shows an example of the timeline cards that will be assembled onto a group timeline using a clothes hangar. Guided Practice During the guided practice. the teacher models the work the students will do during independent or group work time. In this lesson.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 25 information will best help students think deeply as they explore and answer questions. Practice The practice section of the lesson plan provides a time for the students to apply the concepts and skills taught in the lesson and for the teacher to informally assess and clarify student understanding of the concepts of the lesson. who needs re-teaching. and metacognition to discuss the thinking processes that students used during the lesson and their independent or group work. textbooks. After asking the students what they notice about the timeline cards. While students are working the teacher can observe how the students are researchng the information. at least three significant facts. easy to read. and . the students worked in groups each completing a timeline card to be used in assembling a group time line of their time period. The clear criteria help the students take responsibility for monitoring their own work. Criteria for the timeline cards include an important event in their assigned time period. independent or group work. an image. a time for students to share their work and what they learned.
26 Christy Folsom who needs to go more in depth in searching for information. Figure 8. work. and sharing from a teacher candidate's lesson plan. Share The sharing time offers the students time not only to share their work and . Example of guided practice.
and Skinner (2007) state that ―more emphasis in classrooms needs to be placed on encouraging learners to think about their thinking with the aim of improving their metacognitive abilities‖ (p. Metacognition is a challenging concept for beginning teachers who have rarely thought about their own thinking. the students can look at the individual timelines and determine if each group placed their cards in chronological order. These questions show that this candidate is thinking about the purpose of the questions she asks. (see Figure 9) While some of these questions direct students to think more about the content of the lesson than think about their thinking. Williams. ―What else can I do to learn about Ancient Egypt?‖ helps students think about learning and how they can learn on their own. These are the first metacognition questions planned by this teacher candidate. other questions are more metacognitive.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 27 what they have learned. The question. Here are examples of other questions that help students think about their thinking: Evaluation: How did you make decisions about the events to include on your timeline? How did you use the criteria that we set together as a class? Ethical Reasoning: Did you have in any problems in your group? How did you solve the problem? Did everyone feel that was a fair solution? What helped your group work together smoothly? Mastery: What skills do you feel you improved today? . but to hear what each of the other groups have learned. Metacognition Burke. The TIEL lesson plan includes space for students to reflect on their learning and the thinking processes and social-emotional processes developed during the lesson. 10). Including metacognition in the lesson plan provides an additional reminder of the importance of the intellectual and emotional development that can take place during a lesson. The question from the inquiry aims. ―How does the timeline help us to appreciate what is special about ancient Egypt?‖ addresses the socialemotional characteristic of appreciation found in the TIEL Wheel. In this lesson. the teacher is modeling for students that learning and knowledge is something to be valued. Teacher candidates are asked to think about questions they can ask to help students become aware of the thinking and social-emotional processes they used during the lesson. an important step in her own metacognition. At the same time.
The criteria for evaluation state the standards that provide evidence that understanding has been achieved. in this lesson creating the individual timeline cards. The candidate organized the evaluation criteria into three different levels.28 Christy Folsom Reflection: What do you now wonder about Egypt? Figure 9. the objective must match the assessment. The second and third sets of criteria that indicate lesser degrees of understanding (see Figure 10). Example of metacognition from a teacher candidate's lesson plan. The components in between provide the scaffolding from the beginning to the end and each needs to align to the next. the lesson comes full circle. In the TIEL lesson plan. The first level lists the criteria set with the students during the practice that indicate optimum understanding. and placing them on the classroom timeline. Assessment The assessment section states what the students will do to show understanding of the concepts and skills that were taught in the lesson. The assessment must match the objective. At the assessment. The assessment product is what the students do or create to show understanding of the concepts of the lesson. . the assessment section is structured in two parts: the assessment product and the criteria for evaluation. the group timelines.
the TIEL lesson plan format includes a place for reflection. 1996. the reflection reveals what this candidate discovered about planning.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 29 Figure 10. First. Example of assessment from a teacher candidate's lesson plan. Reflection Since ―the process of understanding and improving one's own teaching must start from reflection on one's own experience‖ (Zeichner & Liston. 6). she discovered that she needed to reconsider the criteria for the timeline cards to better fit the time constraints. . p. The test of a plan is in its implementation. After teaching her lesson to a group of six students.
They appeared to be very intrigued by what they were hearing. this lesson plan is not unusual among the pre-service teachers using the TIEL model to plan. the lesson went well. contributed to her students' attention. much less for those who are beginning to teach.30 Christy Folsom Overall. she discovered how to get the student's attention and involve them in the lesson from the very beginning. maybe I would just have the students draw one object and one key fact to represent the time period. in her initial experience in teaching a lesson. Although I thought this was a great and fun lesson. While research is just beginning on how using the TIEL model contributes to teaching curriculum design that explicitly integrates thinking and emotional learning. ―What kind of music is this?‖ and ―I wonder where this music is from?‖ As I let the music play for a few minutes. The students did seem to have a lot of fun and they said that they enjoyed the lesson. I noticed that a few of the students would turn to each other and ask. First. her planning involved depth and complexity in consciously addressing a wide range of thinking processes not common among many experienced teachers. It was a lot of information and a lot for the students to accomplish. her planning appears to have contributed to the positive experience. Third. and curiosity during the lesson. it took a very long time for the students to complete. because it was too time consuming for the students to research and choose three facts. her creative planning. but looked curious to learn what was next. the experience of this teacher candidate indicates that it can be a powerful planning tool. I was playing music as the students were seated. Yet. Third. so perhaps I would spread this lesson out over two periods. this candidate discovered that she and the students enjoyed themselves and she began thinking how this might work in a real classroom. Also. using music for example. Second. they were very shocked. engagement. For the Ancient Egyptian Timeline lesson. Second. After informing the students that the music was from Egypt. In this lesson. the teacher candidate and her students seemed to experience a glimpse of the elusive ―creative productivity‖ that concerned Guilford. . I immediately noticed that I had sparked their attention. and there were only six students! I think it would have worked better in a full classroom because there would be various groups and each group could work on a time period.
fraud and the attack on America's public schools. Cambridge. Berliner. & Biddle. (The Sound of Music) As I teach those who are preparing to become teachers. The manufactured crisis: Myths. as Hayes (1977) suggests. seems a very good place to start. Beyer. MA: AddisonWesley. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. (2004). B. V. T. B. 32(2). McKay. P. Educational Researcher. 25(9). K. we should not be preparing teachers for ―what is‖. Baumfield. K. (1995). Oxford Review of Education. Taking Maria's suggestion. 21-35. (2006). Tools for pedagogical inquiry: The impact of teaching thinking skills on teachers. but for ―what ought to be‖ (p. B. Improving the preparation of teachers. Yet. The field of psychology has provided theories. These basic principles can help teachers and teacher educators identify and integrate into curriculum the thinking and emotional processes that can move us from ―what is‖ to what ―ought to be‖ in 21st century education. I think of Maria's song about fundamentals from The Sound of Music.. D. 234). The problem has been in making this surfeit of riches available in usable form for those who are preparing to become teachers and those who teach them. What the best college teachers do. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. and constructs over several decades that can help teachers create the kinds of classrooms mentioned in the introduction to this chapter. (1991). Reading. going back to the very beginning. REFERENCES Ashton. . New York: D. Bain.Learning to Teach the Cognitive Skills… 31 CONCLUSION Let's start at the very beginning A very good place to start When you read you begin with ABC When you sing you begin with do re mi. MA: Harvard University Press. There is so much for teachers to know as they begin this daunting profession. 185-196. Teaching thinking skills: A handbook for elementary school teachers. (1996). Bloom. C. J. frameworks. to the fundamentals established by Guilford and Dewey.
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ca . and punctuated equilibrium) have been at the heart of decision-making analysis for * E-mail: amigone@sfu. Contreras. The flexibility of Rational Expectations allows for the modeling of 'forward thinking'.In: Psychology of Thinking Editor: David A. Department of Political Science 8888 University Drive. pp. Chapter 2 A RATIONAL EXPECTATIONS ANALYSIS OF DECISION-MAKING Andrea Migone* Simon Fraser University. depending on the situation. Inc. synopsis and punctuated equilibrium can be modelled using rational expectations and policymakers can employ them according to their needs and preferences. THE PROCESS OF DECISION Three models of decision making (synopsis. 1. informed actors. Incrementalism. flexible decision strategies. incrementalism. 39-64 ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers. British Columbia. and gives them the ability (and potential) to act strategically by modifying their policy according to the changes in the issue at hand. V5A 1S6 ABSTRACT I argue that policy-makers rather than using a single decision-making modle employ. Burnaby.
Synoptic models generally proved too demanding in their preliminary requirements and few actual examples of synopsis could be uncovered. without delving in how they came about? The incapacity of decision-making to generate a widely applicable paradigm while satisfactorily addressing strategic planning and resource constraints also sapped the field. With incrementalism and synopsis being the most successful. institutional. On the part of actors. Forecasting is handled well by Rational Expectation models. Because the nature of an issue varies according to our perception of it (i.e. It is also about specific paths to achieving a solution. Various models emerged during the 1950s and 1960s: Arrow (1951). which can also help select an approach that will maximize resource mobilization. In understanding decisions the psychology and the orientation of the actors are crucial. to some extent. ideological. If their choices carry enough authority to affect others. does that undermine the validity of the models themselves? Should actor be consistent in the use of a single model of decision? I argue that this is not the case. cultural. Bramley 1985) to organization theory (Baker 1998). For example. If we can easily explain behaviours using economic rationality. The inability to resist the lure of ―general‖ applications was also problematic. the demise of the pluralist paradigm and the emergence of an economic approach across the social sciences certainly played a part. Dror (1964) and Etzioni (1967) tackled the dynamics of decisions. Many variables have been invoked to unlock patterns of decision including social. it is about forecasting and it is about resources mobilization. 1979). and because the demands derived from forecasting. Decision-making explores how actors deal with the environment surrounding them by consciously taking steps to either modify or leave it untouched.40 Andrea Migone the past half century. 1968. and psychological ones. resource mobilization and problem solving are complex and diverse for most issues it makes sense to employ a flexible decision strategy that is based on the cognitive framing of these specific issues. it can be a small problem to some actors. Lindblom (1959. a critical issue to others or no issue at all to a third group). we are. historical. looking at policy. incrementalism has been used in areas from budgeting (Booth 1988. the two models ultimately became bogged down in a sterile face off. to foreign policy . Downs (1957). If policy-makers use more than one model to reach decisions. For incrementalism. They all have. economic. However. cognitive. why bother with analyses of decision-making? Is it not simpler to gather information about policy outcomes. broadly speaking. the choice of a model is connected to cognitive framing as decision making is about more than just problem solving.. downplayed issue framing and the analysis of the psychological side of decision making.
Third. When deciding. flexible decision strategies that are closely linked to both the political and material conditions that exist at the time of the decision can be described well by rational expectation models. Braybrooke and Lindblom (1963) argued that the actors' understanding of the . it has proved complicated to generate a commonly agreed upon definition of policy change. decisions are undertaken on the basis of cycles of perception and decision in which values. which they know how to reach. it is not necessarily true that a punctuated equilibrium model would be the sole possible causal model (Howlett and Cashore 2009). the amount of available resources they are ready to commit. and both ends and means are rational to them) and are bound by socio-cognitive constraints. In turn. Resources should be considered scarce and. individuals are not unencumbered. which while providing a way to overcome the sterile confrontation of the previous debate was still facing three problems. a well-defined. I argue that the selection of a model depends on the combination of the ideological position of the policy makers. Various explanations have been proposed for this flexibility. reach. and of particular interest to us. Furthermore. In these conditions. goals and the institutional paradigms within which the actors operate all influence their choices (Connolly and Wagner 1988).A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 41 (Schraeder and Borstelman 1994) and lost analytical capacity as scholars stretched its meaning. I believe that this results in the use of a flexible strategy in the selection of a decision making model. so that the operationalization of the dependent variable in policy dynamics research is often a problematic one. which are crucial to the phase that precedes the actual decision and where perception and assessment are deployed. there is little in this model that refers back to cognitive background of decisions. This situation was only partially remedied by the development of punctuated equilibrium theory. An additional source of this confrontation was the relative lack of attention for the cognitive phase of decision-making. First. and content. Four factors frame decision. Second. while decision-makers can order their priorities. They are enmeshed in institutions that define the roles through which they recognize and assign obligations to themselves and others. their perception of the output of a certain program. or unrestrained. Actors should be assumed to be ―thickly‖ rational (they have goals. or that they need to muster. unfettered. In this sense. stable ordering is likely only for a limited number of issues. and must deal with resource and capacity constraints. decision-makers are unlikely to be wedded to a single strategy of decision. In practice. the confusion arising about its meaning led to a mistaken assessment of the nature of the two models and to the unsatisfactory description of what they set out to explain (Smith and May 1980).
1988). This process. it is likely to affect both the perception of the outcomes and the epistemic means to be used (Kahneman and Tversky 1984. and crises can be used as stepping stones for change. with special attention given to a narrow range of increases or decreases‖ (Davis.42 Andrea Migone problem. Dempster and Wildavsky 1966: 529). 2. I then provide a case study of Canadian unemployment protection programs as a preliminary approach to the application of this analysis. we should note that this model also became a household notion in at least two other fields apart from decision-making: budgeting and management. Falling in the field of management literature (Camillus 1982). but rather as a reminder of some select trends in the field and will therefore have a somewhat historical flavour. Others argued that issue framing is paramount because it shapes our understanding of the situation and of the problem at hand. synoptic and punctuated equilibrium models and argue in section three that some of cognitive aspects of decision making can more profitably be examined through the lens of rational expectations. and offer some conclusions in the final section. In the next section I sketch the incremental. Hayes (1992) postulated that the amount of resources committed to the process and the perception of the acceptability of the policy outcomes.1. Incrementalism Before delving in more detail in the history of incrementalism. logical incrementalism allows for a high degree of flexibility in implementation. THE MODELS OF DECISION 2. According to this model. and the degree of policy change they proposed were crucial. could help us understand both policy analysis and policy change. Therefore. It is based on the premise that ―this year's budget is based on last year's budget. This is not intended as an exhaustive literature review. Tversky and Kahneman 1981). Budgetary incrementalism looks at the process of integrating incremental steps into the difficult and contentious process of allocating financial resources (Schick 1983. Wildawsky 1964. is Quinn's (1980) logical incrementalism. there is a continuous process of integration between the formulation of a strategy and its implementation. While these . in Quinn's opinion is not ‗muddling' but rather a logical strategy under complex conditions. By using a decentralized model of decision-making and by allowing for a broad framing of the strategy itself.
it is noted that incremental analysis has a tendency to both 1 There was debate about how effective ―muddling through‖ actually was. coupled with possibly shifting preferences. Miller. about which they disagree. 1979). non-incremental move towards abolitionism. Finally. Among the tools used to do so are a variety of shortcuts that include the use of rules of thumb. . an incremental framework may be the most suited to the situation. It also fits situations where large constraints are placed on the actors' degree of choice. From a cognitive point of view. policy options and limiting the range of decision to the immediate future (Lindblom 1959. and Verkuilen 2003). In a society practicing slavery the issue from the point of view of the slaves is both grave and ideally requiring a quick. there generally are strong limitations imposed on the choices slaves can make. It is also likely a choice that is reasonably free of issue of limited knowledge. incrementalism is premised on actors facing both organizational and cognitive limitations and dealing with an uncertain and complex world (Knott. focusing on a few. reaching its final synthesis in Neoincrementalism where it is defined as a series of processes aiding decision-making by limiting analysis to familiar policies and to a subset of possible consequences. Not yet Through‖ (Lindblom 1979) where he distinguished three processes. Therefore. However. and tending towards problem remediation rather than positive goals. Incrementalism focuses on minimizing the impact of the inevitable mistakes of policy-makers. Miller. A way to get past these roadblocks is to try to simplify (rather than overcome) them. incrementalism favours an interpretation of decision processes leaning towards incomplete knowledge and limited capacities. and Verkuilen (2003). For an interesting modeling the effects of complexity and limited information on the decision maker. The concept was progressively refined. partially this depended on the vagueness of the process and on the complexity of actually measuring it. In disjointed incrementalism Lindblom bundled the methods he had previously generally called Incrementalism and that are noted above. select. Simple incremental analysis only deals with policies incrementally distant from the status quo. see Knott. Incrementalism evolved over a long period of time. reliance on market forces. Bendor (1995) proposed a formal model solving this issue. Furthermore. a complete outline would only appear in ―Still Muddling. employing a trial-and-error approach. strategic analysis 1 includes the strategically defined pathways to simplifying complex problems. While Lindblom introduced it in 1953 (Dahl and Lindblom 1953:82-83). and recognizes that not all possible solutions are considered. In this case.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 43 two fields are interesting in their own right. 1968. here I shall focus on decisionmaking.
it is contended that it lacks goal-orientation. for example. However.2. It is true that incremental tools could be used to maintain the status quo.44 Andrea Migone conflate policy goals. incrementalism is said to be vulnerable to threshold effects. Hayes 1992. cannot be if a threshold is crossed. a disjointed incremental strategy. Neoincrementalism successfully tackled this critique by distilling an acceptable definition. In this case. but rather to the distribution of power in the system where decisions are made. Lindblom and Woodhouse 1993. However. Once again. However. and towards fragmenting analysis along the partisan spectrum. A more serious charge is that it is inherently conservative. focusing the topic. it is charged that the meaning of incrementalism is confused. Therefore. which theoretically are easily reversible. cognitive frameworks tend to be much more goaloriented rather than leaning towards a process orientation as with incrementalism. 2001). Synopsis In the case of synopsis. it is unclear why other approaches would have more success in this situation considering that crisis decision-making is unstable by definition. they may be better suited where degrees of choice are not very limited or for situations where goal orientation is critical to. this is a problem extending to all decisionmaking models. and not typical of incrementalism. assigning to each actor a step in the problem (Weiss and Woodhouse 1992:256). The first is that it only fits stable. values and empirical problems (rather than creating an ordinal sequence for them). Advocates of synopsis define themselves as . non-crisis situations. This is a concrete issue dependent on the fact that Lindblom was rather late in clearly outlining the meaning of the term. First. Second. this does not seem attributable to incrementalism per se. Criticism of incrementalism falls within five major categories (Redner 1993). and noting that incrementalism has three distinct meanings as an analytical tool. and a small-step approach (Weiss and Woodhouse 1992. this weak critique can be dispelled by even a brief review of the literature (Lindblom and Woodhouse 1993). resource mobilization. Two critiques focus on the practical applicability of the model. Finally. and on the latitude other authors granted themselves in applying it. couching a pro-elite bias in its structure. small marginal changes. 2.
were unlikely to believe in perfect rationality as a working principle in the day-to-day dealings of organizations. does not necessarily involve a synoptic analysis: maximization of goals does not automatically mean optimization. I shall not address this problem. Meyerson and Banefield 1955).A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 2 45 ―rational‖ (Arrow 1951. While some models incorporate both self-interest and expected utility maximization. Punctuated Equilibrium Punctuated equilibrium is very much a step forward in the analysis of the process of decision. synoptic models are already more in line with cognitive frameworks. to another and so on. This procedure will optimize policy outcomes because perfect information and rationality assure the best possible grounds for decision. ordering them according to their preferences. 2. Synoptic models fall short when trying to explain how people truly act. rather than being descriptive analyses of how people actually go about making decisions. the opposition between incremental and 2 There is little consensus on what constitutes rationality and on the degree to which it shifts from a certain period of time. Synopsis satisfies the Western/Aristotelian requirements of rationality and efficiency. they will exhaustively analyze all means and all possible consequences of every single decision. capable of assessing their values with sharpness and precision. focusing instead on the mechanics of synoptic decision-making. fully informed. when confronted with an issue. for example. Even those who were looking for rational behaviour (Banfield 1973[1959].3. however. The synoptic approach assumes that decision-makers will be able to solve a problem through optimization. . may help building a model of optimal decisions. Imagining individuals as self-interested utility-maximizers antecedent to and independent of groups. actors will identify all goals and values to an end. and self-interest does not automatically lead to an exhaustive analysis of all the various options available to decision-makers. they will choose the option that maximizes the desired outcomes. mainly because of the massive a priori burden that perfect information and economic rationality impose. The Rational Choice model. it suffers from relatively weak applicability. or society. By the 1980s. these are not synonyms for synopsis. In this sense. It is harder to demonstrate that people are actually such. Finally. preferring to use it as a tool to give consistency to general policies and as a useful metaphor. Ideally. and completely rational. Downs 1957). which are tenets of rational behaviour.
it gave an important contribution to the field setting four critical points in policy analysis. To first order change belonged the recalibrations of policy instruments. ―Second order" changes affect dominant types of policy instruments utilized within existing policy regimes. Instead.46 Andrea Migone synoptic models was increasingly looking sterile and a new and more sophisticated approach seemed necessary (Smith and May 1980) The most successful result came from the efforts of Baumgartner and Jones on budgeting. who empirically proved that dramatic change was routinely found throughout periods of incremental policy making so to speak punctuating them (Baumgartner and Jones 1993). If the actors believe in synopsis why would they use incremental models? It is possible to look at the flexibility of the actors in terms of their capacity to analyze decisions through the lens of rational expectations. While punctuated equilibrium models go beyond the . the link between change in the institutional setting and the occurrence of ―paradigmatic‖ change (Deeg 2001). that fall within the scope of existing institutional and instrument boundaries. affecting extant actors and institutions (Thelen 2004). and finally the agreement on the external source of many paradigmatic changes that shake up existing.and second-order changes tend to be incremental and to emerge as a result of activities endogenous to a policy subsystem. Hall (1993) argued for three orders of change. Punctuated equilibrium has become the new orthodoxy in policy making analysis and presents substantial advantages over both incrementalism and synopsis. it is interesting to note that while punctuated equilibrium does explain much of policy making without conflating the synoptic and incremental model it still leaves us wondering about whether or not the actors must necessarily change when paradigmatic shifts occur (which they may. and going beyond the sterile opposition between the two models. beliefs and practices. These points are the expectation that policy analysis should be developed historically (Sabatier 1993). In terms of the psychological structures that are involved in the processes of decision. the agreement on the importance of political institutions (and of their policy subsystems) in reproducing policy (Howlett and Ramesh 2003). According to Hall first. While this analysis did not immediately extend to general policy making (Mortensen 2005. third-order changes are ‗paradigmatic' being triggered. John 2003). Finally. or if the same actors must somehow adopt a frame of decision that they do not subscribe to. ―third order‖ changes represent shifts in abstract policy design. in the main by exogenous events. In such a milieu it became necessary to distinguish between the means and ends of policymaking and between abstract and concrete decisions if we wanted to correctly map policy and decision processes (Hall 1993). but not necessarily do).
This is probably not true for political decision. Here. For example. any of the models discussed up to now. However. I wish to use the model as a metaphor for a type of psychological orientation and not as a forecasting tool. setting the expected forecast error at zero is an assumption that might not hold in policy studies. it is very complicated to separate white noise from the effects of the dynamics of the social systems' variables. actors employ a Rational Expectations-like model. In short. . this is once again about describing a frame of mind and not about providing absolutely correct modeling. in selecting a model of decisions. actors follow a version of Muth's Theorem (Muth 1961). it still leaves open the question of how to model the flexible framing that is often undertaken by decision makers and that appears to allow them to choose. while a punctuated equilibrium approach may offer a better description of the process. that is E (w t / It-1) = 0 and that enjoys the error orthogonality property: it is serially uncorrelated with the information available to agents. The theorem postulates that the expected and actual values of the variables we forecast tend to have a common mean value. I argue that.3 This model incorporates uncertainty: not always will the rational 3 This means that the conditional expectations of the forecast error is zero.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 47 rather counterproductive opposition between incrementalism and synopsis to develop a better policy-making model. therefore that they have the same probability distribution. there are issues in the social sciences regarding its use. 3. given a one-period forecast horizon. Information gathered during period t will not be useful at period t+1. according to the issue at hand. I argue that it allows policy-makers to look at issues and frames of action in terms of a flexible strategy. calculated by persons forming their expectations at time t-1 [t-1Xet] will be conditional on the expected value of Xt (variable X at time t) given the set of total information available at time t-1 [It-1] plus w which is a white noise error term. because people form their expectations by relying on past behavior. there should be more attention paid to the framing phase of the decision process. Regarding the introduction of a white noise error. RATIONAL EXPECTATIONS: AN ALTERNATIVE FOCUS I argue that. Also. This is its mathematical formulation: e t-1X t = E (Xt / It-1) + w (1) The formula states that the subjective expected value of variable X at time t. I propose that in the framing of an issue and therefore at a time when decisions are made as to the best way in which to solve them and on how to mobilize the resources needed.
This allows them to go forward with the process of decision but leaves a few uncertainties about the ultimate value of t-1Xet. rational agents will collect and use information to the point where the expected marginal cost of doing so and its expected marginal benefit are equal). will assume the information they gather to be perfect and complete (the forecast error for It-1 expected value would be so small to be negligible) and assume w to be tending towards zero itself. The specific information availability assumption … is that … people not only observe or know in advance the values of certain economic variables but also draw. The strong assumptions made by synoptic models allow a much clearer picture of the value of t-1Xet. Furthermore.48 Andrea Migone expectation of a variable be the expected mean value of the variable based on all available information. synopsis sets the expected marginal benefit of further gathering information at an artificially high level to justify complete information and discards the possibility that systematic errors might be present in the expectations themselves. on the basis of those known values. Despite its mathematical formulation the model is quite intuitive. Notwithstanding the difficulty of actually getting perfect and complete information. to reduce the complexity of the process. When confronted with a decision. 4 Advocates of incremental analysis tell us that decision-makers will be limited in their capacities: they will focus on It-1 by limiting the amount and the kind of information to be gathered and will also accept w as an inevitable companion. it is problematic to set w at an expected value close to zero. . We face some long-standing questions: do policy-makers have one fixed model of decision they always use? Do they decide which model to apply according to some constraint or opportunity? Above I suggested that policymakers use flexible decision-making strategies... Synoptic actors. individuals will gather all available information (that is. Choosing one strategy over another is not solely reliant on the level of satisfaction with the outputs of a certain 4 As far as the rationality of the process is concerned. They will then evaluate this information in connection with their goals and be aware that there will be some possibility of making an error. just like the assumption of analysis limited to known paths reduces the value of the incremental one. The models shown above are different ways of addressing the process. inferences which are identical to the inferences of the process actually generating the outcomes in question. but at the price of reducing the overall explicative value. . Benjamin Friedman's (1979:25-26) comment is still most pertinent: Much of the confusion surrounding the meaning of ―rational‖ expectations is due to a failure to distinguish between (a) the general assumption that economic agents use efficiently whatever information is available and (b) a specific assumption identifying the available set of information.
. different weight and importance will be assigned to the variables within the formula. programs that only require fine tuning. … stir[ring] up the great antagonisms and paralyzing schisms as do proposals for more drastic change‖ (Lindblom 1979:520). especially in the context of generating consensus or in aggregating resources. Arguably. On the other hand. describe results as certain (as opposed to open-ended incremental procedures). or those for which there is not sufficient support for a broad restructuring. on the cognitive elements that help frame the issue. It also depends on the actors' cultural and ideological background. on the resource commitment actors are prepared to make. and therefore may make resource mobilization and consensus building simpler. e t-1X t= Limited capacity to determine its exact value E (Xt Ideological bias / It-1) Limited knowledge +w Large and Complex Both variants are valuable and can be adapted to the needs of policymakers who are rarely engaged in value-free action. rather than process-bound. and without ―rock[ing] the boat. For example. A synoptic interpretation would yield the following reading: e t-1X t= High capacity to determine its exact value E (Xt Pragmatic / It-1) Perfect or close to perfect information +w Tends to zero In an incremental setting instead.and goal-oriented. If we start from the reasonable assumption that policy-makers are both value. the immediate aims of most policy-makers will be the wellbeing of their constituency and their own re-election. The rational expectations reading proposed here has the potential to go beyond this and to offer a frame to analyze the psychology of decision employed by policy makers. it makes sense to argue that they use decision models as aids to policy-making. rational models stress clear decision-making paths. may be approached incrementally. imperfect models of reality they can employ flexibly. They can incorporate cognitive elements and be used for a dynamic analysis of decision-making while maintaining the unity of decision patterns.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 49 program or on the need to gain support. by recognizing calculation and resource limits. and on whether the policy is amenable to piecemeal implementation or not.
THE CANADIAN UNEMPLOYMENT/EMPLOYMENT INSURANCE PROGRAM Assessing the nature of decisions is always difficult.50 Andrea Migone Naturally. a change in policy orientation should generate a shift in policy strategy in programs indicated as unsatisfactory. the Unemployment Insurance (UI) program has a long history starting in 1940. here I focus on the period beginning in the 1970s. theatre. The second facet of this process is directed to the public or to those who must approve of the decision in question. However. we should be able to find some evidence of the following processes. it is a reflection of the priorities and preferences of the decision-makers. it may be interesting to see if the administration of a program is held by a politically controlled unit or by a relatively independent one. First. Third. we should expect large changes to be framed in synoptic notions if I am correct in assuming that the latter help justify the change in policy and the mobilization of resources.e. the public seems more likely to respond better to a well laid-out plot that to improvisation. Finally. It is likely to be much easier to obtain resources and approval for upcoming policies if we present a clear roadmap for the solution of a problem that if we promise a muddle-through approach. 4. if politics is. Rooted in the paper Unemployment Insurance in the 1970s . but if there is any value to the argument I propose. among other things. this does not exhaust the process of decision-making. when a newly structured system was implemented. The nature and depth of the shift would depend. Central bank policy is a good example. I would like to suggest that cognitive framing of the type shown here functions at two levels. if a government targets incrementally a policy that it has indicated as highly undesirable before using synopsis) we may also interpret this as an indication that decision-making models are used instrumentally as flexible aids to policy-making. In Canada. I venture that synoptic approaches should fit better with independent agencies than with political control. First and more obvious. Also. given enough resource availability. it is a proposal aimed at the process of cognitive framing that all decision processes undergo. if patterns of decision appear to be targeted at building consensus to stage successive policy change (i. with the Unemployment Act. on the amount of resources dedicated to it and on public support for the change.. at least in part. Rather.
the Unemployment Insurance Act of 1971 sought to provide support to workers during a temporary interruption of earnings. Of particular importance within this program were the provisions for women. The approach was Fordist in its universal coverage. still. costs went up. . as well as the premium rates. A 1974 public opinion survey showed that Canadians agreed that UI fulfilled a basic social need. even if over one third of 5 Basically. Employers and employees paid (at different rates) into the program. In the mid-1970s. Porter 2003). they were unable to make broad inroads in the public opinion. This very early stage of the program was marked by both economic and ideological shifts. the economic contraction of the early 1970s changed the material parameters of program affordability and resulted in the hyper attention dedicated to perceived abuse. By the mid 1970s. program management and the supervision of its implementation was largely left to the Unemployment Insurance Commission (UIC). Previously they had been the same. but also emphasized returning the unemployed to the labour force as quickly as possible. including maternity leave. From a practical point of view. Monetarism began to challenge Keynesian policy. While trade unions and the left supported Unemployment Insurance.5 The ceiling for the latter. and an increased misuse of the program all resulted in a growing financial commitment that the federal government had not planned and that it became less and less willing to pay for.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 51 (Government of Canada 1970). which were achieved through the pressure of women's groups as second wave feminism challenged a strong gender bias within Canadian politics (Finkel 2006. unemployment became both long-term and structural. and tended to dismiss talk of abuse and ‗bad risk' as part of a neoliberal strategy to weaken the program. An incremental increase in both premium rates and the minimum insurable earnings reduced the growing financial burden. economic and political conditions had changed. which calculated contributions and benefits as a percentage of insurable earnings. the amount paid was expressed in terms of the insurable earnings ceiling and a rate per hundred dollars. the introduction of an actuarial approach in the UI discourse buttressed emerging notions of fiscal prudence and helped shape the future debate on the issue. was to be reviewed each year to keep pace with economic fluctuations such as increases in average income and raising cost of living. However. Ottawa was not prepared to renounce its goal of universal coverage of the labour force just yet. The contribution in dollars could be expressed as: (insurable earnings/100)* premium rate Rates for employers have been higher that of employees since the 1971 Act.
partially in response to this poll. . 1977. 1977) and business organizations were opposed to UI changes. the federal government implemented various changes that were expected to have decremental effects on the program. This was considered unacceptable. To do so it would have to deal with the Unemployment Insurance Commission. However. but only under closure. As Leslie Pal (1988b:115) noted. which is not surprising considering that benefits payments had reached $3. At the same time. It now was entitled to operate on negative labour market policies. At the beginning of the 1970s. an ―actuarial philosophy‖ began to surface (Pal 1988a). Positive policy was made outside of the Commission. Opposition existed against these changes and Bill C-27 finally passed in the House of Commons on August 5.52 Andrea Migone respondents also believed that tougher rules were needed to eliminate abuse. The final amalgamation brought about a structure where the Deputy and Associate 6 Both labour (Morris et al. The feeling that requirements were too loose brought about the notion of actuarial soundness. which itself stated that it would prefer a program with less welfare aspects (Government of Canada 1974). a very convenient tool for manpower officials who wished to reform the program in the face of austerity. This was done mainly by limiting coverage and by introducing tougher qualification rules. The federal government perceived this independence as dangerous when the program began to require substantial contributions.3B. The UIC was renamed Canada Employment and Immigration Commission. Major changes were needed. At this point. By 1976. this strategy did not satisfactorily solve the situation. The former because of the cuts. 6 It also reshaped the bureaucratic structure of the program by creating the new Department of Manpower and Immigration. It had long been evident that the Department and the Commission had to work together to optimize the program. the latter because they did not go far enough. they could use the savings they generated for job creation purposes. The following year. government priorities for UI had shifted to finance restraint. the UIC was able to work with a considerable degree of detachment from political pressure.‖ The federal government now wanted to better control the program. It favoured job sharing and work creation over monetary transfers in the form of UI benefits. the Unemployment Insurance Commission's scope was reshaped. the government felt that ―UI benefits were being received by people with only marginal attachment to the labour force and that those benefits were all too generous. Incremental legislative and regulatory changes were implemented to better balance the program. By championing cuts to UI.
) especially because of the mode of financing that saw shared contributions based on an insurance model (Hills v. However. there is the ‗philosophy' of the program. there were counterpoints to this neoliberal approach. 513). Canada.). away from political pressure. the modern UI program. public opinion in general seemed to support a tightening of program requirements.8 These increasingly restrictive policy changes came at a time of economic downturn and protests were voiced throughout Canada. different. [1983] 1 S.R. but especially in the Atlantic Provinces and in Quebec. More radical changes. 1988b:134). a survey found that most Canadians approved of the program and only 26% of those interviewed were concerned about it. though. where unemployment had soared. This very important reform ended a period during which the Commission had kept the Unemployment Insurance program. . they tended to be stronger and more unifying where unemployment was a bigger issue. on the other there is its implementation. Although it encompasses some non-incremental steps (namely the decisions of the early 1990s) it has a incremental pattern leading to a progressive build up that strongly modifies the program.G. In May 1980. and reducing the possibility of conflict in the area. 2. Ultimately. Both the federal government and the public continued to perceive UI as too weak on job creation and not setting strict enough entrance requirements. the program succumbed to a neoliberal perspective.G. more or less. 8 This is a very important trend.C. If a government can operate over the long-term. On the one hand. These were raised in 1978 and further changes in that direction were suggested in the early 1980s. [1988] 1 S. levels. the group Action-Chômage in Quebec was trying to create a network of workers and actively counselling unemployed people who could not collect UI. Broad changes at the former level generally trigger similar changes at the latter one but this is not always true.R. By the end of the decade. In the 1980s. A. Notice that there we have two.7 By adjusting incrementally both the levels of premiums (the tax imposed on employers and employees) and the level of maximum insurable earnings (the taxable base) the federal government was able to reduce the percentage of money it contributed to the program. the Supreme Court of Canada rendered two important decisions noting how the social goal of the UI program to pay benefits to the jobless should be interpreted liberally (Abrahams v.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 53 Deputy Ministers of the Department were also Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Commission itself.C. but the 1980-1983 economic recession prevented their implementation. Philosophically. Canada (A. it might prefer incremental implementation. virtually putting the control of the Commission in the hands of the Department. While these protests were generally relatively weakly organized. born and ―firmly embedded in an organization largely focused on labour market development … by 1981 had been absorbed into an employment perspective‖ (Pal. which reflected the emerging neoliberal 7 However.
who were in favour of an unemployment insurance program. 1985:1) announced that it was to be a ―complete redesign of the government's labour market programmes and a fundamental change in the way we develop and invest in our most important resource . In 1985. An intermediate position was occupied by a large cross-section of Canadians. Minister Flora McDonald (Government of Canada. the Commission put forward a minority and a majority report. Unable to find a common ground between its labour and neoliberal souls. as unemployment rose to about 13% nationally. . the federal government introduced the Canadian Job Strategy. While these were considered far too strong and little actual change was implemented. labour organizations began lobbying heavily to strengthen (or at least maintain) UI. Developed in a period favourable to inclusive welfare programs and social solidarity.54 Andrea Migone political agenda. when the Conservatives attempted to further tighten the requirements of the UI program they faced significant opposition. and welfare advocates coalesced in Solidarité Populaire Québec. UI was now being modified to respond to changing ideological and material conditions and came under greater scrutiny. in opposition to this solution stood many salaried workers. but it implemented many incremental decisions aimed at fine-tuning and monitoring its development. women groups. The reaction in Quebec was particularly negative. While codified in 1985. and allowed the federal government to reduce expenses and legitimize the new neoliberal approach (McBride 1992:149-154).the people of Canada. though. A broad-based coalition of all provincial trade unions. Protection for the unemployed. but believed that it should be more strictly regulated. seniors. In 1984. They would ultimately be unsuccessful. remained a broadly supported policy. The decisions of the mid-1980s were taken in an effort to fit the program within neoliberal parameters. trade unions and advocacy groups. took place after the Liberals lost power in the 1980s. The governing party was fully committed to a neoliberal shift as was at least a majority of the business community. the guidelines of the Canadian Job Strategy were already surfacing in previous years. In 1982. Prime Minister Brian Mulroney created the Forget Commission to evaluate the program. Some of the majority report's proposals would have radically restructured the program and had a synoptic flavour. The new Progressive Conservative government could not immediately make large structural changes to the UI program because its top priority was the dismantling of the National Energy Program. Always in 1985.‖ Training and job creation became a top priority and were designed to favour the business sector. We should note that three separate ideological realities existed.
UI was slowly eroded and major changes were carefully staged. while access to the labour market had become easier. In the mean time. were unintended consequences. created a bulk of frequent users who relied on the easily accessible money the program provided. or at the margin. who began using the program as a second salary. and backing it with ideological legitimization provided solid ground 9 Some of the problems the program faced depended on the nature of the job market and from a poor choice of control variables. It also meant the progressive dismantling of the ability of social and advocacy groups to have their voice heard by government (McBride 1992. the shift towards neoliberalism meant a financial and ideological withdrawal from notions of equalization and solidarity. Aided by a now favourable economic cycle. Issues like the cross-sectorial redistribution of money from firms with stable employment to those with unstable employment (Kerr 1994) or the change in the behaviour of some of the unemployed. Furthermore. Green and Riddell 1992). Implementing a decremental approach when public opinion still supported the program. there was not the degree of support needed for major revisions. the Federal government managed to continue incrementally substituting Keynesian principles with neoliberal ones and shifting the financial burden towards the private sphere and away from the public one.9 By the end of the 1980s. The new program targeted job-creation. equality had not been achieved. . the wide inclusiveness of Unemployment Insurance. they were slowly but consistently sliding out. much of the gains embedded in the 1971 Bill had evaporated. 2005). This can be exemplified by the elimination of the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women (CACSW) in 1995 (Porter 2003) and by progressively diminishing returns provided by lobbying and action in the area of unemployment. Yet.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 55 the Commission had the effect of structuring a specific vision of the UI program in a direction favourable to the neoliberal agenda. For women. The majority report argued that the system had to drop most of its regional features and that it should become financially self-sufficient (Campeau 2005:103). marketable skills. In the 1970s and early 1980s. combined with a tough job market. to recover at least part of this workforce by providing them with new. The situation was mirrored in the failure of labour to hold on to any important element of the original UI program. of the labour market (Corak 1994. a well identifiable part of the labour force worked for the minimum number of weeks needed to be eligible and then collected benefits. Many of the changes in the plan's philosophy were tied to a broader shift in the political discourse from the social state to neoliberalism (Campeau 2005:xi). Year after year.
Lloyd Axworthy. had radically changed the policy field. The paper The Need For Change (Government Of Canada 1995) argued that UI had been created under very different job market prospects. In addition. neither from the bureaucracy. nor from labour groups. which was virtually under control. The steps taken with the 1990 and 1996 legislation cannot. a new regime became effective for the Unemployment Insurance program. and more attention to the needs and requirements of business. neoliberalism. A reduction of the benefits themselves was decided along with an increase in the disqualification period for those who left a job without just cause. by any means. efficiency. . In an attempt to correct what were now perceived as program's distortions. The Hon.10 In 1990. the EI account surplus exceeded $46 billion and the program had not had a cumulative deficit since 1995 when it posted a $666 million surplus (Government of Canada 2004). while business groups were very vocal in their demands for substantial change. clearly stated that previous adaptations had been only the initial phase of a broader and more radical reform of the whole social security system. Its guidelines were productivity. be considered incremental. under which the Commission was renamed Canadian Employment Insurance Commission (CEIC). but very little changed in the direction of the policy. On 18 November 1990. The Liberal Party returned to power in the 1990s. It prescribed that by the end of 1992 the federal government would have terminated its already progressively diminishing contributions to the UI funds. the number of weeks needed to qualify for benefits was increased and the maximum number of collectable weeks of benefits linked to the regional unemployment rate was reduced. As of 2004.56 Andrea Migone from which to launch nonincremental changes when favourable ideological pressure was strong and the economic situation was good. in the 1994 paper Proposed Changes To The Unemployment Insurance Program (Government of Canada 1994). Employers had to be discouraged from planning their hiring practices around unemployment benefits and workers from using them as a second source of income. focused squarely on reinserting Canadians in the workforce. The Employment Insurance Act (1996) introduced important changes. renamed Employment Insurance. Escalating costs. Since then. The new government also simplified the program's 10 How effective these rates are remains open to question. policy-makers did not face a very organized or strong resistance. It redirected part of that same contribution towards reskilling and related activities. no substantial change has occurred in the policy even as premiums began to decline and so-called break-even rates were progressively implemented. and the end of Fordism. The new program.
if appropriate. the changes that were introduced as a reflection of neoliberal policies have a strong retrenchment flavour in terms of gender issues. and of fine-tuning of a workfare program. however an excellent treatment can be found in Anne Porter's Gendered States (2003). However. [2002] 4 S. This was a steep increase over the previous model based on worked weeks. Quebec (Attorney General). Bill C-2 in 2001 continued the process of reduction of the EI program even as it implemented some small extension of coverage. 910 hours. during which a person would have to work a minimum of 15 hours per week. the program's benefits schedule was amended to improve the link between length of work and duration of benefits. which was now calculated on the basis of the total amount of worked hours. in 2002. The Governor in Council was given the direct duty to set the EI employee premium. This involved achieving the goals of the assistance. 429]. locating services necessary to allow them to meet those needs and. 11 12 While the Canadian welfare state never showed gender equality of the type found in Scandinavia. The qualifying period was fixed in 52 weeks and remained tied to the regional unemployment rate. Between 1990 and 1996. independent advice and to achieve a break-even rate. eligibility requirements were raised to a minimum of 700 working hours per year.11 Some protests were voiced. taking primary responsibility for identifying their employment needs. The harshest requirement. sharing the costs of the assistance. The most interesting and revealing part of the EI guidelines was the one concerning the commitment that benefits recipients and those involved with other measures specified in the program had to show. This topic is not explored here because of space limitations.12 The following years are an example of broadly incremental decisions.R. This had a deeply negative effect upon part-time workers (many of them women). As of July 4th 1996. but they had little real effects. who were included in the job market but often in marginal ways and were still expected to deal with a classical division of gender roles (Porter 2003) and for whom retraining did little (Griffin-Cohen 2004). The new goal was to focus the premium setting process on expert.C. Consider the progressive drift that occurred at the Provincial level with income support program of which the Gosselin case was a concrete example [Gosselin v. a reduction of the benefits for frequent claimants was also implemented in an attempt to force Canadians to ask for benefits only if they were in real need. It also allowed Ottawa to use the large surplus in the EI account against the federal debt (Campeau 2005:182).A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 57 structure: five results-oriented employment benefits replaced 39 centrallycontrolled programs. The changes to the UI/EI program are just one facet of the strategy to change the model of income security in Canada (Battle 2001). was set for a re-entrant or a newentrant. . there was a change in the way in which premiums were set. Other changes touched the nature of eligibility.
15%. the program exhibits a tendency to rely on patterns of incremental decisions aimed at setting the stage for more radical policy-change. however. First. . 5. the mixed-scanning strategy while depicting the alternation of incremental and major decisions missed part of the point: incremental decisions are not used solely to finetune a major decision that preceded them. in the eyes of policy-makers. However.13 This is not exceptional because legitimation is an important part of policy-making. In a variety of occasions. The shift that in 1977 brought the Commission under the control of the ministry effectively achieved this result. Taken together. the history of the Commission seems to indicate that elected politicians wanted to increase their ability to directly control the program when it did not perform as they wished. A synoptic framework is often used when calls for broad changes are made as with the 1985 Canadian Job Strategy. changes in the political outlook (especially the onset of neoliberalism) deeply affected the overall direction of the policy process. affects the public's perceptions. it is questionable that the CEIC decision could stray very far from the current policy path. CONCLUSIONS While it is perhaps impossible to reach a definite conclusion. these factors suggest that policy-makers may understand decision-making models instrumentally and may apply them 13 In this sense. Even the increased latitude granted to the CEIC cannot match the initial freedom of the UIC. and Baumgartner 1997). some interesting points emerge from an analysis of the Canadian employment benefits program. considering the strong workfare flavour of the program.58 Andrea Migone The Budget Implementation Act of 2005 enshrined the latter principle into law by giving CEIC the responsibility to set EI premiums every year and independently. and the fact that the maximum limit to yearly changes in the premium is 0. Second. creating consensus at the metalevel on the goals of the policy (Jones. but it does suggest that policy strategy. This choice was certainly aimed at ‗rationalizing' the program. Whether this meant a move away from synopsis is difficult to say. but may also come before a synoptic change to build support for the latter and weaken an existing program. increased political control is likely to lead to increased responsiveness to political pressure rather than rational optimization. the commitment to break-even rates. True. but also at ensuring that the federal government would be able to control the direction of the policy process (and the program's mushrooming costs).
but if there is any value to the argument I propose. This. can be explained by understanding this behaviour as being based on a flexible framing strategy. I argue. individual Canadians in a shift from Canadian-style Keynesianism to Neoliberalism. All groups experienced a reduction in their power and ability to influence policy-making as neoliberal politicians solidified their grip on fiscal policy. in the case of UI/EI. ideological priorities. women groups. While opposition was at times spotty. Since the 1990s. There is no doubt that the framing of policy decisions is a very important part of understanding the policies themselves. when policy-makers faced little opposition on the topic as one would expect. This framing tool helps decision-makers to simply the realm of choice and can also be used to make resources accretion and mobilization easier. it would indicate that a flexible strategy of decision may be very attractive for policy-makers. The process of change and conflict that imbued unemployment policy in Canada for the past four decades has been complex and multi-layered. but a few general comments can be put forward. opposition to this retrenchment became less and less efficacious and common. as well as being an important tool for legitimizing choice. and as the neoliberal small state introduced an arms-length approach to social and political demands from advocacy groups (McBride 1992). bureaucratic units and. Assessing the nature of decisions is always difficult. It also seems. of course. rather than being defined by the process of decision.and goal-oriented. Each actor reacted differently to the policy changes that marked the issue. If this pattern was to hold in more cases.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 59 flexibly according to both framing constraints and a pragmatic outlook that is value. This effectiveness drops quite remarkably starting in the mid-1980s with the consolidation of the workfare models and the refocusing of employment policies from full employment to monetarism and the acceptance of a non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment of about 8% in Canada. major nonincremental changes appear to have been staged. . but more research would be needed to reach a more definite answer. It is also clear that even from a cursory review of governmental activities that policy-makers deal with both synoptic and incremental models. On the other hand. we should be able to find some evidence of the following processes. It involved labour organizations. allowing them to optimize their policy approach to the current level of public support while not relinquishing all together its general direction by alternating small decremental steps and larger non-incremental ones. that an incremental process may be used when a program enjoys popular support in order to erode its tenets. during the 1970s and early 1980s it was also relatively effective.
. Frank R. Urban Growth and Decline. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. The nature and depth of the shift would depend. In A Reader in Planning Theory.J. 89:819-840. Sharpe and F. 1988. 1951. [1953] Ends and Means in Planning. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arrow. Edited by K. Baumgartner. American Political Science Review. Explorations in Economic History. Battle. it may be interesting to see if the administration of a program is held by a politically controlled unit or by a relatively independent one.60 Andrea Migone First. The International Journal Of African Historical Studies. and Bryan D. Central bank policy is a good example. if a government targets incrementally a policy that it has indicated as highly undesirable before using synopsis) we may also interpret this as an indication that decision-making models are used instrumentally as flexible aids to policy-making. Baker. a change in policy orientation should generate a shift in policy strategy in programs indicated as unsatisfactory. K. Montreal and Ottawa: Institute for Research on Public Policy and Centre for the Study of Living Standards: 183-229.. D. The Longest Decade: Canada in the 1990s. if patterns of decision appear to be targeted at building consensus to stage successive policy change (i. 1993. Banfield. Incremental but not Disjointed: The Evolution of the Civil Service in Colonial Nyasaland. Also. Relentless Incrementalism: Deconstructing and Reconstructing Canadian Income Security Policy. 25:20-41. J.E. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. given enough resource availability. Banting. C. It would also matter if new resources needed to be mustered for the policy. 1995. Oxford: Pergamon Press: 139-149. A. Social Choice and Individual Values. on the amount of resources dedicated to it and on public support for the change. and Municipal Finances: Milwaukee.e. among other things. Budgetary Incrementalism. Bendor. Jones. Faludi. 1979. E.. I venture that synoptic approaches should fit better with independent agencies than with political control. we should expect large changes to be framed in synoptic notions if I am correct in assuming that the latter help justify the change in policy and the mobilization of resources. St-Hilaire. K. 2001. Booth. In The Review of Economic Performance and Social Progress. A Model of Muddling Through. 31:335-355. 1998. edited by A. Third. Finally. New York: Wiley. 1870-1988.
A. Greenwich: JAI Press. Public Administration. 3:277-386. Friedman. 1953. Dror. Department of Finance: Ottawa. New York: The Free Press. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. 1964. 1974. M. Etzioni. . Temporary Layoffs and Recall Expectations. 1967.G. Puffer and M.‖ Max Planck Institute fur Gesellschaftsforschung MPIfG. Finkel. 1970. Campeau. edited by R. and C. C. Camillus..E. Lindblom. Harpers. 24: 153-157. and C. Reconciling Logical Incrementalism and Synoptic Formalism . Deeg. Wildavsky. 1994. Unemployment Insurance.An Integrated Approach to Designing Strategic Planning Processes. Richard. J. Dempster. Government of Canada 1985. Lindblom. From UI to EI: Waging War on the Welfare State. Newman.H. Wagner.A. 1966. 27:153-165. Muddling Through: Science or Inertia? Public Administration Review. Incrementalism Run Amok? Local Government Finance in Britain. American Political Science Review. In Advances in Information Processing in Organizations. Connolly. A. Corak. Vancouver: UBC Press. 63:100-107. Unemployment Insurance Act: Newcoming Changes. and W. HRDC Evaluation Brief. translated by Richard Howard. G. Strategic Management Journal. S. Government of Canada. Mixed Scanning: A 'Third' Approach to Decision-Making.A. ―Institutional Change and the Uses and Limits of Path Dependency: The Case of German Finance. Economics and Welfare. D. 2005. Canadian Job Strategy. Y. A. Cardy. Ottawa: Queen's Printer. Politics. 1982.M. 1963. Braybrooke. Davis. 1957. Unemployment Insurance in the 70s. A Theory of the Budgetary Process. O. and A. 1979.. G. R. M. M. T. 60:529-457. New York: Harper and Row. Downs. Dahl. 1985. M. Government of Canada. B. Public Administration Review. 2001. L. Alvin. Optimal Expectations and the Extreme Information Assumptions of Rational Expectations Macromodels.E. 2006. New York.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 61 Bramley. Ottawa: Queen's Printer. Decision Cycles. 1988. A Strategy of Decision: Policy Evaluation as a Social Process. Journal of Monetary Economics 5:23-41. An Economic Theory of Democracy. File 6960-02.
Toronto: Oxford University Press. Hall. 39: 341-350. and M. M. Does Incrementalism Stem from Political Consensus or from Institutional Gridlock? American Journal of Political Science. University of British Columbia: Department Of Economics. Hayes. Ottawa: Queen's Printer. Ottawa: Actuarial Services. Jones.W. Verkuilen. Choices. Adaptive Incrementalism and Complexity: Experiments with Two-Person Cooperative Signaling Games. Michael and Ben Cashore. J. G. Kahneman. True. Tversky 1984. 1968.T. The Science of Muddling-Through. Incrementalism and Public Policy. and F. and C.D. 2003. John. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis. Hayes.. Advocacy Coalitions. and the State: the Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain. 13(3): 341-365. Lindblom.L. Public Administration Review. Michael. and Frames. Ottawa: Queen's Printer.J.. New York: Basic Books. M. Chief Actuary's Outlook on the Employment Insurance Account for 2005. . ―Policy Paradigms. 11 (1): 33-46 Howlett. Social Learning. Vancouver: UBC Press. C. 2003. Policy Studies Journal. Riddell.R. American Psychologist. The Need for Change. The Training Trap. The Dependent Variable Problem in the Study of Policy Change: Understanding Policy Change as a Methodological Problem. Is there Life after Policy Streams. and J. Ramesh.‖ Comparative Politics 25 (3): 275296. Miller.H. New York: Longman. Proposed Changes To The Unemployment Insurance Program. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Griffin Cohen. 2001. 41: 1319-1339. Washington: Georgetown University Press.. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. Baumgartner. Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems. Government of Canada. 1977. B. Peter. 2004. C.. Howlett.A. 1994. J. 1959. The Limits of Policy Change: Incrementalism. Knott. 1993.E. The Economic Effects of Unemployment Insurance in Canada. C. Lindblom. Lindblom. 1997. The Policy Making Process. 1992. Marjorie.E. 19: 79-88. Values. and Punctuations: Using Evolutionary Theory to Explain Policy Change. 31(2): 481-498. and the Rule of Law. 2009.E. and A. 2003. Politics and Markets. Peter. Government of Canada 1995.62 Andrea Migone Government of Canada. 1992. Worldview.T. 2004. D. Green D.
1955. Unemployment. Paradigm Shift: Globalization and the Canadian State. 16: 1-25. Schick. P. Meyerson. 1988a. Public Administration Review. ―An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of Policy-Oriented Learning Therein. 1988. State. and T. H. 1993. Boulder: Westview Press:1-22. and E. May. Gendered States: Women. In A Heretical Heir of the Enlightenment: Politics. Class and Bureaucracy. and Science in the Work of Charles E. United States Foreign Policy toward Africa. Banefield. Irwin.E. Stephen. J. Quinn. Crisis. Canadian Public Policy. Still Muddling. and D. C. Policy Sciences.A. Winnipeg: Fernwood. Homewood: Richard D. and Change. 1983. 39: 517-526. 1993. Borstelman. Smith.F. 14:7-14. Peter B. McBride. B. 1945-1997.E. A. L. Pal. ―Policy Punctuations in Danish Local Budgeting. Pal. J. McBride. . Glencoe: The Free Press.‖ Public Administration 83 (4): 931-950. The Policy-Making Process. and the Political Economy of the Welfare State in Canada. G. 29: 315-335. Strategies for Change: Logical Incrementalism. 1980. 1980. Stephen. Unemployment Insurance. Edited by H. 69: 1334-1370. 1979. 3rd Ed. Muth. L.J. Lindblom. Non-Incremental Policy-Making: Notes toward an Alternative Paradigm.A Rational Expectations Analysis of Decision-Making 63 Lindblom. American Political Science Review. 2005. The Artificial Debate between Rationalist and Incrementalist Models of Decision-Making. State. 1975. C. and E. Sabatier. 1994. Incrementalism. Policy and Politics. Incremental Budgeting in a Decremental Age. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Paul.A. Allen. Canadian Unemployment Insurance and Public Policy. Schraeder. Sense and Sensibility: Comments on Forget. Toronto: University Of Toronto Press. 8:147161. Redner. Policy. Mortensen. P. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements. M. 1988b. Woodhouse. Planning and the Public Interest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Montreal: Mcgill-Queen's University Press.R. 1992. Econometrica. and NeoConservatism in Canada. Politics. The Pattern in the Work. Lindblom. Porter.J. not yet Through. Redner. Not Working.‖ Policy Sciences 21 (2): 129–168. 2005. 2003. Schulman. 1961.
1992. Foresman and Co. Glenview: Scott. A. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. the United States and Japan. 25:255-273. Wildavsky. Wildavsky. Woodhouse. How institutions evolve: The political economy of skills in Germany. 1988. and E. The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice. Britain. Policy Sciences. Weiss A. 1981. Toronto: Little. . 2004. 1964. and D. The New Politics of the Budgetary Process. Tversky A. Kahneman. Kathleen.J. 211:453-458. Science. Brown and Co.64 Andrea Migone Thelen. Reframing Incrementalism: A Constructive Response to the Critics. A. The Politics of the Budgetary Process.
In: Psychology of Thinking Editor: David A. Contreras, pp. 65-96
ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 3
Michael J. Hogan1 and Zachary Stein2
School of Psychology, NUI, Galway, Ireland Harvard University Graduate School of Education
A fundamental thinking skill is the ability to see the structure of thought. Awareness of the structure of thought begins with an intuitive description of the elements and relations that constitute a decisionmaking process and a description of the relationship between the structure and function of thought. Regardless of how one judges the quality of everyday decisions in light of the goals being pursued, it is useful, as a first step, to construct a structural map of everyday decision-making processes. This allows for objective analysis of everyday decisions and it enhances structural awareness in those who map the thinking process and in those who read the maps. The same applies to scientific thinking. Scientists advocate a particular position in the academic field and explicit mapping of their arguments enhances structural awareness, critical comparison and evaluation, and communication in the field. Overall, the mapping of decision making is a worthwhile goal, a skill that is becoming increasingly prominent and even necessary as part of expert decision making in many fields of applied science. This chapter presents a case for
Michael J. Hogan and Zachary Stein
the cultivation of graphicacy skills in this context. We describe four thought mapping techniques that offer considerable power and potential to elucidate and enhance thinking and decision making abilities. We suggest that technological advances may allow us to merge various different though mapping techniques and further enhance an interdependent set of graphicacy skills that may help to support decision making and adaptive action in context.
In an ideal world, and with the right kind of education, we may well progress from lower-order, irrational thinking to higher-order, rational thinking (K. W. Fischer & Bidell, 2006; Piaget, 1955), but this does not prevent us from reasoning to different conclusions, different theoretical orientations, different worldviews, and different decisions for action (Coan, 1968; Koltko-Rivera, 2004; Warfield, 1995). Even if one assumes that irrational thinking and rational thinking can be distinguished by reference to a quality judgment, the structure of thought itself, in everyday usage, when mapped – a combination of reactive, quick, heuristic, holistic (system 1) thinking, and reflective, analytical, deliberative, procedural (system 2) thinking – looks much more fluid and subjective than the advocate of objectivity and restrictive rationality daily dreams about (P. Facione & N. Facione, 2007). Ultimately, the flow of thought in human systems is very dynamic and variable, and the only way to truly understand the shape of human thought is to observe the thought and map the shape observed. Thus, when it comes to understanding human thought we should begin our analysis of the phenomena as we would any other phenomena – we should begin with wholehearted objectivity, and simply describe what we see. We may wish to use our science of human thinking to enhance our ability to make good decisions and act in a reasonable way. Nevertheless, prior to evaluating what is good and reasonable in the field of thought and action, the thinker does well to see clearly – perceive without pre-judgment – the phenomena under investigation. To this end, in this paper, we will briefly describe four thought mapping techniques, each of which highlights different aspects of individual and group cognition and each of which can be usefully applied in a variety of contexts. We begin with a description of argument mapping and focus specifically on mapping arguments using Rationale™, a software package developed by
Structuring Thought
Tim van Gelder and colleagues. We draw attention to research findings which suggest that training in argument mapping enhances critical thinking skills in students (van Gelder, Bissett, & Cumming, 2004), and we suggest ways in which this line of research can be developed. Next, we describe the method of Argument and Heuristic Analysis (P. Facione & N. Facione, 2007) and examine the value of mapping not only the arguments people use but also the heuristics (or cognitive shortcuts) they use. People have limited time and energy and the mental shortcuts they use to save time and energy have a significant effect on the quality of their decision making (Gilovich, Griffin, & Kahneman, 2002). In our view, the move from argument mapping to argument and heuristic analysis involves a natural progression: new avenues of basic and applied research are opened up by virtue of the move. Next, we consider the Lectical™ Assessment method of analyzing the structure and complexity level of arguments and we draw attention in particular to the challenge and potential value of carrying out a structural analysis of argument complexity. Finally, we point to the challenge of collaborative cognition and, in particular, the challenge of constructing a structural map of the collective thinking process that guides collective action. We describe Interactive Management, a systems science thought mapping method that allows a group of people to work together to think about and solve complex problems (Warfield, 1974, 2006; Warfield & Cárdenas, 1994). Notably, all four methods involve the use of visual representations that elucidate the structure of thinking and decision making activity. Thus, before describing these four techniques it will be useful to provide some historical and contextual background on the rationale for using systems of visual representation (or graphacy skills) to enhance awareness of the structure of thought.
Perhaps the most famous pedagogical interaction in history takes place in Plato's Meno. Socrates, concerned about the nature of learning and knowledge, questions a young slave boy about the most basic principles of geometry. The exchange hinges upon Socrates literally drawing a set of figures in the dirt at their feet. He displays the concepts they are considering. The slave boy is rendered knowledgeable as he explicates the ideas implicit in the Socratic graphic-designs. So begins a long and important relationship between philosophical inquiry and graphicacy—the use and understanding of figures,
Ramus's work and influence was directly related to the development of the printing industry and his insights about the visual presentation of materials on the printed page. Pierce. Take for example. reflected explicitly on the benefits of some graphical systems over others and on the non-trivial relation between graphicacy and philosophical inquiry. Petrus Ramus. claiming that we need to build representational devices—moving beyond linear text—in order to prove some of the most important ideas in philosophy and logic. Brandom invented a concept mapping system to represent the innovative mode of formal pragmatic analysis he endorses. the influential 16th Century philosopher. concept-maps. 2008). And while many have deployed them. the inventor of the Venn Diagram. but on how people displayed their thinking (Ong. Ramus explicitly addressed the importance of the spatial arrangement of tables and text. Peirce's existential graphs. and logician whose work shaped the teaching of logic for over one hundred years. Philosophers. 2003. discussed further below) and Robert Brandom has echoed these sentiments about the primacy and importance of graphicacy in philosophy and science (Brandom. seeing it as an integral part of the logical and pedagogical economy of his work. with explicit reference to Peirce. Along these same lines. That is. The strong claim endorsed in this paper is that this is a non-trivial relationship. On his view. pedagogue. 2006. 1881). and other representational devices. that some forms of communication and inquiry are dependent upon a . He understood his diagrams as more than a mere heuristic (Venn. Shin. This attention to the non-arbitrary logic of graphical representations resulted in that his influence was not only on what people thought. whose concerns for graphical representations of logical relations have had a wide-ranging impact to this day. need these representational devices. More recently. he saw the arrangement of signs on the page as more than a matter of taste. some have openly confessed dependence. developed alternative modes for representing logical relations. and text. 1958). a system that looked more like concept-mapping than propositional calculus. the search for new representational devices is part and parcel of the search for new ideas. claiming that the logical insights it yields cannot be seen another way. As Walter J. were built as a comprehensive system of logical expression (Peirce. 1933. unlike Venn's diagrams. Charles S. which can be had no other way. Peirce. Warfield claims. among others. figures. A less obscure example is John Venn. 2002). like Venn and Ramus. inspired by Venn. Hogan and Zachary Stein graphs. and began the modern printing practice of combining tables.68 Michael J. Forms of graphical representation facilitate unique and important insights. John Warfield (2002. Ong (1958) has shown.
and decision making ability. when deciding what to believe or what to do. They are part of thinking. And we think that these new graphical systems do more than serve as heuristics. Warfield draws upon psychological research to show the importance of new forms of graphicacy in handling the increasingly complex task demands of post-modern decision-making contexts. graphically robust representational devices. Importantly. Consider trying to decide whether or not you should buy a dog. This brings us to the thrust of this paper. so the strong claim goes. We think new methods have emerged over the past decade that will make it possible to advance knowledge through the explicit and problemfocused deployment of concept-dissecting.Structuring Thought 69 mixture of figures and text. If they are built and used correctly they can make things explicit that would otherwise remain implicit. they can relieve working-memory load and help organize conceptual spaces for collective consideration. not merely an aid to it. part of the exposition that follows is a call to reconsider what thinking is. ultimately. We then weigh up each of our reasons and objections. New forms of graphicacy make possible new forms of philosophy. Thus. and a call to expand common-sense notions that it only goes on between our ears. Nevertheless. which disclose complex logical relations while also having clear information processing advantages. argument mapping does help us to structure our arguments and thus begin to analyze and evaluate our arguments. You like dogs. and we arrive at an overall evaluation. Argument mapping itself does not call for any decision to be made. but. inquiry. a decision. We believe that the guiding insight of the linage traced above is an important one. ARGUMENT MAPPING WITH RATIONALE™ The method of argument mapping is grounded in the assumption that. decision-process explicating. they can also expose structural properties of decision-making processes or domains of knowledge to which we would otherwise be blind. You want to think . Yes. and mapping our arguments using argument mapping software does not necessarily make it very easy for us to decide what to believe or what to do. but you do not want to make a decision too quickly. we generate a series of reasons and objections that either support or refute a specific belief or a specific course of action.
presumably. You want to think carefully about your decision. common sense. etc. The rational person may also be compelled to delve deeper to discover a solid foundation for any given argument. because dogs are peoples' best friend. and because I can go out walking every evening. But walking my dog every evening will mean I cannot pursue my new hobby (sailing). Rationale™ is designed such that different argument types can be labeled . and a new dog would be expensive and I'm really short of money right now‖. etc. More generally. How will you arrive at a final decision in this context? In answer to questions 1 and 2. Hogan and Zachary Stein about it for while. etc. What kinds of things might you think about to dissuade yourself: buying a dog is not a good idea right now? 3. case studies. anecdotes. seeking to build an increasingly solid foundation for our beliefs. objections and rebuttals expanding at the base of our central claim.) against objections (But a new dog would be expensive and I'm really short of money right now. impinge upon the decision-making process. we can assume that a rational person will arrive at their final decision by weighing reasons (Because dogs are peoples' best friend. survey research. because I've always had dogs and I love them. For example. you might generate the following thoughts: ―I should buy a dog. For example. with more and more layers of reasons. what is the basis for our belief that dogs are peoples' best friend? Figure 1 illustrates one way in which we might support this belief. Three important questions for you to consider in this context are: 1. we have three reasons and three objections. we would need to argue the case beneath and point to the research studies that confirm this belief.). As we continue to go deeper. I'll also feel guilty if I'm forced to leave my dog alone in the house all day. at the basis of every argument are propositions that draw upon different sources of knowledge. What kinds of things might you think about to persuade yourself that buying a dog is a good idea? 2. authority/expert opinion. In answer to question 3 above. if we were to fully support the belief that Dogs aid people's mental wellbeing (one of the reasons provided for why we believe Dogs are peoples' best friend). personal experience. the argument map we build in Rationale™ will adopt a pyramid-like structure. In this example. keep fit and meet other people with dogs. be they conclusions drawn from experimental or quasi-experimental research.70 Michael J. all of which.
Rationale™ is well suited to mapping arguments presented in dialogue or prose format. Randomized controlled trials are needed to better examine argument mapping as a critical thinking training intervention. reactive.. the overall quality and quantity of evidence presented. intuitive. For example. relevance. when mapped. 2004). soundness. Also needed are studies that compare the merits of argument mapping training with those of other more traditional methods of enhancing structural awareness. this study did not include a control group. strengths and routes to enhancement of argument structures. at a glance.e. is much more fluid. by tracking the ability of students to develop increasingly coherent and integrative text-to-map argument translations and evaluate weaknesses. a book chapter.). . A related objective might be to evaluate the relationship between this developing skill and a students' ability to engage with increasingly complex arguments in the context of dialogue and collaborative cognition. for the purpose of education in the technique. for example. these text-to-map translation exercises are an excellent way to reinforce the ability to extract the structure of an argument from a text (e.Structuring Thought 71 using discrete icons. This is the first step prior to fuller analysis and evaluation of the overall argument structure. research suggests that students who study argument maps remember more of the core arguments than do students who study homologue texts (Dwyer. and the method of argument mapping 1 In fact. an interview transcript. and non-circularity of arguments can be evaluated. the structure of thought. a journal article. This helps the analyst to assess. However.. research conducted by Tim van Gelder and colleagues reports that semester-long training in argument mapping (i. a text-based argument structuring technique.. Working with arguments maps is potentially beneficial. 2009). via training in the technique of hierarchical summarization. ARGUMENT AND HEURISTIC ANALYSIS As noted earlier. building argument maps and evaluating argument maps) produced significant gains in critical thinking skills as measured by the California Critical Thinking Test (van Gelder et al. once students become familiar with the principles of argument mapping using Rationale.g. Part of the design of these studies might be to focus on the process of skill development. & Stewart. for example. Hogan. and holistic than advocates of objectivity and restrictive rationality may hope for. Arguments can be translated from text to map1 and the logical strength. etc. Furthermore.
Facione and Facione (2007) show how to use interview techniques to gather data about real human decision making episodes.. which can influence decision making in a variety of different ways. depending on the situation. and decisions – are represented on the map using different graphics.e. Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that speed the decision making process. or claims. However.72 Michael J. Hogan and Zachary Stein needs to be supplemented with a method that helps us to analyze both the arguments and the heuristics that people are using when they are trying to decide what to do. reasons. different types of thoughts – ideas. watershed ideas. implicit (non-verbal) ideas. Facione and Facione (2007) highlight 14 distinct heuristics (see Table 1). second. decide in favor of that option Take an initial stance in support of or in opposition to a given choice consistent with one's initial affective response to that choice Estimate the likelihood of a given outcome based on one's ease in imagining that outcome Base the estimate of the likelihood of a future event on the vividness or ease of recalling a similar past event Disadvantage/Risk Good enough may not be best Feelings may mislead Simulation Availability Over-estimation of one's chance of success or likelihood of failure Mistaken estimations of the chances of events turning out in the future as they are remembered to have turned out in the past . often used in parallel. the sequence of thoughts as they unfold over time in the interview is maintained in the map (i. Two important features of thought mapping using the method of Argument and Heuristic Analysis are: first. counterarguments. heuristics. Table 1. heuristics also delimit the application of more thoroughgoing reasoning. They describe a method of data mapping and data analysis that enables an empirical analysis of human decision making. abandoned argument strands. Heuristic Maneuvers and their Reasoning Disadvantages Name Satisficing and temporizing Affect Cognitive Maneuver Given an option that is good enough. a numbering system is used).
meanings. adjust as little as needed in light of new evidence Estimate the level of control you have over the actual outcome of events upon the amount of desire or energy you put into trying to shape those events Eliminate an option or group of options from consideration upon the discovery of an undesirable feature Avoid the foreseeable risk of sustaining a loss by not changing the status quo Simplify decision contexts by treating remote possibilities as if they are not even possibilities Jumping from one idea to the next absent of any genuine logical connection and drawing inaccurate inferences from the combined thought process The one may not be representative of the many Conflict which excludes reasonable compromise Working on the wrong problems. Them‖ Dynamic ―Master – Slave‖ Power differential Anchoring with Adjustment (Illusion of) Control From a single salient instance draw a generalization about an entire group Reduce problems to a simple choice between two opposing forces Accept without question a problem as presented by or a solution as proposed by a superior authority Having made an evaluation.Structuring Thought Representativeness Analogical Representativeness – Associational Infer that because this is like that in some way or other. or impressions they might trigger The analogy may not hold 73 Generalizing from One to All ―Us vs. applying a mistaken solution Failure to reconsider thoroughly Over-estimation of one's power to control events or under-estimation of one's actual responsibility for what happened Failure to give full holistic consideration to viable options Paralysis of decision making stuck in the deteriorating status quo Failure to appreciate the possibilities that events could actually turn out differently than expected Elimination by Aspect Risk and Loss Aversion Zero-out Tendency . it is like that in relevant ways Connect ideas on the basis of word association and the memories.
. Figure 1. Dogs decrease their owners' cholesterol levels.Dogs are peoples' best friend. Dogs aid people's mental wellbeing.they respect the leader of the pack: you. because because because because because Dogs are loyal. My dogs have always been faithful. Dogs have evolved to have strong hierarchical social instincts -. A simple two-level argument map (built using Rationale™) illustrating a set of reasons we might generate in support of our belief that ‗a dog is a person's best friend'.
11) But it takes time to quit and to sustain it. Figure 23. 4) I'm an Idiot! 3) I can't believe I started smoking again 9) and 10) I met a guy who smoked and without thinking I started smoking again. Smoking's going to kill me Simulation of repeating past failure Other Option I must quit Smoking NOW (Never spoken) 7) I can quit smoking I did quit for two months. 15) My son is driving me crazy. 19) I will quit someday.1) I want to live Abandoned argument 16) I have to be a responsible parent. Chosen 6) Maybe I can't manage to control my smoking. . p. 5) and 23) I can't quit now.). A teenager…I never know where he is 17) Working and parenting takes energy. 160. Figure 2. The decision not to quit smoking. 17) I know I must quit someday. 13) To function. I've Gotta' smoke. 22) I do not have enough energy to quit now. Adapted with permission from Facione and Facione (2007. I'll quit someday. 21) You'd think that would be enough to stop me Representativeness heuristic 20)…and that's in my family 19) Smoking Leads to heart disease 18) Dad died of heart disease 12) I have work responsibilities 14) I must remain able to function.
Concept map displaying the structure of representational mappings level performance.A person cooks food a lot goes to his job me like my dad but is my teacher I'm a kid too Figure 3. .
A set of concepts mappings displaying the structure of a single abstractions level performance. A human being all know how to think used to be monkeys except little babies but Intelligent ideas live all over the world People are intelligent. they all know how to think except little babies. They have feelings and ideas.A person A person is a human being. A person A person is is is has A human being A human being all know how to think used to be monkeys except little babies but live all over the world Human beings live all over the world. . feelings then we got smarter then we got smarter Figure 4.
Noreen and Peter Facione have recently used their method of argument and heuristic analysis to examine the quality of decision-making in health care settings (N. Hogan and Zachary Stein Consider figure 2. respectively] – ideas that really shape the direction of ideas and arguments that follow.I have to be a responsible parent…(and ‗quit smoking')]. However. One of these watershed ideas (15 . Facione. and prioritize fear control over protection of life. she decides that she needs to smoke to function well and this along with her belief that she does not have sufficient energy to give up right now is the argument that shapes her final decision. the woman gravitates toward the conclusion that she must quit smoking now. It displays the complete decision map of a woman who ultimately decides not to quit smoking. Facione and Facione recommended that interventions aimed at decreasing patient delay need to challenge mistaken beliefs of control over possibly advancing cancer. During the early part of the interview.My son is driving me crazy. The map of her interview transcript highlights two options: I must quit smoking now (an option that is never spoken in the interview). I'll quit someday. but it also pulls the thinker in the direction of the selected decision: 17 . but as the interview progresses her defenses mount and she argues that she cannot quit smoking now. By comparing arguments and heuristics used by a group of 15 women delaying diagnosis of breast cancer symptoms with a group of 13 women who quickly sought a diagnosis. simulate a benign diagnosis rather than the prevention of late-staged cancer. She uses a representativeness heuristics to draw out the relationship between the death of her father from heart disease and the probability that she might suffer a similar fate. 5 & 23 . I'll quit someday (the end-of-interview decision). A good intervention would also need to challenge the tendency to satisfice when scheduling diagnostic visits. if she does not stop smoking. and the tendency to abandon sound arguments for seeking prompt diagnosis. and 22 . There are three watershed ideas [numbered 6. relying instead on false information and poorly reasoned arguments.Working and parenting takes energy. Overall. Those who delayed diagnosis offered fewer arguments for diagnosis-seeking and many more for diagnosisdelay. and I can't quit smoking now. By reference to the full set of arguments and heuristics used by women to delay diagnosis. Facione & P.I do not have enough energy to quit now. a close . A teenager…I never know where he is) pulls the thinker in the direction of an abandoned argument [16 . 9. and 15.78 Michael J.I can't quit now. Facione and Facione reported that diagnosis-seekers offered more arguments for diagnosis-seeking than for diagnosis-delay. Delayers also abandoned sound and usually compelling arguments to seek diagnosis. 2007). therefore.
The Lectcial Assessment system (or LAS) is the outcome of decades of research in cognitive developmental psychology.Structuring Thought 79 evaluation of the structure of thinking in this context revealed a problematic pattern that can be structurally unpacked and used as the basis for counterpattern restructuring in an intervention designed to challenge and ultimately change the thought patterns that shape poor decision-making. people can draw upon a huge variety of concrete and abstract concepts that are more or less integrated in their overall presentation at different levels of hierarchical complexity.lectia. Consider. In attempting to describe what a person is. concepts. It is a form of structural analysis that can be used to measure the complexity of arguments. Dawson. person. the creator of the LAS. allowing them to be placed at different developmental levels. including variation in the level of organization and complexity of argument structures (T. W. and performances. the meaning of one word. Whether or not these interventions are successful remains to be seen – much depends on how easy it is to alter particular patterns of thinking. 2006). or different level of complexity. as described across the different levels of hierarchical complexity identified by the LAS (see Table 2). the LAS method of analysis focuses less on content and more on the hierarchical complexity. K. DYNAMIC DIFFERENCES IN THOUGHT COMPLEXITY AS MAPPED USING LECTICAL ASSESSMENT An examination of the thinking process in action reveals significant variation both within and across individuals. 2004. Dawson. Fischer & Bidell. When examining the different ways people use the concept person. for example. Examining differences in complexity through concept mapping will serve to demonstrate the process of ‗looking through' the content and enacting the perspectives that reveal the deeper structure of complexity behind arguments. The construct of hierarchical complexity can be understood most easily through an acquaintance with the conceptual tools used to identify it. 2002. Dawson. has built a rigorous method for insuring the psychometric validly and reliability of the LAS (for more info go to: www.info). L. . The system is build around the basic construct of hierarchical complexity. T. The ability to ‗look through' the content of reasoning is necessary in order to fully grasp what it means to identify the level of complexity manifest in an argument or text. or the underlying structure of the concept being used.
Like my Dad. I'm a person you are a person. So. in life. illustrated with a series of concept maps. which is a conceptual integration of representational systems. Definitional: Person is defined as a 1st order abstraction. Like talk to friends and eat to stay alive so they can have fun. they all know how to think except little babies. but they are different from animals because they think about things better. with a personality of his own. System: Person is a system of 2nd order representations with two variables on the input.80 Michael J. A person does things. A person is like a whole world in themselves. but I'm a kid too. An idealized example of the concept person as it changes across the complexity orders Complexity order Single representtations Representational mappings Representational systems Single abstracttions A Person is… My mom? A person cooks food a lot. It's hard to get to know somebody because the real person is on the inside. I heard humans used to be monkeys but then we got smarter. People are intelligent. A person has a soul. Structure 3rd order represen-tation 1st order abstraction Abstract mappings 2nd order abstraction Abstract systems 3rd order abstraction System: Person is a system of 2nd order abstractions. Here . A person is a human being. we employ an idealized example. you have to respect the unique Abstraction 1st order represent-tation 2nd order represen-tation Mapping: Person is a mapping of several 1st order representations. My teacher is a person. Mapping: Person is a mapping of several 1st order abstractions. they are animals. Human beings live all over the world. Hogan and Zachary Stein To simplify this examination. and goes to his job. Table 2. a person is somebody. and I am a person. A person has responsibilities. You know. They have feelings and ideas. A person uses reason.
And you can't separate one of those aspects from the others because they all interact with each other. social roles etc. life circumstances and perspectives of everyone. (as defined by system of unique choices. . So I understand ‗persons' in this way. The concept of person. motivations and meanings). only with the unique development of motivations and meanings can individuals fulfill their roles as citizens. That's why people are so complex. And yet.) and the individual. That's why we need to be conscious of individuality. (as defined by a system of rights. can be used to principles coordinate what often seems like a rift between an individual's unique system of meaning and a society's complex web of structures and institutions. Only in the social space provided to the citizen can an individual flourish. several variables which are at least 2nd order abstractions are coordinated on the input. 81 Single principle Definitional: Person is defined as a 1st order principle. as they embody the fragile interdependence of the mind and society. which is a conceptual integration of two abstract systems. You can not really have one system with out the other.Structuring Thought emotional temperaments. The concept of ‗person' is a way of thinking about the mutualdependence between these two systems. It is in the ‗person' that the citizen. liberties. as I 1st order define it. meet and embody their interdependence. and develop. understand him or herself.
Richards. but I'm a kid too. First it is necessary to understand the meaning of what is being said. These are built to serve broad functions in discourse and behavior regulation. Trudeau. The process of constructing a concept map from a sample of text is similar to enacting the analytical perspectives necessary to score using the LAS. eventually forming multivariate systems of abstract concepts. Commons. Eventually. The column with the heading ―A person is…‖ is composed of text samples that display reasoning about the concept of person. we employ concept maps of the examples in Table 2 to assist us in making clear the construct of hierarchical complexity. These . 1998. which in turn give way to principles. These text samples are not taken from actual interviews. including Fischer. One way to think about the LAS is that it operationalizes the broad structural descriptions of these levels. moving through linear mappings toward multivariate systems. They have been created to explain the LAS and do not represent a hypothesis about the way the concept person actually develops. Fischer. Over time representational concepts come to be complexly interrelated.82 Michael J. Principles are dialectically rich and informationally dense constructs that subsume whole systems of abstract concepts. The sample of text from the representational mappings complexity order reads: A person cooks food a lot. serving to organize action schemes and facilitate concrete forms of communication and thought. abstract concepts emerge from representational systems. K. it is necessary to select a protocol from Table 2. Stein. 2004) Table 2 displays the development of the conceptual element person across the seven levels identified by the LAS. and Commons (Case. Case. Abstract concepts are first combined into linear mappings that become increasingly complex. isolating the conceptual elements of the protocol is the first step in the process of concept mapping it. 1992. & Krause. The representational levels begin with the onset of language. and goes to his job. After the initial meaning has been grasped. and I am a person. My teacher is a person. Hogan and Zachary Stein The development levels displayed in Table 2 have been researched for decades by a group pf Neo-Piagetians. serving to chunk whole systems of concrete concepts in terms of overarching qualities and ideas and facilitating such higher-level skills as long-term planning and counterfactual reflective hypothesis formation. 1980). The conceptual elements in the protocol are displayed on the left in figure 3 below. and are rare in populations lacking forms of rigorous higher education (Dawson-Tunik. Here. Like my Dad. To begin.
However. This process of concept mapping visually represents the meaning of the protocol. live all over the world. In the ovals are words that connect two or more conceptual elements. Moreover.). The process of concept mapping involves picking out the conceptual elements of a protocol and grasping the manner in which they are organized. Human beings live all over the world. Note that while many of the concepts are concrete there are many more of them and they are coordinated in a complex manner. displaying the organization of conceptual elements. etc. These two analytical skills are the prerequisites to ‗looking through' a protocol to the order of hierarchical complexity that is its underlying structure.. Isolating how each group of conceptual elements is added to the map demonstrates just how the concept maps dissect the meaning of a protocol and reconstruct it in a more formal way. The sample of text from the single abstractions complexity order reads: A person is a human being.g. People are intelligent. a step by step look at how the conceptual elements are fitted into the map will show that the map is not arbitrary and the level of complexity is clearly revealed in the concept map. by examining the concepts used to describe a person in this protocol and the way they are organized in the flow or argument. know how to think. human being) are building towards abstraction. The right side of figure 3 shows the organization of these conceptual elements. I heard humans used to be monkeys but then we got smarter. subsuming a variety of concrete ideas (e.g. their organization is shown on the right. they all know how to think. The concept maps make clear how the meaning of a conceptual element is constructed through a process that . The conceptual elements are displayed on the left in figure 4 below. A second example will help to clarify the process further. This protocol has been placed at the level of representational mappings because—as the concept map makes clear—concrete representational concepts are coordinated in a linear fashion.. They have feelings and ideas. except little babies. Specifically. it is clear that this protocol is organized at a higher level of complexity than the previous one. As reasoning becomes increasingly complex it becomes apparent that there is more than one way to display the meaning of a protocol in a concept map. certain concepts (e.Structuring Thought 83 conceptual elements are the main ideas used to construct the meaning of the protocol.
through a kind of reconstruction.g. This is more than a concern about setting terms. while the reality is that those engaged in debate are operating at different levels. 1996). and thus different logical properties. 1994. 1999). debates about abortion—the level at which people understand and use this concept is critical. By developing efficient strategies for identifying individual differences in complexity level and the influence of these individual differences on the construction of relational argument structures that emerge when a group of individuals debate and collaborate. as explained above. In fact. The LAS identifies a sequence of conceptual structures with increasingly integrative capacities. . GROUP DECISION MAKING USING INTERACTIVE MANAGEMENT The three thought mapping strategies described above work on the assumption that decision making is an individual pursuit. and are an important factor that should bear on their analysis. Arguments coming from different level have different structures. These structures appear in all arguments.84 Michael J. which as a result exposes. it may be possible to reduce unnecessary conflict within groups and move toward greater coherence and ultimately greater collaborative problem-solving power and potential (Bohm. Hogan and Zachary Stein integrates the differentiated conceptual elements beneath it. the conceptual element human being as it is used in this example can only be understood as a summary or integration of the conceptual elements beneath it in the map. However. 2002. Strategies for mediating cross level argumentation are only just beginning to be devised (Rosenberg. the integration accomplished by this meaning. Arguments may be ostensibly about the same thing. the resolution of complex social problems generally requires some kind of collaborative constructivism. Bohm & Nichol. In the examples above the meaning of 'person' at different levels of hierarchical complexity is revealed by the concept mapping process. Wilber. For example. many everyday decisions are collaborative affairs. if the concept of 'person' figures prominently in an argument under analysis—e. Displaying the structure of the concepts ultimately allows us to gauge the relative abstraction and complexity of the overall performance—thus measuring the hierarchal complexity of the arguments. For example.
Vision Statement for Greek Cypriots designed using Interactive Management (IM). To help build a country where everybody's needs are everybody's concern (E-22) • To empower Cypriots to envision a Cyprus where people live in peace and to believe that this is possible now (D-34) • To learn to accept differences in culture and start thinking of them as positive. interesting.The arrow should be interpreted as: ―Significantly Supports‖ -. and enriching factors (E-47) • To develop public confidence in the peace building process (A-42) • To provide opportunities for expression and analysis of new ideas (F-63) To eliminate the fear of losing our ―Greekness‖ when involved in peace building (G-41) To work toward the establishment of integrated schools (J-69) To promote confidence in our Cypriot state and in ourselves as citizens of Cyprus (G-49) To build a solid understanding in both communities of the need to work together for the mutual satisfaction of interests (D-12) To motivate and organize women to participate in shaping a peaceful political future for Cyprus (C-51) To enhance breaking with or transcending the past as a way of opening up the future (D-50) To promote democratic and humanistic values. Legend for Figures 1-3: -. particularly in the younger generation (E-8) To modify image of peace building projected by mass media (A-53) To stress the relatedness of peace building with the Christian religion (A-68) • To begin to develop non-adversarial attitudes (E-2) • To develop a peace culture in Cyprus (E-59) • To involve people from all possible tracks in the peace building effort (C-36) • To provide opportunities for interaction between the two communities (I-6) To promote both communities working together on common projects (I-9) • To establish an effective peace-building movement with a clear vision and a more effective practice (B-14) • To build intercommunal institutions and centers (I-3) • To build bridges of mutual empowerment and understanding with Track I level (C-39) • To build new and strong bridges of communication with Turkish Cypriot peace building groups (C-20) To develop a creative and generative approach in facing the Cyprus problem (F-48) To begin to take significant steps toward demilitarization (K-38) Vision Statement for Greek Cypriots Figure 5. a certain amount of rational coherence at the level of the group that facilitates the decision making of the group.Structuring Thought 85 that is. .The letter-number combination after each statement indicates the category in which the item was grouped (see results section) plus a numerical label for the item.
U. Hogan and Zachary Stein To try and create a proper climate where Turkish Cypriots will ask for Greek Cypriots whatever they want for themselves and where G/Cs will refuse anything for T/Cs that they don't want for themselves (D-83) • To promote free access to both sides (E-43) • To eliminate the "enemy image" (K-27) To encourage T/Cs abroad to come back (G-19) • To strengthen the peace movements on the citizen level (B-21) • To be prepared to make sacrifices for a viable and long lasting peace (D-42) • To ensure effective implementations of Confidence Butilding Measuress (K-63) To eliminate the danger of military confrontation (E-50) To eliminate demographic changes concerning T/C community (G-12) • To promote the idea of demilitarization of Cyprus (K-26) • To transform hatred into friendship (D-5) To restructure the paralyzed economic and social system of our community (K-89) • To start stimulating the Cypriot identity (G-35) • To minimize the negative effects of national identities and stimulate a polyethnic inclusive federal identity (G-41) • To eliminate the possibility of one side dominating the other (G-22) To promote economic relations between the two communities (K-8) To promote bi-communal activities such as commercial. educational and sportive (I-25) • To support becoming a member of the E.86 Michael J. . Vision Statement for Turkish Cypriots designed using IM. (K-17) • To promote cultural and social relations between the two communities (C-13) • To encourage people to respect and accept each other's identity (G-94) To secure concrete and tangible results of peace building efforts (9) • To create a mutually acceptable peaceful resolution in Cyprus (K-3) • To transform the status quo into a bi-communal and bi-zonal federal state (K-18) • To eliminate the economic differences between the two communities of Cyprus (G-7) • To provide opportunity for the trainers of conflict resolution to put their learnings into practice (B-36) • To stimulate the idea of cooperation rather than confrontation (F-38) • To form a common vision for both communities (H-75) • To enable T/Cs and G/Cs to have a determining voice in designing their island's future (G-4) • To advocate realization of Confidence Building Measures (K-58) • To help secure the equal political status of both communities (G-37) • To encourage people to accept and respect each communities' basic needs (E-96) • To make sure that stupidity does not rule over wisdom (D-14) Vision Statement for Turkish Cypriots Figure 6. health.
Warfield. IM voting and mapping software. IM is a thought mapping technique that enhances group problem solving. Under conditions where there is the added pressure of time constraint and high stress. from the ground up. IM facilitators. the IM session closes and each member leaves with a detailed action plan. there develops a belief that no solution other than the solution provided can be found. the problematique becomes the launch pad for planning solutions to problems within the problem field.Structuring Thought 87 Interactive Management (IM) is a process of collaborative decision making developed by John Warfield. 1982. a problem structure (or problematique) showing how the issues are interrelated can be viewed and printed for discussion. Warfield. the relation does not appear in the final analysis. First. When the group is happy that they have modeled both the problem field and the best possible set of solutions. Under such circumstances. The group reviews the model and. a further period of modeling. if necessary. There are a series of steps in the process. Social psychologists have long recognized that group decision-making efforts are often hampered by poor use of logic and the dominance of heuristics that reinforce the solutions of a charismatic leader or those group members who possess power and influence. . after a further period of discussion and. 2007 for more information). action plans are aimed at resolving problems in a logical and orderly manner. Further discussion clarifies the sub-set of ideas that bear upon the most critical problem issues. and large wall space that allows relations between problems in the problem set to be mapped. Next. a group of between 12 and 20 people – key stakeholders with an interest in resolving a problematic situation – come together in a situation room1 and are asked to generate a set of ‗raw' ideas (commonly 100 – 300) about what might potentially have a bearing on the problem they all agree exists. The logical structure of problems is visible in the problematique and when generating solutions. IM recognizes that multiple viewpoints on social and technical issues are needed to resolve complex problems. using IM software (cf. a specific set of goals to 1 A room with computers. each of the critical issues are compared systematically in pairs and the same question is asked of each in turn: ―Does this issue have a significant impact on that?‖ Unless there is majority consensus that one issue impacts upon another. After all the critical issues have been compared in this way. The impact of these actions is then modeled for the group. people will very often simply give up thinking and thus contribute nothing to the process of decision making (Janis. 1995).
and the roadmap and logic describing how all the various plans and goals of each member will work together to resolve the original problem. (D) Peace Mentality. and they generated additional goals they wanted to include in the collective vision. the group designed a collaborative action agenda for implementing the goals in the structure. Most of the activities were eventually realized in some form and work is still ongoing in Cyprus as the two groups continue to design pragmatic solutions that help to maintain the peace. Goals at the base of the structure are primary in the causal network. They began by identifying the shared goals from each community's vision. and Turkish Cypriots proposed 101 goals. In this case. (K) Political and Economic Issues. (B) Strengthening the Peacebuilding Movement. They generated a set of 245 options. Goals at the top of the structure are long-term or outcome goals that require the support and fulfillment of goals that lie beneath. Each group then compared and contrasted their vision with the vision of the opposing group (Figures 3 and 4) before coming together as one group to generate one agreed vision. the group then used IM software to build a graphical portrayal (or problematique) of individual goals and their perceived interrelationships. . Following the completion of the collective vision statement. Each community then voted to identify from their full list of goals a subset they considered most important. Prompted by the question. This problematique was used as the basis for discussion to shed further light on the structure of their vision for peace. Through a facilitated process of categorization. (H) Bicommunal Understanding. Each of the problematiques presented below is read by starting at the bottom and following the lines of influences upward. a group of Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots have worked both in isolation (Figures 5 and 6) and together (Figure 7) to map the structure of their vision for peace for the future. Using this subset. (I) Bicommunal Communication and Exchange. from which they selected a total of 15 projects to implement during the following year. The goals in the middle of the structure are conduits through which the support passes from the base to the long-term goals. the two groups eventually agreed a common vision (see Figure 7). or problematique. (G) Identity Issues. 2004). (C) Bridge Building. (E) Peace Culture. these goals were organized under the following themes: (A) Image of Peacebuilding.88 Michael J. it has been used to good effect in Cyprus to help resolve conflict driven by ethnic divide (Broome. (J) Youth and Education. (F) Problem-Solving Approaches. ‗What are desired goals for our peacebuilding efforts during the next decade?' Greek Cypriots proposed 72 goals. For example. Hogan and Zachary Stein work on. Although there was heated debate over the wording of some statements. IM has many useful applications.
interesting. educational and sports activities (I-15) • To establish an effective bi-communal peace movement (B-30) • To promote cultural and social relations between the two communities (C-16) • To promote both communities working together on common projects (I-7) To build bridges of mutual empowerment & understanding with Track I people (C-42) Collective Vision Statement for Peace Building Efforts in Cyprus Figure 7.Structuring Thought • To help build a country where everybody's needs are everybody's concern (E-1) • To try and create a proper climate where Turkish Cypriots will ask for Greek Cypriots whatever they want for themselves and where G/Cs will refuse anything for T/Cs that they don't want for themselves (D-10) • To promote the idea that the security problem of both communities could be lessened by demilitarization (K-26) • To come up with a solution that will satisfy the security needs of both communities (K-41) • To minimize the effects of outside powers (K-29) 89 • To empower Cypriots to envision a Cyprus where people live in peace and to believe that this is possible now (D-2) • To learn to accept differences in culture and start thinking of them as positive. and enriching factors (E-3) • To work for an independent bicommunal bizonal federally united Cyprus with full respect to human needs and rights and develop the appropriate public mentality to support it (K-43) • To make known and acknowledge the basic needs. fears and aspirations of each community to the other community (H-21) • To eliminate the "enemy image" (E-11) • To stimulate the idea of freedom of movement throughout the island (K-19) • To encourage youths of both communities to get to know each other (I-36) • To accept and respect each others' identity as T/Cs and G/Cs and see this as a richness rather than an obstacle to peace building (G-32) To promote in both communities a better understanding of basic needs. . health. Collective Vision Statement for Peace Building Efforts in Cyprus. and aspirations of each community concerning the property issue (H-17) To minimize the effects of national chauvinism and promote the idea of a polyethnic inclusive federal society (G-14) • To develop public confidence in the peace building process (A-4) • To strengthen the peace movements on the citizen level (B-12) • To promote the idea in G/C community that the existence problem of T/C community is vital for the whole of Cyprus (H-18) • To help the two communities create a common vision (H-27) To try and find ways to bridge the economic differences between the two communities (K-37) • To build a climate in which the ethnic identities of the two communities are not threatened (G-6) • To support in both communities the idea of joining the European Union (K-28) • To provide opportunities for interaction between the two communities (I-8) • To build inter-communal institutions and centers (I-9) • To promote bi-communal commercial. fears.
90 Michael J. 2008). However. Hogan and Zachary Stein The core principles and methodology of IM can be applied to the resolution of any problematic situation. cultural evolution has radically altered the nature of many of the problems we now work to resolve. social. in order to bring about a solution to the problem. For complex problems. as we believe. then it makes sense that mainstream application of IM to significant social and technological problems will become increasingly prominent. However. values. If. The argument from evolutionary psychology is that many of our core problemsolving routines are evolved adaptations. it can take anything up to 6 days to develop a problematique and a correlated action plan. Cultural evolution has been described as a process whereby the ideas. For example. & Tooby. Cosmides. One problem with IM is that it is a time consuming process. the group of people involved need to work on the action plan. until replaced by other ideas. beliefs and behaviors of individuals and groups that foster the highest levels of adaptive success are generally imitated by others and thus become increasingly prominent in the culture – that is. the advantage of the method is that there is power in numbers – each group member contributes some small portion of action to the overall solution – and with a logical roadmap that describes the consequence of their collective action in the problem field. Furthermore. one of us has made the call for the application of IM to foster the integration of facts and perspectives – including positive and negative worldviews – that shape the science of human flourishing (Hogan. IM has never been applied in this way. 1992). The development of high levels of insight into the structure of our individual and collaborative cognition is not an evolved adaptation that has emerged during the process of our evolution to date. that is. beliefs and behaviors that offer even greater success. those involved can be reasonably confident that their actions will be effective. New cultural tools and resources are needed to support our work when solving some of the big economic. values. group problem-solving strategies such as IM generate effective solutions to problems by capitalizing on our ability to use formal logic in the context of complexity. However. and environmental problems we . this tool has not been widely applied to solving problems in the mainstream science of psychology and education. people have to make an ongoing commitment of time. biological and cultural evolution have also canalized our investment in heuristics that help us to solve adaptive problems very quickly and with minimal cognitive effort (Barkow. In this sense. However. modular behavioral routines that are activated by specific contexts that are somehow similar to contexts that critically impinged upon on our survival and evolution success in the past. However.
Moseley and colleagues (2005) describe and evaluate a total of 41 individual thinking frameworks. It is only by understanding the reality of thinking and action in context and the environmental contingencies that influence the process of thinking and action in context that we can begin . creative reconfiguring. working with patterns and rules. We advocate greater cultural investment in the development of the skills and tools of graphicacy. or (b) attempt to overlay this emphasis on the parts with a hypothetical cognitive machinery that describes the functional relations between the parts of thinking that have been classified as important aspects of our overall thinking skill. many thinking frameworks simply reinforce an abstract view of thinking over the reality of thinking and action in context. One negative consequence of this is poor linkage between the theoretical models proposed and educational applications that might serve to foster thinking skills. INTEGRATIVE EDUCATIONAL TOOLS In a fascinating book that describes and evaluates Thinking Frameworks for teaching and learning. What emerges is a fascinating neglect of organismic and contextualist worldviews that focus attention on the integrated process of thinking and action in context. Pointing to different thinking skills is interesting. reasoning. by pulling attention away from a focus on activity in context. The frameworks are largely theoretical descriptions of core thinking skills that are relevant for problem-solving and decision-making activities – recognizing and recalling.Structuring Thought 91 now face. Also. 1942) and there is a noticeable absence of an organismic and contextualist focus on the integrated process of thinking and action in context. monitoring. inferring. organizing ideas. but one problem with the majority of thinking frameworks that dominate perspectives in the field of learning and teaching is that formist and mechanistic worldviews undergird their design (Pepper. concept formation. comprehending. We close this chapter with a brief note on the possibility of integrating various thought mapping technologies into one functional educational tool that includes various ‗modules' and interdependent skill enhancement structures that will enhance the power and potential of individual and collaborative cognition and action. evaluating. in the formist and mechanistic worldview the tendency is to either (a) simply point to discrete forms (or parts) of thinking that are important aspects of our overall thinking skill. Specifically. and so on.
e. relational thought structures impinge upon decision making . development over the course of hours. and the impact of heuristics in both directing and restructuring argument structures at different levels of hierarchical order and complexity during the process of development. and in a collaborative working context they will begin to see how collaborative.. We would now like to suggest that educational researchers focus more attention on developing integrated educational tools (rather than integrated thinking frameworks) that help us to elucidate and enhance thinking and decision-making processes in context. relational thought structures impinge upon decision making and action in context (e. weeks... in the context of collaborative exercises where they are collectively working to establish the basis for a certain belief or working to solve a particular problem that requires collaborative action planning). Both software systems are pragmatic systems.g. or working to establish an optimal collaborate path to resolution of a fundamental problem using Interactive Management). days. we believe that students will slowly develop the ability to see the structure of thought in action (i. Two of the thought mapping techniques we considered above – Argument Mapping and Interactive Management – already have associated with them very usable software systems that allow one to (a) map argument structures and (b) design problematiques that structure complex problem spaces. in their own action and in the action of others). (By development here we refer largely to micro-development.92 Michael J. Hogan and Zachary Stein to design ways to enhance a persons' awareness of this process and their individual and collaborative ability to successfully pursue a range of valued goals.) In other words. in the sense that both are designed to facilitate working toward a select goal (e. working to establish the foundation of a belief using argument mapping. that is. With the core skill of graphicacy being central to this new educational tool. We have argued above that cultivating and using graphicacy skills may serve the joint goals of both developing better understanding of the structure of thought and enhancing both individual and collaborative goal pursuit in context. and perhaps months. We believe that the current design of argument mapping software could be reconfigured to allow for analysis of the development of argument structures. we believe it should be possible to design educational software that provides students (guided by experts and working in a collaborative context) with a tool that facilitates their developing understanding of the thought structures that shape decision making and action in context.g. Using an educational software tool that facilitates greater awareness of how collaborative.
CONCLUSION Few of us deny that our thinking is limited. Finally.g. We can characterize the . in the design of problematiques that help them to characterize problem structures at a higher level of complexity. While biological evolution may have run its course in terms of further enhancement of human potential. and problem solving – using a core module that runs from first year to final year and from undergraduate to postgraduate training at increasingly higher orders of software complexity – the focus of college life could begin to move away from discipline-focused to problem-focused training and employment opportunities.Structuring Thought 93 and action in context. our rationality is ‗bounded' by sentiments and heuristics that shape our best decision-making efforts. and so on). it will be possible for groups of students to move from individual and collaborative analysis of thought structures to increasingly coherent design activity. the design of solutions to complex engineering problems that a group of postgraduate engineering students might work on under the supervision of a larger professional outfit. Successful human adaptation hinges upon the ability of human being to catalyze their biological and cultural resources to facilitate problem solving in context.. we can map the structure of our thoughts and learn from the maps constructed. and the only way we can successful resolve these bigger problems is by investing more intelligent effort in the redesign of the tools of culture that help us all to develop our skills and capacities. We can use argument and heuristic analysis to map our decision making as it unfolds in real time and consider more deeply the role of heuristics in shaping the outcome of our thinking. and with IM software capabilities built into the same educational tool. We can use argument mapping software to lay out in plain view the structure of our arguments for analysis. and environmental problems that impinge upon individuals and groups continue to mount. that is. the design of social systems that focus on resolving problems of isolation and depression. social. economic. in the gradual move from undergraduate to post-graduate training in thinking. decision-making. We have a limited working memory capacity. Specifically. At the same time. Integrated software systems that catalyze the power and potential of graphicacy use in educational contexts offers one path to greater skill. the focus would be on catalyzing the developing skill of students for the resolution of key problems that involve multiple actors for successful resolutions (e.
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97-120 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers. Inc. The Netherlands ABSTRACT People encounter myriads of obstacles throughout their lives. Gerben A. pp.marguc@uva. * Correspondence concerning this chapter should be addressed to Janina Marguc. Roetersstraat 15. and especially cognitive consequences of insurmountable obstacles on the one hand and potentially surmountable obstacles on the other hand. such as a fallen tree blocking the road to work or life circumstances that make it hard for an adolescent to obtain a university degree. University of Amsterdam. Finally. Department of Social Psychology. Those can be big or small.WB Amsterdam. The Netherlands. Contreras. Chapter 4 OBSTACLES: THEIR IMPACT ON THINKING AND BEYOND THINKING Janina Marguc*. Email: j. 1018 WB Amsterdam.nl . motivational. it highlights possible directions for future research and discusses the role of people's cognitive responses for dealing with life's obstacles. What are the effects of such obstacles? Could it be that obstacles have an impact beyond the very task or goal people with which they interfere? The present chapter reviews major findings regarding the affective.In: Psychology of Thinking ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 Editor: David A. van Kleef and Jens Förster University of Amsterdam. It also introduces new findings that show how obstacles influence the more basic ways in which people perceive and conceptually process information from their environment.
‖ (Oxford English Dictionary. Interfering Forces. Cognition. obstacles can be conceptualized as interfering forces (Higgins. yet.. an obstacle is ―something that stands in the way or that obstructs progress (lit. van Kleef and Jens Förster Keywords: Obstacles. relatively little is still known about the processes involved in dealing with obstacles and in particular with those that can potentially be overcome.). and despite their potential for influencing people's goal pursuits. Gerben A. Goals. mental). Despite their omnipresence.g. they can or even have to be overcome. obstacles can take diverse shapes (e. . 2009). a hindrance. Processing Styles INTRODUCTION Obstacles are part of life: An avalanche might have blocked the road to one's holiday destination. physical. 2006) that obstruct the standard course of action and have to be removed or otherwise dealt with if one wishes to reach a desired end-state. possible directions for future research will be identified. Moreover. private.. clinical). motivational. at other times. they can appear in a variety of settings (e. The aim of this chapter is to propose an organizational framework for studying different types of obstacles and their effects. and their potential impact can range from merely signaling that an adjustment in one's thinking or action is needed.98 Janina Marguc. Thus. or obstruction. or an advanced age might stand in the way of switching to a more attractive job. or bringing progress to a complete halt if they cannot be overcome. and especially cognitive consequences of potentially surmountable and insurmountable obstacles will be reviewed. to decelerating progress until a way to conquer them is found. CONCEPTUALIZING OBSTACLES AND THEIR EFFECTS As defined by the dictionary. social.g. a colleague's background chatter might interfere with one's ability to concentrate on writing a review. a newborn child might hinder parents in maintaining their active social life. and fig. Within this framework. Sometimes. obstacles might appear insurmountable. impediment. new findings on the impact of obstacles for basic cognition will be introduced and their potential role for dealing with life's obstacles will be discussed. Accordingly. on the basis of which major findings regarding the affective. organizational.
1972). & Mehrabian. 1967. & Page. Geen & Berkowitz. 1968... This work includes studies on parents interfering with their children's romantic relationships (Driscoll. & Scholer. 1968. collecting study credit to obtain a degree) and thereby make the obstacle appear surmountable. & Carver. Miller. background noise interfering with cognitive tasks (e. different trajectories are likely to ensue.g. we propose to distinguish between insurmountable obstacles. 1994. & Schulz. Much classic research on obstacle-related concepts can be conceptualized as falling under the rubric of insurmountable obstacles. Other work has focused on potentially surmountable obstacles and related concepts. participants in classic studies on interruption (e. 1968). Tremblay. Higgins. because depending on whether an obstacle is (perceived as) insurmountable or not. 2009.g. Jones.. Johnson. Atkinson 1953. More specifically. 2001. Carver. and potentially surmountable obstacles. people need to accept and cope with the fact that they are unable to accomplish the original goal or task and gradually disengage from it while re-engaging in another pursuit (see Wrosch. Turner.g. Martin. not attaining a high score in an experimental task due to constant interruption) people might still re-construe the entire situation (e. Davis. Although in such situations (e. Strube. 1962. Likewise. & Lipetz. Schulz. Scheier. Marguc. 2003.g. when an obstacle cannot be overcome. or physical obstacles blocking the most direct . 1927) were typically not permitted to move any closer towards their goals or complete assigned activities within the scope of the experimental session. Stevens.g. participants in studies on goal-blockage or frustration were oftentimes prevented from finishing tasks or reaching assigned goals by having to work on unsolvable puzzles (Geen. 2003). Banbury. Förster. which (are perceived to) interfere with a goal or task without completely blocking progress or accomplishment. & van Kleef. Macken. Jones. Wrosch. This distinction is important. 1984) or by confederates disturbing them repeatedly in order to ask questions (Burnstein & Worchel. when an obstacle can potentially be overcome. Marguc. LeCompte. Geen. people can decide whether to stay engaged and try to overcome the obstacle or disengage because they might have other attractive goals in mind that they could turn to without having to deal with the obstacle. Zeigarnik. Cerro. 1990. a psychology experiment) in terms of a higher order goal (e. which (are perceived to) block progress and/or task accomplishment completely.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 99 Rather than assuming that all obstacles should have the same effects. 2009. For instance.. Wogalter. Miles. the obstacle would still remain insurmountable with respect to the specific goal or task at hand. 1988). By contrast. Weiner.. & Hinchey. & Forlano. Scheier.
unless a physical obstacle blocks the only available path to a goal.. That person might deal with the obstacle by stressing unique qualities throughout the application that can only be gained through maturity and experience. as affective and motivational states can influence people's thinking (e. as an organizing framework for this chapter.g. imagine a person who considers an advanced age to be a surmountable obstacle to finding a more attractive job. but also the emotional. the (in)surmountability of an obstacle can be determined on the basis of objective criteria. & Crites. and. Oftentimes. unless an adequate substitute is available (e. Such different construals of surmountability may have different effects for further behavior. 2009). Accordingly. parents may not be able to prevent their children from dating their loved one. In contrast. still be attained. Berntson. For instance. the surmountability of an obstacle is in the eye of the beholder. because the original goal can. Easterbrook. we will first briefly review some of the major findings concerning the affective and motivational consequences of insurmountable and potentially surmountable obstacles. By contrast. One may subjectively think that one cannot stand the noise in the department and may at the same time think that talking to the dean about it would not have an effect.100 Janina Marguc. at least potentially. and cognitive processes that accompany these trajectories. Within this framework. people do not need to re-construe the entire situation in terms of a higher order goal to make the obstacle appear surmountable. Cacioppo. people can still reach their destination by taking a detour. Whether an obstacle is (perceived as) surmountable or insurmountable may not only influence the actual trajectory of an activity or goal pursuit. and cognitive consequences on the other hand. That is. Förster & Higgins. Sometimes. the sudden death of one's spouse will irreversibly block the goal of spending the rest of one's life with that person. and their affective. however. motivational. van Kleef and Jens Förster path to a goal (Marguc. devoting more time to a hobby). In these studies. we would like to introduce a 2 x 3 typology of obstacles and their effects based on the distinction between insurmountable and potentially surmountable obstacles on the one hand. the obstacle can usually be dealt with in relation to the goal or task it interferes with. whereas a lasting handicap or illness does not a priori make it impossible to realize that goal. Gerben A. a person who considers an advanced age to be an insurmountable obstacle might end up not even sending out applications and become increasingly frustrated with the current situation. one may think that a decent strategy or a good plan will be efficient. Accordingly. 1996. motivational. . For example.g. Förster. an interfering background noise may not stop people from solving a cognitive task altogether.. 1959. & van Kleef.
2008. 1984. Mowrer. this research seems to suggest that obstacles in general are likely to enhance the subjective value and motivation to reach a desired end-state. goal-blockage and frustration have been associated with increased negative arousal (e. Berkowitz.g. An early study by Driscoll. and Lipetz (1972) further revealed that feelings of romantic love among couples become even stronger when parents disagree or interfere with the relationship. Perhaps not surprisingly. 2004. Gable & Harmon Jones.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 101 2005.. Would surmountable obstacles have the same effects? Or are negative affective reactions less likely to the extent that an obstacle seems possible to overcome? To the best of our knowledge. For example.. Throughout this review. both insurmountable and surmountable obstacles were considered.g.. or even depression in cases where the goal that is blocked is highly important to an individual (see Klinger. this research has found a number of adverse effects. 1975). With regard to motivational consequences. which will be the main focus for the remainder of this chapter. 1939). OBSTACLES. Lewis & Ramsay. Davis. Isen & Daubman. words) as opposed to a non- . Berkowitz. To illustrate. 2002.g. 1984) and might thus be relevant for the impact of obstacles on cognition. pleasant activities (e. 1989. we will turn to the cognitive effects of obstacles. Dollard. Thereafter.g. 1998. while such assumptions are implied in some models on motivation and coping (e.. and discuss their likely implications for unrelated tasks and dealing with life's obstacles. More recently. EFFECT. Doob. we will identify open questions and propose directions for future research that may help to draw a more complete picture of human responses to obstacles. & Sears. 1984) those questions have not been directly addressed in experiments. watching an entertaining movie) have been shown to become even more attractive when they are interrupted and cannot be resumed (Mischel & Masters.. Gasper. Gasper & Clore. Folkman. Miller. 2005). 1966). Bandura. we will consider effects of insurmountable and potentially surmountable obstacles in turn. research exploring the effects of aversive task circumstances on value found that hearing an interfering background noise (e. At first sight. AND MOTIVATION Research on the affective consequences of obstacles has mainly investigated insurmountable obstacles. 1989. Again. aggressive tendencies (e. Lazarus & Folkman.g. whereby we will introduce new findings on how obstacles affect basic cognition.
..e. or to first elaborate on the positive aspects of the desired future followed by the negative aspects of present reality standing in the way of that future. 2009).g.. people take success/failure considerations into account. 1981) and the more recent regulatory engagement theory (Higgins. commitment increases if expectancies are high and decreases if expectancies are low. For example. Pak. Hönig. Oettingen. Surely. the happy ending of an interpersonal problem). When obstacles and goals are contrasted with one another (i. van Kleef and Jens Förster interfering nuisance (e. to elaborate only on the negative aspects of present reality hindering them in attaining that future (e. it seems important that people neither ignore an obstacle nor focus on it so much that they loose sight of their goal. Although a comprehensive review of the affective and motivational consequences of obstacles goes beyond the scope of this chapter.. 2009) suggests that when people mentally elaborate on negative aspects of present reality and positive aspects of a desired future in a way that highlights how aspects of the present stand in the way of the desired future. Such results can. & Gollwitzer. 2000. it would be maladaptive if obstacles would always increase motivation. in order to disengage or increase efforts in ways that are appropriate to the circumstances.g.. having too much work). based on the above findings one may conclude that insurmountable obstacles are likely to engender negative emotional experiences.g. for example. These studies show that beyond value of certain goals or tasks. be explained within the frameworks of reactance theory (Brehm.102 Janina Marguc. for a review.g.. which suggests that trying to oppose or overcome the impact of an interfering stimulus increases engagement in an activity and thereby creates value. whereas the emotional . but rather consider both obstacle and goal in relation. & Schnetter. 1966. whereas coping with a nuisance decreases engagement in the activity and thereby reduces value. 2009. participants are either asked to elaborate only the positive aspects of having attained a desired future (e. Thus. Brehm & Brehm. Only in the latter condition. and research suggests that there are indeed situations in which they do not. Gerben A. dentist drills) while trying to solve enough anagrams to win an attractive prize increases the subjective value of that prize (Higgins et al. which involves mentally contrasting the present situation with the desired future such that both are made accessible and their relation is highlighted. 2001. see Oettingen & Stephens. Oettingen. being too shy. 2000. see also Scholer & Higgins. To illustrate. they either strengthen or reduce their commitment in line with relevant expectancies. 2006). Oettingen. both are made accessible and their relation is highlighted). research by Oettingen and colleagues (e. the way in which people think about obstacles and goals might reduce or enhance motivation.
Moreover. that is.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 103 consequences of potentially surmountable obstacles remain unclear. Moreover. even though explicitly thinking about how negative aspects of the present stand in the way of a desired future was shown to increase commitment only when expectancies are high. whenever people are facing an . These will be addressed in the following. For example. As a result. In case they remain engaged. such as whether a linear relationship exists between the extent to which an obstacle is perceived as possible to overcome and the intensity of negative affective experiences. and detach from the positive valence that pulls them towards the desired end-state. 2008. Liberman. OBSTACLES AND COGNITION: A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE How do obstacles affect cognition? In a recent article. 2007. when obstacles are perceived as surmountable. if people face an obstacle that cannot simply be eliminated or ignored they can choose to either ―leave the field‖ and disengage from the task or goal or remain ―in the field‖ and try to overcome the obstacle. it is not clear what the cognitive consequences of obstacles are. obstacles or ―barriers‖ constitute ―detour problems‖ (p. people may find a solution by restructuring the field and perceiving the total situation such that ―the path to the goal becomes a unitary whole‖ (p. 2003). construal level theory (Liberman & Trope. Important questions remain. is there a threshold at which obstacles become so adverse that they decrease rather than increase value and motivation? More importantly for the present chapter. 1998. Trope & Liberman. it is not entirely clear how the affective and motivational consequences of obstacles are related to one another. 82) that require people to take an indirect route to reach a goal or obtain a desired object. both insurmountable and potentially surmountable obstacles can enhance the attractiveness and value of a desired end-state. From a Lewinian (1935) perspective. 2010). Gestalt-like perspective to the extent that they have encountered and gained experience with obstacles in the past as well as to the extent that they can psychologically distance themselves from the situation at hand. Furthermore. we addressed this question and proposed a model based on Lewin's field theory (1935). see Liberman & Trope. Thus. 83). Marguc & Gillebaart. for reviews. Trope. people should find it easier to adopt such an encompassing. as well as on novelty categorization theory (Förster. & Stephan.
While Lewin's (1935) approach is rather theoretical. skis.g. Gerben A. a task that involves responding to visual targets that either appear at the global (i. participants first imagined that they were sitting 5 cm. . on a more conceptual level.e. the former participants classified objects (e. infant clothes) related to those activities into fewer (i. 5 m. This research suggests that construing events as distal rather than close to ―me. 2009a) participants were asked to imagine temporally. broader) categories than the latter.... Results from this study showed that as participants imagined themselves sitting farther away (i.g. or 10 m away and then completed Navon's letters task (1977). cutlery. a yard sale) to take place either in the distant or the near future. the idea that mentally distancing oneself from the situation at hand may lead to a more global.. in a recent series of studies (Liberman & Förster. In one study.e. see Liberman & Trope.e. 5 m. In a study assessing conceptual rather than perceptual scope (Liberman. or socially distal events prior to completing unrelated measures of global versus local perception.. tomorrow (near future). they might adopt a more global.104 Janina Marguc. & Trope. here. Sagristano. integrative perspective that might further help them restructure elements of the situation and integrate the obstacle into goal pursuit. For instance. or were not thinking about anything in particular. now‖ is associated with a more global. overall shape) or the local (i. 2002). or 5 cm).e. spatially. their perceptual scope became wider. Subsequently. 10 m.. leading to the construction of broader mental categories. Results revealed that when participants were thinking about their life in a year from now. their perceptual scope was broader than when they were thinking about their life tomorrow. participants imagined future activities (e. temporal rather than spatial distance was manipulated by asking participants to write about their life in a year from now (distant future). integrative processing style that involves a perceptual focus on the overall structure rather than the details of objects and. In another study. or not asking them to write about anything (control). constituent elements) level of stimuli (see Figure 1). 2008). van Kleef and Jens Förster obstacle and are interested in staying engaged. grants access to representations with lower a priori accessibility. integrative way of processing information is in line with a recent body of research by Liberman and colleagues (for a review.
participants were asked to focus either on an entire state or a single city depicted on a map to induce global versus local perception. For example. reflecting a broader conceptual scope among the former compared to the latter. 2009b). perceptual and conceptual scope themselves are closely related. and events to be less likely to happen to themselves (Liberman & Förster. Förster. . in a study by Friedman. Finally. but also vice versa. Sample stimulus picture from Navon's (1977) letters task. in a seemingly unrelated task. participants primed with global perception generated more unusual category exemplars than those who were primed with local perception. places to be further away from their current location. respectively. and Werth (2003).Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 105 Figure 1. recent studies revealed that psychological distance versus proximity not only influences global versus local processing. participants who were asked to attend to global rather than to local features of visual stimuli in one task subsequently estimated future events to occur later in time. Attesting to a close relation between psychological distance and global processing. Afterwards. In these studies. other people to be less close to themselves. Fishbach.
both their perceptual and their conceptual scope will increase. however. it should also be useful when people encounter obstacles. Such questioning may be warranted. it leads to local processing. they will routinely activate a global processing style that generally helps to integrate new information into existing knowledge structures. 2010. goal and obstacle at the same time. Förster. as it was shown that negative moods and even subtle cues of avoidance or signals of lacking security can trigger local rather than global processing (for a review. 2002. one might predict that whenever an obstacle hinders people in accomplishing a task they would like to finish. Schooler. This was the case in many of the studies investigating the associations between global processing and psychological distance. because global versus local processing styles are free of content. thus one may wonder whether they can actually trigger global processing. however. 2008). 1935). they will adopt a more global. see Friedman & Förster. or to perceive both. 2007). whenever a novel event is only slightly aversive or positive. Notably. they may at the same time ―step back‖ to see the big picture. recent research (Förster. but not when they would rather disengage and turn to another activity (see also Lewin.106 Janina Marguc. Research on negative moods and processing styles may qualify our proposal. they can transfer from the task in which they were elicited to completely unrelated situations or tasks (Schooler. Liberman & Shapira. van Kleef and Jens Förster Taken together. Gestalt-like way of processing information. see also Förster. Because people need to understand novel events. Förster et al. Because obstacles interfere with smooth goal attainment. novelty categorization theory was introduced (Förster et al. Fiore. & Brandimonte. Gerben A. Liberman & Friedman. 1997. Förster. Notably. Applying this logic to obstacles and taking into account that switching to global processing should be more relevant when people want to stay engaged and deal with an obstacle. Thus. they might naturally be experienced as aversive.. findings from this research suggest that whenever people mentally distance themselves from direct experience. To explain such results. 2009. 2009) suggests that unknown events (which obstacles can sometimes be) activate a global processing style although they can be perceived as slightly aversive (see Zajonc. 2009. suggesting that only when novelty is experienced as strongly threatening.. if people broaden their perspective and open up their mind upon encountering an obstacle the cognitive consequences of obstacles might reach beyond the context in which the obstacle appeared and influence performance on . 2009). 1968). and might also be the case for obstacles. One may conclude that because global processing can help to integrate information and enhance understanding. while people stay in the field.
see Butterfield. 1988. the view that rumination might reflect attempts at finding alternate means points toward the possibility that individuals might subjectively still have considered all these obstacles as potentially surmountable. & Bink. 1927..g. Some researchers also suggest that frustration or blockage of important personal goals will instigate rumination. LeCompte. for a review. a background noise (e.. see Banbury et al. isolated sounds) is played that they are asked to ignore. other research has examined the impact of background noise on cognitive performance (e. Martin & Tesser.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 107 completely unrelated tasks.e.. Martin et al. Accordingly. content-related effects) and how obstacles influence performance on the tasks with which they interfere (i. Surprisinlgy.g. 2008). COGNITIVE CONSEQUENCES OF OBSTACLES: EMPIRICAL FINDINGS Content-Related and Context-Related Effects In the past. results from these studies suggest that any kind of background noise is likely to impair performance on cognitive tasks that involve serial or free recall to the extent that the noise is variable and changing rather than monotonous.. for a review. In a nutshell. Going beyond content-related effects. 1964) and are cognitively more accessible than completed ones (Marsh. which can be seen as an attempt to finding alternative means and only ceases when people have managed to reach their goal after all or come to terms with not attaining it (e. 1996). Jones et al. 1994. contextrelated effects). In this type of research.. Note that these findings are both bound to the specific contents of a goal or task and refer to objectively insurmountable obstacles. .. 2001). 1990.g. For instance. researchers investigating the cognitive effects of obstacles primarily focused on questions pertaining to what people think about upon encountering an obstacle (i. Hicks.. 1998). this idea has not been investigated until recently. 1989. narrative speech. participants typically work on a short-term memory task that requires them to recall a sequence of visually presented verbal stimuli.e.. During this task. However. studies on the classic Zeigarnik effect demonstrated that interrupted activities are both recalled better (Zeigarnik. Future research might therefore examine whether explicitly breaking the ―illusion of surmountability‖ would make people think less about blocked goals or tasks (see Epstude & Roese.
these studies investigated if and when obstacles lead people to perceptually and conceptually process information in a more global. respectively. focusing on potentially surmountable obstacles. reading comprehension. such that they attend more to the overall Gestalt of objects rather than their details and make use of broad rather than narrow mental categories. 2007). as it does not block progress on a task completely. meaning in the sound also influences performance on the focal task (Jones et al. Because processing styles are free of content and were shown to carry over from the context in which they were elicited to completely unrelated situations or tasks (Schooler. Notably. However. 2002. when the variable in question is performance on the task with which the obstacle interferes. Content-Independent and Context-Independent Effects In some of their studies.. 1935). Förster. interfering noise per se does not constitute an insurmountable obstacle. proofreading). However. investigating the influence of obstacles on global versus local processing styles allows for testing cognitive effects that are unrelated to the specific contents of a goal or task and reach beyond the very context in which the obstacle originally appeared. the only difference one would expect to occur between surmountable and insurmountable obstacles would be a difference in performance. detailed manner. Schooler et al.. it could become insurmountable if a performance threshold is specified that cannot be attained. Although the latter type of research does not ask what people think about when they encounter an obstacle.. Accordingly. and van Kleef (2009) addressed the question of how obstacles influence the more general ways in which people perceive and process information from their environment (see Lewin. 1990). Thereby. participants first worked on a series of anagrams in the presence or the absence of an interfering background noise . Gerben A.108 Janina Marguc. To fill this void. Marguc and colleagues (Marguc et al. 2009) aimed to simulate an obstacle that people commonly encounter in their working environment.g. when the focal task relies on the processing of meaning (e. Specifically. van Kleef and Jens Förster the impact of background noise on short-term memory can be regarded as independent of content. see also Förster et al. it leaves open the question of whether obstacles might have an impact in completely unrelated contexts or tasks. 1997... Thus. in one study. encompassing manner as opposed to a more local. it is still bound to the specific context in which the obstacle appears. a recent series of studies by Marguc.
In this task. primarily among participants who generally become engaged in activities very easily and like to finish what they are doing (low volatility.e. Global targets were those where a large L or H was made up of small Fs or Ts.e. analytic manner. Participants had to indicate as quickly as possible. participants performed better if they had navigated the maze with compared to without an obstacle.. as predicted.. words) and then completed an ostensibly unrelated task (see Navon. Afterwards. . 2009. focus on the ―trees‖). when trait or state volatility was low. an H or L) that was composed of numerous small letters (e. whether each stimulus contained a letter L or a letter H. 2002) rather than letters perceptual scope increased. participants navigated a maze on the computer in which an obstacle either did or did not suddenly appear and block the most direct path to the goal (Figure 2). Overall faster responses to global targets reflect a relatively more global perceptual scope (i.g. by pressing one of two designated keys. whereas faster responses to local targets reflect a relatively more local perceptual scope (i.. whereas when trait or state volatility was high.e. that is.. Kuhl. whereas local targets where those where a large F or T was made up of small Ls or Hs. integrative manner rather than a concrete.. a series of stimuli was presented (see Figure 1). a task that involves searching for similarities and integrating seemingly unrelated concepts). Similar results were found with regard to conceptual scope. each of which consisted of a single large letter (e. 1994).e. focus on the ―forest‖). performance remained stable.g.. 1977) measuring the extent to which individuals perceive the ―forest‖ rather than the ―trees‖ or vice versa. In a conceptual replication chronic volatility (Kuhl. suggesting that being motivated to remain engaged in an activity is important for obstacles to elicit global processing.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 109 (i. but not among participants who quickly disengage and switch to alternative activities prematurely (high volatility). In an ostensibly unrelated variant of Mednick's (1962) Remote Associates Task (i. 1994) was added as a variable reflecting whether people chronically ―stay in the field‖ or tend to ―leave the field‖. F or T). In two studies. Results of this study revealed that participants who had encountered an obstacle in the first task responded faster to global than to local targets than participants who had not encountered an obstacle. whether people process information in a more abstract. Using a measure of global versus local perception that involves geometrical figures (Gasper & Clore. Study 5) or manipulated experimentally (Study 6). high versus low volatility was either measured as a chronic trait (Marguc et al..
. . Obstacle manipulation used by Marguc. which may be due to the fact that these studies examined rather pure forms of obstacles that were close to the basic definition of interfering forces. Friedman & Förster. participants navigate the maze without an obstacle. Notably. Gerben A. very difficult to overcome. which. In the control condition. or otherwise threatening or aversive. These findings are compatible with Lewin's (1935) perspective on obstacles. 2005. van Kleef and Jens Förster Figure 2. The findings also go beyond Lewin's (1935) view in that an obstacle encountered in one task was shown to trigger a more global. Gestalt-like processing style that transfers onto tasks that are both independent of content and unrelated to the task in which the obstacle originally appeared. and motivation.g. Förster. on the one hand. and van Kleef (2009). Förster. on the other hand. the effects on perceptual and conceptual scope were all independent of mood. takes into account the importance of being willing to stay engaged and deal with the obstacle. perceived task difficulty. an obstacle appears while navigating the maze. Undoubtedly. obstacles that are subjectively insurmountable. presupposes that people are likely to have gathered ample experience throughout their lives in dealing with obstacles and might thereby instantly respond to obstacles by broadening their perspective and. In the obstacle condition. might elicit avoidance motivation or negative mood and thereby lead to local processing (e.110 Janina Marguc.
improved creative thinking (Friedman. 2004. Liberman & Kuschel. Liberman & Förster. or through priming. a search for similarities rather than dissimilarities (Förster. 1935. people might be less able to mentally step back or distance themselves from the situation at hand (see Lewin. Förster & Higgins. & Denzler. and better face recognition (Macrae & Lewis.. 2008). strongly aversive novelty triggered aversive arousal. Moreover. Gasper. 2008). Gasper & Clore. when the directional pull of the desired end-state is very intense. 2005. Thus. higher acceptance of unconventional art (Schimmel & Förster. What do these findings mean? Implications for Unrelated Tasks Because global processing is associated with a diverse set of outcome variables. Whereas (slightly aversive) novel events enhanced global processing. it might be that when obstacles elicit global processing (see Marguc et al. This effect was mainly found when people were chronically. If this were the case. 2006. the results that have emerged so far suggest that at least mild forms of obstacles can prompt people to adopt a more global. Obstacles could also lead people to think of a more creative Christmas menu. inclined to become very engaged and follow through with what they do.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 111 Friedman. 2002). Özelsel.. Research on the aforementioned novelty categorization theory shows that this is the case for novelty.. obstacles could increase the likelihood that a person will include John Cage's piece 4′33″ (a piece where no tone is played for four minutes and thirty-three seconds) into the category of music or recognize a celebrity disguised with a baseball cap and sunglasses jogging down the street. 2003). 2009). 2009). 2002). including assimilation rather than contrast in social judgments (Förster. being motivated to stay on track and deal with an obstacle plays an important role for how obstacles affect cognition. Although research on the basic cognitive effects of obstacles is still in its beginnings. et al. leading to local processing (Förster et al. such as when an important personal goal is at stake. estimate their own consumption of . encompassing processing style that facilitates seeing the ―big picture‖ and allows them to integrate seemingly unconnected pieces of information in tasks that are independent of content and unrelated to the task in which the obstacle originally appeared. but not if they were inclined to disengage and switch to alternative activities prematurely. Gestalt-like way of processing information. 2008) and thus be less likely to switch to a more integrative. 2009) these variables would be affected as well.
A more global. 2000. Chun.. Shah. by solely dwelling on the negative aspects of present reality or solely thinking about how nice it would be to attain the desired future without relating the present to the future. Such possibilities are currently being addressed. leads people to neglect the fact that they need to take active steps in order to move from where they are to where they want to be. Gerben A. 2001. select another means from a pre-existing set (see also Martin & Tesser. 2002). 2010). without considering how aspects of the present stand in the way of reaching a desired future. Generally. Oettingen. Oettingen. 1988. In line with this view. it might be that the first step towards accomplishing a means shift would be to broaden one's perspective and look beyond the means that is being obstructed. Friedman. Assuming that cognitive representations of goal systems are based on networks of associated goals and means (Kruglanski et al. In line with this reasoning. integrative processing style might also help people determine how exactly an obstacle stands in the way of accomplishing a task or reaching a goal and might help to keep both obstacle and goal in mind while searching for solutions. findings suggest that when people deliberate which goal to pursue. that is. et al. it seems difficult to determine which steps would be the most appropriate ones in a given situation. global processing might help people who are very focused on their goal to open up to information that might seem irrelevant to the goal itself.112 Janina Marguc. van Kleef and Jens Förster alcohol to be lower than it actually is when comparing themselves to Serena Williams. they tend to process information in a . 1989) or generate new ones. 2002). Oettingen et al. 2000. people may need to shift means (Kruglanski & Jaffe... Oettingen & Stephens. Finally.g. & Sleeth-Keppler. 2009) suggests that focusing only on some parts of a situation rather than its entirety. because is allows for a birds-eye perspective that facilitates perceiving the entire problem situation and might make it easier to find ways around an obstacle. Fishbach. Moreover. but contains cues that might help them deal with the obstacle or decide whether or not to persist and invest further effort into the current task or goal (see Förster et al. or perceive more similarities than dissimilarities between two TV shows. research by Oettingen and colleagues (e. Implications for Dealing with Life's Obstacles From Lewin's (1935) perspective. for example.. a global processing response to obstacles is adaptive. Kruglanski and colleagues propose that whenever a means to a goal is blocked or fails.. Kruglanski.
Notably. Wrosch et al. future research needs to investigate in more detail when global processing is an adaptive cognitive response to obstacles and when it is not. 2008). Carver & Scheier. To illustrate. detailed processing style (Förster. Unless this would lead the student to look for a more tranquil area or request the people to be quiet. Jostmann & Koole. obstacles and their effects were reviewed on the basis of a 2 x 3 typology that distinguishes between potentially surmountable and . all of them might already be occupied. integrative one (see Friedman & Förster. Furthermore. 1990. but might now help to overcome the obstacle or decide whether it is still feasible to persist in light of the new circumstances (see Carver. Friedman & Förster. if doing so would induce a more local processing style that is beneficial for analytic tasks. 2009. Thus. 2009. Gollwitzer. 1981. whereas once they have chosen a goal.. 2008). trying to ignore the sound and focus on the task at hand might actually help the student.. a global processing response to obstacles does not guarantee success. 1987. 1990a. Yet. 1996. see also Gable & Harmon-Jones. CONCLUSION In this chapter. 2008). Gollwitzer. because people still need to choose which might be the best way to overcome the obstacle and because some situations or tasks might naturally benefit from a more detailed and analytic processing style than from an encompassing. imagine a mathematics student who is trying to finish a homework assignment in the library. switching to a more global processing style might allow people to become more receptive again to information that was unimportant for reaching the goal before. 2007. When an obstacle hinders progress. because analytic tasks benefit more from a local. Wrosch et al. although the student might have found other quiet areas in the library. to fully understand the role of global versus local processing in dealing with life's obstacles and to develop strategies that will help people overcome those obstacles. they tend to process information in a more focused and selective manner that helps them filter out goal-irrelevant information (Fujita.Obstacles: Their Impact on Thinking and Beyond Thinking 113 relatively open-minded manner that allows them to take into account as much information as possible to make a good choice. 1998. & Oettingen. the quality of the assignment would be likely to suffer. That student might experience the noise of other people whispering as highly interfering with the task and thus respond with global processing. 2003). 1990b. 2003. Heckhausen & Gollwitzer.
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In: Psychology of Thinking ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 Editor: David A. Contreras, pp. 139-154 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 5
Terence Lovat
The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
Since the early 1990s, there has been a concentration of effort aimed at maximizing student achievement in school education and rectifying the debilitating effects of failure. In 1994, a Carnegie Corporation Taskforce on Student Achievement drew on new research in a variety of fields, including the emerging 'new neurosciences', to refute the narrow assumptions and findings of conventional educational research and to assert that effective learning requires a response that is as much about affect and social dynamics as about cognition. In so doing, it challenged the erstwhile dominant thinking about thinking and its ramifications for teaching, re-defining learning to incorporate into the notion of 'intellectual depth' matters of communicative competence, empathic character and self-reflection as being at least as significant to learning as the indisputably important technical skills of recall, description, analysis and synthesis. The chapter will explore the research findings of the new neurosciences and the implications of their new thinking about thinking for effective teaching. It will draw especially on a range of research insights into effective teaching based on application of these findings, including drawing on data from a number of research projects from the
Terence Lovat Australian Government's Quality Outcomes and Values Education Programs.
Such was the sense of certainty that accompanied earlier research insights into thinking that its so-called ‗empirical findings' became virtual canons that were beyond critique, much less refutation. Hence, the findings of Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson, Parsons, Skinner and co. provided the indisputable foundations of thinking about thinking for teaching and teacher education. In fact, in retrospect, their findings were essentially linear, deterministic and based on surprisingly more limited evidence than the apparent surety of their postulations would lead one to expect. In the end, they have constrained teaching and reduced the power that should be associated with the role of the teacher far more than tends yet to be acknowledged. Like so much of the social science paradigm that stemmed from the heyday of nineteenth-century science, these theories have failed to inform teaching in the way that it requires (Jorg et al., 2007; Lovat, 2008). Some of the older thinking about thinking was expressed in linear stage development theory, be it of maturation, socialization, motivation or learning itself. Especially in educational psychology, these are the theories that have tended to dominate much of what is referred to in teaching and teacher education as the ‗foundations'. Interestingly, in spite of serious counterresearch by the likes of Gilligan (1982), Hoffman (2000) and Zahn-Waxler et al. (1979), Freudian, Piagetian and Kohlbergian research seems often to have been presented in fairly uncritical fashion as offering the firmest and most empirically sound bases for thinking about intellectual development. The reason for this is that arguably these latter ‗giants' of psychosocial understanding relied heavily on a combination of observation and rationalistic analysis. Their slightly lesser known critics, on the other hand, rested much of their critique on recourse to the affective. Gilligan, for instance, saw Kohlberg's thesis of moral development as being biased in favour of the male disposition towards rules and regulations as holding sway over considerations of caring and relationships, considerations more germane to women. In similar vein, Hoffman regarded morality as being principally emotionally rather than cognitively driven, so calling into question classical Freudian theory, and Zahn-Waxler and co. identified pro-social behaviour in children much earlier than proposed by Piaget because they concentrated on expressions of care and
or else to form them into bands of neo-Marxist rebels who will forge their own proletarian revolution. much of the determinism of Talcott Parsons (‗Families are the factories of life') and Christopher Jencks (‗What comes out of the school is what went in') seems . as an aside. We will return to examine them in greater detail but. While updated a little. Psychology that led to disjoined cognition theory and sociology that led to deterministic theory of socialization became the bedfellows of the foundations of teaching and teacher education. once impaired cognition and (almost inevitably) the allied disadvantages wrought by heritage and socioeconomic environment had been demonstrated.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 123 empathy. that the narrow instrumentalism to be found in the classical cognitive theories was matched by similar paradigms of thought in socialization theories. The result was an inevitable pessimism about the capacity of teaching and schooling to impact on an individual's learning potential. for now. The role of affect is being seen increasingly as more than an adjunct or added extra in explaining all manner of human development. It is being seen as an indispensable component of all that we have understood by the cognitive and rational. The above critiques of classical developmental theory were early warning signs of the revolutionary new insights about human functioning being uncovered by the new neurosciences. When one peruses the average sociology text designed to support the foundations of teaching and teacher education. It is worth noting. These courses tend to give the impression that educational sociology is a fairly remote discipline that has little power other than to analyse and speculate about social phenomena as they pertain to schools. Neither of these options really offer future teachers much hope that they will be able to make a real difference to the lives of their students. disadvantage or disability. finally giving the impression that the real choices are either to become reconciled to the fact that the students in one's care as a teacher will be determined by forces beyond their own or the teacher's control. ‗Cognition and affect' is a nexus and this insight has profound implications for teaching and school education. one is struck by the dominance of paradigms of thought that juxtapose deterministic and conflict (or neoMarxist) theoretical positions. rather than the demonstrations of cognitive advance that lay at the centre of Piagetian theory. suffice it to say that they are turning on their head notions that human development can be ascertained and understood purely with reference to the cognitive domain and rationalistic assumptions. least of all for those who need intervention most because of their heritage. perhaps softened by some Weberian moderation around the thinking of symbolic interactionism.
its constitution and functioning. feelings and social competence as not being separate so much as inherently part of all rational processes. do not function as rational. with the only alternative for a teacher who wants to make a difference being in resistance if not demolition of the hegemony. As an example. reading. in contrast with many of their older forebears. 2007) main interest is in the neurobiology of the mind. 1999). 2003. rational and progressive. And yet those of us in the field of education often fail to consider that the high-level cognitive skills taught in schools. In other words. emotional and social developmental factors are inherent in cognitive development. This was partly evidence emanating from the new neurosciences (Bruer. including that of learning itself. (Immordino-Yang & Damasio. especially concerning those systems that underpin memory and emotion. somehow influenced by but detached from emotion and the body. In turn. His work is associated with the notion of the cognition/affect/sociality nexus. NEW THINKING ABOUT THINKING IN TEACHING The potential for new thinking about thinking to replace the older foundations of teaching was what first impelled the revolutionary thought behind the Carnegie Report (1996). decision making. Antonio Damasio's (cf. After all. The scientific rigor of his experimental work. Damasio. if Damasio is correct. regardless of emotional and social development. including reasoning. and hence a range of related issues around cognition. 2007). are turned on their heads: Modern biology reveals humans to be fundamentally emotional and social creatures. The new neurosciences represent a set of research findings concerned with the brain. 2007: 3) Furthermore. the taxonomic notion that cognitive learning outcomes can somehow be separated from affective ones comes to be seen as a faulty . then those dominant conceptions of thinking that regard development as linear. is causing educationists to re-think many of their assumptions about a range of developmental issues. Immordino-Yang & Damasio. a way of conceiving of emotion. establish contingent relationships between cognition. disembodied systems. together with the strength of his findings and those of others (Rose & Strangman. and processes related to language.124 Terence Lovat still to be essentially in place. and mathematics. thinking and learning. the new neurosciences. affect and sociality.
For teaching and teacher education. appears to be naïve in the extreme. mind. psychometrician. with all the impelling pessimism about the capacity of teaching to make any real difference to what is already set in stone. Teaching that is sensitive to and addresses these realities has been shown to be more effective in drawing in such a clientele as well as making learning more engaging for all. Like Goleman. After all. 2006). then the potential to engage the interests and attention of those not easily engaged is enhanced. rather than merely a raw and separated cognitive ability or the lack thereof. in his case. IQ in fact denotes a highly contextualized phenomenon. Like Goleman. Indeed. Goleman has demonstrated in his work that social intelligence (SQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) are at least as vital to sound cognition as the traditional notion of IQ. 2001.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 125 assumption. disadvantage and disability that serve to block the learning interest of many students in school. and so unable to be impacted on by teaching intervention. the implication is that IQ. Sternberg's training would naturally have led to acceptance of the more linear cognitive notions of thinking . without reference to the physical and emotional ambience within which the learning is occurring nor moreover to the levels of confidence and self-esteem of the learner. the effects normally associated with IQ are not merely the expressions of genetic and environmental advantage or disadvantage. and hence social and emotional learning. the idea that literacy training can be achieved through mastery instruction and testing. it is the many issues of emotionality and sociality related to heritage. As such. Another theorist whose work impinges on new thinking about thinking is Daniel Goleman (1996. Robert Sternberg (2007) is a trained psychologist and. a notion that has been prominent in teaching. free-standing and determinative of student achievement as an isolated factor. a trained cognitive theorist who has become associated most with notions of social and emotional intelligence. including emotion and sociality. is not fixed. rather than just the allegedly separable cognitive measures. the evidence would suggest that they are in fact the key to the demonstration of effects normally associated with IQ. Damasio's work implies optimism that. at least in part dependent on other factors about one's current state of wellbeing of body. These claims will be confirmed with evidence below. emotion and sociality. They are in fact measures that can be affected and effected by well-informed and well-constructed teaching that is aimed at all the developmental measures. if teaching is directed to all the developmental measures. For example. Damasio's work implies a refutation of the pessimism that the old foundations unwittingly imposed on the potential of teaching to break through barriers of disadvantage. Above all.
he is heavily critical of traditional forms of psychology for their emphasis on the negative. Habermas posits that the deepest forms of knowing actually rest on effective social and moral citizenship. so impelling thinking that leads to depression and feelings of hopelessness. it is not merely psychology that deals with the phenomenon of thinking nor psychology alone that has impacted so negatively on the foundational thinking of teaching. For him. Known best for his work on positive psychology. he develops a theory of social engagement and action that justifies optimism on the part of any social agency. by dint of inference. analytic. the helpless and the pessimistic. involving a fuller range of human capabilities than is understood by the more limited and rationalistic notions of intelligence. Habermasian thought has potential to deepen profoundly not only our understanding of the full human developmental capacities that are implied in effective teaching but. The work of Jurgen Habermas (1972. Goleman and Sternberg would seem to owe much to the foundational thought of Howard Gardner (1983) around multiple intelligences. furthermore. psychology must become more conscious of and adept at effecting positive thinking in order to engender feelings of optimism and control. Sternberg however is also a convert to seeing cognition as part of a broader mix of human factors. 1987. would seem to be central to new thinking about thinking in the modern world. In other words. praxis) on people reaching the most sophisticated levels of knowing. Sternberg refers to different forms of intelligence. In his case. . is one who has taken to the older paradigms of thought in his own discipline with a particularly sharp critique. rather than on the allegedly separable cognition. Habermas's theory of knowing fits well with the neuroscientists' work on multiple intelligences and. in contrast with more dated foundational thinking about knowing as mainly a cognitive function. In recent times. including teaching. Damasio. namely. Habermas rests his notion of effective social action (namely. he was not only critical of the traditional IQ test but actually devised a more sophisticated intelligence test based on his broader theory of intelligences. to stretch our conceptions of the role of the teacher as well. he has done much work in applying his theory of positive psychology to schools and education where he clearly sees the negative impact of earlier foundational thinking.126 Terence Lovat identified above. 1974. 1990). Martin Seligman (2004). also a psychologist. to be able to make a difference as long as it goes about its central business of knowing in a comprehensive and holistic way. 1984. synthetic and practical. As illustrated above. philosopher and sociologist.
For Aristotle (1985). one should take any opportunity of human engagement to make a difference for the good. This was that care and trust were the indispensable features of any authentic human relationship and furthermore that this authenticity rested on practical action. Be it with reference to the heritage of classical Islam. at one and the same time. to be introduced to Habermas is to be introduced to Aristotle and then it is a case of where to stop as the potential to uncover all of the foundations of thought relevant to an agency of human service. become available to the teacher educator. synderesis was the inborn disposition given by God to the human being that allowed for authenticity in any relationship to take the form of practical action for good. he is a modern theorist whose work speaks to his time but also rests on the scholarship of the ages.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 127 The genius of Habermas as a foundational character in thinking about the kind of thinking needed in effective teaching is that he is. a modern and an ancient character. cared about one's fellows and knew how to translate this knowing and feeling into practical action. impelled by one's belief in an active and caring God. whose thinking was inspired by both Aristotle and alGhazzali. That is. In Christendom. the medieval Muslim Sufi who relied so much on Aristotelian thought. Thomas Aquinas (1936). Habermas as a foundation can lead back as far as we might wish to go in introducing students to the heritage of their thought but also in countering any of the pessimism of the ‗old' social sciences that might persist in the thinking of the systems into which they will be employed. IMPLICATIONS OF THE NEW THINKING ABOUT THINKING FOR TEACHING The notion that thinking is not a separable cognitive function but one that is enmeshed in a matrix of emotional and social development is well captured . For Abu al-Ghazzali (1991). So. knowing in this way led to the most complete forms of human happiness. courses could be constructed for the student teacher not only for induction into one's own civilization but with crucial learning points for the future teacher about the true fundamentals of the trade. there was one fundamental belief above all others. whereby one knew what was right. So. for instance. like teaching. That is. His balanced appraisal of the most sophisticated knowing being one that relies as much on human communication and knowing of self as it does on empirical facts and figures is reminiscent of the moderation of Aristotelian thought about human virtue. Christendom or more recent forces.
constructing educational regimes that focus exclusively or even overly on a denuded conception of cognition. It is the portion of society for whom formal education. social. moral and spiritual. public or religious. was primarily formed in the nineteenth-century. of all the teacher qualities nominated by those students who achieve best at school. After all. While the more predictable measures of demonstrable content knowledge and stimulating teaching styles were as evident as one would expect. 128 . said. Ken Rowe (2004) noted that.' It is a notion that much recent educational research has confirmed. It is this portion of the population that has the greater need around matters of self-esteem. the achievers could. it was their beliefs about care and trust in relation to the teacher that were paramount. and student and student. confidence and. who have especial needs around holistic education. This is fairly much what the Carnegie Report. often. emotional. they rarely stood alone and appeared to be relative to the greater indicator of student confidence that the teacher was trustworthy and had the student's best interests at heart. cited above. For example. emotional and moral development. without equal and integrated attention to all the developmental measures including emotional. are doomed to fail those who need them most. as well as intellectual. social. receive their tuition outside of formal education. caring and trusting learning ambience where the relationship(s) between teacher and student. social. (2004) concluded that it was difficult to pick likely student effects from simple observation of teacher practice. is not drawn in to a positive. the achievers will probably achieve however badly we do our formal education. encouraging. Far from the popular commentary that continues to claim that the academic needs of this portion of the population (ie. Bill Louden et al. If absolutely necessary. Hence. moral and spiritual. for the most part. the foundations identified above would help to explain why all the mastery instruction and testing in the world will achieve nothing if the whole person.Terence Lovat by Haim Ginott (1969) in his epithetic warning to teachers: ‗in order to think well. One might caricature the findings of this study in suggesting that lying behind the relationship between practitioner and student was the far more powerful relationship between elder and younger person. the ‗failing tail') would be served by more mastery instruction and further testing around the ‗basics' of learning. Similarly. are the priority. a child must feel well.
guided by the National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools (DEST. The Declaration also showed sensitivity to contemporary concerns around human development in specifying that ―… schooling provides a foundation for young Australians' . impacted on 316 Australian schools in 51 clusters.000 school students and over 10. The largest project. including being explicit about the comprehensive role for schools in matters of citizenship and the specific role of values formation as a core function of effective schooling. parents and other stakeholders and resources. the Values Education Good Practice Schools Project (VEGPSP). The National Framework has driven a number of important projects related to best practice in schools. The Adelaide Declaration represented a marked shift in educational philosophy as it had progressed in the later part of the twentieth century. The guiding principles were explicitly connected with the charter for schooling explicated by Federal.7 million dollars was allocated to build and develop a national values education program. The instrumentalist and reductionist tendencies of much educational research of the second half of the twentieth century had led to a range of late twentieth century reports that had tended to narrow the goals of schooling to those of job and career preparation.000 teachers. VEGPSP involved over 100. the research and practice nexus of the project was assured. with many of the clusters consisting of schools from across the sectors of public. with similarly narrow perspectives on the kinds of competencies and outcomes required of effective learning. While cluster projects varied.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 129 THE NATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR VALUES EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIAN SCHOOLS The Australian Government's commitment to quality outcomes and values education has provided the opportunity for the theses and related evidence outlined above to be tested in multiple settings and using an array of educational criteria. they were all guided by the conceptual basis of the National Framework. 29. as well as its guiding principles and core values. Throughout its two stages. Between these two functions. The schools were drawn from all sectors across all States and Territories. The Adelaide Declaration recovered much of the far richer vision of the nineteenth century educational foundation charters. teacher education. In the 2004 Federal Budget. At its core were the 51 Cluster Leaders (senior teachers) and their University Associates (academic mentors). the so called ‗Adelaide Declaration'.1999). private and religious. 2005). State and Territory Ministers in the National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty First Century (MCEETYA.
2006) spoke richly of an array of learning features that were enhanced by the various values education projects. Herein. emotional. self-esteem. These features included: quality teaching and pedagogy. 2008) offered ample evidence that a well-constructed values education has potential for profound effect on the whole educational system. It spoke of valuesbased education as a way of addressing some of the social. greater student responsibility over local. enhanced intellectual depth in both teacher and student understanding. parental and community connections. classroom climate. teacher practice. 2009) that sees the comprehensive learning implied by the Carnegie definition (intellectual depth. it asserted that values education is essential to effective schooling. student attitudes and behaviours. affirmative classroom climate and positive relationships implied in the nexus between effective teaching and values education. physical. 2005) built on the broad perspectives offered by the Adelaide Declaration in making the specific link with values education as a means of facilitating its lofty and comprehensive goals for schooling. holism in the approach to student development. increased pedagogical approaches that match those espoused by quality teaching. ethical judgment and social responsibility. The Stage 1 Report (DEST. integral to all key learning areas.‖ (MCEETYA. crucial to wellbeing and reflective of good practice pedagogy.130 Terence Lovat intellectual. spiritual and aesthetic developmental issues that schooling tends to neglect. student willingness to become more involved in complex thinking across the curriculum. was the vital link with effective teaching. spiritual and aesthetic development. it stated that such education has potential to strengthen students' optimism. self-reflection) more readily and easily achieved in the learning ambience created by values education. 1999) The National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools (DEST. greater levels of student engagement in the mainstream curriculum. empathic character. national . as well as student attention to academic work. The Framework rationale made explicit reference to the language of quality teaching as both supporting and being enhanced by values education. moral. Specifically. sense of personal fulfilment. DEEWR. social. The VEGPSP Stage 1 and 2 Final Reports (DEST. Much of the language of the testimony provided by teachers and university associates in the reports captured well the intersection between matters relating to enhanced academic attainment and the depth of thinking. quality relationships at all levels. 2006. values being both modelled and enunciated in the curriculum. the ‗double helix effect' (Lovat & Toomey. Furthermore. affecting such variables as school ethos. moral. communicative competence.
New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 131 and international issues.185) . calmer and more cohesive classroom atmosphere. demonstrate improved self-control. provision of the opportunity to explore from within and reflect on identity and purpose. connectedness. (p. connectedness. student learning was improving. Other evidence of this change in the social environment of the school is the significant rise in parental satisfaction. greater student awareness of the need to be tolerant of others. the ‗ripple' or ‗trickle-down' effect that values education has across the school. resilience and a sense of self. 41) Everyone in the classroom exchange. evidenced in vastly reduced incidents and discipline reports and suspensions. (p. and. improved levels of happiness for staff and students. became more conscious of trying to be respectful. share with teachers a common language of expectations of values. evident transference in all aspects of classroom teaching and in the students' ability to deal with conflict in the playground. However. improved students' sense of belonging. valuing the need to create interpersonal intimacy and trust in the classroom. Beyond these general sentiments. changed approaches to curriculum and pedagogy. trying to do their best. teachers and parents. and school was calmer. relate better to each other and. impelling restorative pedagogical practices. and trying to give others a fair go. substantial testimony included the following: … the documented behaviour of students has improved significantly. enhanced students' ability to articulate feelings and emotions. impelling the emotional development of the students. greater student resilience and social skills. improved relationships of care and trust. changing the ways teachers related with students. teachers and students alike. We also found that by creating an environment where these values were constantly shaping classroom activity. resilience and sense of self. 120) … has provided many benefits to the students as far as a coordinated curriculum and learning experiences that have offered a sense of belonging. measurable decline in the incidence of inappropriate behaviour. (p. Children are ‗well behaved'. development of higher order thinking skills. The school is … a ‗much better place to be'. reflective change in the participant teachers and schools. teachers and students were happier. creation of a comfort zone for discussing emotions. improving engagement and commitment of pupils. there has been none more significant than the reflective change that has occurred in the participant teachers and schools. most significantly. to accept responsibility for their own actions and their ability to communicate.
there was a growing indication that the vast array of anecdotal data . In Stage 2. calmer classrooms with students going about their work purposefully. As illustrated in the quote above. the explicitness of the pedagogy around values being seen to be determinative. This resonates with an interesting but relatively new proposition in education: when students have opportunities to give to their community. Other reports included improved student attendance. and more respectful behaviour between students. (p. and commitment to their own values and beliefs. 41) Thus.132 Terence Lovat Similarly. the VEGPSP Stage 1 and 2 Reports illustrate the dynamics of the reciprocal interaction between values education and effective teaching. fewer reportable behaviour incidents and the observation that students appeared happier. it changes their attitude to the learning tasks. 27) We observed that those teachers whose classrooms were characterized by an inclusive culture of caring and respect and where character development played an important and quite often explicit role in the daily learning of students were those same teachers who also demonstrated a high level of personal development. we have ample demonstration that a wellconstructed. These included the role of the teacher being seen to be even more central than had previously been recognized. clear and intentional values education program being integrated into the fabric of the school has the potential to bring transformational changes in the ethos of the school and the learning environment of the classroom. and the role of an experiential or ‗service learning' component coming to be seen as a particularly powerful agency in effective teaching. by the time the Stage 2 Report was compiled. teachers report that doing something with and for the community increases the students' engagement in their learning. the Stage 2 Report (DEEWR. self-awareness of. 39) Uniformly. Teachers and students also reported improved relationships between the two groups. to something beyond themselves. (p. beneficial effects on student motivation to learn and more than a hint of improved academic achievement. (p. The following quotes are indicative of these features: … focused classroom activity. 2008) uncovered the vital link between a values approach to pedagogy and the ambience it created with the holistic effects of this approach on student behaviour and performance. extending to student and teacher behaviour. Courtesy of their evidence. a number of features of the broad values approach were clarified.
8). there was interest in all of the claims being made around student effects. teachers and parents that spoke of a ―… ‗calmer' environment with less conflict and with a reduction in the number of referrals to the planning room‖ (Lovat et al. albeit lacking formal instrumentation and measurement. namely those around student academic improvement. 2006. 2009). and students being more kind and considerate … the main impact of values education on student-teacher relationships appeared to be a greater understanding of each other's perspective or at least to . has potential to impact on a range of measures normally associated in other research programs with student achievement and effective schooling. offers of help. These latter were brought to bear in the Project to Test and Measure the Impact of Values Education on Student Effects and School Ambience (Lovat et al. the authors believed there was sufficient tested evidence to support the claim that a well crafted values education program. with a dedicated focus on arguably the most contentious set of claims. Across the three years in which the project rolled out. Of student-teacher relationships. open friendliness. better manners. These measures included. evidence was elicited from students. student and teacher wellbeing. the nature of the evidence was shifting from being purely qualitative to having a quantitative edge.. In the end. and student academic diligence. as well as the particularly beneficial effects of a service learning component as part of this mix. student-teacher relationships. in turn. 2009. This led directly to the Project to Test and Measure the Impact of Values Education on Student Effects and School Ambience. DEEWR. school ambience. p. there was evidence of a ― … rise in levels of politeness and courtesy. Granted the high stakes around this claim. the study was characterized by intensive quantitative as well as qualitative methods of analysis. functioning as best practice pedagogy and therefore following the criteria of quality teaching and eliciting the goals implied by service learning. 2008).New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 133 and teacher testimony were testable in some way.. has been the subject of much anecdotal evidence and strong teacher assertion in the two stages of VEGPSP (DEST. the thesis about the inextricable link between values education and quality teaching. Concerning the matter of school ambience. In this study. TESTING AND MEASURING THE IMPACT OF VALUES EDUCATION As asserted above.
there was substantial quantitative and qualitative evidence suggesting that there were observable and measurable improvements in students' academic diligence. 10). a greater capacity to work independently as well as more cooperatively. About student wellbeing. the case studies suggest that any relationship between values education programs and the quality of student attitude. students become more academically diligent. Rather. student and teacher wellbeing improves and parents are more engaged with the school … Moreover. self-regulation and enhanced self-esteem‖ (p. a greater capacity for self-appraisal. including increased attentiveness. 6) 134 The mainly quantitative data that underpin the claims above were supplemented in the study by a number of case studies drawn from schools. 6). values education. the report spoke at length about students ―… putting greater effort into their work and ‗striving for quality'. 2009. the quality of interpersonal relationships and. a greater self-awareness. Here. it seems clear that the fit between values education and quality teaching is better described not as one having an impact on the other. when taken together as a collective case study. more peaceful ambience. (Lovat et al. interpersonal relations and the like is much more complicated than simply being the case that values education in and of itself produces such quality teaching effects. the strongest inference that can be drawn from the case studies. from across the country and across the sectors. That is. academic diligence. the report provided evidence of ― … the creation of a safer and more caring school community. student and teacher wellbeing.Terence Lovat have a greater respect for each other's position‖ (p.. ‗striving to achieve their best' and even ‗striving for perfection'. . is that as schools give increasing curriculum and teaching emphasis to values education. p. parent involvement. school ambience and coherence. the school assumes a calmer. but rather as the two of them being in harmony. Arguably. the most surprising and unexpected evidence was that concerned with the factor of student academic diligence. 9). The aspect of students' taking greater pride in their work and producing quality outcomes for their own pleasure was also mentioned by both teachers and parents‖ (p. In summarizing the effects of values education noted among the case studies. better student-teacher relationships are forged. greater care and effort being invested in schoolwork and students assuming more responsibility for their own learning as well as classroom ‗chores'. the report says: Overwhelmingly. The report continues: Thus. primary and high schools.
Under the weight of a combination of forces. . moral. 12) 135 CONCLUSION Much of the thinking about thinking that has dominated educational theory and assumptions about effective teaching is being reassessed in our own time. A. 1991. being reliant on all other aspects of development. the more the students seem to comply with their school work demands. showing the inextricability of foundational theory that sets teachers up to see thinking as a contextual feature of human development. 2009. The closer the attention a school gives to explicitly teaching a set of agreed values. emotional..New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching up to a point. These forces include new neuroscientific evidence that renders much twentieth-century thinking about thinking. the more conducive and coherent a place the school becomes and the better the staff and students feel. (Lovat et al. had to accept much of the blame for student failure. including social. They include research around effective pedagogy that has shown how much more holistic an enterprise it is than can be conveyed merely by concern for content and technique. spiritual and aesthetic. inadequate to the task of learning in the twenty-first century. rather than heredity and disadvantage. REFERENCES Al-Ghazzali. Allied to this is the force of new evidence about effective teaching. New Delhi: Islamic Book Services. Such evidence is in abundance in the research projects emanating from the Australian Government's Quality Outcomes and Values Education programs. The book of religious learnings. p. many of the older paradigms of learning that resulted from those earlier assumptions are being seen to be wanting. parental participation harmonize in some way. This evidence has sealed the fate of the older narrow and denuded foundations that cast thinking in purely cognitive terms. They include also the evidence brought forward by the Carnegie Task Force that access and equity had been poorly served by these theories and practices and that schools and educational systems. and allied pedagogical practices.
Between parent and child. joy. (Executive summary) New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. (1999). San Francisco: Jossey Bass. New York: Bantam Books. (2003). Ma. T. L. Carnegie Corporation. Goleman. Gilligan. Summa theologica. Habermas. Years of promise: A comprehensive learning strategy for America's children. (1985). J (1984). The emotionally intelligent workplace. Goleman. Theory of communicative action. Gardner. sorrow and the feeling brain.: Harvard University Press. London: Staples. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.(tr. (1996). New York: Bantam Books. Finding Spinoza. Damasio. (1972). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. (1996). 80(9). H. (1983). McCarthy) (vol. At the heart of what we do: Values education at the centre of schooling. (2006). (1936). NY: Harcourt. Values education study. Phi Delta Kappan. J. Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. DEST. (1969). T. (tr. Bruer. (2008). September 2006. (2001). D. (tr. 648-657. T. DEST (2003). DEEWR. (tr. Shapcote) London: Burns & Oates. J. (1982). Report of the Values Education Good Practice Schools Project – Stage 1: Final Report. I) Boston: Beacon Press. J. 136 . Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation. DEST (2005) National framework for Values Education in Australian schools Canberra: Australian Government Department of Education. . (tr. H. Habermas. D. J. In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. In search of . brain-based education. A. J. (2006) Implementing the National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools. Knowledge and human interests. (1974). Ginott. Nicomachean ethics. Science and Training. Report of the Values Education Good Practice Schools Project – Stage 2. C. Viertal) London: Heinemann. Habermas. D. Theory and practice. New York: Basic Books. (Executive summary final report) Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.Terence Lovat Aquinas. Goleman. Aristotle. Irwin) Indianapolis: Hackett. Cambridge. Social intelligence: The new science of social relationships. Shapiro) London: Heinemann. .
(2004). Rivaland. Rohl. We feel. (2007). K. Lovat... C. G. Netherlands: Springer. Dordrecht. & Damasio. (tr. therefore we learn: The relevance of affect and social neuroscience to education. B.. Brown. R. Child rearing and children's prosocial initiations towards victims of distress. J. Jorg. 149. & Nickmans. Child Development.. Louden. (2004).. Canberra: Ministerial Council on Education. Zahn-Waxler. Seligman. M. T.. MASS: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press... Cairney. R. K. Wisdom. R. Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. R. M. 4-14. II) Boston: Beacon Press. Barrat-Hugh.. Employment. & Toomey. (2007). J. 3-10. Towards a new. and Education. (1990). M. 50.J. M. J (1987). Canberra: DEEWR. H. T. Educare News. Habermas. MCEETYA (1999). R. Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) by The University of Newcastle. complexity science of learning and instruction. (2007). Science and Training. (2004)... 1. 145156. (2008). . In good hands? The importance of teacher quality. Final Report for the Australian Government Department of Education. K. Moral consciousness and communicative action..New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 137 Habermas. Meiers. complexity science of learning and education (Invited Response). New York: Free Press. Brain. (1979). and creativity synthesized. (tr. Lovat. In teachers' hands: Effective literacy teaching practices in the early years of schooling. 79-81. intelligence. Mind.J. Educational Research Review. 3. Lovat. 319-330. Davis. Radke-Yarrow. J. C. Rowe. J. T. T. (2009). Towards a new. W. C.. McCarthy) (vol. Project to test and measure the impact of values education on student effects and school ambience. & King. Theory of communicative action. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Education. Training and Youth affairs. T. C. Educational Research Review. Lenhardt & S. & Rowe. Dally. A. 2. House. M.) (2009) Values education and quality teaching: The double helix effect.. T. & Clement. Nicholson) Cambridge. Adelaide declaration on national goals for schooling in the twenty-first century. (Eds. H. Sternberg. N. Elderfield.A. New York: Cambridge University Press. Toomey. Immordino-Yang.
Relational thinking can help to de-construct the taken-for-granted ―truths‖ and fundamental contradictions in current thinking as it provides a new logic that sees consumers not as targets. . Porto. Inc. The shift from transactional to relational thinking opens new opportunities. skills. this transactional logic is incapable of responding to the complexities of contemporary multi-option. Contreras. Chapter 6 NEW THINKING FOR SOCIAL MARKETING Susana Marques ISAG-Instituto Superior de Administração e Gestão. 139-154 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers. however. pp. Portugal ABSTRACT This article establishes that a new way of thinking is needed in the field of social marketing and that change demands a shift from transactional to relational thinking. new challenges and has deep implications for the theory and practice of social marketing. in which there will be no universal agreement on a single way of life. competencies and organizational structures. but as the main drivers of the value creation process. It is a complex shift that requires fundamental changes not only in values and assumptions but also on resources.In: Psychology of Thinking ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 Editor: David A. Social marketing is still dominated by prescriptive interventions. pluralist societies.
the modern idea of value pluralism (Berlin.140 Terence Lovat INTRODUCTION Relationship marketing provides a completely new way of thinking about social problems. it is difficult to transfer relationship marketing to real-life social marketing programmes. of choice between alternative sets of meanings. and the necessity. Pluralism forces people to choose and. who insisted upon the irreducible plurality of value spheres. This article discusses the challenges and the implications involved and. supposedly. beginning at the level of material consumption and ending at conceptions of the good life. 1969) restates the work of Max Weber and Friedrich Nietzsche. However. within an open market logic. modern societies are multi-option societies. As explained by Woodall (2003). This article establishes that relational thinking can help social marketing respond to the complexities of contemporary pluralist societies. and incommensurable with one another. Value pluralism is contrasted with all forms of monism which supports the expectation that all genuine moral values must somehow fit together into a single harmonious system. incomparable. It is the idea that there are several values which may be equally correct and fundamental and yet in conflict with each other. most people feel insecure in a confusing world full of possibilities. and which are part of a dynamic system with inherent contradictions. Luckmann emphasizes. despite the theoretical potential. Pluralism has created . and it can change a field that is still dominated by prescriptive interventions and behaviour change objectives (Hastings. However. a number of suppliers competes for the preference of a public that is confronted with the possibility. As Luckmann (1996) explains. guide selection of behaviour. 2003). equally reasonable goods and moral ends which are incompatible. From such a system. in particular. it helps to uncover fundamental contradictions in current thinking. there would be a single correct answer to any moral problem. VALUE PLURALISM Values are conceived of as guiding principles in life which transcend specific situations. emphasizes that social marketing needs reflexive and self-critical thinking in order to de-construct its prevailing paradigm and start re-constructing an alternative. Value pluralism is based on the idea that there is a plurality of equally final. may change over time.
dialogue is not only about deepening understanding but also about making positive changes in the world (Bakhtin. developing and nurturing a relationship climate that will promote a dialogue between a firm and its customers which aims to imbue an understanding. to function as true mediating and intermediary institutions. there will be no universal agreement on a single. Social marketers have to re-question their assumptions about what customers want. values and world views. self-help literature.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 141 new institutions for the production and communication of meaning—different sorts of psychotherapy. Tzokas and Saren (1997) see relationship marketing as ―the process of planning. however. The fundamental idea is that dialogue moves us beyond the individual to a focus on the larger social and cultural context in which we live: it works to bring integration and wholeness perspective into the day-to-day decisions we make. Such an approach allows relationship marketers to expand the bases of consumer satisfaction by addressing consumers´ attributions to value. they must see the individual as an active producer of meaning. professional counselling. This has serious implications for social marketing and demands critical thinking. Because these assumptions have an enormous impact in action. need and value. and their interdependence. 1981). These institutions mediate between the individual and the patterns of society. In a world of moral conflict. Dialogue means fostering openness (Senge. special courses in adult education. several areas of social work and the mass media. re-define their role in society and try to respond to relevant questions: How can they contribute to the meaning budget of society? How can they help individuals to overcome disorientation without contributing to alienation? How can they address the balance between the best and the suitable values? Relationship marketing can potentially help social marketing to reposition itself in the value pluralist society. disagreement and dilemma. confidence and respect of each others´ capabilities and concerns when enacting their role in the market place and in society‖ (p. 1990) which will imply questioning the deeply ingrained assumptions that influence how marketers understand the world. Gummesson (1994) calls to view relationships as they develop in the market place and society. Similarly. as a whole. . perfect way of life. 106).
g. 2000. interactions and networks. He sees relationship marketing as a marketing approach that is based on relationships. The role and contribution of the so-called Nordic School of Services and of Nordic authors to relational thinking is particularly relevant (e. for example. Nordic school sees also marketing more as a marketing-oriented management than as a separate function. 1996. Relationship marketing requires much more than that. The really significant contribution of relationship marketing is the emphasis that it puts on the process of value creation through collaboration and cooperation and in that sense. 2002). 2000). many believe that it has the potential to be the foundation for a theory of marketing (Grönroos. but these alone are not sufficient. Gummesson. 1997. An integral part of services marketing is the fact that the consumption of a service is a process consumption rather than outcome consumption. and this demands a close relationship between the service provider and the customer. the shift in the marketing paradigm means that the 4P´s (traditional marketing mix) develop their role from being founding parameters of marketing to one of being contributing parameters to relationships. 1994b. Grönroos. as they can only be used as vehicles for thought. In the literature there is no agreement on a definition of relationship marketing. networks and interaction. As Aijo (1996) explains. no definition of relationship marketing will ever be precise and all inclusive. as perspectives or as indications of essential properties of a phenomenon.142 Terence Lovat RELATIONAL THINKING AND RELATIONSHIP MARKETING Morgan and Hunt (1994) posit that relationship marketing (RM) refers to all marketing activities directed toward establishing. the Nordic school had developed into a RM school of thought. 1998. In the 1990s. It´s a new . 1997. 1994a. They helped to extend the notion of relationship marketing from service marketing to general marketing to the point of defining RM as the new marketing paradigm. 1994b. As he explains. developing and maintaining successful relationships. Different authors have different perspectives. however. Hence. 1994a. 1994. the development of customer databases and direct marketing techniques. 2004. Gummesson. it is easy to understand why the concept of RM first became evident in service marketing: the customer is an integral part of the marketing and delivery process. Grönroos (2000) emphasizes that common mistakes when discussing RM follow from a failure to understand the philosophical shift.. 2002. as Gummesson (1997) points out. Parvatyar and Sheth. managing services is at the core of relationship building and maintenance. RM is supported by other factors like.
requires internal collaboration among functions and departments which are responsible for different elements of the offering: e. a process management perspective is very different from the functionalistic management approach based on scientific management. managing the firm from a process management perspective. This creates sub-values but not total value. updating.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 143 paradigm. As pointed by Grönroos (1996). Functionalistic management allows for sub-optimization because each function and corresponding department is more oriented towards specialization within its function than collaboration between functions. Customers do not only look for goods or services. they demand a much more holistic service offering including information. developing partnerships and networks. technology. firms have to compete with the total service offering which demands the management of critical resources (human resources. Defining the Firm as a Service Business Relationship marketing strategy requires that the supplier knows the longterm needs of customers better. . where customers look for value in the total service offering. delivering the product. A Process Management Perspective An ongoing relationship with customers. repairing… Grönroos (1996) emphasizes that competing with the core offering is not enough. advertising the product. knowledge and time). taking care of complaints…The whole chain of activities has to be coordinated and managed as one total process. the core product itself.g. and it has serious strategic implications (Grönroos. not just a new model. 1996): defining the firm as a service business and focus on the competences and resources in the relationship. Instead. delivering.
This means firms will not view one another from a win-loose perspective but will rather benefit from a win-win situation.144 Terence Lovat Partnerships and Networks Relationship marketing is based on cooperation with customers. 1998). he argues that other major obstacles to the paradigm shift are concerned with the absence of ethics He asserts that relationship marketing has to represent genuine change in values and ethics and that means to include the acceptance—in action. . Gummesson (1997) proposes that inadequate basic values and their accompanying procedures—the wrong paradigm—is the biggest obstacle in marketing. other stakeholders and network partners. Besides the misunderstanding of what a paradigm is. 2000. one of the main contributions of the Nordic school researchers is their conceptualization of relationship marketing as a value creation process that combines and integrates several key processes. 1996). The relationship marketing perspective is based on the notion that on top of the value of products and/or services that are exchanged. confidence and to assure that consumers´ own unique means of value creation are taken into account. The relationship it self becomes the focus of marketing and four areas are vital for the successful execution of a relationship marketing strategy (Grönroos. This demands trust and commitment (Grönroos. 2000). not only in rhetoric—of interactive relationships and a win-win situation. the existence of a relationship between two parties creates additional value for the customer and also for the supplier or service provider (Grönroos. However. Similarly. that does not happen often (Saren and Tzokas. of both the buyer and the seller and other parties being drivers of a network of relationships. However. a value process as the output of RM. Besides pointing the main strategic implications of relationship marketing. A dialogue process is needed to achieve mutual understanding. the value creation process is incomplete without the consumers active involvement and indeed the consumer. is the primer driver of the value creation process. not the firm. where the parties work as partners. and of the customer being a co-producer of value and a partner. 2004): an interaction process as the core of RM. a communication and a dialogue process supporting the development and enhancement of relationships. of long-term relationships being advantageous to the parties involved. the implementation of a value creation process can be complex and difficult. As Tzokas and Saren (1997) postulate.
Social marketing needs to affirm its identity. however. Hastings and Saren (2003) agree with Andreasen (2003) that the behaviour change agenda will continue to be very important. They embrace Lazer and Kelly´ s (1992) definition of the discipline: social marketing is concerned with the application of marketing knowledge. changes that take a long time. It is also concerned with the analysis of the social consequences of marketing policies. Hastings and Saren (2003) emphasize that social marketing theory and practice are developing towards more complex and ambitious modes of analysis and understanding. it is important to focus on the unique contributions it can make about understanding and influencing human behaviour (Andreasen. Social marketing is the application of commercial marketing technologies to the analysis. the term behaviour change has come to be accepted shorthand for the broader definition. they believe that social marketing can make an enormous contribution in the growing field of critical marketing. the focus on high involvement decisions. Social marketing has particular characteristics that make relationship marketing potentially applicable: the absence of the profit motive. execution and evaluation of programmes designed to influence the voluntary behaviour of target audiences in order to improve their personal welfare and that of their society (Andreasen. The basic means of achieving improved welfare is through influencing and. many times. reinforcing and encouraging it. The meaning of social marketing – like that of marketing itself – is to be found in the unique problems that confront the discipline (Bagozzi.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 145 SOCIAL MARKETING CHALLENGES Andreasen (1994) emphasizes that marketing. the relevance of trust and the need to target the most needy and hard-to-reach groups in society. decisions and activities. . not necessarily changing it. social marketing is about influencing behaviour. The ultimate objective of social marketing is to benefit target individuals or society and not the marketer (different from commercial and non-profit marketing). is about human behaviour – changing. There is convergence about the potential of relationship marketing for social marketing (Andreasen. as explained by Andreasen (2003). concepts and techniques to enhance social as well as economic ends. However. whether social or commercial. changing behaviour. 2003). Social marketing connotes what is social and what is marketing. complex and multifaceted behaviours. 2001. planning. strictly speaking. 1995). Many social programmes are preventive in character which means that. 1975). so.
Sometimes targets are regarded by social marketers as being in need of persuasion. within which they come to understand that change is needed. Therefore. with little experience . Overcoming the Social Service Mentality Social marketing is very different from commercial marketing but. as explained by Andreasen (1995). because social marketers target people who may not believe they suffer from a problem. Hastings. Because there are no simple answers. rather than as being engaged in a process. Glenane-Antonadis. 2002. Concerning the goals. bounded by rights. 2002. Brenkert (2002) emphasizes that. The relational approach is being advocated in the literature as an alternative to the ―intervention mentality‖ (Hastings. social marketers are expected to act in society´ s interests and not in their own and this role requires that they pay extraordinarily close attention to the ethics of the goals they choose and the means they choose to get there (Andreasen.Terence Lovat Peattie and Peattie. He points out the difference between attempting to satisfy people´ s wants and giving people a voice in a process whereby their wants are satisfied: the latter is essential to their selfdetermination and a democratic society. 2002). Andreasen raises the question of who decides what is good for the individual or society in a social marketing programme. many field practitioners. social problems are identified independently of what any particular person or people may or may not believe. Hastings et al. This raises important challenges that will now be analysed. 1995). 2002. 2003). Stead and Mackintosh. he argues that the focus on the consumer is a good starting point. he suggests that an ethical solution would require marketers to examine various processes and criteria that extend beyond the values of a particular social marketer. Hastings (2003) emphasizes that to move to relationships is not a rejection of behaviour change as a key social marketing goal but a recognition that progress towards this goal is much more likely to occur if we adopt the inclusive and strategic vision that relational thinking demands. 146 Overcoming the Persuasion Logic Unlike commercial marketers. Brenkert discusses the ethical issues of privatization regarding social problems that arise when social marketers act on behalf of governmental agencies or organizations.
Social marketers must decide which behaviours to address. advocating the desirability of certain lifestyles or habits. taboo or even illegal behaviours and their resolution may involve the conflicting interests of the social marketer. social marketers must seek not only incentives for those they target but justifications set with in the larger contexts they inhabit. The organization´ s mission is to meet the target´ s needs and wants. many organizations see customers as the problem and resist to marketing research. which reflects a social service mentality. Working at such a deep level demands that social marketers need to really understand the complex motivations involved (Andreasen. he suggests. social marketers must consider the social context of the problem they seek to resolve. as pointed out by Andreasen. He describes high-involvement behaviours as those about which individuals care a great deal. He emphasizes that targets must be motivated to change but. A complementary ethical challenge is raised by Brenkert (2002) who argues that to be effective. This is a relevant ethical challenge that social marketers have to face. more inclusive perspective . implicit in this. The right mindset is. Balancing the Individual and the Social MacFadyen et al. not simply in some temporary manner but in the long run. a customer-centred mindset: the organization is led by its customers and does not try to make customers serve the organization´ s purpose. 1995). (2001) point that social marketing is in the business of entrenched. often copy what looks to them like the best practices of the commercial sector without recognizing the premises that drive these practices. the consumer and the wider society. Social marketers are often dealing with high-involvement behaviours for which target customers often have very ambivalent or negative feelings.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 147 with marketing. for this to be ethically grounded. Rather than thinking the customer is somehow wrong for being reluctant to change. However. where they think a lot before acting and where they frequently seek the advice of others. where they see significant risks. theories of individual and social change that take a broader. Consequently. The assumption is that customers have very good reasons for doing what they are doing so the marketer´ s challenge is to respond to those reasons. social marketers must recognize that the behaviours marketers want may not be desirable or possible from the consumer´ s perspective. ultimately prioritizing certain issues over others and.
peer. Multi-component programmes try to get that balance between the individual and the social levels. There is the danger that each function/department is more oriented towards specialization within its function than collaboration between functions. community organization. Multi-component Programmes: Overcoming the Functionalistic Perspective The main argument in support of multi-component interventions is they are theoretically appropriate for the prevention of behaviours that have multiple determinants: individual.148 Terence Lovat may be relevant for social marketing as they understand people´ s lives in an everyday sense.g. This is very important to assure sustaining intervention effects beyond the formal funding period (Peterson et al. This raises different sorts of challenges: need to . Furthermore. 1992. mass media and policy. Hastings (2003) emphasizes that the behaviours being targeted by social marketers typically fit into a desirable lifestyle that needs long term support and reinforcement. doctors). some delivery agents may not approve or have any allegiance to the funder or the developer. this collective of people and organizations raises important challenges. in particular. 1996).. These programmes will include different levels of influence and different channels: youth. However. a further strong argument supporting multi-component programmes is that the process of developing and implementing them encourages collaboration between different organizations and sectors. Multi-component interventions are presumed to produce stronger effects than single component programmes because the different components reinforce or amplify one another and combine to produce a greater and longer lasting effect (Pentz et al. 1997). relationship issues such as source credibility and trust will be important. school. developed and delivered by different organizations and delivery. Similarly. as individual immunizations. Pentz. long term health improvement is dependent on much more than the short term avoidance of illicit substances. These programmes are normally funded. As he explains. Even when they are one type actions. parents/family. However. social and environmental. schools. can get even more complex when it is devolved to numerous organizations (e. As explained by Stead and Hastings (2003). it requires a broadly based positive lifestyle which in turn demands supportive individual knowledge and attitudes and a constructive environment. they also raise challenges as analysed next.
Building relationships with the funder enables social marketer to influence the setting of the policy agenda. . Partnerships and Networks: Prioritizing and Handling Multirelationships Relationships have and can be built with many different stakeholders. community agencies) and competitors. Lateral relationships: with those that control the social contexts (government. Internal relationships: in order to build the right mindset in the organization as a whole. This multiplicity of potential relationships presents opportunities and challenges: one of them is how to prioritize and handle them. strategic alliances with competing social marketers can improve competitiveness and prioritize issues which is vital in the current fragmented social marketplace.at least in terms of whom the relationship is built with . market research providers help bridge cultural differences between the private and public sector and ensure that progress is built on matched agendas. this will potentially affect the management perspective of programmes. internal.New Thinking about Thinking and Ramifications for Teaching 149 define who is the responsible for the relationship and need to focus on developing consistency and integration of the ―collective‖. the principle of relational thinking holds true throughout. lateral and supplier relationships . for example. Moreover. one of the main strategic issues of relationship marketing.but. as Hastings (2003) explains. Hastings (2003) developed a multi relationship model of social marketing buyer. The form relationships in social marketing take may vary . Supplier partnerships: relationships with.adapted from Morgan and Hunt (1994): Buyer partnerships: an important distinction is between the ultimate consumer (such the smoker) and the funder (such the government health department).
compared with alternatives and potentially changed (Eakin et al. From a critical perspective. Social marketing is in a good position to deconstruct them. Behaviour change is the ultimate goal but the process of building relationships has to be explicitly included. A more reflexive and selfcritical social marketing is needed which means turning to itself. In this context. Hastings and Saren (2003) argue that the developments in relational thinking have important critical marketing implications. When inspired by relationship marketing. 2008). In particular.150 Terence Lovat Critical Evaluation: Going beyond Current Frameworks Critical marketers question both the processes and outcomes of marketing. The transference of relationship marketing demands a broader and multidisciplinary theoretical base. emphasizing how programmes operate rather than behavioural objectives. Social marketing will continue to learn with commercial marketing but also needs to learn more with sociology and philosophy. to bridge the social and commercial world and to help devise solutions when problems are revealed. 1996). design and implementation of programmes (Marques. the effects of marketing on issues like social exclusion and the creation of false needs and identities affect health and consumer behaviour. process evaluation frameworks are better prepared to de-construct the visions that shape programmes and better understand the consequences of those visions in the assumptions. The transference of relationship marketing to social marketing has implications in the very definition of social marketing. Relational thinking can also challenge current health promotion evaluation frameworks and potentially increase its critical power. de-construct its own contradictions and face its challenges. It is a new foundation for thinking that requires strategic vision and a sense of the whole. process evaluation is particularly relevant as it looks inside the so-called black box. especially in regard to knowledge about values and their role in human behaviour. the challenge is to make those assumptions explicit so they can be contested. CONCLUSIONS Relationship marketing is not a ―lip service‖. with profound theoretical and practical implications. Further. Over-reliance on expertise and . social marketers´ legitimacy is greater if they are critical about themselves and especially about their assumptions or taken for granted ―truths‖.
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The first section of this chapter will review the design thinking literature across different levels of activity. as twenty-first century realities may require the participation of everyone to have a say in our designed world. Contreras. the focus of design has been the intentional creation of products. providing guidance on the use of design thinking across the entire organization. design and education. Why should scientists be interested in design? One reason is an ethical one. Typically. Morgantown. design and organizations. Inc. The term has been familiar to many design disciplines and most recently has been touted by members of the business community as a mindset for an entire organization. structures. 155-169 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers. pp. Chapter 7 TRANSLATING DESIGN THINKING FOR SCIENTISTS Cindy Beacham West Virginia University. One of the sub-disciplines of design is that of design management. and design and . or systems to address the needs of firms and individuals. The overall purpose of this chapter is to raise the awareness of scientists and other readers to a form of thinking called design thinking. including design and society. design has been viewed as an activity for design professionals. Morgantown. West Virginia ABSTRACT Historically.In: Psychology of Thinking ISBN 978-1-61668-934-6 Editor: David A. West Virginia Neal Shambaugh West Virginia University.
Morris & Parker. 1987). environmental. People in all disciplines are capable of using design thinking. not just designers to explore problems and creatively answer the question ―How do we make it better?‖. 1998. sustainability. Dembski. and urban design fields. the relevance of design thinking. and web design. interaction design. design management. Intelligent design as referenced in scientific conversations relates to the natural world. service design. Design thinking in our view includes products. Historically design thinking has been situated in academic venues related to traditional design disciplines. What is a scientist to do with this information? This section will be organized in three sub-sections. etc. systems. The second section will suggest ways to help scientists understand and use design thinking. New design fields include information design. and envisioning the future. Keywords: design. graphics. design thinking. We are also witnessing some companies attempting for the first time to integrate design thinking with their more scientifically based approaches such as Six Sigma to improve product and service offerings (Beckman. The relationship between design and other fields of study has been a subject of discussion and discourse for many decades. interior. However. but it is necessary to understand what is meant by design thinking to be able to use it effectively. understanding design thinking.156 Cindy Beacham and Neal Shambaugh the designer. Based on the writings. and education. organizations. but our approach to design thinking deals exclusively with the man-made world. Design thinking as a term may be associated with intelligent design given the sharing of specific words. deep divisions exist among scientists regarding this topic. 2008. 2009). wicked problems (5121) INTRODUCTION Design thinking is an iterative process that enables everyone. knowledge management. and does not delve into the realm of intelligent design as debated within many scientific disciplines. design studies. we are now experiencing an explosion of design thinking in business.. namely. The primary areas of . and addresses design as a possible factor in the creation of life forms as we know them. socially responsive design. as well as in engineering and product design. organizational management. such as those in architectural. Scientists have been engaged in discussions around design in the context of intelligent design for decades (House.
design). A Whole New Mind. Pink reminds us. Design. each asking a different question along the continuum of knowledge. organizations. 2007). big-picture capabilities…‖ This Conceptual Age is a direct response to the Information Age and will require different skills and abilities. education. and abduction. and through analogy. science. often associated with right-brain thinking. and through modeling. Science is situated in the natural world. including that of design and society. Pink challenges the reader to consider three questions: ―Can someone overseas do it cheaper? Can a computer do it faster?‖ and ―Am I offering something that satisfies the nonmaterial. why. defines the coming of the ―Conceptual Age. This right-brain aspect of the ―new mind‖ has the capacity for what Pink calls ―senses. Based on the current understanding of the orientation of each of the major disciplines (science. and criticism. play. and meaning. humanities.Translating Design Thinking for Scientists 157 study have come to be viewed as three overlapping disciplines (Cross. namely. we recognize the fundamental differences. classification. and analysis.‖ including that of design. Design and Society Daniel Pink's (2006) popular book. and how‖ informs the others. humanities. induction. transcendent desires of an abundant age?‖ The ―Whole New Mind‖ refers to the ability to creatively and innovatively respond to those questions. The humanities focus on the human experience. describes ―what is‖. although business is actively embracing design as a business process. but strongly acknowledge that within each of the disciplines. is everywhere. symphony (putting pieces together). the ―what. work to ―portray ‗it'‖. for survival and success. story-telling. synthesis.‖ characterized by an ―economy and a society built on the inventive. 1982). Finally. seeks to determine ―how to make it better‖ (Cross. empathy. empathic. and design. and the designer. the contemporary views on design thinking have been organized into four levels of concern. He believes that future success will go . and through experimentation. Design is accessible to everyone. design concentrates on the man-made world. We live in a humanly-designed world. VIEWS OF DESIGN THINKING In this section of the chapter.
says Fry (2003). an open source computing company adopted design . Some businesses are beginning to realize that the success of their products or services will depend on understanding the human experience. 2003). He cites a new kind of design knowledge that will be needed to inform education. An unsustainable world. and criminal justice. However.‖ Metadesigners include and transcend the traditional design professions. and according to Farson. and economics. humans hold a narrow view of culture. Other peoples can be better understood through their culture. Design and Organizations The terms design and design thinking have found their way into business firms. he says. ―What arrives last is a retreat into conventional design practice and the design of things‖ (p. The benefit to such a stance can develop a true cultural appreciation by everyone. 78). scientists.158 Cindy Beacham and Neal Shambaugh to people who can move quickly and master these sensory abilities and apply them appropriately in today's culture. but also an awareness of the role in design in creating this designed world. This text does not define design per se or identify working principles. David Burney of Red Hat. Designers and informed laypeople have a role in sustainment. he discusses the need to develop a concept of metadesign. carry on a global conversation among all peoples. He sees metadesigners as leaders with the responsibility of using systems thinking to foster and manage innovation today. 73). and develop a stronger reflective capability. and others will be the ability to see the nature of things differently. What is needed by designers. there still exists a lack of understanding and resistance to other cultures. ―is not natural. of what ―being human‖ means. rather than manipulating the culture with products (Riley. 81). practice. The Power of Design is a big picture advocacy of design and designers is useful in exploring the implications for thinking about individuals as well as professionals taking on a larger role in society. have the capabilities of revisioning major systems such as healthcare. education. Despite being in the era of cultural awareness. It is learned in that unnaturalness we call culture‖ (p. one aspect of which is their designed world. Design thinking. or ―the design of design. resulting in numerous books touting their value to their success. Richard Farson (2008) believes that design and design thinking are powerful tools to address our current social and economic problems. In The Power of Design. is a ―failure of design‖ (p. However.
or risking total failure of the business. and vigilance. . Second. IDEO is a consulting and design firm that is widely recognized as a firm on the leading edge of innovation. Next. efficiency. and top-down view of people. as the most destructive role to innovation. 2005). Finally. Tom Kelley has developed a set of ―human personas‖ that have been tested continually in IDEO's innovation work. embraced by everyone to be ―design driven. is that it focuses on innovation rather than on traditional business processes. one focused on innovation. as well as bottom up. Burney says that design thinking involves everyone in design ― because it makes it easier for those outside the design industry to focus the idea of design as a way of thinking about solving problems. and a way of creating and capturing value (Hyer. 2009). according to Burney.‖ the individual whose negativity ends all discussion of what is possible. such as small-scale product improvement. First. the ―Building Personas‖ make innovation happen by using the knowledge from the ―Learning Personas‖ and the organizational skills from the ―Organizing Personas. They discuss strategies for becoming a successfully design-driven business through awareness. The author of The Ten Faces of Innovation (Kelley & Littman. meaning that management must embrace the design process. The main idea here is that ―Design establishes a relationship between your company and your customers. the ―Organizing Personas‖ understand how organizations move forward and use that understanding to create a balance between innovation and realism. or work.‖ The authors cite the importance of designing a successful total customer experience. implementation. A key feature that cuts across most of these books on design and design thinking is customer involvement in the design. Design thinking. One example with a typical business title is Do you matter? How great design will make people love your company.‖ The growing attraction of design thinking.Translating Design Thinking for Scientists 159 thinking because its ideas mirror the idea behind open source software. He first identifies the ―devil's advocate. spaces. but a cultural way of thinking. (Brunner & Emery. 2006). a way of creating strategy by experiencing it rather than keeping it an intellectual exercise.‖ Successful design. allowing for growth and forward movement. cannot be an add-on to existing products. he describes three groups of personas that are highly effective in countering the negative effects of the devil's advocate. the ―Learning Personas‖ are driven to continually expand knowledge and grow. according to Burney. Organizations must be designed from the top down. is not a methodology.‖ According to Kelley. ―need to know‖ attitudes and hidden agendas. commitment.
160 Cindy Beacham and Neal Shambaugh when companies value and encourage these sets of roles. Cross (1981) and Schön (1987) advocated a reflective approach. Moving beyond looking at designers in their traditional forms of practice. Design and Education The evolution of design thinking is sometimes represented as a series of generations (Bousbaci. . At the algorithm stage Martin says some firms don't follow-through and free up human activity by actually coding an algorithm and allowing computing to take over the task. rules of thumbs) to algorithms (i. a reaction to the early view of the designer as intuitive and artistic. Cross. and visualizing concepts. design thinking. 2008). who identifies the ―roadblocks‖ to the adoption of design thinking in the firm. Human and financial capital is thus tied up with tasks that could be off-loaded to computing. or the narrowing of mysteries of impossible problems to heuristics (i.e. Reacting to this systematic view in the 1960s through the 1980s was a second generation focus on participatory processes (Alexander. calculable procedures). where the emphasis is on designing emotionally positive consumer experiences. 1977. The first generation of design thinking and design methods (1950s – 1960s) depicted the designer as rational and logical (Broadbent & Ward. Lockwood (2010) defines design thinking as a human-centered process for innovation and enablement. Complementing the Lockwood articles is Martin (2009). Simon. One mistake that firms make is to write off unsolvable problems at the mystery stage or to leave identified opportunities. collaborating in teams. integrates creative ideas with the traditional aspects of the firm.e.. These roadblocks occur in one or more of the three stages of what Martin calls the knowledge funnel. creating prototypes. and innovation will flourish. seeing design in a broader context. the heuristics. Key features are involving the consumer. He addresses the issues involved in moving a firm to a design thinking organization with a particular emphasis on service design. & Silverstein. as contrasted with the traditional focus on product design. 1969. in the hands of executives or specialists. 1996).. creativity. A distinguishing tenet in Lockwood's view. 1987). Design management and leadership are addressed in Lockwood's contribution to this book. Ishikawa. 1972) and a third generation attempt to understand a designer's thinking processes (Rowe.
Schön reminds readers that technique and artistry are both necessary in the development of a design professional. ill-defined problems. and solutions are explored.‖ and humanities' quest for ―how does it affect me?‖ The major idea of Cross's work is that design abilities exist in everyone and that design should be a part of a general education. and the author provides a historical overview of the doctrines of problem-solving. graphic and spatial modelling media. Nigel Cross' articles on Designerly Ways of Knowing. He identifies design as a valuable and necessary knowledge base that asks the question ―how can we make it better?‖ in relation to science's study of ―what is. and ability to use non-verbal. and systems related to design thinking and design inquiry in architecture. Ultimately this is a welldocumented work providing a scholarly overview of design inquiry within the field of architecture.. For decades Cross has challenged us to reconsider the critical nature of design thinking in our culture. in the chapter on the paradox of learning to design Schön discusses the difficulty some students have with the demands of an architectural curriculum . and wicked problems. The value of such abductive. is the ability to consider change and to move past what for business is only ―incremental‖ improvement. appositional thinking (e. which was set in the architectural design studio. The work is comprehensive. healthcare. employ abductive. defined. particularly how one frames and re-frames a design process and brings past experiences to bear. and discusses the influence of different problems on the design process required within architectural design. reason from function to form). and international systems. published in Design Issues in the 1980's were expanded into a text (2006. He discusses well-defined problems. the prominent approach at that time to creative problem-solving. adopt solution-focusing strategies. Cross's work has provided a foundation for situating design into our educational systems as an equal to science and humanities. Another influential design practitioner book was Schön's Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987). These ―core features of design ability: include an ability to resolve ill-defined problems. productive. Here Schön discusses the reflective habits of new designers as they design or reflection-in-action. Design thinking is most closely addressed in the chapter on the design process. 2007).g. ―what might be‖ thinking for individuals and for business and other institutions. Rowe describes the design process as episodes of heuristic reasoning within which problems are identified. theories.Translating Design Thinking for Scientists 161 Design Thinking by Rowe (1987) is a collection of ideas. Also. Much of his discussion centers around the information-processing theory. His message is particularly valuable today as we begin to create new approaches to our economic.
as the current academic image of the teacher is that of a reflective professional.162 Cindy Beacham and Neal Shambaugh and the challenges of having a dialogue with the instructor throughout. typically within the professions of visual design. Designers. The constraints of problems are readily embraced by design thinkers who recast problems as projects. interior design. but expands Cross's ideas to incorporate new knowledge about the thinking and design processes. to couple one's technical abilities with a new empathic sensibility of what humans need. including architecture. and industrial/product design. which can be acquired and developed. A second feature of design thinking is a different view on problems. Constraints are not so much resolved as placed in an appropriate balance. Finally. and developing new insights on human needs. characterizes design thinking as a means to leverage what humans already know to tackle a broader range of problems than before. must employ almost equal parts of convergent and divergent thinking to produce successful design solutions. He acknowledges that the study of design thinking is in its earliest stages. can be characterized in four ways. is to balance possibility with reality. Brown (2009). and that much more work is necessary in this field.‖ He presents an accessible discussion of design thinking set in the context of design process and practice. particularly those in teacher education. observing them. The process to address . according to Brown. the CEO of IDEO. unlike most other comparable works. developing empathy. Educators. Design and Designer According to Lawson (2005) in How Designer's Think. as viewed by Brown. ―design is a form of thinking skill. essentially problem solving for architects. Features of design thinking. The key. as he believes. The first feature is a focus on people. Lawson talks about the historical progression from initial writing on the design process to evidence-based study in all areas of design. The initial focus has been for design to meet basic needs but increasingly to the designing of emotionally-satisfying experiences. in particular. The key for what Cross would label as abductive thinkers (―what might be‖) is that the outcomes of design must be technologically feasible and that the innovation must make business sense. Brown sees design thinking as a means to help skilled practitioners think like a designer. Lawson proposes a model of design activity and thinking based on Nigel Cross's earlier work. frequently cite this text.
making interdisciplinary collaboration and inclusion of ―non-design‖ fields in the design thinking conversation difficult at best. Such a stance implies the need for design and an understanding of design process to be a part of the education of all people. while divergent thinking creates options. engineering. Each design field tends to discuss the topic within its own parameters. Figure 1 provides a visual summary of design thinking based on current publications reviewed in the first section of this chapter. storytelling. collaborating. Designers also move between analysis or studying the problem-opportunity with synthesis or extracting structure and pattern from the data. the relevance of design thinking. and mathematics). and valued on . technology. Convergent thinking is making decisions about choices. and envisioning the future. addresses all areas of the designed world. Recognizing the lack of a comprehensive. the term design thinking is a challenging topic to address in a simple and cohesive fashion. Design thinking in the 21st century.Translating Design Thinking for Scientists 163 these opportunities is nonlinear. DESIGN THINKING FOR SCIENTISTS The second part of this chapter summarizes the information assembled from recent writing on the subject of design thinking and synthesizes it into topics to help both design and science professionals see relationships between the disciplines based on design thinking. Brown cites two paired sets of mental states that design thinkers work between. A fourth feature of design thinking is the range of tools to be used. A third feature is the thinking processes employed in design thinking. This section is organized into 3 areas of discussion: understanding design thinking. Ideally design should be taught with the same commitment as the STEM disciplines (science. Understanding Design Thinking Given the large number of design professions. These can include visual thinking. based on the writings and apparent current trends. we have attempted to provide an overview of current approaches through our discussion of the literature. inclusive definition of design thinking. and indicates that everyone can be a ―designer‖. prototyping. and the physical and electronic spaces for collaboration.
play. education. design thinking is inclusive. balances divergent and convergent thinking. empathy. Design ―re-visions‖ human needs (e. Design management and leadership are necessary business functions. or consider ―what might be‖ Visualize concepts Develop and test out prototypes. criminal justice). Design thinking is a different way to think about the designed world and every person's role in what our future designed world looks like. See how other cultures see the world and designed features. But the question remains: ―what is the relevance of design thinking in relation to the scientific disciplines?‖. Involvement of people Focus of activity How one thinks Design process Figure 1. business need Focus on consumer. Those who think like designers tap very different skills and use very different tools. healthcare.g. Innovation over incremental improvement User need vs. As the information in Figure 1 indicates. Design Thinking Features. and is based on abductive logic to consider ―what might be?‖ and ―how can we make it better?‖. meaning Balance convergent (decisions) and divergent (options) thinking Visual tools Reflectivity Visual tools Heuristic reasoning Collaborate in teams. Design process spans all business functions. physical and electronic spaces for collaboration Tackle impossible problems. story. symphony. client. Design process includes customer. values innovation.. Culture and society All people have a role in sustainability. promote in general education Use brain's right side senses: design. all designers have a role in the designed world. iterate revisions.164 Cindy Beacham and Neal Shambaugh the same level. client experience over product Problems/solutions are seen as opportunities/responsiveness Design must be technologically feasible and make business sense Everyone has design abilities. . embrace constraints Use abductive logic. communities.
1996) but there is greater acceptance of the essential differences and resulting value of design thinking in relation to. and identified characteristics of wicked problems that differ from the traditional problems often encountered by . The complicated nature of today's world has led to a preponderance of problems that reflect a level of complexity equal to those of the current world situation. or vision new (sometimes seemingly impossible) outcomes and rely on scientific and technological thinking to formulate methods to make the visions real. and communication. Products. design method is constructive. 1967). Science is the key to discovering and recognizing what currently exists. scientific methods. According to Lockwood (2010) ―design is the key to bringing innovation to life‖ (pg. Attempts have been made in the past to model design thinking on the scientific process. The method each discipline embraces is different. understanding. It has been long-accepted that the scientific method centers around problem-solving to find out the nature of what exists. Collaborative efforts between design and scientific thinking provide unexplored opportunities for even greater innovation. not as a mirror of. At the same time. While there have been attempts to create this unrealistic approach to the design process. Naughton. spaces…science contributes to utility by providing elements in both traditional (existing) forms. Designers create ways to use these new combinations. Discussion continues today (Simon. scientific involvement provides modifications and improvements to allow for even more innovative products and uses. 2006). systems. & Walker. 1981). While design provides the outlet for the use of scientific discoveries. The rationale for these activities are varied. and it is critical to understand ―what is‖ as a basis for providing utility. and in new combinations to form appropriate materials. Rittel and Webber (1973) identified human-centered problems as ―wicked‖ in their early works. This is an important concept to adopt since it will be the combination of all methods that will bring about true innovation and change. Design is utility enhanced by significance (Pink. formulaic approach. and requires different skills and thought processes for success. but are thought to include providing a greater perception of value to the design disciplines (Cross. seeking to provide solutions through inventing things with value that do not yet exist (Gregory. and valuing between the disciplines is vital for this to occur. xv). design is a fundamentally different way of thinking. simply different.Translating Design Thinking for Scientists 165 Relevance of Design Thinking Both science and design share goals of solving problems on various levels. It is not better or worse. Design cannot be reduced to a linear. it is analytic.
health. For example. They are credible and useful in addressing complex real world issues. Often the problem is as dependent on the solution as the solution is on the problem. As one portion of the problem is solved. and are only solved when the solution is considered ―good enough‖. Design often relies on rapid prototyping. Wicked problems are complex. Wicked problems defy scientific approaches since they cannot be bounded or clearly hypothesized. Science cannot function in isolation. the problem reorganizes itself into a new and different problem or set of problems. while obviously influenced by current information. and open-ended.166 Cindy Beacham and Neal Shambaugh scientists. and new knowledge is bounded or significantly influenced by current understanding of an issue in the formation of that hypothesis. but no less valuable in today's culture. resources and priorities change. aesthetic. Solutions are not clear. as opposed to valid and reliable in normative science (McFall & Beacham. Science is typically hypothesis driven and discoveries. and continue to change throughout the process. social. Design thinking involves subjective assessments. scientific discoveries about the natural world's response to man-made intrusions influence human decisions about funding for more natural world exploration. Human perceptions of the problem change. Additional discoveries lead to changed perceptions. and unbounded idea generation. The boundaries are acknowledged only after the idea-generation has produced directions for . dynamic. stakeholders change. The discoveries made about the natural world are part of the human-centered issues prominent today. Designers. Political. failing fast. moral. leading the scientist squarely into a wicked problem scenario. 2010). 2008). and the problem(s) morph as a result. and other issues and influences impact this one simple example. leading to more (or less) support for continued exploration. are continually looking to explore uncharted areas with few if any boundaries during the initial ideation or exploration process. and frequently become very complex. Envisioning the Future Design is about radical innovation (Lockwood. It is the subjective assessment provided by design thinking that most effectively addresses the wicked problems we face today. wicked problems. Responsible subjective assessments are different. approaches. as opposed to objective assessments valued by the science community. while science values incremental understanding and the resulting incremental improvement that is tied to reliability and validity.
in actuality. and provide a foundation upon which we must build to improve our quality of life. Science grounds us. They are interdependent. As a result. Both must be valued. innovation and exploration can occur with far more effective results. . useroriented. the collective efforts will provide the vehicle for scientists to harness the power of design thinking for new ideas in scientific discovery. Design thinking provides the innovation required to address the demands of today's fast-paced. and design thinking is currently recognized as the primary method of fostering innovative and creative approaches. While not all scientists may choose to engage in design thinking. and acknowledging the value of collaborative design and scientific thinking. Scientific methods strive to discover characteristics by isolating them or ―correcting for‖ outside influences. CONCLUSION Our culture has historically come to highly value the incremental approach over risk-taking. but is more responsive to the evolving culture we currently see globally. There is a place for all types of approaches. Design thinking challenges the current traditional process. it is important to realize that our culture is quickly understanding the value and importance of innovation. True collaboration will only be possible if scientists have at least a preliminary understanding and grasp of design thinking. they are. Change is happening. At that point. Understanding between disciplines is the first step towards massive changes in the way design and science collaborate and re-envision a new world. design moves us forward. and finding and embracing the synergy between the activities is the key to a successful future. By expanding the understanding of design thinking to professionals in the STEM disciplines. While these statements and the associated disciplines may appear to be opposite in every way. Scientific approaches are critical in the understanding of the natural world. Both are vital. scientists will more frequently be tasked with collaborative opportunities to use their discoveries of ―what is‖ to create a new reality that supports innovative solutions to wicked (or seemingly impossible) problems. but before we can be truly successful. risk-taking culture. two sides of the same coin.Translating Design Thinking for Scientists 167 design solutions. Design is holistic and seeks to understand contextual influences and perceptions as a part of the exploration and problem-solving. each discipline must find ways to value differing views of moving forward.
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107 applied research. 45 affective reactions. 13 assessment. 76. 112. 79. 58. 25. 57 assimilation. 92 adult education. 42. 82. 20. 65. 85. 61. 101 Aristotelian. 41 abduction. 8. 61 aggressiveness. 107. 64. 82 ACS. 37. 1. 71. 6. 115 affective experience. x. 6. 59. 92 alternative. 42. 40. 86 arousal. 62 activation. 66 actuarial approach. 83. 55. 28. 37. 39. 74. 3. 7 aiding. 24. 1996. 61. 59. 26. 55. 92. 55 algorithm. 44 age. 47 achievement. 53. 75 Aristotle. 56 alcohol. 8. 92 advertising. 114 agents. 75. 3 argument. 44 American Psychological Association. 35. 103 ambivalent. 69. 5. 95. 119 accessibility. 117 alienation. 9. 99 American Educational Research Association. 13. 77. 77. 102 aggression. 54. 32. 18. 23. 58. 33. 54. 61 aid. 65 adaptation. 7. 70. 15. 35. 50. 31. 22 application. 16. 60. 17. 65 aggressive behavior. 117 Ashton. 91. 21. 58 adjustment. 12. 84. 128 advocacy. 52. 55. 98 alternatives. 41 administration. 77 adult. 65. 23 academic. 26. 31. 9. 60 . 98. 124 assignment. 49. 43. 21. 68. 97. 43.INDEX A ABC. 9. 62 artistic. 113 abortion. 60 actuarial. 64. 14. 58. 22.
21. 30. 52 Bain. 13 Bruner. 5. 79. 45 authenticity. 80. 93. 12. 119 channels. 89 citizens. 86. 1956. 81 benign. 50. 113 classroom. 72 Burke. 44. 1996. 2004. 44. 9. 12. 49. 2. 84 cast. 61. 64. 84. 79. 78 classical. 11. 116 Index Bransford. 61. 17 Berliner & Biddle. Williams & Skinner. 1991. 59. 81. 18. 4. 8. 72 basic needs. 22. 20. 67. 30 beginning teachers. 45. 68. 60. 41. 74 breast cancer. 50. 34. 53. 72. 33. 22. 62 categorization theory. 5. 101 beliefs. 61 attitudes. 29. 1. 73. 9 break-even. 19 citizenship. 60 awareness. 73. 2. 28. 49. 43. 91. 50. 20 Beyer. 45. 60. 104 asymmetry. 100. 29. 62. 49. 28. 85. 42. 71. 46 classroom teachers. 1995. 67 clusters. 36 behavior. 30. 85 blocks. 42. 46. 86 categorization. 36 buyer. 65 binding. 71. 10. 80. ix. 49. 2006. 7. 46. 46. 17. 1993. 77 coding. 3. 74. 55 blame. 4. 81 classroom practice. 50. 61. 98. 60. 75 classification. 50 classroom teacher. 13. 42. 5. 53 CEO. 114. 84 classroom activity. 46. 2007. 18. 75 authority. 65. 19 barriers. 102 C calculus. 49. 114. 5. 11. 6. 65. 59. 101 children. 115 Attorney General. 8 brain. 4. 42. 65 behaviorism. 74. 79. 38. 4. 8. 101 avoidance behavior. 8. 24. x. 3 behaviours. 36. 57. 71. 2000. 81. 103. Brown & Cocking. 45. 19. 12. 16. 37 Brooks & Brooks.172 assumptions. 33. 126 bureaucracy. 117 B background noise. 63. 1965. 9. 42. 54. 61 avoidance. 5 bias. 36 case study. 81 closure. xi. 42 Bloom. 20. 111. 45. 10. 86. 69. 82 beneficial effect. 122 . 1. 82. 48. 97. 99. 40. 69. ix. 120 Baumfield. 76. 10. 101. 64 birds. 23. 54. 10 availability. 60 causal model. 17 candidates. 67. 7. 44. 54. 14 Borland. 11. 8. 3. 70. xii. 46 classrooms. 69. 92. 36. 74 attractiveness. 1. 5 cancer. 4 buildings. 16. 55. 31. 52. 82 benefits. 4. xii. 22. 3.
21. 59. 73. 46 cognitive representations. 55. 13. 2. 83. 58. 22. 92 critical thinking skills. ix. 24. 72 cognitive development. 21. 8. 106. 72. 67. 67. 55 creativity. 53. 47. 1. 20. x. 77. 127 credibility. 126 constructivist. 6 criminal justice. 35. 101. 18. 71. 8. 92 confrontation. 49. 23. 61 consciousness. 64 computing. 3. 24. 15. 61. 75 couples. 115. 18 competence. 7. 42 consulting. 62. 56 cognitive style. 76. 62. 121. 125 colors. 96 173 concrete. 79 competitive advantage. 57. 41 Cremin. 95. 105 comprehension. 74. 111. 29. 31. 4. 121 community. 14. 74. 7 cognitive psychology. 7. 21. 59. 70. 54. 103 complement. 108. 15. 96 conflict. 55. 22. 10. 4 . 34. 80 communication. 32. 80. 67 concept map. 128 competitiveness. 60. 26. 75. 38. 71 cognitive dissonance. 18. 67. 62 coherence. 15. 41. 83. 96. 93. 74. 79. 1961. xi. 69. 1. 30. 3. 65 costs. 32. 58 cognitive therapy. 20. 17. 121 critical points. 61. 74. 18. 24. 76 cognitive performance. 3. 15. 15. 93. 37. 22 cortisol. 101 credit. 38 complexity. 23 conception. 113 concentration. 23. 8. 53. 28. 89. 77. 36. 76 cognitive ability. 17. 94. 3. 75. 120. 120. ix. 55. 9. 1. 13. 12 cognitive effort. 8. 122. 75. 47. 101. 76 conceptualization. 3. 31 cognitive function.Index cognition. 43. 116. 47 cognitive tasks. 1. 61. xi. 38. 98 correlation. 8 convergence. 28. 94 contextualist. 27. 74. 40. 45. 76. 5. 3. x. 113 Cross. 56. 42. 72. 1. 46. 47. 22. 64 creative thinking. 59 critical thinking. 92. 67. 11. 103. 10. 64. 53 control group. 37 complex systems. 21. 53. ix. 116 consumer markets. 122 construction. 21. 104 consumption. 3. 44 creative potential. 7. 22. 7. 11. 27 consolidation. 34. 25. 92. 16. 17. 15. 71. 82. 14. 37. 91. 22. 123 components. 124 compassion. 58 cognitive processing. 21. 88. 87 consensus. 117 concentrates. 102. 103 control condition. 70. 85 collaboration. xi. 5. 93 consumers. 43. 32. 63 cost of living. 96. 37. 8 controlled trials. 59. 53 confusion. 64. 32. 33 control. 53 confidence. 76 constraints. 108 consumer satisfaction. 51. 49 creative process. 40. 2005. 30 comfort zone. 50 cognitive process. 72. 90. 28. 11. 10. 7. 3. 48. 69. 63. xii. 8 criticism. 115. 101. 8. 123 communities. 74. 72. 66. 43. 7.
1. 73 dynamic theory. 47. 11. 30. 1983. 113 disposition. 43. 16 deficit. 104. 102 dogs.174 cues. 16. 26. 54. 2005. 68. 27. 69 earnings. 67 determinism. 29. 87. 117. 102 dentist. 70 double helix. 34. 17. 42. 74. 4. 86. 93. 48. 53 depression. 3. 74 decision makers. 35. 24. 20. 36 Index dependent variable. 16. 80. 119 curriculum development. 73. 65. 22. 61 divergent thinking. 42 debt. 1. 52. 82. 17. 56. 117. 57. 19 differentiation. 122. 21. 70. 70. 3. 54. 41. 25. 60. 79. 23 data analysis. 99. 7. 14. 72 distraction. 70. 3. 71 decision-making process. 6. x. 108 drugs. 6. 5. 10. 58. 57. 25 Darling-Hammond. 73 doctors. 37. 1964. 114. 94. ix. 54. 43. 68. 15 customers. 92. 126 curiosity. 49. x. ix. 87. 118. 71 disability. 68 economic cycle. 44. 12. 72 definition. 2. 79. 84. 64. 34. 128 culture. 4. 35. 78. 88 drug abuse. 105. 6. 37. 9. 126 educational objective. 3. 120 diversity. 66. 88. 68 . 112. 58 distress. 1. 7. 47. 13. 15. 44 Department of Education. 28. 31. 59. 119. 75. 70 economic problem. 98. 57. 26. 96. 83. 19. 1. 124. 28. 14. 22. 27. 102 Darling-Hammond & Bransford. 118. 95. 60 decision making. 49. 21 division. 127 detachment. 69. 5. 9 dating. 36. 6. 100. 81. 114. 11. 53. 9. 125. 102 cultural influence. 9. 42 educational psychology. 107. 93. 79. 124 defense. 44. 107. 121. 8. 9. 122. 6. 29. 98. x. 121 delivery. 3. 2 cultural differences. 75 distortions. 81. 1. 77. 126 discourse. 2. 97. 116 cycles. 115 economics. 108 duration. 88 E early warning. 69. 18. 73 designers. 19. 8. 24. 89 distribution. 76. 61 cultivation. 1997. 63. 26. 45. 42 death. 2. 12. 14 Curry. 93. 108. 21. 15. 19. 50. 128 defenses. 34 diminishing returns. 65. 72 discipline. 9. 16. 47. 35. 13. 33 decisions. 70 Dewey. 41 curriculum. x. 63 D danger. 98. 3. 52. 27. 115. 27. 4. 44. 54 Cyprus. 120. 114 education. 7 dominance. 14.
18. 118 Folsom. 61. 86. 27 factor analysis. 16. 22 fluctuations. 71. 21. 10. 117 execution. 34 educational system. 43 Erickson. 69. 42 emotion. 42 . 73. 2009b. 79. 80. 68 employers. 79. 76. 74. 85 environment. 22 Folsom. 22 Folsom. 41. 13. 71 equilibrium. 71. 2006. 43. 39. 97 exercise. 56. 35. 101 Fasko. 72 emotional processes. 9 focusing. 43. 36. 111. 2007. 66. 21. 36. 45. 96. 20 family. 97. 55 financing. 60. 8. 19. 15. 37 evolution. 4. 2. 5. 2. 18. 9. 11. 58. 57. 4. 2007. 65. 6. 52. 114. xi. 72. 15. 67. 71. x. 76 fraud. 99 evaluative thought. 9 firms. 59. 2003. 73. 14 federal government. 66 financial capital. 105 flow. 66 175 F fabric. 73 equality. xi. 55. 51. 41. 26. 82 Enlightenment. 16 engagement. 68 fine tuning. 72 emotions. 65 fluid. 2009a. 45. 58. 71. 4 Fordism. 34 energy. 75. 20 field theory. 95. 45 emotional intelligence. 31. x. 3. 49 failure. 13. 22. 114. 85 ERIC. 20. 55. 72 forecasting. 46 finance. 94. 115 expertise. 41. 52. 54. 73 emotional. 96. 52. 120. 75. 115. 68 employment. 60. 71. 19. 44. 48 election. 44. 104 exposure. 80 empathy. 2001. 42 emotionality. 68. 11. 58. 44. 72. 63. 71. 14. 1. 99 feminism. 18. 85. 81 enterprise. 118 educators. 62 Fink. 18. 76 flex. 13. 72. 36. 7. 65. 26. 65. 14. 3. 28. 60. 63 facilitators. 80. 83. 75 feelings. 4. 9. 14. 60 equity. 9 ethical issues. 46. 117 fiscal policy. 85. 101 environmental advantage. 30. 54. 78. 70. xii. 28. 21. 82 face recognition. 63 elementary school. 99 ethics. 65 Fer. 14. 30. 2005. 52.Index educational research. 56. 22 Folsom. 45. 8. 55. 62. 42. 53. 69. 81. 33. 117 first generation. 12. 48. 3. 1. 78 educational software. 60 foreign policy. 16. 53 formal education. 76. 2. 116 fairness. 44. 59. 76. 2. 63. 51. 21. 122 employees. 18. 86 emotional experience. 51. 22. 76 framing. 74. 117 financial resources. 67. 67. 2. 58. xi. 75 flexibility. 37.
7 Goodlad. 85 Harpaz. 1991. 2005. 14. 1990. Knapp & Sirotnik. 9 handling. 44. 23 Gehrke. 87. 79. 66. 51 freedom. 1993. 34. 8. 50. 7. 11. 118 high school. 20 Goodlad. 59. 37. 41 health. 1992. 16 hedonic. 62 hegemony. 85 harmony. 69. 70. 18. 45. 2007. 45. 22 Guilford. 125 geography. 9. 99. 16 healthcare. 18. 70 helix. 115. 33. 1977. 46. 3 frustration. 49. 14. 40. 72 Hoffman. 49. 31. 74. 69. 117. 37 groups. 98. 43. 38. 6. 75. 26 Gestalt. 73. 80 goal attainment. 76 functional analysis. 106. 27 Handelsman. 47. 1985. 68. 84 higher education. 118. 8 Globalization. 52. 73 gender equality. 49. 1. iv. 48. 44 heart. 77. 122 goal-setting. xii. 13 government. 128 Hayes. 71. 16. 118. 5 happiness. 1995. 3. 73 general education. 20 guilty. 88. 38. 75. 58. 2001. 124 health care. 71. 72 Index group work. 72. 2007. 83. 36. 57 goals. 41. 103. 32. 21. 28. 69 Friedman. 11. 19. 16. 34. 59 Freudian theory. 67. 4. 29. 44. 56. 75. 10 generation. 7 G Gardner. 102. 65. 81. 64. 103 grants. 102. 8 Goleman. 70. 49 Gilligan. 62. 12 Harvard. 2. 1977. 2007. 5. 72. 28. 50. 64 goal setting. 56. 88 harm. 11.176 free recall. 24. 74 guiding principles. 35. 73. 8 holism. 102. 42. 76. 15. 36. 62 funding. 58. 1950. 47 H Hammer & Schifter. 116 guidance. 20 gender. 61. 91 Guilford. 64. 13. 7. 29. 86 heart disease. 5. 8. 35. 77. 9. 21 higher-order thinking. 34. 79 . 111 guidelines. 64 fulfillment. 61. 1984. 58. 75. 122 generalization. 64. 88 heredity. 116 growth. 19 high-level. 4 Handelsman et al. 65 goal-orientation. 65. 71 hiring. Miller & Pfund. x. 124 funds. 121 hearing. 14 gauge. 51. 16. 78. 73 gender role. 76. 40. 43. 54 gifted. 54. 16. 101. 85 heuristic. 80.. 1972. 7 Guilford. 42. 30. 3. 65. 41. 29 full employment. 44.
6. 72. 64. 124 I identity. 22. 18. 78. 1973. 31. 89 intelligence tests. 18. 32. 2. 23. 119. 5. 74 independence. 28 intervention. 95. 87.Index holistic. 80 inclusion. 82 individual differences. 87. 74 humans. 58. 47. 85 interpersonal relationships. 57 honesty. 14 innovation. 59. 120. 121. 69 integration. 69. 97 ill-defined problems. 72. 67. 106. 2. 114 human resources. 73. 18. 21 intimacy. 18. 88. 10 homework. 1989. 58. 59. 94. 124. 121 income. 43. 94 interdependence. 4. 9. 9. 69. 17. 80. 71. 45. 62. 96. 23 individuality. 116. 116. 31. 16. 19. 104. 31. 73. 113. 21 intelligence. 123. 85 interrelationships. 114. 78. 125. 2. 11. 101 interview. 125 177 industry. 62. 96. 43. 44. 11. 82. 115. 113 industrial. 7. 13. 104. 121. 95. 4. 2. 121 interference. 77. 87 Islamic. 127 . 48. 112. 113. 65. 74. 80 intrusions. 74. 93 interdisciplinary. 8. 12. 116 incentives. 4. 68. 16. 9. 124 investment. 75. 37. 76. 127 interpersonal relations. 37. 125 Hollingsworth. 73 horizon. 4. 105. 61 infrastructure. 61 Horn & Knapp. 102 intellect. 48. 126. 13. 127 Innovation. 20. 50. 55 human. 6 intentions. 127 interviews. 74. 123. 59 insurance. 50 imagination. 101 illusion. 48. 20 hopelessness. 70. 76 Information Age. 118 illicit substances. 115 inferences. 48. 114. 119 hypothesis. 55. 74 income support. 35. 65. 43. 35. 97. 69 intellectual skills. 86 human experience. 124 human activity. 72. 19. 105 IQ. 23. 59 human development. 10 inflation. 5. 77. 59. 69 institutions. 8. 54. 75. 68. 14. 15 House. 117 human behavior. 22. 18. 117. 8. 5. 28. 112 interaction process. 88 instruments. 2. 13. 55. 98. x. 93. 72. 64 interaction. 100 incidence. 122 insight. 19 induction. 85. x. 114 information processing. 67 indication. 37. 73. 105 human virtue. 46 intellectual development. 39. 86. 81. 62. 73. 92. 86 isolation. 5. 96 interactions. 118 instruction. 127 household. 119. 81. 95. 21. 116. x. 23. 19. 16 implementation.
8. 38. 68. 33 literacy. 101 lifestyles. 38. 122 learners. 71 location. 2004. 71. 100 likelihood. 103. 97. 22. 93. 56. 13 Lewis & Smith. 1975. 102. 45. 73. 98. 93. 6 life forms. 33. 32. 74 leadership. 66. 106. 10 Liberal Party. 113. 107. 60 lesson plan. 67. 60. 99. 87. 23. 33. 10. 95. 17 law. 34. 44. 18 job creation. 53 man-made. 24. 67. 72. 70 King. 6. 21. 68. 112 lifestyle. 66 mapping. 68 Jordan. 1998. 79. 21 language. 2009. 70. 48. 55 limitations. 86. 59. 26. 19. 71. 14. 111. 9. 68. 31. 104. 25. 73. 23. 56 longitudinal study. 55. 47 learning task. 11 learning environment. 126 late-stage. 65. 27. 9. 49 learning disabilities. 35 market. 69. 76 M machinery. 94. 28. 3. 73. 107 magnetic. 102. 36 linear. 11. 30. 29. 36. 80. 90. 4. 8 Kuhn & Dean. 29. ix. 71 lens. 3. 112. 78 justice. 11. 10 love. 83 manpower. 116. 105. 1. 22. 70. 39. 32 . 65. 71. 116. 121 K Keynesian. 70. xii. 41 lesson presentation. 116. 126 lying. 2. 92. 71 lack of confidence. 31. 115. 70 jobless. 94 major decisions. 54. 56. 68. 66. 33. 5. 124 manners. 126. 108 L labour. 48 London. 76 labour force. iv mainstream. 34. 19. 10. 45. 65. 48. 71. 18. 15. 1993. 66. 95. 82 legislation. 92. 66. 1955. 127 long period. 72. 20. 100. 75 maladaptive. 123 linkage. 67. 44 management. 94. 88 lobbying. 79 maintenance. 5. ix. 21. 18 Jersild. 1. 1 judgment. 45 Jordan. 29. 89 Kohlberg. 72. 91. 8. 31. 82 learning outcomes. 36. 66. 72 learning styles. xi. 66. 24. 5. 96.178 Index J Jensen. 12. 122 manipulation. 98. 29 judges. 72 life experiences. 102 marketing. 43. Schwartz & McGhie-Richmond. 8. 15. 7. 36. 22. 33 Mackintosh. 4. 38. 70 labour market. 37. 69. 2. 25. 3.
113. x. 118 Meeker. 70 mass media. 1984. 76 morality. 108. 54. 33. 71. 55. 57. ix. 70. 36 mental state. 20. 75 network. 75 N nation. 115. 54 O objective criteria. 92. 97 neurobiology. 96. 22 mood. 76 maturation. 121 matrix. 68. 61. 58. 13. 3. 44 natural. 97 MIT. 7 motion. 74 New York Times. 62. 46. 36. 103 multivariate. 8. 103 marxist. 73. 21 music. 123 misconceptions. 71 men. 126 Nietzsche. 94 marketing strategy. 42 objectivity. 34. 1. 68. 8 Noddings. 21. 33. 30. 77 mathematics. 57. 40. 68. 45 179 moral development. 124. 37. 76. 37. 18. 83 measures. 44. 69. 49. 19. 2005. 2. 116 multidimensional. 104 multiplicity. 44. 6 mental capacity. 46. 126 negative mood. 51. 82 movement. 61. 60. 70. 50 metaphor. 49. 73. 61. 88 neuroscientists. 2003. 4. 12. 57. 29. 74. 58. 10. 19. 16. 30. 2005. 62. 95. 35. 57 non-profit. 7 monkeys. 65.. 28. 18. 10. 51. Gregson & Higgins. 51. 66. 59. 47 Minnesota. 1979. 31. 76. 72. 92 Noddings. 72. 54 moral behavior. 54. 32. 61. 64. 48 Millennium. 49 minority. 83 media. 101 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 114. 7 mental ability. 8. 15. 32 money. 96 marketplace. 44 modules. 7 multidisciplinary. 58 motivation. 59. 97 novelty. 9 obligations. 69 Moseley et al. 128 modeling. 71 neuroscience. 1995. 20 Meeker. 68 meanings. 71. 54 negativity. 58. 41. 76 neoliberalism. 7. 72. 88 mastery. 71. 38. 104 misunderstanding. 69. 70 mirror. 59. 37 metacognitive knowledge. 27. 92 measurement. 60 middle schools. 120 mental states. 92. 52. 54 . Elliott. 14 Moseley. 116 neglect. 112. 34. 31. 31. 64 muslim. 68. 56. 58. 75. 42. 101. 70. 52. 120 metacognition. 66. 56. 20 memory. 21.Index marketing mix. 63. 6. 78 neoliberal. 48. 18 noise. 47. 113 models.
97 personality. 79. 27. 72. 69. 56 preference. 97. 6. 109 open space. 71. 34. 65. 5 priming. 4 play. 125. 119 parent involvement. 53. 33 population. 70. 76 Portugal. 61 openness. 1. 105 orientation. 19. 75. 84 parental participation. 35. 60 politeness. 74 premiums.180 observations. 19. 64. 83. 3. 39. 95 oral. 44. 64. 78. 108 Plato. 5. 69 Piagetians. 65 poor. 15. 114. 68. 95. 27. 94 philosophy. 127 pragmatic. 107. 85 pedagogy. 42. 84. 17. 2006. 21. 37 online. 90 positive relation. 4 P paradigm shift. 76. 62. 50. 27. 33 pragmatism. 104 Piagetian. 8 perception. 53. 80. 74 preservice teachers. 79 power. 28. 99 pessimism. 60. 75 . 47. 93 plurality. 3. 128 platforms. 107 paradox. 6. 9. 40. 48. 78 optimization. 11. 27. 124. 68. 75. 27. 62. 108 preventive. 75. 25. 20 Pink. 54. 101 pendulum. 31. 3 partnerships. 50 personal welfare. 42. 72. 47. 59 policy makers. 122 pleasure. 20. 63. 10 optimism. 57. 108. 91 pluralist society. 26. 2. 55. 64. 58. 70. ix. 10. 63. 93. 85 peer. 67. 68. 101 Partnership for 21st Century Skills. 107. 24. 4. 15. 61 printing. 10. 27 Index philosophical. 43. 77. 74. 53. 5. 68. 72. 113 originality. 15. 69. 71. 16. 16 parents. 77. 4. 91 policy instruments. 106. 78. 26. 106. 27. 23 pressure. 52. 3 planning. 93 opposition. 4. 75. 36 praxis. 34 orthogonality. 1. 5. 30 Oncology. 61 Osburn & Mumford. 40 Ogle. 24. 46 organic. 1986. 102 pathways. 76 politics. 36 pre-existing. 83. 8. 60. 52. 11. 72. 98 primacy. 40. 36. 59. 83. 97. 66. 17. 63 persuasion. 75. 70. 63 policy making. 81. 79 positive relationship. 71. 76. 57. 52. 29. 41. 125 personal goals. 104. 30. 2006. 74 prediction. 60. 85 parenting. 22. 123 perceptions. 66. 79. 65. 92 premium. 32 obstruction. 73. 56 pedagogical. 84 pluralism. 59. 29. 27 prevention. 13 open-mindedness. 83 politicians. 101. 32. 46. 4.
45. 55. 94. 67. 33. 27. 122 recall. 42. 64. 72. 41. 71. 66. 8. 56. 43. 119 production. 3. 75. 46 professions. 6. 121 profit. 18. 53. 22. 15. 68 recognition. 8. 80 181 Q quality of life. 40. 29. 7 random. 32 recession. 12 reading. 93. 65. 101 rejection. 17 protocol. 51 real time. 55. 77. 52. 92. 105. 13. 16. 97. 70. xi. 30. 32. 58. 73. 39. 52. 10. 73 professional development. 71. x. 60. 32. 53. 51. 55. 77 punctuated equilibrium. 63. 41. 38. 21. 70. 21. 21. 84 regulations. 76. 13. 73. 63 rationality. 65. 19. 14. 67. 51. 70. 105 protection. 55. 71. 83 proliferation. 126 Ravitch. 73 psychology. 92 public. 16. 10. 112. 103 public support. 21. 24. 9. 84. 126 questioning. 77. 125 reasoning. 46 problem-solving strategies. 36. 61. 31. x. 82. 119. 21. 118. 64. 72. 120 prudence. 31 product design. 1. 27. 60. 49. 19. 69. 71 public schools. 60 probe. 73 regulation. 69. 2. 37. 64. 63. 115. 25. 16. 83. 40. 1. 17. 71. 31. 61 proposition. 66. 73 regional unemployment. 118. 45. 33. 75 rational expectations. 76. 65. 4. 65. 16. 1997. 6 Rayner & Riding. 63. 5. 119. 64 probability distribution. iv. 49. 63. ix. 54. 7. 98 relationship. 23. 116 reality. 77. 37. 103 privatization. 67 recalling. 6. 22. 13. 71 reading comprehension. 32 problem solving. 21. 66. . 72. 15. 4. 42 public sector. 51. 70. 119 problem space. 32. 51. 20. 71 reflection. 35 realism. 34. 65 psychologist. 74. 68. 74. 59. 10. 10. 98 reconstruction. 64. 73. 54. 73. 99 probability. 63. x. 17. 18. 52. 59. 120 rapid prototyping. 77. 69 reinforcement. 62. 23 prototyping. 98 program. 5 range. 56. 12 property. 63. 117. 16. 33 problem-solving. 30 private. 124 rat. 63. 38. 61. 77. 82. 125 problem-solving skills. 22. 41. xi. 23 redistribution. 91. 11. 78.Index prior knowledge. 46. 122. 23. 15. 76. 46. 93 R race. 47. 2. 60 pupils. 22. 75. 41. 88 psychotherapy. 76. 10. 6. 9. 120. 92 productivity. 21. 118 regional. 18. 53. 68. 27. 44. 58. 62. 76. 35. 30. 2. 75. 16. 103 public opinion. 2000.
83. 85. 78 sequencing. 35. 20 Riding & Cheema. 31 Rogers. 116 relationship marketing. 47. 4. 108 relationships. 1997. 77 resources. 120. 21 self-control. 100 risk-taking. 62. 78. 103. 84. 74 school. 16 resilience. 31. 107. 97. xi. 101. 5. 12. 81. 117 roadmap. 3 selecting. 2002. 42. 76. 98. 81 resistance. 97. 86 searching. 124 remediation. 49. 102. 112. 93 savings. 35. 80 self-esteem. 70. 79 self-regulation. 86. 42 routines. 17. 21 risk. 19. 12. 16. 28. 81. 6. 83 school work. 98. 67. 100 resource availability. 73. 71 sample. 71. 98. ix. 98. 96. 26 self-organization. 72. 96. 65. 63. 50 Russian. 55. 1991. 121 reliability. 93. 34. 6. 80. 76 rewards. 11. 56 Renzulli. 1. 32 rumination. 78. 33. 20 . 15. 5. 79. 16 representativeness heuristic. 77. 83. 69. 83. 15 sensitivity. 79. 52. 54. 102 school community. 36. 105. 70. 107. 86. 106 Index S salary. xii. 70. 103. 84. 84 self-help. 29. 43. 102. 15. 67. 12. 2. 124 responsibilities. 1987. 15 Riding & Sadler-Smith. 20 satisfaction. 2001. 80. 35. 33 Rimm. 69. 34. 107. 95. 84 self-confidence. 2000. 1982. 108 Relationship Marketing. 59. 26 romantic relationship. 75. 123. 127 search. 88. 62. 22 self-reflection. 60 Self. 97 Richards. 53. 122 restructuring. 66 scaffold. 44. 65 self-assessment. 64. 55. 102. 17. 88 scientific method. 64. 126 roadblocks. 10. 77. 91. 81. 20 resolution. 101. ix. 22 Sarason. 48. 8. 44. 71. 3. 126 risks. 4. 106. 85 schooling. 108. 84 seller. 94. 94. 30. 1. 46 retrenchment. 113. 96. 104. 56. 72. 27. 21. 42. 5. 56 second generation. 4. 64. 42. 91. 1977. 120 relevance. 12. 2. 27 self-awareness. 104. 32 scaffolding. 82. 49 Seifert & Hoffnung. 21. 19. 8 replication. 93. 77. 97 semantic. 38 scheduling. 76. 10. 72. 32. 64. 78. 15. 97. 106. 19 responsiveness. 107. 93. 114 Resnick. 24. 106.182 95. 9. 30. 1986. 35. 19. 24. 104. 7 rhetoric. 122. 96. 88. 60. 117 security. 74. 17 scholarship. 92 self-interest. 49. 87. 72. 64. 80. 25. 66. 25. 105. 74. 11. 108. 14. 53. 58 self-management. 52 representativeness.
35. 95. 119 stakeholders. 7 stages. 86 spouse. 37. 91. 36. 117. 21. 46 solidarity. 21 standards. 60 structural changes. 4. 8. 53. 72 social skills. 67. 100 social cognition. 42. 9. 3. 1991. 11. 104 social development. 29. 21. 8. 124 standardized testing. 44. 24. 19. iv. 35 social work. 1969. 70. 65. 81. 52 strategic planning. 103. 77. 19 social sciences. 7. 35. 11. 1. 26. 72 social behavior. 57. 61 social behaviour. 51. 125 sterile. 7. 118. 87 social relationships. 92 socialization. 26. 23. 71 sounds. 96. 12. 6. 14. 13. 12 short-term. 18. 1999. 96. 47. 47. 13 specialization. 24. 8. 57 speech. 27. 45 social competence. 51 spatial. 63.Index series. 104 Socrates. 104 shaping. 22. 115 SOI. x. 3. 69 structuring. 16. 34. 16 smoking. 37. 94. 50. 55 slaves. 36. 80 social exclusion. 2. 59 stimulus. 46. 114 shape. 69 social capital. 27. 28. 69 similarity. 118 special education. 55 Smith & O'Day. 80 social systems. 60 sites. 76. 6.. 31. 71. 28. 17. 2009. 18. 78. 74 sociology. 11. 47. 74. 26 Stang. ii. 92 spiritual. 54. 42 Sprenger. 27. 58 short-term memory. 76 social environment. 48. 27. 59. 2. 94. 77. 58 signaling. 83. 22. 64 speed. 112 short supply. 37 . 30. 43. 33. 9 spheres. 4 Smith. 51. 51. 87 183 social responsibility. 31. 5 smoke. 53 strategies. 10. 57. 96. 68. 61. 62. 2009. 31. 74. 34. 65. 81 sharing. 41 signals. 3. 9 STEM. 127 strength. 116. 38 Standards. 71 stress. 103 social life. 52. 75 social security. 16 social and emotional learning. 78 social roles. 62 social relations. 102 spectrum. 18 Sputnik. 117 service provider. 69. 102. 13. 100. 27. 25. 56. 50. 2 skills. 6. 70. 34. 121. 8. 62. 8. 40 social phenomena. 47. 4 software. 71. 71 social context. 35. 69 sociologist. 99 social psychology. 96 services. 61. 49 signs. 106 social change. 20. 52. 51. 7 slavery. 2. Carter. 23. 62. Lane & Pierson. 5. 27. 4. skills training. 78 Stang et al. 17. 16. 11. 70 social problems.
49. 1991. 16 syndrome. 72 teacher performance. 46. 13 teacher relationships. 77. 75. 115 Torrance. 43 transcript. 90. 71. 1963. 1983. 1981. 47. 68 surplus. 118. 95. 1970. 15 Torrance. 29 technology. 10. 18 supervision. 3 threat. 1983. 49. 6. Isaksen & Firestein. 1999. 64 Treffinger et al. Thorndike & Hagen. 43. 18 symptoms. 43. 83. 5 trial. 75 trade union. 7 time constraints. 43 translation. 82 student teacher. 80. 14 Treffinger. 56. 5. 54 threshold. 4. 7. 65. 8. 75 subjective. 113. 3. 65 testimony. 91 transference. 124 subjective well-being. 61. 80. 2. 8. 72. 6. 99. 38. 5. 3. 51 Thurstone. 61. 42 threatening. 121 temporal. 9 top-down. 19. 75. 46. 16 transfer. 61 . 70 sympathy. 9. 79. 4 taxonomic. 66. 8. 28 title. 40. 1. 1983. 14. 96. 117. 101 tuition. 40 time consuming. 82 Texas. 63. 6. 8 traction. 66. 71. 11. 111. 7 targets. 47. 67. 123 Index thinking styles. 49. 7. 49. 100 task demands. 120 systems. 69 training. 66 substances. 33. 47 synthesis. 76 typology. 84 teaching strategies. 76. 65. 40. 54 taste. 52. 44. 18. 92 Supreme Court. 115. 1947. 68. xi. 35. 69. 3 Torrance. 32. 57. 6. 57 T Tannenbaum. 56 symbolic. 112. 31 time periods. 56 trust. 4 Treffinger. 57. 27. 113. 13 teacher preparation.184 student achievement. 11 trees. 34 U uncertainty.. 21. 106 textbooks. 8 transmission. 35 suppliers. 104 transformation. 62. 74 survival. 52. 80 sustainability. 56. 98. 47. 12. 5 task difficulty. 8 tracking. Cunningham. 73 trajectory. 34. 45. 48. 46. 6 trade. 114 suspensions. 101 suffering. xi. 79 student motivation. 83 student development. 43 third order. 64. 115 Tomlinson. 66. 59 Thorndike. 73. 2. 2. 121 switching. 14. 1980. 80.
2002. 18. 76. 44. 120 V valence. 40. 66. 4 variables. 54. 78. 11. 1996. 30 Zohar. 69 185 walking. 72. 1979. 69. 69. 11 Weiner. 9. 92. 11. 73 workforce. 73. 60. 124 Van-Tassel Baska. 9. 83. 63 Z Zeichner & Liston. 2000. 73 wellbeing. 62. 20 Zohar. 58. 52. 27 vision. 9 withdrawal. 33 writing. 4. 65. 1993. 65. 27 Y yield. 71. 124 values. 2002. 28. 80. 84 well-being. 78. 34 unemployment. 64 visual stimuli. 19. 71. 98. 21 welfare. 73. 84. 69. 2006. 104. 82. 91. 71. 13. 10. 73 working hours. 68. 52. 119. 27 Wehmeyer. 104. 29. 68. 83. Degani & Vaaknin. 69 victims. 73 working memory.. 72. 46 validity. 18 women. 2001. 121. 12. 1991. 63. 27 Zohar. 106.Index Underbakke et al. 71. 118 Wiggins & McTighe. 1998. 7. 36. 94 vein.. 11. 73. 66 well-defined problems. 56. 123 visual perception. 2001. 9 undergraduate. 69 unions. 13 Underbakke. 7 watershed. 63 well-being. 61. 2000. 3 . 73. 19. 69. 79 variation. 87 worldview. 71. 79. Borg & Peterson. 87 workers. 1999. Agran & Hughes. xi. 1993. 77. 44. 16. 89 violence. 9 W Wagner. 53 voting. 35 workplace. 55. 76 unemployment insurance. 97. 48 voice. 88. 55. 97 welfare state. 52. 81. 66. 10. 31. 19. 61. 9 Vare. 61. 99. 14 Zimmerman. 96. 70. 87. 2004. 1999. 78. 17 vehicles. 39 Zhang. 69. 108 visible. 16 web. 112 Wehmeyer et al. 60. 71 Wolfe. 99 volatility.
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