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International Business Department
Academic Writing in English
. . . . . . . . .
A Handbook for IBA Students Writing a Graduation Thesis in English
Donetsk 2000
ББК 812 Англ Т32
Тодорова Н.Ю. Академічна письмова англійська мова: Посібник для студентів англійської програми спеціальності "Міжнародна економіка", що пишуть дипломну роботу англійською мовою. - Донецьк: Донецький державний технічний університет, 2000. - 79 с. (англійською мовою)
Todorova, N. Academic Writing in English: A Handbook for IBA Students Writing a Graduation Thesis in English. Donetsk: Donetsk State Technical University, 2000. - 79 p.
Посібник містить загальні відомості по підготовці, плануванню, написанню і редагуванню академічного письмового тексту англійською мовою, а також специфічну інформацію з оформлення і презентації дипломних робіт із профілю міжнародна економіка. У якості додатків до посібника включені зразки і довідкові матеріали по граматиці, стилістиці й організації тексту. Зміст посібника носить рекомендаційний характер і грунтується на новітніх методичних розробках, опублікованих за рубежем і в мережі Інтернет. Посібник призначений для студентів англійської програми, що готують дипломний проект до захисту англійською мовою, для студентів фаху "Міжнародна економіка" і "Зовнішньоекономічна діяльність підприємств", що вивчають курс "Ділове спілкування" англійською мовою. Довідник також може становити інтерес для фахівців, що оформляють результати своїх досліджень письмово англійською мовою.
(с) Тодорова Н.Ю., 2000
2 Contents INTRODUCTION 1 PREPARATION OF RESEARCH 1.1 Definition of the Problem 1.1.1 Manuscript Format 3.3 Proofreading and Editing 3.3 Speaking Diagram 4.2 Paragraph Structure 3 OUTWARD APPEARANCE 3.4 Writing with Computers 4 THESIS PRESENTATION 4.3 Reliability of Research 2 THESIS STRUCTURE 2.1 Compulsory Elements 2.6 Visualization APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D APPENDIX E APPENDIX F APPENDIX G BIBLIOGRAPHY Title page Sample Abstract Transitional Devices Elements of Style Grammar Check List Punctuation Guide Making Presentation with PowerPoint 3 5 5 7 10 13 13 13 27 29 32 32 34 36 40 43 43 44 46 48 50 54 59 60 61 63 66 70 73 74 .1.2 Speech Structure 4.4 Use of Language 4.2 Optional Elements 2. 1 Presentation Technique 4.1 Chapter Structure 2.2 Planing the Research 1.5 Behavior 4.2 Quoting and Citation of Sources 3.
on his opinions. journalism. The first lesson is that writing struggles for form and voice to make itself understood. However. then read no further. the questions incite and answers illustrate. sometimes you find the answers. write. · Talk positively. and you may think more creatively. asking how something can be proved true. This will give you a sense of control and help you feel that you are moving towards completion. showing you ways to organize and structure your writing to you rescue order from chaos. thinks of writing as a process and not just as a product. Many students believe that a good writer is simply born that way. · Give yourself air. raising questions. for the first draft.3 INTRODUCTION Many students wait until the last minute to write papers. Your individual writing strategy being under the impact of this myth. they are not imprinted on people from birth like fingerprints or awarded to the lucky few. He is willing to admit that he might be wrong. often you raise the questions. adding one person's opinion to a pile of others. A good writer also asks about his own biases and conditioning. it can hinder the lessons which a good writer learns from experience and turns into habits of mind. A good writer thinks. second draft. · Turn the One Big Deadline into a series of smaller deadlines set by yourself. hoping that the pressure of deadlines will force out well-organized facts and deep analysis directly onto the page. he looks for many meanings instead of just one. It means noticing relationships. Thinking of writing as a process will help you with the problem of time. Try to balance time for reflection and imaginative thinking with time for writing and rewriting. Evaluating your habits of composing can help you see where you bog down. When the words work. A good writer takes time. and rewrite. first of all. and dates. Thinking about the process from beginning to end may help you see where you can find more time to think. That sense of control may make your thinking clearer and your writing stronger. films. even if you do not feel positive. A good writer tries to balance thinking about a subject with thinking about the approach to the subject. This handbook is a means to improve your writing. names. if your graduation paper topic puts you out on a limb. it is you who make the choice of words and paragraphs. You do not have such a luxury: deadlines are strict and make you proceed. or has lucked into a procedure for getting words on paper quickly and easily. At such moments this handbook might prove useful. If you can write good papers at the last minute and feel good about doing so. then you get the authority. about the influence of popular opinion. A good writer seeks definitions of the terms he uses or is asked to use. #intro] . etc. and looks for ways in which he can be right without being dogmatic. testing feelings and opinions. or if the papers turn out to be not as good as they might be. But simply reading it and following its suggestions will not help you be a good writer. From this belief come other good habits which the writer learns from writing. You can learn them if you want to. But if you find yourself feeling uneasy with your writing expertise. But thinking is not the same thing as filling your head with facts. Take breaks between periods of writing so that you can relax and come back refreshed. TV. A good writer. [Snively. then consider a change of habit.
the purpose of this handbook is to help you to become a better writer . we look at the initial steps you should take before getting down to writing. To become a good writer you will need to develop and practice good judgment.given the time you have to write and edit. Second. A paper revision asks you to reevaluate your idea for logic. . And finally. and clarity. In addition. Learning to revise can help every stage of writing improve. and to make your words presentable. and not a lot of rules. we approach the structure of your future text. we define how the paper should look like and to what extent we should bother ourselves preparing an attractive layout. it will give you a sense of competence. something a first draft should never have to be. This practical and reasonable approach to writing determined the structure of the book.not a perfect writer . persuasiveness. The topics included into this guide are suggestions not infallible rules. First.e.4 A good writer revises. We hope that guidelines presented in this book will enable you to write effectively and hit the goals you pursue. Knowing that you are going to revise will release you of the pressure to make the first draft perfect. which increases with every paper. how to present your paper so that all its/your merits are noticeable and properly appreciated. Third. Thus. we consider the issue of "selling" your written product to the public effectively. for it is good judgement. i. that ultimately should influence what you say and how you say it. Becoming your own editor will strengthen your sensitivity to words and their work.
5 1 PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH 1. Many rush into writing without knowing exactly what for they do this research. Bearing in mind the demands to the graduation thesis. or its part. a policy-making definition of the problem is a question. it serves as the guideline for the reader of the report. you will have very vague criteria for selecting the necessary data. the definition of the problem is a springboard and directive of the research to be carried out. On the one hand. which should be answered with a proposal or recommendation. Having phrased the topic of the diploma thesis. which should be not only outlined but also accounted for. what will be its purpose and practical value. on its basis. The conclusion should consist of the answers to the question you have posed. Therefore. . The definition of the problem is a question stipulating a problem or a situation. many students think that this is enough for them to start writing. You must demonstrate how with the help of your theoretical background you can solve a certain problem of a firm. In other words. This may be a client. The definition of the problem performs a dual function. Reporting. 125]: before creating the definition of the problem you should think about reason for writing. Usually this is a company you had a workplacement at. a point of view. This is a main question you should answer in the course of your thesis. Your research should approach the subject and solve the problem from a certain point of view. That is why you should be able to substantiate not only the results of your research. how your research findings can contribute to a business decision making. To create a good definition of the problem it is not enough to phrase the theme of the thesis in a question form. you can consider your definition of the problem satisfactory and operational if it explicitly states a purpose. but also your approach. Being stated in the introduction. The practical part of your thesis is a policy proposal.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM It is impossible to carry out serious research and a good structure of the graduation thesis without a clear definition of the problem. will lead to irrelevant and vague results. which in its turn. As far as your graduation thesis should contain a practical policy proposal. a clear definition of all special terminology used in that question. 5-11]. propose a practical policy making research. Here it is time we referred to the four R's of planning [Northey. In this case. about receiver. sources and methods. define restrictions and research. it is important to state your practical purpose. Such strategy may result in wasting too many efforts for irrelevant activity. it will help the reader determine whether the report is of interest and forecast its development [Braas. On the other hand. a business plan. a firm or organization that experience the problem you are going to solve. In a policy making part of your thesis you try to recommend your client what he should do in a certain situation and what steps he should take to solve a problem. you should first carry out a profound scientific analysis of the subject matter chosen and then.
e. How will the market share of the Joint Stock company NORD develop in the next five years?) Having described your subject you may need to evaluate its state. * a descriptive analytic character (e. Asking and answering subquestions during the research you logically approach responding the main question of your thesis. to accumulate knowledge on the subject. even a small-scale survey. It is but natural as you need to carry out an exploratory research first. favorable. What measures should the Prominvestbank introduce to increase the efficiency of plastic credit cards? (point of view + purpose) This definition of the problem is not good enough yet because it lacks restrictions and may provoke questions of the reader: Prominvestbank as a whole or a definite branch? domestic or international credit cards? what is meant by 'efficiency'? This definition can be further improved as follows: "What measures should Donetsk Regional Branch of Prominvestbank introduce to increase profitability of issuing domestic credit cards?" Of course. .g. forecast possible future developments.g. Your subquestions for this stage of research may be of * a purely descriptive character (e. The purpose of the exploratory research is to find out what exactly you are going to study and whether the problem you want to study has been investigated before and to what extent. What are the causes of tax evasion by Ukrainian small businesses?) * a descriptive predictive character (e. efficiency. Remember that if you definition of the problem is wide and not specified.g. interviews. How has the Ukrainian market of domestic credit cards developed in the past five years?).g. profitability. The latter is important because if somebody has already researched this problem it is useless to do the same thing again. more successful.) or 'comparative' labeling (e. dangerous.g. looking through the company files. more efficient. good. profitable. you start your graduation research with a very vague question about the subject. you will have nothing to defend. etc than something else).g. Exploratory research usually involves study of the specialist literature. your can hardly develop a clear strategy recommendations and. To approach your subject you firstly need to describe the present situation. reports. analyze the causes of the problem. and book-keeping documents etc. thus. So the next step of your research should be determined by an evaluative definition of the problem which is aimed at giving either 'absolute' labeling (e. Unless you phrase your definition of the problem in the advice-seeking form. On this stage you will be able to formulate some hypotheses which will help you to proceed.6 E. etc.g. etc. To what extent is the present Ukrainian law on investments effective to guarantee the property rights of foreign investors? You simply can not write a policy making report without going through descriptive and evaluative phases of research. Once the main question is defined you can work out the approach to you research and formulate definitions of secondary problems. All this should help you specify your research problem and make it practical enough to start the research. your thesis is sure to be criticized for superfluous analysis. cheaper. competitive.
7 1. poor economy cheap imports Rule No 1: Use only one principle of classification per joint to avoid overlapping or incomplete structuring. Rule No 3: the tree should be as symmetrical as possible. Example of a tree diagram: budget cut Advertising Weakness Reasons for Drop in Sales Product Lag outdated design new features needed stale approach Price Resistance There are the following rules for using the tree. But if used correctly it helps you avoid taking too narrow path of the research and overlooking important alternatives and aspects. Rule No 2: each joint should have a complete set of branches that are mutually exclusive and do not overlap.2 PLANING THE RESEARCH While deciding on research you can use various strategies to approach the subject. The tree should be read from left to right. You may use brainstorming or a journalistic approach asking the "W's" of reporting: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? After you have collected some material on your subject you may use tree-diagramming to create the preliminary structure of your thesis [Braas. every start of the new branch is called 'a joint'. Aiming at symmetry you may come across the elements you would not have thought of otherwise. A tree does not produce a ready-made chapter and section structure. Usually not all elements of the tree occur as a chapter and section structure. But as your reader will expect to find them in your report you are obliged to inform the reader that you are leaving some elements out and explain why. catchwords. A tree is a diagram which by means of its branches shows the relationships between the pieces of information. It provides you with a complete and structured survey of the main elements of your subject. It does not mean that you must include them in research. Reporting. Your subject can be structured according to four basic principles of classification: * (sub)theme . or even those which you do not want to include in your thesis. the information is labeled by short phrases. 13-26].
parties involved. 4.1 The product . 14-25]. (method of investigation) description of X analysis of X research into problem X possible solutions to X evaluation of solutions E. But the visual presentation of the structure is not of less importance. aspects.g. Factory Data Collection Systems 2. and the strategies mentioned above are to contribute to it. Reporting.2.1 Flexible Production Automation (FPA) 2. Rule No 1: never skip the level of classification. Example: (missing level of classification) 2.1.1 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP) 2. Example (unnecessary level of classification) 4.1 Product development Introduction 4.2 Purpose of MRP 2. And to ensure this you should follow the rules of hierarchy [Braas. E. (types) securities shares debentures options put options call options The clarity of the written thesis is determined by the logic of the structure.2.g. possible causes and possible solutions.1. parts.2 Purpose of FPA Rule No 2: never add unnecessary level of classification.8 * place * time * method of investigation The nature of the (sub)theme determines the classification: the subject can be classified according to types.1.
. Conclusion .3 3.1/2.2 2.......... .....1/3. It is possible to give logical arguments in favor of your proposal by answering the following six questions (so-called standard matters in dispute) in affirmative: 1.4 3.3 2.. Is the policy proposal feasible? 5.4 ........... After you have created a preliminary structure of your thesis it is time for you to think how you can convince the reader that your policy proposal is expedient... Is the problem caused by the present policy? 4.. Is the policy proposal effective? .... Example: (inconsistent subdivision) 2..... Introduction .....3 4.. ..... Concluding The titles of 2............ And this similarity should be applied in every chapter........ 2....1 3.....3 RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH ARGUMENTATION While preparing your research you should also ensure that the policy proposal you put forward is trustworthy and worth considering.....4 Past (1985-1995) Present (1995-1999) Future (2000-2010) Rule No 3: be consistent in applying (sub)divisions.1 2.. 1................. 3.... Is the problem serious? 3... General .....4 should be similar..9 4. In this section we will consider argumentation of your research and collecting information as two prerequisites which make your thesis reliable..2 3....4 and 3. Is there a problem? 2.2 4..
When formulating your definition of the problem you answer the first standard matter in dispute. . manpower. 'Is there a problem?' Any policy proposal is aimed at changing something. Questions 1-3 refer to the current situation and policy. [Braas. in other words. Few businesses evading tax payment are not a serious problem for the country. efforts. but majority of companies which regularly evade paying taxes produce a huge problem for the national budget. Opponent to the proposal may object that it is not the application procedure but women themselves are 'to blame': they do not have executive abilities or not ambitious enough to take top management positions. the first thing you check is whether there really is a problem. So when someone makes a policy proposal. to carry out your proposal. Some problems can be only solved by abolishing the current policy altogether. If the problem is not mentioned. but there is no need to change anything if there is no problem which must be solved. there is no use proposing the perfection of application procedure. For substantial and complete argumentation it is also crucial for prove effectiveness of your proposal. The next step of your argumentation is feasibility of your proposal. Imposing severe fines for polluting the environment might solve ecological problems in some area. The supporter of the policy proposal should also demonstrate that the problem is serious either in size or in nature. time etc." What is the practical value of such a paper? The very sense of the whole work is cancelled by such phrase.10 6. this proposal can hardly be effective. time spent for its solution do not balance the 'suffering'). A minor problem does not deserve measures (money. 'who's to blame?' It is distressing when at the end of the graduation thesis the author writes. In order to be able to solve the problem you must know what caused it. The very existence of the problem does not mean that drastic measures are needed. your argumentation is not complete. Argumentation. unless the author can prove that the problem is caused by the current policy. Argumentation. Do the advantages of the policy proposal balance its disadvantages? [Braas. "The implementation of this business plan is only possible when Ukraine is out of crisis. To defend the proposal the author must prove that the problem mentioned is caused by imperfection of the present application procedure (the current policy). but if the plant-pollutants refuse to pay these fines because they do not have money. Example (cause of the problem) The problem of the research is no women working at top management positions of large production companies. Unless you prove that the problem you study is serious. The policy proposal is to introduce the preferential treatment of women in application procedures. Thorough calculations are a good proof that you have sufficient money. 22]. in other cases only slight adjustments of the present policy may be sufficient. 23]. the argumentation is not complete. Thus. while questions 4-6 are about the new policy proposal.
whether it is an opinion.both in scientific research or in a company's practice . Thus. book accounting software is a missed advantage and an extra problem of the traditional methods policy. consult somebody who is. If you have to get fresh data through a questionnaire or survey. but alongwith creates new ones. You can then shuffle the cards according the order you have stipulated for the findings. any policy proposal needs cost-benefit analysis. electronic files available in the Internet. A new policy may have extra advantages which the current policy does not have. periodicals.11 And finally. Reinventing the wheel does nobody any good [Northey. make sure that the results are as reliable and valid as possible.internal records and the employees themselves. Use a separate card for each different item of the information you gather . This is called missed advantage. A short telephone enquiry or interview with the company's executives may save your valuable research time and give helpful suggestions for your study. To be convincing in your argumentation you are to play the devil's advocate. Remember that a source with a special interest may exaggerate or gloss over certain information. do not overlook the most accessible source of information . remember to include the bibliographical description on the card (author. Drafting the content of your thesis is much easier if the sequence of information is already in front of you. [Braas. place and year of . That is why the supporter of a new proposal is to give arguments why the advantages (both the problem solved by a new policy and the advantages missing in the current policy) balance the disadvantages of proposal. you may find that file cards are an efficient way to record and keep track of details. 24-25] So. Establish whether any information you use for your research need verifying. In doing such a lengthy research as a graduation thesis. If you are doing your thesis on a particular company or organization. 128-129]. For example. But taking into account how laborious the traditional book accounting methods are.have worked on the topic. Argumentation. Even statistical data should undergo scrutiny. then this proposal is not worth implementing. title. important statistics or a quotation. While collecting data for your thesis it is sensible to find out if other people . WORKING WITH SOURCES Another aspect of your research reliability is relevant information. something can become a problem in the light of a better alternative. The cost of obtaining outside help may be less than the cost of losing your credibility through faulty data. If you are not familiar with some sampling techniques. If you are gathering information from a published source. you ought to prove that they do not overweigh its advantages. if you pay attention to all six standard matters in dispute and answer all those questions in affirmative. and being aware of all probable disadvantages of your proposal. you are certain to provide your policy proposal with complete argumentation and it will sound reliable. If your proposal solves one problem. While preparing your research you are to carry out an 'office' and academic study working with published sources such as books. book accounting can be carried out by means of traditional methods and by computer technologies. publisher. which are as bad or even worse than the one solved.
1.1) so that you do not have to spend time chasing down the reference later and compiling a list of bibliography.12 publication and page number .for bibliography format see subchapter 2. .
without any title on or with the inscription "Graduation Thesis" on the language of the thesis .1. Ukrainian or Russian. you should remember that it has two functions: it provides information about the content of the thesis.1 CHAPTER STRUCTURE COMPULSORY ELEMENTS COVER A graduation thesis is an official document. so unlike other written reports its cover should be strict of a dark color either plain. the author and thesis supervisor and it should strictly correspond to the officially accepted form (See Appendix A).13 2 THESIS STRUCTURE A complete graduation thesis usually contains the following parts: · cover · title page · abstract · contents · (foreword) · introduction · body · conclusion · (afterword) · (notes) · bibliography (references) or list of notes · appendix(es) The parts in brackets are optional. so. The other parts are compulsory for a graduation thesis. Here you state the title of the thesis. 2.English. TITLE PAGE A title page gives official information about the subject of the thesis. . We will briefly describe them below. It should arouse the reader's interest. you should try to create a catching title. While phrasing the title. so it should be informative and short.1 2.
It is a convenience for the reader and may be the only part which one reads. Make sure that your abstract is informational. It is a synopsis . restrictions. Instead of writing: "In chapter three we compared the advantages of the new system of production engineering at the plant with the old one" it is better to write: "Compared with the old system of production engineering. methods. depending upon the length of the report (10% or less of the report. Reprinted from Griffin (373) ABSTRACT An abstract is a condensation of the most important points of your thesis. purpose and point of view of the research. Most attention should be paid to your own analysis. It should not take more than one page and never has a chapter number.14 To combine these two functions of the title is not an easy task. scope.the report condensed. not more than 500 words) · allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report . conclusions. results. Usually you should provide a brief account of the background and methodology. may exist and make sense without it. lower costs. an informative title is the best. It is an independent piece of text which. though reflecting the content of the thesis. higher efficiency." Informational abstracts · · · · communicate contents of reports include purpose. For a graduation thesis. An abstract is printed on a separate page with a heading and goes immediately after the title page. definition of the problem. not descriptive.from a paragraph to a page or two. but the abstract does not have to give equal weight to all sections of the report. and recommendations. the new one has the following advantages: less administrative work. You should stick to the main lines of your thesis. and recommendations highlight essential points are short . you can add a subtitle which will be informative. conclusions. State subject. But if you decide in favor of a catching title.
You will put in too much or too little information. Revise your rough draft to · correct weaknesses in organization and coherence. conclusions. number of illustrations. Consider the main parts of the abstract listed in step #1. 3. write a rough draft WITHOUT LOOKING BACK AT YOUR REPORT. Ø it reflects the structure of the report. 2. scope. or simply "Contents". CONTENTS The "Table of Contents". and recommendations. tables. Look specifically for these main parts: purpose. and correct errors in grammar and structure. Ø page numbers should be put in a vertical line on the right-hand side of the page. appendices. has two basic functions: Ø it serves as a guide and enables the reader to look up parts of the report and it must state the page numbers for each chapter and section. Stick to the facts. In the interest of brevity: Ø Ø Ø use lists where possible. Reread your report with the purpose of abstracting in mind. follow these four steps: 1. · eliminate wordiness. . all notional words should be capitalized. To make use of these functions effectively you should bear in mind the following: Ø create a clear visual presentation of the table of contents: always skip a line between the various chapters. 4. (See Appendix B for a sample abstract) To write an effective report abstract. · drop superfluous information. unless the example is a key finding. In the title. Do not summarize information in a new way. · add important information originally left out. Type your revision and carefully proofread the typed copy. Do not merely copy key sentences from your report. and references. omit examples. Ø make sure that the titles in the table of contents match the ones used in the text of your thesis. methods. Ø list of key words – from 5 to 15 words and word combinations. After you have finished rereading your report. results. avoiding unneeded references to the report itself.15 The abstract should state Ø the information about the volume of your thesis. indent to mark a section and indent more to mark a subsection. Ø text of the abstract. 5.
mit. for oil exporting nations the shocks meant new riches and opportunity . as a very large fraction (or all) of oil generated revenues accrue to the government. oil exporting countries faced very large negative wealth shocks that severely darkened their prospects of economic growth and prosperity. when the shocks were reversed in the 1980s. While for importing countries the largely unexpected price increases of the 1970s led to recession and economic turmoil. Ø the exact definition of the problem alongwith the purpose and point of view of the research. In other words. facts for your thesis. exporters are forced once again to adjust their government budgets and revise downward growth expectations. oils price shocks affect their economies first and foremost through the fiscal channel. Then.which in most cases did not come true. taking along the fortunes of countries for which oil is a significant source of government revenue. a key element in the transmission mechanism of these shocks into the rest of the economy. as the price of oil is down to its lowest level in the 1990s and importing nations enjoy the cheap energy. Today. so that the reader knows what to expect. the introduction resembles a contract which the writer makes with the reader. 10-15] (for the full text of the thesis and complete list of dissertations see: http://theses. who are main luminaries and authorities in this sphere. INTRODUCTION The final introduction to the thesis should be better written when the body of report has been completed. You can use as a sample the following introduction to the thesis titled "The Fiscal Response to Oil Shocks" for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics written and defended by Luis Videgaray-Caso in June 1998 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology [MIT Theses. The main objective of this dissertation is to improve our understanding of the way in which the fiscal policy of nations that produce and export crude oil responds to changes .edu/) After decades of stability. The way in which governments adjust their expenditure and revenue policies is. during the past 25 years the price of oil has shifted back-andforth from historical lows to unprecedented highs. therefore. and representative are they? Ø the general structure of the thesis. Ø the restrictions to the research and justification of these restrictions. The Table of Contents to this manual may serve you as an example of how this part should look like in your thesis.16 Ø Never include the table of contents in the table of contents. The Introduction should make clear what the report will be about. what is the present state of the field investigated and gaps which need solution. is not given a chapter number and it should not exceed two pages. Usually the introduction is printed on the separate page. To petroleum exporting nations. The following elements are compulsory for a good introduction: Ø justification of the subject and the external frame of the subject: you should convincingly explain why the subject you have chosen is interesting and important for your profile and professional competence. complete. Ø the method of investigation: how did you gather and analyze data. how recent.
a reduced-form time-series model looks only at statistical properties of the history of the oil price over more than a century in order to draw conclusions about the underlying law of motion. First. the empirical identification of the determinants of revenue and expenditure policies is an elusive goal. The experiment in this thesis is a powerful tool to look after the fly-paper effect in the national governments level.as opposed to the mean-reverting Markov-switching process featured here. and more broadly. they tend to spend most of it themselves . Finally. which outperforms both linear reduced-form models that do not consider structural change. Third. they are essentially exogenous for many countries that do not play role in price determination. when market control shifted early in the decade from oil companies to producing nations. The budgetary impact of these shocks is considerably larger than that of the shocks to the public budget commonly studied in the public finance literature. The second modeling principle is allowing for structural change to take place over time. The first is reduced-form analysis. there is rich diversity in the characteristics of the countries suitable for this study. to the response of fiscal policy to public wealth shocks in general. who eventually raised prices. oil shocks have been both positive and negative. Economists have many theories that try to explain fiscal policy and the size of government but only very limited ways to test them. the shocks are quite large: the value of the shocks in a year was as high as 1. and this variation can be a powerful tool for understanding the determinants of fiscal behavior. indicating that over the last 127 years the price of oil has switched back-and-forth between a "low-mean/low-variance/high-persistence regime" and a "high-mean/highvariance/low-persistence" regime. in particular those that have taken place starting in 1973. Instead of trying to explain and predict the behavior of the real price of crude oil in terms of the underlying supply and demand structures are done in structuring modeling. half GDP for Norway and Tunisia. Oil shocks in exporter countries are good natural experiments that serve this purpose for several reasons. Because government influences almost every economic variable that we observe. The three essays that follow address four main issues which are key to understanding how this mechanism operates: What has been the size (present value) of the shocks? How should government respond to oil shocks? How have government responded to oil shocks over the last 25 years? Do political institutions determine the fiscal response to oil shocks? By providing answers to these questions.2 times GDP for Venezuela. The model provides strong statistical evidence favoring the presence of changes in regime. . and a third of GDP for Indonesia . The model yields a rational expectations forecasting tool. Both principles are achieved by applying Hamilton's Markov regime switching model to a long annual series of the real price of crude oil. The first essay (chapter 1) examines the long-run statistical properties of the price of crude oil. defined as the change in the present discounted value of oil revenues.as opposed to transferring it to society. The motivation relies on the historical record of events in the international oil market.17 in value of petroleum assets.just to name some examples. An important finding of those studies is the so-called "fly-paper" effect: when state and local governments receive a windfall. this dissertation contributes to our understanding of links between oil price fluctuations and fiscal policy. The argument in chapter 1 is that these events introduce non-linearities (structural breaks) in the stochastic process of the oil price which should be a feature of any complete univariate description of the process. To many observers it appears that the workings on the international oil market were significantly altered in the decade of the 1970s. Oil exporting nations are different along many economic. Second. The resulting estimates of the wealth effects of price shocks are smaller than those obtained in the previous literature. It develops a forecasting model of the real price of crude oil based on two principles. political and institutional dimensions. The model is then applied to the measurement of the wealth effect of oil price shocks. like aid and grants to state and local governments. which typically assumes oil prices follow a random walk with drift . as well as the annual price forecast published by the US Department of Energy (DOE). This fact allows tests on the possible asymmetries in government behavior.
More broadly. Third. Traditionally positive economic analysis of public finance policy has mainly focused on the effects of alternative expenditure and revenue actions on the economy. The resulting substitution effect predicts an increase of the share of government provided goods and services in the economy. as well as the annual DOE forecast. economists have expanded the set of questions in order to investigate why governments choose particular policies. Chapter 3 is an empirical essay in political economics. Finally.18 The essay in chapter 2 starts by asking: How should governments respond to oil windfalls? An intuitive answer to this normative question is that governments should distribute the annuity value of the shock between reduced non-oil taxes and increased government spending. A second finding is that "left-wing" governments tend spend more than "right-wing" ones after a windfall. If democratic governments have indeed a tendency to over-spend.. the value of the shocks as perceived when they happened . the case for budgetary procedures and rules designed to counteract this effect . is among the most active branches of economics. <…> The key findings. The finding of this dissertation imply that the actual fiscal response to oil shocks deviates from what would be predicted as optimal in a stylized neoclassical model in the sense that an expenditure-bias is detected. I find no evidence of asymmetries in the response to negative and positive shocks. First.switching model of chapter 1. there is evidence of fly-paper effects as most of the response occurs through increased government expenditure. This leads to the conclusion that from a normative perspective. the relevant issues are not only about which policies are better. After some simplifying assumptions the model is calibrated to obtain a benchmark against which the observed response can be compared. there are significant cross-country differences in the way governments respond to oil stocks. however. .is measured using price expectations generated with the Markov .> The main finding is that the more autocratic a government is. in proportions consistent with the social preferences for private and government goods. The three essays presented here open a research agenda. A closer examination indicates that the two aspects of democracy that induce spending are competition in the access to power and institutional constraints on the authority of the executive. there remains a whole set of questions surrounding the presence of oil revenue in the government's budget that are worth studying such as the effects of alternative fiscal systems on the oil industry. with its emphasis on the role that politics and institutions play in the definition of policies..like balanced-budget rules or a strong finance minister . Second. <. the total magnitude of the fiscal response does not exceed the annuity value of oil shocks. These two results are consistent with the findings of previous case studies on the effects of positive oil shocks in exporting economies. A first extension would be to augment the sample to include more countries and other sources of exogenous wealth variation. The contemporaneous wealth value of the shocks -that is. but which also shows that in the presence of distortionary taxation of non-oil income an oil shock reduces the relative price of any level of government spending. <.. are the following. the more moderate the expenditure response to an oil shock: democracies appear to exhibit an over-spending bias.> In order to advance in this direction it will be necessary to generate variables that describe such institutions in a comparable way. the intergenerational distribution of oil shocks. The field known as political economics. These two alternative measures of wealth change are used as explanatory variables in panel data regressions in which non-oil tax revenue and government expenditure are the dependent variables. The methodology followed here is readily applicable to a broader sets of natural experiments. Moreover. Recently. based on annual data from 13 countries over the 1970-1995 period. Chapter 2 then looks at the actual fiscal response to the oil shocks.. The chapter presents a stylized neoclassical model of government spending and taxation that confirms this intuition. this tendency appears positively correlated with the presence of democratic institutions.becomes stronger. or the role and effects of government hedging against oil shocks. but about the workings of the institutions that will put them in practice.
Some people do not see difference between Abstract/Summary and Conclusion. it is more 'client-oriented' and should be of persuasive character. what strategy to follow. in the Conclusion you should clearly state what you have done.definition of the problem . the link between this question and the definition of the problem. · If you have made several recommendations. For the paragraph structure consult section 2. On the one hand. put them last. Never present new information in the conclusion. Moreover. Another way to make the structure evident is to use short introductory and concluding paragraphs at the beginning and end of each chapter. follows from what is written previously and makes little sense if taken separately. · Normally you should put the most important conclusions first. A policy-making or a problem-solving thesis should logically give recommendations/suggestions about what actions to take. It is also good to show the links between the preceding and following chapters. separate them in a list. The content of Conclusion should naturally follow from the information in the text. In the concluding paragraph you may state the answer to the main question of the chapter. The basic difference is in the style of speech: an Abstract is a formal impersonal independent piece of text which reflects the whole thesis content and structure. give your comments about feasibility prospects . Conclusion contains inferences you have made from your findings. BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES/LIST OF NOTES This section is a very important part of the thesis. it gives the reader an opportunity to check what written sources you have used.of your thesis and its possible subquestions. That is why the content of Conclusion depends very much on your definition of the problem. The introductory paragraph may contain the main question which will be answered in this chapter. If in the Introduction you stated what you will do in your thesis. CONCLUSION In the Conclusion you must give the answer to the main question . · If implementation of some recommendations are currently not feasible.19 BODY In Chapter 1 we have already discussed how to structure the body of your thesis. The Conclusion is your final word in the thesis to prove that your research is profound and reliable and your recommendations are trustworthy.2 of this book. Numbering conclusions makes them easier to refer to. But if some of the are very controversial. even if they are the major ones. The Conclusion is a part and parcel of the text. A competent reader can . the general structure (approach) of the chapter.
. then continue listing the rest of the authors. This part of the text where the citation is mentioned must contain a numbered quotation. If do not use a great number of sources in your research. ["Using .(See section 3.Basic Rules Authors' names are inverted (last name first). follow it with a comma. then the books in Russian or Ukrainian follow also in alphabetical order. Reference books such as dictionaries and encyclopaedia are not usually included into Bibliography. Russian and Ukrainian sources should be described according to the current Ukrainian bibliography standards.. the list of works cited provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and be able to read any sources you cite in the thesis. the English sources should go first. it may make sense to make up a BIBLIOGRAPHY."] MLA Format .2 below). bibliography undergoes strict rules which make it understandable for varied audience. the alphabetical character of BIBLIOGRAPHY may determine the number of the first quotation in your thesis to be [35] according to the number of the source in the list. The current numbers of these descriptions in the list are the numbered text quotations (See section 3. if a work has more than one author. you do not have to translate the title of a book. If you have cited more than one work by a particular author. You should start this list from the new page immediately after the conclusion. There are two ways to present your sources in the thesis: either LIST OF NOTES or BIBLIOGRAPHY(the latter is also called REFERENCES). In this case. likewise. the comprehensive and thoroughly compiled list of bibliography is a sign of your professional competence and reliability of you research. invert only the first author's name. The reader interested in the subject of your thesis may refer to the sources you used to widen the understanding of the subject. bibliography is a valuable source of information. Being the matter of a wide interest. it is better for you to opt for LIST OF NOTES. On the other hand. The main difficulty you may face when you opt for Bibliography is quoting: it is advisable to mark or number your quotations only after you have completed the Bibliography list. The description of the source should be given in its original language. If you thesis is written in English. When an author appears both as the sole author of a text and as the first author of a group. Bibliographic description of the sources is stipulated by the Modern Language Association Format which is a commonly accepted style for humanities. list solo-author entries first. Thus. Bibliographic description of sources cited is given in the order they first appear in the text. If your research covers a substantial number of sources. Thus. If no author is given for . You make the order on the basis of the surname of the (first) author or the first word in the title (excluding articles) if a book or article has no author. Each source you cite must appear in your works-cited list.2). and use three hyphens in place of the author's name for every entry after the first. the list of both books and articles together is compiled in alphabetical order. It is one more tool for you to prove that you have done a good job. order them alphabetically by title. Unlike LIST OF NOTES. each entry in the works-cited list must be cited in your text.20 deduce from the list of bibliography how complete and recent your research is. You state only those publications you quote. The list of written sources also shows the way you used them.
a particular work, alphabetize by the title of the piece and use a shortened version of the title for parenthetical citations. The first line of each entry in your list should be flush left. Subsequent lines should be indented one-half inch. This is known as a hanging indent. All references should be double-spaced. Capitalize each word in the titles of articles, books, etc. This rule does not apply to articles, short prepositions, or conjunctions unless one is the first word of the title or subtitle. Underline or italicize titles of books, journals, magazines, newspapers, and films. Basic Forms for Sources in Print A book Author(s). Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Examples: Book with one author Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1957. Two books by the same author (After the first listing of the author's name, use three hyphens and a period for the author's name. List books alphabetically.) Basila, Martin. Commercial Uses of Communication: Today's Evolving Marketplace. New York: Dutton, 1997, - - -. Media Advertising for the Masses. Philadelphia: Merton, 1995. Book with more than one author Gesell, Arnold, and Frances L. Ing. Child Development: An Introduction to the Study of Human Growth. New York: Macmillan, 1960. N.B. If there are more than three authors, you may list only the first author followed by the phrase et al. (the abbreviation for the Latin phrase "and others") in place of the other authors' names, or you may list all the authors in the order in which their names appear on the title page. Book with a corporate author American Allergy Association. Allergies in Children. New York: Random, 1998. Book or article with no author named Encyclopedia of Photography. New York: Crown, 1984. Anthology or collection
Rueschemeyer, Marilyn, ed. Women in the Politics of Postcommunist Eastern Europe. Armonk: Sharpe 1994. A part of a book (such as an essay in a collection) Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Collection. Ed. Editor's Name(s). Place of Publication: Publisher, Year. Pages. Example: Essay in a collection Krutch, Joseph Wood. "What the Year 2000 Won't Be Like." Finding a Voice. Ed. Jim W. Corder. Glenview: Scott Foresman, 1973. 21-36. Cross-referencing: If you cite more than one essay from the same edited collection, you should cross-reference within your works cited list in order to avoid writing out the publishing information for each separate essay. To do so, include a separate entry for the entire collection listed by the editor's name. For individual essays from that collection, simply list the author's name, the title of the essay, the editor's last name, and the page numbers. For example: Asante, Molefi Kete. "What is Afrocentrism?" Atwan and Roberts 11-17. Atwan, Robert and Jon Roberts, eds. Left, Right, and Center: Voices from Across the Political Spectrum. Boston: Bedford, 1996. Bennett, William J. "Revolt Against God: America's Spiritual Despair." Atwan and Roberts 559-71.
An article in a periodical (such as a newspaper or magazine) Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Source Day Month Year: pages. N.B. When citing the date, list day before month; use a three-letter abbreviation of the month (e.g. Jan., Mar., Aug.). If there is more than one edition available for that date (as in an early and late edition of a newspaper), identify the edition following the date (e.g. 17 May 1987, late ed.). Example: Essay in a journal with continuous pagination Flanigan, Beverly Olson. "Peer Tutoring and Second Language Acquisition in the Elementary School." Applied Linguistics 12 (1991): 141-58. Essay in a journal that pages each issue separately Barthelme, Frederick. "Architecture." Kansas Quarterly 13.3-4 (1981): 77-80. Magazine or newspaper article Nimmons, David. "Sex and the Brain." Discover Mar. 1994: 26-27.
Goodman, Laurence. "New Discoveries in AIDS Prevention." New York Times 27 Mar. 1998, late ed.: C3. An article in a scholarly journal Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Vol (Year): pages. N.B. "Vol" indicates the volume number of the journal. If the journal uses continuous pagination throughout a particular volume, only volume and year are needed, e.g. Modern Fiction Studies 39 (1993): 156-174. If each issue of the journal begins on page 1, however, you must also provide the issue number following the volume, e.g. Mosaic 19.3 (1986): 33-49. Government publication United States Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Statistics. Dictionary of Occupational Titles. 4th ed. Washington: GPO, 1977. Interview that you conducted Lesh, Philip. Personal Interview. 12 Nov. 1996. Television or radio program "The Blessing Way." The X-Files. Fox. WXIA, Atlanta. 19 Jul. 1998. Advertisement Acura. Advertisement. Rolling Stone 16 May 1996: 8-9. McDonald's. Advertisement. CNN. 4 May 1998. Basic Forms for Electronic Sources A web page Author(s). Name of Page. Date of Posting/Revision. Date of Access. <electronic address>. Example: Daly, Bill. Writing Argumentative Essays. 1997. 26 <http://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/argueweb/frntpage.htm>. Jun. 1998
N.B. It is necessary to list your date of access because web postings are often updated, and information available at one date may no longer be available later. Be sure to include the complete address for the site. Also, note the use of angled brackets around the electronic address; MLA requires them for clarity. An article in an online journal or magazine Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Volume. Issue (Year): Pages/Paragraphs. Date of Access <electronic address>.
Date of the message. CD-ROM. "Title of Posting. Instead of "Email to John Smith.B. 1992.com/digitizing/intro. 26 Jun. "Title of the message (if any)" E-mail to the author. 1999.1. then add the name of the database along with relevant retrieval data (such as version number and/or transcript or abstract number). Date when material was posted (for example: 14 Mar. Information on CD-ROM The CIA World Factbook. Kenneth. or Broadcast News) Author. "Compressing Online Graphics. 1997 <http://www.B. 29 Apr.graphica. Name of listserv. Date of access <electronic address for retrieval>." Online posting. Martin. Article in a reference database "Fresco. 1999. 18 June 1999. as with a print version. Ethnic NewsWatch.edu/>.eb. Date of access <electronic address for retrieval>. Britannica. MacWeb.la. Example: Online journal article Inada." A listserv posting Author." Journal of Buddhist Ethics 2 (1995): 9 pars. Example: Tilton. include them if available. This same format may be used for personal interviews or personal letters.1. N.psu. An electronic database (such as NewsBank. 97. Some electronic journals and magazines provide paragraph or page numbers. 1998)." you would have "Personal interview." E-mail to Norit Berman. <http://www. Example: Lin. "Title of Article. 27 Apr. Mar. Encyclopedia . Michael. and the description should be appropriate. Provide the bibliographic data for the original source as for any other of its genre.com/180>." Online posting.html>." Relevant information for the database. 1998 <http://jbe. 29 Mar. "Re: Meeting Agenda for Friday." Britannica Online. Vers. Minneapolis: Quanta. E-mail Author. This format is also appropriate to online magazines.24 N. These do not have titles. 1997. you should provide a complete publication date rather than volume and issue number. "A Buddhist Response to the Nature of Human Rights.
Appendices should be numbered according to the order you mention them in the text." Tennessee Tribune 25 Dec. Article in Ethnic NewsWatch Reed. Do not forget to refer to them in the text of the thesis. If your particular case is not covered here. 2. 1996: 28. You keep up the page numbering of the thesis text. A supplementary list of sources which are not referred to in the text but may be of interest to the reader can also be included as an Appendix. company files or texts of survey. Appendix B. NewsBank NewsFile Collection. use the basic forms (above) to determine the correct format. supplementary graphs and diagrams. 1997: A1. APPENDIX(ES) In appendices to your thesis you may include information which is too detailed or takes too much space to be the part of the thesis." Commercial Appeal 8 Dec. additional calculations. In foreword you may thank the people who helped you during the production of your thesis. 4] Acknowledgements .1.edu) for help. William. Sometimes you may feel it necessary to comment the external frame of the report. Sarah A. a mere filler of the space. but being placed in the body of the thesis it may change the logic of the report. 2. email@example.com. Ethnic NewsWatch. The material of the appendices may be necessary for the thesis to be complete. "Whites and the Entertainment Industry. You can find below as a sample the acknowledgements taken from the thesis "Limited Stock Market Participation" by Annette Vissing-Jurgensen [MIT Theses. etc. Appendix C.1. Be sure to mention the appendices with the relevant numbers in the Table of Contents. These are large tables. You may also make up a glossary of the terms or list of abbreviations as an appendix. Foreword is never given a chapter number. These may also be the data of a narrow specialized interest. Acknowledgements are used to express gratitude to the people who helped you in preparing and writing your thesis. etc.1.2.25 Article in NewsBank Derks. call or email the Writing Lab (765-494-3723. It is common to use capital letter format to number the Appendices: Appendix A. "Binge Drinking and College: New Pressures for an Old Mixer.2 OPTIONAL ELEMENTS FOREWORD / Acknowledgments This very personal part of the thesis gives you an opportunity to mention the matters which refer rather to the process of the thesis writing than to the content of your research. Vers. otherwise the appendices may be considered non functional. You may also mention the problems which you faced during your research.40. Vers.
. NOTES Notes may be used · to cite sources for statements or data.ideas for further research. To my main advisor. An exception is Chicago-style documentation. well. Ricardo Caballero. The true heroes. It is hard to find such good company. It is because of you that the road has seemed like a goal in itself. Their content may be the same.I. Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers. of course. . are my family. and to my many gifted and dedicated teachers both at M. insights.addresses of authorities or companies which may be of use for those who are interested. thank you for showing me how research is supposed to be done. Writing a thesis is definitely not a one-woman job. extensive discursive notes are discouraged. which relies on notes for all citations as well as explanatory notes [Quotes]. · to discuss details and give comments. Your guidance. Proper use of notes would include: . and inspiration has been invaluable. Thank you for making me believe that most things are possible if you work hard enough. AFTERWORD This part.2. as well as foreword. I am especially grateful to Mitali Das. I am also very grateful to Oliver Blanchard and Daron Acemoglu for their unusually competent comment and advice. Fulbright. Among these are many of my fellow students whose patience and intelligence has made economics easier. But even in that case.T. most academic style guidelines (including MLA and APA) recommend limited use of footnotes/endnotes. Using notes for quoting is compulsory for any serious research and for your thesis as well. I would like to acknowledge generous financial support from the Danish Academy.ideas for application of the results from your research. but we will discuss the issue of quoting and citation and their possible format in Section 3. Other possible issues for an afterword are: . I dedicate a (nonparametric) fraction of my thesis for keeping me updated on the latest gossip during late nights at the office. and I am forever indebted to all of you who have helped me along the way. for their friendship during the last four years. or for quoted matter. My roommates Dana Ayotte and Siu-Li Khoe also contributed endless laughs. and for not blaming me the long periods of studies far away from home. Aarhus and Warwick. Finally. most of the time anyway. Andrea Repetto and Marianna Bitler.26 That the title page of this thesis only has one name written on it is misleading.. To Mitali. Daniel Dulitzky. and the Sloan Foundation. is a personal statement regarding the thesis.
and sequence [Paragraphing. make sure that every paragraph has the main statement. which is further developed. for example: 1 See Blackmur. Footnotes in MLA format are indicated by consecutive superscript Arabic numbers in the text. 2 On the problems related to repressed memory recovery. Reporting. e. 2. phrases. 32-34]. The average paragraph length for reports is ten to twelve lines. in plain text without quotation marks).2 PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE After you have devised a logical structure of your thesis it is important not to lose it while organizing your ideas in paragraphs. for example: 3 In a 1998 interview. Variety in the paragraph structure is a key in keeping your reader interested in your document. see Wollens pp. Effective paragraphs are created mostly through topic sentences. especially chapters three and four. In order to make up a good paragraph structure. see Pyle. the core. and repeating key terms will help pull the material together and make the logical sequence of the information more apparent. she reiterated this point even more strongly: "I am an artist. for an insightful analysis of this trend. for a contrasting view. to maintain the clear paragraph structure it is reasonable to use text redundancy.g. The notes themselves are listed by consecutive superscript Arabic numbers and appear double-spaced in regular paragraph format (a new paragraph for each note) on a separate page under the word Notes (centered. (1) . 2. The use of transitional words. Nov 21]. occasional explanatory notes or other brief additional information that would seem digressive if included in the main text but might be interesting to readers. paraphrasing or giving an example. 120-35.27 1. In case of graduation thesis notes are rarely presented at the end of thesis or at the end of chapters. which reduces the density of information and hammers the important points home. Notes may be placed at the bottom of a page (footnotes). not a politician!" (Weller 124). There are two types of redundancy: redundancy in content and redundancy in structure [Braas. The most common are notes at the bottom of the page. 1 in superscript or in brackets at the same level as the text. explained. A note is indicated in the text by a number after the sentence or the part of the text it refers to 1. at the end of each chapter and at the end of the report. The sequence of the information in a paragraph greatly affects the understandability of the message. variety. numbered per page. Thus. evaluative bibliographic comments. A clear structure of paragraphs also serves as a visual support helping the reader follow your train of thoughts. You can achieve redundancy in content by means of repetition. or proved by the rest of the paragraph.
want them to understand. contrast. You should also use linking sentences and paragraphs to express relation between bigger parts of the text. as a writer.verbal (using linking words and sentences to show clear relationship between the paragraphs).[Keizer.) retrospectively summing up what you have dealt with in the preceding part of the text. They encourage the reader to easily interpret ideas in the way that you. In this chapter we are going to answer the question: How should governments respond to oil windfalls? . or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases. from one idea to another. Mill was very clear about the isolated character of economic analysis.g. and each category leads your reader to make certain connections or assumptions about the two areas that you are connecting. A list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue your reader in a given way is provided in Appendix C. summary.. Menger underlined this and was very careful in the development of his economic analyses. illustration. (e. 19-20] Structural redundancy can be .visual (indenting. in proportions consistent with the social preferences for private and government goods.g. condition. succession.) and - . Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. a closer examination indicates that the two aspects of democracy that induce spending are competition in the access to power and institutional constraints on the authority of the executive. . or combining both). Some lead your reader forward and imply the "building" of an idea or thought. etc. Especially in the fifties and sixties of the twenties century the empirical research developed strongly and became part of mainstream economics. So economic analysis could function well as a foundation for empirical research.with the help of a stylized neoclassical model of government spending and taxation that confirms the intuition that governments should distribute the annuity value of the shock between reduced non-oil taxes and increased government spending. (e. Thus. You can use them prospectively telling the reader what to expect from the following text. There are several types of transitional devices. conclusion. Econometrics became a rather independent field. Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one sentence to another. skipping a line between paragraphs. enumeration.28 E. While composing a paragraph you may need to express various relationships between paragraphs such as cause-result. developing quantitative methods to test economic theories empirically. It would be handy to make up a list of useful linking words and phrases which you can include in your text for the sake of redundancy. But Jevons had the opinion that in the daily practice of the economy the other factors were really about constant.g. while others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.
. because these parts are usually paid special attention to when the reader is skimming your thesis. the idea that you need to keep focused on is that what you say is at least as important as how you say it. Though the structure of the paragraphs and sentences is important throughout the document. you may face more difficulties to create a consistent structure and the only criterion of subdividing text into paragraphs is in accordance with the content.29 - transitionally expressing the relation between the two parts of the thesis by means of summarizing the previous part and forecasting what to expect in the following part (e. Beginning your paragraph is a critical point for your paper. To ensure effectiveness of this opening paragraph. It is also reasonable to put your main statement at the beginning or at the end of the paragraph. As long as you keep your material focused on a main objective. start a new paragraph. because it has to be enticing enough to keep your reader interested. Whenever you change the subject. 20] If you opt for paragraphing after writing your thesis. It is also essential that you should not cram your paragraphs with ideas.switching model of chapter 1. Nov. we are going now to look at the actual fiscal response to the oil shocks and to measure the contemporaneous wealth value of the shocks using price expectations generated with the Markov . ).g. Having shown in the previous chapter that in the presence of distortionary taxation of non-oil income an oil shock reduces the relative price of any level of government spending. as well as the annual DOE forecast.[Paragraphing. you should do the following: · · · · · · · Check that the beginning is appropriate for the reader Check that the beginning is appropriate for the situation Avoid including negative information or discourteous wording Use a you-viewpoint in the opening Use a fast-start beginning Keep the paragraph fairly short Make sure it possesses unity and coherence . the effectiveness of your message will remain strong.
Irregular spaces at the bottom of pages are less of a problem. Never have irregular or blank spaces at the top of the page. Titles ü Chapters and sections should have titles.30 3 OUTWARD APPEARANCE 3. This is now the standard for education and commerce. ü Do not use display or 'handwriting' fonts. This will produce a readable text in the right proportion on A4 pages. They might also be set in bold. It can also assist the organization of your arguments. ü Use one-and-a-half line spacing. it is reasonable to make the left margin not less than 3 cm. and pleasant to read. Good layout will make your writing more attractive. They may be set in a font size one or two point larger than the body text. ü Do not use sans-serif fonts such as Helvetica or Arial. ü Captions to diagrams or graphs are normally set in a sans-serif font. Edit your text or move some forward if this occurs. This will make your work easy to read. As you should have your thesis bound. Select a size of around twelve points. They make continuous reading difficult. The same is true for sub-titles or the names of sections. your thesis should be presented to the reader as clearly and as neatly as possible. Spacing ü Good spacing makes your writing more readable. · Leave margins of at least 2 cm left. . These are designed for use in advertising. Headings ü Headings or titles should be given visual emphasis. Avoid single isolated lines at the top or the bottom of a page. Do not underline it. Arial at 8 or 10 points. ü Logical spacing reflects the careful relationship of its parts. It shows that you know where one topic ends and another begins. For instance. ü Section titles should begin with indent and printed with all notional words capitalized without a full stop at the end. top and bottom and 1 cm right. clear. These make continuous reading difficult. The Page Format · Use A4 size paper (210х297mm). Never put a full stop after the title. Print on one side of a page only. Fonts ü Choose a serifed font such as Times New Roman for the body of your text. Chapter titles should be centered on the page and written in capital letters.1 Manuscript Format As the first impression is often of vital importance. or indent the first line. ü Leave extra space between paragraphs. This will be confusing for the reader.
but not the part of the text. diagrams. Do not use words like Chapter in a title. Provide every illustration with an informative title that explains the nature of illustration and write it together with number below the illustration." ü Structural elements such as 'ABSTRACT'. "This is a matter of paramount importance. 1. Page Numbers Number pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner of the page. but count it as such. 'INTRODUCTION'.2) Give every illustration a number: it makes it easier to refer to it in the text. charts. Tables usually have separate numbering within the chapter. Always explain your illustrations. Titles are structural elements. e. Section number consists of chapter number and section current number divided by a full stop. (See section 3. 2.). ü Avoid writing a title at the bottom of the page. if it is followed by only one line. ü Never refer to the chapter or (sub)section title in the text. The person reading the actual text does not pay much attention to the title any more. Never put a full stop after the last figure. tables.g. An illustration number consists of a chapter number and the number of this illustration in the current order divided with a full stop. Do not put a full stop after a page number. 'CONCLUSION'. etc ) are important tools to visualize your findings. Never put a number on page 1 (the title page). graphs. A table's number. you must mention the sources in accordance with the rules of quoting. e. Illustrations and tables printed on separate pages should be included into continuous numbering of the text. Make sure that all your illustrations have a link with the text. 'CONTENTS'. Division marks Use Arabic chapter and section numbers.g. Also skip some lines to indicate new subsections. or on the next page. 19901999. Table 4. using Arabic numerals. So they must be clear and attractive. Illustration should be numbered with Arabic figures in current order within the chapter.Chart of a loan redemption.2 etc. Fig. Always start a new chapter on a new page. Illustrations are called figures (abbreviated to fig. If you borrow them from published or electronic sources. ü Proper names. 1. Numerical data are usually presented in the form of tables. pictures. its informative title and the source should be given before the text of the table. Sections are numbered within every chapter. Chapter and section numbers illustrate the hierarchy of the thesis. and names of companies are given in their original language. surnames.2 . Illustrations Illustrations (drawings.31 ü Skip two lines between the title and the following text. Illustrations should be placed immediately after the text in which they are mentioned. so it may be confusing if the first sentence of the text reads.1. . 'LIST OF NOTES/BIBLIOGRAPHY' should not be numbered.g. It makes sense to number the pages only after you have completed the entire thesis. to impress and interest the reader. e.2 – Inflation Indicators in Europe.
50]: ß Do not quote too much. etc. Square parentheses are accepted in Ukrainian standard (ДСТУ 3008-95). Sometimes square parentheses. ß If you quote parts of sentences. not in the text of your sentence. try to include the name that begins the entry in the Works Cited page. ß Put quotations in quotation marks so that the reader knows that the words are borrowed by you. Include quotations only if they add something to the text. indicate that you are leaving something out by using <…>. underlined or in italics: Milroy described himself as "a non-political politician" (qtd. Quotation is a literal citation of a publication. in. For nonprint (films. Some argue that "a dream is the fulfillment of a wish" (Freud 154). Examples: Freud states that "a dream is the fulfillment of a wish" (154). Sometimes more information is necessary to identify the source from which a quotation is taken. If your bibliography list is numbered. use qtd. all the ideas. For such indirect quotations. figures and opinions you have borrowed from the published sources must be given relevant notes.32 3. are used to differentiate from cases when round parentheses contain clarification to the text. but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses. etc.2 Quoting and Citation of Sources As we have already mentioned. Be sure not to change the quotation to such an extent that you change its meaning. exact facts. that is. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation/borrowed information. authority. While quoting. 18). provide both authors' initials (or even her or his full name if different authors share initials) in your citation. If you do not cite your source.in Newley.g. You may leave out quotation marks for long quotations if they are indented and you use special font and spacing to show that the quoted paragraph differs from your own text. 113). obey the following rules [Braas. Sometimes you may have to use an indirect quotation.[Using…] This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation is taken must appear in the text. and a complete reference should appear in your works-cited list (see Bibliography). MLA format follows the author-page method of citation. e. Emet has argued this point extensively (127-36). [124]. you may simply state the number of the source in the list and the page numbers divided with comma. In written communication it is a matter of plain decency to cite one's sources.g. if more than one author has the same last name. By means of quotations you add more weight and reliability to your thesis. e. a quotation that you found in another source that was quoting from the original. you may be accused of plagiarism. For instance. If . Reporting. In this case you should also cite the source of information in the bibliography list.) or electronic sources. e.g. It is also possible to borrow certain facts without using the literal words. facts. TV series. (23.
and maintain double-spacing. A. Start the quotation on a new line.). and include a complete reference in your bibliography list. though others disagree. problems with introductory commas). Examples: Two authors with the same last name: Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (Miller.3 Proofreading and Editing Having written the draft text of your thesis. and omit quotation marks. and semicolons should appear after the parenthetical citation.). Provide the author and specific page citation in the text. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part of the quoted passage but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text. dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (184). According to Foulkes's study.33 you cite more than one work by a particular author. Two works by the same author: Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children ("Too Soon"). though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development in a child's second and third year ("Hand-Eye Development"). enclose the quotation within double quotation marks and incorporate it into your text. Examples: According to some. To approach this task you should Ø identify typical errors Review graded or scored comments on your old papers. "Of all the things that happened there / That's all I remember" (11-12). 3. Ø make a hierarchy . others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (Miller. and list errors. include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the other works by that same person.R. Punctuation marks such as periods. SHORT QUOTATIONS To indicate short quotations (fewer than four typed lines of prose or three lines of verse) in your text. LONG QUOTATIONS Place quotations longer than four typed lines in a free-standing block of typewritten lines. dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184). which were marked frequently. commas. Be as specific as possible in gathering your list (for example. Your parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark. indented one inch from the left margin. you have to face a rather challenging task of editing. Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184)? Cullen concludes.
The following guide will help you proofread more effectively: 1. Write each strategy. You will be able to focus your concentration and energy better that way. using the rules and sample sentences as reminders if you get stuck. If you read at a normal speed. Reading with a "cover" Sliding a blank sheet of paper down the page as you read encourages you to make a detailed. step by step. remember to work slowly. For best results. not on rules or strategies. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind. Do a couple of practice exercises. and talk to an English Writing tutor. write rules and sample sentences in your notebook.34 Determine which of the errors on your list occurred most often and/or cost you the most in points or letter grades. not reading the paper. concentrating mainly on your ideas. you will not give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors. line-by-line review of the paper. As you use these strategies. Rank order the items on your list so that the most serious errors are on the top. but a supplement to. The following strategies will help you s-l-o-w d-o-w-n as you read through a paper and will therefore help you catch mistakes that you might otherwise overlook. and then apply the strategies one at a time. reading for meaning. Using your hierarchy. use both methods. you are likely to miss many of your most frequent errors. Include any relevant key words or phrases. take a break. PROOFREADING STRATEGIES No matter how many times you read through a "finished" paper. Ø apply your strategies When you finish writing. "quick" strategies you can use to locate these errors in your papers. Ø write Write your paper as you normally would. General Strategies Begin by taking a break. Remember that you are looking for specific errors. . Please note: Editing is not a substitute for. next to its corresponding rule in your notebook or dictionary. Reading aloud Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word. Go completely through the paper looking for only one kind of error at a time. Ø learn concepts Make sure that you understand why you made the errors on your list. Even a fiveminute break is productive because it will help get some distance from what you have written. Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Ø develop strategies Find or work out specific.
If your thesis is not directly stated. Strategies Which Personalize Proofreading In addition to using the general strategies already listed. If not. See whether you have clear transitions between paragraphs. be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun. If you can find a noun. 4. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. You will not be able to check for everything (and you do not have to). you will need to personalize the proofreading process. 3. their. If you cannot decide on one phrase. 4. 5. clarify existing transitions. so you should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. List these in order under your thesis. Look at each paragraph randomly. 2. usage and sentence structure. Ask yourself whether all of the information is related enough to be in the same paragraph. and spelling and punctuation. write down a possible thesis. 2. list two or three options. Locate the central idea of each paragraph. Skim your paper. Usage and Sentence Structure For subject/verb agreement: 1. 2. A: Organization and Paragraphing For thesis/focus/main point: 1.35 Role-playing Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might. either rewrite your thesis to incorporate the unrelated ideas or eliminate the unrelated paragraphs. If not. this. Should you create another paragraph or move some of the details to another paragraph? For overall coherence: 1. 3. 2. List the paragraph ideas. Locate the central idea of each paragraph and try to reduce that idea to a word or phrase. they. and them. If you cannot find any noun. Copy it on another sheet of paper. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in organization and paragraphing. 2. add new ones. Consider only the information in that paragraph. Reduce that idea to a word or phrase. B. Match the verb to its subject. For pronoun reference/agreement: 1. For paragraph clarity: 1. Decide whether all of your details are relevant. 2. Ask yourself whether you offer enough details in the paragraph to support that word or idea. For parallel structure: . Decide whether your paragraphs clearly relate to your thesis. 3. Look especially at it. Find the main verb in each sentence. stopping at each pronoun. Find your paper's thesis statement. and/or rearrange your paragraphs to make transitions clearer. insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
. For fragments: 1. check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly. Pointing with a pencil helps you really see each word. Make sure that the items connected by these words (adjectives. Listen for a possible break point before the main clause. and work your way back to the beginning. 2. Break the sentence into two sentences if necessary. 2. Skim the paper. a participle. C." 2. Look at each sentence to see whether it contains an independent clause. Start with the last sentence of your paper.. For introductory commas: 1..) are in the same grammatical form. stopping only at those words which end in "s. either. nouns. For compound sentence commas: 1. For comma splices: 1. If necessary. nor. See if the sentence might be just a piece of the previous sentence that mistakenly got separated by a period. Move from the end of each line back to the beginning. Skim for the conjunctions and.and. 3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase or clause (which is before the independent clause). but. 3. See whether or not each "s" word needs an apostrophe. or. stopping at every comma. not only. If so. 2. looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence. or a preposition.. Skim your paper. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the comma. 3. or. Skim your paper. both. For run-on sentences: 1. Examine each word in the paper individually. sentence by sentence. you will be able to invert the word order and say "of" or "of the": Mary's hat the hat of Mary For left-out words: . etc. place a comma before the conjunction. 2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the conjunction. 4.. phrases. or. stopping at key words that signal parallel structures. If so. a transition word. 2... Skim your paper. Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause. so and yet.but also. for.36 1. Pay special attention to sentences that begin with dependent marker words (such as because) or phrases such as for example or such as. 3. If an apostrophe is needed. 2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker. Spelling and Punctuation For spelling: 1. 2..nor. add a coordinating conjunction after the comma or replace the comma with a semicolon. Look especially for and. For apostrophes: 1. 3. neither.
make sure that you have not doubled any words. Do not let your eye move ahead until you spot each word.F for more detailed instructions concerning style. Also see Appendices D . Also. Read the paper aloud. and proofreading.37 1. pointing to every word as you read. punctuation. 2. . grammar.
One box on the screen can display your outline or visual planning while another displays your draft. and cut and paste with great ease and speed. But remember to save your files often and make a back-up copy of the file. develop a method to store this kind of material that you may or may not use. copy. You may also want to create separate files for different topics within the freewriting. without having to retype. For example. use the cut-and-paste feature to move paragraphs around. or make use of a feature in some word processing programs that permits you to store material as notes. put parentheses around material that might not stay in a later draft. As you write (or plan) use the scrap file to cut and paste anything that does not seem to fit in as you write.38 3. words that come to mind and that can be used when needed or phrases that may come in handy as section headings in your paper. Be sure to edit out that material when you are sure you no longer want it. in the new file. or use bold lettering. and you will find your drafts easier to read as you revise. even when you have carefully saved it. You may see a better organizing principle than the one you had been using. [Writing …] Drafting creating a scrapfile As you start an assignment. This scrap file can be a very useful storage space for material that should be deleted from the paper you are writing now but that may be useful for other writing assignments.4 Writing with Computers Using word processing software on a computer is an efficient way to write. Even if you cannot type well (and many successful computer users cannot). You can delete. You can then cut and paste parts of those planning notes into a draft as needed. Some writers find that they can freewrite more easily by turning down the computer screen so that they cannot see what they type. and paste between files. Organizing mixing up the order of paragraphs or sentences Make a new copy of your file and then. do this on the computer. Consider this strategy if it helps you to look at one bit of information while trying to create another. Remember that you can cut. . a computer can be both a convenience and an aid throughout the writing process. and files can get lost. you can have multiple files visible on your screen at the same time. Word processing software can aid your efforts in all aspects of the writing process: If freewriting or brainstorming is a useful planning strategy for you. Disks can go bad and not open. Do the same with sentences within paragraphs. splitting screens If you are using a Macintosh or Windows. revise. adding notes As you gather material from your reading (or want to save comments to yourself about something you have written). Or you can keep your scrap file visible while writing a draft. one for the assignment itself and the other for scraps of writing that you will be collecting. You may also want a separate file for keywords. make two separate files.
if you lose the portion you are moving. It helps you get back into the flow of thought. staying on topic in every paragraph Put your topic sentence or focus statement at the top of each paragraph to help you keep it in mind and not lose track of what you are writing about. Start there when you are drafting and revising and read until you come to a section where you will be working. Then. and reassess whether that outline is adequate or well organized. But be careful not to get caught up in endless revising of the beginning of the paper. you find that you need to write the whole paper before you can write the introduction. save it as Draft. Do the paragraphs look to be about the same length? Does one look noticeably shorter than the others? Does it need more development? Is there a paragraph that seems to be disproportionately long? . as well as a sense of the whole paper. save it as a different file so that you always know which is the most recent version you have worked on. renaming a file Each time you open your file.l. resisting the neat appearance of a printout If you print out a draft of your paper. saving copies of material to cut and paste When you are moving large blocks of text. If your first draft is Draft. printing out hard copies to read It may help you to look at a printed copy of your paper as you revise so that you can see the development and organization. the next time you open that file. you still have a copy available. especially if like some writers. you are at the beginning of the draft. and so on. That rereading has several advantages for you. and it permits you to re-see what you have written so that you can revise as you read forward. using page or print view to check paragraphs Switch to the page or print view so that you can see the whole view of each page on screen. Revising starting at the beginning of the file When you open your file each time. highlight what you are going to move and make a copy for your clipboard before moving. Then the next time you can save it as Draft. resist the temptation to hand in that draft because it looks neat and seems to have a finished appearance.39 checking your outline Look again at the bold-lettered headings of the outline you made during planning (or create one now).2.3.
editing on hard copy It may be easier for you to print out a draft and mark that for editing changes. underline your thesis statement. etc. and style analyzers. use larger fonts for descriptive words. using that copy. you may see that you have too many passives or that you do not have many descriptive words. By changing the appearance of these features. But grammar and style checkers are not effective because it is hard to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate advice they offer and because the checker relies on rules you may not be familiar with. such as spell checkers. put passive constructions in italics. If you do. and so on. hit the return key after every sentence so that every sentence looks like a separate paragraph. . grammar checkers. put marks in the margins to indicate lines where changes are to be made so that you can easily find them again. Some word processing programs come with a thesaurus that is useful for looking up synonyms for words you've been using too much or for finding more specific words than the ones you have used.40 highlighting sentence length Make a copy of your main file and. changing the appearance of key features of your writing Change active verbs to bold letters. Are all of your sentences the same length? Do they all start the same way and need some variety? Editing and Proofreading using online tools There are a number of online tools you can use.
try to avoid long theoretical explanations (of course. Bearing your audience in mind. by verbal and non-verbal signals which prove to be efficient when used skillfully.41 4 THESIS PRESENTATION 4. which are very efficient hooks to start a speech. and other means of redundancy. . be interested and motivated yourself. Focus on that practical research which you carried out independently on the basis of theoretical knowledge. The best moment to arouse your listeners' interest in your subject is at the very beginning of your presentation. a real life example or typical recognizable situation may do quite well as a hook. so do your best to place it in a good light. Nevertheless. etc. you can retain your listeners' interest by adding attractive elements to the most serious parts of your presentation." [Zielinski] This traditional tip for presenters in our case should not be interpreted literally: because of the procedure established the examiners are unlikely to start the discussion with you during the presentation speech. You can manage your listeners by means of well-organized speech. or rereading them. Chip Bell stresses. Secondly. Your audience will also remain interested. This is the most valuable part of your paper. may not be always suitable for an academic presentation. or leave certain items out if you feel that they are getting bored. What we mean is the possibility to respond to verbal and nonverbal reactions of your listeners: by keeping a constant eye contact with them you can add some details if you feel that the audience does not understand something. not a monologue. Jokes or provocations. "We have to remember.1 PRESENTATION TECHNIQUE GENERAL APPROACH When preparing your defense presentation you must be aware that oral presentation of academic or business research makes greater demands on the sender of the information than a written presentation of the thesis. visual support. Thirdly. First. Your oral presentation is a chance for you to use your skills of persuasive speaking to convince the audience that your research is worth being paid attention to and deserves a high appraisal. When reading your thesis the reader may take his time skipping pages. such as appealing examples or visual aids. Do not forget that interest is one of the basic aspects of successful persuasion. looking for specific information in tables and appendices. be sure that you retain it. Such approach lets you take into account the listeners' absorption capacity using explicit speech structure. You should bear in mind that the examiners may not have a chance to read the complete text of your thesis to assess objectively its merits and demerits. It is difficult for the audience to be interested in the subject unless the speaker is enthusiastic about it himself. Such reading strategies let the reader analyze your research deeply and give grounded evaluation of its results. compulsory for your written thesis) which may have been new for you but your professors knew them long ago. Once you managed to stir your listeners' attention. try to turn your speech from monologue into a dialogue. Rhetoric questions can also create the atmosphere of a dialogue. if you organize your speech allowing them to think along with you. good presentations are a partnership.
Try to organize the body of your speech answering the same standard matters in dispute which we suggested in Chapter 1: 1. facts and figures into the 10-minutes' speech as possible. So they are what we should mainly talk about. the purpose of the oral defense presentation is to persuade the listeners that the project. its structure and read out its conclusions. Is there a problem? (Introduction . you use the structure explanation as a tool for organizing and managing your listeners' attention. you should attract the audience's attention. It is logically followed by indicating the purpose of the presentation. it is wise to follow the typical argumentative structure stipulated by the standard matters in dispute. The body of your presentation has only strict rule to follow: it must be in line with your introduction. you are sure to exceed the time limit.22] . Do the advantages of the policy proposal balance its disadvantages? [Braas. The next step is to introduce the subject and main question you are going to answer in your speech (definition of the problem). In other words. As the subject you are going to present is not an easy one. On the one hand. p. you define your approach to the research. We will try to show you how one can support the structure of presentation verbally. establishes the structure of the presentation. strategy or results of the research presented in the graduation thesis are reliable.2 SPEECH STRUCTURE The most common mistake while preparing the defense presentation is to copy the structure of the written thesis because these two types of message have absolutely different purposes.42 4. A detailed and clear explanation of the structure is indispensable for a good presentation. Argumentation. Is the policy proposal effective? 6. Is the policy proposal feasible? 5. Is the problem caused by the present policy? 4. Both are equally bad. in its turn. Anyone interested can take the copy and read it if interested. Is the problem serious? 3. That is why it is not smart to describe the thesis itself. If your thesis is a policy proposal (a business plan. On the other hand. the enormous amount of information dims the essence of the presentation and the listeners cannot absorb all the details. While the general purpose of the thesis writing is to study a theoretical base of the certain subject and to show how one can practically implement this theory to solve a practical business problem. Another difficulty lies in the fact that being an expert on the subject you are going to present you tend to consider everything important. for instance). The written text keeps you 'under its thumb' and you try to cram as many details. First. which. Choosing this way you can hardly persuade anyone because a mere description is not convincing. Do what you promised. The introduction is an essential part of any presentation where you should tell your listeners what you are going to talk about.definition of the problem) 2. feasible and efficient. This difference determines the structure of the oral presentation. We resolved that our main task is to place our achievements in a good light.
The conclusion of your presentation is as important as the beginning of the speech. 3.) You are free to chose the form of conclusion depending on your subject and purpose. This can be done by means of linking words. The worst way to conclude your speech is to say something like: "That was my presentation". thus. But whichever form you chose. etc.. or '"Well that was about it. the main conclusions 3. a question hour. * make sure your summary is informative: do not indicate the issues (like you did in the introduction). While presenting the serious matters of the body do not forget to remind your audience of the things you discussed before. a concluding statement 7. a prognosis 4. references: "What demands must a good policy plan meet? I will come back to that later". a short summary 2. there are many disadvantages". make your presentation structure verbally explicit. a proposition 6. the following recommendations are true: * refer to introduction during your conclusion. In other words. secondly. etc. In case you announce your conclusion. to sum up. references. however. 2. but tell them. a question 5. a reference to what will happen after your presentation (a discussion.3 SPEAKING DIAGRAM A speaking diagram is a tool which will help you to finalize your thorough preparation to the presentation. because your final words usually stick in the listeners' memory. or "As I said in the beginning. the audience will listen to you more attentively. and transitions: 1. There are several ways to conclude your speech: 1. thirdly. In this diagram you outline your presentation by means of ." 4. transitions: "Finally we reach the question why we oppose an increase of taxes". linking words: First of all. and to announce what you are going to deal with later..43 Remember that in order to sound convincing and to create an argumentative speech it is important to answer all the above questions in affirmative keeping to their logic and succession.
While preparing you can use it as a basis for your speech structure. nor persuade it. which is sure to lull your listeners. You would rather opt for natural way of speaking even if with speaking mistakes. You make an impression of a lowqualified unconfident person who is not quite keen on the subject as you are not able to say a word about it independently. You do not get your listeners involved. Neither do you have tools to manage your audience. Reprinted from Griffin (265) . Reading speed is too fast for the listeners to comprehend and follow what you are saying. Þ We read much faster than we talk (150 words a minute compared with 100 words a minute when speaking). you do not receive feedback. Þ Reading is almost always monotonous. Þ By reading you do not communicate with your listeners: you create bigger distance. Do not write down the complete text of the speech. You are not allowed to use it during your presentation! Here it is time to remind you why reading out a text is absolutely unacceptable and non-professional way of presenting: Þ Reading out results in a loss of spontaneity. have less eye contact with your audience.44 catchwords and symbols. During the presentation you use it as a reminder.
refer to a visual aid.45 We hope these arguments convince you that the best way to successful presentation is to improvise on the basis of a speaking diagram. If so. Þ the themes and possible subthemes. Time you speech: indicate when you want to give example. You start creating the speaking diagram by making the internal structure of your presentation and defining: Þ the main question. . Þ using catchwords and symbols. As soon as you have done that write them down in catchwords and hierarchically ordered. let us consider how to devise a speaking diagram. I. write down the links between the (sub)themes. II. Þ write down in a few sentences what you are going to say in the Conclusion. III. Þ the way they are connected. The next step is to add three structural elements to this 'table of contents': Þ write down in a few sentences what you are going to say in the Introduction.
Never again! In other words. Add the details you are most likely to forget: names. we are afraid of making mistakes. Experienced presenters recommend some general tips which can be helpful while preparing your defense presentation: Ø Tune the choice of words to your audience. else you will be tempted to start reading. 4. quotations. It is not less difficult to pronounce such sentences. So. If this information is on your visuals. figures. titles of the sources you may need. Ø Many people find it difficult to understand long and complex sentences. do not repeat it. Make sure that your speaking diagram is clearly structured and easy to read. Moreover. If you get impression that something is not clear. They are easy to handle and do not much jump into the listeners' eye. You can not avoid terminology and definitions. Do not write too much. this strategy always results in static and boring presentation. . It is the most convenient to write on the paper cards of A3 format or less. you can always have a peek at the visuals during your presentation. Language errors are a common phenomenon of oral communication.46 IV. We normally do not speak by means of complicates structures. dates. use simple sentences. Nevertheless. structure and vocabulary of the written language are difficult to comprehend by ear.4 USE OF LANGUAGE One of the reasons many of us are afraid of public speaking is that awful feeling of embarrassment when our mistakes were laughed at by our classmates and scorned by the schoolmaster. But it may be necessary to stipulate what is your understanding of a notion if it is case specific or different from the generally accepted. your occasional mistakes are less noticeable than when you reproduce written language. we do not mean that you should simplify serious academic matters to a primitive level. If you speak colloquial language. As far as you are speaking to a professional audience you should not explain commonly known special terms. you should also explain it. In case of oral presentation liveliness of speech is more important than correctness of language. That is why being exposed to the limelight we often write our complete speech down and try to learn it by heart. Of course. however hard we tried.
direct) and 'On the following sheet an example can be seen' (passive. What visual aids. how will I communicate what's in it for them? . Ø Introduce redundancy with the help of linking words. Conn. explanations. what is the purpose of this presentation? 2. Compare the following: 'Now I would like to show you an example' (active. In my summary. Passive voice makes your language static and impersonal. and author of No Sweat Presentations -. What do I really know and believe about this topic as it relates to this audience? 4. The audience will feel your wish to communicate effectively if you address them directly. Lenny Laskowski. the next tip is use direct and active sentences.47 Reprinted from Griffin (17) Ø We have already mentioned that involved and interested audience is more inclined to understanding your message.The Painless Way to Successful Speaking. Thus. Who is the audience? What is their main interest in this topic? 3. What are the three main points of this presentation? 5. if any.. do I need? 7. a president of LJL Seminars in Newington. "ask yourself the following 10 questions to be sure you're on track: 1. What information and stories can I use to support each of my main points? 6. impersonal). transitional sentences. examples. and summaries. In one concise sentence. Do I have an effective opening that will grab the audience's attention? 8. On the whole. advises as you prepare your presentation.
not to play pocket pool. loudness and speed.> In the end. look and move can bring to naught all your efforts. You speak standing up. When you speak softly and mumble. Never speak with your back to the listeners. A speaker staring in his notes will not inspire confidence. but not too often as it makes a nervous impression.Austin Inc. or not to mumble. 4. directly engaging audience attention. speaker. This impression may spoil the content of the most well-prepared speech or it may hide some natural flaws or make the speech more colorful.. By behavior in this subchapter we mean posture and gestures. Have I prepared a concise written introduction for myself? Now all you have to do is go out there and knock their socks off. etc. You may walk around a few times. or to drink your water.5 BEHAVIOR You can think out a well-organized speech.[Romer] All of us want to do a good job while presenting a graduation thesis. your listeners can not hear you and get restless and irritated. eye contact and facial expressions.. 2]. that elicit passion and sense of purpose. articulation and intonation. all those elements which create a certain impression about us when we speak in public. what the audience really cares about is whether you were thought-provoking and interesting.." she says. but you should not stand still. If you want to show something on the blackboard or screen. an expert in business communication and corporate culture.. Have I polished and prepared the language and words I will use? 10. If you have to work with your visual longer. but the manner you talk." says Nancy Austin. in Zielinski] Do not hide behind a lectern. but do not look at it for more than a few seconds. a writer. "If the passion is gone. . "The best thing any presenter can do is try to talk only about those things they really care about. in addition to developing notes for your content. too.> Speakers who are more concerned about being polished than being real. <. So.in other words.48 9. develop 'metanotes' to remind you to make eye contact." [qtd. [qtd. Show your enthusiasm. to avoid reading from the visual and losing the eye contact with your listeners.. An advice from Carolyn Balling seems useful here: "There is nothing worse than a false smoothie." Laskowski. . you should be. first draw your listeners' attention to it and then point out what you want the audience to notice. have its photocopy in your hand for you to have a peek at it. Use gestures. That is why the very probability of making a mistake discourages and upsets us. Continuous restless gestures or unsuitable clothes may cause laughter. in Zielinski] Posture and gestures A relaxed and active impression is the most favorable you can make. president of Nancy K. For the same reason avoid fidgeting with a pen or a piece of chalk. <.
Do not stare either at anybody or at your notes. It may seem unnatural at first. This problem is known even for experienced public speakers. Then your looking through the notes will not surprise anybody and . You should learn to divide your attention: look at everyone. never look at the window or at the ceiling. if a microphone is not needed. try to open your mouth a bit wider than usual. If you are very tense. Avoid writing on the blackboard and talking at the same time. not just the people sitting close to you or on your right. it may be reasonable to write down the full text of the introduction. The main thing in this case is not to panic. If you do not articulate well. A way out is to make a short summary of what you have already said. Your eyes are the tools to convey your attitude and emotions. while less important information can be delivered a bit faster. notes that according "to the Book of Lists. "There are two types of speakers: those that are nervous and those that are liars. As far as nerve problem arises at the very beginning. you should practice more in advance. you may forget what you were going to say.death.49 Reprinted from Griffin (78) Articulation and loudness To avoid problems check in advance the room of presentation: is there a microphone if the room is big. Eye contact Communicative attitude to making a presentation implies that you should keep a constant eye contact with your audience. illness and . practice for a videotape or in front of the mirror to spot flaws. even when you are pointing something on the blackboard or the screen. a managing editor of Presentations magazine. to get the feedback whether you are doing well or not. Intonation You should vary your intonation. financial problems. you can also adopt your speaking tempo." To abolish the causes of our fears is the best way to cope with nerves." [Simons] We get nervous when we expect problems and are not self-confident. practice with your friend to chose the optimal loudness. The former is not polite. but you are sure to overcome this problem. deep water. Never turn back to the listeners. practice for a critical audience. If you follow your listeners' reaction. the latter shows your incompetence. public speaking is most people's No. you had better make a short pause. You should face the audience standing on the left of the visual and point out with your right hand. Even if you are well prepared. Speed When you improvise you will most probably automatically adopt an optimal speed.the kicker . 1 fear. You should not sound monotonous. stressing what is especially important. beating out heights. The best strategy is to vary speed during your presentation: more important parts deserve slowing down. Ensure that everything you need for the presentation is available and working. As Mark Twain said. insects. Coping with nerves Tad Simons. or down.
Use your own natural speaking style. 6. In your opening. picture your audience applauding you at the end of your presentation. Chip Bell.then rehearse. and become more interested in what the trainee learns or audience takes away. After your presentation speech you will be asked questions. Bond with your audience. and understand that your audience really wants you to succeed. Unless you call attention to yourself. Calif. Dallas. in Zielinski] Edward Tufte advice is not to explain how nervous you are and what the probability is that you will throw up midway through the presentation. 2. secondly. Palo Alto. in Zielinski] Dealing with questions People's opinion of your work may well depend more on the way you answer the questions than only on the content or quality of your presentation. Have an opening you can get through perfectly .they sound insulting for the person asking the . Prepare -. and to build a rapport with the audience. says that the secret to powerful presentations is focusing on the audience. Take deep breaths to control breathing. rehearse! Practice meaningfully. rehearse. Don't try to be someone you're not. Get a good night's sleep before your presentation. Keep the audience on your side.. a senior partner of Performance Research Associate Inc.50 while summarizing you may recollect what you wanted to say. Psyche yourself up. they become more powerful presenters. the way you'll actually deliver your presentation. Pick two or three friendly faces. advises. isometrics or other exercise to relieve physical stress. speak to them in your opening and feed off their energy. It frees you to focus on getting your rhythm and pacing. USA. your audience will be much more concerned about their own physical and emotional state than yours. [Romer] Here are six secret steps from Tony Jeary how to turn from nervous to natural adapted from his Inspire Any Audience: 1. let them know they aren't wasting their time. stop thinking about the way they look or sound. Be yourself.. Do stretching. "You've got to know your first three minutes cold. Do not humiliate or embarrass your questioner.. Remember to pause. Always repeat the question before answering it: first you check if you have interpreted it correctly. even if you are half asleep or sick as a dog. 5. and thirdly." [qtd. "As soon as the presenter or trainer makes the switch to being more concerned for the people in the seats than about themselves. [From nervous to natural] Carolyn Balling. you gain some time to organize your answer. 3. USA. proper pausing conveys relaxation and confidence. 4. instead of worrying about content. Know what you're talking about." . then work toward it. a manager of internal training at Colagen Corp." [qtd. Thorough preparation equals total confidence. Work with your body and its physical reaction to nervousness. you make sure that everyone has heard the question.. Use positive self-talk and visualize success. When answering avoid saying such phrases like: "I have already mentioned this in my speech" or "If you listened to me attentively.
"Often the person who is asking wants to know. . Simply answer the question without such comments. "What about me? How does your work solve my problem?" [Romer] Be brief and keep to the point. Remember that a listener may have his own reasons for asking.51 question.
You may use your own equipment to the extent it is feasible. Such division of attention is not efficient. watch out for noise that can impair hearing. dependent on what is available in the room. illustrate the contents. stress professional terms. Deciding what visual aids to use during your defense presentation take into account the following demands: * Your visuals must be functional.52 4. not what is easiest for you to produce. but analyze them. or put a transparency topsy-turvy.6 VISUALIZATION Your presentation will not be successful unless you use illustrations. * They must form an integral part of the presentation.g. names. graphs or a new product. show what they add up to the content of your speech. * Allow your listeners enough time to read the illustration or to look at it. You should stand with the visuals to your left when facing the listeners. It is annoying both for you and your audience when you start adjusting equipment during presentation. Do not make people listen to you and read the information on the visual simultaneously. It means you should not only show them but explain and comment them for the listeners to see the connection between what you are saying and showing. by showing diagrams. etc. of course. * Make sure that your illustrations are readable for everyone to see them. Choosing visual aids for your presentation you are. Using visuals helps the listeners remember the information better. book titles. makes the presentation clearer and more attractive. Do not describe the visuals. p. Reprinted from Griffin (187) . They are a form of redundancy and give both the speaker and the listeners a pause. e. or do not find a flip-chart to fix your fly-sheets. Use the format favored by your audience. Usually they should make the structure of the presentation clear. Now we will comment on the most common visual aids to facilitate your choice [Presentations.26-29]. and you will have difficulty in getting the listeners' attention back to yourself and your speech. dates. * Check in advance that all necessary appliances are ready and in operation and that you know how to work with them. Ensure the space for yourself to move in front of the audience. Note the shape of the table and position of seats.
it is not suitable for large audiences as it is difficult for everybody to see. it is not always possible to write in advance.Writing on the blackboard takes a lot of time. . while writing you lose eye contact. Flip-chart Until recently it was one of the most popular visuals for the defense presentation. or step aside from time to time. Make functional gestures to point out the information on the blackboard. you can easier maintain eye contact moving the sheet in the position you need to look at everyone.53 Black board Advantages The size of the black board is large enough to place a lot of information. Advantages You can prepare your sheets in advance. you can use them in any room.They take much time and effort to prepare. Rules of use . It has not lost its value so far. Stand in such a position that your listeners can read what you are writing. Avoid dark colors of the chalk. Disadvantages . their limited size makes them less suitable for detailed tables and diagrams and for big audiences. Do not write and speak at the same time.Try to start with a clean board. to prepare it in advance and to alter it during presentation. Keep the information together using functionally the parts of the black board. Disadvantages . for example the structure of your presentation. You can also keep the information visible for a long time. they are not so time-consuming to use as the black board.
If you use only few indicators from the extended table. not to lose eye contact. Show each transparency for at least thirty seconds for the listeners to be able to grasp the information. they are not so time-consuming. not on the screen. .54 Overhead projector Since recently it has become widely used as a presentation aid. they are harder to read than normal writing in capitals and small letters. Never stand in front of the projector. Disadvantages . should be as simple as possible so that the audience can grasp them easily.Overhead projectors are not available everywhere and they may not work properly. you can easier maintain eye contact. They are suitable for up to 25 people. And here are some rules for you to follow when preparing the poster boards. * Number your sheets/transparencies and provide them with titles for the audience to follow what they are illustration of. never read the text from the transparency aloud. it may be useful to show them in some other form and provide the complete table in the hand-outs. because the latter become superfluous. * do not use capital letters only. Advantages You can prepare your transparencies in advance. for transparencies the best format is A4 and bold fonts larger than 20. transparencies. Rules of use Keep the lights on when using transparencies and slides. diagrams etc. it is possible to add information by putting transparencies on top of each other. and flip charts [Kaye]: * all charts should be horizontal (preferred) or vertical. * Drawings. Do not copy them from the written thesis. adapt them to visual presentation. * two or more colors (black plus a color on white background) will help improve retention of the information. Do not move your pen or hand too frequently across the transparency not to irritate your audience. but use it to support what you are saying. * restrict the text: put no more than 7-8 lines. point out information on the projector . try how the first transparency is projected and focus the overhead beforehand. Switch off the projector unless you use it: the noise and light on the screen may be irritating. you will cover the image. your hand-outs should not repeat the transparencies. they are easy to prepare with the help of computer technologies. * do not write too small. preferably in catchwords instead of complete sentences. It also has its pluses and minuses. Use a pen not a finger.
which you can pass round. <. Instead of simply pointing out you must do this orally and make sure that your listeners follow your instructions. proposals. . claims that "anytime you use AV. not as the centerpiece." [qtd. Edward Tufte notes that "your audience can think a lot faster than you can talk. These are photocopies of materials which usually contain the structure of the presentation.you had better combine handouts with some other visual aids intended for general demonstration like flip chart or overhead projector. their layout. students. you should be aware of disadvantages handouts have. but I will trade that for a more personal rapport with the audience. The audience can read them at their own speed and be engaged by your material. But remember that it is very distracting when you continue talking in meantime. Handouts have definite advantages. [Romer] Handouts can convey far more information than can be represented on overhead slide. rather than being passive. They also leave a permanent record after your presentation is finished which may increase the utility of your presentation. Nevertheless. They do not take time from presentation. and structure. for example. Supporting media can increase retention by stimulating more senses.. Bearing in mind that your audience at the defense presentation will be rather heterogeneous . people start reading them and know what is coming. But do not overdo! Experienced presenters state that many popular audio visual (AV) tools create an unnecessary barrier between presenter and audience. short introduction or summary. You can make the best use of the advantages of the both to create an impressive and efficient presentation.members of the examination board.55 * End with a summary chart of key points and leave it displayed until you finish the defense presentation. diagrams. If you hand them out in advance. It is more difficult to guide the listeners to the information you what them to look at. Nowadays you can make use of various software like PowerPoint to prepare visuals for your presentation. so you should give them material to think about". This software provides practical recommendations for overhead transparencies and handout preparation. Many presenters prefer handouts.> There is a reason they are called visual 'aids. teachers. If you hand them out during your presentation it distracts the audience' attention and it may take you some time to bring it back to the subject and to your speech. it creates a formality and distance you have to factor in. parents and other guests . a handout in Appendix G may prove itself useful. such as leaflets. Chip Bell. So it is better to pass them round after the presentation. in Zielinski] It is for you to decide which visual aids will suit your purpose the most and find the proper balance between your speech and its visual support. Besides showing visuals to the whole group you may use individual illustrations. If you are a novice with PowerPoint. graphs. They can provide depth of material omitted from your talk that will interest the specialists in the audience. During the presentation the speaker constantly refers to handouts.' They're designed as support tools..
56 Reprinted from Griffin (271) GOOD LUCK! .
date) Donetsk 2000 (Name) .57 APPENDIX A Title page MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF UKRAINE Donetsk State Technical University International Business Department Accepted for defense Chief of IBA dept. date) (Name) (signature. date) ________________ (Name) GRADUATION THESIS (title) for the Degree of Bachelor (Master) of Economics (International Business Administration) Written by ____________________________________________________________ (signature. date) (Name) (signature. date) (Name) Consultants ____________________________________________________________ (signature. ______________ (signature. date) (Name) group ____________________________________________________________ Thesis Supervisor ___________________________________________________________ (signature.
oil price changes are shocks to the public budget. by looking at the response to oil shocks. AUTOCRATIC GOVERNMENT. the more moderate the expenditure response to an oil shock: democracies over-spending tendency. . A second finding is that "left-wing" governments tend spend more than "right-wing" ones after a windfall. it is shown how the model can be applied to the measurement of the wealth effect of oil price shocks.mit. Its purpose is to assess the effects of politics and institutions on fiscal policy.58 APPENDIX B - Sample Abstract This sample abstract is taken from the thesis titled "The Fiscal Response to Oil Shocks" for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics written and defended by Luis Videgaray-Caso in June 1998 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (for the full text of the thesis and complete list of dissertations see: http://theses. 3) there is no significant evidence of asymmetries in the response to negative and positive shocks. DEMOCRACY. the model outperforms both linear reduced-form models which do not consider structural change and DOE price forecasts. EXPENDITURE AND TAXATION RESPONSE. The third chapter is an empirical essay in political economics. OIL STOCKS. indicating the presence of "flypaper" effects. The first chapter develops a forecasting model of the real price of crude oil applying Hamilton's Markov regime switching model on a 127 year long series of the real price of oil. taxation. OIL SHOCKS. The main finding of the third chapter is that the more autocratic a government is. are: 1) the sum of non-oil tax cuts and spending increases does not exceed the annuity value of oil stocks. 4 diagrams. In countries where oil revenue is a major source of government revenue. 6 tables. 2) most of the response occurs through increased government expenditure. Key words: CRUDE OIL PRICE.edu/) Abstract 85 pages. based on an empirical analysis of a panel data set of 13 petroleum exporting countries. As a forecasting tool. The second chapter measures the expenditure and taxation response to oil shock over the last 25 years. 78 bibliographic sources. Finally. The key findings. This thesis looks at the large and sudden changes to oil prices over the last three decades as natural experiments for understanding the factors that determine expenditure. and 4) there are significant cross-country differences in the way governments respond to oil shocks. The mode provides strong statistical evidence favoring the presence of changes in regime. A FORECASTING MODEL OF THE REAL PRICE. and government saving levels.
59 APPENDIX C - Transitional Devices2 Addition A. emphatically. by (way of) contrast. undeniably. nor. all the same. as to 2 This list is compiled on the basis of Swan. once in a while. nevertheless. thus. what's more. but. after all. Comparison/ Contrast whereas. where. moreover. Jordan. absolutely. after. therefore. next. sometimes Emphasis definitely. meanwhile. and so forth. above all. besides. second. although this may be true. furthermore. however. in spite of. for. despite. nevertheless. last but not the least. although. at this point. surprisingly. extremely. perennially. only. that is Exception yet. next. obviously. then. always. and then. instead. however. unquestionably. at the same time. Equation (similarity with what has preceded) – equally. in any case. too. likewise. at any rate. finally.and. and electronic sources. indeed. previously. notwithstanding. concurrently. regarding. and then. equally important. furthermore. up against. yet. certainly. eternally. lastly. evidently. next. after all. afterward. third. simultaneously. now. with reference/respect/regard to. subsequently. similarly. positively. C. as well (as). but. let us (now) turn to…. and so forth. reinforcement(includes confirmation) . while. naturally. in the second place…. To begin/start with. for the same reason. B. and to conclude…. but. by comparison. further. consequently. in addition. hence. in any case. nonetheless. above all B. forever. then. even if/though Proof because. (on the one hand)… on the other hand Concession Besides. soon. balanced against. conversely. still. in comparison. in contrast. first and foremost Transition Now. on the other hand. A. since. following this. without reservation Sequence first. never. in fact. on the contrary. of course. moreover. for all that. again. besides. vis a vis. as for. without a doubt. still. . correspondingly. compared to. before this. finally. (or) else. at this time. except. in spite of/despite that.
accordingly. that is to say. to illustrate. as I have said. in this case. then. overall. for instance. in particular.. that implies. as I have shown. therefore. mostly (of) Example for example. take the case of . else. or better. thus. to conclude. particularly. for this/that reason Inference Then. therefore. mainly. summing up. because of this/that. as a result .60 Apposition (to refer back to previous sentence or to parallel references): i. Namely. on the whole.. as follows. hence. chiefly. or rather. on this occasion. altogether. notably. in that case. as a result/consequence. in brief. in other words. otherwise. as an illustration Result So. that is. consequently. in another case. in other words. to sum up briefly.. then.. thus. to summarize. or. now. in this situation. my conclusion is … Summary or Conclusion In conclusion. viz. hence.e. to demonstrate. accordingly. if so/not….
The following signs mean: Correct sentence Wrong sentence . and creative and thus was highly acclaimed.3.6. last night. That Clauses v The apartments which are damaged will be renovated by two carpenters who are unemployed. (Agent is missing) An upturn in the bond market is expected by us. Make People the Subject 2.5. and electronic sources. Make Important Ideas Stand Out Avoid chains of Which. It was discovered that staggered hours were unacceptable to our supervisory staff.3. v The files that are located in his office can be destroyed. Cut out clutter – wordiness 1.61 APPENDIX D Elements of Style3 1. Susan Arthurs and Harry Jones.2.' 'Who. Choose Verb Over Noun Phrases 2.1. We met the supervisors.2. Use Concrete Details and Examples 2. management decided to pay the workers more.' 'That' Clauses 1. Ø Since they expected higher profits. Ø The damaged apartments will be renovated by two carpenters who are unemployed. Ø The files in his office can be destroyed. Use Active Verbs It was decided that the shares would be sold. 3 Ø v Compiled on the basis of Whitehead. Being Forceful 2.4. Avoid Cliches 2. (Agent in modifying clause) e. Use Adjectives and Adverbs Sparingly 2. v The proposals which I have outlined will increase morale in the departments which have employees who are overworked. Use Adjectives and Adverbs Sparingly v Ø v Ø He proposed an extraordinarily daring and bold strategy. Jordan. Use Active Verbs 2. Being concise 1. Her innovative campaign was highly acclaimed Choose Verb Over Noun Phrases v Since they had an expectation of higher profits.1. original. He proposed a daring strategy Her campaign was imaginative. Avoid chains of 'Which. Who. management made a decision in favor of increased remuneration for the workers. Swan. Make People the Subject (personality principle) v Ø v Ø We met two supervisors last night.g. Ø The outlined proposals will increase morale in the departments with overworked employees. We discovered that our supervisors did not want staggered hours.
The workers were let go when the plant was shut down. regularly since. because think. 4. Usually she gets along with the manager.g. on a regular basis In view of the fact that Be of the opinion that Until such time as Make Important Ideas Stand Out Alternatives now because about maybe actually for soon if (omit) likely daily. When you want to avoid an awkward shift of focus in a sentence or paragraph: e.usually. Place key words in strategic positions: v The hydro contract will be a money maker. 2. (equal stress) v Although the advertising brought many new clients. When fumes seeped into the cafeteria. The advertising cost more than we anticipated. it cost more than we anticipated. 2. . 3. despite our early concerns. PASSIVE VERBS ARE APPROPRIATE: When the subject is the recipient of an action: e. Compare: She usually gets along with the manager. When you want to emphasize the object rather than the person acting: e.62 1. but it brought many new clients. Ø The hydro contract. Subordinate unimportant facts – or those you want to hide: Ø Although the advertising cost more than we anticipated. When you want to avoid placing blame or seeming accusatory: e. they were first noticed by the cashier. despite our early concerns.g. it brought many new clients. The bill hasn't been paid. Avoid Cliches Foreseeable future advance planning End result serious concern True facts genuine opportunity Serious crisis Cut out clutter – wordiness Cluttering phrases At this point in time Due to the fact that With regard to It is possible that As a matter of fact For the purpose of In the near future In the eventuality that When all is said and done In all likelihood On a daily basis. believe when 1. will be a money maker.g. She gets along with the manager . The unsafe machine must be replaced.g.
63 3. E.g. and we analyzed the competition. we analyzed the product. Use repetition – rhythm To reach our profit target. v The machine keeps breaking down because of faulty operation. but most of all we analyzed our own method of managing. but because of faulty operation. 4. Ø We won this contract not through luck but through hard work. 5. Vary sentence length. contrast: v We won this contract through hard work. 6. we analyzed the market. . not because of faulty parts. Use contrast. Ø The machine keeps breaking down. Underline or boldface occasionally.
wrong sentence Ø . Ø I was late.64 APPENDIX E - Grammar Check List4 1. v The sales figures are higher than last year's.correct example . As well as. although I solved the problem. Ø The leaking pipeline caused the explosion. since.g. Swan. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement: The Subject Must Agree in Number and Person With the Verb. Two independent clauses must be separated by one of the following: ß A period. Lack of Sentence Unity: sentences must be complete. None. so. Neither my boss nor my subordinates regret the change. Each. Although I solved the problem. Ø The main point of the report is that a lack of adequate day-care causes absenteeism. Either the creditors or the bank is likely to act. Either.g. nor + Noun -> Verb agrees with the last Noun e. nor. Sentence fragments: v London being a good city to test-market a new product. 4 5 Compiled on the basis of Lynch. Nor. Faulty Predication: The subject of a Sentence must fit the Predicate v The main point of the report examines the lack of adequate day-care as a cause of absenteeism. v The explosion was when the pipeline sprang a leak. or/ neither. Noun + or/either. Ø The report examines the lack of adequate day-care as a cause of absenteeism. or. The following signs mean: v .g. Ø The settlement of Indian and Inuit land-claims is likely to take several years. yet.5 Ø London is a good city to test-market a new product. ß A coordinating conjunction (and. Ø The explosion occurred when the pipeline sprang a leak. RULES of SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT Noun and Noun -> plural Verb e. The carpenter and the bricklayer are coming tomorrow. 3. and electronic sources. Action will come from either the bank or the creditors. although. they increased by ten percent. for) ß A semi-colon 2. in addition – do not make a compound subject: e. Jack as well as Jill is attending the meeting. v The settlement of Indian and Inuit land-claims are likely to take several years. Neither. v I was late. Jack and Jill are attending the meeting. everyone -> Verb sing. but) ß A subordinating conjunction (because. Run-on sentences: v I like business this is why I enrolled at Western.
4. Ø The congratulatory letter mentioned me. Ø The congratulatory letter mentioned Helen and me. e. When a person applies for a job. the manager went back to his office. v When office machinery becomes costly to fix. but the advisory group considered it unsuitable. v When an employee has worked here for twenty-five years. Ø I worried about his losing the job. Ø Ø Ø When one applies for a job. If he had smiled.g. When people apply for jobs. the manager went back to his office. one should look their best. Ø Our plan was to conduct a seminar in the boardroom. I would have invited him. v Our plan was to conduct a seminar in the boardroom. BUT: v I worried about him losing the job. 5.65 Each of the employees is contributing to he fund. Pronoun problems: A Pronoun must refer to a Specific Noun. Common Mistakes: Tense shift. Muddled Modifying Modifiers Must Show Clearly What They Modify . Writing about Past (Sequence of Tenses) v Ø When the owners toured the plant. v Implementing this idea would improve employee morale and in turn it will likely increase profits. Ø When employees have worked here for twenty-five years. Tense Troubles: Verb Tenses must be consistent with the Timeframe. and Must Agree With it in Number and Person. Ø When office machinery becomes costly to fix. but the advisory group considered the room unsuitable. Ø The supervisor decided to reprimand the workers but this decision was not acted on. v When a person applies for a job. it should be replaced. I would have invited him. Ø She spoke after John and me. they should be replaced. Hypothetical Actions v Ø If he would have smiled. they get a gold watch. When the owners had toured the plant. they should look their best. Vague "This" or "It" v The supervisor decided to reprimand the workers. 6. but this was not acted on. Neither of my colleagues wants the job. they should look their best. he or she should look his or her best. v The congratulatory letter mentioned Helen and I. they get a gold watch.
g.66 v v Ø Ø He played good today. The manager hired Heather for both the marketing and sales jobs. He played well today. Misplaced and Squinting Modifiers v Ø v Ø Ø v Ø He made his brief to the commission. v We had increased sales. He threw the ball real well.Similar Ideas Should Have Similar Wording. better productivity. even though it looked burnt. The manager both hired Heather for the marketing and for the sales jobs. which was disorganized and long-winded. Margaret is not only good with figures but also with people. Young employees often understand more about computers than their bosses do. Parallel Phrasing . and profits were higher. + Adjective. He made his confused and long-winded brief to the commission. . Problems with pairs. The material feels soft. and higher profits. She decided to look in the fall for another job. Walking into the lobby. She decided in the fall to look for another job. In the fall she decided to look for another job. he thought the office was intimidating. the office was intimidating. not Adverb The pie was good. Ø We had increased sales. Remember: be taste smell feel look appear seem become e. Margaret is good not only with figures but also with people. v Ø Ø v Ø v Ø Young employees often understand more about computers than their bosses. Walking into the lobby. He threw the ball well (or really well). Young employees often understand more than their bosses about computers. better productivity.
Semi-Colon Separates closely related independent clauses. . too. the President. e. Separates non-defining adjectival phrases from the rest of the sentence. It is years since I worked at the factory.. or brackets () to isolate the phrase.g. etc. to clinch a deal. They tried. e. which shows possession. please tell me. began..) and the colon (:). 3. the semi-colon (. which is used to separate off a thought in a sentence.g. and the exclamation mark (!). Before a formal quotation. · Inverted commas (" " or ' '). of course. though. said. Alternatively we may use commas. the question mark (?). Wightehead. · quotation marks (' ').g. 2. getting on his feet. 7. e. Between items in series if there are already commas within each item. Comma Separates a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence: e. 1. . e. etc. 1. · the three 'pause' marks: the comma (. more manageable phrases. Many people have difficulty with this item of punctuation. : 1. when subordinate clause comes before the principal clause. in the lists Separates connectives from the rest of the sentence. . nevertheless.).g. It has two functions. Before a list. 2. The apostrophe is a raised comma ('). and electronic sources. which was my first working experience. or restatement of the clause. If you do not understand. ' The Possessive Case 6 Compiled after Jordan. therefore. However. 2. 3. however..g.67 APPENDIX F - Punctuation Guide The purpose of punctuation is to advance understanding by turning what might otherwise be long and complex sentence into shorter. when we want to indicate direct speech interrupting a prose passage. expansion. 6. Especially useful before: Thus. · the apostrophe ('). · the hyphen or dash (-). The complete list of punctuation marks consists of6 : · the three terminal punctuation marks: the full stop (. 4. It indicates both the possessive case and contractions. e.g.). Colon After an independent clause to introduce explanation. when some adverbs or adverbial expressions are placed within a sentence (instead of at the beginning or end of the sentence). Separates phrases in opposition. in spite of my advice. which show you are quoting from someone else's work. which is then said to be 'in parenthesis'.. Bill Clinton. then. 5. The speaker.
68 1. The apostrophe is used to indicate the missing letters. Notice too that the term its' does not exist. No apostrophe is required in the plural form of numbers and dates: in the 1920s the roaring twenties temperatures in the 80s 10. Note the difference between it's (it is) and its (belonging to it). when something belongs to somebody or something else.) 5. When the possessor is single. But the apostrophe should be used in any expression which includes an element of possession MP's salaries a PC's capacity 3. there is no need to add an apostrophe to denote the plural MP (Member of Parliament) sixteen MPs PC (personal computer) a network of PCs MB (megabyte) 100 MBs 2. When the possessors are plural. 3. or the cat's whiskers. the apostrophe is placed after the final 's': the girls' bicycles my cousins' parents the cows' horns 4. we indicate possession by using an apostrophe followed by the letter 's': the man's coat my sister's hat the cat's whiskers 3. but when speaking we would say She's told him. I'm (I am) he's (he is) You're (You are) 2. When names end with the letter 's'. This is the possessive case. Many shops and business concerns these days omit the apostrophe from their titles: Barclays Bank Coopers Wines Smiths Cleaners 8. The possessive of classical names ending in es is often formed by the apostrophe alone: Demosthenes' speeches Sophocles' plays Xerxes' campaigns 11. Note that the apostrophe is not required where a new word has been formed by omitting the first part in its original form: bus not 'bus [from 'omnibus'] phone not 'phone [from 'telephone'] 9. General 1. French names ending in an unpronounced s or x follow the normal rule. The apostrophe is never used with possessive pronouns: his hers its ours yours theirs 6. 2. We can say either the whiskers of the cat. 7. When items are described by an acronym or an abbreviation. The apostrophe is not normally used after a noun which has an adjectival rather than a possessive sense ladies toilet Rates Office students union CAPITAL LETTERS . taking an apostrophe and an s: Rabelais's comedy Malraux's novels Contractions In formal prose we would write She has told him. 1. either use is acceptable: James' wife James's wife (It is often said that the choice between the two should be made on how the word is pronounced. But it is used with 'one': One must do one's best.
69 · · · · · · · · · At the beginning of the sentence. and historical eras. · The names of firms and companies. High Flow Valves Ltd. e. rivers. months. European Freightflow PLC. places. festivals. For many abbreviations. Almighty and other references to the deity. The word 'I'. For names of people. For titles of people and names of things and places when referring to particular examples. For names of days. pieces of art.g. plays. Ph.g.D. e. Sorreil and Son. etc. The word God. RSVP. For titles of books. etc. . For nations and adjectives of nationality.
Ø You can also use the slide sorter view command at the bottom left hand corner of the screen to show all the slides you have made on one screen. Ø Use graphs and tables that are easy to understand. Goods fonts to use in PowerPoint include MS Sansserif. Ø Only include important information on each slide. Ø Use simple designs and backgrounds. Try to keep text lines short. Ø Limit the numbers of colours on a slide to no more than 7. Ø Use color to show relationships but avoid colour combinations that do not work well together (for example red/green. Ø Remember to check your spelling by clicking the abc icon on the tool bar. You can select a topic to get more information.70 APPENDIX G - Making Presentation with PowerPoint First step To make a new presentation choose new from the file menu. You can select a template using the AutoContent wizard or a blank presentation. Ø If you use pictures. Ø Avoid long screens of text. Ø Limit the number of key points on a slide. make sure that they are of high quality. eight to ten lines is usually enough. blue/yellow. green/blue and red/blue). Ø Avoid using too many fonts on a slide. MS Serif. Include no more than key five points. Macintosh Geneva and New York (these fonts were designed for computer screens). If You Have Problems Ø If you have any problems with PowerPoint remember to select help from the tool bar at the top of the screen. Ø Avoid using upper case characters and underlined text. [Peterson] . Ø When you have completed your presentation select slide show and then use the view show command to see a preview of your presentation. Key Points in PowerPoint Design Ø Organise your information in a logical way. audio or video. You can also click the office assistant button on the tool bar. Ø Give each slide a title.
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