text:
Latest Titles With James McAvoy
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1. Watership Down (TV Mini-Series)
Animation | Filming
Set in the idyllic rural landscape of southern England, the adventure tale follows a band of rabbits on their flight from the intrusion of man and the certain destruction of their home. Led... See full summary »
Stars: Gemma Arterton, John Boyega, Mackenzie Crook, Freddie Fox
Watership Down
Episode #1.1
Director: Noam Murro | Stars: Gemma Arterton, John Boyega, Gemma Chan, Olivia Colman
Watership Down
Episode #1.2
Director: Noam Murro | Stars: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, Gemma Arterton, John Boyega, Lorraine Bruce
Watership Down
Episode #1.3
Director: Noam Murro | Stars: Gemma Arterton, John Boyega, Mackenzie Crook, Rosie Day
Watership Down
Episode #1.4
Director: Noam Murro | Stars: Gemma Arterton, John Boyega, Lizzie Clarke, Olivia Colman
6. Gnomeo & Juliet: Sherlock Gnomes (2018)
Animation | Pre-production
Garden gnomes, Gnomeo & Juliet, recruit renown detective, Sherlock Gnomes, to investigate the mysterious disappearance of other garden ornaments.
Writers: Kevin Cecil, Andy Riley, Richard Sweren, Ben Zazove | Director: John Stevenson | Stars: Johnny Depp, Emily Blunt, James McAvoy
7. Submergence (2017)
Drama, Romance, Thriller | Post-production
In a room with no windows on the eastern coast of Africa, an Englishman, James More, is held captive by jihadist fighters. Thousands of miles away on the Greenland Sea, Danielle Flinders ... See full summary »
Writers: Erin Dignam, J.M. Ledgard | Director: Wim Wenders | Stars: Alicia Vikander, James McAvoy, Celyn Jones, Audrey Quoturi
8. Split (2017)
Thriller | Post-production
Plot is being kept under wraps.
Writer: M. Night Shyamalan | Director: M. Night Shyamalan | Stars: James McAvoy, Brad William Henke, Anya Taylor-Joy, Haley Lu Richardson
9. The Coldest City (2017)
Thriller | Post-production
An undercover MI6 agent is sent to Berlin during the Cold War to investigate the murder of a fellow agent and recover a missing list of double agents.
Writers: Kurt Johnstad, Antony Johnston | Director: David Leitch | Stars: Sofia Boutella, Charlize Theron, James McAvoy, John Goodman
10. X-Men: Apocalypse (2016)
PG-13 | 144 min | Action, Adventure, Sci-Fi
After the re-emergence of the world's first mutant, world-destroyer Apocalypse, the X-Men must unite to defeat his extinction level plan.
Writers: Simon Kinberg, Bryan Singer, Michael Dougherty, Dan Harris | Director: Bryan Singer | Stars: James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence, Nicholas Hoult
Votes: 138,466 | Gross: $154.99M
Extra (1994– )
Episode #22.177
Blake Shelton and Gwen Stefani; the case of X-Men: Apocalypse (2016); Kaley Cuoco's divorce settlement.
Directors: Rob Dorn, Sean Olson | Stars: Mario Lopez, Charissa Thompson, Tracey E. Edmonds, Renee Bargh
Dish Nation (2011– )
Episode #4.180
TV-PG | 30 min | News
Creator: Stu Weiss | Stars: Rickey Smiley, Gary With Da Tea, HeadKrack, Porsha Williams
Good Morning America (1975– )
Episode dated 24 May 2016
News, Talk-Show
Jennifer Lopez; James McAvoy and the cast of X-Men: Apocalypse (2016); former "Bachelorette" Andi Dorfman; Matt Bomer (The Nice Guys (2016)); behind the scenes of the Dancing with the Stars... See full summary »
Stars: Robin Roberts, George Stephanopoulos, Lara Spencer, Amy Robach
Good Morning America (1975– )
Episode dated 26 May 2016
News, Talk-Show
Adam Sandler and David Spade (The Do-Over (2016)); Jennifer Lawrence, Sophie Turner, James McAvoy and Oscar Isaac (X-Men: Apocalypse (2016)); a preview of 500 Questions (2015); "Deals and ... See full summary »
Stars: Robin Roberts, George Stephanopoulos, Lara Spencer, Amy Robach
Live! with Kelly (1988– )
Guest Co-Host Fred Savage/Anna Paquin/James McAvoy
Guest co-host Fred Savage (The Grinder (2015)); Anna Paquin (Roots (2016)); and James McAvoy (X-Men: Apocalypse (2016)). Also: "Take Charge of Your Food!" week continues with Dr. Tanya Remer Altmann.
Stars: Kelly Ripa, Fred Savage, Anna Paquin, James McAvoy
The Late Show with Stephen Colbert (2015– )
James McAvoy/Nick Swardson/Physicist Brian Greene
TV-PG | Comedy, Talk-Show
James McAvoy (X-Men: Apocalypse (2016)); Nick Swardson (The Do-Over (2016)); physicist Brian Greene.
Stars: Stephen Colbert, James McAvoy, Nick Swardson, Brian Greene
Votes: 5
The Graham Norton Show (2007– )
Johnny Depp/Jennifer Lawrence/James McAvoy/Jack Whitehall/will.i.am
44 min | Comedy, Talk-Show
Writers: Rob Colley, Dan Gaster | Director: Steve Smith | Stars: Graham Norton, Johnny Depp, Jennifer Lawrence, James McAvoy
Votes: 26
Made in Hollywood (2005– )
X-Men: Apocalypse/Alice Through the Looking Glass/The Do-Over
Interviews with the cast and filmmakers from X-Men: Apocalypse (2016); Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016) and The Do-Over (2016).
Directors: Josh Neufeld, Todd Szuch | Stars: Patrick Stinson, Julie L. Harkness, Kylie Erica Mar, James Bobin
19. Victor Frankenstein (2015)
PG-13 | 110 min | Drama, Horror, Sci-Fi
Told from Igor's perspective, we see the troubled young assistant's dark origins, his redemptive friendship with the young medical student Viktor Von Frankenstein, and become eyewitnesses to the emergence of how Frankenstein became the man - and the legend - we know today.
Writers: Max Landis, Mary Shelley | Director: Paul McGuigan | Stars: Daniel Radcliffe, James McAvoy, Jessica Brown Findlay, Andrew Scott
Votes: 27,746 | Gross: $5.77M
20. The Late Show with Stephen Colbert (2015– )
TV-PG | 62 min | Comedy, Talk-Show
Stephen Colbert takes over as host, executive producer and writer of THE LATE SHOW on Tuesday, Sept. 8, 2015. The comedy-variety-talk show will be broadcast five nights a week from the Ed Sullivan theater in New York.
Stars: Stephen Colbert, Jonathan Batiste, Stay Human, Bernie Sanders
Votes: 3,059
21. The EE British Academy Film Awards (2015 TV Special)
Director: Matthew Amos | Stars: Stephen Fry, Amy Adams, Patricia Arquette, Richard Attenborough
Votes: 39
22. X-Men: Unguarded (2015 Video)
30 min | Short
The film's all-star ensemble cast joins director Bryan Singer and screenwriter Simon Kinberg to share their favorite stories from the set.
Stars: Shawn Ashmore, Halle Berry, Peter Dinklage, Michael Fassbender
23. Mutant vs. Machine: The Making of 'X-Men: Days of Future Past' (2015 Video)
53 min | Documentary
A nine-part making-of documentary that has cast and crew look at story/character areas and the original comics, what Singer brings to the film, cast and performances, costumes, sets and ... See full summary »
Stars: Shawn Ashmore, Halle Berry, Chris Claremont, Daniel Cudmore
Film 2016 (1971– )
Episode #44.12
There are reviews of Victor Frankenstein (2015), The Night Before (2015), and Sunset Song (2015). Plus an interview with director Ron Howard looking at his new film In the Heart of the Sea (2015).
Director: Stephen Neal | Stars: Claudia Winkleman, Danny Leigh, Kevin Maher, Terence Davies
Today (1952– )
Episode dated 11 November 2015
News, Talk-Show
Happy Veterans Day. Michael Keaton (Spotlight (2015)); the cast of "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory"; Melanie Brown (aka Mel B.) (America's Got Talent (2006)); Nia Vardalos; Daniel ... See full summary »
Stars: Melanie Brown, Sam Kass, Michael Keaton, James McAvoy
Today (1952– )
Episode dated 9 November 2015
News, Talk-Show
Daniel Radcliffe and James McAvoy (Victor Frankenstein (2015)); Donny Deutsch; Antonio Banderas, James Brolin, Juliette Binoche and Rodrigo Santoro (The 33 (2015)); Susan Sarandon (About Ray... See full summary »
Stars: Matt Lauer, Savannah Guthrie, Al Roker, Natalie Morales
The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (2014– )
James McAvoy/Sam Smith/Kurt Braunohler
TV-14 | 41 min | Comedy, Music, Talk-Show
James McAvoy (Victor Frankenstein (2015)); Sam Smith (Spectre (2015) theme song "Writing's on the Wall"); Kurt Braunohler performs stand-up.
Writers: A.D. Miles, Jonathan Adler, Patrick Borelli, Gerard Bradford, Mike DiCenzo, Mike Drucker, Jess Dweck, Dicky Eagan, Caroline Eppright, Jimmy Fallon, John Haskell, J.R. Havlan, Michael Jann, Josh Lieb, Arthur Meyer, Chase Mitchell, Dan Opsal, Gavin Purcell, Jon Rineman, Albertina Rizzo, David Young | Director: Dave Diomedi | Stars: Jimmy Fallon, James McAvoy, Sam Smith, Kurt Braunohler
Votes: 10
The Graham Norton Show (2007– )
Johnny Depp/Benedict Cumberbatch/James McAvoy/Daniel Radcliffe/The Corrs
44 min | Comedy, Talk-Show
Johnny Depp and Benedict Cumberbatch talk about their upcoming movie Black Mass (2015); James McAvoy and Daniel Radcliffe talk about their upcoming movie Victor Frankenstein (2015); The ... See full summary »
Writers: Rob Colley, Dan Gaster | Director: Steve Smith | Stars: Graham Norton, Johnny Depp, Benedict Cumberbatch, Daniel Radcliffe
Votes: 18
The Graham Norton Show (2007– )
Meryl Streep/James McAvoy/Mark Ruffalo/Hozier
Comedy, Talk-Show
Stars: Graham Norton, Meryl Streep, Mark Ruffalo, James McAvoy
Votes: 30
Conan (2010– )
Peter Capaldi/The Stars of X-Men: Apocalypse
TV-14 | Comedy, Music, Talk-Show
Michael Fassbender, Nicholas Hoult, Oscar Isaac, James McAvoy, Olivia Munn and Evan Peters, all of the film X-Men: Apocalypse (2016). From Comic-Con in San Diego.
Writers: Dan Cronin, Andres du Bouchet | Stars: Conan O'Brien, Andy Richter, Liam Cunningham, Peter Capaldi
Live! with Kelly (1988– )
Viola Davis/James McAvoyLance Ulanoff
Happy Veterans Day. Viola Davis (How to Get Away with Murder (2014)); James McAvoy (Victor Frankenstein (2015)). Also: Kelly and Michael try hoverboards with Lance Ulanoff.
Stars: Kelly Ripa, Michael Strahan, Viola Davis, James McAvoy
32. X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014)
PG-13 | 132 min | Action, Adventure, Fantasy
The X-Men send Wolverine to the past in a desperate effort to change history and prevent an event that results in doom for both humans and mutants.
Writers: Simon Kinberg, Jane Goldman, Matthew Vaughn | Director: Bryan Singer | Stars: Patrick Stewart, Ian McKellen, Hugh Jackman, James McAvoy
Votes: 511,059 | Gross: $233.91M
33. The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (2014– )
TV-14 | 60 min | Comedy, Music, Talk-Show
Jimmy Fallon hosts the Tonight Show and interviews celebrities, plays games with them and has a musical or comedic guest perform.
Stars: Jimmy Fallon, The Roots, Steve Higgins, Ahmir-Khalib Thompson
Votes: 9,116
34. Muppets Most Wanted (2014)
PG | 107 min | Adventure, Comedy, Crime
While on a grand world tour, The Muppets find themselves wrapped into an European jewel-heist caper headed by a Kermit the Frog look-alike and his dastardly sidekick.
Writers: James Bobin, Nicholas Stoller, Jim Henson | Director: James Bobin | Stars: Ricky Gervais, Ty Burrell, Tina Fey, Steve Whitmire
Votes: 24,191 | Gross: $51.18M
35. The Disappearance of Eleanor Rigby: Them (2014)
R | 123 min | Drama
One couple's story as they try to reclaim the life and love they once knew and pick up the pieces of a past that may be too far gone.
Writer: Ned Benson | Director: Ned Benson | Stars: James McAvoy, Jessica Chastain, Viola Davis, Bill Hader
Votes: 8,145 | Gross: $0.59M
36. Late Night with Seth Meyers (2014– )
TV-14 | 60 min | Comedy, Talk-Show
Seth Meyers hosts a late-night talk show.
Stars: Seth Meyers, Fred Armisen, Amber Ruffin, Conner O'Malley
Votes: 1,429
37. The Noite com Danilo Gentili (2014– )
60 min | Comedy, Talk-Show
A talk show in the night!
Stars: Danilo Gentili, Léo Lins, Juliana Oliveira, Murilo Couto
Votes: 67
38. Sit Down with the Stars (2014– )
Stars: Bette Bentley, Will Arnett, Rose Byrne, Cameron Diaz
39. The Olivier Awards 2014 (2014 TV Special)
Stars: Benny Andersson, Gemma Arterton, Stephen Ashfield, David Babani
40. Double Take: Xavier & Magneto (2014 Video)
12 min | Documentary
This making-of piece focuses on the quartet playing these characters at different ages.
Stars: Michael Fassbender, James McAvoy, Ian McKellen, Patrick Stewart
41. The British Academy Scotland Awards (2014 TV Movie)
Stars: Jonathan Asser, Tommy Gormley, Alex Graham, Shirley Henderson
What's Up (2010– )
Being So Great
Directors: Bob Clarke, Steve Prince, Nigel Spinks | Stars: Akala, Buffy, Bernadette Byrne, Chris Cox
Janela Indiscreta (2010– )
Episode #1.221
Writers: Mário Augusto, Ana Churro, Marta Curado, Miguel Monteiro | Stars: Mário Augusto, Nicolau Breyner, Bryan Cranston, Gareth Edwards
Made in Hollywood (2005– )
Episode #9.30
Director: Cleveland O'Neal III | Stars: Drew Barrymore, Peter Dinklage, Michael Fassbender, Julie L. Harkness
Today (1952– )
Episode dated 11 September 2014
News, Talk-Show
Guest co-anchor Tom Brokaw; James McAvoy; Jessie Pavelka and Jennifer Widerstrom ("The Biggest Loser"). Also: "Hope to It"; fall coats; "Ambush Makeovers"); antique decorating.
Stars: Tom Brokaw, James McAvoy, Jessie Pavelka, Jennifer Widerstrom
Entertainment Tonight (1981– )
Episode dated 13 September 2014
Weekly recap.
Stars: Brooke Anderson, Kevin Frazier, Rocsi Diaz, Nancy O'Dell
Good Morning America (1975– )
Episode dated 19 May 2014
News, Talk-Show
Patrick Stewart & James McAvoy; Lea Michele; Terry Crews; Andi Dorfman ("The Bachelorette"). Also: a look at the final rehearsals for "Dancing with the Stars"; highlights from the Billboard Music Awards.
Stars: Robin Roberts, George Stephanopoulos, Lara Spencer, Amy Robach
CQC - Custe o Que Custar (2008– )
Episode dated 19 May 2014
Comedy, News
Stars: Marcelo Tas, Marco Luque, Dani Calabresa, Alcione
Fantástico (1973– )
Episode dated 4 May 2014
Stars: Tadeu Schmidt, Renata Vasconcellos, Daniel Alves, Isabelle Drummond
Good Morning America (1975– )
Episode dated 8 May 2014
News, Talk-Show
Hugh Jackman, Patrick Stewart and James McAvoy; Michael Strahan; Jon Hamm; Katie Couric.
Stars: Ron Claiborne, Katie Couric, Bianna Golodryga, Jon Hamm


text:
She's a two-time major champion with 12 LPGA victories, and today Lydia Ko turns ... 19! Take a look back at her career through the years.Read More
Grill Room
Apr 24, 2016 11:27 AM ET
Apr 23, 2016 6:00 PM ET
Derek Jeter has had plenty of time to hone his golf skills since hanging up the cleats on a legendary baseball career, but how good, exactly, has he gotten?Read More
Apr 23, 2016 5:15 PM ET
In what is surely the most depressing news of the day, it appears #SB2K16 has come to an end.Read More
Apr 22, 2016 10:59 PM ET
Ever wanted to listen to a shirtless Spieth impersonate David Feherty? Of course you have.Read More
Apr 22, 2016 4:48 PM ET
Check out the video-game version of Jordan Spieth's meltdown at the Masters.Read More
Apr 22, 2016 3:09 PM ET
ICYMI, Rickie Fowler, Jordan Spieth, Justin Thomas and Smylie Kaufman have been having a grand ol' time in the Bahamas.Read More
Apr 22, 2016 3:00 PM ET
It appears Jordan Spieth, Rickie Fowler, Justin Thomas and Smylie Kaufman got the vacation memo, and they don't mess around when it comes to getting a little R&R.Read More
Apr 22, 2016 8:39 AM ET
Bubba Watson's playing this week at Shenzhen International in China, and they decided to play some night golf. In the video below, Watson recommends Scott hit a 1-iron over water, and it led to this exchange. Well played, guys, well played.Read More
Apr 20, 2016 10:34 AM ET
Oklahoma senior Brad Dalke is competing in this week's Valero Texas Open. Remember that time he took down Rory McIlroy in arm wrestling?Read More
Apr 17, 2016 3:39 PM ET
From Andrew Johnston's party plans to Jason Day's excuse for shooting 79, enjoy this edition of Quotes of the Week.Read More
Apr 17, 2016 1:30 PM ET
From the LPGA in Hawaii to the PGA Tour stop in Hilton Head, enjoy this edition of Top Photos of the Week.Read More
Apr 16, 2016 2:25 PM ET
This just in: Rickie Fowler can get better tickets to a concert than you.Read More
Apr 15, 2016 7:12 PM ET
Josh Pastner, Georgia Tech's new men's basketball coach, starts every interview with a potential assistant by asking the same question.Read More
Apr 15, 2016 5:26 PM ET
During this week's Open de Espana, four-man teams from Spain, France and Denmark – captained by Sergio Garcia, Raphaël Jacquelin and Thorbjorn Olesen – tried to break the Guinness World Record for the fastest hole played by a team of four players.Read More
Apr 15, 2016 12:33 PM ET
Rory McIlroy on Friday tweeted out these photos from the Manchester Institute of Health and Performance.Read More
Apr 14, 2016 11:46 AM ET
What a whirlwind week for Shane Lowry.Read More
Apr 13, 2016 10:51 AM ET
The daunting 17th hole at TPC Sawgrass is apparently so easy for Rickie Fowler that he's taken to playing it cross-handed.Read More

subset: commoncrawl


text:
2012-09-26 20:47:00
Julia Gray
It was the first day of duty for the newest member of the Bend Police force - and "Ranger" helped find a missing man within an hour.
Wednesday just before noon, an over-70 year old man with dementia wandered away from his home in the High Desert Assisted Living facility, and the residence officials alerted Bend Police - because the man had health issues.
Lt. Chris Carney says Ranger came to the rescue. "The brand new member of our canine program, Ranger's first day at work. Him and his handler, Officer Voll, came in at 9:45 [a.m.] for the regular shift and at 12:37[p.m.] the call came out. So they went out and when the officers were trying to check the area in their cars, and on foot at some locations, we were actually able to track, using Ranger from the facility over to where they found him."
Ranger is a purebred bloodhound - and that breed's specialty is tracking because they have such a keen sense of smell.
Carney says the man was found in pretty good condition near Rose Pharmacy - although a bit dehydrated because he was wearing a heavy jacket in the temperature was near 70.
King Solomon Lane closed between Ferguson Road and King David. (7/25)
Jones Road, full road closure between Bennington Lane and NE Butler Market Road. May 18 – August 18, local access only.
Oregon State University off-site improvements for intersection reconstruction, July 11 – August 3, 7 a.m. – 4:30 p.m., at intersection of Chandler Avenue and Yates Drive.
Orion Drive closed in two locations for sewer work; at the intersection with Avery Lane and between Desert Woods Drive and King Hezekiah Way. From July 11 to Sept. 6. Detours marked.
Valhalla Sewer Relocation Project, Mt. Washington Drive at Shevlin Park Road intersection and North to Regency Street. Nighttime closures with detours marked during roundabout construction. Daytime closures for construction towards Regency Street. 7 p.m. – 7 a.m., July 11 – November.
R.A.B. Construction:
Murphy Road and Parrell Road closed with detours. (9/30)
Powell Butte Highway at Neff and Alfalfa Market Roads (8/31)
Home | EEO | Employment Opportunities | Advertising Information | Links | Contact


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Tag Archives: wedding music
Reverse Musical Lobotomy
I played a wedding at a nearby parish. I was requested to play this song as a prelude for the singer to render. The lyrics did not give me confidence. A sample: Oh, come on girl, Who cares if we're … Continue reading
Posted in Music Tagged wedding music 3 Comments
Some Wedding Music
Last year, I played at something like seven weddings of friends. I won't be matching the friend total this year, but I may have as many weddings on the playing docket. There have been three so far, and I have … Continue reading
Posted in Music, Rite of Marriage Tagged lute, Silvius Leopold Weiss, wedding music, wedding processional 1 Comment


text:
Robert Rodriguez is busy shooting Sin City 2: A Dame to Kill For, which is due in theaters on August 22, 2014. While it was common knowledge that Joseph Gordon-Levitt had joined the cast that includes Josh Brolin, Eva Green, Jessica Alba, Mickey Rourke, and Bruce Willis (see "Gordon-Levitt in 'Sin City 2'"), this is the first confirmation that pop star Lady Gaga will have a cameo in the second Sin City movie.
Gordon-Levitt revealed Lady Gaga's modern noir cinema debut in a radio interview with Boston radio station Jam'n 94.5 (via MTV news): "She was in Sin City 2. I did a part for [it]. Mr. Rodriguez asked me to be in, and Lady Gaga is in a scene of it. And I gotta say, she did a really good job. Like, she's a great actress. And I didn't know that. You know she came in and I was like, 'OK sure, they're having a huge pop star do a scene in the movie, I understand.' But then she came in and like, nailed it! She had her character down, and she was like a total pro and did a great job. I was really impressed."
Rodriguez was evidently impressed as well since he quickly signed Lady Gaga to appear in another film he directing, Machete Kills, the sequel to his 2010 film Machete starring Danny Trejo.
Joseph Gordon-Levitt Says 'She Nailed It'
Posted by ICv2 on August 30, 2013 @ 12:45 pm CT
Wednesday Night and Thursday
July 26, 2016
Photos from Preview Night and Thursday.
July 26, 2016
The final batch of photos from Thursday.


text:
FIR against Congress leader Digvijay Singh for deriving undue benefits
Bhopal, Feb 17: The Madhya Pradesh Bureau of
Investigation for Economic Offences has registered a First
Information Report (FIR) against 12 persons including former
State Chief Minister, Digvijay Singh for allegedly deriving
undue benefits from the promotion of Treasure Island, a swanky
Mall near Indore.
Apart from Singh, former State Housing Minister Rakesh
Choudhary, Housing Board Chairperson Chandraprabhash Shekhar
and retired IAS oficers - U K Samal, A B Singh and D P Tiwari,
V P Kulshestra, Rakesh Sharma and Ashwin Janvade - are also
included in the FIR.
The FIR also names the promoters of Treasure Island
Manish Kalani, Prem Kalani and Padma Kalani.
The case was lodged on the basis of a complaint by Ramesh
Garg and after preliminary investigation by the EOW, they
found the charges leveled by the complainant to be prima facie
true and therefore the FIR was registered.
Reacting to the FIR, Digvijay Singh said the case smacked
of political vendetta and this was not the first time he had
been implicated in false cases.
When similar attempts were made in the past, the cases
were closed due to lack of evidence, Singh said adding he was
confident this would happen in the present instance too.
Bureau Report
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Should I get this laptop? HP G7-2233CL
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Costs of sovereign default
Bianca De Paoli, Glenn Hoggarth and Victoria Saporta
July 2006
Bank of England
Costs of sovereign default
Bianca De Paoli,* Glenn Hoggarth** and Victoria Saporta**
Financial Stability Paper no.1
* Monetary Analysis, Bank of England, Threadneedle Street, London, EC2R 8AH. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com ** Financial Stability, Bank of England, Threadneedle Street, London, EC2R 8AH. E-mail: email@example.com and firstname.lastname@example.com
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors, and not necessarily those of the Bank of England. This paper was finalised on 6 July 2006.
© Bank of England 2006
Costs of sovereign default
- Bianca De Paoli, Glenn Hoggarth and Victoria Saporta
Over the past quarter of a century, emerging market economies (EMEs) have defaulted on their sovereign debts frequently. This article assesses the size and types of costs that have been associated with these defaults. It emphasises that costs, measured by the fall in output, are particularly large when default is combined with banking and/or currency crises. Output losses also seem to increase the longer that countries stay in arrears or take to restructure their debts. The paper concludes with a number of policy suggestions to improve debt crisis prevention and management and the role played by the IMF.
1. Introduction Since the financial crises of the 1990s, including the sovereign defaults by Russia, Ecuador and Argentina, a number of policy initiatives have been taken and others suggested to improve the international financial architecture, including the effectiveness of crisis resolution (see for example the article by Bedford et al (2005) in the June 2005 Financial Stability Review). This article puts the recent policy initiatives into a broader context by attempting to draw lessons from the large number of sovereign defaults witnessed over the past 30 years. In particular, it assesses the type and size of costs that are associated with sovereign default and the implications for crisis prevention and management policies. The larger these default costs, the greater the incentive for debtors to avoid default or, if default occurs, to resolve the crisis as effectively as possible. But to the extent that these costs are not internalised, there may be a role for international official sector intervention, by an agency such as the IMF, to help prevent or resolve debt crises. Distinguishing the size and type of different costs of sovereign default may help to determine where efforts at crisis prevention and management should be most focused.1 2. Costs of debt crises: the literature Sovereign defaults have been a feature of the international financial landscape for centuries. For example, Reinhart et al (2003) report that France defaulted on its sovereign debt eight times
The IMF (2003) lists a number of default costs that may justify IMF liquidity support intended to substitute for loss of trade financing, contain balance sheet effects, provide liquidity support to domestic banks, minimise the collapse in investment and maintain access to priority financing from other international financial institutions (IFIs).
between 1500 and 1800, while Spain defaulted thirteen times between 1500 and 1900. And, more recently, over the past quarter of a century EMEs have defaulted on their sovereign debts frequently.
Sovereign nations – unlike companies – cannot be liquidated and there are also no national, or international, courts that can enforce payments on contract through, for example, transferring assets from the debtor to the creditor.2 Defaulting, or restructuring, enables debtor countries to reduce the size and/or lengthen the maturity of their repayments, and thereby seek to provide a temporary boost to current consumption. This raises the issue of why sovereigns do not default more frequently than has actually occurred. The reason is that there are a number of potential costs of default that incentivise debtors to repay. Some are penalties imposed by external creditors on the cost or ability of defaulters to access future finance. So increasing consumption today may be at the expense of reducing consumption in the future. Moreover, given that defaulting may cause a broader financial crisis in which domestic activity and output are reduced even in the short run, any attempt to boost current spending temporarily through a default may not be successful. 2 i. Penalty costs Defaulters may lose access to borrowing from financial markets. However, the theoretical evidence is mixed on how a sovereign contemplating default might balance the potential loss of access to international capital markets against its ability to use the breathing space afforded by default to support domestic expenditure. Eaton and Gersovitz (1981) argue that, if the expected reduction in future consumption from losing market access is at least as large as any increase in current consumption from default, sovereigns should prefer to honour their debt repayments.3 In contrast, Bulow and Rogoff (1989) suggest that, if the government can invest existing borrowed funds in international markets, this cushion could be used to support current consumption should the sovereign be cut off from international borrowing following a voluntary default.
A loss of trade finance may also result in defaulters facing a reduction in international trade. However, trade finance need not be provided by the same creditors that hold the defaulted debt. For example, during the 1980s a few major international banks held most of the defaulted Latin
Following the Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act (1976) in the United States and the State Immunity Act (1978) in the United Kingdom, it became common practice for most governments to waive sovereign immunity on foreign loans and bond contracts. In practice, however, this only allows creditors to have access to the debtor's assets held for "commercial activity" in the country where the debt contract was issued. Moreover, a country considering default could remove its assets held in the foreign jurisdiction before any default. 3 In practice, myopic governments might attach a high weight to current rather than future consumption, and therefore a low weight to the risk of future default through increasing current borrowing.
American debt. But this did not prevent other banks, with fewer exposures, stepping in to provide trade finance. Overall, the empirical evidence suggests that sovereign default is not necessarily associated with a loss of market access, so fears about any such loss may not in themselves be a major deterrent to default. Lindert and Morton (1989) argue that in the 1930s, and again in the early 1980s, during periods when a number of countries defaulted, external credit was no more inaccessible to sovereign defaulters than to non-defaulters.4 Jorgensen and Sachs (1989) find that, in the two decades following the 1930s sovereign debt crisis, access to international capital markets for Latin American countries was severely restricted for previous non-defaulters as well as for defaulters. And once capital markets opened up in the 1960s, defaulters found it as easy to access capital as non-defaulters. More recently, assessing defaults since 1980, Medeiros et al (2005) find that the probability of regaining market access after default depends partly on a country's external situation at the time of default and partly on its domestic macroeconomic performance.5 The current external environment has enabled recent defaulters, such as Russia, Argentina and Ecuador, to regain market access quickly.6 More generally, Gelos et al (2004) find that it only took defaulters three and half months, on average, to regain market access after defaulting during the 1990s compared with more than 4 ½ years during the 1980s.
Although the empirical evidence does not suggest that default necessarily closes off market access, it does point to an adverse effect on the government's cost of future borrowing. Ozler (1993) finds that, during the tranquil period of the 1970s, lenders charged up to 50 basis points more for loans to previous (post-1930) defaulters. And more recently, Reinhart et al (2003) find that EMEs with a history of defaulting on their external debts – especially 'serial defaulters' – received a lower credit rating over the 1979-2000 period than non-defaulters that displayed similar financial strength.7 2 ii. Broader financial costs The costs discussed above represent penalties that sovereigns may face should they default. But governments may also want to maintain debt repayments in order to avoid broader losses to the domestic economy associated with default, beyond those caused by a tightening in the terms and conditions on borrowing imposed by foreign creditors. A number of studies suggest that default
Tomz (1998), however, finds that, during the interwar period, defaulting countries that were expected to default, given their poor fundamentals, could regain access to capital markets twice as quickly as countries that defaulted unexpectedly, given their better fundamentals. 5 As measured by GDP growth, inflation, the current account balance and foreign currency reserves. 6 Indeed, assisted by the sharp rise in oil prices, Russia's sovereign debt is now rated investment grade. 7 Measured by the ratios of external debt to both GDP and exports.
is often associated with a decline in output growth (eg, Cohen (1992) and Sturzenegger and Zettelmeyer (2006)). Dooley (2000) shows that output losses, assumed to be due to domestic residents being unable to borrow from domestic as well as foreign creditors in the aftermath of crises, may be the most important incentive for debt repayment. And more recently, Alfaro and Kanczuk (2005) calibrate a dynamic equilibrium model of sovereign debt and find that the threat of higher borrowing costs alone is insufficient to discourage debtors from defaulting. It is only when default also results in "additional output costs" over and above those caused by higher interest rates that equilibria are derived that are consistent with the stylised facts on the frequency of sovereign defaults. But what are these broader output costs to the domestic economy resulting from sovereign default? One mechanism by which a sovereign default may reduce GDP is through its impact on the domestic financial system. In many EMEs, domestic banks are major creditors of the government and so may be severely weakened, if not made insolvent, when the government defaults on, or restructures, its debt (including that owed to the domestic sector). In this case, banks may stop playing their intermediation role of providing liquidity and credit to the economy. This happened, for example, in Russia after the government suddenly defaulted on its domestic debt in autumn 1998. The impact of a sovereign default on the banking system is often accentuated through government debt having been taken up increasingly by domestic banks in the run-up to debt crises, when governments find it harder, or at least more expensive, to obtain external finance. Once banking problems emerge, any fiscal weakness, in turn, reduces the ability of the government to take measures to contain a crisis. For example, it is probably not credible for a highly indebted government to introduce a blanket guarantee to deposit holders in order to stem bank runs, because depositors will not believe such a guarantee will be honoured and their investments insured (see Hoelscher and Quintyn (2003)).8
Foreign and domestic investors might also react to a sovereign defaulting on its external debt by questioning whether the government has sufficient foreign currency to defend the exchange rate. For net foreign currency borrowers, a sharp currency depreciation would, in turn, increase – when valued in domestic currency terms – the net foreign currency debts and debt service costs of the government, banks and the non-bank private sector.9 A tightening in monetary policy might limit the extent of exchange rate depreciation but at the expense, in the short run at least, of
The large fiscal costs that are often incurred in resolving a banking crisis can also cause, or make worse, a sovereign crisis, for example in Indonesia in 1997-98. 9 For the balance sheet channel of currency depreciation see, inter alia, Cespedes et al (2004).
reducing domestic demand and liquidity in the financial system. Therefore, a triple – sovereign, banking and currency – crisis may ensue, involving a run on both the domestic currency and the banking system (see Figure 1). But since depreciation tends to increase trade competitiveness there would, after a time lag, be a potentially offsetting gain in net exports and output depending, inter alia, on the size of the traded goods sector (see Frankel 2005) and whether exporters have access to trade finance. Figure 1 Interaction between sovereign debt, banking and currency crises
Increase in net fx debts of banks and of their private sector borrowers Refusal to rollover local currency short term Fiscal costs of government debt recapitalisation
Banking Crisis
Default on government's bank loans
Debt Crisis
Increase in government's net fx debts Run on local currency deposits
Currency Crisis
Tightening in monetary policy
Loss of liquidity and financial (+) intermediation Loss of trade, market access, and increase in external borrowing costs Increase in net exports Decline in domestic demand
Output Loss
Note: Arrows show the direction of causation and +/- whether the impact is likely to accentuate or alleviate the particular crisis or output loss.
There is little evidence from the literature on the costs associated with these different types of sovereign crises nor on the costs and benefits of different types of crisis resolution. For example, is it less costly to restructure debt – and if so pre- or post-default – than to reduce arrears gradually over time? Restructuring might have the benefit of starting afresh through the debtor explicitly sharing the costs of default with creditors. Some new evidence on these questions is presented below. 6
3. Estimates of the costs of debt crises 3i. Defining a crisis Before its costs can be assessed and measured accurately, a sovereign default needs first to be properly defined. Unfortunately, there is no off-the-shelf definition. It could be narrowly confined to debt that has gone into arrears or also include debt that has been explicitly restructured.10 The definition of debtor and creditor is also not unambiguous. "Sovereign" debtor could be defined narrowly as the government or public sector alone or more broadly to include the domestic private sector. And creditors could be confined to the commercial sector or also include the official sector.
Table 1 Summary of recent studies on sovereign defaults since 1970
Authors Sample period Definition of default event Number of crises
Detragiache and Spilimbergo (2001)
Reinhart, Rogoff and Savastano (2003) De Paoli and Saporta (2006)
Arrears on principal or interest payments >5% of debt outstanding or restructuring of a country's total (sovereign plus private) external debt with private creditors Default or restructuring of a country's total (sovereign plus private) external debt with private creditors Arrears on principal or interest payments >15% and 5% respectively or restructuring of a sovereign's external debt with private creditors
Total 1970s 1980s 1990s 54 11 33 10
Includes one crisis in the sample since 2000.
Table 1 summarises recent studies of sovereign defaults. As indicated, Reinhart et al (2003) adopt the simplest definition of a default event as occurring when a country defaults on, or restructures, its total external debt.11 Detragiache and Spilimbergo (2001) define it as occurring when arrears of principal or interest obligations to commercial creditors on a country's total external debt exceed 5% or when a debt rescheduling agreement is made with commercial
'Default' could be defined more broadly still. Manasse and Roubini (2005), for example, also include episodes of incipient defaults which they believe were averted through large-scale international bail-outs, such as occurred in Mexico in 1995, Turkey in 2000 and Brazil in 2001. And Sy (2004) defines a sovereign debt crisis to occur when sovereign spreads over US Treasuries rise to 1,000 basis points (10 percent) or more. 11 Default events are taken from Standard and Poor's (S&P's) Credit Week (various issues). S&P defines default as the failure of a borrower to meet principal or interest payment on the due date (Chambers and Alexeeva (2002)).
creditors. In contrast, De Paoli and Saporta (2006) define a sovereign debt crisis as occurring when the sovereign alone is in (large) arrears (on principal or interest payments) or arranges a rescheduling agreement with its foreign private creditors. The summary suggests that sovereign debt crises were particularly frequent during the 1980s and remained more common in the 1990s than in the 1970s. Moreover, crises can last a long time – 11 years on one definition according to De Paoli and Saporta.12 This study suggests that Argentina, Brazil and Peru have been in sovereign debt crisis for about half the time since 1970. Table 2 shows indicators of the economic situation at the outset of recent sovereign debt crises. Perhaps not surprisingly, sovereign crises have usually materialised in recessions, when government and/or external debt has been large – generally over 60% of GDP – and the fiscal balance in deficit (of over 2% of GDP). Although annual inflation was rapid in some cases, for example over 50% in Indonesia and Ecuador, it was negative or low in others, such as Argentina and Uruguay. Nearly all recent debt crises, however, have been associated with a banking and/or currency crisis.13 Table 2 also shows that, on average, EMEs currently have lower external debt than countries had at the time of recent sovereign crises. This partly reflects the recent improvement in current account positions in most EMEs.14 However, in many EMEs government (domestic plus external) debt and deficits remain high with a large reliance still on financing from the domestic banking system.
As explained below, in De Paoli and Saporta (2006) the crisis ends for countries which do not reschedule when arrears fall below a certain level. The length of crisis is therefore sensitive to the selection of this threshold. 13 The definition of banking crisis, based on Caprio and Klingebiel (2003), is when 'much or all' of the banking system's capital is exhausted, while that of currency crisis, based on Frankel and Rose (1986), is when the domestic nominal exchange rate against the dollar depreciates by at least 25% in any one year combined with a 10% increase in the rate of depreciation 14 See IMF (2006a).
Table 2 Economic indicators in the year of onset of recent sovereign debt crises in selected countries
Country Type of debt crisis General government debt/GDP (%) 63.1 101.2(c) 66.6 78.2 75.4(c) 37.6 39.1 50.2 55.0 60.2 46.5 33.5 59.2 Central External government debt/GDP balance/GDP (%) (%) -3.7 -0.6 -2.2 -6.7 -6.0 -2.8 -4.9 -0.8 -2.1 -2.0 -3.1 5.9 1.3 61.8 98.0 155.5 56.2 68.5 27.4 86.0 26.9 33.3 15.4 49.8 36.1 35.2 Exports/ GDP(a) (%) Annual inflation rate (%) Annual output growth (%) -4.4 -6.3 -13.1 3.1 -5.3 -1.9 -3.4 7.2 5.3 8.6 4.3 5.9 5.2 Other types of financial crisis(b)
Argentina 2001 Ecuador 1999 Indonesia 1998
Post-default restructuring Post-default restructuring Arrears
11.5 31.5 46.0 15.9 31.2 42.1 18.3 43.2 23.4 50.3 45.6 56.9 38.5
-1.1 52.2 58.4 6.2 27.7 10.6 4.4 5.4 6.3 3.6 4.8 8.4 8.5
Pakistan 1998 Pre-default restructuring Russia 1998 Post-default restructuring Ukraine 1998 Pre-default restructuring Uruguay 2001 Pre-default restructuring (d) Memo all EMEs, 2005 of which: Western Hemisphere Developing Asia Central and eastern Europe Middle East Africa
Banking and currency Banking and currency Banking and currency None Banking and currency Banking and currency Banking and currency
Source: IMF. (a) Exports of goods and services. (b) Within two years before or after the sovereign crisis. (c) Public sector debt. (d) Excludes the Newly Industrialised Economies (Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan and Singapore).
3 ii. Measures of the costs of debt crises The literature summarised above suggested two main types of potential losses resulting from debt crises – those arising from any impairment of the government's future ability to raise finance or increase in the cost of raising finance from creditors; and those imposed on the domestic economy through the interaction of debt crises with banking and/or currency crises.
Penalty costs Charts 1-2 plot the average government and external debt/GDP ratios against bond spreads and credit ratings respectively over the past three years for EMEs that have a history of default (in blue dots) and those that do not (pink dots). The defaulters are countries that are listed by at least two of the three studies shown in Table 1; non-defaulters are not listed by any of these studies. Consistent with the evidence from Ozler (1993) and Reinhart et al (2003), for a given debt/GDP ratio, past defaulters have generally had a higher bond spread/ lower credit rating than non-defaulters in recent years. Furthermore, some past defaulters, such as Mexico and Russia, have a higher bond spread and lower credit rating than non-defaulters, such as Hungary and Malaysia, even though these defaulters have lower external and government debt (relative to GDP) than these non-defaulters. This suggests that default increases the cost of obtaining external finance in the future. Chart 3 also shows that a much higher proportion of sovereign debt – issued both domestically and abroad – is denominated in foreign currency in past defaulters than in non-defaulters. Similarly, Reinhart et al (2003) report that, on average over the 1996-2001 period, some 16% of domestic government debt outstanding was denominated in foreign currency in previous defaulters, but almost none in non-defaulters, in their sample. This might reflect the past strong association between debt and currency crises (discussed below), which has increased the perceived foreign currency risk of investors – whether foreign or domestic – buying sovereign debt denominated in the domestic currencies of past defaulters.
For countries that restructure their debt the terms and conditions offered to creditors subsequently can vary markedly. The size of haircuts imposed on creditors in recent restructurings are plotted against current credit ratings and bond spreads in Charts 4 (a) and (b) respectively. Countries that recently restructured their debts before defaulting imposed much smaller haircuts on their creditors than those which restructured after defaulting. This might reflect the desire of these countries to avoid the costs associated with default and therefore their greater willingness to reach a deal with creditors. However, the size of haircut does not seem to be an important determinant of current credit ratings. Since credit ratings measure the likelihood of default rather than expected loss given default (ie they do not take into consideration the likely recovery rates) this is perhaps not surprising. But there is some evidence that current bond spreads are correlated with past haircuts. For example, 10
current spreads are still much higher in Argentina and Ecuador – where the haircuts were large – than, say, Uruguay where they were small, despite all these countries having similar credit ratings.15 Chart 1 Debt/GDP and bond spreads, average, 2003-05(a) (a) Government debt
Defaulters Non-defaulters Philippines Hungary Malaysia Morocco Indonesia Brazil Mexico Peru Venezuela Bulgaria Russia Egypt China Chile Gov't debt/GDP, per cent 100 90 80 70 60 Ecuador 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 200 400 600 800 Bond spreads, basis points 1000 1200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Bond spreads, basis points 700 China Egypt Chile Hungary Bulgaria Indonesia Malaysia Peru Russia Morocco Mexico Venezuela Brazil Defaulters Non-defaulters
(b) External debt
External debt/GDP, per cent 80 Philippines 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 800
Source: IMF and JP Morgan.
Government and external debt are end-year averages. Bond spreads are averages of daily data. Defaulters are countries listed as having a history of defaulting in two of the three studies in Table 1. Non-defaulters are countries not listed in any of the three studies.
Chart 2 Debt/GDP and credit ratings, average, 2003-05(a) (a) Government debt
Past defaulters Non-defaulters Gov't debt/GDP, per cent 160 Argentina Singapore Philippines India Malaysia Morocco Hungary Mexico Brazil Taiwan Peru Bulgaria Russia Czech Rep. Egypt China Chile Latvia A80 Indonesia Venezuela Ecuador 60 40 20 0 D AA+ ABB S&P credit rating CCC+ D 140 120 100 Latvia Philippines Hungary Bulgaria Indonesia Ecuador Malaysia Peru Chile Russia Venezuela Czech Rep. Taiwan Egypt Brazil Mexico Morocco India Singapore China 80 60 40 20 0
(b) External debt
Past defaulters Non-defaulters External debt/GDP, per cent Argentina 120 100
BB CCC+ S&P credit rating
Source: IMF and Standard and Poor's.
Government and external debt are end-year averages. Credit ratings are averages of monthly data.
But note that, following the recent marked rise in oil prices, sovereign spreads in Russia have fallen to very low levels despite the large haircuts imposed during its sovereign default in autumn 1998.
Chart 3 Share of sovereign debt denominated in foreign currency (percent of total marketable sovereign debt)(a), end-2004
Per cent 60 Defaulters Non - defaulters 50 40 30 20 10 0 Malaysia Venezulea Philippines Czech Republic Hungary Spread, basis points 700 600 Argentina Dominican Republic Uruguay BBBRussia BBB+ 0 80 60 40 20 Size of haircut (%) 0 80 60 40 Size of haircut (%) 20 0 Russia Pakistan Ukraine 500 400 300 200 100 China India Brazil Mexico Korea Chile
Source: Jeanne and Guscina (2006). Issued both domestically and abroad. Note that all the defaulters in the chart defaulted at least twenty years ago, suggesting that most, if not all, of the current debt stock was issued after their default.
Chart 4 Market-based measures of credit risk for recent debt restructurers, end-2005 (a) credit ratings
Post-default restructuring Pre-default restructuring S&P rating CCC Dominican Republic BUruguay Pakistan B+ Ukraine BB
(b) sovereign bond spreads
Post-default restructuring Pre-default restructuring Ecuador
Ecuador Argentina
Source: JP Morgan, Standard and Poor's and IMF (2006b).
Measures of the broader financial costs of debt crises Despite research pointing to the importance of output losses as a reason why sovereigns would want to avoid defaulting, there have been few studies that have sought to quantify directly the losses following sovereign defaults. This gap in the literature is even more surprising given that similar studies have now been carried out extensively for banking and currency crises and their combination – so-called "twin crises" (see for example Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999), Aziz et al (2000), Bordo et al (2001), Hoggarth et al (2002) and Cerra and Saxena (2005)). A forthcoming study by two of 12
the authors of this article on the output costs of sovereign defaults is an exception (De Paoli and Saporta ((2006)).
As indicated in Table 1, De Paoli and Saporta define a sovereign default episode as occurring when either (i) the sovereign's arrears on principal are 15% or more of the total outstanding debt owed to the external private sector; (ii) arrears on interest payments are 5% or more; or (iii) a rescheduling agreement is reached with foreign private sector creditors.16 Output losses are then estimated as the cumulative difference during the debt crisis period between actual GDP and estimates of what it would have been in the absence of a default. Having defined the episodes of default, there are two crucial measurement questions here – defining the beginning and end year of the default period and estimating the output counterfactual. For countries that fall into default, arrears usually build up gradually (and fall gradually after reaching a peak). So, having identified the default episodes, the authors define the beginning of the crisis as the first year in which arrears on principal or on interest payments rise above 5% and 1 ½ % respectively of outstanding debt (or when an actual restructuring begins).17 The end of a (high arrears) crisis period is more difficult to pinpoint precisely so alternative specifications were considered.18 But for all variations of the assumed end point, crises were found, on average, to be long-lasting. For the main output counterfactual (in the absence of a crisis) it was assumed that output would have followed its pre-crisis trend (where the trend is measured using a Hodrick Prescott (HP) filter on the available past GDP data). As a check on the robustness of the results, an alternative output counterfactual was also derived based on a conventional equation estimated to explain (per capita) output growth.19 This method produced qualitatively similar results.
Table 3 shows typical estimates of output losses from De Paoli and Saporta. The estimated average cumulative output loss of the sample increases with the length of crisis given that actual output remains below its counterfactual during most if not all of the crisis period.20 Output losses are therefore shown on a per annum basis.
The higher threshold for arrears on principal than on interest payments is because, according to World Bank estimates, sovereign arrears on principal have been, on average, two to three times larger than on interest payments since 1970. The authors show that the probabilities of breaching these thresholds are low. 17 This was checked for consistency with other studies which include definitions of the start of debt crises. 18 For example, as soon as arrears on principal fall below 15% or arrears on interest payments below 5%, or when arrears fall below 5% on principal or below 1 ½ % on interest payments. Other things equal, the first definition will clearly imply a shorter crisis period than the second one. 19 This is based on a panel regression of the crisis countries over the 1970-2000 period. GDP growth per capita was found to be a negative function of the initial level of GDP, price inflation, the share of government consumption in GDP and political instability and a positive function of the investment share in GDP and trade-openness (see De Paoli and Saporta (2006)). 20 In fact, output did not return to its pre-crisis trend at all during the crisis period in 60% of the sample.
Table 3 Output losses (per year) during sovereign crisis, 1970-2000 Type of sovereign default Number of crises Average Median loss, per median length of year(a) crisis, (years) 3 -5.2(d) 5 8 10 8 8 8.5 6.5 10.8 22.1 6.9 2.8 10.9 Mean cost per year(a)
Default only Default and currency crisis(b) Default and banking crisis(b) Triple crisis(b) ALL CRISES Restructured debt(c) Unrestructured debt
4 13 7 21 45 15 30
-1.0(d) 10.3 13.2 21.7 15.1 8.3 18.5
Source: De Paoli and Saporta (2006). Cumulative difference per year between potential and actual output. Potential output is based on the country's precrisis (HP filter) trend. (b) Defined as when a currency or banking crisis occurs at some point during the duration of the sovereign crisis. Currency and banking crises are defined as in footnote 13 above. (c) Includes both pre- and post-arrears restructurings. (d) A negative 'cost' implies that actual output was higher during the crisis than suggested by its pre-crisis trend. Note, however, the small sample of default-only crises.
A number of features are suggested by Table 3. First, output losses in the wake of sovereign default appear to be very large – around 7% a year on the median measure – as well as long lasting.21 However, the counterfactuals could overstate the path of output in the absence of the debt crisis, because it is difficult to separate completely the loss due to default per se from the loss caused by the economic shock that triggered the default. Therefore, more weight should be attached to the relative costs from different types of crises than to the absolute estimates.
Second, sovereign defaults rarely occur in isolation – in less than 10% of the sample. More often, a debt crisis coincides with a banking and/or a currency crisis. In fact, almost one-half of the sample consists of triple (sovereign, banking and currency) crises. In these cases output losses appear to be particularly high – here the interactions between different sectors of the economy accentuate the decline in GDP. Box A describes how these linkages played out in the recent triple crisis in Argentina.
These median output losses per year are about 2% points bigger than the estimates of banking crises losses reported in Hoggarth et al (2002).
Third, output losses from twin crises appear to be bigger when a debt crisis is accompanied by a banking rather than a currency crisis. Banking crises often result in a sharp and prolonged reduction in the intermediation of credit to the private sector, with significant costs to economic efficiency. A currency crisis involving a sharp depreciation of the domestic currency, by contrast, has the silver lining of stimulating exports. In fact, in two-thirds of the sample the share of domestic demand in total final expenditure falls during the crisis period (ie the share of exports increases). Fourth, the output losses per year tend to increase with the length of crisis.22 This suggests that the longer that it takes to reduce arrears or complete a restructuring, the more output falls (relative to its trend or potential). Crisis countries that reschedule their debts, however, appear to face smaller output losses than those which do not. Moreover, using the model-based estimate of the output counterfactual, and bearing in mind the limited available sample of countries, De Paoli and Saporta find that pre-arrears restructuring is associated with a smaller fall in output – both cumulatively and on an annual basis – than post-arrears restructuring.23 This suggests that countries that reschedule their debts – and thus start afresh with creditors – face a lower subsequent cost of finance and/or quicker renewed access to external finance. It might also indicate that an active policy of rescheduling has a less debilitating impact on the domestic financial system than a passive policy of remaining in arrears and not restructuring. 4. Conclusion and policy implications This paper has assessed the size and types of costs associated with sovereign default. The literature highlights a number of potential channels through which sovereign debtors incur costs through defaulting. Some of these costs are imposed by creditors, involving in particular a reduction in access to, or an increase in the cost of, future finance. In practice, in the aftermath of recent debt crises, EMEs have often been able to reaccess international capital markets quite quickly, although there is some evidence that they have had to pay a higher risk premium and been less able to issue in domestic currency, thereby increasing their vulnerability to currency risk. There has been less focus in the literature on the broader output costs to the domestic economy associated with sovereign default and on the interaction with currency and banking crises. In practice, most sovereign crises over the past 25 years have been associated with a banking and/or a currency crisis. Sovereign defaults appear to have the biggest impact on domestic output when they are combined with
A simple regression shows that the length of crisis has a positive and statistically significant effect at the 5% level on output losses per year using either the trend or the model-based estimate of the GDP counterfactual. 23 The reduction in output loss averages 10% a year and is significant at the 5% confidence level. But note that no difference in output losses associated with pre- and post-arrears restructurings is found when the trend-based estimate of the output counterfactual is used. The IMF (2006b) also find in recent restructurings that post-defaulters had bigger recessions than pre-defaulters
widespread failure of the domestic banking system and particularly when there is a triple (sovereign, banking and currency) crisis. And in some cases, such as following the Latin American crisis in the early 1980s and the more recent Russian crisis, sovereign defaults have precipitated broader instability in the global financial system. Given that the costs of sovereign default appear to be high, one obvious but nonetheless important policy conclusion is that countries should take measures to reduce the risk of defaulting in the first place. At a broad level, authorities need to adopt sound macroeconomic policies and structural reform which should reduce the likelihood of crises as well as raise sustainable output growth. More specifically, the high cost of default points to the need for further development of early warning systems of crisis. The IMF has a role to play here in carrying out stress tests of the fragility of the government's balance sheet and those of other sectors in its regular Article IV surveillance. This type of analysis should allow authorities time to change domestic policies and therefore reduce the likelihood of crisis. It also emphasises the need for countries themselves to self insure against the possibility of crises. Many EMEs have done this in recent years through building up foreign exchange reserves and reducing their reliance on foreign currency and short-term debt. This has reduced the likelihood of currency crises in particular. But government debts (relative to GDP) remain high in many EMEs and are often still significantly financed by the domestic banking system.24 This makes the latter vulnerable to sovereign weakness (and potentially vice versa if governments bail out weak banking systems). Once in crisis, annual output losses seem to increase the longer that countries stay in arrears or take to restructure their debts. There is also evidence that output losses are smaller for countries that restructure their debt than for those that do not. This emphasises the importance of recent marketbased policy initiatives aimed at improving the speed and efficiency of debtor-creditor restructuring.25 It also highlights the need for better data transparency. In a recent survey, the Institute of International Finance (2005) emphasised the still marked cross country differences in data transparency and investor relations. The IMF could have a role to play in improving information in the midst of a crisis, as well as in advance of one, through publishing independent country debt sustainability analysis. But whether or not the IMF should lend following a default depends on whether this would reduce the costs of default without weakening the incentives of the debtor to repay and/or restructure its outstanding debt. Given that default costs look high, especially when a banking crisis also occurs, IMF lending
24 25
See IMF (2006a), Chapter III. See Bedford et al (2005).
could be used to support the domestic authorities' provision of liquidity to the domestic banking system, although this would need to be done promptly and for a limited time.26 The IMF could also play a role in encouraging restructuring, for example by making its provision of liquidity support conditional on the debtor reaching a restructuring agreement with its creditors within a given time period.27 This highlights the importance of a rigorous application of the IMF's exceptional access framework, which guides its lending decisions to countries experiencing capital account crises.
Hoggarth et al (2004) provide evidence that open-ended (central bank) liquidity support to the banking system during past banking crises has been associated with bigger rather than smaller output losses. 27 See Tanaka (2005).
Box A Argentina's triple financial crisis The recent crisis in Argentina is a good example of how interactions between sectors of the economy can greatly increase the costs of debt crises.28 Argentina eventually defaulted on its sovereign debt in January 2002 (following two debt exchanges in June and November 2001). Before this – as the economy moved into recession – the government's fiscal deficit and debt position deteriorated markedly. This dramatically increased the interest rate spread – over US treasuries – on external sovereign debt, from less than 10 percentage points at end-2000 to almost 50 percentage points by end-2001. The government consequently increased its reliance on financing its deficit from domestic banks. Government debt rose as a share of the banking system's total assets from 15 ½% at end-2000 to 21 ½% at end-2001, exposing especially some of the largest banks.29 This increased significantly the banking system's credit risk.30 In addition, the voluntary debt exchanges in June and November 2001, which lengthened the maturity of domestic financial institutions' claims on the government, increased the maturity mismatches on banks' balance sheets. The consequential weakening of the banking system resulted in episodic deposit withdrawals throughout 2001, culminating in a massive outflow in late November (bank deposits fell by 20% in the year to end-November). A series of restrictions ('corralito') on bank withdrawals were introduced in December.31
In early January 2002, the (new) government confirmed that it was defaulting on $81.8bn of its external debt and simultaneously announced it was abandoning the currency board exchange rate regime. The peso quickly fell from its convertibility rate of 1 peso per US$ to a low of 3.9 peso per $ at end March 2002. Given that most liabilities in the economy were denominated in US dollars, this resulted in a large increase in debts when measured in local currency terms. In February 2002, in order to protect corporate and household dollar borrowers from valuation losses, the government announced that banks' foreign currency assets held with the domestic private sector were to be converted into pesos not at the (much depreciated) market exchange rate but at the currency board rate of 1 peso per US dollar. In contrast, banks' foreign currency liabilities were converted at
For lessons learnt from the crisis see IMF (2004) and Daseking et al (2004) and for a blow by blow account of the crisis see Blustein (2005). 29 In fact, the share of banks' assets with the government had edged up throughout the second half of the 1990s, from around 10% at end-1994. These figures also understate the banks' overall exposure to the government. For example, at the end of 2000 the banks invested a further $25.2bn (18% of GDP) in other financial instruments that had government debt as the underlying asset. 30 In addition, all bank credit to the government and around 80% of credit to the private sector was in foreign currency. Given that the income streams of the government and the non-bank private sector were mainly in pesos, this foreign exchange risk for bank borrowers translated into a credit risk for the banking system. 31 In the Asian crisis, in contrast, bank runs had been contained through the government introducing a blanket guarantee to depositors. However, in Argentina the government's policy options were constrained because of the weakness of its own balance sheet.
1.4 pesos to the US dollar. This 'asymmetric pesoization' passed the losses, which at 28bn pesos were greater than the entire capital of the banking system, onto banks and their depositors. However, some depositors were able through court action ('amparos') to release their deposits at the current market exchange rate rather than at 1.4 pesos to the dollar. This increased banks' losses by an estimated further 8.8bn pesos.32 These measures severely impaired the banking system's role of providing liquidity and credit to the economy. Bank credit to the private sector as a proportion of annual nominal GDP halved between end-2001 and end-2003 from 20.8% to 10.8%.33 This reduced economic activity further and consequently increased the government's fiscal burden relative to GDP. And banks' NPLs rose sharply as the recession deepened. The government's main strategy to deal with insolvent banks was regulatory forbearance – on capital requirements and bad loan classification.34 This allowed the banking system to recover gradually. Nonetheless, the government partially compensated banks for their losses by issuing government bonds to them. This – together with private sector creditors choosing to pay off their foreign currency loans at the much more favourable pre-crisis exchange rate - resulted in the share of government assets in banks' balance sheets rising to almost 50% by end-2003. This interaction of the sovereign default with a loss of banking intermediation contributed to the marked fall in GDP – by almost one-quarter between 2001 Q2 and 2002 Q1. Chart A Argentina: bank credit, exchange rate and GDP, 1995-2005
Peso/US$ - inverted scale (LHS) Bank Credit/GDP (RHS) Real GDP (RHS) (a) 1995Q1=100 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 03 04 05
Peso/US 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
4 1995 96 97 98 99 2000 01 02 Source: IMF (a) Sovereign default announced.
32 33
IMF (2005). In the run up to the crisis, during 2001 credit fell from 23.9% to 20.8% of GDP. 34 In the immediate aftermath of the crisis the Central Bank of Argentina also played an important role in providing lender of last resort assistance to the financial system.
References Alfaro, L and Kanczuk, F (2005), 'Sovereign debt as a contingent claim: a quantitative approach', Journal of International Economics, 65, No.2. Arteta, C and Hale, G (2005), 'Are private borrowers hurt by sovereign debt restructuring?' Yale University Working Paper. Aziz, J, Caramazza, F, and Salgado, R (2000), 'Currency crises: in search for common elements', IMF Working Paper No. 00/67. Bedford, P, Penalver, A and Salmon, C (2005), 'Resolving sovereign debt crises: the market-based approach and the role of the IMF', Bank of England, Financial Stability Review, June. Beim, D and Calomiris, C (2001), Emerging financial markets, McGraw-Hill, New York. Bordo, M, Eichengreen, B, Klingebiel, D and Martinez-Peria, M S (2001), 'Is the crisis problem growing more severe?', Economic Policy, 32, pages 51-82. Bulow, J and Rogoff, K (1989), 'Sovereign debt: is to forgive to forget?', American Economic Review, 79, pages 43-50. Barro, R and Sala-i-Martin, X (1995), Economic growth, McGraw-Hill, New York. Blustein P, (2005), 'And the money kept rolling in (and out)', Public Affairs. Caprio, G and Klingebiel, D (2003), 'Episodes of systemic and borderline banking crises', World Bank mimeo. Cerra, V and Saxena, S C (2005), 'Growth dynamics: the myth of economic recovery', IMF Working Paper No.147, July. Cespedes, L, Chang, R and Velasco, A (2004), 'Balance sheets and exchange rate policy', American Economic Review, September, Vol 94, No.4. Chambers, J and Alexeeva, D (2002), 'Rating performance, 2002, default, transition, recovery and spreads', Standard and Poor's. Cohen, D (1992), 'The debt crisis, a post mortem', NBER Macroeconomic Annual. Daseking, C, Ghosh A, Lane, T and Thomas, A (2004), 'Lessons from the crisis in Argentina', IMF Occasional Paper, No.236. De Paoli, B S and Saporta, V (2006), 'Output costs of sovereign defaults: some empirical estimates', Bank of England Working Paper, forthcoming. Detragiache, E and Spilimbergo, A (2001), 'Crises and liquidity: evidence and interpretation', IMF Working Paper No. WP/01/2. Dooley, M (2000), 'Can output losses following international financial crises be avoided?', NBER Working Paper No.7531. 20
Dooley, M and Verma S (2001), 'Rescue packages and output losses following crises', NBER Working Paper No. 8315, June. Eaton, J and Gersovitz, M (1981), 'Debt with potential repudiation: theory and estimation', Review of Economic Studies, 48, pages 289-309. Ferrucci, G and Penalver, A (2003), 'Assessing sovereign debt under uncertainty', Bank of England Financial Stability Review, December. Frankel, J A (2005), 'Contractionary currency crashes in developing countries', NBER. Frankel, J A and Rose, A K (1996), 'Currency crashes in emerging markets: empirical indicators', NBER Working Paper No. 5437. Gelos, R G, Sahay, R and Sandleris, G (2004),'Sovereign borrowing by developing countries: what determines market access?' IMF Working Paper No 221, November. Hoelscher, D and Quintyn, M (2003), 'Managing systemic banking crises', IMF Occasional Paper, No.224. Hoggarth, G, Reidhill, J and Sinclair, P (2004), 'On the resolution of banking crises: theory and practice', Bank of England, Working Paper, No.229. Hoggarth, G, Reis, R and Saporta, V (2002), 'Costs of banking system instability: some empirical estimates', Journal of Banking and Finance, 26, pages 825-855. Institute of International Finance (2005), 'Investor relations: an approach to effective communication and enhanced transparency: assessment of key borrower countries', November. IMF (2003), 'Crisis resolution in the context of sovereign debt restructuring: a summary of considerations', Policy Development and Review Department. IMF (2004), 'The IMF and Argentina, 1991-2001', Independent Evaluation Office. IMF (2005), Argentina Article IV and selected issues, Chapter VII. IMF (2006a), Global Financial Stability Report, Chapter III 'Structural changes in emerging sovereign debt and implications for financial stability', April. IMF (2006b), 'Cross-country experience with restructuring of sovereign debt and restoring debt sustainability, Policy Development and Review Department. Jeanne, O and Guscina, A (2006), 'Government debt in emerging-market countries: A new data set', IMF Working Paper, No.06/98. Jorgensen, E and Sachs, J (1989), 'Default and renegotiation of Latin American foreign bonds in the interwar period', in Eichengreen, B and Lindert, P (eds), The international debt crisis in historical perspective, MIT Press. Kaminsky, G and Reinhart, C M (1999), 'The twin crises: the cause of banking and balance of payment problems', American Economic Review, 89, pages 473-500. 21
Lindert, P H and Morton, P J (1989), 'How sovereign debt has worked', in Sachs, J (ed), Developing Country Debt and the World Economy, NBER. Manasse, P and Roubini, N (2005), 'Rules of thumb' for sovereign debt crises', IMF Working Paper No. WP/05/4. Medeiros, C, Gapen, M and Zanforlin, L (2005), 'Assessing the determinants and prospects for the pace of market access by countries emerging from crisis – further considerations', IMF, International Capital Markets Department. Ozler, S (1993), 'Have commercial banks ignored history?', American Economic Review, 83, pages 608-20. Reinhart, C, Rogoff, K and Savastano M (2003), 'Debt intolerance', NBER Working Paper No. 9908. Rose, A K (2002), 'One reason countries pay their debts: renegotiation and international trade', NBER Working Paper No.8853. Roubini, N and Setser, B (2004), 'Bailouts or bail-ins?', Institute for International Economics. Sturzenegger, F and Zettelmeyer, J (2006), 'Debt defaults and lessons from a decade of crises', forthcoming, MIT press. Sy, A (2004), 'Rating the rating agencies: anticipating currency crises or debt crises?', Journal of Banking and Finance, Vol 28, Issue 11, pages 2845-2867. Tanaka, M (2005), 'Bank loans versus bond finance: implications for sovereign debtors', Bank of England Working Paper, No.267. Tomz, M (1998), 'Do creditors ignore history? Reputation in international capital markets', paper presented at the Latin American Studies Association.
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Crazy Substitute Teachers
Enjoy, NG4.03 / 5.00 2,635 Views
Vacuum Salesman
This dude and his Megazord vacuum cleaner4.01 / 5.00 2,897 Views
Markiplier Animated | Mark Of The Survey Corps
This took far too long to make...3.96 / 5.00 7,507 Views
Nice stuff man. Enjoyed it. Ur little brothers weird..no offense. Man..u live in a mansion.
Not my kind of video. i like ur house though.
and i guess those are the best graphics u could ever get. And the kid at the end laughed a little before he left. I didnt like the sounds though.
thats funny
2:42 in the Afternoon
How do you sleep at 2:42 PM? It was pretty funny in some parts.
Didnt Like This Im Affraid, It Really Shouldt Have Been Submitted Onto Newgrounds...I Mean Thier Was Hardly Any Effort, Im Pretty Sure Most People Know How To Take A Piss And Go To Sleep, I Like Fps One I Really Did But This Was Seriously Not Good, Bad Humour....Seriously....Try Harder Dudes


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We had been planning to put shutters on our windows ever since we moved into our house which was about 2 years ago. We met a few salesmen from different companies and selected Sundance. We found them to be very professional, Dave gave us the information we needed, and explained different products/options. He did not try to sell us the most expensive product. It is beautiful and we are very happy with the end result. The only thing that made us a little unhappy was that they were not on time on the day of the installation. Overall, we had a great experience, and strongly recommend them.


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I had received a CalGrant and Pell Grant helped but I still had to pay out of pocket.
Chapter 35 military benefits were a hassle.
As a part of the California State University (CSU), financial aid is usually offered to students who need it. Students who have a cumulative GPA above a 3.0 can apply for university scholarships.
it's required a lot of clarifying of the requirements and a lot of information .
The financial aid is there, people just need to look for it.
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The Am I Gay? Test
Their result for The Am I Gay? Test ...
The Straight
Stand up and be heard! You're ###% gay!
Their Analysis (Vertical line = Average)
They scored 39% on homopoints, higher than 57% of your peers.
All possible test results
Way Not Gay
Maybe you're not actually homophobic, but you seem to not have a shred of gay in you. Now we all know that's not true. Go back and answer the questions honestly! Read more
The Straight
You're straight! You can choose whether or not you should be proud of that. You have just enough gay in you to not look like a liar, but too little to be really gay. You're suprised, aren't you? Read more
The Gay
You're gay! Deny it if you want, but it's all too clear. Our advice: embrace it. You aren't going to get away from this one. Read more
The Super Queer
Does it get gayer than you? (Yes, "gayer" is now a word) There's no hiding this one. Why did you even take this test? Read more
Recent Results
Benjaroonie30 / m / Gay
Princesses__15 / f / Straight
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Track of the Bigfoot: Book 2 of The Cryptids TrilogyIn the U.S. Geological Survey, there are over 100 tribal words and 2300 location in the United States alone, for a giant primate that has been sighted throughout the world.Twenty Years after his own childhood encounter, Ian McQuade leads a team of scientists in a desperate race against time to thwart one of their own, before the ultimate prize becomes the evidence needed to prove it exists...
Wake of the Lake Monster: Book 3 of The Cryptids TrilogyAlong the coastal waterways of Georgia's tidal marshes, there lives a monster that makes the Altamaha River its home. Over 20 feet in length, with a snakelike head atop its long neck, a pregnant female struggles to return upriver and give birth.Drawn to the river and caught up in events centuries in the making, Ian McQuade faces old enemies in becoming its protector, with only locals to aid him.
Shadow of the Thunderbird: Book 1 of The Cryptids TrilogyFor the past 160 years, giant birds have been reported in the skies above the Black Forest region of northern Pennsylvania. Now, it's up to one man and one woman, to find out where they came from, and where they've gone.A madman's journal will lead them into the heart of a 700-year old mystery, where they will encounter an ancient power that has protected the sacred birds for centuries.
$3.99Nathan Archer is a Professor of Medieval Studies, and a forensic historian who believes that Leonardo Da Vinci created a perfect copy of the burial cloth of Christ known as the Shroud of Turin. Citing an unpaid commission by the House of Savoy to paint a replica, he searches for proof that the Renaissance master employed techniques that took four centuries to reveal the faded image of Jesus.
FreeThere are those who believe that a creature as small as a young child, but as deadly for its size as any on earth, has been depicted in the ancient art of the Mayans. There are others who say that it was spawned through genetic engineering, or eluded capture when its space ship crashed to earth. Whatever it is, or however it got here, the Goatsucker stalks the livestock of an East Texas town...
$2.99"Always surprises and always entertains."--Jonathan Maberry, Patient Zero CURTAINS: MYSTERY STORIES A collection of 13 tales of mystery, crime, and suspense from the pages of Cemetery Dance, Blue Murder, The Third Alternative, Crimewave, and more. From tales of vengeful mobsters to dark family secrets, from psychotic killers to reluctant heroes, the stories tap the dark recesses of the human
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text:
Crazy Substitute Teachers
Enjoy, NG4.03 / 5.00 2,686 Views
Vacuum Salesman
This dude and his Megazord vacuum cleaner4.01 / 5.00 2,936 Views
Markiplier Animated | Mark Of The Survey Corps
This took far too long to make...3.95 / 5.00 7,717 Views
Yet another..
This was funny, one of the better point and click kill something games.
I laughed at almost every one.
Great work
cool assassin style game, I like how many ways you get to kill the dude and his catchphrases are pretty funny as well.
pretty good interactive game ^-^ I went through it like 3 times so it managed to grab my attention :D
An instant classic!
Nice interactive movie, i love the funny comments he makes and the general randomness of deaths.


text:
Publication: A fascinating look at an extraordinary man in The Wes Anderson Collection
Look, we all love Wes Anderson films, no one likes them more than somebody else it's just a universal appreciation in a similar vein to popcorn or oxygen. With that in mind, this is the kind of publication for which the world's been waiting for years, an in-depth, affectionate look at one of the world's most infamous and consistently brilliant yet mysterious directors.
The book, published by Abrams and written by film critic and director Matt Zoller Seitz,is crammed, crammed with previously unseen material including interviews, illustrations by Max Dalton, storyboards, essays by the likes of Michael Chabon and some incredible photographs. Oh God the photographs, it's like you're in that diner with Owen and Luke Wilson and Wes himself. It's like you were there witnessing Bill Murray mess around with the kids from The Royal Tennenbaums while the crew looked on rolling their eyes. Intimate, hilarious and infinitely enlightening, this is a must-buy, must-see, must-read for any fan. Wait, scrap that, anyone.
- Artist Howard Fonda captures the vibrancy of summer for Ace & Tate
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- Zoe Kao and Huang Wun-Siang find inspiration in the uncertainty of the design process
- Documenting the world in motion: Lauren Tamaki's illustrations of modern life
- Benedict Redgrove's beautifully hypnotic film about how a tennis ball is created
- Tommy Cash subverts the tropes of rap videos with a fleshy celebration of the human body (NSFW)
- Ian Davis' picturesque paintings of bureaucratic dystopia
- Is it ever OK to work for free?
- Pentagram unveils refresh of Mastercard's brand mark and identity
- Peter Saville and Tate Design Studio create beer can artwork for Switch House pale ale


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...For example Pythagorean theorem and SINE , COSINE and TANGENT (the other three are simply inverses) or given a complex expression, reduce it down to SIN and COS. My approach is to inculcate a process that shows what has to memorized and then how to solve, what appears to be, a very complex problems. Over the past nine years I have help prepare number high school student to take the SAT.
Sudbury, MAView Tutor
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Framingham, MAView Tutor
...I have worked with a wide range of grade levels, from elementary school to college. I received a BA in math from Harvard University and a Masters in Education from the University of New Hampshire with a double concentration in elementary education and secondary math education. I hold MA certifi...
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...I am the father of 3 teens, and have been a soccer coach, youth group leader, and scouting leader. I am also an engineering and business professional with BS and MS degrees. I tutor Algebra, Geometry, Pre-calculus, Algebra 2, Analysis, Trigonometry, Calculus, and Physics.
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In June 2006 they entered the UK Top 10 for the first time in 26 years, with their World Cup Anthem "Hurry Up England", a re-working of their earlier hit "Hurry Up Harry".