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International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks
Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 301750, 14 pages
A Secure Cluster Formation Scheme in Wireless Sensor Networks
1Department of Advanced KREONET Service, Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information, Daejeon 305-806, Republic of Korea
2Division of Computer Engineering, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Republic of Korea
Received 15 June 2012; Accepted 11 September 2012
Academic Editor: Mihui Kim
Copyright © 2012 Gicheol Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
In wireless sensor networks, clustering expedites many desirable functions such as load balancing, energy savings, and distributed key management. For secure clustering, it is very important to find compromised nodes and remove them during the initial cluster formation process. If some nodes are compromised and survive the censorship process, they can make some nodes have a different cluster view and can split a cluster into multiple clusters to deteriorate cluster quality as a whole. To resolve these problems, we propose a robust scheme against such attacks in this paper. First, our scheme generates large-sized clusters where any two nodes are at most two hops away from each other to raise the quality of clusters. Second, our scheme employs the verification of two-hop distant nodes to preserve the quality of the large-sized clusters and refrains from splitting the clusters. Last, our scheme prefers broadcast transmissions to save the energy of nodes. Security analysis proves that our scheme can identify compromised nodes and preserves the cluster membership agreement against the compromised nodes. In addition, simulation results prove that our scheme generates fewer clusters and is more secure and energy efficient than the scheme producing only small-sized clusters.
1. Introduction
The recent advancement of wireless technology, sensor technology, and low-power embedded systems have enabled the development of low-power wireless sensing devices and they can collectively constitute a wireless sensor network for various applications. Wireless sensor networks have been widely deployed for military surveillance, pollution and structure monitoring, industrial equipment monitoring, mountain fire monitoring, and so on. Clustering in such networks provides many advantages such as the reduction of energy consumption [1, 2], load balancing [3], and distributed key management [4, 5].
The most prominent benefit of clustering is that it can greatly reduce the energy consumption of nodes and lengthen the network lifetime. Clustering is grouping physical network nodes into a small number of logical assemblies and maintaining them during the network operation. The logical assemblies are called clusters. For the initial formation of clusters, each node performs a cluster formation protocol. If each cluster requires a leader, nodes in each cluster should perform a leader election protocol. Hereafter, we call the leader as cluster head. Since a cluster head plays a crucial role such as collecting sensed data from other nodes and transferring the collected data to the sink, compromised nodes try to become cluster heads. In order to keep compromised nodes from being a cluster head, we can use two main strategies. First, we can identify compromised nodes and remove them during the initial cluster formation. If a compromised node survives the censorship process, it can easily obtain candidacy for being a cluster head. Therefore, removing the compromised nodes during the cluster formation is the first defense line for secure clustering. Second, we can keep the compromised nodes from predicting and manipulating results in cluster head elections and expediting their wins in the elections. This strategy is the second defense line for secure clustering. In this paper, we only focus on the first defense line as the second defense line was covered in [6–8].
Essentially, protecting the first defense line is very important for secure clustering. If the first defense breaks down, the second defense line is also put in danger and suffers from compromised nodes. To keep the first defense line from external attackers, thus far, several schemes using symmetric cryptography [9–11] were proposed. However, they cannot keep compromised nodes from obstructing the operation of the protocols while they also prevent the participation of external attackers. Sun et al. proposed a scheme using the protocol conformity check and asymmetric cryptography [12]. It is effective at keeping the two types of compromised nodes from obstructing the operation of the protocol. However, this scheme operates with only small-sized clusters (i.e., cliques) and splits the cliques whenever a suspicious node is found in the cliques. This generates many clusters and the average size of clusters also decreases. Moreover, this scheme causes a lot of communication overhead to verify the protocol conformity of nodes.
To resolve the above problems, we propose a novel cluster formation scheme in this paper. First, our scheme generates large-sized clusters where the hop distance between any two members is at most two. Second, our scheme minimizes the separation of clusters by exchanging information between two-hop distant nodes. Last, instead of unicast transmissions, our scheme mainly employs broadcast transmissions to reduce energy consumption. Generating and maintaining large-sized clusters can provide many useful applications. First, a large-sized cluster has a long TDMA transmission schedule in which each node transmits its reading less frequently than the case of a short TDMA schedule. Therefore, a long TDMA schedule saves the amount of energy consumption at nodes, and consequently lengthens the network longevity. Second, generating large-sized clusters for a network shortens the hop distance between any two clusters and provides routing efficiency when nodes deliver their reading to the sink through multiple clusters. Last, a large-sized cluster enhances security if its CH-role node changes time after time. That is, if a CH-role node changes, the keys used for communication of the CH and its members also change accordingly. Since a large-sized cluster has more keys used for communication of the CH and its members than a small sized cluster, it guarantees higher confidentiality and integrity for their readings against malicious nodes.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Related work concerning secure cluster formation is briefly described in Section 2. Section 3 provides the network and threat model. The details of the proposed scheme are described in Section 4, and Section 5 provides the security analysis and simulation results. Finally, Section 6 concludes this paper.
2. Related Work
Heinzelman et al. proposed LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) in which sensors declare themselves as a cluster head according to a probability of being a cluster head [1]. Because cluster heads consume much more energy than normal nodes, this scheme attempts to extend the network lifetime by assigning cluster head roles to all nodes alternately. In this scheme, some nodes with a higher probability than threshold declare themselves as cluster heads and other nodes join in one of them. However, this scheme has no measure to protect the cluster formation.
F-LEACH protects the cluster head election in LEACH [9]. In this scheme, a node declares itself as a cluster head using common keys shared with the sink, and the sink authenticates the declaration message using the same keys. Then, the sink securely broadcasts the authenticated cluster heads using μTESLA [13]. Normal nodes only join one of the authenticated cluster heads. However, this scheme has no mechanism that authenticates the joining of normal nodes. Oliveira et al. proposed SecLEACH [10] in which the sink authenticates the cluster head nodes and the cluster heads authenticate the joining nodes. In F-LEACH and SecLEACH, some keys for the authentication are distributed to sensors prior to deployment. However, both F-LEACH and SecLEACH can only protect the cluster formation from external attackers. In other words, they cannot prevent compromised nodes from declaring themselves as cluster heads and from joining in any cluster head.
Liu proposed a cluster formation scheme where only predetermined nodes declare themselves as cluster heads and other nodes join in any cluster directly or via a relay node [11]. Since the declaration of any cluster head or the join of any normal node is authenticated by preassigned polynomial shares, an external attacker cannot participate in the cluster formation. This scheme also has a wormhole prevention mechanism in which a node with many neighbors shuts itself down or the sink enforcedly shuts down a node with many neighbors by reporting the node as a wormhole attacker. However, if any relay node is compromised by attackers, the relay node can invoke a DoS (Denial of Service) attack by cutting down the connection between the cluster head and its serving nodes. In addition, a compromised node can disturb a relay node determination and break all connections using the relay node. Moreover, attackers can target the predetermined cluster heads for compromise because their roles are fixed.
Sun et al. proposed a secure cluster formation scheme which verifies the protocol conformity of nodes to identify malicious nodes [12]. In this scheme, all nodes are grouped into cliques, in which all nodes are directly connected with each other. After the clique formation, each node checks whether all members in the clique agree on the clique membership or not. If a normal node finds a disagreement, it performs the protocol conformity verification for other nodes in the clique in order to recognize and remove compromised nodes. This scheme well identifies and removes compromised nodes through the protocol conformity check. However, the scheme increases the number of clusters in the network because it only produces small-sized clusters (i.e., cliques) and splits a cluster whenever a suspicious node is identified in the cluster. Moreover, it burdens nodes with a lot of communication overhead because it requires an abundance of unicast communication during the protocol conformity check. To elaborate on why the unicast transmission causes more overhead than broadcast communication, we assume that a node transmits a message to its all neighbors serially. If we use unicast communication, the node should transmit the message as frequently as the number of the neighbors. Contrarily, the broadcast communication brings the same effect through only one-time transmission.
Rifà-Pous and Herrera-Joancomartí divided the cluster formation process into three phases; cluster discovery phase, cluster head designation phase, and cluster maintenance phase [14]. In the cluster discovery phase, members in a cluster build a consensus in the cluster membership. In the cluster head designation phase, members in a cluster elect a cluster head based on the number of neighbors and the frequency of cluster-head-role performance. In the cluster maintenance phase, the elected cluster heads play the role of a local CA (Certification Authority), and issue an authorization certificate to each member. However, this scheme assumes that all nodes conform to the cluster discovery protocol. For instance, if a compromised node transmits a message to some nodes and avoids the transmission to other nodes in the cluster discovery phase, the nodes in the same cluster have a different membership. This separates a cluster into multiple ones, and the separated clusters elect their cluster head, respectively, in the cluster head designation phase. So, this scheme is vulnerable to such an attack and can generate many clusters in the network.
3. Network and Threat Model
3.1. Network Model
We assume that sensor nodes are randomly scattered in the work field by an aircraft. Following the deployment, they never change their locations and are grouped into clusters to perform an energy-efficient operation like TDMA communication in clusters. The sink acts like a data collection center and a gateway to the wired networks. We assume the following.
First, any wormhole attack is invalidated by a wormhole prevention scheme such as the scheme in [15] so that each node can identify its neighbors correctly. Second, there is no message loss during the cluster formation process except for the intentional transmission avoidance of compromised nodes. Even though it seems to be quite an immoderate assumption, we need this assumption to discriminate a compromised node from normal nodes. Without this assumption, normal nodes cannot discriminate the misbehavior of compromised nodes from message loss. Removal of this assumption is an interesting future research item. Third, we assume that each node can adjust its transmission power when they send a message so that at most two-hop distant nodes can receive the message. Last, each node can support lightweight public key operations such as ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) operations. It has been proven in [16] that energy-constrained sensors can well support lightweight public key operations such as ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm) signature generation and ECDSA verification.
3.2. Threat Model
Numerous attacks are available in wireless sensor networks. One of the most serious attacks is the DoS attack. Even though this sort of attacks is very stealthy and difficult to defeat, some promising countermeasures were introduced in [17]. Especially in a cluster structure, a greedy attacker might affiliate many normal nodes into its cluster by transmitting a bogus and long-distant message. Thanks to a wormhole prevention scheme, our scheme can easily defeat this type of attack. Sybil attack [18] also has a bad impact on the network because nodes cannot identify their legitimate neighbors. We assume that such an attack can be paralyzed by the schemes in [19].
To focus on the secure cluster formation problem, we assume that compromised nodes launch an attack by not conforming to a cluster formation protocol. Especially, we concentrate on two kinds of attacks on a cluster formation protocol. First, a compromised node can transmit a message to a section of nodes in a cluster while avoiding transmission to the rest of the nodes. Hereafter, this type of attack will be termed "selective transmission attack." In addition, a compromised node can utterly avoid the transmission of a message. We term this type of attack as "silence attack" hereafter. These attacks force nodes to have a different view on the cluster membership. This splits a cluster into multiple ones and consequently decreases the average size of clusters (i.e., the average number of members). In a cluster, the number of members affects the probability that a compromised node is elected as a CH on the basis of random selection. To elaborate on this problem, we assume that there is one cluster with a few members and another cluster with more members and they have one compromised node, respectively. We also assume that a cluster head is elected randomly like in [6] and compromised nodes cooperate with the election protocol. In this situation, the cluster with a few members is likely to elect the compromised node as a cluster head.
4. Secure Cluster Formation Using Two-Hop Conformity Verification
Before the detailed explanation of our scheme, we first establish some definitions, which are used throughout the paper. (i)Dominants: At the beginning of the cluster formation, each node exchanges its certificate with neighbors. Due to the exchange, each node comes to know the neighbors whose IDs are lower than its own ID. Those nodes are referred as dominants hereinafter and their IDs are maintained in each node's storage.(ii)CS (Cluster Separator) node: A node whose ID is the lowest among the neighbors becomes a CS node. In the same manner, a node expects that the lowest ID node among the dominants is going to declare itself as a CS node.
After the deployment of sensor nodes, each node exchanges its certificate with neighbors. This exchange enables each node to identify its neighbors and dominants. The lowest ID node in the neighborhood broadcasts a CS (Cluster Separator) message to determine a cluster border. Note that a CS node is not a cluster head but a protocol initiator. If the receivers of the CS message do not belong to any clusters, they join the cluster and respond with a broadcast message to inform the CS node of their joining. Hereafter, we call this message as a CR (Cluster Response) message. If a sender of a CR message is a dominant, the receivers remove the sender from their dominant list and check if there is no dominant. A node having no dominants becomes a CS node. If there is no attack on the protocol, this process creates clusters in the network incrementally. After the border determination of clusters, CS nodes broadcast a FCS (Final Cluster Separator) message to request members to accept their joining the cluster. This message contains a list of CR messages, which were sent from its cluster and it enables the comparison of the same membership between nodes. A receiver accepts the request to join only if the received membership is exactly same with its own membership. If a CS node attempts to exclude a specific node, it might prevent the propagation of the victim's CR message and omit the victim's CR message in its FCS message. When the victim notifies this misbehavior, the victim searches a node which holds the victim's CR message to be a witness by sending a Solicitation message. Such a node signs the victim's CR message with its private key and sends it with a pre-received FCS message to the victim. This message is called the Solicitation Response message hereafter. Through this message reception, the victim acquires a witness to prove its legitimacy. Because the CS node's misbehavior has been confirmed, the victim now accuses the CS node with an Attacker Report message for other members to exclude it. Table 1 shows the time when the messages are sent and what functions they do.
The cluster formation is divided into two steps. Step 1 determines the border of clusters and verifies it. Step 2 merges a CS node into its cluster and verifies the merge.
4.1. Cluster Border Determination and Verification
4.1.1. Cluster Border Determination
A CS node broadcasts a CS (Cluster Separator) message to initiate the cluster formation. The message consists of the message type and the sender ID, which is signed by the sender's private key to prevent a spoofing attack. If a node receives the message from multiple CS nodes, the receiver joins the first comer and ignores other messages.
If a node receives a CS message, it verifies the received signature. If it is correctly verified, it joins the cluster and broadcasts the CR (Cluster Response) message. The CS message and the CR message determine the border of a cluster. The CR message consists of the message type, the CS node's ID, and the received signature from the CS node. The node also signs the message with its private key before broadcasting to protect the integrity and the authenticity of the CR message. Last, the sender's certificate is attached to the tail of the signed message because it might be propagated further than one hop. Note that each node holds only neighbors' certificates. A node in the same cluster verifies the CR message and stores the message if it is correctly verified. Note that a CS node in the same cluster uses the stored CR messages as a proof when it requires the members to accept its merge into the cluster in step 2. The receiver of a CR message first checks whether the message comes from a member of the same cluster or not. If the message originator belongs to the same cluster, and it is the first message from the originator, the receiver rebroadcasts the message to prevent silence attacks. However, if the CR message comes from another cluster, the receiver does nothing except check whether they are dominants or not. In case of dominants, the receiver removes the sender from the dominants and it becomes a CS node if the dominant list is empty. Figure 1 illustrates the flowchart of cluster border determination in step 1.
4.1.2. Verification of Cluster Border Determination
After the cluster border determination, each node checks if there are any deviations from the protocol. If some deviations are found, each node employs the following actions.
Attack Type 1
If a CS node avoids the broadcast of a CS message, members in the cluster cannot receive any message from its cluster. In this case, the members remove the CS node from dominants and the neighbor list and check if there is no dominant. If so, they become a CS node and broadcast a CS message. Figure 2 shows this countermeasure following the "yes" control flow from the comparative symbol "No message from same cluster."
Attack Type 2
when a CS node is the sole link point among nodes in a cluster, it may avoid rebroadcasting a CR message from a node. In that case, the nodes which are connected via only the CS node cannot receive the CR message and those nodes have a different view on cluster membership. To agree on the cluster membership between those nodes, we employ the following countermeasures. Figure 2 shows these countermeasures following the control flow from connector 3.(i)If a node receives no CR messages from any nonneighbors, the node broadcasts its CR message with two-hop transmission power. Then, it waits for unknown nodes to respond with their CR message. When the node receives a CR message from an unknown node (i.e., a nonneighbor node) in the same cluster, it registers the sender into the member list.(ii)If a node has any CR message from a nonneighbor node, it waits for other CR messages from other non-neighbor nodes. When it receives a CR message from another unknown node, it registers the sender into member list and broadcasts its CR message with two-hop transmission power to notify its existence.
Attack Type 3
If a CS node broadcasts its CS message to only a part of its neighbors, some neighbors cannot receive the CS message but can receive a CR message. In that case, the nonreceivers of the CS message can recognize that the CS node selectively transmits the CS message. If a node receives only CR messages not a CS message, the node has two choices such as the following.(i)First, the node can request other nodes in the same cluster to accept its affiliation. Because the requested nodes cannot assure if the requestor is lying or the CS node is a malicious node, the situation is very ambiguous. So, they can remove the requestor and the CS node from the cluster to resolve the ambiguity. Since they are now separated from the original cluster, they need to restart the cluster formation. If the CS node is the real compromised node, it is likely to broadcast the CS message at this time. Otherwise, it is going to be separated alone.(ii)Second, the node can remove the CS node from the member and neighbor list and restart the cluster formation to define a new cluster. In this case, because the non-receiver of the CS message does not need to send an affiliation request message, it can save its energy. If the CS node is the real compromised node, the receivers of the CS message have a malicious CS node in their cluster.
Regardless of taking any choice, the cluster is separated into two and one of them has a malicious CS node. Therefore, we select the second choice in order to save energy consumption. Following the second choice, some members might lose their CS node. If a node loses the connection with its CS node, it checks if there is no dominant in the neighborhood. If so, the node becomes a CS node and broadcasts a CS message. Figure 2 shows this countermeasure following the "no" control flow from the comparative symbol "No message from same cluster."
4.2. Final Cluster Formation
4.2.1. Merger of CS Nodes
A CS node broadcasts an FCS message using the received CR messages. The message consists of the message type and the list of the received CR messages. The CS node signs the message with its private key and transmits the signed message. Upon receiving an FCS message, the receiver verifies the signature and compares the list of CR messages with its own list. If they are exactly the same, the receiver registers the sender into the member list. Otherwise, the receiver discards the message.
4.2.2. Verification of Merged CS Nodes
After the merger of a CS node, each node checks if the CS node deviates from the protocol. If it identifies a deviation, it takes the following actions.
Attack Type 4
A CS node may remove some CR messages from its FCS (Final Cluster Separator) message and avoid the transmission to the removed nodes to exclude them from the cluster. In this case, the nonreceivers of the FCS message can employ the following countermeasures. Figure 3 shows the flowchart of the merger and verification of the CS node.(i)If a node does not receive an FCS message from its CS node, it broadcasts a Solicitation message with two-hop transmission power.(ii)A node which receives a Solicitation message checks if it has the sender's CR message. A compromised node may hide any misbehavior of the CS node by not responding to the Solicitation message even if it has the solicitor's CR message (Attack type 5). Otherwise, it makes a Solicitation Response message and responds to the solicitor with the message. First, it signs the solicitor's CR message with its private key and transmits the signed message in a unicast manner along with the FCS message and its certificate. (iii)If a solicitor receives a Solicitation Response message, it first checks the FCS message, which is included in the message. The solicitor checks whether its CR message exists in the list of CR messages or not. Recall that a FCS message consists of CR messages received from members. So, if a FCS message misses the solicitor's CR message, this is unavoidable proof that the CS node is a compromised node. In that case, the solicitor advertises the CS node as an attacker using a two-hop broadcast message, which is called an Attacker Report. The message consists of the signed CR message and the signer's certificate. If a solicitor is compromised, it may omit the transmission of the Attacker Report to avoid the exclusion of the CS node (Attack type 6).(iv)If a node receives an Attacker Report, it verifies the message and checks if the witness really has received the CR message of which it proclaimed the reception. If so, it removes the CS node and registers the reporter into the member list. As a matter of fact, the node which receives the Attacker Report cannot assure that the accused CS node is really responsible for the nonreception of a CR message at any node. However, in any case, because the CS node is connected to all nodes in the cluster, it is most responsible for the nonreception.(v)If a non-receiver of a FCS message receives no message even after it broadcasts a Solicitation message, it removes its CS node from the member and the neighbor list and restarts the protocol from the beginning.
4.3. Cluster Formation Example
We introduce an illustrative example to help the quick comprehension for our scheme. In step 1, nodes determine their cluster border. Figure 4(a) shows the initial process for the cluster border determination in step 1. Nodes 1, 4, and 5 become a CS node because they have no dominants in their neighborhood. So, they broadcast a CS message. However, a CS node (i.e., 5) deviates from the protocol by selectively transmitting its CS message. Node 5 does not send its CS message to nodes 9 and 27 to exclude them from the cluster. Nodes 9 and 27 cannot assure whether CS node 5 has deviated from the protocol or not until they receive a CR message heading for node 5 from another node in the cluster. Such a CR message can be a proof that CS node 5 broadcasted its CS message.
Figure 4(b) shows that each node receiving a CS message broadcasts a CR message in step 1. If a node receives a CR message and it is not a duplicate message, it rebroadcasts the message. However, a malicious node may avoid rebroadcasting the message. Node 4 carries out such an attack to hide nodes 30 and 40 from 29 and vice versa. To defeat this kind of attack, node 29 transmits its CR message with two-hop transmission power to find a hidden member because it does not receive a CR message from any two-hop member. Nodes 30 and 40 register the node 29 into their member list and broadcast their own CR message with two-hop transmission power. Node 29 also registers the nodes 30 and 40 into its member list. As a result, they share the same cluster membership among them as shown in the right bottom of Figure 4(b).
Node 1 rejected the relay of the CR message of node 3 in order to exclude the node 3 from its cluster in Figure 4(b). However, the neighbor node 28 can get the CR message because it is directly connected with the node 3. As a result, the nodes 7 and 22 have a different view on cluster membership from nodes 3 and 28 as shown in Figure 5(a). Even though nodes 9 and 27 do not receive any CS message, they can receive a CR message from node 12 as shown in Figure 4(b). So, they can assure that CS node 5 avoided the transmission of its CS message to them. Therefore, they remove CS node 5 from their member list and neighbor list. Now, they restart the cluster formation process to define a new cluster border. Since node 9 no longer has any dominants, it declares itself as a CS node as shown in Figure 5(a). Upon receiving the CS message, nodes 14 and 27 broadcast their CR message to join the cluster as shown in Figure 5(b). Node 17 performs the same process as node 9 and the result is shown as Figure 6(a).
In step 2, nodes merge the CS node into their cluster if it conforms to the protocol. CS nodes trigger step 2 as in step 1. Nodes 1, 4, 5, 9, and 17 initiate step 2 by broadcasting an FCS message as shown in Figure 6(a). Since compromised nodes 4 and 5 behave as if they are normal nodes in Figure 6(a), we concentrate on the absorption of CS node 1. Recall that CS node 1 avoided rebroadcasting node 3's CR message in step 1 in order to separate it from the cluster. At the beginning of step 2, CS node 1 broadcasts its FCS message including the received CR messages. Of course, the CS node omits node 3's CR message to cheat other nodes and avoids the transmission toward node 3 as shown in Figure 6(a). Receivers 7 and 22 compare the list of CR messages with their own list. Because nodes 7 and 22 discover that they are exactly the same, they register node 1 into their member list. However, node 28 does nothing because it discovers that node 1's CR message list disagrees with its own list. Now, node 3 broadcasts a Solicitation message with two hop transmission power to obtain proof that it broadcasted its CR message as shown in Figure 6(b). Since receiver 28 has node 3's CR message, it first signs node 3's CR message by its private key and transmits the signed message along with 1's FCS message. The signed CR message of node 3 and the FCS message of node 1 constitute a Solicitation Response message as shown in Figure 6(b).
Upon receiving the Solicitation Response message, node 3 checks if there are unknown nodes in the FCS message. If so, it registers those nodes into its member list. Then, node 3 checks whether node 1's FCS message includes its CR message or not. Since node 1's FCS message does not include its CR message, it is definite proof of node 1's deviation from the protocol. So, node 3 reports node 1 as an attacker using a two-hop broadcast message as shown in Figure 7(a). The Attacker Report includes node 3's CR message which is signed by node 28's private key and node 28's certificate. Receivers 7, 22, and 28 verify the signature. If the verification succeeds, they remove node 1 from the member list and the neighbor list. This is because node 1 is a CS node, and it is connected to all nodes. That is, it is most responsible for the nonreception of 3's CR message at nodes 7 and 22. Nodes 7 and 22 register node 3 into their member list because they find a new normal node whose normalcy is guaranteed by node 28.
Now, all processes for cluster formation are completed. We have a clustered network such as Figure 7(b) after the completion of the protocol.
5. Evaluation
5.1. Security Analysis
Our scheme prevents external attackers from joining the cluster formation process by using message authentication. For such a reason, we focus on the insider attacks, which are launched by compromised nodes. If compromised nodes transmit the same false message or avoid transmission to all members, they cannot create any inconsistency in the cluster membership. Therefore, any inconsistency in cluster membership can only result from transmitting different messages to different members or from avoiding the transmission by compromised nodes. In Section 5.1.1, we prove that compromised nodes are identified if they transmit inconsistent messages. In Section 5.1.2, we prove that our scheme preserves the agreement in cluster membership against the misbehavior of compromised nodes.
5.1.1. Identification of Compromised Nodes
First, we explain notations employed in the following. Suppose that nodes , , and are normal members in a cluster and node is the CS node in the cluster. We denote node 's view on cluster membership as in the following. We introduce Lemma 1 and employ it to prove Theorem 2.
Lemma 1. For two normal members and , if , then we should have .
Proof. We prove it by contradiction. First, we suppose . If the supposition is true, we should have in the first step of our scheme. If in the first step of our scheme, we also have . Therefore, it contradicts the condition .
Theorem 2. If any inconsistency in cluster membership is caused by compromised nodes which transmit inconsistent messages to members, our scheme can identify the compromised nodes.
Proof. As shown in Lemma 1, if , then we have . Therefore, if we identify any inconsistency in cluster membership, it has been definitely caused by the CS node which is connected to all members , , and . When the node identifies inconsistency in cluster membership, the node transmits a Solicitation message and node responds to the Solicitation message. Using the Solicitation Response message, we come to know that the CS node transmits inconsistent messages to members.
5.1.2. Preservation of Cluster Membership Agreement
In our scheme, the silence attacks can only cause any inconsistency in membership in the second step. First, if a CS node causes any inconsistency in membership during the first step, the victims are separated from the original cluster. Since the victims form a cluster for themselves, the separation and the formation cannot affect the final cluster membership. Second, if some compromised nodes do not relay CR messages in the first step, members themselves agree on the cluster membership with each other through a two-hop broadcast of the CR message. In the following Theorem 3, we prove that our scheme preserves the agreement of cluster membership even if compromised nodes launch a silence attack or a selective transmission attack to certain members.
Theorem 3. For a CS node and two normal members and , if , then we must have .
Proof. We prove it by contradiction. First, we suppose that . Without loss of generality, we assume that but . In this case, node identifies the CS node 's misbehavior through the node k's Attacker Report. Then node removes the CS node from its member list and registers the node into its member list. Therefore, we have . It is contrary to the condition .
5.2. Simulation Results
In this subsection, we evaluate the security and energy-efficiency of our scheme using the ns-2 network simulator. In the simulation environment, 100 nodes were randomly deployed in a square field. Each node consumed their energy using the energy model of [1] during the cluster formation. Table 2 shows the simulation parameters and their values. We compare our scheme with Sun's scheme [12] because its goal and method are most similar with our scheme. Even though some schemes [9–11] present their secure cluster formation techniques, they are excluded from comparison because their methodology and attackers' aim are significantly different from our scheme. Rifà-Pous' scheme is similar to our scheme in terms of cluster formation methodology but it has no countermeasures against compromised nodes which deviate from the protocol. So, comparison with Rifà-Pous' scheme is unfair.
In Figure 8(a), we demonstrate how many clusters the two schemes generate when compromised nodes launch silence attacks and selective transmission attacks on the network. The result shows their resiliency when they are under attack. As shown in Figure 8(a), both schemes increase the number of clusters as the number of compromised nodes increases. Our scheme greatly reduces the generated clusters as compared with Sun's scheme, especially under a small number of compromised nodes. This result is caused by two facts. First, our scheme initially reduces the number of generated clusters by generating large-sized clusters. In addition, our scheme minimizes the separation of the clusters even if the clusters are under an attack.
Figure 8(b) shows how two schemes affect the average size of clusters. The result shows the quality of clusters when the clusters are under attacks. As shown in Figure 8, both schemes deteriorate the quality of clusters as the number of compromised nodes increases. Sun's scheme excludes a node whenever the node is identified as a compromised node or a suspicious node. So, it gradually deteriorates the quality of clusters as the number of compromised nodes. Our scheme keeps the quality of clusters higher than Sun's scheme because it separates much fewer nodes from clusters compared to Sun's scheme.
When a normal node identifies that a node has deviated from the protocol, it is likely to exclude the suspicious node from the cluster. As a result, many single clusters and double clusters are generated during the cluster formation. A single cluster consists of only one node, and a double cluster consists of only two nodes. Note that the clusters in Figure 8(a) do not include single clusters. Single and double clusters are almost meaningless in the viewpoint of clustering, and we label them as bad clusters. Figures 9(a) and 9(b) show how many bad clusters two schemes generate. As shown in Figures 9(a) and 9(b), Sun's scheme generates more bad clusters than our scheme. Especially, because Sun's scheme generates more single clusters than our scheme, we can say that it generates more useless clusters in comparison to our scheme.
Figure 10(a) shows how well two schemes remove compromised nodes from clusters during the protocol. The survived attackers in Figure 10(a) signify the nodes which have been compromised during the cluster formation and have survived until the end of the protocol. The result represents the healthiness of generated clusters in two schemes. Sun's scheme outperforms our scheme under a small number of compromised nodes (i.e., 7). Sun's scheme expels compromised nodes well through its one-hop conformity check when their population is small. However, because compromised nodes are not going to respond to normal nodes' protocol conformity check, the increase of compromised nodes significantly deteriorates performance. Whenever a node finds any inconsistency in the cluster membership, it attempts to obtain proofs from neighboring witnesses. However, if all witnesses are compromised, the node can never obtain any proof. So, the compromised node which causes the inconsistency can survive the protocol conformity check. That is, the survival rate of compromised nodes increases when the population of compromised nodes grows up. However, our scheme employs two-hop transmissions to check the protocol conformity of a node. So, our scheme can obtain more proofs than Sun's scheme, and it can expel the compromised nodes regardless of the unresponsive nodes. Especially, as the number of compromised nodes increases, our scheme removes more compromised nodes from the network using the two-hop transmissions as shown in Figure 10(a).
Figure 10(b) shows how the increase of compromised nodes affects the energy consumption at each node. In Sun's scheme, if a compromised node causes any inconsistency of cluster membership between any two nodes, a normal node checks the protocol conformity of the node with the inconsistent membership. During the protocol conformity check process, the normal node requests the neighboring members to provide the messages previously received with a signature in a unicast manner. So, if compromised nodes increase, more normal nodes find the inconsistency, and they all begin the protocol conformity check of neighboring members. Consequently, the neighboring members consume much more energy than less compromised nodes. Even though our scheme increases the energy consumption of nodes under a small number of compromised nodes, it is a transient increase. As the number of compromised nodes increases, our scheme greatly reduces energy consumption of nodes as shown in Figure 10(b). This is because our scheme suppresses the employment of unicast transmissions and mainly employs broadcast transmissions.
Figure 11(a) shows the amount of energy each node consumed for communication during the protocol. As shown in Figure 11(a), Sun's scheme slightly increases energy consumption as the number of compromised nodes increases. Our scheme greatly decreases energy consumption as well as preserves the amount of energy consumption constantly regardless of the population of compromised nodes. Figure 11(b) shows the amount of energy each node consumed for computation during the protocol. Both schemes consumed much more energy for computation than that for communication. It shows that the total energy consumption of both schemes highly depends on the energy consumption for the computation of both schemes. As shown in Figure 11(b), Sun's scheme incrementally increases the amount of energy consumption as the number of compromised nodes increases. This is mainly caused by the increase of one-hop conformity checks. Our scheme preserves the amount of energy consumption almost constantly regardless of the increase of compromised nodes. As a result, it greatly reduces the energy consumption of nodes especially under many compromised nodes.
Now, we compare the storage overhead of two schemes. Let be the number of neighbors of node . In Sun's scheme, because each node should store the messages of all neighbors in each step, and the messages are received from the neighbors during the four steps, its storage overhead becomes messages. If node detects that a neighbor has inconsistent cluster membership, it should receive an extra message from and store it to complete the verification. In this case, node 's storage overhead is messages. Let be the number of members in a cluster. So, we have an inequality of according to the result of Figure 8(b). In our scheme, each node first stores messages which are sent from its neighbors due to the exchange of certificates. Besides, each node should store all CR messages sent from its members in order to build a consensus on the cluster membership. So, each node's storage overhead is messages. When a normal node does not receive any FCS message, it requests other members to send a proof of its normalcy. If the node succeeds in obtaining the proof, it should also store the proof message to persuade other members of the CS node's misbehavior. In this case, the node's storage overhead is messages. According to the above analysis, our scheme's storage overhead is lower than Sun's scheme.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, we proposed a cluster formation scheme, which generates large-sized clusters in a secure manner. Our scheme initially produces large sized clusters and preserves them using the two-hop conformity verification. Then, our scheme merges the cluster formation initiators into clusters only when they conform to the cluster formation protocol. Security analysis proves that our scheme can easily identify compromised nodes which cause any inconsistency in cluster membership and preserves the agreement in cluster membership against the compromised nodes. Simulation results show that our scheme reduces the number of generated clusters, and it suppresses the generation of useless clusters. Other simulation results prove that our scheme enhances the quality of clusters and expels more compromised nodes than the compared scheme. The simulation for energy efficiency evaluation proves that our scheme greatly reduces the amount of energy consumption, especially under many compromised nodes.
This work was supported by research funds of Chonbuk National University in 2011.
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text:
I wore this amazing dress to my wedding. It's gorgeous and just sits in my closet. Poor dress! Another lucky bride should be able to enjoy it as much as I did! It has been cleaned and preserved. It has already been bustled. It's ready to wear!!! I paid $1,150 for the dress. I am asking $800 but may accept reasonable offers.
- Alterations: It has been bustled and slightly taken in at the waist. It can easily be let out with no problem. It has been slightly shortened.
- Preservation Method: I took it to a dry cleaners. They cleaned, preserved, and boxed the dress.
- Terms of Sale: All Sales Final
- Original Owner:
- Has Original Receipt:
- Location: , IL
- Will Ship to: Anywhere at Buyer Expense
- Payment Methods Accepted: Escrow.com
Please read our BUYER'S GUIDE before purchasing a dress online.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Artist: Bette Midler
Album: Beaches
Genre: Vocal
Bette Midler
Otto Tittsling
"this next story is a true story. it concerns to of my favorite subjects: industrial theft . . . and-a t-ts! mmm, what a combo! this is the story . . . the inventor of the modern foundation
Ent that we women wear today was a german scientist and opera lover by the name of otto titsling! this is a true story. his name was otto titsling. what happened to otto titsling shouldn't happe
A schnauzer. it's a very sad story. i feel i have to share it with you."
Otto titsling, inventor and crout,
Had nothing to get very worked up about.
His inventions were failures, his future seemed bleak.
He fled to the opera at least twice a week.
One night at the opera he saw an aida
Who's t-ts were so big they would often impede her.
Bug-eyed he watched her fall into the pit,
Done in by the weight of those terrible t-ts.
Oh, my god! there she blows!
Aerodynamically this bitch was a mess.
Otto eye-balled the diva lying comatose amongst the reeds,
And he suddenly felt the fire or inspiration
Flood his soul. he knew what he had to do!
He ran back to his workshop
Where he futzed and futzed and futzed.
For otto titsling had found his quest:
To lift and mold the female breast;
To point the small ones to the sky;
To keep the big ones high and dry!
Every night he'd sweat and snort
Searching for the right support.
He tried some string and paper clips.
Hey! he even tried his own two lips!
Well, he stiched and he slaved
And he slaved and he stitched
Until finally one night, in the wee hours of morning,
Otto arose from his workbench triumphant.
Yes! he had invented the worlds first
Over-the-shoulder-boulder-holder. hooray!
Exhausted but ecstatic he ran
Down the street to the diva's house
Bearing the prototype in his hot little hand.
Now, the diva did not want to try the darn thing on.
But, after many initial misgivings,
She finally did.
And the sigh of relief that issued forth
From the diva's mouth
Was so loud that it was mistaken by some
To be the early onset of the seraken winds
Which would often roll through the schwarzwald
With a vengance!
But little did otto know,
At the moment of his greatest triumph,
Lurking under the diva's bed
Was none other than the very worst
Of the french patentees,
Phillip debrassiere.
And phil was watching the scene
With a great deal of interest!
Later that night, while our broom hilda slept,
Into the wardrobe phillip softly crept.
He fumbled through knickers and corsets galore,
'til he found otto's titsling and he ran out the door.
Crying, "oh, my god! what joy! what bliss!
I'm gonna make me a million from this!
Every woman in the world will wanna buy one.
I can have all the goods manufactures in taiwan."
"oh, thank you!"
The result of this swindle is pointedly clear:
Do you buy a titsling or do you buy a brassiere?
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|Under the Boardwalk
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text:
Although we do not cross national parks we do pass through animal territories, encounters with wildlife is assured.
Tour Itinerary:
Day 1: Nairobi Airport - Hotel (30 Km)
Welcome at Nairobi airport and transfer to Carnivore restaurant then to Swara hotel at the boundary of Nairobi National Park.
Day 2: Nairobi - Ewaso Ngiro River (170 km on stony trail)
Breakfast and briefing. Depart towards Ngong hills then on a trail going down immediately through the dry slope of the hills straight into the heart of the Great Rift Valley and Masai Land. Already expect uncommon encounters on the way and on up to the finish: Mosiro a small Masai village. Arrive in the afternoon at the village, welcome and escort by local inhabitants to the campsite along Ewaso Ngiro River at the foot of Nguruman escarpment. Game tracking on foot under Masai Moran escort along the river to watch animals coming to drink just before sunset. Entertainment by the Masai (song, dance etc.). Return to campsite for barbecue dinner together with Masai warriors and listen to their adventurous experiences with wild animals.
Day 3: Mosiro - Ngong Hills (160 Km on stony trail)
Ride to and visit nearby traditional Masai villages. Drive through the foot of Suswa and Longonot volcanos and up a steep trail that ascends atop Nairobi plateau, that offers a splendid view of deep Rift Valley. Accommodation at Whistling Thorn hotel facing Ngong Hills.
Day 4: Ngong Hills - Maparasha Hills (150 Km on earth track)
Drive towards Mount Kilimanjaro on a narrow track across the savannah between acacias and anthills. Expect to meet herds of livestock, antelopes or giraffes. End the day at Maparasha hills to pitch-tent. Evening excursion to the top of nearby hills to watch fascinating wildlife. Capture the mesmerising sunset on Kilimanjaro (19950 ft), whose summit seems buoyant in the clouds. Later retire to the campsite for an African dinner around a wood fire.
Day 5: Maparasha – Kilimanjaro (190 Km on earth track)
A visit to a local primary (Maparasha) school then drive on an animal trail in the savannah vegetation to the view of Mount Kilimanjaro which, in clear weather, appears spread in marvellous splendour on its base all along southern horizon. Wildlife can be seen all along the track that stretches along the pipeline carrying water tapped from the big mountain. Ride on a track bordered with beautiful Acacia Tortillis and arrive at Kibo Slopes Cottages in Loitokitok, the main Masai township that sits on the foothills of Kilimanjaro.
Day 6: Kilimanjaro - Lake Jipe (160 Km - earth and stones)
Enjoying the full-view beauty of the mountain, drive towards Tsavo on a red soil trail covered with black volcanic stones. Arrive at the gate of Tsavo-west National Park and load the bikes on a lorry. Cross the park by car towards Ziwani gate where the bikes are off-loaded. Start again the ride towards Lake Jipe. Arrive at Lake Jipe in the Tsavo reserve through a sandy track. Boat ride on the lake before sunset. Return to the bandas (cottages thatched with coconut palm leaves) right on the lakeshore
Day 7: Lake Jipe - Taita (150 Km on sandy trail)
Early morning game drive in the park aboard a 4WD car then depart to Taita Hills, an "island" of luxuriant greenery in the middle of vast dry bush and shrubbery along Tsavo Park. Enduro trail across the hills, go up through a steep track to the top of Sagala hills which commands a good view of Taita land then go down to the heart of dry shrubby vegetation and arrive at Taita Ranch sanctuary home to a big elephant population. Camping in the middle of nowhere at the foot of Kopje rocks (eroded rocks) which permit a splendid view on Tsavo bush. Dinner around a wood fire.
Day 8: Taita - The coast (160 Km on stones and sand)
This stage ushers you into the coastal region. A remarkable change in the landscape, climate and the local community is gradually evident - you meet The Swahili people. Trails of red soil navigate you through coconut trees and other tropical vegetation. Then a night camping with local people, near Kaloleni village. The hosts will entertain with traditional beats and dances: a natural impression of real African night under coconut trees and stars.
Day 9: Kaloleni Village - South Coast of Mombasa (180 Km beach line ride)
Morning visit to the local community school then link with Mombasa south coast on a sandy track, round Shimba hills (rain forest and home of the mighty elephant). Arrive on a beautiful white sand beach at Diani for a seafood farewell party with the whole crew. Later proceed to your hotel: a 4* beach hotel for a rest well deserved! Coral reef, white sand and coconut trees. Dinner in your hotel.
Day 10: Beach and Connecting Flight to Nairobi International Airport.
Breakfast at the hotel. End of afternoon, transfer to Mombasa airport to connect Nairobi for your onward flight.
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text:
The New Orleans Saints begin minicamp Tuesday at 11 a.m. and NOLA.com | The Times-Picayune reporters will provide thorough coverage from the Saints Training Facility once the cleats hit the practice fields.
Saints beat writers Larry Holder and Katherine Terrell along with several other NOLA.com | The Times-Picayune staffers will be providing live updates from the morning sessions all week and you can follow their updates on the Saints page.
All three morning sessions are open to fans and gates open at about 10 a.m.
Several position battles highlight the Saints' offseason activities including center where New Orleans brought in veteran center Jonathon Goodwin to challenge starter Tim Lelito.
So follow our reporters live updates here and be sure to check NOLA.com | The Times-Picayune for the latest news and information on the Saints.
Amos Morale III can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.com or 504.826.3405.


text:
Getting firsthand information from an actual car owner is one sure way to get an idea of car performance once it leaves the lot. Autobytel features real consumer reviews that give the unbiased experience of a car.
I have owned BMWs, Mercedes, Lincolns and a whole host of other cars, and this is the best sedan ever ... period.
Pros: the ride
Cons: Not enough room in the glove box.Wonderful and comfortable ride, Will need new tires in about a year. Drives excellently. Attractive appearance.
Pros: comfortdont like the low profile tires at all,stiffens the ride.tranny could be smoother,poor mileage.very comfortable.
Pros: easy of entry and exit
Cons: seats are too soft.Very comfortable, easy to get in and out, good vision, gas milage on hwy...23 @ 70 mph. Handsome looking
Excellent car
Pros: luxury performance
Cons: no grabber straps over doorsI love this car. It is beautiful, comfortable and the envy of my friends. People stop me in the parking lots to comment on how beautiful it is.
Good vehicle
Pros: Panoramic roof
Cons: Different wheel sizes front & rearQuality vehicle, easy to drive and very comfortable. Wife says needs more cup holders
Nav System Sucks - 2010 Cad STS - good car otherwi
Pros: fast search
Cons: n/aThis is a wonderful car. I love it. However, I am driven nuts by is overly complicated Nav system and the unreliable voice command function i.e the hands free voice command for the phone does not work. This is the ONLY complaint I have on the car and it is enough to cause me to think of trading although I have had it for less than six months and drivien only 7,750 miles. This quality of vehicle SHOULD not be having this problem. Ford's Nav and voice command system is flawless. My Caddi should also be flawless - but it is. Hurry up and get this Nav system issue fixed. Dr. Jim Roberts, Edmond, Oklahoma


text:
Scrabble word: PENALTY
In which Scrabble dictionary does PENALTY exist?
Scrabble (US/Canada)
(62 pts)
Scrabble (UK)
(62 pts)
Official Scrabble (OSPD)
(62 pts)
(63 pts)
Words with friends
(49 pts)
Hanging with friends
(49 pts)
(7 pts)
Lexulous (US)
(54 pts)
Definitions of PENALTY in dictionaries:
- noun - the act of punishing
- noun - a payment required for not fulfilling a contract
- noun - the disadvantage or painful consequences of an action or condition
- noun - (games) a handicap or disadvantage that is imposed on a competitor (or a team) for an infraction of the rules of the game
- A punishment established by law or authority for a crime or an offense.
- Something, especially a sum of money, required as a forfeit for an offense.
- The disadvantage or painful consequences resulting from an action or a condition: neglected his health and paid the penalty.
- A punishment, handicap, or loss of advantage imposed on a team or competitor for infraction of a rule.
- Points scored in contract bridge by the opponents when the declarer fails to make a bid.
- noun - a punishment imposed for violation of a law, rule, or agreement
There are 7 letters in PENALTY: A E L N P T Y
Scrabble words that can be created with an extra letter added to PENALTY
All anagrams that could be made from letters of word PENALTY plus a wildcard: PENALTY?
Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word PENALTY
7 letter words
6 letter words
5 letter words
4 letter words
3 letter words
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text:
I have a 1TB folder with many files on Centos server I need to make sure another Centos server has the same folder and files for backup. right now the backup server has no files. once I copy all the folders I guess I can use "rsync" but for the first copy I think I'll need something else I have 2 NIC on both servers in cross cable which I would like to use for the backup. any good idea? thanks
you can also tar and untar over ssh in a single command, this is good for only one trancefer you can use rsync after you do a full copy
I am not sure, but it could be faster then rsync when there are a lot of small files
There is nothing wrong with using rsync for that - if it takes that long, just start it on a Friday ;) .
In some cases, if there are a lot of small files and the latency is high, it might be advisable to tar the whole tree, copy the tarball and untar it at the target system. For good measure, you can also calculate checksums of the tarball on both systems.
rsync is perfectly fine for initial backup too. If you have two NICs and slow ethernet switches (or those servers are on different networks), use crossover cables and rsync. Additionally, if you have something performance critical going on, using crossover cable on secondary NIC is good idea, as it offloads traffic to separate card.
If you have 1Gbit/s network cards, then it's actually much faster to use rsync than buying external disk.
Already mentioned solution with tar - if there is any glitch, it'll fail, and you have to start over from the beginning.
I really, really recommend using rsync,
Even if you have 100Mbit/s network, using USB disks is bad solution - it's something like 30MB/s for both writing and reading - 15MB/s in average, plus you have to manually move it and run same commands again. 100Mbit/s is about 10MB/s (some network overhead included).
Do rsync from different sessions simultaneously:
1000M ethernet nics doesn't require cross cable for peer-to-peer connection. you can use standard cat5 cable to connect between those servers. then you can use 1000M instead of 100M on the crossed cable.
Buy a 1Tb disk. Plug it into server 1, preferably using SATA or eSATA, although USB is fine too. Copy all the files to it. Plug it into server2. Your files have now arrived. Much faster than rsync.
Here's a picture I took today while doing this very thing:


text:
These crystal glass shades are just the thing for a fresh new look.
Give your bath fixtures or ceiling fans a lift with these St. Thomas crystal glass shades. Ideal for ceiling fan, bath fixture or other lighting fixture use. Price is for four glass shades. Set of four.
Our associates are standing by to assist you.


text:
August, K G; Guidali, M; Sellathurai, M; Jenu, S; Bleichenbacher, D; Klamroth-Marganska, V; Adamovich, S V; Riener, R (2011). A system for sensory motor rehabilitation of the upper limb with virtual reality, exoskeleton robot, and real objects. In: Conference on Technologies for Practical Robot Applications (TePRA) 2011, Woburn, MA, 11 April 2011 - 11 April 2011, 54-63.
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Technology assisted therapy has the potential to transform rehabilitation options available, and to dramatically increase the reach of today's healthcare system. Yet challenges persist in rendering translational application designs that optimize the full potential of technology and create value for the patient and the therapist. In a step towards optimizing value of technologies for practical applications to support very weak patients who might otherwise be unable to participate in traditional therapies, an integrated sensory motor training station was designed and developed. Inspired by recent neuroscientific research findings the goal of the design was to provide concurrent first person perspective immersive action observation of both virtual and real elements for motor and sensory experience; the system incorporates a virtual limb proxy that can be personalized and actuated by the robot and that is accompanied by exercise practice in peripersonal space for a plasticity promoting experience for the hand and arm. The station uses virtual reality and real objects for visual sensory experience, real objects also provide tactile sensory experience, and an exoskeleton upper limb robot provides assistance to patients. For many patients, successful movement and movement intensity required in rehabilitation is not achievable without the robot assistance. The multi-sensory features of the system promote a top-down strategy for training the upper limb (hand and arm) complementing the robot training; the system is ideally targeted for weak patients and those with tactile or proprioception sensory loss and those who are known to benefit from multi-sensory experiences.
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|Item Type:
|Conference or Workshop Item (Paper), refereed, original work
|Communities & Collections:
|07 Faculty of Science > Institute of Neuroinformatics
|Dewey Decimal Classification:
|570 Life sciences; biology
|Event End Date:
|11 April 2011
|Deposited On:
|09 Mar 2012 14:28
|Last Modified:
|05 Apr 2016 15:43
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text:
I believe I have read some time ago how you can make
top stop sorting the tasks so that they stay in the same line (easier to read) but still get updates for their values (in contrast to simply stopping the screen refresh by pressing e.g.
k or
Now I tried to find this info in both the online help and the man page but couldn't find anything like that. Of course, it's possible that I have just dreamt reading something like this.


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Thought someone might find this neat.
This is from our local zoo.Their female giraffe is due to give birth at any time today and they set up a live feed.
Pretty sure there is no sound.
Proud Mommy to: Joshua (7/5/09) & Austin (12/29/11)
Pee? or amnio fluid?
DS - Cameron 16 DD -Taylor 8 DS - Alexander 6
Even giraffes poop in labor!
Proud Mommy to: Joshua (7/5/09) & Austin (12/29/11)
I got all excited about her lifting her tail... till she pelleted. LOL
Don't make me bust out my Assault Umbrella!
Consider yourself hugged, Bitch.
I can only imagine tonights conversation.
DH: So how was work today?
Me: Was okay. Did a bunch of travel. Watched a giraffe pee.*
DH: They pay you too much.
Me: Probably.
(*haven't actually seen her give birth yet. This answer may change.)
lmao You know your life is dull when you get excited that the giraffe did something... even if it was just pooping.
Katie: Elizabeth 08/11/2007: Annaleigh 05/12/2009: Heather 02/22/2011 Jack 01/04/13


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March 24, 2012
SALT LAKE CITY, Utah – The No. 17 Arizona women's gymnastics team heads in to the post season, taking on the Pac-12 Conference in today's Championship meet.
Arizona will begin competition today at 2 p.m. (the afternoon session) along with No. 22 Washington, Arizona State, and California. The evening session will then begin at 7 p.m., featuring No. 4 UCLA, No. 7 Utah, No. 8 Oregon State, and No. 11 Stanford.
Live stats pages.
Depending on the results of this meet, the Cats may have the opportunity to compete in the NCAA Regional Championships on Saturday, April 7.
What: the Pac-12 Championships
Where: the Huntsman Center, Salt Lake City, Utah
When: Today, March 24th at 2 p.m. and 7 p.m.
Live stats


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Alterna Bamboo Men Travel Kit
Alterna Bamboo Men Father's Day Kit gives dad all he needs to go out looking his best!
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Cyclists have a strange fascination with riding up hills and it's definitely a pleasure/pain thing. Jack goes in search of the hill climb junkies, first at the Catford Hill Climb on Kent's North Downs, the oldest continuously held bicycle race in the world, and then to Abergavenny where a new course has revived the local cycling club's flagging hill climb event. Featuring Simon Warren, author of 100 Greatest Cycling Climbs. He's also written a free ebook for Kindle: An Introduction to Cycling Climbs.
Uphill State of Mind
July 8, 2013 · Jack Thurston
Uphill State of Mind [ 27:34 ] Play Now | Play in Popup | Download
2 Responses to Uphill State of Mind
Andy July 17, 2013 at 8:15 pm #
Great show as usual.Anyone know the name of the song played near the beginning? Sounds like Seasick Steve but can't be sure.
Jack July 28, 2013 at 12:28 pm #
"Up on the Hill" by John Fairhurst. The whole EP is great, well worth buying: http://johnfairhurst.bandcamp.com/album/john-fairhurst-hungry-blues


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Sorry about the poor subject line.
I did some searching on this forum and elsewhere trying to determine if the order of content within a page's HTML matters to Google (or other search engines for that matter). Is there more value/relevance placed on content near the beginning of the HTML than the stuff near the bottom of the page?
I ask because I have a 3-column site currently built using tables that has a long laundry-list type navigation menu that runs down the left side of the page and appears very early in the HTML. I'm working on a redesign and am considering positioning the menu using CSS but having the menu be the last thing rendered in the HTML. The idea is that the more "valuable" content appears much sooner in the page. Any thoughts on this and how it might impact how Google processes the page? I'm sure this is not a new concept and someone out there has tested the theory out a bit.


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In order to keep the IPFW plate on our roads, a minimum of 500 new plates must be purchased each year. If not, the IPFW license plate will be terminated permanently.
So help IPFW reach the 500 plates sold goal in order to receive the new IPFW specialty plate design with Tuskey in 2017!
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Alumni Night at TinCaps
June 16, 2016
Parkview Field


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S-66, Provides that every license for a gunsmith or dealer, or to carry or possess a firearm shall expire not more than five years from the date of issuance regardless of the county or city which issued the license.
S-68, Requires the safe storage of all guns, either in a safe or with a locking device, and provides penalties for simple and complex violations (removal from premises, injury or death results); requires notices to be furnished upon transfer of guns and issuance/renewal of licenses; defines guns as weapons in the form of rifles, shotguns, and firearms; enacts the "safe gun storage act"; does not preempt local laws no less restrictive or stringent.
S-128, Establishes additional requirements for firearm license including completion of a course in firearm safety, use, maintenance, relevant laws and first aid and upon approval by district attorney by a showing of extraordinary likelihood of need to defend oneself from imminent danger or death.
Jacob J. Rieper, Vice President of Legislative & Political Affairs
New York State Rifle & Pistol Association
New York State Rifle & Pistol Association
Yahoo! Messenger ID: nyrkba


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After depriving the San Mig Coffee Mixers of their trip to the PBA Finals, the Rain or Shine Elasto Painters will be facing the Talk N' Text Tropang Texters that defeated the surging Alaska Aces.
Jeff Chan exploding for 27 points to pace the Elasto Painters for their 90-83 win over the Mixers. Paul Lee also contributed 15 points to the success of their team. James Yap of the Mixers didn't pull it off on Game 6 as he played poorly with 2-of-15 field goals, including 1-of-7 3-point shooting and 1-of-5 from the free throw line.
The two-time Philippine Cup defending champion Tropang Texters also finished off the Aces in Game 6 with a 83-78 win. It was a close game before Talk 'N Text broke loose in the fourth quarter behind captain Jimmy Alapag, who scored all 15 of his points in the second half. Super rookie Calvin Abueva of the Aces, even with his impressive performance of 23 points and 13 rebounds, could not carry his team to force a deciding Game 7 of the series.
The PBA Philippine Cup 2013 Final Series between Talk N' Text Tropang Texters and Rain or Shine Elasto Painters will tip off Wednesday, January 9, 2013. For the complete schedule, please see below:
PBA Philippine Cup 2013 Finals Schedule
Wednesday, January 9, SMART-Araneta Coliseum
- 6:45 p.m. Game One: Talk 'N Text versus Rain or Shine
Friday, January 11, SM Mall of Asia Arena
- 6:45 p.m. Game Two: Talk 'N Text versus Rain or Shine
Sunday, January 13, SMART-Araneta Coliseum
- 6 p.m. Game Three: Talk 'N Text versus Rain or Shine
Wednesday, January 16, SMART-Araneta Coliseum
- 6:45 p.m. Game Four: Talk 'N Text versus Rain or Shine
Incoming search terms:
- pba finals schedule 2013
- pba finals 2013 schedule
- pba finals schedule
- pba schedule 2013
- pba finals 2013


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How To Scan Barcode With Iphone 5c
QR Code and Barcode Reader on the App Store. Description. ON SALE FOR A LIMITED TIMETo celebrate our latest update, Scan is on sale for a limited time for $1. ABOUT SCANScan is the fastest and most user- friendly QR reader and barcode scanner available. If your i. Phone, i.
How Do You Scan Barcode With Iphone
Pad, or i. Pod came with a built- in scanner, this would be it. Here is what our reviewers are saying: "Quick and very reliable. I'd give it six stars if it were possible.""No ads, beautiful design, and even caught blurry QR codes I didn't expect it to scan""I've saved over $8. HOW THE APP WORKSTo scan a QR code or barcode simply open the app, point the camera at the code, and you're done! There is no need to take a photo or press a button. Scan will automatically recognize any code your camera is pointing at. When scanning a QR code, if the code contains a website URL, you will automatically be taken to the site.
If the code just contains text, you'll immediately see it. For other formats such as phone numbers, email addresses, or contact info, you will be prompted to take the appropriate action.
PRODUCT BARCODESScan recognizes all of the popular barcode types (UPC, EAN, and ISBN) and shows you pricing, reviews, and more about any products you scan. Barcode scanning requires a newer i. Phone or i. Pad in order to work reliably.
Scan faster and easier with your phone Add a Bluetooth barcode scanner with a dedicated scan button to your iPhone or Android Smartphone to scan more barcodes faster.
The iPhone can help you quickly look up, price check, or catalogue items through different barcode scanning apps. Many of these apps will even work on iPod touches. Seen those funky little QR (quick response) bar codes floating around and wondering how to scan them on your iPhone or iPad? QR codes are used to store useful. QR Code Generator and Barcode Scanner Scan. Download the. Scan. Download the app Home Make a QR code How it works; About us; Careers; Media. QR Code Generator and Barcode Scanner Download the Scan. Download Scan Download QR Code Reader How it works; About us; Careers; Media; Features; Blog. Use the CLZ Barry barcode scanner app to scan barcodes with the camera of your iPhone or Android device, then instantly send them to any program, any text box on your.
Read reviews, compare customer ratings, see screenshots, and learn more about Scan - QR Code and Barcode Reader. Download Scan - QR Code and Barcode Reader. Read reviews, compare customer ratings, see screenshots and learn more about Scan - QR Code and Barcode Reader. Download Scan - QR Code and Barcode Reader.
Cameras on older devices do not provide the resolution or focus required for barcode scanning. ADDITIONAL FEATURES• View a history list and map of all of your past scans• Sync your scan history across the web and all of your devices• Toggle your front or rear camera for scanning• Set a default browser to open websites in• Scan pictures of QR codes and barcodes from your camera roll• A switch to turn on your device's light (if it has one) for scanning in low- light circumstances. DEDICATED TO PERFECTIONOur goal is to make our app the best scanning app in the store. We can't do this without you. We are dedicated to your satisfaction and need to hear feedback from you.
If you have an issue with Scan, please do not write a review of the app saying "it didn't work." This does not help us make things better for you. Instead, please contact us at support@scan. Twitter @scan and we'll do our best to help. REQUIREMENTSIn order to use Scan, your device must have a built- in camera. When scanning codes that redirect to online content, such as websites, you will need Internet connectivity. MAKE YOUR OWN QR CODES ON SCAN.
MEWant to make your own QR codes for others to scan? Visit our site at http: //scan. QR codes for free. Update: We recently released a new Wi- Fi QR code type on our site.
These new Wi- Fi QR codes allow visitors to your home or business to scan a QR code to get easy access to your wireless network. What's New in Version 2. Performance updates and bug fixes.
Best Barcode i. Phone Applications - Barcode Scanners for i. OSWe have always been skeptical about the quality of barcode scanner applications that are available in the App Store. There are too many of them around but so many of them are worse than junk.
Thankfully, a few developers have gotten it right, so you can scan barcodes properly on your i. Phone. These apps make shopping a whole lot more fun. If you are looking for barcode i.
Phone applications that work, here are 1. Barcode Scanner: an i. OS barcode scanner for price shopping.
Just scan products to get pricing information on them. Supports multi- vendor searching. Consmr Barcode Scanner: a powerful product guide for i. Phone. It lets you see product ratings, reviews, and other useful information. You can scan product barcodes, filter using tags, and use Facebook to get recommendations.
Neo. Reader: a universal barcode scanning application capable of reading QR, EAN, UPC, and Data Matrix codes. It is fairly reliable too. Red. Laser: one of the best barcode scanners for i. Phone. Scans UPC, EAN, and UPC- E barcodes and lets you compare prices using Google Products and Amazon.
It supports i. Phones and i. Pads. Shop. Savvy: this is a handy tool to find the products you need at the prices that work for you. It has a pretty decent barcode scanner and gives you access to local deals and sales. Quick Scan Pro: this i. Phone barcode scanner reads UPC, EAN, ISBN, and other commercial barcodes. It offers price and product search features too. LED light option while scanning is available.
Shopwell: a powerful i. Phone barcode reader that shows you which foods you should avoid to stay on your diet. Great for folks who may have food allergies. Nxt. Nutrio: want to avoid genetically- modified foods?
Maybe you want to learn which foods are healthy for you. Latest Xp Ati X300 Driver 2016 - Free Download and Software 2016 on this page. This application has you covered. It helps you get a better handle on food label reading.
Scan. Life: a QR code reader and barcode scanner for your phone. It supports popular barcode formats (QRCode, Datamatrix, EZcode). Over 3. 0 different online retailers are covered.
Quick Scan: supports UPC, EAN, ISBN, and other commercial barcodes. You can search prices, sort your scans, and save your favorite products. Good. Reads: more than just a barcode scanner for i. OS. Good. Reads helps you discover, read, and rate books.
You can recommend books to your friends too. Cardstar: a cool free barcode scanner that could come handy in stores. It's a useful for storing your store cards info and rewards.
Barcodas for i. Phone: a unique barcode scanner that makes music patterns out of scanned EAN and UPC barcodes. It makes shopping for products a whole lot more fun. Price Check by Amazon: this i. OS barcode scanner lets you compare prices with Amazon. You can search for Amazon products by picture, voice, and text search. There are plenty of other barcode readers available for i.
Phone. These 1. 5 performed in the most reliable fashion in our tests. Your turn: What's your favorite barcode application for i. Phone? Please add your suggestions below. Updated: Sept. 2.


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Widespread Adoption of Biomarkers Has Been...
Scientific Misconduct Is Jeopardizing the Quality...
Diseases of the Eye That Cause...
Peptide Drugs Are Not Only Diverse...
CONRAD, a reproductive health research organization, halted a Phase III trial of Polydex Pharmaceuticals' candidate for HIV prevention in women as it seemed to instead increase the risk of HIV. Ushercell, a cellulose sulfate-based topical microbicide gel, was being tested in women and trials were underway in South Africa, Benin, Uganda, and India.
The company opened traded at $3.18, representing a 52.25% drop in price.
"Ushercell has shown a consistent safety profile up to this point, having undergone 11 rigorous clinical safety and contraceptive trials involving more than 500 participants before entering the HIV prevention trial," states Polydex president and CEO, George Usher. "CONRAD will continue to evaluate the findings to help us determine the biological cause of an increased sero-conversion rate detected in the preliminary analysis at some of the trial sites."
Simultaneously, Family Health International (FHI) stopped a second Phase III cellulose sulfate trial in Nigeria. Although the FHI trial did not detect an increased HIV risk associated with cellulose sulfate, the decision was made as a precautionary measure, given CONRAD trial data.
Cellulose sulfate was one of four microbicides currently in effectiveness trials for prevention of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. At this point, it is not clear why use of cellulose sulfate was associated with an increased risk of HIV infection in the CONRAD trial.
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(A Brain-Wise Movie Production)
"Shrinklady" takes you on a tour of the nervous system with more twists and turns than a theme park waterslide!
DISCOVER the secret lesson that lay hidden in hundreds of therapy hours -
revealed here for the first time ever!
THRILL to the possibility that therapy's the answer you've been
looking for all these years!
SCREAM when you realize how much time and $$$ you can save if you implement just one of these strategies!
Watch the Movie Now!
Every day neuroscience unlocks another secret of the brain.
Shrinklady explains how you can take advantage of these breakthroughs -
even if you're not in therapy.
All you have to do is sign up below. And it's free!
"Hurry now, the movie's just starting...
and you won't want to miss it!" 😉
What others said who watched the movie:
"Shrink lady – you rule!!!! thanks for this. It makes perfect sense to me – well put together presentation that speaks clearly to non-psychologists... ." - Mellerbe
"I have just listened to your movie for a second time and bells rang and lights came on. Big bells, bright lights! This is marvelous and I am so excited. Very many grateful thanks to you, and pleeeeeeeze keep going and sharing your ideas and thoughts with us" - Victoria
"Great video! This helps me not be so hard on myself and to allow myself to go in and out of the zone. You hit a key point about the emotions and being in the comfort zone before going there. Thanks for sharing this great informatinon!" - TP
"I loved this movie – thank you so much for this! It explains a great deal why some of my past therapy experiences have made me feel worse, not better. The explanations about containment and comfort zones are especially enlightening about this. Also the info about the way the nervous system and the brain work really makes sense. Brilliant stuff – every therapist should know about it." - Joy
"This video really spoke to me. I work as a trauma counsellor and find discussions around the nervous system to really help normalize client's difficulty with post-traumatic responses (eg. depression, anxiety, dissociation....For me (and I believe The Shrink Lady has some awesome info on the website) it's strongly about discharge...P.S. I really liked the idea of using a Rainbow analogy. Very creative"


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Mods: My apologies if this isn't the right forum.
On to the letter to the editor: I'm not sure if this is real or if this is one of our guys using hyperbole to make a point, but I thought I'd share it.
Guns, teachers, and self-defense - The Boston Globe
Edited to add: Yeah, it's a letter to the editor, not an editorial. Sorry, but I can't change the title of the thread.Quote:
I AM a math teacher at Brockton High School, the site of a school shooting earlier this month.
Current school security procedures lock down school populations in the event of armed assault. Some advocate abandoning this practice as it holds everyone in place, allowing a shooter easily to find victims.
An alternative to lockdown is immediate exodus via announcement. Although this removes potential hostages and makes it nearly impossible for the shooter to acquire preselected targets, it unfairly rewards resourceful children who move to safety off-site more shrewdly and efficiently than others.
Schools should level playing fields, not intrinsically reward those more resourceful. A level barrel is fair to all fish.
Some propose overturning laws that made schools gun-free zones even for teachers who may be licensed to securely carry concealed firearms elsewhere. They argue that barring licensed-carry only ensures a defenseless, target-rich environment.
But as a progressive, I would sooner lay my child to rest than succumb to the belief that the use of a gun for self-defense is somehow not in itself a gun crime.


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july 2008
by Janet Sampson Reider & & family - Pietro, Brian, Suzie, Charlotte, Rosie, Jacob, Sam, Molly, Alicia
This books celebrates Pete's and Janet's 50th wedding anniversary at a beautiful villa in Italy in the hills outside of the town of Lucca. We took our children and grandchildren for two weeks and enjoyed a wonderful time together in towns near and far: Lucca, Barga, Florence, Pisa, Riomaggiore, Vernazza, Pietrasanta and others in between!
It was July, 2008.
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