text:
John Carew Eccles 1903-1997
This memoir was originally published in Historical Records of Australian Science, vol.13, no.4, 2001. A shorter version will appear in Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society of London, 2001.
Numbers in brackets refer to the bibliography at the end of the text.
- Introduction
- Early years and family background
- Oxford
- Sydney
- Dunedin
- Canberra
- Chicago and Buffalo
- Switzerland
- The mind-brain problems: Philosophical considerations
- Personality
- Family
- Australian Academy of Science
- Education
- Positions held
- Honours and awards
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Bibliography
Sir John Eccles, internationally recognized for his remarkable and outstanding impact on the neurosciences for more than six decades, died on 2 May 1997 at the age of 94. He carried out his research in Oxford, Sydney, Dunedin, Canberra, Chicago and Buffalo from 1927 until 1975 (441). His numerous scientific papers and books, arising from detailed and pioneering experimental studies of synaptic mechanisms and the organization of neurones in the mammalian central nervous system, continue to have a major influence on brain research. Furthermore, his writings on the mind-brain interaction generated wide interest and debate. Eccles also made his mark as an administrator, particularly at the Australian National University and the Australian Academy of Science, of which he was a Foundation Fellow and the second President.
Early years and family background
John Carew Eccles was born on 27 January 1903 at Northcote, a suburb of Melbourne. Both his father, William James Eccles, and his mother, Mary (née Carew) were born in Victoria and were school teachers. The Eccles family came from Lancashire in England, his paternal grandfather Henry Basil Eccles having migrated to Victoria in 1849 and his grandmother Mary Jane Ingram from Limerick in Ireland in the same year. His maternal grandfather John Carew migrated to Victoria from Tipperary in Ireland in 1852, his grandmother Harriet Elizabeth Merry from Berkshire in England in 1858. Eccles's sister, Rosamond, to whom he was closely attached, was born in 1904.
At the age of 12, Eccles began his secondary schooling at Warrnambool High School. After four years, prior to entering the University of Melbourne, he studied science and mathematics for another year at Melbourne High School. He headed the school at the final State-wide examination, shared the State geometry prize and gained a Senior Scholarship to the University. Although deeply interested in mathematics, Eccles chose medicine and commenced his five-year course early in 1920 at the age of 17. He lived at home and attended tutorials at Newman College. His continuing academic successes attracted the attention of a number of professors, including W.A. Osborne (Physiology). As a medical student he was active in university societies and sport, gaining a full blue in athletics for his Australian universities record in pole vaulting.
Eccles also developed his interests in the arts. His reading of Darwin's Origin of Species in the first-year zoology course led to wide reading of classical and contemporary works in philosophy dealing with the mind-brain problem. Unable to obtain a satisfactory explanation of the interaction between the mind and the brain and realizing that so little was known about the brain itself, he decided as a medical student to become a neuroscientist (see 425). After reading CS Sherrington's 1906 book, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, Eccles resolved to achieve a Rhodes Scholarship to work with him at Oxford University. He later described Sherrington as 'the one man in the world whom I wished to have as my master' (441).
Eccles completed his medical course in February 1925, gaining First Class Honours and First Place, the exhibition in eight of ten subjects and several clinical prizes, and graduated with the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery. He had already been awarded the Rhodes Scholarship for Victoria in November 1924. After six months as a Resident Medical Officer at St Vincent's Hospital, he left Melbourne at the end of August 1925 and arrived in Oxford early in October.
Eccles had been accepted by Magdalen College, of which Sir Charles Sherrington was a Fellow. A letter of introduction from Sherrington's friend Professor Osborne initiated Eccles's close and deeply influential friendship with Sir Charles, which continued until the latter's death (441,468, 505). Initially, he spent two years studying for the Final Honours School in Physiology and Biochemistry, and over this period at Magdalen he read widely in the neurophysiological, biochemical, philosophical and theological literature. In mid-1927 he was awarded First Class Honours, the Christopher Welch Scholarship and a Gotch Prize. He commenced his DPhil under the supervision of Sherrington in the autumn of 1927 and moved to Exeter College, having been appointed a Junior Research Fellow for five years.
Eccles has vividly described 'life in Sherrington's laboratory' over the period 1925-1935 which was enriched by numerous visitors from Europe and North America (441, Chap.5 of 468, and 505). At this time there was much speculation regarding the nature of the transmission process at central synapses. Strong evidence for chemical transmission at peripheral excitatory and inhibitory synapses had been provided, particularly by the findings of O Loewi and of HH Dale and his colleagues. Nevertheless, central synaptic transmission was widely considered to be similar to the electrical propagation of impulses along nerve fibres, although Sherrington (1925) had suggested that the inhibition of spinal reflexes might be mediated by a chemical agent.
Eccles's introduction to research was with EGT Liddell and D Denny-Brown in a study of the effects of electrical stimulation of the cerebellar cortex on spinal reflexes in the cat (3). Later in 1927 he joined RS Creed in a study of inhibition in the spinal cord (1), and in 1928 investigated crossed extensor reflexes with RA Granit. Reflex responses were measured as muscle contractions by means of an optical isometric myograph, the design of which was improved after Eccles discovered that friction in the bearing distorted the records (4).
In mid-1928 Eccles joined Sherrington in a series of experiments. The first led to the discovery of two distinct populations, based on diameter, of motor fibres in peripheral muscle nerves (7). It was not until later that L Leksell (1945) showed these to be the axons of alpha- and gamma-motoneurones, the latter innervating muscle spindle stretch receptor organs. Sherrington and Eccles (see 14) also examined the time course of the 'central excitatory state' (c.e.s.) which Sherrington had proposed underlay the excitation of motoneurones by afferent volleys to the spinal cord, and also of the active 'central inhibitory state' (c.i.s.) associated with the inhibition of flexor reflexes by volleys in contralateral muscle nerves (17). The latter observations provided no support for the then current theory that the inhibition of reflexes resulted from interference with the access of excitatory impulses to the cord.
These experiments finished early in 1931, and were the last in which Sherrington, then aged 74, took an active part. In 1932 the influential monograph Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord was published by Creed, Denny-Brown, Eccles, Liddell and Sherrington (21) giving an account of studies carried out in the Sherrington 'School' in Oxford over the previous decade. That year Sherrington and ED Adrian from Cambridge shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for 'their discoveries regarding the functions of the neurone'.
Sherrington's Nobel Lecture, entitled 'Inhibition as a coordinative factor', had a major influence on the future research activities of John Eccles, then aged 29. His own 1963 Nobel Lecture (267) was entitled 'The ionic mechanism of postsynaptic inhibition'.
In 1931 Eccles was appointed to the Staines Medical Fellowship at Exeter College. A study with GL Brown of the acetylcholine-mediated vagal inhibition of the heart apparently reinforced his belief that only an electrical process could account for the much shorter delays and duration of transmission at central synapses. In 1932, Eccles, JZ Young and Granit showed, for the first time, that action potentials were conducted in both directions along earthworm giant nerve fibres (20), an observation which, when later extended by others to the giant axon of the squid, was of fundamental significance to the understanding of impulse conduction along axons.
Eccles returned to the study of synaptic transmission in 1935, selecting the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion as a simpler system than the spinal cord. Although he accepted that acetylcholine (ACh) released by presynaptic impulses was the chemical mediator for slow excitation, the failure of the ACh esterase inhibitor physostigmine to prolong the fast component of ganglionic responses strengthened his doubts that the fast excitatory process could be chemical. Accordingly, he introduced the concept of a rapid 'detonator' response by which the action currents of presynaptic impulses directly excited cells at synaptic regions, causing ganglion cells to discharge (41, 506). This proposal was extended to synaptic excitation of striated muscle, of smooth muscle and in the spinal cord (50). The ensuing controversy between Eccles and adherents of chemical synaptic transmission considerably enlivened many meetings of the Physiological Society (429, 506, see Dale 1954).
Eccles continued demonstrating, tutoring, lecturing and supervising undergraduate and DPhil students, and in 1934 achieved a permanent position in Oxford as a Tutorial Fellow at Magdalen College and as a University Demonstrator. In 1935, however, Sherrington retired and was replaced by J Mellanby. Eccles was disappointed about the new directions research in Oxford would take, and was also concerned about the increasing political uncertainty in Europe. Accordingly, he applied successfully for the Directorship of the Kanematsu Memorial Institute of Pathology at Sydney Hospital, then the largest general hospital in Sydney. He resigned his Oxford appointments and arrived in Sydney with his family in August 1937.
The Kanematsu Institute (see Courtice 1985) opened in April 1933, initially as a department of diagnostic pathology for the Sydney Hospital. The part-time Director, Dr WK Inglis, had persuaded the Hospital Board that research should be an integral function of the Institute, and funds were sought from the Nuffield Foundation and the government of New South Wales. The position of Director was advertised in August 1935, and the appointee was expected to devote most of his time to some field of medical research, whilst exercising general supervision of the routine work of the Institute. The Hospital Board, however, retained administrative control of the Institute.
Eccles proposed to continue his research on the central and peripheral nervous systems and, by the end of 1937, he had established research facilities on the top floor of the building with the assistance of a grant from the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Throughout his period in Sydney he was very concerned about his academic isolation from physiologists at the Medical School of the University. Although he had been elected a Foundation Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians in 1938 in recognition of his scientific achievements, Eccles and his colleagues never had any formal association with the University. In 1938, 1939, and jointly with B Katz in 1940, however, he gave a series of lectures to the third-year medical students at the University. Thereafter, and until 1943, lectures, demonstrations and discussions took place for interested students at the Institute.
In 1938 Eccles and WJ O'Connor for the first time recorded end-plate potentials electrically from the surface of striated muscle strips. The belief that these were preceded by muscle action potentials, coupled with the effects of physostigmine and the ACh receptor antagonist curare, led Eccles to deny a role for ACh as the neuromuscular transmitter and to claim support for his detonator theory (59). The subsequent detailed study of neuromuscular transmission with B Katz and SW Kuffler, however, led to Eccles's apparent acceptance that ACh was responsible for end-plate potentials set up by motor nerve impulses (68). An investigation of transmission in the cat stellate ganglion appeared to confirm his earlier proposal of dual fast and slow excitatory processes in ganglia, only the latter being mediated by ACh (69,71).
In accord with a Hospital Board desire for clinically relevant research, Eccles also investigated the atrophy of striated muscle which follows disuse or tenotomy (74). The outbreak of war in Europe in 1939 led to some reduction of the Institute's research, and its continuation was severely curtailed from late 1941 by the war in the Pacific region. Eccles, who had been elected FRS in March 1941, became involved in a number of committees and research projects dealing with the problems of vision (70), hearing, noise and communication in aircraft and tanks. He also actively participated with an Army unit responsible for the supply of blood and serum for the armed forces.
In the meantime, however, Eccles's relations with the Hospital Board became less than harmonious. He believed that the Board and the Hospital's honorary medical staff lacked an understanding of the basic neurophysiological research being carried out and of its long-term relevance to clinical medicine. Early in 1943, without consulting Eccles, the Board proposed to add two floors to the Institute building to accommodate resident medical staff. Since this would prevent any future expansion of the research laboratories, Eccles resigned in October 1943 and accepted appointment to the Chair of Physiology in the Medical School of the University of Otago, New Zealand.
Eccles arrived in Dunedin with his family in January 1944. The university, the first in New Zealand, was founded by the Presbyterian Church in 1869 when Dunedin was New Zealand's principal city. The Medical School, the only one in the country, was established in 1876. The Professor of Physiology was also responsible for teaching biochemistry, and Eccles appointed N Edson as Senior Lecturer in Biochemistry. The teaching load was heavy, and considerable changes were made to provide students, over two pre-clinical years, with a scientific basis for the practice of medicine similar to the Final Honours School in Oxford. Eccles also introduced in 1945 a BMedSci degree whereby at the end of the second year a number of the best students spent twelve months on a research project before returning to their medical studies.
A research laboratory was set up with financial support from the Medical Research Council of New Zealand, and Eccles commenced experimentation late in 1944. He recorded ventral root responses to dorsal root stimulation (76) and, with J.L.Malcolm, potentials and 'reflexes' from dorsal roots (77) which had been described earlier by Barron and Matthews (1938). All results were considered to be consistent with an electrical hypothesis of synaptic and neuromuscular transmission that Eccles published in Nature in December 1945 (75), and presented in February 1946 at the New York Academy of Sciences during his first visit to the United States.
Eccles's formal enunciation of his electrical hypothesis was primarily the consequence of his meeting in May 1945 with KR Popper (see Miller 1997). Popper had been a member of the staff of Canterbury University College in Christchurch, New Zealand, since 1937. At the invitation of Eccles and Edson, he spent a week in Dunedin lecturing on, and discussing his views about, the philosophy of science. Eccles was deeply impressed by Popper's main tenet, that scientific hypotheses should be both clearly formulated and testable by experiment, and that the strength of a hypothesis depended on the failure of rigorous investigation to falsify it rather than on evidence which apparently supported it. This meeting, and subsequent meetings in Christchurch, not only led to Eccles's continuing friendship with Popper (see 450, 515, 516), but additionally had a marked impact upon his future research (see 359). To quote Miller, when referring to Popper's lecture course in Dunedin: 'It had the notable effect also of converting a naive believer in induction (as Eccles described himself [see 515]) into one of the most vigorous of all scientific advocates of the method of conjectures and refutations'.
At the time, Eccles considered chemical transmission to play a subordinate or negligible role in sympathetic ganglia, at the neuromuscular junction and in the spinal cord, despite the strong evidence, particularly from the investigations of Dale and his colleagues, that ACh mediated both ganglionic and neuromuscular transmission. Eccles's experimental evidence that ACh was unlikely to be a transmitter in the spinal cord (80) reinforced his opinion that central synaptic transmission was an electrical process. Accordingly, influenced and encouraged by Popper, he stated his hypothesis of electrical excitatory transmission at central and ganglionic synapses, and the neuromuscular junction, in precise terms, and proposed a number of crucial physiological and pharmacological tests (75).
In essence, Eccles replaced his earlier 'detonator' theory with the proposition that presynaptic action currents initiated depolarizing local responses at specialized regions of the postsynaptic membrane. Above a critical level of depolarisation action potentials would be generated. The synaptic delay and the time course of the synaptic potential were accounted for in terms of the time course of the presynaptic action currents and the electrical properties of the postsynaptic membrane. The terminal regions of presynaptic fibres were also proposed to be similarly specialized, so explaining dorsal root potentials (DRPs) and reflexes (DRRs). He also provided explanations for some of the difficulties his hypothesis faced.
Early in 1946 Eccles and C.McC.Brooks tested this hypothesis by recording the electrical events associated with monosynaptic excitation of cat spinal motoneurones. Enamel-insulated metal electrodes were used to record extracellular synaptic and action potentials (focal potentials) generated by presynaptic impulses. The results were interpreted as 'agreeing closely with the predictions of the electrical hypothesis of synaptic transmission' (82, 86). The following year, Brooks and Eccles published in Nature (81) an electrical hypothesis of central inhibition, developed to account for the 'direct' inhibition of spinal reflexes by impulses from antagonistic muscles. Earlier, both B.Renshaw and DPC Lloyd at the Rockefeller Institute had suggested that direct inhibition had the same central latency as that of the monosynaptic excitation of motoneurones.
Eccles's electrical hypothesis proposed that the inhibitory pathway included a short-axon interneurone (Golgi cell) that synapsed upon motoneurones but did not discharge an impulse when excited by inhibitory afferent volleys. Synaptic potentials caused currents to flow through Golgi cell axon terminals and to passively depress motoneurone excitability. This hypothesis was tested by recording synaptic potentials near motoneurones and ventral root reflexes. The results, together with the interaction between synaptic inhibition (88) and antidromic invasion of motoneurones (89), were regarded as being consistent with the Golgi cell hypothesis.
In 1949 Eccles reviewed and restated his electrical hypotheses of synaptic excitation and inhibition in the spinal cord in a slightly modified form (92). His study with W.V.Macfarlane in 1948 of the effects of a number of ACh esterase inhibitors on the end-plate potentials of frog muscle (90), together with the results of Kuffler and others, had by then convinced him that transmission at the neuromuscular junction was a chemical process mediated by ACh. He was uncertain, however, about the application of the electrical hypothesis to transmission in ganglia, and confined his restatement to monosynaptic excitation and direct inhibition in the spinal cord. He saw no need to postulate specialization of the postsynaptic membrane at excitatory synapses, and outlined the situation if Golgi cells discharged an impulse. This revised electrical hypothesis, however, could not account for the prolonged inhibition of motoneurones by impulses in cutaneous afferent fibres (92).
With colleagues including Malcolm, Brooks, CBB Downman, TH Barakan, AK McIntyre, LG Brock, W Rall, K Bradley and DM Easton, Eccles undertook a number of studies of spinal cord excitation and inhibition. These investigations set the stage for the later breakthrough intracellular experiments. He and his colleagues investigated motoneurone orthodromic and antidromic action and after-potentials (95), and synaptic potentials generated during and following repetitive excitation of low-threshold afferent fibres (103). The effects on spinal monosynaptic transmission of dorsal root section peripheral to the ganglia (115) and during chromatolysis after ventral root section (110) were also studied. The electrical thresholds, conduction velocities and central actions of impulses in Groups I, II and III muscle afferent fibres were characterized (101), and Group I fibres from thigh muscles were found to include two sub-types (Ia and Ib) (118). Both direct and poly-synaptic inhibition were found to be reduced by intravenous sub-convulsive doses of strychnine (119), an antagonism later to be of critical significance to the identification of glycine as a spinal inhibitory transmitter.
The outstanding achievement of Eccles's eight years in Dunedin, however, was undoubtedly the pioneering success he and his colleagues Brock and JS Coombs had in using microelectrodes to record intracellularly from cat spinal motoneurones in vivo. He was aware of the advances just achieved by the introduction of intracellular recording from squid giant axons and isolated muscle fibres, and wanted to use this technique in the central nervous system. Furthermore, his experimental skills and broad anatomical and physiological knowledge of the spinal cord were essential. So was his experience with recording extracellular potentials in the cat spinal cord in vivo using insulated metal electrodes. Brock developed techniques for making and filling glass microelectrodes, and Coombs, a physicist aptly described by Eccles as a 'shy genius', designed a versatile and readily operated electronic stimulating and recording unit, later widely known as the 'ESRU', together with amplifiers and a cathode-follower input stage essential for recording with high resistance electrodes.
Success came in June 1951 with the recording of resting, action and depolarizing excitatory synaptic potentials from motoneurones. The recording on 20August 1951 of membrane hyperpolarizations having time courses similar to that of direct inhibition was sensational (see 429), as the potential had the opposite polarity to that predicted by the Golgi cell hypothesis (105). Eccles immediately considered his hypothesis to have been falsified, and accepted that spinal synaptic inhibition and excitation were both chemical in nature, and mediated by two specific chemical transmitters. This rejection of electrical transmission (425, 429) was a most dramatic conversion by one of the strongest critics of chemical transmission in the mammalian central nervous system. Dale, a long-standing friend of Eccles, was later to write (1954): 'A remarkable conversion indeed. One is reminded almost inevitably of Saul on his way to Damascus when sudden light shone and the scales fell from his eyes.'
Eccles was committed to travel abroad from Dunedin in November 1951, and also expected to be without research facilities for at least a year. In 1950, concerned that the heavy teaching load in Dunedin limited his competitive edge in the rapidly advancing field of neurophysiology, he had accepted an invitation to the Chair of Physiology in the John Curtin School of Medical Research (JCSMR) in Canberra. Since no laboratories were then available in Canberra, arrangements were made for him to continue working in Dunedin after January 1951, and he took up his appointment in December that year. Meanwhile, in June 1950, the President and Fellows of Magdalen College had invited him to deliver the 1952 Waynflete Lectures. Leaving Dunedin in November 1951, Eccles flew via North America to visit colleagues and give lectures before arriving in Oxford in January 1952.
The eight Waynflete Lectures, delivered at weekly intervals, attracted large audiences. The first five dealt with basic membrane and synaptic neurophysiology, and the final three were concerned with plasticity, memory, conditioned reflexes, the cerebral cortex and the mind-brain problem. His dualistic approach to the latter, a neurophysiological hypothesis of will, first published in Nature in July 1951 (99) and elaborated further in the final Waynflete Lecture, created intense discussion. The lectures were published in 1953 as a monograph, The Neurophysiological Basis of Mind: The Principles of Neurophysiology (111), which had a considerable influence on the development of neuroscience.
In late February, Eccles visited Sherrington at a nursing home in Eastbourne. Following Sherrington's death on 4March he returned to Dunedin via the United States where he contributed to a Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on the neurone, at which there was much discussion and controversy related to intracellular recording (441). In September 1952 he and his family moved to Canberra.
The Australian National University (ANU) and the JCSMR were established in August 1946 (Fenner 1971, Foster and Varghese 1996). Initially the Department of Physiology was located in a temporary one-storey building completed in March 1953. Eccles then began a remarkable and intense period of research activity that continued for over thirteen years. During this time, 74 investigators from 20 different countries worked in the Department (441). Of these, 41 from 14 countries collaborated and published with Eccles. He later wrote about this period: 'Without doubt it was the high point of my research career' (441), and in 1989 described it as 'my 14 golden years, scientifically speaking' (Letter to RA Hohnen, ANU Registrar during Eccles's period in Canberra). Early in 1957 the Department of Physiology moved into the permanent building of the JCSMR. The additional space, which included six large research laboratories, enabled expansion of the research staff and increased interest in neuropharmacology and neurochemistry.
With Coombs, who had accompanied him from Dunedin, and P.Fatt, Eccles began his research in Canberra with a biophysical study of the motoneurone membrane, and of synaptic excitation and inhibition in the cat lumbar spinal cord, using single and double-barrel glass intracellular electrodes (127-131). Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), initially recorded as hyperpolarizations, were observed to gradually diminish and reverse to depolarizing potentials. The recognition that this was the consequence of the leakage of ions from microelectrodes containing potassium chloride led to the use of electrical currents to inject anions and cations of different hydrated ion diameter into motoneurones. Together with the first measurement of the reversal potential for IPSPs in the mammalian central nervous system, these findings suggested that an increased permeability to potassium and chloride ions occurred at the inhibitory synapses of the direct and recurrent pathways in the spinal cord (128). In contrast, excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were generated by a non-selective increase in the permeability to all species of ion (129), as had been demonstrated earlier for muscle end-plate potentials by Fatt and Katz (1951). Later studies by Eccles also indicated the involvement of both chloride and potassium ions in generating spinal (252) and hippocampal IPSPs (445, see 465).
Eccles, with Coombs and D.R.Curtis, analysed the antidromic, orthodromic and directly evoked action potentials of motoneurones in terms of the morphology of these cells (149, 150). Direct measurement of the specific membrane resistance and capacitance (164) enabled the time course of synaptic currents underlying EPSPs and IPSPs to be calculated (165). The rapid decline of these currents was ascribed to the diffusion of transmitter from the synaptic cleft, consistent with a theoretical analysis that Eccles published in 1957 with J.C.Jaeger (154).
Early in 1953 Eccles and Fatt (see 425) made two very significant discoveries. The first, with K.Koketsu, showed that the spinal recurrent inhibitory pathway was disynaptic. Impulses in motor axon collaterals excited, at nicotinic cholinergic synapses, interneurones which were appropriately named 'Renshaw' cells in memory of B.Renshaw who first recorded their high-frequency discharge in response to ventral root stimulation (Renshaw 1946). In turn Renshaw cells monosynaptically hyperpolarized motoneurones (123). This, the first direct evidence that ACh was a central transmitter (see 134), exemplified what Eccles called Dale's 'principle' (540), namely that the same transmitter is released at all synapses made by one neurone (Dale 1935). Renshaw cells were the first central inhibitory interneurones to be identified physiologically and pharmacologically. Later, Eccles and his colleagues recorded intracellularly from Renshaw cells, and examined their connectivity in order to elucidate the functional significance of this inhibitory mechanism (204, 205).
In 1953, direct spinal inhibition was still thought to be monosynaptic since its central latency appeared to be similar to that of the monosynaptic excitation of motoneurones. Although Brock, Coombs and Eccles had earlier found that the central latency of direct IPSPs exceeded that of monosynaptic EPSPs by as much as 1ms, this difference was ascribed to a longer intraspinal pathway of the 'inhibitory' fibres. Eccles and Fatt, with S Landgren, however, showed that direct inhibition was disynaptic (133), the inhibitory interneurones being located in the spinal intermediate nucleus. The disynaptic nature of direct inhibition was later confirmed in 1960 by Eccles, with T Araki and M Ito. Direct and recurrent inhibitions had been shown to be blocked by strychnine and Eccles, with VB Brooks and Curtis, found that tetanus toxin had a similar effect (138).
These 1953-55 investigations led Eccles to postulate that a central neurone had either an excitatory or an inhibitory action on other neurones (120, 133, 441). This proposition included inhibition of inhibitory neurones as the basis for disinhibition (see 343). Synapses of all primary afferent dorsal root fibres were excitatory, any subsequent inhibitory action was mediated by excitation of interposed inhibitory interneurones. In later investigations Eccles and his colleagues identified and established the role of other inhibitory interneurones in the spinal cord, dorsal column nuclei, the thalamus, hippocampus and cerebellum (see 343).
Eccles was invited to present the Twenty-Ninth Course of Herter Lectures at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, in October 1955. The four lectures, largely based on research carried out in Canberra, were revised for publication in 1957 as a monograph, The Physiology of Nerve Cells (137), one of the most influential books in neurobiology.
With his daughter R.M.Eccles and A.Lundberg, Eccles initiated in 1956 a series of papers on the neuronal organization within the lumbar spinal cord using intracellular recording of postsynaptic potentials, a technique that was more discriminative than the recording of neuronal discharges (208). The monosynaptic connections between Groups Ia, Ib and II afferent fibres from muscle and different types of alpha motoneurone (142, 144, 148), intermediate nucleus interneurones (191) and gamma motoneurones (187) were examined, the latter study also involving A.Iggo. He also examined the properties of chromatolysed motoneurones with B.Libet and R.R.Young (159), and the effects on monosynaptic EPSPs of peripheral section of afferent fibres with K. and R.Miledi (163). In collaboration with O.Oscarsson, Eccles also studied the cells of origin of the ventral (196) and the dorsal (197) spinocerebellar tracts, a prelude to his later investigations of the cerebellar cortex.
In 1956-1957 Eccles, with R.M.Eccles and Lundberg, discovered that significant differences existed in both the axonal conduction velocity and the after-hyperpolarization (AHP) of motoneurones innervating slow- and fast-contracting muscles. The maximum firing frequency of a motoneurone was controlled by the duration of its AHP, and matched the contraction response of its motor unit (157). Subsequently, in 1958 with A.J.Buller and R.M.Eccles, neural influences from the spinal cord were found to affect the post-natal differentiation of slow but not fast muscles in the cat hind limb (182). The crossing and subsequent regeneration of nerves to fast and slow muscles changed their contraction properties, suggesting that specific substances secreted at motoneurone axon terminals both caused and maintained differences in the contractile properties of fast and slow muscles (183).
Because of his continuing interest in plasticity (see 158), Eccles searched with R.M.Eccles and F.Magni for changes in the monosynaptic connections of cat hind limb motoneurones after various regenerations of muscle afferent nerves in kittens (190). There was, however, relatively poor synaptic plasticity of spinal cord connections in mature cats (217).
In 1960 Eccles began a comprehensive study of the mechanism and organization of what came to be called 'presynaptic' inhibition in the spinal cord. K.Frank and M.G.F. Fuortes (1957) had reported that stimulation of a flexor muscle nerve depressed monosynaptic EPSPs of extensor muscle motoneurones without recordable changes in membrane potential or excitability. The prolonged inhibitory process could be due to either a presynaptic reduction of transmitter release, or a membrane conductance increase at distal dendritic sites (Frank 1959). Eccles was in a unique position to explore the nature and significance of this type of inhibition. He had, in 1948, with C.McC.Brooks and Malcolm, observed that presynaptic spikes and excitatory synaptic potentials recorded near spinal motoneurones were reduced by a prior inhibitory input. This reduction, considered at the time to be of little physiological significance, was attributed to depolarization of excitatory presynaptic fibres (88), later to be referred to as primary afferent depolarization, PAD. Additionally, with in 1958, Eccles had recorded dorsal root potentials (DRPs) intracellularly from intraspinal afferent fibres, and also prolonged EPSPs from dorsal horn interneurones possibly involved in the generation of DRPs (179).
Over the period 1961-1965, 29 full papers dealing with various aspects of presynaptic inhibition, 21 of which Eccles co-authored, were published in refereed journals from his department, and also 13 review articles and one book (245) in which presynaptic inhibition was featured. Eccles's collaborators in studies of this inhibition in the lumbar and cervical spinal cord and dorsal column nuclei were RM Eccles, Magni, Willis, WM Kozak, RF Schmidt, PG Kostyuk, P Andersen, TA Sears, T Oshima and T Yokota. The investigations were carried out on barbituate anaesthetised cats, often cooled to accentuate the inhibition and PAD. In addition to recording DRPs, DRRs and extra- and intra-cellular potentials from intraspinal primary afferent fibres and neurones, changes in the excitability of intraspinal afferent fibres indicating PAD were determined using the extracellular microstimulating technique developed by PD Wall (1958).
Prolonged depression of monosynaptic EPSPs (and of reflexes, 212) of extensor muscle motoneurones was produced by impulses in flexor muscle Group I afferent fibres without changes in motoneurone membrane potential, excitability or EPSP time course as would be expected from a membrane conductance increase. These results suggested that the depression of monosynaptic EPSPs and reflexes was entirely a presynaptic inhibitory phenomenon (193), and PAD became synonymous with presynaptic inhibition (203).
Presynaptic inhibition, hitherto not considered a significant factor influencing spinal reflex activity, provided a negative feed-back control of sensory information into the cord and supraspinal centres. Eccles's extensive investigations (see Schmidt 1971) dealt with the organization and mechanism of PAD in the spinal cord (202, 207, 210, 211, 212, 215, 231, 232) and dorsal column nuclei (248, 268, 269). Electrical stimulation of the sensorimotor cerebral cortex also produced PAD and reduced excitatory transmission from spinal (246) and cuneate (248) afferent fibres.
PAD was considered to be generated by an increase in the ion conductance of primary afferent fibre terminals, both this increase and the depolarisation reducing the amplitude of terminal action potentials and thus affecting transmitter release (228). Eccles had proposed in 1961 that PAD may be generated by the prolonged action of a chemical transmitter at synaptic contacts on terminal boutons of afferent fibres (195). Morphological evidence for such axo-axonic synapses upon boutons in the cat spinal cord was first reported by E.G.Gray (1962). The observation with Schmidt and Willis in 1961 that picrotoxin but not strychnine reduced both PAD and the presynaptic inhibition of spinal monosynaptic reflexes led to the proposal that 4-aminobutyric acid (GABA) was the depolarizing transmitter at these axo-axonic synapses (237).
With an early exception (3), Eccles had mainly examined synaptic mechanisms in, and the organization of, the spinal cord. From late 1961, however, he concentrated upon supraspinal regions, including the somatosensory system, the hippocampus and the cerebellum. This change in direction reflected his interests in cognitive functions, and was coupled with collaboration with a number of colleagues from abroad with similar interests, including Andersen, CMc Brooks, Schmidt, Sears, Oshima, Yokota, Y Løyning, PE Voorhoeve, R Llinás, K Sasaki, P Strata, DM Armstrong, RJ Harvey and PBC Matthews. Although the effects of stimulating the cerebral cortex on transmission in the spinal cord (246), dorsal column nuclei (248) and ventrobasal thalamus (271) were examined, Eccles never studied neurones and their interconnectivity in the neo-cortex itself.
After a study of synaptic transmission and inhibitory processes in the dorsal column nuclei (269), Eccles turned to the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus (271, 272) where two interesting observations were made: a prominent recurrent postsynaptic inhibition and large post-inhibitory 'rebound' depolarizing responses with superimposed bursts of action potentials. The pivotal role of this response, labelled by Eccles 'post-anodal exaltation' (see 222), in the rhythmic and synchronized activity of thalamic cells and of various types of cortical neurone was later confirmed by others.
Taking advantage of the laminar arrangement of hippocampal synapses, Eccles's group found in 1962 that the large and prolonged chloride-dependent IPSPs recorded from pyramidal cells were generated at the soma, suggesting that basket cells, with synaptic terminals clustered around the somata of pyramidal cells, were inhibitory interneurones (253,254). This discovery served as a guide for identifying other central inhibitory neurones and synapses (see 284). The subsequent finding that cerebellar basket cells inhibited Purkinje cells through synapses located on the soma (270) led to a hypothesis that postsynaptic inhibition is largely mediated by somatic synapses (230). Later, however, cerebellar stellate cells, which synapse upon medium-size Purkinje dendrites, were also found to be inhibitory (288). Inhibition of hippocampal pyramidal cells, cerebellar Purkinje cells and ventrobasal thalamo-cortical relay cells were all found to be insensitive to strychnine (239).
Eccles's last period of experimental neuroscience, concerned with the synaptic organization and mode of operation of the cerebellum, began in Canberra in 1963 and continued in Chicago and Buffalo until his retirement from direct involvement in laboratory experimentation in 1975. In large measure due to him and his colleagues Janos Szentágothai in Budapest and Masao Ito in Tokyo, a comprehensive view of the cellular organization of the mammalian cerebellar cortex became available in the late 1960s, summarized in the influential monograph, The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine (317), published in 1967. It will be convenient here to give an account of Eccles's cerebellar research carried out in Canberra, Chicago and Buffalo.
In a remarkable series of letters to Nature, and subsequent detailed publications, Eccles and his collaborators described the essential properties of all major types of cerebellar neurone. Each cell type was categorized and its synaptic effect on target cells determined. Somewhat surprisingly, only the granule cells were excitatory while all other neurones were inhibitory. While Ito and his colleagues had shown that Purkinje cells monosynaptically inhibited neurones in the intracerebellar and vestibular nuclei, Eccles found that basket, stellate and Golgi cells were also inhibitory. In a series of papers inaugurating the new journal, Experimental Brain Research, for which Eccles was a founding co-editor, he observed that all of these different inhibitory interneurones had similar functional properties and could only be distinguished by their location in the cerebellar cortex (288-290).
The large inhibitory postsynaptic potentials of Purkinje cells were attributed to the activity of basket cells, terminating on Purkinje cell somata (233, 270), similar to the situation in the hippocampus. Comparing basket and Golgi cell inhibition, the latter was more focussed (0.2mm on either side of the cerebellar folia) and faster than basket cell inhibition which could spread as far as 1mm to either side (292, 312). Basket and Golgi interneurones had roughly the same threshold to parallel fibre activation. Golgi cell inhibition, however, had the lowest threshold to mossy fibre stimulation, largely due to the effective mossy fibre/Golgi cell synapses. Powerful climbing fibre excitation of Purkinje cells was elicited by stimulation of the contralateral inferior olive (255). Eccles stressed the one-to-one connectivity between one climbing fibre and a given Purkinje cell (291). Climbing fibre responses could be evoked by peripheral nerve stimulation and also occurred spontaneously.
Eccles discovered a major organizational principle by activating a thin strip of parallel fibres (288). With an ingenious de-afferented preparation, an excited strip of Purkinje cells was flanked on either side by a band of inhibition mediated by basket and stellate cells. The discovery of this arrangement became a hallmark of cerebellar cortical activation. Transmission through the mossy fibre-granule cell glomeruli was also analysed (311). Mossy fibre stimulation efficiently activated granule cells which in turn excited Purkinje cells and the three types of inhibitory neurones mentioned above (290, 316). The activity of granule cells was strongly depressed by parallel fibre activation, most likely through parallel fibre activation of Golgi cells which in turn had an inhibitory effect on granule cells. This first comprehensive analysis disclosed the mode of operation of the main cellular elements of the cerebellar cortex (311, 317, 318).
An important part of Eccles's cerebellar studies was to dissect the extra- and intra-cellular potentials recorded in the cerebellar cortex in response to activation of known afferent pathways, including the topography of the activation pattern. Using his wide experience from spinal cord work, Eccles activated specific afferent fibres from muscle, joint and skin, charting surface and depth potentials, and determined whether the afferent signals were mediated by climbing or mossy fibre inputs (335). The afferent inputs to the cerebellum showed a notable somatotopical organization, although much more widely distributed than in the somatosensory thalamo-cortical system (390). The connectivity showed a remarkable mosaic pattern and a large variation in the response sizes from different afferent nerves. A cluster of papers discuss how natural activation, like taps to the foot, produced purely excitatory responses from many mossy fibres, very similar to those elicited by electrical stimulation of the nerves (386, 387). The Purkinje cells, surprisingly, were most readily excited by impulses in cutaneous fibres, and particularly in low threshold fibres. The responses to mechanical stimulation of the skin produced by climbing fibre inputs were analysed by depressing the mossy fibre contribution with pentothal anaesthesia (384, 385). Eccles also studied the activation of intracerebellar and associated nuclei by afferent impulses in peripheral nerves. Again, impulses in cutaneous nerves of all four limbs were particularly effective (374, 382, 384, 401, 403).
Eccles was awarded a Royal Medal in 1962, and the award in 1963 of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with AL Hodgkin and AF Huxley, recognized his fundamental contributions to the ionic mechanisms of synaptic transmission in the brain. His 1964 monograph The Physiology of Synapses (245) surveyed research carried out since 1951, in his and other laboratories, on excitatory and inhibitory synapses. In the preface he acknowledged the influence on his writings of three great scientists: Ramon y Cajal, Sherrington and Dale.
Faced with retirement as Head of the Department of Physiology in 1968 at the age of 65, Eccles became concerned that the research facilities, personnel and financial support that would then be available would severely limit continuation of his research. In the absence of assured funding to support collaborators, he did not regard as acceptable a three-year appointment as a University Fellow together with his own equipment in a new laboratory in the John Curtin School. Consequently, in 1966, he resigned from the Chair of Physiology, which he had occupied since 1951, to take up an appointment as a member of the Institute of Biomedical Research, recently established by the American Medical Association in Chicago. An important factor in Eccles's decision to leave Australia was his feeling of intellectual isolation, especially in relation to his increasing interests in philosophy and the mind-brain interaction.
Eccles described his period in Chicago (1966-1968) as 'the briefest, the least successful, and the most unhappy (stage) of my research career' (441, p.15). Although he established a research laboratory and continued his study of the cerebellar cortex, his understanding that adequate financial support would continue after the age of 68 failed to materialize, and problems within his group apparently created considerable dissension. Accordingly, he accepted an invitation from the State University of New York at Buffalo to establish a research unit as a Distinguished Professor of Physiology and Biophysics. His laboratories were located in temporary buildings some distance from the main university, and he described his research facilities as the best he had ever had although on a smaller scale than in Canberra (441).
In the United States, from 1966 until he retired at the end of 1975, Eccles had 20 collaborators from 11 countries including the USA, and co-authored 43 papers reporting experimental results with the following (in alphabetical order) G.I.Allen, D.S.Faber, S.T.Kitai, H.Korn, J.T.Murphy, R.A.Nicoll, L.Provini, T.Rantucci, I.Rosén, F.J.Rubia, N.H.Sabah, P.Scheid, D.W.F.Schwarz, T.Shimono, H., N.Tsukahara and T.J.Willey, and also Strata, Schmidt and Oshima who had worked with him in Canberra. Their cerebellar research has been described above, and was an important component of the very large amount of new and detailed information, including the discovery of several governing principles and cellular mechanisms, that Eccles contributed to the understanding of the cerebellum and its associated structures.
In Buffalo Eccles revisited hippocampal inhibition, the subject of his three last experimental papers. He and his colleagues reported that barbiturates prolonged postsynaptic potentials (427). He also studied the anionic permeability underlying hippocampal IPSPs, by polarization of the membrane and anion injection. The permeant anions were identical to those reported in motoneurones (444). The observations hinted at the dichotomy of hippocampal IPSPs, an early GABA-A part and a later GABA-B part, as later demonstrated by one of Eccles's coworkers on this paper, R. A. Nicoll. The Eccles group found no evidence for an outwardly directed chloride pump and concluded that an inward chloride current is the likely source for the hippocampal IPSPs (445). This was the last experimental paper from John Eccles's hand.
In 1975, Eccles voluntarily retired and moved to Contra in the Swiss canton Ticino, in what he described as 'idyllic mountain surroundings' (441), to dedicate himself to work on the mind-brain problem. From here he travelled extensively, attending scientific meetings, lecturing in continental Europe, the UK, Japan and North America, and playing a prominent role in the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War organization. He had visiting appointments at the University of Basle, the Max-Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen and the Max-Planck Institute for Brain Research in Frankfurt. With his books, journals and reprint collection he was able to continue his academic life, completing scientific papers and writing numerous influential reviews and books, alone and in collaboration. A particularly important concept introduced in 1978 by Eccles and PL McGeer was the recognition of two general types of the postsynaptic action of transmitters: 'ionotropic', in which the transmitter increases postsynaptic membrane conductance by directly opening ion gates, and 'metabotropic', in which the transmitter acts indirectly through intracellular metabolic reactions (465, 475).
The mind-brain problem, however, was the topic which by far occupied most of Eccles's time in the period between 1975 and his death. He wrote extensively on the subject, sought new views and explanations, and discussed the issue at numerous conferences and meetings. His final book, How the Self Controls its Brain, was published in 1994 (567).
The mind-brain problem: Philosophical considerations
Eccles recounted how, when 18 years old, he was struck by an awesome feeling of uniqueness (450, p.357). He marvelled at his own brain and its capacity for thoughts and emotions, and started a life-long search for the explanation of human achievements. Without further details, he gave this special experience as the cause for 'spending his life in the neural sciences with some continuing involvement in philosophy'. Throughout his adult life he was a declared dualist, and searched relentlessly for mechanisms by which the mind controls the body. In fact, no fewer than 18per cent of his 568 publications dealt with this issue.
Although not explicitly stated, his family's religious belief must have been important. A second reason was his own scientific curiosity and wide reading. A third, strong influence came from his mentor Sir Charles Sherrington, in particular his book Man on his Nature (1940). A final driving force may have been his scepticism towards materialism. In a letter enclosed with complimentary copies of his last book (567), Eccles wrote about scientific materialism: 'A most important program for this book is to challenge this materialism and to reinstate the spiritual self as the controller of the brain.'
Although Eccles was 'a believer in God and the supernatural' (450, p.VIII), his approach to the mind-brain problem was neither purely religious nor philosophical, but largely neurobiological with a Cartesian influence. In this respect, MacKay (1987) remarks: 'Though they [Eccles and Popper] differ in important respects from that of Descartes, they agree with him that "the brain must be open to non-physical influences if mental activity is to be effective" '. In a letter to us, BIB Lindahl (1999) concurs: 'One could say that he was a follower of Descartes. Like Descartes, Eccles's point of departure in the mind-brain field was partly religious, partly scientific, but in practice Eccles's approach was, as I see it, primarily scientific.'
Eccles first discussed mind-brain interactions in relation to voluntary actions and used the term will for the mental force he saw as the initiator (111). Later, he used mind and, later again, the term self-conscious mind. In his book The Human Psyche (482, p.2) he defined the term self-conscious mind: 'it implies knowing that one knows'. He continues: 'One can also use the term self-awareness instead of self-consciousness, but I prefer self-consciousness because it related directly to the self-conscious mind'.
Eccles searched for answers to a set of essential questions:
- how can Man's enormous capacity for thinking, memory, and emotional feeling and expression be explained?
- how can the 'Will' have such a strong and precise effect on our skeletal muscles during voluntary movement?
- since our intentions ('Will') appear so strong, can they lead to a change of brain substrates, both structurally and functionally?
- can a mind-brain interaction be localized to certain, selected parts of the brain, or even to specific cells or synapses?
- which physiological, chemical and physical processes are associated with the mind-brain interaction?
His intention was to develop testable propositions in relation to these questions. In The Self and Its Brain (450, p.355) he summarized his views on the mind-brain interaction: 'It is a very strong dualism and raises the most severe scientific problems in relationship to the interface between the world of matter-energy, in the special instance of the liaison area of the brain, and the world of states of consciousness that is referred to as the self-conscious mind. Briefly, the hypothesis states that the self-conscious mind is an independent entity that actively engages in the reading out from a multitude of active centres in the modules of the liaison areas of the dominant cerebral hemisphere.'
Eccles maintained that conscious experience is provided by the self-conscious mind by itself, and not by the neural machinery of the brain with its excitatory and inhibitory synaptic interactions (450, p.362). He further proposed that the mind-brain liaison has traffic in both directions, from the brain to the mind in perception and from mind to brain in willed action (111, p.281). His term liaison brain included all those areas of the cerebral cortex that are potentially capable of being in direct liaison with the self-conscious mind, and he located this liaison brain in the cerebral cortex of the dominant hemisphere, but only in those areas which have linguistic and ideational performance. Further, he felt that a small part, maybe less than a tenth of the cortex, in the right state of activity would be enough to give an effective mind-brain liaison (111, p.283). To illustrate the mind-brain interaction in the liaison areas, Eccles used an analogy: 'a multiple scanning and probing device that reads out from and selects from the immense and diverse patterns of activity in the cerebral cortex and integrates these selected components, so organizing them into the unity of conscious experience' (450, p.363). The language Eccles used here is similar to that used by a neuroscientist to explain neuronal interaction in an activated cortical area. He stated, however, that the self-conscious mind is not identical to some physical part of the cerebral cortex like cells or synapses.
He proposed that 'the self-conscious mind exercises a superior interpretative and controlling role upon the neural events by virtue of a two-way interaction across the interface between World1 and World2' (450, p.355), using Popper's nomenclature: World 1, the world of physical objects, and World2, the world of subjective experiences. As to possible mechanisms, he proposed: 'An attempt is made to show how the operative features of modules of the cerebral cortex can result in properties of such subtlety that they could be recipients of the weak action that are postulated to be exerted by the self-conscious mind across the interface. These actions are evident by voluntary movements as described in chapter E3 and also by the recall of memories on demand by the cognitive processes, as described in Chapter E8.' (450, p.356)
In the second-last chapter of How the Self Controls its Brain (567), and in (556), Eccles and Friedrich Beck postulated that the self-conscious mind interacts with the brain on aggregations of cortical pyramidal cell dendrites, forming structures named dendrons, and further that the self-conscious mind acts by reciprocally linking each unit of mental experience, labelled a psychon, to its specific dendron. The action of psychons was considered to involve an enhancement of the release probability of transmitter vesicles at excitatory dendritic synapses, an interaction they regarded as consistent with the laws of quantum physics.
Eccles was strongly influenced by Popper's philosophy, stemming from their contact in New Zealand in 1945. In the chemical/electrical controversy about synaptic transmission, Eccles took Popper's advice, wrote several reviews summarizing the evidence and concluded that the process was electrical (75,92). Ironically, he subsequently, in 1951, came to the opposite conclusion based upon his own intracellular recordings from spinal motoneurones. Conversely, Eccles also deeply influenced Popper. In a Festschrift article to Eccles, Popper described their first encounter as creating immediate and reciprocal sympathy, and how their common interest in the mind-brain problem made them write a book together (450), about which Popper testified: 'It became an important event in both our lives' (Creutzfeldt et al. 1984). In fact, it was Eccles who made Popper change his initial formulation to the terms World1, 2 and 3 (450, p.38). Their co-authored book The Self and its Brain (450) is by far the most cited of all Eccles's philosophical contributions.
Eccles's views on the mind-brain relationship have not been accepted by a large section of the neuroscientific community. Many opponents regarded his formulation of hypotheses as too imprecise or as untestable, and some colleagues interpreted some of the underlying experiemental observations differently from Eccles. His claim that perception is an effect of the conscious mind leaves most neuroscientists with the impression that 'the conscious mind' describes a neural entity: many do not accept that there is a distinction between the conscious mind and the activity of neurones on which it plays. There are, however, arguments in favour of Eccles's belief that mental states can influence the activity of neurones. Whatever the judgement of posterity between these two positions, Eccles deserves much credit for bringing into the open the relation between mind and brain, and for putting forward hypotheses about it which he hoped and believed would be testable.
In spite of the criticisms of his mind-brain views, there can be no doubt that he used his vast knowledge and imagination to foster real understanding. In grappling with the mind-brain problems he showed the same broad knowledge displayed in his experimental activities. He covered aspects as wide apart as conscious perception, voluntary movement, language centres, effects of brain lesions and memory functions. From this wide perspective he extracted principles of importance for his philosophical ideas. In these efforts he combined his vast knowledge with skills as a writer and lecturer.
As an individual, John Eccles combined a remarkable talent with the strong motivation and stamina necessary for an outstanding scientific career. His energy was nearly overwhelming, as was his appetite for new knowledge, particularly of the brain and its mode of operation. He was actively involved in laboratory-based research from 1927 until 1975, and was closely associated with numerous scientific collaborators and with neuroscientists in other laboratories world-wide. Eccles was indeed fortunate in being able to develop his experimental expertise during the last years of the Sherrington 'School' in Oxford, using electrophysiological stimulating and recording equipment that would now be regarded as relatively crude, and to have the opportunity to hone his skills during the next forty years of increasing technical sophistication resulting from the introduction of thermionic 'valves', cathode ray tubes, glass microelectrodes, transistors, integrated circuits and computers. In Sydney he attracted investigators of the stature of Katz and Kuffler, and later he established contact with Popper in New Zealand. Furthermore, after the pioneering achievement of recording intracellularly from motoneurones in vivo, the unrivalled opportunities and facilities provided in Canberra, including academic positions for many distinguished investigators, enabled him to exploit his new-found support of central chemical neurotransmission at both a synaptic and an organizational level, the latter interest continuing in the United States.
The following remarks apply particularly to Eccles's time in Canberra, with which we are both most familiar (D.R.C., 1954-1966; P.A., 1961-1963), and to our later encounters at meetings abroad. Colleagues from the Buffalo period confirm that the same congenial atmosphere also characterized Eccles's laboratory there. Much of his success depended on an exceptional ability to create productive research teams that were usually a blend of experienced investigators and new recruits. Often he undertook projects of interest to new arrivals in the laboratory, while some of his visitors worked on their own projects. Eccles was a prolific writer, his bibliography listing 568 items, including nineteen books of which he was the sole author of twelve. His name on a publication invariably indicated his personal participation in all aspects of the investigation. His infectious enthusiasm over a new or unexpected finding, his extensive knowledge of virtually all experimental neurophysiology, which he gladly shared, and, above all, his ideas for further experimentation were both instructive and formative for his younger colleagues. With the passage of time, the term 'Prof', used by his younger colleagues to combine respect with admiration and friendship, was replaced by 'Jack'.
As a team leader Eccles was demanding, every member of the team being expected to contribute fully in a co-operative fashion. His ambition was that his groups should make solid and substantial progress. He did, however, welcome opposition provided that the evidence for an alternative view was sound or at least reasoned. Most major investigations involved at least two long experiments each week, beginning very early in the morning and often lasting for 16-20 hours, occasionally longer and extending well into the following day. He regularly participated in the animal preparation, and took considerable pride in his anatomical knowledge and surgical expertise. He also ensured that the technical equipment available for experimentation was the best available, and insisted on having first-class electronic and mechanical workshop personnel and facilities within his own department.
A particular event appreciated by his collaborators in Canberra was a late 'tea-break' in his study, usually around 11pm. This provided an opportunity for relaxed discussion, in which he provided glimpses of his scientific life including his travels to conferences abroad, his mentors, other scientists and previous colleagues. Eccles's comments were always honest, albeit at times quite terse. Those who had made significant discoveries or other progress were, however, unreservedly praised, including his strongest competitors. Interwoven in these reminiscences was advice, including the need to remember the importance of experimental design: 'Put yourself in control of the experiment, do not let the findings run away with you!' His own experiments were always carefully planned and executed, but there was always sufficient flexibility to exploit an unexpected finding.
The mixture of scientific ambition and stimulation from Eccles as leader, coupled with the satisfaction of making interesting and significant new contributions, provided his collaborators with an experience never to be forgotten. Most established life-long friendships with Eccles and each other, as did their families, and many have made their own impact on neuroscience. To commemorate Eccles's Nobel award, 48 of his colleagues contributed brief papers to a book, Studies in Physiology, presented to John C. Eccles (Curtis and McIntyre 1965). In 1983, over 200 colleagues met in the Max-Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen to celebrate Eccles's 80th birthday, of whom 52 contributed to the commemorative volume, Sensory-Motor Integration in the Nervous System (Creutzfeldt et al. 1984). In May 1993 a similarly large number of his former colleagues and associates contributed to a Scientific Symposium held at the Max-Planck Institute of Brain Research in Frankfurt to honour Eccles's 90th birthday. Eccles gained considerable personal satisfaction from the award of a knighthood in 1958 when he was President of the Australian Academy of Science, and later, in 1990, from being appointed a Companion in the Order of Australia.
John Eccles married Irene Francis Miller, whom he had met in Melbourne, on 3July 1928 in Oxford. They had five daughters and four sons, of whom their eldest daughter, Rosamond Margaret, became a neurophysiologist. She spent three years in Cambridge from 1951 as an ANU PhD scholar and subsequently was a very productive member of her father's department in Canberra from 1955 until her resignation in 1966.
In Sydney the family lived in Mosman, a short ferry trip across the harbour from the Circular Quay terminal which was close to the Sydney Hospital. Following the move to Dunedin, they also lived relatively close to the university. The acquisition in Canberra of almost a hectare of land enabled Eccles to establish an orchard and vegetable garden that were the envy of his colleagues, apart from the area of lawn which required frequent mowing. In Canberra, as earlier in Sydney and in Dunedin, he and his wife were gracious hosts, particularly at weekend tennis parties on the family court and at regular country dancing sessions for members of his staff, research students, visitors and their families. Eccles was an enthusiastic participant in both forms of exercise.
When Eccles decided to move to Chicago in 1966, his wife preferred to remain in Australia close to her family, and their marriage was dissolved in 1968. In April of that year he married Helena , a neurophysiologist who collaborated closely with him from 1966 until he ceased experimentation in 1975, after which they moved to Switzerland. Here, in a majestic mountainous landscape, Eccles concentrated on the mind-brain problem. In spite of his considerable age, he continued writing on this and related themes (for example 452, 456, 464, 467, 482, 492, 509, 515, 528, 529, 531, 535, 548, 549, 555, 556, 567). A long series of books, articles, reviews, comments, book reviews, and obituaries flowed from his hands, all hand-written, until well beyond his 90th year. In all of this activity, he was efficiently and caringly assisted by his wife Helena. Eccles's activities, however, were severely curtailed by ill health from 1994, and he died on 2May 1997 in the Hospital La Carita in Locarno. He was buried on 3May 1997, following his own wish, in Contra.
From 1951, Eccles was one of 23 distinguished Australian scientists, including 14 Fellows of the Royal Society of London, whose successful petitioning of the Queen led to the granting of the Charter of the Australian Academy of Science on 16February 1954 (441, see Fenner 1995). He was a member of the Provisional Council in 1953, and of the first Council of the Academy from 1954 until 1957 under the Presidency of the physicist M.L.Oliphant, and was himself President from 1957 until 1961. During his Presidency the Academy's distinctive 'dome' building (Becker House, now the Shine Dome) was constructed and opened in May 1959. Major activities of the Academy in which he was involved as President included the beginnings of the Anglo-Australian Telescope Project, the establishment of a Fauna and Flora Committee to advise on major research projects in the biological sciences, a report proposing preservation of the Kosciuszko summit area as a primitive reserve, recommendations to the Prime Minister concerning science and technology, and recommendations to the Government of a policy on oceanography. In 1963 he delivered the Academy's Matthew Flinders Lecture, established to be given as a mark of distinction by scientists of the highest standing (235).
University of Melbourne, MB, BS (1925); Oxford University, BA (1927), MA, DPhil (1929).
1925-1928 Rhodes Scholar, Oxford.
1927-1929 Christopher Welch Scholar, Oxford.
1927-1932 Junior Research Fellow, Exeter College, Oxford.
1932-1934 Staines Medical Fellow, Exeter College, Oxford.
1934-1937 Tutorial Fellow, Magdalen College, Oxford; University Lecturer in Physiology, Oxford.
1937-1943 Director, Kanematsu Memorial Institute of Pathology, Sydney Hospital, Sydney.
1944-1951 Professor of Physiology, University of Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand.
1951-1966 Professor of Physiology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra.
1966-1968 Member, Institute for Biomedical Research, American Medical Association, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
1968-1975 Distinguished Professor of Physiology and Biophysics, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA.
1975-1997 Distinguished Professor Emeritus, State University of New York at Buffalo, New York, USA.
1958 Knight Bachelor. 1987 Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Stars (Japan). 1990 Companion in the Order of Australia.
Membership of learned academies and professional bodies
1928 Member, The Physiological Society, U.K.
1938 Foundation Fellow, Royal Australasian College of Physicians.
1941 Fellow, The Royal Society, London.
1950 Fellow, Royal Society of New Zealand.
1952 Honorary Member, The American Physiological Society.
1954 Foundation Fellow, Australian Academy of Science; President, 1957-1961.
1957 Honorary Member, Neurosurgical Society of Australasia.
1958 Honorary Member, Australian Association of Neurologists.
1959 Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1960 Foundation Member, Australian Physiological Society.
1961 Member, Pontifical Academy of Science.
Member, Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina.
1963 Foreign Honorary Member, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
1964 Honorary Member, American Philosophical Society.
Honorary Member, American Neurological Society.
Honorary Member, Australian Physiological Society.
Honorary Member, Société Française de Neurologie.
1965 Member, World Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Honorary Member, New York Academy of Sciences.
1966 Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Sciences.
1967 Honorary Member, Academia Medica Lombarda.
Honorary Fellow, American College of Physicians.
1968 Honorary Fellow, Indian Academy of Sciences.
Honorary Member, Czechoslovak Medical Society J.E. Purkyně
1969 Associate Member, Académie Royale de Belgique.
1971 Honorary Member, The Physiological Society, U.K.
1976 Honorary Member, European Brain and Behaviour Society.
1977 Honorary Member, European Neuroscience Association.
1982 Honorary Member, Society for Neuroscience.
1983 Honorary Member, Japanese Physiological Society.
1984 Honorary Member, Indian Physiological Society.
Honorary Member, Australian Neuroscience Society.
1985 Member, Bavarian Academy of Sciences.
1986 Member, Academia Europoea.
Honorary degrees
Doctor of Science: Cambridge, Tasmania, British Columbia, Marquette, Loyola, Oxford, Fribourg and Yeshiva Universities, Gustavus Adolphus College.
Doctor of Medicine: Charles, Torino, Madrid, Ulm, Basel, Georgetown and Tsukuba Universities.
Doctor of Laws: Melbourne University
1925 Rhodes Scholarship, Victoria.
1927 Gotch Memorial Prize, Oxford.
1932 Rolleston Prize, Oxford.
1961 Baly Medal, Royal College of Physicians.
1962 Royal Medal, Royal Society of London. Cook Medal, Royal Society of New South Wales.
1963 Cothenius Medal, Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Australian of the Year.
1991 Cortina-Ulisse Literary Prize.
1993 Gold Medal of the Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic (first since 1348).
International lectureships
1952 Waynflete Lecturer, Magdalen College.
1955 Herter Lecturer, Johns Hopkins University.
1959 Ferrier Lecturer, The Royal Society. (delivered June 1960).
Squibb Centenary Lecturer.
1963 Flinders Lecturer, Australian Academy of Science.
Rennie Lecturer, Royal Australasian College of Physicians.
1965 Eddington Memorial Lecturer, University of Cambridge.
Boyer Lectures, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
William G. Lennox Memorial Lecturer.
1966 Sherrington Lecturer, University of Liverpool.
1968 Alexander Forbes Lecturer, Grass Foundation.
1968 Dunning Trust Lecturer, Queen's University, Kingston,Ontario.
1969 Foerster Lecturer, University of California at Berkeley.
1972 Patten Memorial Lecturer, Indiana University.
1973 Compton Lecturer, Washington University, St.Louis.
1973 Phi Beta Kappa Lecturer, U.S.A.
1976 Pahlavi Lecturer, Iran.
1977 Phi Beta Kappa Lecturer, U.S.A.
Botazzi Lecturer, Società Italiana di Fisiologia.
1978 Gifford Lecturer, University of Edinburgh.
1979 Gifford Lecturer, University of Edinburgh.
1980 Lecturer of 'Werner Heisenberg Vorlesungen', Carl Friedrich von Siemens Stiftung, Munich.
1981 Carroll Lecturer, Georgetown University.
Lecturer, '100-Jahr-Feier Walter Rudolph Hess', Zurich.
1990 Idrios Lecture, Oxford.
Other marks of recognition
1960 Member, Research Advisory Committee, CSIRO.
1961 Honorary Fellow, Exeter College, Oxford.
1961 Kempner Visiting Professor, University of Texas Medical School.
1964 Honorary Fellow, Magdalen College, Oxford.
1966 Visiting Professor, University of California, Davis.
1967 Distinguished Visiting Professor, University of British Columbia.
1978 Visiting Professor, Department of Biology, New York University.
1979 Green Visiting Professor, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
1991 Eccles Fellowships established by Australian NHMRC.
1992 Eccles Lectureship established in Canberra.
1995 Eccles PhD Scholarships established in JCSMR.
1997 ANU Medical Library in the JCSMR named the Eccles Medical Sciences Library.
1998 The John Eccles Neuroscience Laboratory opened in JCSMR.
1999 Postgraduate courses at Ettore Majorana Foundation and the Centre for Scientific Culture, Erice, Sicily, Italy, named Sir John Eccles School of Neurophysiology and Neurology.
We are indebted to John Eccles's daughters, Dr Rosamond Mason and Mrs Mary Mennis, and to Mrs G.Mathur (Librarian, Eccles Medical Sciences Library, JCSMR), Professors F.Beck, F. Jackson, B. Libet, B.I.B. Lindahl, R.Nicoll, S.J.Redman, R.F.Schmidt and P.Strata for their assistance in the preparation of the memoir, and thank Lady (Helena) Eccles for her comments on a draft text.
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1 (with R.S. Creed) The incidence of central inhibition on restricted fields of motor units. J.Physiol. 6,109-120.
2 (with R. Granit) Crossed extensor reflexes and their interaction. J.Physiol. 67, 97-118.
3 (with D. Denny-Brown & E.G.T. Liddell) Observations on electrical stimulation of the cerebellar cortex. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 104, 518-536.
4 (with C.S. Sherrington) Improved bearing for the torsion myograph. J.Physiol. 69, i.
5 (with S. Cooper) Isometric muscle twitch. J.Physiol. 69, iii.
6 (with C.S. Sherrington) Reflex summation in the ipsilateral spinal flexion reflex. J.Physiol. 69, 1-28.
7 (with C.S. Sherrington) Numbers and contraction values of individual motor units examined in some muscles of the limb. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 106, 326-357.
8 (with S. Cooper) The isometric responses of mammalian muscles. J.Physiol. 69, 377-385.
9 (with C.S. Sherrington) Flexor reflex responses to successive afferent volleys. J.Physiol. 70, xxv.
10 (with C.S. Sherrington) Studies on the flexor reflex. I.Latent period. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 107, 511-534.
11 (with C.S. Sherrington) Studies on the flexor reflex. II.The reflex evoked by two afferent volleys. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 107, 535-556.
12 Studies on the flexor reflex. III.The central effects produced by an antidromic volley. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 107, 557-585.
13 (with C.S. Sherrington) Studies on the flexor reflex. IV. After-discharge. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 107, 586-596.
14 (with C.S. Sherrington) Studies on the flexor reflex. V. General conclusions. Proc. R.Soc.Lond.B 107, 597-605.
15 (with H.E. Hoff) Rhythmic responses of motoneurones. J.Physiol. 71, xxi.
16 (with H.E. Hoff) Stimulation of the mammalian heart. J.Physiol. 72, 31P.
17 (with C.S. Sherrington) Studies on the flexor reflex. VI. Inhibition. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 109, 91-113.
18 (with H.E. Hoff) The rhythmic discharge of motoneurones. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 110, 483-514.
19 (with G.L. Brown & H.E. Hoff) The action of the vagus on the nodal rhythm of the mammalian heart. J.Physiol. 75, 9P.
20 (with R. Granit & J.Z. Young) Impulses in the giant nerve fibres of earthworms. J.Physiol. 77, 23P.
21 (with R.S. Creed, D.E. Denny-Brown, E.G.T. Liddell & C.S. Sherrington) Reflex activity of the spinal cord. London: Oxford University Press.
22 Action potentials from the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 80, 23P.
23 The effects of eserine and atropine on the vagal slowing of the heart. J.Physiol. 80, 25P.
24 Synaptic transmission through a sympathetic ganglion. J.Physiol. 81, 8P.
25 (with H.E. Hoff) The rhythm of the heart beat. I. Location, action potential and electrical excitability of the pacemaker. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 115, 307-327.
26 (with H.E. Hoff) The rhythm of the heart beat. II. Disturbance of rhythm produced by late premature beats. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 115, 327-351.
27 (with H.E. Hoff) The rhythm of the heart beat. III. Disturbance of rhythm by early premature beats. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 115, 352-368.
28 Inhibition in the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 82, 25P.
29 (with G.L. Brown) The action of a single vagal volley on the rhythm of the heart beat. J.Physiol. 211-241.
30 (with G.L.Brown) Further experiments on vagal inhibition of the heart. J.Physiol. 82, 242-257.
31 (with J.H.C. Thompson) An investigation on the visco-elastic properties of rubber. Proc.R.Soc. Lond.A 148, 171-185.
32 After-discharge from superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 84, 50P.
33 Actions of antidromic impulses on ganglion cells. J.Physiol. 85, 32P.
34 The action potential of the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 85, 179-206.
35 Facilitation and inhibition in the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 85, 207-238.
36 Slow potential waves in the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 85, 464-501.
37 (with J.W. Magladery) The action potential of smooth muscle. J.Physiol. 86, 57P.
38 The action of preganglionic impulses on ganglion cells. J.Physiol. 87, 81P.
39 (with J.W. Magladery) Pharmacological investigations on smooth muscle. J.Physiol. 87, 87P.
40 The actions of antidromic impulses on ganglion cells. J.Physiol. 88, 1-39.
41 Synaptic and neuro-muscular transmission. Ergebn.Physiol. 38, 339-444.
42 Potentials from the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 89, 41-43P.
43 (with J.J. Pritchard)Action potential of motoneurones. J.Physiol. 89, 43-45P.
44 (with J.W. Magladery) Responses of denervated smooth muscle. J.Physiol. 89, 45-46P.
45 (with J.W. Magladery) The excitation and response of smooth muscle. J.Physiol. 90, 31-67.
46 (with J.W. Magladery) Rhythmic responses of smooth muscle. J.Physiol. 90, 68-99.
47 Premature beats and the heart rhythm. J.Physiol. 90, 11-13P.
48 (with G.L. Brown) Vagal inhibition of the cardiac pacemaker. J.Physiol. 90, 14-15P.
49 The responses which nerve impulses evoke in nerve and muscle cells. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 123, 412-414P.
50 Synaptic and neuro-muscular transmission. Physiol. Rev. 17, 538-555.
51 The discharge of impulses from ganglion cells. J.Physiol. 91, 1-22.
52 Anticholinesterases and the rate of decay of the synaptic transmitter in the superior cervical ganglion. J.Physiol. 94, 6-7P.
53 (with W.J. O'Connor) Responses evoked by a nerve volley in mammalian striated muscle. J.Physiol. 94, 7-9P
54 (with W.J. O'Connor) Action potentials evoked by indirect stimulation of curarized muscle. J.Physiol. 94, 9-11P.
55 The spinal cord and reflex action. A.Rev.Physiol. 1, 363-384.
56 (with W.J. O'Connor) Excitatory actions at neuromuscular junction. J.Physiol. 95, 32-33P.
57 (with W.J. O'Connor) 'Inhibitory' actions at neuromuscular junction. J.Physiol. 95, 34-36P.
58 (with W.J. O'Connor) Action of eserine on striated muscle. J.Physiol. 95, 36-38P.
59 (with W.J. O'Connor) Responses which nerve impulses evoke in mammalian striated muscle. J.Physiol. 97, 44-102.
60 (with B.Katz & S.W.Kuffler) Electric potential changes accompanying neuro-muscular transmission. Biol.Sympos. 3, 349-370.
61 Changes in muscle produced by nerve degeneration. Med.J.Aust. 1, 573-575.
62 Disuse atrophy of skeletal muscle. Med.J.Aust. 2, 160-164.
63 Physical problems in neurology. Aust.J.Sci. 4, 4-8.
64 (with B. Katz & S.W. Kuffler) Nature of the 'endplate potential' in curarized muscle. J.Neurophysiol. 4, 362-387.
65 (with S.W. Kuffler) Initiation of muscle impulses at neuromuscular junction. J.Neurophysiol. 4, 402-417.
66 (with S.W. Kuffler) The endplate potential during and after the muscle spike potential. J.Neurophysiol. 4, 486-506.
67 (with W.J. O'Connor) Abortive impulses at the neuro-muscular junction. J.Physiol. 100, 318-328.
68 (with B.Katz & S.W.Kuffler) Effect of eserine on neuro-muscular transmission. J.Neurophysiol. 5, 211-230.
69 Synaptic potentials and transmission in sympathetic ganglion. J.Physiol. 101, 465-483.
70 (with A.J. Flynn) Experimental photoretinitis. Med.J.Aust. 1, 339-342.
71 The nature of synaptic transmission in a sympathetic ganglion. J.Physiol. 103, 27-53.
72 Synaptic transmission in the spinal cord. Nature 153, 432.
73 Catelectronic potentials in the dorsal roots of the spinal cord. Nature 154, 395-396.
74 Investigations of muscle atrophies arising from disuse and tenotomy. J.Physiol. 103, 253-266.
75 An electrical hypothesis of synaptic and neuromuscular transmission. Nature 156, 680-682.
76 Synaptic potentials of motoneurones. J.Neurophysiol. 9, 87-120.
77 (with J.L. Malcolm) Dorsal root potentials of the spinal cord. J.Neurophysiol. 9, 139-160.
78 An electrical hypothesis of synaptic and neuromuscular transmission. Ann.N.Y.Acad.Sci. 47, 429-455.
79 Man and freedom. Twentieth Century 2, No 2, 5-23.
80 Acetylcholine and synaptic transmission in the spinal cord. J.Neurophysiol. 10, 197-204.
81 (with C.McC. Brooks) An electrical hypothesis of central inhibition. Nature 159, 760-764.
82 (with C.McC. Brooks) Electrical investigation of the monosynaptic pathway through the spinal cord. J.Neurophysiol. 10, 251-274.
83 (with C.McC. Brooks) A study of the effects of anaesthesia and asphyxia on the monosynaptic pathway through the spinal cord. J.Neurophysiol. 10, 349-360.
84 (with C.McC. Brooks & J.L. Malcolm) Responses of inhibited motoneurones. Fedn.Proc. 7, 15.
85 Conduction and synaptic transmission in the nervous system. A.Rev.Physiol. 10, 93-116.
86 (with C.McC. Brooks) An analysis of synaptic excitatory action. J.Neurophysiol. 11, 365-376.
87 (with C.McC. Brooks) Inhibitory action on a motor nucleus and focal potentials generated therein. J.Neurophysiol. 11, 401-416.
88 (with C.McC. Brooks & J.L. Malcolm) Synaptic potentials of inhibited motoneurones. J.Neurophysiol. 11, 417-430.
89 (with C.McC. Brooks) Inhibition of antidromic responses of motoneurones. J.Neurophysiol. 11, 431-444.
90 (with W.V. Macfarlane) Action of anti-cholinesterases on endplate potential of frog muscle. J.Neurophysiol. 12, 59-80.
91 (with T.H. Barakan & C.B.B. Downman) Electric potentials generated by antidromic volleys in quadriceps and hamstring motoneurones. J.Neurophysiol. 12, 393-424.
92 A review and restatement of the electrical hypothesis of synaptic excitatory and inhibitory action. Archs.Sci.physiol. 3, 567-584.
93 (with C.McC. Brooks & C.B.B. Downman) After-potentials and excitablity of spinal motoneurones following antidromic activation. J.Neurophysiol. 13, 9-38.
94 (with C.McC. Brooks & C.B.B. Downman) After-potentials and excitability of spinal motoneurones following orthodromic activation. J.Neurophysiol. 13, 157-176.
95 The responses of motoneurones. Br.Med.Bull. 6, 304-311.
96 (with W. Rall) Post-tetanic potentiation of responses of motoneurones. Nature 166, 465-466.
97 1951 (with A.K.McIntyre) Plasticity of mammalian monosynaptic reflexes. Nature 167, 466-468.
98 (with C.B.B. Downman & A.K. McIntyre) Responses of motoneurones undergoing chromatolysis. Proc.Univ.Otago Med.School 29, 4-5.
99 Hypotheses relating to the brain-mind problem. Nature 168, 53-57.
100 (with L.G. Brock & J.S. Coombs) Action potentials of motoneurones with intracellular electrodes. Proc.Univ.Otago Med.School 29, 14-15.
101 (with L.G. Brock & W. Rall) Experimental investigations on the afferent fibres of muscle nerves. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 138, 453-475.
102 (with W.Rall) Repetitive monosynaptic activation of motoneurones. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 138, 475-498.
103 (with W Rall) Effects induced in a monosynaptic reflex path by its activation. J.Neurophysiol. 14, 353-376.
104 Interpretation of action potentials evoked in the cerebral cortex. Electroenceph.Neurophysiol. 3, 449-464.
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106 (with L.G. Brock & J.S. Coombs) Synaptic excitation and inhibition. J.Physiol. 117, 8P.
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118 (with K. Bradley) Analysis of the fast afferent impulses from thigh muscles. J.Physiol. 122, 462-473.
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120 1954 (with P. Fatt & S. Landgren) The 'direct' inhibitory pathway in the spinal cord. Aust.J.Sci. 16, 130-134.
121 A note on Professor Sir Henry Cohen's Manson Lecture 'The status of brain in the concept of mind'. Philosophy 29, 158-159.
122 (with P. Fatt, S. Landgren & G.J. Winsbury) Spinal cord potentials generated by volleys in the large muscle afferents. J.Physiol. 125, 590-606.
123 (with P. Fatt & K. Koketsu) Cholinergic and inhibitory synapses in a pathway from motor-axon collaterals to motoneurones. J.Physiol. 126, 524-562.
124 (with V.B. Brooks & D.R. Curtis) Mode of action of tetanus toxin. Nature 175, 120-121.
125 The central action of antidromic impulses in motor nerve fibres. Pflügers Arch. 260, 385-415.
126 (with R.M. Eccles & P. Fatt) The action of drugs on central cholinergic synapses. J.Physiol. 129, 40-41P.
127 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) The electrical properties of the motoneuronal membrane. J.Physiol. 130, 291-325.
128 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) The specific ionic conductances and the ionic movements across the motoneuronal membrane that produce the inhibitory post-synaptic potential. J.Physiol. 130, 326-373.
129 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) Excitatory synaptic action in motoneurones. J.Physiol. 130, 374-395.
130 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) Inhibitory suppression of reflex discharges from motoneurones. J.Physiol. 130, 396-413.
131 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) The ionic permeability of the motoneurone membrane. J.Cell.Comp.Physiol. 46, 362-363.
132 (with D.R. Curtis & R.M. Eccles) Pharmacological studies on reflexes. Am.J.Physiol. 183, 606.
133 (with P. Fatt & S. Landgren) Central pathway for direct inhibitory action of impulses in largest afferent nerve fibres to muscle. J.Neurophysiol. 19, 75-98.
134 (with R.M. Eccles & P. Fatt) Pharmacological investigations on a central synapse operated by acetylcholine. J.Physiol. 131, 154-169.
135 (with P. Fatt & S. Landgren) The inhibitory pathway to motoneurones. In: Proceedings of the First International Meeting of Neurobiologists, pp.73-82.
136 (with J.S. Coombs & D.R. Curtis) Time courses of motoneuronal responses. Nature 178, 1049.
137 The physiology of nerve cells. The Herter Lectures, 1955. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. (Translated into Russian.)
138 (with V.B. Brooks & D.R. Curtis) The action of tetanus toxin on the inhibition of motoneurones. J.Physiol. 135, 655-672.
139 (with R.M. Eccles & A. Lundberg) Durations of after-hyperpolarization of motoneurones suppling fast and slow muscles. Nature 179, 866-868.
140 (with D.R. Curtis & R.M. Eccles) Pharmacological studies on spinal reflexes. J.Physiol. 136, 420-434.
141 Excitatory and inhibitory synaptic action. Harvey Lectures 51, 1-24.
142 (with R.M. Eccles & A. Lundberg) Synaptic actions on motoneurones in relation to the two components of the GroupI muscle afferent volley. J.Physiol. 136, 527-546.
143 The clinical significance of research work on the chemical transmitter substances of the nervous system. The Bancroft Memorial Lecture. Med.J.Aust. 1, 745-753.
144 (with R.M. Eccles & A. Lundberg) The convergence of monosynaptic excitatory afferents onto many different species of alpha motoneurones. J.Physiol. 137, 22-50.
145 The generation of impulses by nerve cells. Aust.J.Sci. 19, 161-168.
146 Tonic and phasic motoneurones and the gamma loop. Ist.Congr.Internat.Neurol., 81-87.
147 Abnormalities in the behaviour of chromatolyzed moto- neurones. Ist.Congr.Internat.Neurol., 149-150.
148 (with R.M. Eccles & A. Lundberg) Synaptic actions on motoneurones caused by impulses in Golgi tendon organ afferents. J.Physiol. 138, 227-252.
149 (with J.S. Coombs & D.R. Curtis) The interpretation of spike potentials of motoneurones. J.Physiol. 139, 198-231.
150 (with J.S. Coombs & D.R. Curtis) The generation of impulses in motoneurones. J.Physiol. 139, 232-249.
151 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) Propriétés électriques de la membrane de surface d'un motoneurone. In: Microphysiologie comparée des éléments excitables, Colloques Internationaux de CNRS 67, 73-90.
152 (with J.S. Coombs & P. Fatt) Nature du potential post synaptique inhibiteur. In: Microphysiologie comparée des éléments excitables, Colloques Internationaux de CNRS 67, 281-297.
153 Some aspects of Sherrington's contribution to neurophysiology. Notes Rec.R.Soc. 12, 216-225.
154 (with J.C. Jaeger)The relationship between the mode of operation and the dimensions of the junctional regions at synapses and motor-end organs. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 148, 38-56.
155 (with B. Libet & R.R. Young) Responses of single chromatolysed motoneurones. Fedn.Proc. 17, 96.
156 The behaviour of nerve cells. In: The Neural Basis of Behaviour (ed. G.E.W. Wolstenholme & C. O'Connor), pp.28-47. London: Churchill.
157 (with R.M. Eccles & A. Lundberg) The action potentials of the alpha motoneurones supplying fast and slow muscles. J.Physiol. 142, 275-291.
158 Problems of plasticity and organization at simplest levels in the mammalian central nervous system. Persp.Biol.Med. 1, 379-396.
159 (with B. Libet & R.R. Young)The behaviour of chromatolysed motoneurones studied by intracellular recording. J.Physiol. 143, 11-40.
160 The physiology of imagination. Scientific American 199, 135-146.
161 (with A.J. Buller & R.M. Eccles) Controlled differentiation of muscle. J.Physiol. 143, 23-24P.
162 (with D.R. Curtis & A. Lundberg) Intracellular recording from cells in Clarke's column. Acta Physiol.Scand. 43, 303-314.
163 (with K. & R.Miledi) Delayed effects of peripheral severance of afferent nerve fibres on the efficacy of their central synapses. J.Physiol. 145, 204-220.
164 (with J.S. Coombs & D.R. Curtis) The electrical constants of the motoneuronal membrane. J.Physiol. 145, 505-528.
165 (with D.R. Curtis) The time course of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic action. J.Physiol. 145, 529-546.
166 Reflections on the relationship of medical research to the physical and biological sciences. Australasian Ann.Med. 8, 95-97.
167 (with K. ) Afferent fibre potentials in the spinal cord. J.Physiol. 146, 31-32P.
168 (with A.W. Liley) Factors controlling the liberation of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions. Am.J.Physical Med. 38, 96-103.
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171 Monosynaptic excitatory patterns and connections of group Ia afferent fibres from muscle. XXI Internat.Congr.Physiol.Sci.:Symposia & Special Lectures, pp.87-93.
172 (with A.J. Buller & R.M. Eccles) The influence of motoneurones on the differentiation of fast and slow muscles. XXI Internat.Congr. Physiol.Sci.: Abstracts of communications, p.45.
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175 Plasticity at the simplest levels of the nervous system. Squibb Centenary Lectures, pp.28. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
176 (with K. ) Some post-tetanic changes in primary afferent fibres. J.Physiol. 148, 22-23P.
177 (with A.J. Buller & R.M. Eccles) Further observations on the controlled differentiation of muscle. J.Physiol. 148, 78P.
178 (with D.R. Curtis) Repetitive synaptic activation. J.Physiol. 149, 43-44P.
179 (with K. ) Potential changes recorded inside primary afferent fibres within the spinal cord. J.Physiol. 149, 250-273.
180 (with K. ) Presynaptic changes associated with post-tetanic potentiation in the spinal cord. J.Physiol. 149, 274-287.
181 (with D.R. Curtis) Synaptic action during and after repetitive stimulation. J.Physiol. 150, 374-398.
182 (with A.J. Buller & R.M. Eccles) Differentiation of fast and slow muscles in the cat hind limb. J.Physiol. 150, 399-416.
183 (with A.J. Buller & R.M. Eccles) Interactions between motoneurones and muscle in respect of the characteristic speeds of their responses. J.Physiol. 150, 417-439.
184 (with R.M. Eccles & F. Magni) Development of monosynaptic paths following changed motoneurone function. J.Physiol. 152, 29-30P.
185 (with W. M. Kozak & F. Magni) Dorsal root reflexes in muscle afferent fibres. J.Physiol. 153, 48-49P.
186 The properties of dendrites. In: Structure and Function of the Cerebral Cortex (ed. D.B. Tower & J.P. Shadé), pp.192-203. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
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199 The effect of frequency of activation on transmission across synapses. In: Bioelectrogenesis (ed. C. Chagas & A. Paes-de-Carvalho), pp.297-309. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
200 Inhibitory pathways to motoneurones. In: Nervous Inhibitions (ed. E. Florey), pp. 47-86. Oxford: Pergamon.
201 The synaptic mechanism of postsynaptic inhibition. In: Nervous Inhibitions (ed. E. Florey), pp.70-86. Oxford: Pergamon.
202 (with W. Kozak & F. Magni) Dorsal root reflexes of muscle Group I afferent fibres. J.Physiol. 159, 128-146.
203 (with R.M. Eccles & F. Magni) Central inhibitory action attributable to presynaptic depolarization produced by muscle afferent volleys. J.Physiol. 159, 147-166.
204 (with R.M. Eccles, A. Iggo & A. Lundberg) Electro-physiological investigations on Renshaw cells. J.Physiol. 159, 461-478.
205 (with R.M. Eccles, A. Iggo & M. Ito) Distribution of recurrent inhibition among motoneurones. J.Physiol. 159, 479-499.
206 (with O. Oscarsson) Specificité des connections synaptique dans le système nerveux central. Actualités neurophysiologiques 3, 1-21.
207 (with F. Magni & W.D. Willis) Depolarization of central terminals of GroupI afferent fibres from muscle. J.Physiol. 160, 62-93.
208 Central connections of muscle afferent fibres. In: Muscle Receptors (ed. D. Barker), pp. 81-101. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
209 (with P.G. Kostyuk & R.F. Schmidt) On the nature and functional significance of the electrotonic potential of the dorsal root of the spinal cord. J.Physiol. Kiev, 8, 21-37.
210 (with P.G. Kostyuk & R.F. Schmidt) Central pathways responsible for depolarization of primary afferent fibres. J.Physiol. 161, 237-257.
211 (with P.G. Kostyuk & R.F.Schmidt) Presynaptic inhibition of the central actions of flexor reflex afferents. J.Physiol. 161, 258-281.
212 (with R.F. Schmidt & W.D. Willis) Presynaptic inhibition of the spinal monosynaptic reflex pathway. J.Physiol. 161, 282-297.
213 (with P. Andersen & T.A. Sears) Presynaptic inhibitory action of cerebral cortex on spinal cord. Nature 194, 740-741.
214 (with P. Andersen & R.F. Schmidt) Presynaptic inhibition in the cuneate nucleus. Nature 194, 741-742.
215 (with P.G. Kostyuk & R.F. Schmidt) The effect of electric polarization of the spinal cord on central afferent fibres and on their excitatory synaptic action. J.Physiol. 162, 138-150.
216 (with R.M. Eccles & C.N. Shealy) An investigation into the effect of degenerating primary afferent fibres on the monosynaptic innervation of the spinal cord. J.Neurophysiol. 25, 544-558.
217 (with R.M. Eccles, C.N.Shealy & W.D.Willis) Experiments utilizing monosynaptic excitatory action on motoneurones for testing hypotheses relating to specificity of neuronal connections. J.Neurophysiol. 25, 559-579.
218 Bases neurophysiologiques de l'esprit.In: La vie de l'homme (ed. H. Gregoire), Chapt.4. Geneva: Rene Kister.
219 Abnormal connections in the central nervous system. In: Abnormal Nervous Function (ed. R.G. Grenell), pp.16-38. New York: Harper & Row.
220 (with R.F.Schmidt & W.D. Willis) Primary afferent depolarization of Group Ib afferent fibres of muscle. XXII Internat.Cong.Physiol. Sci: Abstracts Communicat. 919.
221 (with R.M. Eccles & W. M. Kozak) Further investigations on the influence of motoneurones on the speed of muscle contraction. J.Physiol. 163, 324-339.
222 (with P. Andersen) Inhibitory phasing of neuronal discharge. Nature 196, 645-647.
223 Spinal neurones:synaptic connexions in relation to chemical transmitters and pharmacological responses. In: Proc.Int.Pharmacol.Meeting 8 (ed. B. Uvnäs), pp.157-182. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
224 Homeostatic mechanisms in the nervous system. In: Perspectives in Biology (ed. C.F. Cori, V.G. Foglia, L.F. Leloir & S. Ochoa), pp.361-368. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
225 (with R.F Schmidt & W.D. Willis) Depolarization of central terminals of Group Ib afferent fibres of muscle. J.Neurophysiol. 26, 1-27.
226 Presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibition in the central nervous system. Dai 16 Kai Nihon Igakukai Sokai Kakujitsu Koenschu IV, 95-110.
227 (with R.F. Schmidt & W.D. Willis) The location and mode of action of the presynaptic inhibitory pathways onto Group I afferent fibres from muscle. J.Neurophysiol. 26, 506-522.
228 (with R.F. Schmidt & W.D. Willis) The mode of action of the synaptic mechanism producing presynaptic inhibition. J.Neurophysiol. 26, 523-538.
229 (with I.A. Boyd) Fast- and slow-conducting small motor fibres in nerves to mammalian skeletal muscle. J.Physiol. 165, 29P.
230 (with P. Andersen & Y. Løyning) Recurrent inhibition in the hippocampus with identification of the inhibitory cell and its synapses. Nature 198, 540-542.
231 (with R.F. Schmidt & W.D. Willis) Inhibition of discharges into the dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tracts. J.Neurophysiol. 26, 635-645.
232 (with R.F. Schmidt & W.D. Willis) Depolarization of central terminals of cutaneous afferent fibres. J.Neurophysiol. 26, 646-661.
233 (with P. Andersen & P.E. Voorhoeve) Inhibitory synapses on somas of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. Nature 199, 655-656.
234 (with P. Andersen & Y. Løyning) Identification of inhibitory neurones in the hippocampus. Nature 199, 699-700.
235 Modes of communication between nerve cells. Fourth Matthew Flinders Lecture, Aust.Acad.Sci. Year Book 1963, pp.87-107.
236 Mind, the ultimate expression of the living state. In: The Living State, pp.34-38. Cleveland: Western Reserve University.
237 (with R.F. Schmidt & W.D. Willis) Pharmacological studies on presynaptic inhibition. J.Physiol. 168, 500-530.
238 Researches on the central nervous system. Pontificia Academia Scientiarum, Commentarii 1, 1-16.
239 (with P. Andersen, Y. Løyning & P.E. Voorhoeve) Strychnine-resistant central inhibition. Nature 200, 843-845.
240 Physiological investigations on neuromuscular transmission. Dai 16 Kai Nihon Igakuki Sokai Kakujitsu Koenshu I, 656-668.
241 Postsynaptic and presynaptic inhibitory actions in the spinal cord. In: Brain Mechanisms, Prog.Brain Res. 1, (ed. G. Moruzzi, A. Fessard & H.H. Jasper), pp.1-18. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
242 Interrelationship between nerve and muscle cell. In: The Effect of Use and Disuse on Neuromuscular Functions (ed. E. Gutman & P. Hnik), pp.19-28. Prague: Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences.
243 Specificity of neural influence on speed of muscle contractions. In: The Effect of Use and Disuse on Neuromuscular Functions (ed. E. Gutman & P. Hnik), pp.111-128. Prague: Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences.
244 Specificity of monosynaptic innervation of motoneurones. In: The Effect of Use and Disuse on Neuromuscular Functions (ed. E. Gutman & P. Hnik), pp.229-246. Prague:Czeckoslovak Academy of Sciences.
245 The physiology of synapses. Berlin, Göttingen, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. (Translated into Japanese, Polish & Russian)
246 (with P. Andersen & T.A. Sears) Cortically evoked depolarization of primary afferent fibres in the spinal cord. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 63-77.
247 (with P. Andersen, R.F. Schmidt & T. Yokota) Slow potential waves produced in the cuneate nucleus by cutaneous volleys and cortical stimulation. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 78-91
248 (with P. Andersen, R.F. Schmidt & T. Yokota) Depolarization of presynaptic fibres in the cuneate nucleus. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 92-106.
249 (with P. Andersen & C.McC. Brooks) Electrical responses of the ventro-basal thalamus. In: Lectures on the diencephalon, Prog.Brain Res. 5 (ed. W. Bargmann & J.P. Schadé), pp.100-113. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
250 The controls of sensory communications in the brain. G.E.Rennie Memorial Lecture, 1963. Australasian.Ann.Med. 13, 102-113.
251 (with R.M. Eccles & M. Ito) Effects of intracellular potassium and sodium injections on the inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 160, 181-196.
252 (with R.M. Eccles & M. Ito) Effects produced on inhibitory postsynaptic potentials by the coupled injection of cations and anions into motoneurones. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 160, 197-210.
253 (with P. Andersen & Y. Løyning) Location of postsynaptic inhibitory synapses on hippocampal pyramids. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 592-607.
254 (with P. Andersen & Y. Løyning) Pathway of postsynaptic inhibition in the hippocampus. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 608-619.
255 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) Excitation of cerebellar Purkinje cells by the climbing fibres. Nature 203, 245-246.
256 Der Mechanismus der postsynaptischen Hemmung. Agnew Chem. 76, 674-681.
257 Inhibitory controls on the flow of sensory information in the nervous system.In: Information processing in the nervous system (ed. R.W. Gerard & J.W. Duyff), pp.24-40. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica.
258 Editor with J.P.Schadé. Organization of the spinal cord. Prog.Brain Res. 11. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
259 The neurophysiological basis of experience. In: The critical approach to science and philosophy: Essays in honour of Karl Popper (ed. M. Bunge), pp.266-279. Glencoe: Free Press.
260 Editor with J.P. Schadé. Physiology of spinal neurones. Prog.Brain Res. 12. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
261 The excitatory responses of motoneurones. In: Physiology of spinal neurones. Prog.Brain Res. 12 (ed. J.C. Eccles & J.P. Schadé), pp.1-13. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
262 Presynaptic inhibition in the spinal cord. In: Physiology of spinal neurones. Prog.Brain Res. 12 (ed. J.C. Eccles & J.P. Schadé), pp.65-91. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
263 Neuroanatomical basis of behaviour-the ultimate units. In: Unfinished tasks in behavioural sciences (ed. A. Abrams, H.H. Garner & T.E.O. Toman), pp.12-32. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
264 The ionic basis of postsynaptic inhibition. Science, N.Y.145, 1140-1147.
265 Modes of transmission within the nerve cells and between nerve cells. In: Die nervenphysiologie in gegenwartiger sicht. Nova Acta Leopoldina 28, 33-57.
266 The identification of postsynaptic inhibitory cells and synapses. Pontifica Academia Scientiarum, Commentaria 1, 44.
267 The ionic mechanism of postsynaptic inhibition. Nobel Lecture, 1963, pp.261-283. Stockholm: Nobel Foundation.
268 (with P. Andersen, R.F. Schmidt & T. Yokota) Identification of relay cells and interneurones in the cuneate nucleus. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 1080-1095.
269 (with P. Andersen, T. Oshima & R.F. Schmidt) Mechanisms of synaptic transmission in the cuneate nucleus. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 1096-1116.
270 (with P. Andersen & P.E. Voohoeve) Postsynaptic inhibition of cerebellar Purkinje cells. J.Neurophysiol. 27, 1138-1153.
271 (with P. Andersen, C.McC. Brooks & T.A. Sears) The ventro-basal thalamus: potential fields, synaptic transmission and excitability of both presynaptic and postsynaptic components. J.Physiol. 174, 348-369.
272 (with P. Andersen & T.A. Sears) The ventrobasal complex of the thalamus:types of cells, their responses and their functional organization. J.Physiol. 174, 370399.
273 The ionic mechanisms of postsynaptic inhibition. Nobel Lecture, 1963. Aust.J.Sci. 27, 121-131.
274 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) Golgi cell inhibition in the cerebellar cortex. Nature 204, 1265-1266.
275 The synapse. Scientific American, 212, 56-66.
276 Pharmacology of central inhibitory synapses. Br.Med.Bull. 21, 19-25.
277 Presynaptic inhibition in the central nervous system. Acta Physiol.Hung. 26, 163-180.
278 Functional meaning of the patterns of synaptic connections in the cerebellum. Persp.Biol. Med. 8, 289-310.
279 Conscious experience and the human brain. Trans.R.Soc.N.Zealand., Gen. 1, 175-182.
280 Inhibition in thalamic and cortical neurones and its role in phasing neuronal discharges. William G.Lennox Memorial Lecture, 1964. Epilepsia, 6, 89-115.
281 Conscious experience and memory. Recent Adv.Biol.Psychiatr. 8, 235-236.
282 The control of neuronal activity by postsynaptic inhibitory action. XXIII Internat.Cong. Physiol.Sci: Invited Lectures, pp.84-95. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica.
283 Possible ways in which synaptic mechanisms participate in learning, memory and forgetting. In: Anatomy of memory (ed. D.P. Kimble), pp.12-87. Palo Alto:Science and Behaviour Books.
284 (with P. Andersen) Locating and identifying postsynaptic inhibitory synapses by the correlation of physiological and histological data. In: Modern trends in neuro-morphology. Symp.Biol.Hung. 5, 219-242.
285 The brain and the unity of conscious experience. Eddington Memorial Lecture, 1965. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
286 The brain and the person. The Boyer Lectures, 1965. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Commission.
287 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) Inhibitory systems in the cerebellar cortex. Proc.Aust.Assoc. Neurologists. 3, 7-13.
288 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) The inhibitory interneurones within the cerebellar cortex. Expl.Brain Res. 1, 1-16.
289 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) Parallel fibre stimulation and the responses induced thereby in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. Expl.Brain Res. 1, 17-39.
290 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) The mossy fibre-granule cell relay in the cerebellum and its inhibitory control by Golgi cells. Expl.Brain Res. 1, 82-101.
291 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) The excitatory synaptic action of climbing fibres on Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. J.Physiol. 182, 268-296.
292 (with R. Llinás, K. Sasaki & P. Voorhoeve) Interaction experiments on the responses evoked in Purkinje cells cells by climbing fibres. J.Physiol. 182, 297-315.
293 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) The action of antidromic impulses on cerebellar Purkinje cells. J.Physiol. 182, 316-345.
294 (with R. Llinás & K. Sasaki) Intracellularly recorded responses of the cerebellar Purkinje cells. Expl.Brain Res. 1, 161-183.
295 Brain and the development of the human person. Impact, 16, 93-112. Paris: UNESCO.
296 Functional organization of the cerebellum in relation to its role in motor control. In: Muscular afferents and motor control: Nobel Symposium I (ed.R.Granit), pp.19-36. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell
297 Properties and functional organization of cells in the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus. In: The thalamus (ed. D.P. Purpura & M.D. Yahr), pp.129-141. New York: Columbia University Press.
298 Cerebral synaptic mechanisms. Pontifica Academia Scientiarum, 30, 41-87.
299 Conscious experience and memory. Pontifica Academia Scientiarum, 30, 469-513.
300 Editor. Brain and conscious experience. New York: Springer-Verlag.
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302 Conscious experience and memory. In: Brain and conscious experience (ed. J.C. Eccles), pp.314-344. New York: Springer-Verlag.
303 Some observations on the strategy of neurophysiological research. In: Nerve as a tissue (ed. K. Rodahl), pp.445-455. New York: Harper & Row.
304 The fundamental importance of brain research. Naturwissenschaften, 53, 165-166.
305 (with K. Sasaki & P. Strata) The profiles of physiological events produced by a parallel fibre volley in the cerebellar cortex. Expl.Brain Res. 2, 18-34.
306 Conscious experience and memory. Recent Adv.Biol.Psycht. 8, 235-256.
307 The ionic mechanisms of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic action. Ann.N.Y.Acad.Sci. 137, 473-494.
308 What is an individual? (Panel presentation with R.M. Gerard, K.M. Colby & W.R. Dennes) In: Mental health in a changing community, pp.129-134. USA: Grune & Stratton.
309 The fundamental importance of brain research. In: Conflict resolution and world education (ed. S. Mudd), pp.253-258. The Hague: Dr. W.J. Junk.
310 Functional organization of the spinal cord. Anaesthesiology, 28, 31-45.
311 (with K. Sasaki & P. Strata) Interpretation of the potential fields generated in the cerebellar cortex by a mossy fibre volley. Expl.Brain Res. 3, 58-80.
312 (with K. Sasaki & P. Strata) A comparison of the inhibitory actions of Golgi cells and of basket cells. Expl.Brain Res. 3, 81-94.
313 The challenge of the brain interview with MacKay. Science Journal, April 1967, 79-83. London: Assoc.Press.
314 The functioning of neural machinery in the central nervous system. Naturw.Rdsch.Stuttg. 20, 139-151.
315 Long-loop reflexes from muscle afferents to the brain-stem and cerebellum. Atti Acad.Med., Lombarda, 21, 158-176.
316 Excitatory and inhibitory actions of cerebellar mossy fibres on Purkinje cells. Actual. Neurophysiol.Paris, 7, 91-108.
317 (with M. Ito & J. Szentágothai) The cerebellum as a neuronal machine. New York: Springer-Verlag.
318 Circuits in the cerebellar control of movement. Proc.Natn.Acad.Sci.USA. 58, 336-343.
319 The inhibitory control of spinal reflex action. Electroenceph.Neurophysiol., Suppl. 25, 20-34.
320 (with L. Provini, P. Strata & H. ) Patterns of climbing fibre input to the cerebellar anterior lobe. Brain Res. 5, 425-430.
321 Evolution and the conscious self. In: The human mind (ed. J.D. Roslansky) pp.3-28. Amsterdam: North Holland.
322 Postsynaptic inhibition in the central nervous system. In: The neurosciences (ed. G.C. Quarton, T. Melnechuk & F.O. Schmitt), pp.408-427. New York: Rockefeller University Press.
323 Neurosciences, achievement and promise. The Sciences, 7, 16-19.
324 Book review of 'Of molecules and men', by Frances Crick. Zygon, 2, 281-83.
325 The effect of nerve cross union on muscle contraction. In: Exploratory concepts in muscular dystrophy and related disorders, pp.151-163. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica.
326 (with D.M. Armstrong. R.J. Harvey & P.B. Matthews) Responses in the dorsal accessory olive of the cat to stimulation of hind limb afferents. J.Physiol. 194, 125-145.
327 Professor Ragnar Granit's contributions in the field of motor control. Am.J.Phys.Med. 47, 3-7.
328 Experiméntation sur l'homme en neurophysiologie. Table ronde: La science biomedical devant le dileme de l'expérimentation sur l'homme. p.19. Paris: UNESCO.
329 The way in which the cerebellum processes sensory information from muscle. In: Neurophysiological basis of normal and abnormal motor activities (ed. M.D. Yahr & D.P. Purpura), pp.379-406. New York: Raven Press.
330 Postsynaptic inhibition in the central nervous system. In: Structure and function of inhibitory neuronal mechanisms (ed. C. von Euler, S. Skoglund & U. Söderberg), pp.291-308. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
331 Integration of information in the cerebellum. Proc. Internat.Union Physiol.Sci.XXIV Cong. 6, 19-20.
332 (with H. , L. Provini & P. Strata) Fine patterns of projection from hindlimb afferents to the cat cerebellar anterior lobe. Proc.Internat. Union Physiol. Sci. XXIV Cong. 7, 326.
333 Two hitherto unrecognized publications by Sir Charles Sherrington, O.M., F.R.S. Notes Rec.R.Soc.Lond. 23, 86-100.
334 (with L. Provini, P. Strata & H. ) Analysis of electrical potentials evoked in the cerebellar anterior lobe by stimulation of hindlimb and forelimb nerves. Expl.Brain Res. 6, 171-194.
335 (with L. Provini, P. Strata & H. ) Topographical investigations on the climbing fibre inputs from forelimb and hindlimb afferents to the cerebellar anterior lobe. Expl.Brain Res. 6, 195-215.
336 The importance of brain research for the educational, cultural and scientific future of mankind. Persp.Biol.Med. 12, 61-68.
337 (with H. & N.Tsukahara) Excitation and inhibition of cells in the cerebellum of Mustelus canis. Biol.Bull. 135, 418.
338 (with N. Tsukahara & H. ) The responses of granule cells in the cerebellum of Mustelus canis. Biol.Bull. 135, 440.
339 (with S.T. Kitai, H. & N. Tsukahara) The distribution to the cerebellar anterior lobe of climbing and mossy fibre inputs from plantar and palmar cutaneous afferents. Expl.Brain Res. 7, 1-10.
340 Influence of spino-cerebellar pathways on the cerebellar control of spinal motoneurones. Electroenceph.Neurophysiol. 25, 394.
341 Central cholinergic transmission and its behavioural aspects. Historical introduction. Fedn.Proc. 28, 90-94.
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343 The inhibitory pathways of the central nervous system. The Sherrington Lectures, IX, 1966. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
344 (with D.S. Faber, J.T. Murphy. N.H. Sabah & H. ) Firing patterns of Purkinje cells in response to volleys from limb nerves. Brain Res. 14, 222-226.
345 The future of brain sciences. In: The future of the brain sciences (ed. S. Bogoch), pp.xxxiii-xxxix. New York: Plenum Press.
346 The experiencing self. In: The Human Mind (ed. J.D. Roslansky), pp. 2-28. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing.
347 (with H. Korn, H. & N. Tsukahara) Slow potential fields generated in cerebellar cortex by mossy fibre volleys. Brain Res. 15, 276-280.
348 The necessity of freedom for the free-flowering of science. Dunning Trust Lecture, Queens University. Queens Quarterly, Kingston, Ontario.
349 Excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms in the brain. In: Basic mechanisms of the epilepsies (ed. H. Jasper, A. Ward & A. Pope), pp.229-261. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
350 The development of the cerebellum of vertebrates in relation to the control of movement. Naturwissenschaften, 56, 525-534.
351 The topography of the mossy and climbing fibre inputs to the anterior lobe of the cerebellum. In: The cerebellum in health and disease (ed. W.S. Fields & W. Willis, Jr.), pp.231-262. St Louis: Warren H. Green.
352 The dynamic loop hypothesis of movement control. In: Information processing in the nervous system (ed. K.N. Leibovic), pp.245-269. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
353 (with H. & N. Tsukahara) Responses of the cells of a selachian cerebellum (Mustelus canis). Brain Res. 17, 57-86.
354 (with H. & N. Tsukahara) Responses of the granule cells of the selchian cerebellum (Mustelus canis). Brain Res. 17, 87-102.
355 (with D.S. Faber, S.T. Kitai, T. Shimono & H. ) Inhibition of antidromic invasion of cells in the selachian cerebellum. Brain Res. 17, 360-365.
356 Alexander Forbes and his achievements in electrophysiology. Persp.Biol.Med. 13, 388-404.
357 Neurogenesis and morphogenesis in the cerebellar cortex. Proc.Natn.Acad.Sci.USA 66, 294-301.
358 (with D.S. Faber, J.T. Murphy, N.H. Sabah & H. ) The integrative performance of the cerebellar cell. In: Excitatory synaptic mechanisms (ed. P. Andersen & J.K.S.Jansen), pp.223-236. Oslo: Oslo University Press.
359 Facing reality: Philosophical adventures of a brain scientist. New York: Springer-Verlag. (Translated into German, Spanish, Italian).
360 Some implications for the scientiae for the future of mankind. Studium Generale, 23, 917-924.
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363 Animal experimentation versus human experimentation. In: Defining the laboratory animal. IVth Symposium, Internat.Committee on Laboratory Animals, pp.285-293. Washington D.C.: Natl.Acad.Sci.USA.
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365 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. ) Cerebellar cell responses to cutaneous mechanoreceptors. Brain Res. 30, 419-424.
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367 (with D.S. Faber, J.T. Murphy, N.H. Sabah & H. ) Afferent volleys in limb nerves influencing impulse discharges in cerebellar cortex. II. In cells. Expl.Brain Res. 13, 36-53.
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372 Physiologie der Nervenzelle und ihrer Synapsen. In: Allegmeine Neurophysiologie, Band 10, Physiologie des Menschen. pp.108-148. Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg.
373 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. Táboříková) Significance of dual input to cat cerebellum via mossy and climbing fibres. J.Physiol. 218, 90-91P.
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375 Functional significance of arrangements of neurones in cell assemblies. Arch.Psychiatr. Nervenkr. 215, 92-106.
376 Jan-Friedrich Tönnies. J.Neurophysiol. 34, 937.
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379 Possible synaptic mechanisms subserving learning. In: Brain and human behaviour (ed. A.G. Karczmar & J.C. Eccles), pp.39-61. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
380 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. ) Mode of operation of the cerebellum in the dynamic loop control of movement. Brain Res. 40, 73-80.
381 The role of the cerebellum in controlling movement. In: Modern trends in physiology (ed. C.B.B. Downman), pp.86-111. London: Butterworth.
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383 Unconscious actions emanating from human cerebral cortex. Philosophic Exchange, 1, 249-252.
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385 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. ) Cutaneous mechanoreceptors influencing impulse discharges in cerebellar cortex. II. In cells by mossy fibre input. Expl.Brain Res. 15, 261-277.
386 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. ) Cutaneous mechanoreceptors influencing impulse discharges in cerebellar cortex. III. In cells by climbing fibres. Expl.Brain Res. 15, 484-497.
387 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. ) Integration by cells of mossy and climbing fibre inputs from cutaneous receptors. Expl.Brain Res. 15, 498-520.
388 Ideology and motivation: an attempt towards an anthropological prognosis. Universitas, 10, 1023-1029.
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392 Brain, speech and consciousness. Naturwissenschaften 60, 167-176.
393 The discipline of science with special reference to the neurosciences. Daedalus 102, 85-99.
394 (with P. Scheid & H. ) Responses of red nucleus neurones to cutaneous afferent inputs. Brain Res. 53, 440-444.
395. The understanding of the brain. New York: McGraw-Hill (Translated into Spanish, German, Italian, Japanese, Mexican).
396 Reflexions on mind. Review of The nature of mind by A.J.P. Kenny, H.C. Longuet-Higgins, J.R. Lucas & C.H. Waddington. Nature 244, 183-184.
397 Brainwaves. Review of Explorers of the brain by L.A.Stevens. Nature 246, 363-364.
398 Trophic influences in the mammalian central nervous system. In: Development and aging in the nervous system (ed. M.Rockstein), pp.89-103. New York: Academic Press.
399 Cultural evolution versus biological evolution. Zygon 8, 282-293.
400 How conscious is the brain? Review of The conscious brain by S.Rose. Times Higher Educ.Suppl. 102, 15.
401 (with R.A. Nicoll, D.W.F. Schwarz & H. ) Cerebellospinal pathway via the fastigial nucleus and the medial reticular formation. Brain Res. 66, 525-530.
402 Our brains and our future. In: The greatest adventure (ed. E.H. Hone & H.J. Jordon), pp.70-83. New York: Rockefeller University Press.
403 (with N.H. Sabah & H. ) Excitatory and inhibitory responses of neurones of the cerebellar fastigial nucleus. Expl.Brain Res. 19, 61-77.
404 (with N.H. Sabah & H. ) The pathways responsible for excitation and inhibition of fastigial neurones. Expl.Brain Res. 19, 78-99.
405 (with T. Rantucci, N.H. Sabah & H. ) Somatotopic studies on cerebellar fastigial cells. Expl.Brain Res. 19, 100-118.
406. Trophic interactions in the mammalian central nervous system. In: Trophic functions of the neuron (ed. D.B.Drachman), Ann.N.Y.Acad. Sci. 228, 406-423.
407 The world of objective knowledge. In: The philosophy of Karl Popper (ed. P.A. Schilpp), pp.349-370. The Library of Living Philosophers, XIV. La Salle, Ill: Open Court Publishing.
408 The physiology and physics of the free will problem. In: Progress in the neurosciences and related fields (ed. S.L. Mintz & S.M. Widmayer), pp.1-40. New York: Plenum Press.
409 Culture: The creation of man and the creator of man. In: Modern science and moral values. Proc.2nd.Internat.Conf. on the Unity of the Sciences, Tokyo, pp.23-62. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
410 Falsifiability and freedom. Debate with Sir Karl Popper. In: Reflexive water (ed. F. Elders), pp.69-131. London: Souvenir Press.
411 (with I. Rosén. P. Scheid & H. ) Temporal patterns of responses of interpositus neurons to peripheral afferent stimulation. J.Neurophysiol. 37, 1424-1437.
412 (with I. Rosén, P. Scheid & H. ) Patterns of convergence onto interpositus neurons from peripheral afferents. J.Neurophysiol. 37, 1438-1448.
413 (with T. Rantucci, I. Rosén, P. Scheid & H. ) Somatotopic studies on cerebellar interpositus neurons. J.Neurophysiol. 37, 1449-1459.
414 (with P. Scheid) Physiologie der Nervenzelle und ihrer Synapsen. In: Allgemeine Neurophysiologie, 2nd edn., vol. 10, Physiologie des Menschen (ed. O.H.Gauer, K.Kramer & R.Jung), pp. 109-64. Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg.
415 Cerebral activity and consciousness.In: Studies in the philosophy of biology (ed. F.J.Ayala & T.Dobzhansky), pp.87-107. London: Macmillan Press.
416 Hierarchical concepts in the control of movement. In: The creative process in science and medicine (ed. H.A. Krebs & J.H.Shelley), pp.61-85. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica.
417 (with R.A. Nicoll, D.W.F. Schwartz, H. & T.J. Willey) Reticulospinal neurons with and without monosynaptic inputs from cerebellar nuclei. J.Neurophysiol. 38, 513-530.
418 (with R.A. Nicoll, H. & T.J. Willey) Medial reticular neurons projecting rostrally. J.Neurophysiol. 38, 531-538.
419 Some aspects of the dialogue between biologists and philosophers in the 20th century: Communication systems of the brain. Académie Royale de Belgique: Connaissance scientifique et philosophie, pp 251-290. Brussels: L'Académie Royale de Sciences, letters et des beaux- arts de Belgique.
420 (with I. Rosén, P. Scheid & H. ) The differential effect of cooling on the responses of the cerebellar cortex. J.Physiol. 249, 119-138.
421 (with P. Scheid & H. ) Responses of red nucleus neurones to antidromic and synaptic activation. J.Neurophysiol. 38, 947-964
422 (with T. Rantucci, P. Scheid & H. ) Somatopic studies on red nucleus: spinal projection level and respective receptive fields. J.Neurophysiol. 38, 965-980.
423 (with N.H. Sabah, R.F. Schmidt & H. ) A study of the cutaneous mechanoreceptive modalities projecting to the cerebellum. In: The somatosensory system (ed. H.H. Kornhuber), pp.125-134. Stuttgart: Thieme.
424 Letters from C.S. Sherrington, F.R.S. to Angelo Ruffini between 1896 and 1903. Reprinted from Notes Rec.Roy.Soc.Lond. 30, 69-88.
425 Under the spell of the synapse. In: The neurosciences: paths of discovery (ed. F.G. Worden, J.P. Swarzey & G. Adelman), pp.159-179. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
426 (with P. Scheid) Music and speech: artistic functions of the human brain. Psychology of Music 3, 21-35.
427 (with R.A. Nicoll, T. Oshima & F. Rubia) Prolongation of hippocampal inhibitory postsynaptic potentials by barbiturates. Nature 258, 625-627.
428 The plasticity of the mammalian central nervous system with special reference to new growths in response to lesions. Naturwissenschaften 63, 8-15.
429 From electrical to chemical transmission in the central nervous system. Notes Rec.Roy.Soc. Lond. 30, 219-230.
430 (with R.A. Nicoll, D.W.F. Schwarz, H. & T.J. Willey) Medial reticular and perihypoglossal neurons projecting to cerebellum. J.Neurophysiol. 39, 102-108.
431 (with R.A. Nicoll, T. Rantucci, H. & T.J. Willey) Topographic studies on medial reticular nucleus. J.Neurophysiol. 39, 109-118.
432 The coding of stimulus intensity by the frequency of impulse discharges from receptors. Trends Biochem.Sci. 1, 68.
433 Keynote address. In: The centrality of science and absolute values. pp.1-5. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
434 Hemispheric function in the human brain. Persp.Biol.Med. 19, 290-293.
435 Brain and free will. In: Consciousness and the brain (ed. G.G. Globus, G. Maxwell & I. Savodnik), pp.101-121. New York: Plenum Press.
436 How dogmatic can materialism be? In: Consciousness and the brain (ed. G.G. Globus, G. Maxwell & I. Savodnik), pp.155-60. New York: Plenum Press.
437 The brain-mind problem as a frontier of science. Prog.Sci.Culture 1, 7-17.
438 The three joint winners of the 1975 Nobel Prize in Medicine. Prog.Sci.Culture 1, 93-96.
439 Cerebellar cortex: Chairman's remarks. In: Afferent and intrinsic organization of laminated structures in the brain. Expl.Brain Res., Suppl. 1, 3-7.
440 Brain-mind problem as a frontier of science. In: The future of science: 1975 Nobel Conference (ed. T.C.L. Robinson), pp.73-104. New York: Wiley.
441 My scientific odyssey. A.Rev.Physiol. 39, 1-18.
442 An instruction-selection theory of learning in the cerebellar cortex. Brain Res. 127, 327-352.
443 (with P. Buser) Paul Dell (1915-1976). Expl.Brain Res. 27, 233-235.
444 (with G.I. Allen, R.A. Nicoll, T. Oshima & F.J. Rubia) The anionic permeability of the inhibitory postsynaptic membrane of hippocampal pyramidal cells. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 198, 345-361.
445 (with G.I. Allen, R.A. Nicoll, T. Oshima & F.J. Rubia) The ionic mechanisms concerned in generating the i.p.s.p.s of hippocampal pyramidal cells. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 198, 363-384.
446 Chairman's address. In: The search for absolute values: harmony amongst the sciences. Proc.5th.ICUS Meeting, pp.13-18. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
447 Objectivity in the neurobiological sciences: the dialogue between philosophers on the mind-brain problem. In: The case of objectivity. Proceedings of the 3rd. International Symposium at Athens & Pelion, pp.295-305. Athens: Hellenic Soc. Humanistic Studies.
448 Reflections on a life time of experiences in scientific publications. In: Semper attentus. Beiträge für Heinz Götze zum 8 August 1977, pp.95-102. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
449 Cerebellar function in the control of movement (with special reference to the pioneering work of Sir Gordon Holmes). In: Physiological aspects of clinical neurology (ed. F.C. Rose), pp.157-178. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
450 (with K.R. Popper) The self and its brain. An argument for interactionism. Berlin, New York: Springer International. (Translated into Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese).
451 Evolution of the brain in relation to the development of the self-conscious mind. Ann.N.Y.Acad.Sci. 299, 161-179.
452 Hirn und Bewusstsein. In: Mannheimer Forum, 77-78, pp.9-63. Mannheim: Boehringer.
453 Learning and memory in human brain and conscious mind. Hexagon, 5. No.8, 1-10. Basel: Hoffmann-La Roche.
454 Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1889-1977. Expl.Brain Res. 31, 153-154.
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456 A critical appraisal of brain-mind theories. In: Cerebral correlates of conscious experience (ed. P.A. Buser & A. Rougel-Buser), pp.347-355. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
457 An approach to neurobiology. Review of The purposive brain by Ragnar Granit. Persp.Biol. Med. 21, 466-469.
458 Another approach to neurobiology. Review of Local circuit neurones by Pasko Rakic. Persp. Biol.Med. 21, 469-470.
459 Climbing fibre inputs from the interosseus and knee joint nerves. In: Studies in neurophysiology, presented to A.K. McIntyre (ed. R. Porter), pp.105-108. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
460 Lo sviluppo della persona umana: il ruola della deprivazione e della sofferenza. In: L'Uomo della sindone. Roma: Orizzonte Medica.
461 Chairman's addresses. In: The search for absolute values in a changing world. Proc.6th. ICUS Meeting, pp.1316 & 1271-1272. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
462 The evolution of altruism. In: The search for absolute values in a changing world. Proc.6th.ICUS Meeting, pp.827-831. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
463 A critical appraisal of brain-mind problems. In: The search for absolute values in a changing world.Proc.6th. ICUS Meeting, pp.961-966. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
464 Das Problem von Gehirn und Geist. In: Die psychologie des 20 jahrhunderts, pp.1131-1177. Zurich: Kindler-Verlag.
465 (with P.L. McGeer & E.G. McGeer) Molecular neurobiology of the mammalian brain. New York, London: Plenum Press.
466 (with W. Feindel) Wilder Graves Penfield (1891-1976). Biogr.Mems.Fellows Roy.Soc.Lond. 24, 472-513.
467 The human mystery. The Gifford Lectures, 1977-78. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. (Translated into Italian, German, French)
468 (with W.C. Gibson) Sherrington, his life and thought. Berlin, New York: Springer International.
469 Creation of the self. In: The early development of the affects and moods. Bull.Menninger Clinic, 43, 3-19.
470 Synaptic plasticity. Naturwissenschaften 66, 147-153.
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476 The human brain and the human person. In: The re-evaluation of existing values and the search for truth. Proc.7th.ICUS Meeting, pp.1125-1140. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
477 Nei meandri del cervello alla scoperta delle mente. Scienza e Vita nuova, 1, 18-25.
478 The human person and the brain. Civilta delle Macchine Diretta da Francesca d'Arcais, Anno 26, Nr 1-6, 20-26.
479 La realizzazione del 'Se'. Revista Medica della Suizzera Italiano, Dec.1979, 537-544.
480 The discipline of biological science with special reference to the neurosciences. Riv.Biologica, 73, 11-20.
481 Altruisms und pseudaltruisms. In: Der Mensch in der unvollkommen Gesellschaft. Europäisches Forum Alpbach 1979 (ed. O. Molden), pp.72-81. Wien: F.Molden.
482 The human psyche. The Gifford Lectures, 1979. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. (Translated into Italian, German)
483 (with H. Zeier) Gehirn und Geist. München: Kindler.
484 Event-related potentials in the cerebral cortex. In: Nerve cells, transmitters and behaviour (ed. R. Levi-Montalcini), pp.551-561. Vatican City: Pontifica Academia Scientiarum.
485 Brain, freedom and moral responsibility. Proceedings 8th. Internat Conf. Unity Sciences, pp.147-155. New York: International Cultural Foundation.
486 The emotional brain. Bull.Mem.Acad.R. Med.Belg.125, 697-713.
487 Review of Evolution and consciousness: Human systems in transition, ed. by E. Jantsch & C.H. Waddington. Zygon 15, 438-440.
488 Values and decisions. Review of The biological origins of human values by G.E. Pugh. Higher Educ.Rev. 12, 84-87.
489 New text asserts psychobiology as an independent science. Review of The psychobiology of mind by W.R. Uttal. Bioscience, 29, 482483.
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491 In praise of books. Für Klaus Pipper zum 70 Geburtstag, pp.48-50. München: Pipper & Co. Verlag.
492 The self-conscious mind and the meaning and mystery of personal existence. Teachers College Record, 82, No.3, 403-426.
493 Die Menschliche Personlichkeit: ein wissenschaftliches und philosophisches Problem. Naturw.Rdsch.Stuttg. 34, 227-237.
494 The modular operation of the cerebral neocortex considered as the material basis of mental events. Neuroscience, 6, 1839-1856.
495 Physiology of motor control in man. Appl.Neurophysiol. 44, 5-15.
496 Review of Programs of the brain by J.Z. Young. Quart.Rev.Biol. 54, 361.
497 More on the body-mind problem. Review of The brain's mind: A neuroscience perspective on the mind-body problem, ed. by D. Bendra. Trends Neurosci. 4, No.9, xx.
498 The story of the International Neurobiology Society. IBRO News 9. No.2, 1-3.
499 Obituary: Derek Denny-Brown (1901-1981). IBRO News 9, No.4, 9-10.
500 Sprache, Denken und Gehirn. In: Kindler's Enzyklopädie 'Der Mensch', vol.6, pp.275-304. München: Kindler.
501 Mente. In: Enciclopadie del novecento, 4, 91-102. Instituto Enciclopedie Italiana.
502 Voluntary movement. Freiburger Universitätsblätter, 74, 24-28.
503 Language, thought and brain. Epistemologia 4, 97-126.
504 Cerebral mechanisms in pain perception. Panminerva Med. 24, 1-13.
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506 The synapse: from electrical to chemical transmission. A.Rev.Neurosci. 5, 325-339.
507 The initiation of voluntary movements by the supplementary motor area. Arch.Psychiatr. Nervenkr. 231, 423-441.
508 Review of Organization in the spinal cord by A.G.Brown. Naturwissenschaften, 69, 560.
509 The liaison brain for voluntary movement:the supplementary motor area. Acta Biol.Acad. Sci.Hung. 33, 157-172.
510 Some circuit operations in the mammalian brain. Acta Anat. 113, 325-339.
511 The future of studies on the cerebellum. Expl.Brain Res.Suppl. 6, 607-620.
512 Review of Chemical transmission 75 years, by L. Stjärne, P. Hedqvist, H. Lagercrantz & A. Wennmalm. Neuroscience 7, 2561-2562.
513 Bewusstsein der Tiere und Ich-bewusstsein des Menschen: Ein Ratsel der Evolution. Naturw.Rdsch.Stuttg. 35, 393-399.
514 Our fragile brains. Review of A Christian perspective in brain research by D.G. Jones. Zygon 17, 219-223.
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516 Sir Karl Popper. Arch.Psychiatr.Nervenkr. 232, 1-3.
517 Biographical notes on Janos Szentágothai. Trends Neurosci. 5, 418-419.
518 How the self acts on the brain. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 7, 271-283.
519 Animal consciousness and human self-consciousness. Experientia, 38, 1384-1391.
520 Editor. Mind and brain: the many-faceted problems: selected readings from the Proceedings of the International Conferences on the Unity of the Sciences. Washington: Paragon House.
521 L'uomo e la scienza. In: La cultura strumento di ripresa della vita. pp.24-32. Milano: Jaca Books.
522 The human mystery:a lifelong search for truth. Civitas, 38, 301-305.
523 The horizontal (tangential) fibres system of lamina I of the cerebral cortex. Acta Morphol.Hung. 31, 261-284.
524 Neurobiologia de la intencionalidad: la iniciacion des movimientos voluntarios. Campus, Revisita de la Universidad de Alicante, Primavera, 7-14.
525 Closing remarks. In: Towards the illimitable future in nervous system regeneration (ed. B. Haber, J.R. Perez Polo, G.A. Haslim & A.M.G. Stella), pp.397-405. New York: Alan R. Liss.
526 Das Zeitgefuhl. Naturw.Rdsch.Stuttg. 36, 427-432.
527 The mystery of personal existence. Scholar and Educator, 7, 5-18.
528 Calcium in long-term potentiation as a model for memory. Neuroscience, 10, 1071-1081.
529 The human brain: the challenge to science. IBRO News 11, 13-16.
530 Physiological and pharmacological investigations on pain control. Schweiz.Mschr. Zahnmed. 94, 1004-1013.
531 (with D.N. Robinson) The wonder of being human: our brain, our mind. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan. (Translated into German and Italian.)
532 Review of Local cortical circuits by M. Abeles. Naturwissenschaften, 71, 54.
533 In: Nobel Prize conversations with Sir John Eccles, Roger Sperry, Ilya Prigogine, Brian Josephson, with a commentary by N. Cousins. San Francisco: Saybrook.
534 Mental summation the timing of voluntary intentions by cortical activity. Behav.Brain Sci. 8, 542-543.
535 Do mental events cause neural events analogously to the probability fields of quantum mechanics. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 227, 411-428.
536 L'uoma e il suo cervello. Fondmenti, 5, 133-149.
537 The investigations of N. Tsukahara on relocation of synapses on red nucleus neurones. Neurosci.Res. 3, 476-486.
538 Learning in the motor system. Prog.Brain Res. 64, 3-18
539 Chromatolysis of neurones after axon section. In: Recent achievements in restorative neurology 2: Progressive neuromuscular diseases (ed. M.R. Dimitrijevic, B.A. Kakulas & G. Vrbova), pp.318-331. Basel: S. Karger.
540 Chemical transmission and Dale's principle. Prog.Brain Res. 68, 3-13.
541 Reductionism and upward and downward causation. Biology Forum 79, 381-405.
542 Mechanisms of long-term memory. J.Physiol. Paris 81, 312-317.
543 The effect of silent thinking on the cerebral cortex. In: The brain-mind problem: philosophical and neurophysiological approaches (ed. B. Gulyas), pp.31-60. Leuvin: Leuvin University Press.
544 Mechanisms of learning in complex neural systems. In: Handbook of Physiology, Sect.1. The nervous system, part 1, 137-167. Bethesda: American Physiol.Soc.
545 Neurologically effective nerve growths in the mammalian brain: recent work of Tsukahara and Kawaguchi. In: Clinical aspects of sensory motor integration (ed. A. Struppler & A. Weindl), pp.317-323. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
546 Recollections on the early concepts of the synapse. Synapse, 1, 131-132.
547 Mammalian systems for storing and retrieving memory. In: Cellular mechanisms of conditioning and behavioural plasticity (ed. C.D. Woody. D.L. Alkon & J.L. McGaugh), pp.289-302. New York: Plenum Press.
548 The evolution of the brain: creation of the conscious self. London, New York: Routledge.
549 A unitary hypothesis of mind-brain interaction in the cerebral cortex. Proc.R.Soc.Lond.B 240, 433-451.
550 Physics of brain-mind interactions. Behav.Brain Sci. 13, 662 .
551 Editor with L. Deecke & V.B. Mountcastle. From neuron to action: an appraisal of fundamental and clinical research. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag.
552 Editor with O. Creutzfeldt. The principles of design and operation of the brain. Vatican City: Pontificia Academia Scientiarum.
553 The mind-brain problem revisited. In: The principles of design and operation of the brain (ed. O. Creutzfeldt & J.C. Eccles), pp.549-572. Vatican City: Pontificia Academia Scientiarum.
554 Developing concepts of the synapses. J.Neurosci. 10, 3769-3781.
555 Evolution of consciousness. Proc.Natn.Acad.Sci. USA 89, 7320-7324.
556 (with F. Beck) Quantum aspects of brain activity and the role of consciousness. Proc.Natn.Acad.Sci.USA 89, 11357-11361.
557 Keynote address. In: Rethinking neural networks: quantum fields and biological data. Part 6 of 13 video cassettes, in Ist Appalachian Conference on Neurodynamics (org. K.H. Pribram). Radford University Telecommunications Bureau.
558 The implications of nuclear war on the human being. In: The world-wide implications of nuclear war (ed. E. Etim & S. Stipcich), pp.163-169. 1st Internat. Sem.Nucl.War (1981). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publ.Corp.
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560 Planning for peace. In: The technical basis for peace. (ed. S. Stipcich & W.S. Newman), pp.335-340. 3rd Internat.Sem.Nucl.War (1983). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publ.Corp.
561 Global cooperation. In: The nuclear winter and new defence systems: problems and perspectives. (ed. W.S. Newman & S. Stipcich), pp.468-471. 4th Internat.Sem.Nucl.War (1984). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publ. Corp.
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563 East-West, North-South. In: The great projects for scientific collaboration east-west-north-south (ed. M.Dado), pp. 153-155. 7th Internat.Sem.Nucl.War (1987). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publ. Corp.
564 Features of the brain which are of importance in understanding the mode of operation of toxic substances and the radiation. In: From confrontation to co-operation (ed. M. Dardo), pp 154-165. 8th Internat.Sem.Nucl.War (1988). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publ. Corp
565 The closing session. In: The new emergencies (ed. M. Dardo & K. Goebel), p. 325. 9th Internat.Sem.Nucl.War (1989). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publ. Corp
566 How the brain gives the experience of pain. Int.J.Tissue React. 16, 3-17.
567 How the self controls its brain. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag.
568 (with F. Beck) Quantum processes in the brain: A scientific basis for consciousness. Cognitive Studies 5, 95-109.
David R. Curtis AC, FRS, FAA, Emeritus Professor of the Australian National University.
Per Andersen, Professor of Neurophysiology, Institute for Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Norway.