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Academic and administrative policies and procedures that affect all students in SCS and at Georgetown University can be found on the Academic Affairs Handbook page.
Frequently Asked Questions
Application and Eligibility
Academics and Transfer Credit
The Georgetown University Downtown Campus and Washington, DC, Area
International Students
Who should apply?
Qualified candidates are well-rounded students who demonstrate academic ability, professional composure, ambition, leadership, maturity, and involvement in campus activities and community service. The SWP admissions committee looks at every application as a whole.
Are international students eligible?
Yes. SWP will review applications from international students enrolled in undergraduate or graduate schools in the U.S. (Please review the special guidelines for international students.) Due to the Semester in Washington Program's internship requirement, Georgetown University is unable to issue immigration documents for students who are not currently in the United States in F-1 status. F-1 students who have been studying full time at a U.S. institution for at least one academic year, and have an active SEVIS record, may transfer their SEVIS record to Georgetown University and apply for Curricular Practical Training (CPT) in order to participate in the internship component, or get the CPT authorization through their home institution. Students may enroll in a BALS 3-credit elective instead of an internship. International students in both F-1 and J-1 status who wish to apply for this program are advised to speak with SCS International Programs representative in advance of submitting their application: 202-687-6455 or firstname.lastname@example.com
Which academic program should I apply for?
You should apply to the program whose curriculum and internship placement most closely matches your academic and professional interests. In your selection you are not limited to your declared major. You may apply to any program that best matches your individual interests and goals. If you have questions about particular programs or have difficulty deciding which program to select, please contact the assistant dean to discuss your program choices.
I will be a freshman this spring. Can I apply?
The Admissions committee will consider those freshmen with an exceptionally strong academic record and a demonstrated ability to work in a professional setting. In general, SWP considers applications from juniors, seniors, some graduate students and students who have graduated the previous semester.
I will graduate this spring. Can I apply for the summer program?
Yes. Graduating seniors can apply for the summer program.
I am a Georgetown University student. Can I apply for the Semester in Washington Program?
Georgetown University degree-seeking students are not eligible to apply for the Semester in Washington Program unless they are graduating seniors. Please contact the program should you have any questions.
Do all of my materials need to be submitted at the same time?
No. You may submit your application before or after your supplemental material is received. You may also send materials in different packages as they will be added to your file as the materials are received. However, your application will not be considered complete until all materials have been received.
How should I submit my supplemental materials?
You can register your recommender for the online recommendation and have them fill out the form electronically. Should your recommender need a paper copy instead, you can download it (in the online application) from the Supplemental Forms page.
You can also ask your recommender to mail, fax, or (scan and) e-mail the recommendation directly to the SWP Office of Admissions.
All relevant official transcript(s) need to be submitted in a sealed, signed envelope via mail.
Do I need to have an internship in order to apply?
No. If you do not already have an internship when you apply, Georgetown University provides SWP students with a network of organizations and extensive guidance and assistance in identifying and securing an internship position. The SWP internship advisor helps you find and select an internship that aligns with your individual academic and professional interests.
What is the fee for applying?
The application fee is $50.00 and is non-refundable.
How do I pay the application fee?
You should submit payment online using a major credit card.
Where do I send my application materials?
Semester in Washington Program, Georgetown University, Office of Admissions, 640 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20001
When will I be notified of my admission status?
The admissions process is on a rolling basis. Therefore, the admissions committee reviews all applications within two to three weeks after they are complete. Applicants will be notified immediately upon acceptance into the program via e-mail.
Can I sign up as a part-time student?
No; all students who are U.S. citizens or who are enrolled in an undergraduate program in the U.S. must take 6 credits in the summer program. International students requiring a visa through Georgetown University have to be full-time students.
How many credits will I earn for the semester?
In the summer term, students earn a total of 6 credits: 3 credits for the internship and accompanying academic seminar; and an additional 3 credits by taking the guided independent research seminar.
Students may enroll in a BALS 3-credit elective instead of an internship.
Please note: Your home institution makes the final determination concerning all transfer requirements, including minimum course and GPA criteria and whether or not the course credits and GPA earned here can count at your home institution. Please review the policies of your home institution, school, and major department regarding study elsewhere and transfer credit before enrolling in courses at Georgetown.
How do I transfer credit back to my home school?
Every student's home academic institution, school, and major department can have its own unique transfer policies and procedures. We recommend that all SWP students review the policies of their home institution regarding study elsewhere and transfer credit before enrolling in courses at Georgetown. In many cases, students need advance, written permission from their home institution in order to have credits earned elsewhere be considered for transfer back to those institutions. Please note: Your home institution makes the final determination concerning all transfer requirements, including minimum course and GPA criteria and whether or not the GPA earned here can count in your home institution's GPA. At the conclusion of your studies, you will receive an official Georgetown transcript listing your classes and final grades earned. This document will be required by your home school to complete their official transfer review.
What is the daily schedule for the academic seminar?
Due to the experiential learning nature of the academic seminar, the schedule varies from week to week. Your professor will provide you with a course syllabus online prior to the start of the semester as well as on your first day of class, which will give you a general overview for the semester. Over the course of the semester, you will receive specific dates and times on a weekly basis.
How do I find out what my textbooks are?
On your first day of classes, you will meet with your professors, receive the syllabi, and find out which books you need to purchase. You can purchase them at the University bookstore. If you want to order your textbooks early, for example through an independent seller such as amazon.com, please contact your professor.
What kind of research topic can I choose in the individual programs?
The SWP research seminar allows students to touch on a timely and relevant topic within their field of study while here in Washington. Students are encouraged to utilize all the unique resources of the Washington, DC, to complete original research.
Students may enroll in a BALS 3-credit elective instead of an internship.
Do I need to find an internship before I get to Washington?
No; SWP students can secure and start their internships after they arrive.
How do I find an internship?
To secure an internship, Georgetown University provides SWP students with a network of organizations and extensive guidance and assistance in identifying and securing an internship position. The Internship Advisor guides students in selecting an internship that aligns with their academic and professional goals. Georgetown University provides advice on every aspect of the internship, including resume preparation, interview techniques, and professional networking.
Can I set up my own internship?
Yes. Some of the students already have secured an internship when they apply to the program. We work with every student to ensure that the internship matches the student's individual academic and professional goals, that it provides a substantive experience, and that it fulfills the program requirements. If you wish to discuss your internship prior to applying or the start of the program, please contact the SWP program.
Does my internship have to be directly related to my academic seminar?
Most SWP students choose internships that are related to their academic seminars. However, we encourage students to apply to internships that most closely match their academic and professional interests. In your selection you are not limited to your selected program area and may apply to any internship that best matches your individual interests and goals. If you have questions about particular internships or have difficulty deciding which internship to select, please contact the SWP Internship Advisor to discuss your choices.
How many hours per week and which days do I have to work as an intern?
During the summer term you will work as an intern five full days per week, Monday through Friday with the exception of one morning a week from 8:30-10:30am, when you will attend your academic seminar.
What is the cost of the program?
For tuition rates, please visit our admissions section.
Georgetown University participates in consortium agreements whereby the students' Federal Financial Aid transfers to Georgetown University for the semester. Please check with your home college/university Office of Financial Aid to ensure their participation in this transfer agreement prior to enrolling in SWP. Please contact the SWP office for any questions regarding this policy. As a student enrolled in SWP you are enrolled as a non-degree seeking student with Georgetown University; therefore, are not eligible to apply for Federal Financial Aid through Georgetown University because of the non-degree status.
How much will my books cost?
The cost for books varies according to individual classes and programs. Most professors require a combination of books that you have to purchase and academic articles that are available in electronic format, such as in the library, on BlackBoard, or on the Internet. The estimated cost for your books is $500.00.
What other expenses will I have?
Other expenses include personal expenses, such as for transportation, Metro cards, site visits (not affiliated with classes), and daily meals.
When do I have to pay my tuition?
The summer tuition due date can be found by visiting the Office of Student Accounts.
For the upcoming semesters, please contact SWP office for any questions related to housing.
How do I get to the Georgetown University campus?
In 2013, the Georgetown University School of Continuing Studies moved to a new, principal space located at 640 Massachusetts Ave., NW, in downtown Washington, DC. The new Georgetown Downtown campus helps the School fulfill its mission of educating students to be self-reflective, critical thinkers who are committed to serving others.
How should I dress for classes and my internship?
In Washington, DC, the office dress code is business professional or business casual. SWP students are expected to dress professionally for guest lectures and briefings on- and off-campus but not for regular class. Interns are normally expected to dress in a professional manner: usually coats and ties are required for men; suits, dresses, or pantsuits are usually required for women.
What is it like to live in Washington, DC?
Washington is a major, cosmopolitan city that is famous for its architecture, history, museums, restaurants, and events. Its cultural attractions include numerous monuments and landmarks, more than 90 museums and galleries, the Smithsonian Institution and the National Zoo, as well as a vibrant theatre and music scene. Many museums and events, including the 19 museums of the Smithsonian complex, music festivals on the Mall, and book readings, are free to the public. Home to various research institutions, non-profit organizations, and Capitol Hill, students have access to a variety of academic events, including lectures, seminars, conferences, hearings, and symposia that are also open and often free to the public.
Will I need a car in Washington, DC to get around the city?
Absolutely not! DC has a wealth of public transportation services that are the most efficient and quickest form of travel from one point in the city to another. You have several options for transportation in the Metropolitan Washington, DC area.
Georgetown University Transportation System (GUTS)
SWP students may use the University operated (GUTS), free shuttle buses that run regularly between the University and the Red Line (Dupont Circle), the Orange and Blue Lines (Rosslyn), the Georgetown Law Center (Downtown DC/Capitol Hill) and Wisconsin Ave. NW.
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA)
In addition, students may take the bus or metro rail. The WMATA is a safe, accessible, clean, and reliable transportations system, operating in DC, suburban Maryland and Northern Virginia. Metro has five lines: the Blue, Orange, Red, Green and Yellow. The nearest Metro stops to Georgetown University are in Rosslyn (Blue and Orange lines), Foggy Bottom (Blue and Orange lines) and Dupont Circle (Red line).
Bus routes cover most of the city; the G-2 bus stops directly outside the main gates of the campus, traveling to and from the Metro stop at Dupont Circle (Red line).
Are international students eligible to apply?
Yes. The SWP accepts applications from all undergraduate and some graduate students, including international students studying at national institutions of higher education. Due to the Semester in Washington Program's internship requirement, Georgetown University is unable to issue immigration documents for students who are not currently in the United States in F-1 status. F-1 students who have been studying full time at a U.S. institution for at least one academic year, and have an active SEVIS record, may transfer their SEVIS record to Georgetown University and apply for Curricular Practical Training (CPT) in order to participate in the internship component, or get the CPT authorization through their home institution. Students may enroll in a BALS 3-credit elective instead of an internship. International students in both F-1 and J-1 status who wish to apply for this program are advised to speak with SCS International Programs representative, 202-687-6455 or firstname.lastname@example.com, in advance of submitting their application.
Is there a special deadline for international students?
While there is no special deadline for international students to apply to SWP, students who will need to apply for Curricular Practical Training (CPT) through Georgetown University have to send additional documentation, and therefore should plan in advance.
Do I need to send proof of English proficiency?
International students applying to SWP who are enrolled in a degree-granting institution in the U.S. and have immigration documents issued by a university in the U.S. do not need to a) submit proof of English proficiency and b) follow special application deadlines for the program.


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Roderick Demond Manuel
Position: DE
Height: 6-5 Weight: 290 lbs.
Born: October 8, 1974 in Fort Worth, TX
High School: Western Hills
College: Oklahoma (school history)
Drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the 6th round (199th overall) of the 1997 NFL Draft.
Weighted Career AV (100-95-...): 0 (15060th overall since 1950)

subset: commoncrawl


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All Items : Glassware : Depression : Companies : Cambridge : Pre 1940 item #1050953 (stock #CA117)
Glass From The Past
This Cambridge Amethyst set includes the following, all in excellent condition, no flaws: 8 3/4" #1320 14 oz amethyst decanter with crystal base and stopper; and 5 of the #1341 1 oz amethyst cordials. A 10" silverplate decorated tray is included as a bonus! A stunning, vintage set in great condition. Made c 1930s/1940s.


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7-Ring Binder, CPD Logo$29.99Leather planner with the CPD emblem debossed on front. Can use with the Frankline planner inserts. PVC cover, ID clear insert pouch. Pen loop, 50 lined page inserts. Measures 7" x 9.25" x 1". Learn More
All-Weather Geocaching Diary$8.99Don't let a little wet weather dampen your treasure hunt. This notebook's waterproof paper and plastic cover ensure your entries stay safe and legible even in the harshest conditions-you can even write on the paper when it's wet! Made from postconsumer recycled materials, this eco-friendly journal includes 40 lined pages, plus title page with spaces for your personal information. Spiral-bound design measures 3¾" x 5". Learn More
Be Prepared Paperweight
Starting at:
$28.99Heavy-cast alloy paperweight is polished to an impressive finish and features selected program medallions in sculpted detail. Measures approximately 3 1/2" across. Universal Emblem shown. Learn More
Boy Scout™ Trail Journal$9.99There are areas in this Journal to record thoughts as each youth travels the Trail to Eagle. Learn More


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Landmark International Hotel Tianhe Guangzhou
- Location: Guangzhou Railway Station,Tianhe Sports Center
- Address: 39-49, Linle Road, Tianhe district, Guangzhou
- Tel: 020 3785 5988 (Book this hotel, call 800-2682918)
- Hotel Name in Chinese: 广州华厦国际商务酒店
- Lowest Price: On Request
First opened in 2006, the Landmark International Hotel stands in the heart of Tianhe Central Business District. It is conveniently located just 25 minutes from the Pazhou Complex and 20 minutes from Baiyun International Airport. With modern amenities and easy access to attractions, it caters to business and leisure travelers.
The 198 comfortable guestrooms feature complimentary broadband Internet access. Guests can watch cable and satellite channels along with an in-house movie channel. Rooms come equipped with refrigerators, mini-bars and coffee and tea makers. Bathrooms feature separate bathtubs and showers. All rooms have adjustable air conditioning, alarm clocks and secure safes.
The hotel restaurant serves a variety of Western and Chinese cuisine. Guests can work out at the health and fitness center, play table tennis, chess or poker or relax at the sauna. The multilingual staff are available 24 hours a day. The business center offers copy, fax and translation services.
- First aid is available at the hotel.
- Valet parking and express check-in and check-out make getting in and out easy.
- The staff can provide childcare.
- The hotel includes a gift shop and a professional hair and beauty salon.
- This hotel includes several handicap accessibility features.
- Payment Method: pay using our secure online payment service or pay at the hotel at some hotels.
- Triple/quad occupancy may require an extra bed at extra cost.
Hotel Amenities
|Hotel Services
|Luggage service, Car rentals, Laundry service, Child care, Room service, Express check-in/check-out, Medical clinic service, Currency Exchange, Wake Up Call, Parking Service, 24hr Reception, Permanent English-speaking staff, Business Centre, Copy Service, E-mail, Translation Service, Fax Service, Typing Service
|Room Amenities
|Air conditioning, AM/FM radio, Alarm clock, Color Television, Cable/satellite TV, Complimentary newspaper, Coffee/tea maker, Telephone, Hair dryer, In-room safe, Electronic Lock, Iron and ironing board, Refrigerator, Mini Bar, Bath and Shower, In-house movies, Internet access
Hotel Amenities: Elevator, Parking, Air-Conditioned Facilities, Beauty Salon, Sauna, Business Center, Gift Shop, Gymnasium , Suitable for wheelchairs, Meeting Room, Ballroom, Deposit Box at Front Desk, Fire Detector, KTV, Chess & Playing Cards Room, Table Tennis room, Wifi
Dining Facilities: Chinese Restaurant, Cafe, Lounge Bar
Print the Taxi Directions
- Please drive me to Landmark International Hotel Tianhe Guangzhou, thank you!
- 请送我到广州华厦国际商务酒店,谢谢
- Address: 39-49, Linle Road, Tianhe district, Guangzhou
- 地址: 天河区林乐路39号-49号
- Tel: 020 3785 5988
Similar Hotels as Landmark International Hotel Tianhe Guangzhou
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From: $ 15
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From: $ 17
Motel 168 of Huadu Guangzhou
From: $ 17
Check out the list of all 449 hotels in Guangzhou


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March 29, 2013- First and foremost, I want everyone to know that I did not knowingly take any P.E.D., nor do I believe I unknowingly took any P.E.D.
The facts are as follows:
My camp, at my instruction, requested WADA level testing in connection with my bout with Lamont Peterson. Post bout urine samples were sent to the WADA accredited laboratory testing lab in Salt Lake City.
We repeatedly attempted to obtain the lab results from the D.C. Commission, with no success until yesterday. We did, however, receive an email from the Commission stating that both fighters had passed their test. Nonetheless we wanted the actual lab results.
Yesterday we received those lab results. The lab results were not identified by fighter but one of the results showed an elevated HCG level. It was labeled as an ""Atypical Finding."
There are three levels of findings for WADA testing. There is a "negative" finding, meaning that the athlete has tested "negative" for prohibited substances, there is an "Adverse Analytical Finding," meaning that there is a prohibited substance, and there is an "Atypical Finding", meaning there should be further investigation. In part this is because there are certain medical conditions, which can cause elevated HCG levels.
We briefly believed that the test involved was that of Mr. Peterson. In fact it may be mine.
At this point, we do not have a full chain of custody report, which we will obtain. We will also, once the full chain of custody report is obtained, have the "B" sample tested. Finally, when that is completed we will have the medical tests as indicated by the results.
deepwater says: At this point I do not care anymore. Take all the drugs you want. Do an 8 ball in the locker room. Just give me some good fights. This nonsense is turning people away. Back alley fights are better then this bs.
Agreed DP.
Even if any of them are telling the truth, I just can't understand why they would pay and engage WADA or anyone with such a set of operational processes, where this garbage can happen.
And if they didn't bother to check, read the organisation's protocols, and ask about what happens when/if someone tests positive, false positive or negative - and who gets access to what information; then that's even more concerning.
And if they did actually bother to ask, and they told you that they would do exactly what they're doing, and then you still went with them anyway; far out man....
Sounds to me like everyone is avoiding VADA because they do a good job and have already caught out some; whilst at the same they're hell bent on employing and paying testing labs of lesser quality - so they can all pretend that they didn't have any idea that it would be so hard to get the correct information when/if someone tested positive.
Meanwhile the ambiguity grows and no one is the wiser.
Either get VADA and give them a free reign on speaking and responding, or let the athletes dope up as much as they like so long as their opponents know.
But whatever you do, please stop this BS and treating boxing and it's fans s like we're a bunch numb-nuts that will believe every single time there is a positive PED test; its either not the athletes fault, or the lab screwed up, or someone reported it wrongly. Or all.
This is getting like listening to Lance Armstrong a few years ago.
WADA needs to be eliminated asap they don't have any idea what the fu©k there doing.
I'm with Deepwater. I truly don't care anymore . Take whatever you want... All fighters ...any fights ... Any weight ..may the beat cheater win. Lmfao.
Who will win the Sergey Kovalev vs Andre Ward fight?


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You may be thinking, "Pineapple and peanut butter together in a smoothie? Really?" This smoothie happens to be the perfect combination of sweet and savory, and truly brings an interesting texture to your taste buds. Since the pineapple and peanut butter are both strong flavors, they both stand out as equally prominent ingredients.
Martha Stewart's Whole Living Smoothies App (which can be downloaded from the App Store on iTunes) blends together this tasty smoothie recipe that is filling enough to be its own meal. It's also an ideal smoothie to get you ready for the summer and warm weather!
Next time you need a refreshing boost to start your day, try this smoothie for breakfast. Not only is it quick to make using only five ingredients, but its ingredients add a ton of healthy perks and nutritional value. The all-natural peanut butter provides protein and fiber, whereas the pineapple provides manganese (a mineral required to metabolize food) and bromelain (an enzyme that aids digestion and staves off inflammation). The Whole Living Smoothies App includes these useful health benefits along with the recipe. Don't miss out on this yummy, heart healthy and gluten-free smoothie!
Ingredients (serves 2):
- 2 cups diced pineapple
- 1/2 cup all-natural smooth peanut butter
- 1/2 cup low-fat Greek yogurt
- 1/2 teaspoon pure vanilla extract
- 1/2 cup ice
Combine all ingredients in a blender; blend until smooth.
Start blending now and enjoy!


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Drawing and Painting the Seashore
Questions About This Book?
What version or edition is this?
What is included with this book?
- The New copy of this book will include any supplemental materials advertised. Please check the title of the book to determine if it should include any CDs, lab manuals, study guides, etc.
Drawing and Painting the Seashore is the perfect guide for nature lovers who want to draw and paint with watercolours. It begins with a brief history of seaside scenes in art, a guide to the materials required and the basics of drawing. This is followed by step-by-step, illustrated instructions on how to draw plants, seashells, marine birds, fish, and a range of classic seaside landscapes, from sand dunes to shingles. The author explains how to master tricky elements such as reflections on the water or the mother-of-pearl in a seashell with clear, labelled diagrams and plenty of hints and tips. Beautifully illustrated, this book will delight any artist who loves the seaside.


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|Box Office - admissions (www.cine21.com & www.kobis.or.kr)
You're reading the news with potential spoilers, make them spoiler free, dismiss
2016/06/27 | | Permalink
"Independence Day: Resurgence" arrives and thrives under Korean conditions...
It's been two decades since Roland Emmerich's aliens met Will Smith in "Independence Day", but now the invading extraterrestrials and back for another attack on our Pale Blue Dot. "Independence Day: Resurgence", also directed by Emmerich, but still short a Smith, arrived in Korea on Wednesday and landed firmly in first place with 695,000 admissions (35.7%) across 926 screens...More
The number one movie this week is "Independence Day: Resurgence"...More
2016/06/20 | | Permalink
Disney's "The Jungle Book" remains king...
Jon Favreau's "The Jungle Book" retained pole position over the weekend by capturing 27.3% of the box office pie. From the 898 screens allocated, "The Jungle Book" attracted 619 thousand admissions bringing its total to 4.6 million admissions ($12.6 million) since its release two weeks ago. Walt Disney's digitally refreshed version of this classic tale was produced for an estimated $175 million; worldwide, it's already grossed $922.4 million and is fast on its way to reaching the billion-dollar mark...More
The number one movie this week is "The Jungle Book"...More
"The Wailing", directed by Na Hong-jin, attracted some 5.82 million moviegoers last month to top the local box office, according to the Korea Film Council on Wednesday...More
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52nd Baeksang Arts Awards 2016Winners in Movies
Movie of the week
Today's birthdays


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SUZUKI Financial Services has launched a new contract hire operation in partnership with its long established finance provider Black Horse.
There are currently 66,000 contract hire customers in theUKoperating 1.5 million vehicles and with a growing appetite for rental products in the marketplace a dealer-based contract hire product provides an opportunity to reach new business customers, says Suzuki, particularly when around 20% are companies operating 40 or fewer vehicles.
Suzuki Contract Hire will, says the organisation, provide definite growth opportunities with potential customers in local communities such as estate agents, solicitors and accountants being targeted.
Suzuki Financial Services general manager Gary Dixon said: 'Black Horse created a new personal contract hire product specifically for private individuals and, with our partners at Lex Autolease, a contract hire product for business users, including fleet operators.
'Both products offer customers – individuals or business customers – the opportunity of a fixed cost, flexible term, low-risk rental agreement, which can be easily arranged with dealers.'


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Annenberg Learner
Annenberg Learner is a Washington, DC-based multimedia division of the Annenberg Foundation that funds and distributes educational video programs along with coordinated web and print materials to improve teaching methods and subject-matter expertise of K-12 teachers.
Many programs are also intended for students in the classroom and viewers at home. Annenberg Learner materials are used in K-12 schools and also in non-commercial community agencies, as well as colleges and universities.
Annenberg Learner delivers its more than 100 multimedia courses and workshops free through learner.org. Its website, which also houses interactive activities, downloadable guides, and resources coordinated with each video series, receives more than 13 million visits per month from teachers and learners worldwide.
Annenberg Learner was known variously as the Annenberg/CPB Project, the Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project, and Annenberg/CPB from the mid-1980s through 2003. During this period, it was a project contracted by the Annenberg Foundation located at the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. In 2004, the project was incorporated into the Annenberg Foundation. Between 2004 through 2010 it operated under the name Annenberg Media. In 2011, it became Annenberg Learner. Annenberg Learner now leads the field in providing free educational resources online.


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Everett William 'Billy' Davis
Published: Wednesday, February 20, 2013 at 3:32 p.m.
Last Modified: Wednesday, February 20, 2013 at 3:32 p.m.
Everett William "Billy" Davis, 41, of Lexington, passed away Saturday, Feb. 16, 2013, at Wake Forest Baptist Health — Lexington Medical Center.
A celebration of life will be at 2 p.m. Friday at Freedom Baptist Church, 214 Hillcrest Drive.
He was born May 3, 1971, in Lexington to Everett Hillary Davis and Judy Helms Davis. Billy was owner and operator of a floor covering business. He was of the Baptist faith, and since his disability he enjoyed watching TV. In addition to his parents, he was preceded in death by wife Donna Cooper, who died Aug. 15, 2012, and one granddaughter.
Those left to cherish her memories are daughter Haleigh Davis of Lexington; stepson Bradley Cooper of Salisbury; stepdaughters Laura Fuller of Salisbury and Ashley Davis of Lexington; sister Kelly King of Lexington; brother Marty Davis of Virginia; six very special grandsons; nieces Taylor Davis, Ashley Nelson, Nikki King and Blair Davis; and nephew Kris Davis.
Lyerly Funeral Home is serving the Davis family.
Online condolences may be made at www.lyerlyfuneralhome.com.
Reader comments posted to this article may be published in our print edition. All rights reserved. This copyrighted material may not be re-published without permission. Links are encouraged.


text:
Local salon Dear Clark Hair Studio, who we named as one of the city's top ten salons in our March issue, has launched a haircare line to celebrate its fifth anniversary. Most places throw parties with cocktails, but not Dear Clark. Instead, owners Holly Dear and Kaycee Clark took on a new project and created a collection of apothecary-inspired haircare products for damaged hair. All Texas made, the set includes Resurrecting Wash and Rinse, Thickening Balm, Smoothing Elixir, and Finishing Salve. The earthy, herbal scented remedies include locally sourced ingredients, like rose of Jericho, sunflower seed oil, and aloe vera, and run from $22 to $24. Pick them up in the McKinney Avenue salon or on Dear Clark's newly revamped website.
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Samson Agonistes
by John Milton
Samson Agonistes Samson with the giant, Harapha (1061—1305) Summary
- Uh-oh. The Chorus sees a storm a-brewing, and asks if they should think about leaving.
- Samson says that storms often come up out of nowhere, but the Chorus cryptically replies that they're talking about a different kind of storm. Oh, spit it out already, Samson says, and they answer that a giant named Harapha is approaching, looking haughty.
- They suspect, though aren't sure, that he comes in peace. Not wearing armor is a good clue. Samson says he doesn't care why he's coming and the Chorus astutely remarks that they'll know what he wants soon enough because he's almost there.
- Harapha arrives and says he's not there, like everyone else, to sympathize with Samson, although he wishes things hadn't they gone the way they did—but for reasons having nothing to do with Samson's well-being.
- He introduces himself as Harapha from Gath who comes from a famous family of giants (but not this one) and says that if Samson hasn't heard of him, Samson is pretty much nobody.
- Harapha knows all about Samson, though—all his strength and fighting skills—so it's too bad they never had the chance to duke it out themselves.
- Anyway, he's here to see what's up. Samson replies that the only real way to get to know him is to experience his strength, not to see him. Harapha is surprised that Samson seems to be challenging him since, you know, forced labor usually wears people down.
- He continues to whine about never having a chance to fight Samson on the battlefield and is sure he would have dominated Samson completely. This would have set the record straight about whether Palestine or Philistine has the better hero. Now, he can't ever gain that honor from Samson since it's never cool to fight a blind guy. Well, he's right about that.
- Samson tells him to stop bragging about things he would have done and actually do something right now.
- But Harapha insists that he wouldn't stoop so low as to fight someone who's blind, not to mention that Samson "hast need much washing to be toucht" (1108).
- Samson responds that Harapha's leaders didn't seem to mind treacherously betraying Samson since they were so afraid of his strength, stooping so low as to bribe his own wife to do it. Why don't they just fight somewhere really narrow and empty so that Harapha's sight won't give him much advantage? Harapha can show up in all his fancy armor and Samson will just come with a wooden club, but he'll beat Harapha so hard Harapha will wish he'd never actually put his boasts to the test.
- Harapha doesn't think Samson should be so cocky about not wearing armor. Lots of distinguished warriors wear armor, and it doesn't have some kind of magic in it. But Samson's strength, well, that is some kind of magical, God-given ability. Although, seriously, God, why put it in his hair, which is basically the weakest part of your body?
- Samson responds that his strength isn't magical at all but comes from his real God who gave it to him since birth. And, here's a shocker, he says it does exist in his whole body; keeping his hair uncut was just a sign of his promise to God.
- Why doesn't Harapha go to Dagon's temple and pray to him to make Samson's "magic" strength go away and to make Harapha Dagon's number one champion? Then, when he and Samson fight, and Samson wins, it'll be obvious whose God is stronger.
- Harapha doesn't think Samson is really in any position to be bragging about this god of his. (He has a point.)
- It's clear this god has completely abandoned Samson, leaving him in the hands of his enemies to be blinded and imprisoned. And it's not as if Samson's special-hair-strength has really helped him out—all it took was a good barber to defeat him. Or not even a good barber—just a dude with a pair of scissors.
- It's cool, Samson says. He takes all of Harapha's insults as punishments from his God, who will one day forgive him. And he challenges Harapha once more to duke it out for the gods.
- Harapha doesn't think Samson's god would be very honored to have Samson as his defender, since Samson is a murderer, a robber, and a rebel.
- Oh yeah? Samson says. How's that? Harapha says that since Samson's leaders gave the Philistines control of their country, all of Samson's so-called brave actions were actually crimes of murder and theft against his own government. Samson says that he married a Philistine, in a Philistine ceremony, so he doesn't understand how Harapha can call him an enemy. It was the Philistine who betrayed him at his own wedding, threatening his bride if she didn't spill his secrets. His country was conquered with force to begin with, and Samson, as a heaven-sent savior of his country, had to act as he did according to his own personal sense of duty. If his leaders disagreed with his actions and disowned him, that's their problem, not his.
- Samson then asks Harapha again to respond to his challenge. Note: the next bit is a lot of back and forth. It's basically fancy-sounding trash-talk: you come over here and say that to my face; no you come say that to my face. Rinse and repeat.
- Harapha can't believe Samson is actually serious. Who in his right mind would fight with a condemned criminal?
- Samson asks if this is all that Harapha came for, to just look at him and pass some judgment on him? Samson dares him to come a little closer and really experience Samson's strength.
- Harapha can't believe that he has to stand there and take such insults without killing Samson in return.
- Oh, Samson asks? What's stopping him? He should come over and take his best shot. Harapha says he'll find a better answer to Samson's insolence. He better go, says Samson, otherwise Samson might just tackle him to the floor and smash his brains in (yep, it gets a little graphic here).
- Harapha leaves, promising Samson that he'll regret having been so insulting to him.
- The Chorus remarks that Harapha leaves looking much less confident than when he first arrived.
- Samson says he isn't afraid of Harapha, or any of his giant family, even if they are all descended from Goliath.
- Brain bite time! Does Goliath sound familiar? Maybe a certain David and Goliath? The story of David and Goliath is from (you guess it) the Bible. Goliath is big, mean Philistine giant; David is a little Jewish boy. They battle it out, and guess who wins? Well, duh.
- David single-handedly defeats Goliath with the help of his nifty slingshot. Check out the book of Samuel I for the full story.
- But the Chorus is worried that Harapha is going to go straight to the Philistine officials and make life even more difficult for Samson.
- Nah. Harapha will be too embarrassed to explain the whole story, since refusing to accept Samson's challenge will make him look bad. Besides, how could life get any worse? And anyway, anyone who helps Samson die is actually doing him a favor.
- The Chorus, not really responding to what Samson has just said, talks about how wonderful it is when oppressed people are given a strong and valiant defender who squash the mighty in the name of truth and gloriously conquer evildoers. Saints, on the other hand, are more patient and have their strength put to test in that way.
- The Chorus says Samson might be either of these types of heroes, but his present situation makes him closer to the saint at the moment. They remark that this holiday hasn't been particularly relaxing for Samson because he's been doing so much mental labor.
- Seriously. We're exhausted just reading it.
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In examining a language of civilization spoken throughout a vast area, one is faced with the problem of identifying the variant to be discussed. Different forms of pronunciation, and different idioms, are found even within one area of use, such as Great Britain or the United States, as well as between these and other countries in which English is widely used. Here a form of popular literature is chosen for examples, and in this way assumed to be a standard: Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking Glass (1872). The references in parentheses following citations indicate page numbers in The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll (New York: Random House, n.d.).
Both pieces are read today without difficulty. The differing pronunciations in New Zealand, Australia, and other areas where English is spoken have no effect on the grammatical structures, or even the phonological structure, in the view of some linguists. The language of Lewis Carroll might for the most part be used today in speech, as well as in writing. Accordingly his texts are taken as representative of English today as well as a century ago. Fixing on such texts reduces the possibility of drawing on idiosyncratic materials, whether from one's own speech or from that of others. The English exemplified here is then in a careful, popular literary style designed for understanding by children but accepted as a standard by native speakers of all ages.
English is a highly consistent SVO language. The government constructions observe SVO patterns, as do the nominal modifying constructions — with the exception of descriptive and limiting adjectives in an archaic order. As a consistent language, English exemplifies characteristic features of SVO languages, such as the many patterns that have been developed in the verbal modifying constructions, the wide use of substitutes, and the grammatical processes used to highlight elements of sentences.
The verbal patterns make heavy use of auxiliaries, which are also involved as substitutes and in interrogative and negative constructions, differentiating English in this way from (S)OV languages like Japanese and VSO languages like Easter Island. The grammatical processes involve function words, again in distinctive constructions like clefting. An examination of the characteristic typological patterns presented below in accordance with the patterns listed in section 1.3, then discloses on the one hand the expected constructions found in SVO languages and on the other the basic structure of English.
Simple, unmarked clauses agree with the SVO pattern, and require representations for the three constituents: subject, verb, and object.
|Alice folded her hands. (55)
|*Folded her hands.
|*Alice her hands.
|*Alice folded.
|*Folded Alice her hands.
|*Folded her hands Alice.
|?Her hands folded Alice.
|?Her hands Alice folded.
|?Alice her hands folded.
This constraint applies also in subordination, as in the sequence:
|Margaret fidgeted while Alice folded her hands.
Inasmuch as the basic patterns of English are so consistent, this essay will discuss at some length consequences of SVO structure. One of these has to do with the expression of verbal qualifiers. In accordance with the principle expressed in section 1.3, verbal qualifiers must precede verbs. This position, however, conflicts with the optimum position for subjects. To express negation, for example, the negative might be prefixed to the verb, as it indeed was in Old English, so that the negative of (1) might be:
|*Alice ne-folded her hands.
|*Ne Alice folded her hands.
Moreover, SVO languages typically require the S position to be filled, as well as the V and O positions, though with well-defined exceptions, in contrast with simple verb sentences in OV languages. To meet this requirement, substitutes are prominent, as in the following variants of sentence 1.
|She folded her hands.
|The griffon folded its wings. Alice did her hands.
|The griffon folded its wings and Alice her hands.
|Alice folded them.
Further, the characteristics of SVO languages have given rise to special constructions. Thus, if the requirement for the S to be placed before the V were rigidly observed, an awkward style would result, and also special emphasis on the S. Devices then have been developed to offset these difficulties, such as the passive. This is a construction which permits the object to be the theme. Passives are especially characteristic of SVO and VSO languages. Other similar devices, such as clefting, also have largely a functional role.
This chapter then illustrates the characteristics of SVO languages, not simply the conformance of English with the expected patterns.
In contrast with OV languages, the subject is the mandatory nominal constituent of SVO languages, as in sentences with intransitive verbs, or in equational sentences.
|Alice turned.
|I shall be too late.
|Substantive Copula Adjective
|I'm not a serpent.
|Substantive Copula Substantive
|The face is over.
|Substantive Copula Adverb
|(2.1) and (30)
|It was Alice who turned.
|(2.3) and (VI.1)
|A serpent I'm not.
|(2.3) and (VI.2)
|I am not a serpent.
Government operates strongly in English, both in predicates and in other government constructions. Only prepositions are used in current English except for specific idioms; ago, as in two years ago, may be viewed as a postposition, but it is severely restricted in use, as may be illustrated by the attention given to Dylan Thomas's phrase: a grief ago.
|Then Alice dodged behind a great thistle. (50)
Moreover, constructions with a standard place this after the variable. In comparisons of inequality the adjective precedes the standard.
|It's very easy to take more than nothing. (81)
|Queen Alice. (258)
|Alice Pleasance Liddell. (272)
As in other SVO languages, the position of relative constructions is determined by the VO constituent. They regularly follow nouns, avoiding in this way disruption of the verb-object constituent. The relationship of relative constructions to their antecedents is so clear that if an object is the shared noun of the relative clause no marker is needed; which or that is often omitted, as after rules in the following example:
|All because they would not remember the simple rules their friends had taught them. (22)
|The only two creatures in the kitchen, that did not sneeze, were the cook, and a large cat, which was lying on the hearth and grinning from ear to ear. (66)
|There stood the Queen in front of them, with her arms folded, frowning like a thunder-storm. (98) (Descriptive)
|With tears running down his cheeks, he went on again. (105) (Restrictive)
|So Alice began telling them her adventures from the time when she first saw the White Rabbit. (110)
|That's different from what I used to say when I was a child. (112)
Syntacticians have long proposed that descriptive genitives and adjectives are reduced forms of relative clauses. Genitives then observe the arrangement of relative clauses with regard to their head; 90 percent of the genitive constructions in contemporary English do, following their head (Fries 1940).
|with her head in the lap of her sister. (129)
(From: The lap is her sister's.)
|She peeped over the edge of the mushroom. (52)
|To Tweedledum's house. (179)
|To the house of Tweedledee. (179)
While the favored order for genitives has been shifted, adjectives still predominantly precede the modified noun.
|An enormous puppy was looking down at her with large round eyes. (50)
|And then they rested on a rock conveniently low. (186)
Limiting adjectives — articles and demonstratives — also stand before nouns, as do numerals; they usually precede descriptive adjectives, with limiting adjectives standing before descriptive adjectives.
|And at that distance too. (223)
|I haven't sent the two Messengers. (223)
|She jumped over the first of the six little books. (169)
|Four thousand two hundred and seven ... (223)
Yet English nominal phrases for the most part observe the canonical order of SVO languages, maintaining from early stages OV order only with adjectives and numeral constructions other than the teens.
In SVO languages, expressions for verbal modification should be placed before verbs, in accordance with their VO structure. Like nominal modification, verbal modification avoids disruption of the VO constituent. Such placement leads to difficulties, however, through conflict between the mandatory subject and the verbal modifying constituent. SVO languages resolve these difficulties by various means. One of the most widespread is the use of auxiliaries; these function in part like verbs, in part like empty markers which can be placed before the central verb but still not interfere with the similar preverbal placement of the subject. The English dummy verb DO admirably exemplifies such a device. It provides the qualifying marker, but because of its weakly stressed form it does not interfere with the initially placed subject. Yet, in contrast with VSO languages, auxiliaries in SVO languages do not coalesce with the central verb, providing prefixed markers. The presence of separate verblike elements called auxiliaries then constitutes one of the characteristics of SVO languages and of English.
Expressions for declarative utterances simply observe the normal word order.
|This speech caused a remarkable sensation among the party. (41)
The contrasting pattern, 233||, is one of the devices for expressing interrogation.
|You like poetry? (183)
|Is this New Zealand? (19)
|Do cats eat bats? (20)
In accordance with the general ordering principle, the interrogative marker should stand close to the sentence boundary, whether initially in VO languages or finally in OV. For SVO languages this requirement provides a difficulty, inasmuch as the subject should also occupy this position. The conflict has been resolved in two ways in English. For pronominal questions it has led to the production of a special set of words which may combine the interrogative with a substitute for the subject, the so-called wh-words. For yes-or-no questions it has led to the introduction of auxiliaries. Among the auxiliaries DO is the most remarkable in having today only a grammatical function, whether as interrogative marker as in (11.3), or as a device for the indication of negation or emphasis. Other auxiliaries combine uses as grammatical markers with expression of modality, aspect, and tense. The auxiliaries, which correspond to postverbal affixes in OV languages and preverbal affixes in VSO, are among the prime characteristics of SVO languages. Their gradual development in English and other SVO languages has been the topic of much fascinating research. Moreover, since understanding of the auxiliaries corresponds to an understanding of that section of the grammar of SVO languages regarding the verb phrase, the analysis of their role and functioning is required for an understanding of SVO languages.
The second large set of questions in languages is characterized by a question word. These, often referred to as wh-question words after the wh-segment in many English interrogative words, Jespersen labels x-questions, because they include an "unknown quantity" (1924: 303). Initial position of the interrogative element accords with the expectation of this order for the theme as well as with the general ordering principle.
|What's the French for fiddle-de-dee? (254)
|What right have you to call yourself so? (251)
|How is bread made? (254)
Besides wh-questions and yes-or-no questions, English, like other languages, includes devices indicating presupposition in yes-or-no questions. One such device is the tag question, consisting of a positive auxiliary when a negative answer is presupposed, and a negative auxiliary for a presupposed positive answer. The auxiliary corresponds in form to that of the principal verb, as in the following idiosyncratic statement.
|"I speaks English, doesn't I?" the Frog went on. (260)
Negation, in accordance with the general principle, occupies third position from the sentence boundary, next to interrogation. This position is reflected in English negated yes-or-no questions.
|Isn't he a lovely sight? (188)
|Manners are not taught in lessons. (252)
|I don't rejoice in insects at all. (173)
|It'll never do for you to be lolling about on the grass like that.' (250)
|Nobody said you did. (251)
|She didn't say you did.
|Didn't she say you did?
Individual segments of sentences may also be negated, with the negative indicator typically placed before the element negated.
|Then there was an uncomfortable silence for a minute or two. (252)
Of these further features, the middle is especially characteristic for its expression in SVO languages. Widely indicated by verbal suffixes in OV languages and by verbal prefixes in VSO languages, the middle is generally expressed with pronouns in SVO languages. The complexities resulting from such expression may be noted for Japanese, which in the course of its history has introduced expressions borrowed from Chinese, notably zibun 'self' (see section 2.3.3).
The middle is used especially for reflexive and reciprocal relationship. An understanding of expressions for reflexive and reciprocal reference in English is assisted by the knowledge that its remote ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, expressed the middle by means of a verbal suffixed inflection, comparable to that in Turkish. By Old English times only one reflex of the middle remained, and only in relic patterns: hātan 'be called', whose cognate still survives in German heissen 'be called', ich heisse x 'my name is x'. Like other Q features the middle may come to be expressed lexically. Yet lexical expression for it fails to accord with the general patterning of verbs with an object in SVO languages. Even in Old English times, hātan was used transitively more frequently than as a middle. And in Modern English only a handful of verbs remains which are middles, e.g., agree, cross, embrace, hug, kiss, marry, meet.
|Our letters crossed.
(Rarely: Our letters crossed each other.)
|As You Like It 1.1.117:
|Never two ladies loved as they do.
The earliest expression for reflexivization through pronouns in English made use of personal pronouns, in a usage which has survived especially after some prepositions and in adjectival uses (Jespersen 1949: VII.4.8).
|If I don't take this child away with me ... (70) (Not: myself)
|It unfolded its arms. (55) (Not: itself's)
|Alice was just beginning to think to herself. (70)
|Don't give yourself airs. (57)
|And here the two brothers gave each other a hug. (182)
|Of course you agree to have a battle. (192) (Not: with each other)
|"Don't grunt," said Alice, "that's not at all a proper way of expressing yourself." (70)
While expression for the middle in English is "far from simple," whether for its history as Jespersen notes (1949: VII.162) or for its current use, as the last example and many cited elsewhere illustrate, it is basically made with pronouns, and in this way English is characteristic of SVO languages.
Expressions of modality have intricate nuances of meaning, which merge with one another and shift as other Q features such as negation are aligned with them. Yet the patterning is straightforward. Specific verbs come to be used as "modal auxiliaries" in early Old English and have subsequently been enriched with others. Moreover, necessitative modality may be expressed through arrangement, in a reflection of a characteristic verb form for the imperative in earlier periods of the language. Initial verbs without a subject generally have necessitative force.
|Drink me! (22)
|You mustn't say that.
|(Nec. + Neg.)
|You should have meant! (251)
|(Nec. + Perf.)
The English modal auxiliaries have often been described, in treatments that are extensive. Since we aim simply to note their role in the English grammatical system, a compact analysis will be given here, based in part on Twaddell (1960 10-12; see also Calbert and Vater 1975). In Twaddell's treatment the modals proper are presented in three groups, with hierarchization of contingency.
As such a table suggests, the meanings of individual modals are not sharply distinct. Since modals proper do not co-occur, we may conclude, as Twaddell also notes, that "there are elements of incompatibility in their meanings." Yet cooccurrence is found for "new" expressions of modality.
|I shouldn't be able to say. (190)
|Will you walk a little faster? (107)
|I can't explain myself. (54)
|She would have liked very much to ask them how they came there. (250)
Perfective aspect is often indicated by means of the auxiliary HAVE accompanied by the participle; as here, adverbials may be used with such compound verb forms.
|By the time she had caught the flamingo and brought it back, the fight was over. (93)
|You're thinking about something, my dear, and that makes you forget to talk. (96)
|Alice guessed in a moment that it was looking for the fan. (42)
|You ought to have finished. (117)
|I must be growing small again. (30)
|You couldn't have wanted it much. (103)
|You couldn't have been wanting it much.
With its adaptation of auxiliaries, English has developed a complex verb phrase which may be compared with the large number of affixes found in OV languages like Quechua and Turkish. Yet the requirement that a subject be expressed with these complexes leads, as noted above, to a less harmonious system of verbal quantifiers in SVO languages. For while the affixes of OV languages are parallel in their treatment, the auxiliaries of SVO languages are comparable on the one hand to principal verbs, on the other to grammatical markers.
Further, SVO languages tend to employ increasing numbers of verbs as auxiliaries, leading to expanded lexical expression of Q features. The results are especially notable in technical and scientific language, in which auxiliarylike verbs come to be highly prominent, expressing little more than Q features. In treatments of German the resulting patterns have come to be known as Streckformen 'extended forms'. Such verbs in English are get and make, which have come to be used to express the causative, and give and take, which in such expressions do little but express verbality and direction.
|I give you fair warning. (99) (= I warn you fairly.)
|The other guests had taken advantage of the Queen's absence. (99) (seventeenth century: advantaged themselves)
The iterative is expressed lexically, by means of repetition or with particles.
|Still she went on growing and growing. (44)
|She generally gave herself good advice ... and sometimes she scolded herself ... (24)
The causative is also expressed with characteristic verbs, or lexically, as in the three expressions for "cause to be dry" below.
|It doesn't seem to dry me at all. (37)
|I'll soon make you dry enough. (36)
|What I was going to say ... was, that the best thing to get me dry would be a Caucus-race. (37)
|She'll get me executed, as sure as ferrets are ferrets. (42)
|The hot day made her feel very sleepy and stupid. (17)
The predominant use of auxiliary-like verbs to express causation, whatever their further connotation, reflects the history of English. In its earliest attested texts it still contained causative verbs which were distinguished from simple verbs by suffixation of -i/j-, e.g., Old English nerian 'rescue'. For the most part the suffix had been lost, with some verbs maintaining a distinction between the causative and the simplex through vowel difference, e.g., Old English settan 'set' and sittan 'sit'. Subsequently even such lexical contrasts have been lost, so that the expression of causation in verbs is distinguishable only by syntactic means: the breeze dried her hair versus her hair dried. The confusion between sit : set and between lie : lay in spoken English is proverbial. Causative expression has accordingly been lexicalized or expressed in characteristic phrasal formations as noted above. These several possibilities have given rise to much discussion among linguists concerning the relationships in meaning between such expressions as kill and cause to die. It is not difficult to demonstrate that Q expressions consisting of individual elements permit greater explicitness and flexibility, especially of interrelationship among several Q features, than does lexicalization of Q features in SVO languages.
Of the expressions for aspect and tense, that for tense alone still maintains the OV pattern of suffixation, e.g., advise : advised. Yet even here the means of expression have been eroded, as in set : set, and in irregular forms like dive : dove versus dive : dived. Or tense is indicated through auxiliaries, as for other Q features. When auxiliary expression is considered as well as inflection, English distinguishes between the present, past, and future tenses.
|I advise you to leave off this minute. (24) (Present tense)
|Who in the world am I? (28) (Present tense)
|Was I the same when I got up this morning? (28) (Past tense)
|Did you ever eat a bat? (20) (Past tense)
|Dinah'll miss me very much tonight. (20) (Future tense)
|And then I'll tell you my history. (24) (Future tense)
Expression of tense may be combined with expressions for aspect. Its freedom of position permits the suggestion that tense is closely related to nominal or adverbial indicators of time, as in: We leave tomorrow. They dine at eight (tonight). In a case grammar, then, tense may be introduced through a nominal time category rather than a verbal. Its expression may be made nominally, verbally, or adverbially, with a freedom greater than that of the other expressions associated with the verb.
But tense is expressed in conjunction with each of these. Past tense is combined with perfective aspect and with -momentary expression in the following example.
|While she was still looking at the place where it had been, it suddenly appeared again. (73)
|Perhaps, as this is May, it wo'n't be raving mad. (73)
The expression of negation with simple verb forms now seems archaic, and even with qualifiers it seems to be receding, as may be illustrated with current versions of the Bible, such as the Living New Testament of 1967 in contrast with the Authorized Version of 1611.
|John 3.7:
|Marvel not.
|Don't be surprised.
|Luke 5.5:
|We have toiled all the night and have taken nothing.
|We worked hard all last night and didn't catch a thing.
Another device has been developed in English which may be characteristic of SVO languages: the so-called sentence adverbials. These resemble modals in referring to the entire sentence, for example, unfortunately in (IV.1) and (2) as opposed to (3).
|Unfortunately, the Duchess played badly.
|The Duchess, unfortunately, played badly.
|The Duchess played unfortunately badly.
Some sentence adverbials, like unfortunately, are also widely used as general adverbs, modifying adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. Others are more widely used as sentence adverbials, such as certainly, perhaps, possibly, probably. Comparing the equivalents of these in OV languages like Japanese and Turkish, one finds in them inflected verb forms, with or without supplementary adverbs. Thus (IV.4) is expressed in Japanese with a verb form expressing probability: daroo 'it may be', often in conjunction with tabun 'much, in large measure'.
|Probably he forgot.
|Possibly a person wouldn't know this.
|Maybe it's always pepper that makes people hot-tempered. (95)
Compound and complex sentences are general in all types of languages, though the distribution of kinds of alignment and devices for it vary. In expressing coordination, VO languages place particles before the coordinated element, typically the last.
|and then the different branches of Arithmetic — Ambition, Distraction, Uglification, and Derision. (103)
|'Taroo and Ziroo went.'
Coordination is often accompanied by ellipsis, especially in SVO languages, both with the same subject of a verb and with different subjects.
|So she sat still and [she] said nothing. (102)
|Some of the jury wrote it down "important," and some [wrote it down] "unimportant." (124)
|The Owl and the Panther were sharing a pie. (112)
Ellipsis of the verb, or gapping, is also distinct in OV as opposed to VO structure, for in OV the early forms of the equivalent verbs are elided, as in Japanese.
|'Taroo brought pencils and Ziroo paper.'
In coordination, clauses may be adversative as well as parallel in meaning.
|I've read that in some book, but I don't remember when.
|He kept shifting from one foot to the other, looking uneasily at the Queen. (117)
While coordination, or parataxis, is general in sentences of SVO languages, it is far more characteristic of OV languages, which tend to have many nonfinite forms for linking clauses paratactically, as does Turkish. SVO languages on the other hand are more widely characterized by subordination or hypotaxis.
Subordination is often marked with conjunctions, and is found whether or not the two related clauses have the same subject.
|If you can't be civil, you'd better finish the story for yourself. (8l)
|Alice watched the White Rabbit as he fumbled over the list. (122)
|'When you drink raki, you forget everything.'
In keeping with the tendency toward parataxis in OV languages, quotations are commonly expressed without modification, as so-called direct quotations concluded by a quotative particle or other marker. SVO languages on the other hand, with their favoring of hypotaxis, tend to have devices for indirect statements and questions. These devices may involve special forms of verbs, or uses of substitutes. In current English, special inflections (subjunctives) are no longer found, with the exception of BE, but modals or past tense forms are introduced in the indirect quotations.
|I told you butter wouldn't suit the works. (77) (From: I told you, "Butter won't suit the works.")
|The very first thing she did was to look whether there was a fire in the fireplace. (148) (From: Is there a fire in the fireplace?)
Special verbal patterns may also be used in adverbial clauses, notably in contrary-to-fact conditionals.
|You'd have guessed if you'd been up in the window with me. (143)
|Now I growl when I'm pleased and wag my tail when I'm angry. (72) (Time)
|Only as it's asleep, I suppose it doesn't mind. (75) (Cause)
|We called him Tortoise because he taught us. (102) (Cause)
|Everything's got a moral, if only you can find it. (96) (Condition)
|You have baked me too brown, I must sugar my hair. (111) (Result)
Subordinate clauses tend to stand in an adverbial relationship with their matrix clauses, as the labels for the examples of (24) indicate. When on the other hand the relationship of the embedded clause to the matrix clause is comparable to that of an object, the embedded elements are often called complements, and the process is called complementation. (The term is also used more broadly of an element that may follow a verb, whether an object, a predicate noun, an adverb, or a clause.) Complementation in VO languages differs characteristically from that in OV languages, for the markers stand in different positions with regard to the matrix and the verb of the embedded segment.
Complementation is found characteristically with verba dicendi 'verbs of saying' and verba sentiendi 'verbs of perception'.
|She said afterwards that she had never seen in all her life such a face as the King made. (150)
|The Cat seemed to think that there was enough of it now in sight. (91)
|She wants for to know your history. (102)
|The governess would never think of excusing me lessons for that. (175)
Whatever the devices used for complementation, it is simply a process for expanding the nuclear sentence; a clause or a reduced form of a clause serves as an object. Similarly, adverbial clauses are expanded forms of adverbs. However involved they become, compound and complex sentences in general maintain the patterns of simple sentences, whether these are SVO, VSO, VOS, or OV. Further explorations in typology will lead to increased understanding of the characteristics of the more involved constructions in each type of language.
While the involved constructions dealt with in this section exploit the possibilities of each type, they do not overcome its weaknesses. These result in part from the rigidity imposed by a given type, as we may illustrate with SVO patterns. Theoretically, all sentences in an SVO language should follow that structure, as in sentence (1) above:
|Alice folded her hands.
Various devices are used for marking, with reference both to the nuclear sentence and to grammatical processes. Sections 4.6 and 4.7 will deal with these devices. It will be observed that the term marking may be applied narrowly, as here, or widely, so as to include the grammatical processes discussed in sections 4.7.3, 4.7.4, and 4.7.5.
Marking, or highlighting, may be achieved by departing from the standard order, by special intonation, or through the use of particles. In written texts the special intonation patterns may be difficult to determine; but Lewis Carroll indicated many of these by italicizing marked constituents, as illustrated below.
A prominent aim of marking is to put the object before the verb, with or without the use of special intonation or particles. In English the subject is then maintained before the verb.
|Oh dear, what nonsense I'm talking! (27)
(Marking through OSV order)
|That you won't! (46)
(Marking through OSV order and intonation)
|This, of course, Alice could not stand. (115)
(Marking through OSV order, intonation, and particle)
Marking is also used prominently in abbreviated sentences.
|Who is to give the prizes? Why, she, of course. (38)
|Adjectives you can do anything with, but not verbs. (214)
|Said the mouse to the cur. (40)
|Up I goes like a sky-rocket. (48)
|The dream-child moving through a land of wonders wild and new, (13)
The various language types are characterized by grammatical constructions which result from or are at least closely aligned with their pattern. As noted above, languages of the SVO pattern require overt expression of subjects. Any subject can, of course, be elided in a suitable context, such as the subject In the answer to: "What did you do then?" "Went home." And every language includes sequences like: Yes! Thanks! Dear me! which Jespersen called amorphous sentences. But in comparison with OV languages like Japanese, English and other SVO languages observe some constraints in ellipsis and in the application of grammatical rules. The subject element is normally represented in an utterance, and the object element as well where a transitive verb is used; the Japanese examples in Chapter 2 may serve to illustrate that OV languages do not require these. The normal requirement of subjects and the frequent requirement of objects lead to a mandatory use of substitutes in SVO languages, of which the most prominent are pronouns.
Pronouns are in the first instance substitutes for nouns. Their uses, while manifold, may be illustrated with a few selections, the first somewhat extended.
|However, the egg only got larger and larger, and more and more human: when she had come within a few yards of it, she saw that it had eyes and a nose and mouth; and, when she had come close to it, she saw clearly that it was HUMPTY DUMPTY himself. "It ca'n't be anybody else!" she said to herself. "I'm as certain of it, as if his name were written all over his face!" (208)
Introduced with reference to an identified noun in anaphora, or in a further function to external objects in deixis, pronouns lend continuity to an account. On the other hand, without adequate context, sentences in which they occur are murky in meaning.
|And oh, I wish you could see her after the birds! (41)
|Wouldn't it be murder to leave it behind? (70)
|"Which is just the case with mine," said the Hatter. (77)
Like which in (26.4), pronouns often refer to situations or actions rather than simply substitute for nouns. Similarly, while they in (26.5) refers to "three sisters," that refers to their "living on treacle."
|"They couldn't have done that, you know." (81)
In their anaphoric uses pronouns are comparable to elements in other types of languages, such as kore 'this', sore 'that', are 'that there' in Japanese. But pronouns used personally may be expressed by other devices, such as honorifics in Japanese, or through lexical distinctions. Thus any speaker of Japanese would interpret the verb form itasimasu as indicating "humility" and thus appropriate only to a first person subject: I or we. On the other hand, the verb form irassyai-masu is "honorific" and thus appropriate to a second or third person subject.
The availability of pronouns has led to various patterns in which their primary use is not anaphoric. They may be used to avoid the mandatory theme : rheme contrast of constituents of simple SVO sentences. By placing a demonstrative in initial position, it is possible to emphasize the situation rather than the subject.
|Now, Kitty, let's consider who it was that dreamed it all. This is a serious question... (271) (Not: the question is serious)
|What do you suppose is the use of a child without any meaning? (251) (Not: a child ... is useless)
|I'm one that has spoken to a King, I am. (210)
|Here he looked at Tweedledee, who immediately sat down on the ground, and tried to hide himself under the umbrella. (191)
The prominence of pronouns in SVO languages is paralleled by that of other substitutes, both for substantives and for other syntactic elements. Among these further substitutes are quantity words and numerals.
|It's laid for a great many more than three. (75)
As for pronouns, such use of substitutes is connective, in providing close relationships with previous matter. In this way it is similar to use of anaphoric elements: this, that, here, there.
|"That you won't!" thought Alice. (46)
(That = Then I'll go round and get in at the window.)
|"There ought to be some men moving about somewhere — and so there are!" (164)
(So = Some men are moving about.)
|"She's grown a good deal!" was her first remark. She had indeed. (160)
A further prominent anaphoric device is deletion, which is carried out under highly specified conditions, as has long been observed, to yield a zero substitute. Thus in coordination specific elements can be elided, such as subjects and other constituents.
|At last he said, "You're traveling the wrong way," and (O = he) shut up the window, and (O = he) went away. (170)
|... and everybody jumped up in alarm, Alice (O = jumped up) among the rest. (172)
|There are some scented rushes! (204)
|There's certainly too much pepper in that soup! (66)
Flexibility of expression is achieved also through the process known as passivization. With the introduction of a passive the emphasis falls on the object, or the verb, rather than on the agent of the action, commonly the subject of active verbs. When misused, as often in technical language, passive constructions lead to dullness, as Carroll demonstrates with his satirization of historical writing.
|William the Conqueror, whose cause was favored by the Pope, was soon submitted to by the English. (36)
|She had read several nice little stories about children who had got burnt ... (27) (Mention of the agent of the burning is not essential.)
|I must have been changed for Mabel. (29) (The agent of the change is not known.)
The avoidance of mention of an agent thus may lead to emphasis on the verbal phrase. In the following example the target or object is highlighted more than it would be in the active variant: "They shall not behead you."
|"You sha'n't be beheaded!" said Alice. (88)
|"Not quite right, I'm afraid," said Alice, timidly: "some of the words have got altered." (58)
|I wish they'd get the trial done. (114)
Passivization thus leads to foregrounding of the predicate, whether its object or its verb, or both. It achieves this effect in part by deleting the subject.
|How is that to be done, I wonder? (62)
|How am I to do that?
|How is anyone to do that?
|There ought to be a book written about me, that there ought. (45)
|She was given a book.
|That town can only be reached by boat.
|One can only reach that town by boat.
|That town can only be reached by someone with a boat.
The passive in English then is not simply a voice used when "the subject is represented as the receiver or product of an action" but rather a grammatical construction used for highlighting constituents which by their normal order in an SVO pattern do not receive such emphasis. It is conveniently used for constructions in which the active subject would be an inanimate or inert entity.
|She ... noticed that they [insides of the well] were filled with cupboards and bookshelves. (18)
(Not: cupboards filled them)
|It was labeled "ORANGE MARMALADE." (18)
(Not: Someone had labeled it "ORANGE MARMALADE.")
Other devices as well may be used for highlighting or topicalization. The subject may be taken out of the clause, and its place filled with a pronoun.
|As to the bottles, they each took a pair of plates. (266)
|It's rather curious, you know, this sort of life! (44)
By extraposition especially subjects are highlighted, whether they are nouns, or nominal phrases or clauses. It then serves as anticipatory subject.
|It'll never do for you to be lolling about in the grass like that! (250)
|Wouldn't it be much easier to leave it behind? (70)
Other syntactic elements, such as adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, may also be foregrounded by placement in initial position.
|How surprised he'll be when he finds out who I am. (43)
|Very soon the Rabbit noticed Alice. (43)
|Up I goes like a sky-rocket. (48)
Change of order, often to initial position, then is a frequently used device for foregrounding constituents, or topicalization.
Distribution of emphasis is also carried out by use of the existential there. This construction avoids foregrounding of any one constituent of the sentence, highlighting instead the entire situation rather than either the action or the actor.
|There was a dispute going on between the Executioner, the King, and the Queen. (93)
|There was a large mushroom growing near her. (52)
|And certainly there was a most extraordinary noise going on within. (64)
A special construction which has come to be highly prominent for highlighting individual constituents is known as clefting. By "cleaving" the clause through use of it with a form of BE, this construction gives special emphasis to the element after BE, whether it is the subject, object, or other constituent.
|It was this last remark that had made the whole party look so grave and anxious. (94)
(Not: This past remark had made the whole party look grave and anxious.)
The emphasized elements may or may not be followed by a relative pronoun.
|It's the most curious thing I ever saw in my life! (74)
|It was so long since she had been anything near the right size that it felt quite strange at first. (62)
Cleft sentences may be interrogative, or subordinate.
|Is that the reason so many things are put out here? (80)
|Alice knew it was the Rabbit coming to look for her. (46)
Clefting has led to patterns which use other devices than the anticipatory subject it, notably there.
|There could be no doubt that it had a very turn-up nose. (70)
A similar construction, known as pseudo-clefting, distributes foregrounding so that it does not fall on the object or other constituent put in first place.
|A loaf of bread ... is what we chiefly need. (186)
|We chiefly need a loaf of bread.
|What we chiefly need is a loaf of bread.
|What a fight we might have for the crown, now! (231)
|Where the noise came from, she couldn't make out. (237)
Grammatical processes have in this vay been developed in SVO languages which compensate for some of their rigidities or even inadequacies. English is not unique in developing such processes. Nor are the processes developed in English the only possible ones for variety of expression in the SVO type. Those in other languages, such as German es (ist) 'it (is)' in clefting, or the French c'est 'it is', might be similarly explored and illustrated here. Yet English provides adequate illustration of the devices used to introduce flexibility in a language, whatever the strengths and disadvantages of its simple structures. Further typological study will identify the array of such constructions in SVO languages, as well as in languages of the other types, and in this way increase our understanding of language.
A number of morphological characteristics have been identified for specific language types. Prominent among these is the placement of affixes, notably those expressing the verbal qualifiers. In VSO languages these precede the central verb; in OV languages, on the other hand, they follow, as is illustrated by the Japanese verbal inflections in Chapter 2. The placement of qualifier affixes is in accordance with the principle of arrangement stated in section 1.3. VSO languages have prefixes; OV languages have suffixes.
The principle applies also in some degree to expressions for case in the noun and to derivational processes. VSO languages thus often modify the initial word in genitive constructions, e.g., Classical Hebrew dāvār 'word', dəvar elohim 'word of God'; inflection for congruence may not however observe the principle. Like inflection for qualifiers, in VO languages derivational affixes are commonly prefixed while in OV languages they are suffixed. Yet it must be observed that morphological characteristics are highly conservative, and accordingly the patterning of affixes in any language at a given time must be carefully interpreted. It may represent an archaic situation, or a characteristic which is being eliminated but is still relatively widespread. English illustrates such situations. In the older period, especially in its most archaic materials, it maintains a relatively rich system of suffixed inflections. These have steadily been reduced in the course of the history of English, until today the remaining inflections are secondary in importance to the device of arrangement and to the use of function words.
As noted above, English has very few inflections, many fewer than did Old English. Hypotheses have been proposed in attempts to account for their loss. Some scholars have ascribed it to phonological reasons, pointing to the introduction of a strong initial stress accent in Proto-Germanic which in their view led to a consequent loss of inflectional suffixes. Others have advanced as counterargument to this hypothesis the observation that new elements might have been introduced as the older inflectional suffixes were lost.
It may also be observed that SVO languages by their basic structure do not require elements to identify the most frequent cases, those for the subject and object. Such identification is achieved by position of the verb. Accordingly inflection for case may well be unnecessary in SVO languages when the order of elements is fixed. Before it is fixed, however, affixes are significant in indicating case forms and concord classes. Languages moving toward an SVO structure, like Classical Greek and Latin, and to a lesser extent Old English, then tend to have a full set of affixes to indicate concord of descriptive and limiting adjectives with nouns, and of nominal elements with verbs, as well as some cases.
In SOV and similarly in VSO languages, on the other hand, devices are necessary to distinguish subjects and objects, or to distinguish sequences of two nouns, as is often done for genitive : noun sequences with a device like that illustrated above for Classical Hebrew. Such distinction may be made with affixes, but also as in Japanese with particles. In OV languages these particles are postposed; in VO languages they are preposed. Greenberg has advanced a universal that an SOV language "almost always has a case system" (1966: 113 #41). As may be noted in the Japanese examples of Chapter 2, this universal is valid if nouns plus postpositions are assumed to make up case systems; these then are semantic systems, not necessarily morphologically marked. Under such assumption, then, case systems are important for both VSO and SOV languages; in VSO languages preposed particles or prepositions may distinguish different case relationships as postposed elements do in SOV languages.
In English on the other hand case relationships may be unspecified, as with the frequently cited verbs which permit a variety of semantic cases to be used without special marking, such as open.
|The custodian opened the door. (Subject = agent)
|The key opened the door. (Subject = instrument)
|The door opened. (Subject = target or object)
|The attendant showed the visitors their room.
In nouns all inflection for case has been lost with the exception of the genitive. Yet as noted above the inflected genitive has also been replaced largely by phrases with the preposition of. Pronominal inflection is more conservative in maintaining distinct object forms in six elements: I : me, he : him, she : her, we : us, they : them, who : whom. Here too, however, the usage is observed less than in the past; especially after prepositions the old nominative form is often used. Case inflection then has been receding in English, and is still.
Of the various verb qualifiers, apart from the participles only the past tense has retained a morphological marker, generally by means of the D suffix: heed : heeded, hiss : hissed, heel : heeled, with internal inflection yielding to it. The other qualifiers, as discussed above, are expressed through function words.
English then, as a characteristic SVO language, makes little use of inflection. The most prominent inflected elements maintained are those for concord categories: plural number in the noun and third person singular in the verb. Having preserved these inflections, English has not succeeded to the state of Chinese, which has had SVO structure far longer. While loss of final elements as a result of strong initial stress must be taken into account, English lends support to the hypothesis that SVO languages with fixed word order will tend to give up inflection for case in the noun and for qualifiers in the verb.
The derivational processes of English are in great part conservative, for compounds are made in accordance with OV patterning. Nouns and adjectives prepose the modifying element to the modified element, as in Cheshire Cat, queer-looking, and so on. Moreover, suffixation is the primary derivational process in complex words, as in curiosity, remarkable, cheerfully.
Yet in the past two millennia prefixes have come to be prominent, whether in nouns, verbs, or other elements, as in insolence, adjourn, aloud. These formations, as noted above, go counter to the OV constraint against prefixes. Other OV patterns of the early period have been abandoned, such as the use of object-verb compounds, as in Old English yrfe-numa 'inheritance + taker = heir'. Nor have they been modified to the VO pattern of such compounds, which is prominent in Chinese and also in Japanese borrowings based on Chinese, as in the well-known pair: (OV) hara-kiri 'stomach-cut', (VO) seppuku 'cut-stomach' for a traditional Japanese form of suicide. The English verbs of this OV compounding pattern, like baby-sit, are generally assumed to be back formations from adjectival compounds, such as baby-sitting. Accordingly they are not productive formations of the OV pattern. The predominant patterns of derivation are then archaic residues from the Proto-Indo-European and early dialect periods.
Sandhi changes have for the most part been treated as processes of individual languages rather than as processes to be associated with specific types of language. The lack of concern for general principles may be understood, for phonological processes seem remote from patterns of arrangement related to expressions of meaning. Yet a general tendency has been proposed: OV languages tend to have progressive assimilation if the appropriate phonological conditions are present, and VO languages to have regressive. If appropriate conditions exist for vowels to be modified, OV languages then would have vowel harmony — defined as modification of later vowels in a word by earlier vowels — and VO languages would have umlaut, that is, modification of earlier vowels by later. Similar directions of modification would prevail in consonant assimilation.
Modern English shows no consistent direction of modification. In the major inflectional suffixes, such as the suffixes in the past and past participle [əd t d], the assimilation is progressive. In most derivational suffixes, however, the assimilation is regressive; t > š before a former palatal j with -ious, e.g., vivacious, or t > š/č? with -ion, e.g., action, and -ure, e.g., posture, and so on. The progressive assimilation of the inflectional affixes involves the oldest morphological markers, yet it would be hazardous to suggest that in contrast with that in derivation this assimilation should be related to the older OV structure of pre-Old English. Phonological processes have not been extensively investigated with attention to the structure of their language. When they are, the many variables involved in specific developments must be noted with regard to both specific languages and specific phonological changes. On the basis of such investigations, more precise generalizations may be proposed in the future. If English were to be characterized for phonological processes at present, these like its derivational patterns would be said to reflect in great part its earlier OV structure, accompanied by phonological changes expected in VO languages.
English syllables show a wide range of structures, from simple vowels as in a to sequences opened and closed by several consonants, as in sprints. While English shows such diverse syllabic structures, these can only tenuously be related to language types. The most readily observable correlation is that between OV languages and sequences of open syllables. The Japanese examples in Chapter 2 provide good illustrations, though similar observations could be cited from other OV languages, such as the Dravidian or the Turkic. The early Germanic material also manifests such a structure, as in the frequently cited Gallehus inscription.
|'I Hlewagastir of Holt made the horn.'
The change in Modern English to closed syllables with final consonant clusters, as in guest versus ga-stiR and horn versus hor-na, is ascribed to losses of finals resulting from a heavy initial stress accent. Yet, as with the change to little inflection in English, the relationship between change of language type and change of syllabic structure is intriguing. OV languages are often agglutinative in morphology, and the suffixed syllables seem readily added if of a C(C)V structure, as in Japanese, or in other OV languages, as the following Quechua verb form illustrates:
|'they finally fought each other'
The current English suprasegmental system was established some time before the beginning of our era, but not so much earlier that the final syllables were reduced by the time the Gallehus inscription was produced — about 350 A.D. When it was established, a stress accent system was introduced for words or word-like groups, and a pitch system maintained for clause intonation patterns. Earlier both word groups and clauses were characterized by pitch patterns, somewhat as in Japanese today. Sentence (1) may be used to illustrate the two systems of the current language.
|Alice folded her hands.
|Word-grouping, based on stress groups:
ǽləs fówlded ərǽndz
|Clause grouping, based on pitch alignments:
2æləs fowlded ər3ændz1
Suprasegmental patterns have not been adequately studied in relation to language types, so that also with reference to them any generalizations will have to wait for considerably further study. Yet stress systems, accompanied by reduction of vowels, seem to be associated with VO languages, whether VSO or SVO, and pitch systems with OV languages. But the patterning and relationship of possible systems with specific language types is imprecise. To judge from their distribution in specific areas of the world, suprasegmental systems seem to be diffused among neighboring languages. Information on the basis and history of a suprasegmental system in any given language must be known, as well as the system of neighboring languages, before any useful statements can be made about its relationship with the structure of that language. For English and its earlier stages in any event, the suprasegmental systems are quite clear, that for the stage preceding ca. 500 B.C. as well as that today.
English has a moderate number of consonant and vowel phonemes, however its segmental system is analyzed. The figure of twenty-four consonants can be well supported; the vowels range in the neighborhood of fifteen, depending on the analyst's views. The structure of the segmental portion of phonological systems seems to have little relationship with the typological structure of a language. Yet OV languages commonly have relatively small sets of vowels, as in Japanese and Proto-Indo-European. VSO languages, however, may also contain few vowels, as does Arabic. While the sets of consonants and vowels seem to be the last formal elements which might be governed by principles regulating other characteristics of a language, they too must be carefully studied, for possible relationship with language types.
There seem to be no grounds for relating semantic structures with the syntactic, morphological, or phonological structures of a language. To propose associating a numeral system, for example, a decimal or a quaternary, with any formal linguistic structure is totally unwarranted in view of our information about languages. As another example the distribution of kinship systems, like the Omaha, shows no relation with formal linguistic characteristics. Semantic systems must accordingly be treated apart from typological patterns based, as here, on form.
In recent treatments of typological patterning, even many syntactic constructions have been excluded. One example is the order of descriptive adjectives preceding nouns, as in the little old tumble-down houses. Their order seems determined more by semantic than by formal criteria which are language specific.
Further study may disclose such relationships, and also significant patterns beyond the thirty dealt with above. Investigation of additional languages will also clarify the relationships between functional, pragmatic, and syntactic forces. The three following chapters exemplify procedures that may be pursued in such investigations. Yet English too, as the examples in this chapter illustrate, shows the forces at work in living language which modify the basic patterns to produce richness of communication without interfering with the underlying principles that determine its basic structure.


text:
May 28, 2009
San Francisco, Calif. - After two long days of racing in mostly breezy conditions, the Stanford Cardinal finished the ICSA Women's National Championship in 12th place overall. While the Cardinal seemed to improve upon the consistency of their starts by the second day, it was other untimely misfortunes that prevented the Cardinal from finding a more competitive rhythm. Penalty turns, capsizes, and a slight speed disadvantage compared to the top few teams could not be compensated with the smart sailing that had brought the team such great success throughout the season.
Representing the Cardinal were sailors Hannah Burroughs '11, Catherine Cu '09, Laura Garvey `12, Taylor Grimes `09, Megan Grove '10, and Carolyn Prioleau '12. Along with Head Coach John Vandemoer and Assistant Coach Erik Storck, this Stanford squad not only carried themselves well throughout the regatta while competing, but also played gracious hosts to the rest of college sailing's finest women sailors.
In A Division, Grimes skippered the entire regatta while crews Prioleau and Grove traded off duties at the front of the boat. They showed much improvement on Sunday, posting five single-digit finishes out of the eight races they sailed. Coach Vandemoer, toward the conclusion of the event on Wednesday, sighed, "They sailed extremely well...extremely smart sailing. They were just a touch off the pace upwind compared to the top few teams." Downwind, however, the both Cardinal boats showed exciting speed, and the A Division boat was so aggressive and so fast as to receive the praise - and a "speeding ticket" penalty - from the chief judge of the event. The A Division boat ended the regatta in 11th place in A Division, averaging a 9.6 in the fourteen race regatta.
In B Division, skipper Burroughs with crew Cu showed that their season-long effort to improve has made them competitive with the nation's top competitors. They ended the regatta in 14th place in B Division, and showed moments of brilliance throughout the regatta. Most notably, a win in race four proved that this team has what it takes to be at the top. With a little more consistency, which is the critical strategy in collegiate style racing, the Cardinal B Division boat may have landed higher in the results.
Nevertheless, the Stanford Cardinal comes to the end of a highly successful 2008-09 season in which they asserted Pacific Coast Collegiate Sailing Conference (PCCSC) dominance and posted impressive finishes in several tough intersectional regattas, where the best teams of each district come together to compete. At this year's nationals, the Cardinal was the only team to make it to the National Championship for the PCCSC and was the first college in the final rankings that is not located on the East Coast. Congratulations to these sailors for a great season!
To read and see more about the action of the 2009 ICSA Women's National Championship, head to www.collegesailing.org for complete results, www.2009icsa.blogspot.com for colorful commentary, www.sailgroove.com for video footage, and www.kattack.com for race analysis.