text:
What causes youth crime, and what can we do about it?
NZ Bluelight Ventures Inc - Conference & AGM
7 May 2009
Coronet Peak Hotel
Queenstown, New Zealand
Judge Andrew Becroft
Principal Youth Court Judge of New Zealand
Te Kaiwhakawa Matua O Te Kooti Taiohi o Aotearoa
1. Introduction1
We are in the midst of an exciting era in New Zealand youth justice. The Children, Young Persons and Their Families Act 1989 is twenty years old. It has proved itself as a piece of innovative legislation that has produced results in terms of reducing imprisonment and recidivism rates for children and young people. It has been studied and replicated by many international jurisdictions.
We are also seeing new research in the youth justice sector both from New Zealand and internationally. This research can help groups providing interventions for at-risk youth, by giving them better, scientifically validated information, to help tie proposed interventions to the needs of offenders, and the causes of their offending. We have better information than ever before about what causes children and young people to commit crime2, and how to target every dollar spent so that it produces the greatest reduction in recidivism possible.
Most importantly, the research has identified, what is obvious to those who work in this field, that "one size does not fit all". There are different types of youth offenders, and different causes of offending. These determine the type of intervention which will be effective.
Overall, apprehension rates for child and youth offending are maintaining a slow decline, with one exception. Apprehension rates for violent crime are increasing. This increase deserves special mention.
Table 1. Apprehension Rate per 10,000 Population by Age Group 1999-20083
Table 2. Violence Apprehension Rate per 10,000 Population by Age Group 1999-20084
Significantly, the increase in apprehensions for violence offences amongst children and young people is replicated in all age groups. In fact the largest increase in violence crime is found in the over 50 age group! Generally, the increase in apprehension rates for violent crime for all age groups is attributed to an increase in apprehensions for domestic violence. The increased rate of apprehensions for domestic violence, in turn, is at least partly attributed to increased training by police in domestic violence.
The situation for youth however, is somewhat different. Youth offending statistics show increases since about 2004 in both the top end (wounding with intent and injuring with intent) and bottom end (common assault and male assaults female) violent offences. These increases cannot be ignored. However, while the number of violent offences is increasing, the total numbers of young people in this age group (14 to 16 year olds) has been decreasing since 2006. It is concerning to the youth justice community that youth violence appears to be rising while the population numbers are decreasing.
2. Understanding the different types of youth offenders
Research shows us that around one-quarter of all young men will commit at least one offence. Of that number 80% will commit only one or two offences. The remaining 20% are responsible for 80% of New Zealand's youth offending. This pattern is as evident internationally as it is in New Zealand5. It means that there is a small group (5%) of young males who are committing most offences. These are the young people who require the bulk of our attention.
Why is it that some young people commit no offences, while others commit one or two, or have extensive criminal careers? The answer is found in an analysis of the extensive research on the risk factors and protective factors for offending - that is, the environmental, social or biological factors that make a person more or less likely to commit offences.
Extensive data on risk and protective factors come from longitudinal studies, of which there are currently two in New Zealand. The Dunedin Longitudinal study is a longrunning research study of the lives of 1037 people born in Dunedin in 1972 and 1973. Study members have been assessed at regular intervals through their lives. This study has produced a large amount of information about the risk and protective factors for offending. Similarly the Christchurch Health and Development study is following 1265 people born in the Christchurch area in the mid-1970s. These studies have revealed that youth offending tends to follow one of two types of developmental pathway.
2.1 The life-course persistent offender
The first pathway is known as the life-course persistent offender. These individuals exhibit severe behaviour problems from a very early age, sometimes as young as two years old. Their lives have been marked by multiple adverse influences including family dysfunction. As children they may have exhibited subtle cognitive deficiencies, difficult temperament or hyperactivity. When compounded by adverse environmental factors such as inadequate parenting, exposure to violence or other trauma, disrupted family bonds or poverty, their brain developmental processes responsible for social behaviour have been adversely impacted6.
Life-course persistent offenders are sometimes described as having "conduct disorder". They may be aggressive, oppositional and violent. They often lack feelings of guilt, remorse, or victim empathy, and tend to be egocentric seekers of immediate gratification, who do not think about consequences. If left untreated, these behaviours escalate over the whole life span. It is apparent from the experience of the Youth Court, that 82% of this group of life-course-persistent offenders are male, at least 50% are Māori, up to 80% are not engaged with school, up to 75-80% have drug or alcohol problems. Psychological and psychiatric issues are also common.
2.2 The adolescent onset offender
The second pathway is known as the adolescent onset offender. This is a much larger group (up to 80% of all youth offenders). The lives of this group of offenders are not markedly disordered, and they don't tend to exhibit disproportionate anti-social behaviour during childhood. During puberty however, behavioural issues begin to develop. The causes of their offending are due to social processes such as attachment to anti-social peers or inadequate parenting, or exposure to cannabis, rather than neuro-developmental processes7. This group is much larger in number, and unlike their life-course persistent peers, they generally experience the normal range of emotions, including remorse and willingness to put things right.
It is vitally important to keep these two categories in mind when discussing the causes and solutions to youth offending. Their differing characteristics mean that they usually demonstrate different causes of their offending, and therefore, the solutions will also be different.
3. How do we identify the causes of youth offending? Risk and protective factors
A study of the causes of youth offending requires an analysis of risk and protective factors. A risk factor indicates the likelihood that a young person will commit an offence. Risk factors tend to fall into five categories – individual characteristics, family factors, school/work factors, associations with peers, and biological factors. The more risk factors a child or young person exhibits, the more likely they are to commit offences. The presence of just one risk factor is unlikely to lead to offending. The Christchurch longitudinal study found that children from families with 19 or more risk factors were 100 times more likely to end up with multiple problems as teenagers (including offending), than the 50% of the sample who had just six or fewer risk factors8.
Protective factors are positive influences in a young person's life that militate against the risk of offending. Protective factors are sometimes said to be the factors that produce resilience.
While it is true that the presence of multiple risk factors increases the likelihood of a young person committing an offence, the extent to which those risk factors can be said to cause the offending is not always a straight-forward relationship. Some risk factors such as poor relationships with parents, are more direct causes of offending. Other risk factors, such as poverty or conflict between parents have a more indirect or distal relationship to offending.
It is very difficult to know which risks are actually causes, and of course, this may differ between individuals. It may be possible to look at a particular individual who has already committed an offence and determine the causes of his or her offending. But at a population level, the best information we can produce is a study of risk factors for offending, and an understanding that the more risk factors an individual possesses, the more likely they are to commit offences.
'There is[ ]no single factor that can be specified as the 'cause' of anti-social or criminal behaviour. The tangled roots of delinquency can, more accurately, be found in the way multiple risk factors cluster together and interact in the lives of some children, while important protective factors are conspicuously absent.'9
For community groups working with at-risk young people, this information is particularly relevant. An understanding of the risk factors will provide a more structured way of identifying which young people end up offending. In this context, the following table may be helpful.
Top 10 risk factors in childhood for future offending and/or antisocial behaviour10
|Risk factors for children under 13
|Risk factors for adolescents 13 and over
|History of antisocial behaviour, behaviour problems, conduct disorder during childhood (lying, stealing, bullying, non-compliance, etc.) including contact with the law and arrest before age 12.
|Contact with antisocial peers (those involved in law-breaking, drugs, violence, gangs, etc.) (the more peers or contact, the higher the risk) from age 13 onwards.
|Use of tobacco, alcohol and/or other drugs, either weekly or more frequently, before age 12.
|General offences, number or prior offences (the more prior offences, the higher the risk before the current age).
|Male gender.
|Aggression, fighting, violent offences.
|Low self-control, impulsive, poor ability to stop and think before acting during childhood.
|Low self-control, impulsive, poor ability to stop and think before acting.
|Hyperactive, poor ability to pay attention during childhood.
|Hyperactive, poor ability to pay attention.
|Involved in fighting, aggression, acts of violence before age 12.
|Poor supervision by parents/caregivers (knowing where young person is, who they are with, rules and consequences).
|Low family income during childhood.
|Low levels of warmth, affection and closeness between parent(s) and young person.
|Neither parent had skilled work (that is, one or both are unemployed or in unskilled or semi-skilled jobs).
|Tendency towards anxiety, stress.
|Neither parent left school with any qualifications.
|Few friends and social/recreational activities.
|One or both parents has a history of antisocial criminal behaviour.
|Length of first incarceration (the longer the period, the greater the risk).
4. Risk factors
The risk factors for "life-course persistent" offenders are often different than those for adolescent onset offenders. Life-course-persistent offenders have neuro-developmental factors from their early childhood as the primary cause of their offending. The risk factors for their offending revolve around the home and family environment: poverty, family disruption, transience, lack of good quality relationships, etc.
The risk factors for "adolescent onset" offenders are usually related to their current social environment: delinquent peers, drug and alcohol abuse, family dysfunction.
The way in which risk factors relate to life-course persistent offenders and adolescent onset offenders is complicated. There will often be crossovers between the categories. For example, the social risk factors of peers, substance abuse and family dysfunction will sometimes be relevant in the lives of life-course persistent offenders. Consequently, it is impossible to maintain a division between the risk factors for the two types of offenders.
The remainder of this paper will discuss the risk and protective factors, and solutions to the offending in a more general way, while maintaining the overriding distinctions between the two types of offenders.
4.1 Individual risk factors: conduct disorder
While challenging behaviours are exhibited by most children at various stages of development, some children and young people exhibit behaviours which are much worse than age-appropriate norms. These more extreme behaviours are characterised by aggression, hostility, defiance of authority, rule breaking, or extreme anti-social behaviour. When this behaviour is severe, persistent and results in a negative impact on people around them, they can be said to have a 'conduct disorder'11. Conduct disorder has been closely related in the longitudinal studies to increased rates of offending12.
Children who develop conduct disorder frequently come from home environments that have many sources of social, economic and family disadvantage. Studies have shown that it is not the presence of one specific disadvantage, such as poverty, that determines an adverse outcome, but rather the accumulation of many adverse factors13. It has been estimated that 5 - 10 % of the 3 - 17 year old population exhibits behaviour which could be categorised as conduct disorder. 75% of those individuals will be male14.
The similarities between the backgrounds of young people with conduct disorder, and those who identify as life-course persistent offenders are so similar, it is thought that almost all life-course persistent-type offenders have conduct disorder.
4.2 Family risk factors
Families play an enormous role in the shaping of a child's risk for future offending. Positive family environments can provide a strong base for the development of resilience in adolescent development. Conversely, negative environments can be a significant risk factor for anti-social behaviour and offending.
The ways in which family risk factors cause offending are slightly different for lifecourse persistent offenders and adolescent onset offenders. Life-course persistent offenders usually have multiple adversities to deal with in childhood, tending to produce neuro-developmental problems, which in turn cause social adjustment issues. The relevant family risk factors include experiences of violence, neglect, poor bonding, and poverty.
From the very first years, a child's brain development and learned social behaviours are influenced by the environment they encounter. Problematic early experiences create a lens through which all subsequent relationships are viewed, inhibiting a child's ability to take advantage of nurturing relationships encountered later15.
Exposure to violence at a young age has been well studied in recent years. Repeated exposure to violence early in a child's development can fundamentally alter neurological development16. The central nervous system is particularly sensitive to traumatic experiences in the early years, and can result in the overstimulation of certain brain structures. Children exposed to trauma have been found to have increased overall arousal, increased startle response, sleep disturbance, and abnormal cardiovascular regulation17. When the brain becomes "wired" in this way it can interrupt the opportunities for development of pro-social skills.
The Christchurch Health and Development Study has shown that exposure to harsh or abusive treatment during childhood greatly increases their risk of juvenile offending18.
One particular family problem the Youth Court sees regularly is an unstable, transient life style. This is more a feature of life-course persistent offenders due to the higher levels of family dysfunction. When a young person changes address frequently, not only are they at greater risk of dropping out of school, developing fewer positive friends, and boredom, they have less chance of experiencing the protective factors that come from connections to the community, such as organised social and cultural groups, team sports, or religious groups.
For adolescent onset offenders, the relationship between family risk factors and offending is different. Often these young people will have had positive experiences throughout childhood. During adolescence however, poor parenting practices such as lack of supervision, lack of reasonable rules and consistent consequences, may combine with other risk factors to result in offending.
4.3 Education risk factors
From the perspective of the Youth Court bench, it is obvious on a daily basis that there is a direct correlation between lack of engagement in education or vocational activities and serious criminal offending by young people19. This is a feature of both types of offenders, but may be more causally related to adolescent onset offenders.
School is important, not only in equipping a young person with the academic skills to achieve success and happiness. It also teaches pro-social attitudes and skills, helps develop friendships and forms a sense of belonging. All these things contribute to the development of self-esteem. Schools also keep a young person occupied for many hours of the day.
So it is not surprising, that young people who do not attend school have higher rates of anti-social behaviour. It is unclear, however, whether lack of attendance at school causes offending, or whether it is merely a co-exisiting characteristic. What is clear from the studies is that the co-relationship is so strong that all efforts to return a young person to the education system are likely to be beneficial.
Interestingly, one study has found that it is the fact of participation in school, rather than levels of school achievement that has a beneficial effect on offending. Merely attending on a regular basis appears to reduce the likelihood of offending20.
4.4 Peer risk factors
Peer risk factors refer to the problems that may arise when a young person associates with a friend who is already engaging in offending or other anti-social behaviour. These friendships can become a training ground for anti-social behaviour. Studies have shown that association with anti-social peers increases the likelihood of offending21.
The risk from anti-social peers is a strong feature of adolescent onset offenders who may have had positive childhoods, but begin to pick up several risk factors in adolescence. Once they reach puberty the influence of the family decreases and the influence of peers increases. In fact, of all the risk factors having causal relationships with youth offending, anti-social peers was the strongest22.
The negative influence from anti-social peers is also found in life-course-persistent offenders, but these offenders tend to be the 'bad influences' on other young people, and would commit offences with or without anti-social peers.
It has been suggested in some studies that puberty represents a "maturity gap" for adolescents23. Puberty produces a strong desire to be older, or more mature. Slightly older peers who are committing offences appear to be more mature because the things they are doing resemble the independence and choices that come with adulthood (such as drinking alcohol, or driving cars). In this way, exposure to the activities of anti-social peers can increase the likelihood of offending.
One study of 905 children found that while younger children disliked their peers who were physically aggressive. During puberty, that dissolved, and teenagers came to perceive their aggressive mates as having higher social status and more influence24.
Another strong risk factor related to peers is alcohol and drug abuse. While there is currently some debate about whether alcohol and drug abuse causes offending, or is merely an additional factor present in the already disordered lives of young offenders (and perhaps a symptom of it), the Youth Court regularly faces young people who commit offences to obtain money for alcohol or drugs.
4.5 Biological risk factors
The biological risk factors for offending by young people are complex and their relationship to offending is still being understood. They include genetics, neurotransmitters and neurobiology (meaning dysfunction of the hormones communicating between brain cells, and damage to the structure and function of the brain), and mental health problems.
The link between genes and offending is the subject of very interesting research currently. Several studies have shown strong circumstantial evidence that some offending may have heritable origins. This link is stronger for the life-course persistent-type of offender, than the adolescent onset offender25. The Dunedin Longitudinal Study has revealed a connection between a genotype that confers low levels of the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAOA), and a predisposition to violent or anti-social behaviour. This correlation only exists, however, when an individual with that gene has been exposed to abuse as a child. This means that an individual with low levels of the MAOA enzyme and a history of abuse as a child, has a much greater risk of anti-social or violence behaviour26.
Poor mental health is an issue frequently seen in the Youth Court. That risk factor is found in both adolescent onset and life-course persistent offenders. Many young people appearing before the Youth Court exhibit mental health problems ranging from anxiety and depression to schizophrenia27. While many mental health problems will simply co-exist with offending, it must be true that it is causative of offending in some individual cases.
5. Protective factors
All the above risk factors can increase a young person's risk of offending. However, that is not the end of the story. Not all young people with multiple risk factors become offenders. The presence in a young person's life of a positive influence is sometimes enough to counter all the negative influences. These positive factors are said to be 'protective' against the risk of offending, and their presence in a young person's life can foster resilience against adversity.
Studying protective factors is particularly important in situations where removing risk factors may be too difficult. Interventions designed to create positive relationships, community connectedness, or a sense of self-esteem, for example, may be more effective than attempting to remove the anti-social peers, improving the household income, or improving parenting practices.
The relationship between risk and protective factors is extremely complex. For example, studies have shown that adequate parental supervision (knowing where your child is) is protective against youth offending, but that relationship is strongest amongst lower socioeconomic groups. Researchers have surmised that amongst lower socioeconomic groups, supervision is seen as a sign of care and concern; that the child is important to the adult. In higher socioeconomic groups, parental supervision does not provide the same protection, perhaps because it is seen more as a sign that the child is not trusted28.
While association with anti-social peers has been well established as a powerful risk factor for adolescent onset offenders, that risk factor is strongly moderated in the presence of strong bonds to family or school, adequate parental monitoring, or strong communication skills on the part of the young person. One study has shown that the anti-social peer group only starts to exert an influence when relationships with parents start to unravel29.
It has been demonstrated that the presence of at least one strong parental relationship may lead to fewer behavioural problems. In the absence of that, a strong relationship with a sibling or extended family member is helpful30.
Another important protective influence on the lives of young people at risk of offending is community connectedness. Involvement in community activities can help buffer other negative influences in at least three ways: by providing a context for learning "remedial" social skills that were not learned in a dysfunctional home, by the presence of more wellfunctioning peers and their parents modifying the behaviours of at risk young people and their parents, and by promoting bonds to the community.
Community connectedness can be achieved through social organisational processes such as sports teams, cultural groups, or church groups. Interestingly, one study has found that the level of benefit conferred by community extracurricular activities depends somewhat upon the level of structure of that activity. When structure was low (as in youth recreational centres), the risks of associating with anti-social peers, and consequential anti-social behaviours were increased31.
6. Māori youth offending
The disproportionate level of offending by Māori is of grave concern to the Youth Court. The statistics tell us that we are not doing well enough, and the time has come to bring the "elephant out of the closet", so to speak, and focus more clearly on finding answers to the causes and solutions to Māori offending. Māori young people account for about half police apprehensions in the 14 to 16 year age group, but their proportion of the population in that age group is about 17%. It has been estimated that 15 - 20% of Māori young people exhibit conduct disorder problems, compared to 5% of the total population32.
The longitudinal studies are particularly helpful here. The Christchurch Health and Development Study has shown that the higher rate of Māori offending is caused, not by being Māori, but by greater exposure by Māori to the risk factors for offending33. Māori young people are disproportionally represented amongst life-course persistent offenders, probably because Māori also have disproportionate rates of other general risk factors, such as poverty and exposure to domestic violence.
The causes of Māori youth offending are thought to be the same risk factors as for the general population, but with the possible addition of lack of cultural identity and separation from whānau and the wider Māori community34. It has also been suggested that the way in which young people are processed through the youth justice system may impact on rates of Māori offending, although this has not been well studied35. Data from the Christchurch Health and Disability Study found that while Māori young people reported committing more offences than Pakeha young people, their rate of apprehension by Police was greater than would have been expected on the basis of their offending rate alone36.
The longitudinal studies have identified that an important protective factor for Māori young people is a strong sense of Māori identity and connection to their culture.
The Christchurch Health and Development Study has recently produced results relating rates of offending to a sense of cultural identity amongst Māori. It showed that rates of offending (both officially recorded and self-reported offending) were about five times higher in the Māori study members, than the non-Māori members. Those rates reduced to three times higher, when adjustments were made for socioeconomic and adverse family factors. However, when study members were asked whether they identified themselves as Māori, the rates of offending for those identifying solely as Māori were roughly similar to those who identified themselves as non-Māori37. This research indicates that a strong sense of Māori identity and connectedness to Māori culture may reduce risks of offending.
7.Features of effective interventions for youth offenders
The identification of the risks for youth offending, together with an understanding of how those risks impact on the different types of youth offender, is the starting point for understanding the most effective interventions in this area.
7.1 Early intervention vs a life-course approach
As much youth offending is caused by issues surrounding the family, so early intervention will often be the most effective way of supporting those families to provide stable, supportive environments for children. Intervening early can help divert children from an anti-social pathway, before behaviour patterns become consolidated and resistant to change. This is particularly the case for life-course persistent offenders, who exhibit conduct disorder symptoms early and come from environments with multiple adverse influences.
The majority of youth offenders however (namely the "adolescent onset" type of offender) cannot be identified during childhood. For these offenders it is still important to have a range of age appropriate interventions, targeting their needs.
Recent research is providing a solid scientific basis for the provision of interventions in the youth offending area. The initiation and development of new programmes for young offenders and young people at risk should adopt a "prevention science framework", whereby a problem is defined, risk and protective factors are identified, effective programmes are identified from meta data and then thoroughly piloted and evaluated before full-scale implementation. It is crucial that a more systematic, evidence-based way of developing and funding youth justice programmes is established.
Identified priorities for interventions with life-course persistent offenders should be improving social ties, improving parental monitoring and positive relationships with the young person, reducing anti-social peers, and school performance38.
Identified priorities for interventions with adolescent onset offenders should be associations with anti-social peers, substance abuse, poor parental monitoring and negative relationships with parents39.
The following features of effective interventions deserve particular mention.
7.2 Anti-social peers
As discussed in paragraph 4.4, associating with delinquent peers has been found in many studies to be the most powerful predictor of adolescent onset offending behaviour. It is important, therefore, that wherever possible interventions should occur on an individual basis, perhaps in a family setting. While group-based programmes are obviously cheaper to provide, the risks of aggregating young people with anti-social behaviours can substantially reduce the benefits of the programme.
7.3 Residence vs non-residence
For similar reasons, all things being equal, a programme that is provided on a nonresidential basis is usually to be preferred over a programme provided residentially.
7.4 Better support for transition
Too often the Youth Court sees excellent programmes delivered to a young person, only for that young person to be "abandoned" when the programme finishes. Those first few days after leaving a period of residence, or a supported programme can be extremely stressful while a young person readjusts to the often more dysfunctional environment that they come from. All the good work in learning new behaviours in difficult situations can be lost if there is no support for applying those lessons in the young person's real life.
7.5 Boot camps/scared straight don't work
After a study of risk and protective factors, it becomes apparent why boot camps and "scared straight"-type interventions do not produce reduced rates of recidivism. Life-course persistent offenders commit offences because their childhood environments were so dysfunctional that they did not learn pro-social skills. These young people will not respond to the high-end discipline of a boot camp with a sudden desire to offend less, unless the intervention is supported by a comprehensive "wrap-around" programme when the young offender returns home.
Adolescent onset offenders offend because they have entered puberty at a time when there are other risk factors in their lives, such as anti-social peers, parenting problems, or alcohol and drug issues. The discipline of a boot camp will keep them busy and make them fitter, but does little to change these risk factors once they leave the camp.
"Scared straight"-type interventions, where a young person is taken to an adult prison to see how bad life in prison can be, also do not address the causes of offending for either type of offender. Conversely, they introduce young people to older anti-social "role models" who may represent the maturity that is yearned for in the adolescent years. Once life behind bars has been witnessed (and survived), it may no longer appear as scary.
8. What Police and community organisations can do
Only the worst 20% of youth offending finds its way to the Youth Court. The remaining 80% are dealt with by the police and community groups who are better equipped to provide solutions tailored to the young person's individual needs. That provision of interventions to young people who offend, together with family group conferences, are the cornerstones of the Children, Young Persons and Their Families Act 1989.
Groups who deal with young people who are not yet offending can use the recent research on risk and protective factors to identify at-risk young people who may benefit from well-timed, and targeted interventions.
Police Youth Aid is currently rolling out a new screening tool to help identify the risk of a young person offending. Called YORST (Youth Offending Risk Screening Tool), the tool provides 14 questions to be answered by Police Youth Aid officers, concerning the prevalence of known risk factors in a young person's life. Those questions cover offending history, peer group, education or employment involvement, drug and alcohol use, care and protection history, and family factors. This tool is used for every child offender (aged 10 - 13 years old) after their second offence, and for every young offender (aged 14 - 16 years old) who is referred to a youth justice family group conference, or who is referred to Child Youth and Family for care and protection due to serious offending. This information will become an excellent tool for identifying where interventions will be most effective in a young person's life.
What should parents or community groups do to ensure that young people who are not offending remain that way? Firstly, there are no guarantees. Sometimes even young people with very positive backgrounds choose to offend. Having said that, the longitudinal studies and experience of the Youth Court indicate that the following elements in a young person's life will reduce their risks:
- Girls - tend to moderate the risks of boys.
- Family stability - promote strong family bonds, love, and two parents together.
- Good parenting skills - reasonable rules, consistent consequences, and monitoring where the young people are and who their friends are.
- School participation.
- Community involvement - active involvement in sports, cultural, religious groups will keep them busy and foster pro-social skills.
9. Examples of effective interventions
The research on the causes and solutions of offending (or risk and protective factors), has several implications for the Youth Court. In particular, we must use more supervision with activity orders and less supervision with residence orders. Of course there are always individuals who must be held accountable for their offending by spending a time in a youth justice residence, and for whom custody is necessary in the public interest. However, when making a supervision with residence order, not only are we allowing a young person to associate with anti-social peers and all the anti-social education that entails, but we are depriving that young person of the opportunity to learn pro-social skills.
For those young offenders who do reach the Youth Court, and who require substantial interventions to address their offending, the following are proven, evidence based interventions40:
- Positive Parenting Programme (Triple P):
This comprehensive intervention includes parenting programmes for the parents of children aged 1-14 years with conduct disorder/severe antisocial behaviour. Triple P has five levels of intervention of increasing strength from instructional material to comprehensive parent training including home visits.
- Multi-systemic therapy (MST):
This individualised intervention targets the biggest risk factors in a young person's life (school, family, peers, neighbourhood, and organisations the young person connects with). It is a short-term (five to six month) intensive, community-based intervention. Practitioners have low caseloads (three to six), are on call 24/7 and provide an intensive level of client contact (multiple contacts per week, in person or by phone), especially early in the intervention process. Service delivery can be out of hours to accommodate family needs. Practitioners are rigorously supervised by MST trained supervisors to ensure interventions are goal focussed, adhere to the nine principles of MST and are evidence-based. MST has been evaluated in the New Zealand setting, and been found to be capable of significantly reducing offending and other family and peer-related risk factors. In New Zealand, Youth Horizons Trust and Richmond Fellowship hold a franchise for MST. They provide training and supervision for New Zealand MST teams.
- Multi-dimensional treatment foster care (MTFC):
Community families are recruited, trained and paid to provide placements for young people as an alternative to group homes. Foster parents are provided with weekly group supervision with other foster parents facilitated by a supervisor. They also receive daily telephone calls covering problems during the previous 24 hours. The young person receives weekly individual therapy focussed on building skills in problem solving, social skills and nonaggressive means of expression. When it is planned for the young person to return to the care of the biological family, weekly parenting training is provided. The young person is closely monitored, especially to prevent contact with delinquent peers. Supervisors are on call 24/7, which reflects the level of support required for foster parents caring for such difficult to manage young people in therapeutically effective ways. At least one organisation is considering the use of MTFC in New Zealand.
- Functional family therapy (FFT):
This is a short-term behavioural intervention that involves 12-24 hours of therapist contact with a family seeking to change the patterns of family interaction and communication in such a way that adolescent conduct disorder or severe antisocial behaviour is no longer functional. FFT is designed to improve communication and reciprocity between family members and includes many of the evidence-based interventions that are part of parent training programmes like Incredible Years, adapted for adolescents. There are currently few practitioners trained in FFT in New Zealand.
10. Effective interventions for Māori offending
A review of research about effective interventions for indigenous and ethnic minority youth, written for the Ministry of Youth Affairs in 2000, found that there was little research in this area. However, the limited data available indicated that for Māori, programmes would be most effective where:
- There was whānau involvement.
- They were provided by people with mana (status) and with whom the young people could identify.
- They acknowledged, accepted and reinforced the importance of identity, cultural knowledge and history.
- They addressed practical academic, employment and financial needs.
- They taught the contemporary relevance of Māori values.
It is important to note that, the inclusion of Māori cultural elements into a programme will not beneficially impact upon rates of Māori offending on their own. But if the underlying programme is based on a prevention science methodology, then the inclusion of Māori cultural elements may increase rates of participation, engagement and motivation to change.
11. Conclusion
It is impossible to be definitive about the causes of youth offending. Youth crime is not caused by a specific, easily identifiable list of factors, but by the presence in a young person's life of multiple risk factors, and the absence of protective factors. Different individuals respond to those risk and protective factors in different ways.
Instead of discussing the causes of youth offending, it is better to approach the issue by identifying the various risk factors for offending, and talk about the interventions that can either reduce those risks or increase protective factors in a young person's life.
It is also helpful in any discussion on the causes of offending, to understand the two main types of offender. Life-course persistent and adolescent onset offenders have different offending profiles and differ in their background risks for offending.
Interventions with life-course persistent offenders must emphasise remedial social skills if they are to have any chance of reducing future offending and deal with conduct disorder issues. Interventions with adolescent onset offenders must address, wherever relevant, any drug and alcohol problems, anti-social peers, and parenting problems.
1 Compiled by Judge Andrew Becroft, Principal Youth Court Judge, Youth Court of New Zealand, in conjunction with Linda McIver LLB(Hons), M(Jur), Research Counsel to the Principal Youth Court Judge.
2 McLaren, K. (2000) Tough is not enough. Published Ministry of Youth Affairs, page 20.
3 Police Crime Statistics for calendar year ending 31 December 2008.
4 See note 3.
5 See note 2, page 16.
6 Moffitt, T. Life-Course-Persistent versus Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Behavior. In Developmental Psychopathology. (2nd Ed) Vol. 3, Ed. Cicchetti & Cohen. Chapter 15, page 571.
7 See note 6.
8 Fergusson, D.M. & Lunskey, M.T. (1996) Adolescent Resiliency to Family Adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol 37, no. 3, pages 281-292
9Risk and Protective Factors. Published by the UK Youth Justice Board 2005, page 6.
10 New Zealand Criminal Justice Sector - Outcomes Report June 2008, page 21.
11 Advisory Group on Conduct Problems (2009) Conduct Problems- Best Practice Report. Published by the Ministry of Social Development, page 1.
12 See note 11, page 14.
13 Fergusson, DM. Horwood, LJ. Lynsky, MT. The childhoods of multiple problem adolescents: A 15 year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry. 1994;35(6):1123-40
14 See note 11, page 13.
15 Luthar, S. Resilience in Development: A Synthesis of Research Across Five Decades. (2nd Ed) Vol. 3, Ed. Cicchetti & Cohen. Chapter 20, pages 739-795, 756.
16 See note 15.
17 See note 15.
18 Fergusson, D.M. & Lynskey, M.T. (1997) Physical punishment/maltreatment during childhood and adjustment in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol. 21, No. 7, pages 617-630.
19 A United Kingdom study published in 1982 found that around 44% of secondary school truants were offenders, compared with 15% of non-truants. See Risk and Protective Factors. Published by the UK Youth Justice Board 2005, page 14.
20 See note 2, page 31.
21 See note 15.
22 See note 2, page 28.
23 See note 6, page 580.
24 See note 6.
25 See note 6.
26 Caspi, A. McClay, J. Moffitt, TE. et al. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 2002;297:851-854
27 While New Zealand statistics are unavailable, research in the United States shows that 77% of males and 63% of females in the juvenile justice system had a diagnosable mental health disorder, and 27% had a severe disorder requiring immediate and significant treatment. (See Teplin, L. Pyschiatric disorders of juveniles in detention. OJJDO Juvenile Justice Bulletin April 2006). In the United Kingdom research has shown that amongst young people who offend, 31% have mental health problems; 18% had problems with depression; 10% suffer from anxiety; 9% report a history of self-harm in the preceding month; 9% suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder; 7% have problems with hyperactivity; and 5% report psychotic-like symptoms. (See Youth Justice Board "Mental health needs and effectiveness of provision for young offenders in custody and the community", London, as reported in Young People and 'Risk' Ed Blyth, M et al, page 54.)
28 See note 15, page 760.
29 Ary, DV et al. Adolescent Problem Behavior: The Influence of Parents and Peers. In Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37. Also mentioned in McLaren, K. (2000) Tough is not enough. Published Ministry of Youth Affairs, page 29.
30 See note 15.
31 Mahoney, JL. & Stattin, H. Leisure activities and adolescent antisocial behavor: The role of structure and social context. (2000) Journal of Adolescence, 23, 113-127, as reported in Luthar, S. Resilience in Development: A Synthesis of Research Across Five Decades. (2nd Ed) Vol. 3, Ed. Cicchetti & Cohen. Chapter 20, pages 739-795.
32 See note 11, page 41.
33 Fergusson, M. et al. Ethnicity, Social Background and Young Offending: A 14-year longitudinal study. (1993) In Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 26: 155-170.
34Whanake Rangatahi: Programmes and services to address Māori youth offending. Published by Te Puni Kokiri (2000), page 27.
35 See note 34, page 35.
36 Fergusson, M. et al. Ethnicity and Bias in Police Contact Statistics. (1993) In Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 26: 193-206.
37 Fergussion, D. Ethnicity, Social Disadvantage and Crime. A presentation to Institute of Judicial Studies seminar Diversity Programme: Violence, 2 April 2009.
38 See note 2, page 36.
39 See note 2, page 36.
40Inter-Agency Plan for Conduct Disorder/Severe Antisocial Behaviour. Published by the Ministry of Social Development (2007), page 52.


text:
Ferrando and Lineberry found that, once abort factors are considered, there exist "very few" orbits that are acceptable from which to begin the descent. They reported that the most advantageous orbit for the CSM would be a 147-kilometer (80-nautical-mile) circular one.
There would be two ways for the astronauts to get from one spacecraft to the other. The primary mode involved docking and passage through the transfer tunnel. An emergency method entailed crew and payload transfer through free space. The CSM would take an active part in translunar docking, but both spacecraft must be able to take the primary role in the lunar orbit docking maneuver. A single crewman must be able to carry out the docking maneuver and crew transfer.
In another letter on October 16, the Project Office notified Grumman that no requirement existed for remote operation of either the rendezvous radar transponder or the stabilization and control system. The letter added, however, that the possibility of an incapacitated CSM astronaut must be considered and that for design purposes Grumman should assume that the astronaut would perform certain functions prior to becoming completely disabled. These functions could include turning on the transponder and the SCS. No CSM maneuvers would be required during the period in which the CSM astronaut was disabled but the CSM must remain stabilized during LEM ascent coast and rendezvous and docking phases.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Search Results for: social media
May 9, 2013
Using Social Media as a Customer Service Tool
Shoppers are becoming more and more engaged with brands through social media. While they may not interact with most brands on a daily basis, consumers have no problem voicing their concern or praise to a brand on sites like Facebook, …More...
May 8, 2013
5 Ways to Make Your B2B Social Media Posts Stand Out
The business-to-business community seems to struggle a bit when it comes to captivating their audience through social media compared to the business-to-consumer community. In fact, according to a recent article from Social Media B2B, marketers in the industry are …More...
December 22, 2015
5 Digital Marketing Trends and Predictions for 2016
In our digital world, trends come and go just about as quickly as we're able to wrap our heads around them. These constant revolutions require marketers to adopt the most modern best practices, and ditch what's irrelevant. This …More...
December 18, 2015
Week in Review: Star Wars! Nothing But Star Wars!
[caption id="attachment_78000" align="alignright" width="150"] The Force is strong in Tim Parry's 5-year-old son, William, who will hopefully change his allegiance and become a Jedi…[/caption]
Gimme those Star Wars… don't let them end!
A little Star Wars'd out …More...
April 17, 2013
B2B Marketers Need to Step Up Their Social Media Game
A new report has found that when it comes to social media, the business-to-business community is still trying to find its footing. According to this infographic created by B2B Marketing, only 38% of B2B companies have a defined social …More...
October 27, 2014
Five Ways Brands Can Win at Social this Holiday Season
With the holiday shopping season just weeks away, retailers will want to start thinking (if they haven't already) about several areas in which they should have robust preparation. One area in particular is social media.
Folke Lemaitre, founder and …More...
In Blog, Holiday 2014
December 16, 2015
4 Reasons Why Store Operations Teams Can't Ignore Customer Experience Data
Today's retail marketplace is more customer-centric than ever, with fierce competition to stand out among an abundance of options consumers have to do business with.
In what Forrester Research has dubbed the "Age of the Customer," consumers are widely …More...
December 16, 2015
Product Information Management: Your Key to Success In a Constantly Evolving Omnichannel Environment
As a marketer in today's omnichannel world, you need to sell product through a slew of channels: ecommerce web stores, online marketplaces, brick and mortar, third-party resellers, company sales force, catalogs and call centers, mobile sales, social media and …More...
December 14, 2015
The North Face, IBM and Fluid Launch New Interactive Shopping Experience using AI
SAN FRANCISCO, Dec. 14, 2015 /PRNewswire/ – The North Face, the world's premier supplier of authentic, innovative and technically advanced outdoor apparel, equipment and footwear, announced today the launch of a new interactive online shopping experience powered by IBM's Watson. In keeping …More...
April 2, 2013
3 Critical Steps to Avoid Social Media Meltdowns
Someday, somewhere, somehow, every retailer will deliver a bad customer experience. Products disappoint, a customer service representative has a bad day, ordering snafus occur; it happens. But in today's socially-connected world, one customer's small disappointment can turn into …More...


text:
Above: This Kratos is sad because he couldn%26rsquo;t find all the hidden chests
Luckily, we%26rsquo;ve got the locations of all the eyes, feathers and horns you%26rsquo;ll need to reach full power and smack down Zeus %26ndash; and the Godly Possessions that%26rsquo;ll enable you to go beyond that. What%26rsquo;s more, those who follow this guide will unlock five Trophies that are difficult to get otherwise.
(As a side note, God of War III seems to be unusually forgiving with its power-ups; not only does it only take three %26ldquo;sacrifices%26rdquo; to boost your meters instead of five, but we found plenty of hidden chests even after we%26rsquo;d maxed Kratos out. So it%26rsquo;s possible that, even if you miss one or two of the items on this list, you can make them up later. In that case, consider this guide the fastest way to reach full power.)
%26bull;Zeus%26rsquo; Eagle
HADES, PT. 1 - THE RIVER STYX to THE THREE JUDGES
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 1
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 1
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 1
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 2
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 3
HADES, PT. 2 %26ndash; THE THREE JUDGES to HADES
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 2
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 2
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 4
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 3(updated)
%26bull;Hades%26rsquo; Helm
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 3 and Gorgon Eye 5
%26bull;Helios%26rsquo; Shield
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 4(updated)
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 6
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 4
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 7
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 5
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 6
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 5
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 8
%26bull;Hermes%26rsquo; Coin
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 7
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 6
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 8
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 9
POSEIDON%26rsquo;S CHAMBER
%26bull;Hercules%26rsquo; Shoulder Guard
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 7
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 10
%26bull;Poseidon%26rsquo;s Conch Shell
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 9
APHRODITE%26rsquo;S CHAMBER
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 8
%26bull;Aphrodite%26rsquo;s Garter
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 10
%26bull;Phoenix Feather 11
%26bull;Hephaestus%26rsquo; Ring
DAEDALUS%26rsquo; WORKSHOP
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 11
%26bull;Daedalus%26rsquo; Schematics and Phoenix Feather 12
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 9
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 10
%26bull;Hera%26rsquo;s Chalice
%26bull;Phoenix Feather12-2 (updated)
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 11
%26bull;Gorgon Eye 12
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 12
%26bull;Minotaur Horn 12-2(updated)
God of War III%26rsquo;s opening battle doesn%26rsquo;t have much to collect, seeing as Kratos hasn%26rsquo;t even gone through his Mega Man-esque powering down yet. However, it%26rsquo;s where you%26rsquo;ll find the game%26rsquo;s very first Godly Possession, and it%26rsquo;s almost as easy to find as it is to overlook.
Once you%26rsquo;ve reached Gaia%26rsquo;s Heart, there%26rsquo;s a quick, relatively obvious puzzle that calls for you to move a giant block from one end of the room to the other. Don%26rsquo;t do that just yet. Instead, climb up the vines on the right side of the room.
Keep climbing up and to the right, and soon you%26rsquo;ll reach a ledge. Pull yourself up, and you%26rsquo;ll see a nest that may or may not have been where Zeus spent his early years, sheltered by Gaia against the wrath of his baby-eating father, Cronos.
Above: Seems likely to us, anyway
Once you%26rsquo;re up there, you%26rsquo;ll notice something sparkling. Grab it, and Zeus%26rsquo; Eagle is yours.
Above: Too bad you can%26rsquo;t just brain him with this
Like all Godly Possessions, Zeus%26rsquo; Eagle is more than just a trinket. Once you%26rsquo;ve beaten the game, you can use it to grant yourself infinite Rage of Sparta, which is to say it%26rsquo;ll almost make you invincible. One catch, though: turning it on, as with all Godly Possessions, will shut off your ability to earn Trophies during that entire play-through.
Next page: Hades


text:
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Valentine's Day | easy dinner
|Culture & Science - Cooking and Eating
|Thursday, 10 February 2011 12:52
The easiest recipes for Valentine's dinner.
No matter if you can not cook, this Valentine's Day you can surprise your partner with a delicious dinner. Do not worry it's easy! Today we tell you how to prepare a simple dinner and I left some advice for the Valentine's Day is perfect!
Image bf
If you are thinking about your dinner tickets, it's best to prepare something light. Maybe a salad ? Another option is to prepare some canapes original ingredients that you'll like them. A different cheese and chopped ham is also a good idea.
With our input we can open a wine. If there is early in a white wine is a good idea. For the rest of the meal we share a good bottle of red wine. Do you know how to choose a wine?
For the main course is a good idea to prepare chicken. You can see one of our best recipes with chicken . These dishes are light and easy to prepare.
Another good idea, also recommended for those who want to prepare a vegetarian dinner, is this delicious recipe for pumpkin ravioli .
Image knitsteel
Finally, when preparing a dessert we recommend see our section of desserts for Valentine's Day and our collection of easy dessert .
Also check out our full menu for Valentine's Day . Cheer up! Cook for your partner can be a nice gift (which you can share over!)
Image iLoveButter
As last advice we recommend paying attention to the decor . With a couple of candles and flowers can do wonders.


text:
Hampton Inn Iowa City/Coralville
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Tel: 1-319-351-6600 Fax: 1-319-351-3928
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text:
The Blaydon Races has been the anthem of Tyneside since it was
written by music hall performer George Ridley in 1862.
Most Geordies know this from the sung:
"O lads, ye should only seen us gannin,
We passed the foaks upon the road just as they were stannin:
Thor wes lots oí lads aní lasses there, all wií smiling faces.
Gan alang the Scotswood Road, to see the Blaydon Races."
In this edition, the full story is told with Jorge Lulić's
delightful drawings, for anyone with an interest
in the folk lore of the North East England.
Also on this series:
All books beautifully illustrated by artist Jorge Lulić and include lyrics and musical score
Jorge Lulić was born in Santiago, Chile but has lived most of his life in the United Kingdom where he become a British National in 1979. Jorge studied at the University of Durham in England from where he graduated as a Bachelor of Education with a teaching degree in Art and Design and Visual Communication in 1979. Jorge has an extensive career as a teacher and as a freelance artist. In addition to his interest in photography, Jorge is a keen oil and watercolour artist and illustrator of children's books. To find out more visit www.jorgelulic.com
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Reunion - Reencuentro - Rencontre Published November 17, 2015
JOVITA CONCHA Published June 12, 2014
Dear CHILE Published March 01, 2014
Cushy Butterfield Published November 14, 2010
'The Bamburgh Serpent' Published October 30, 2010
The Lambton Worm Published September 18, 2010


text:
S.A. Moffett Elementary
8800 Burlcrest
Huntington Beach, 92646
Moffett is in the tract NW of Magnolia and Indianapolis. From that intersection, go west on Indianapolis, turn right (north) on Ives; quick left on Charford and a quick right on Meander. Residential and lot parking available.
All schools in Orange county prohibit dogs on the school grounds.
Please leave all dogs at home.
Map and Interactive Directions Link
• Mud line for Region 56 fields only » Click Here
Page last updated 03-17-15


text:
Sign up to access Terracotta's open source community
Your browser doesn't support iframes.
No thanks, just take me to the download ›
Call us: +1-415-738-4000
We have some exciting news for our developer community! While the Terracotta 3.x line has always been fully available to our community as OSS, the Terracotta 4.x line - while continuing to be OSS has been missing an official release/build for OSS users. In recent months we have been working hard to increase our OSS efforts and make Terracotta 4.x also available as open source. The Terracotta 4.x OSS offering includes the following:
We want to highlight our continued commitment to Open Source - in the coming weeks look for us at technology conferences like Javaland, Devoxx, and community meet-ups and stay updated on our blog and website as we share more information regarding our offerings and community participation. Below you will find links on how to access our community forums, support and source locations. Terracotta Server Open Source will continue to be available under the liberal Terracotta Public License as is the Terracotta 3.x line was.
You can download a pre-built Terracotta 4.x package here: terracotta-4.3.2.tar.gz
Or you can download the source code for our TC 4.x kit from SVN and learn how to build the kit or become a contributor.
Find other ways to engage our community (via forums and issue tracking) here: http://terracotta.org/community
Note: For complete enterprise functionality, including Terracotta Management Console, Fast Restartable Store and security, Terracotta recommends you try the BigMemory extended (90 day) trial program, which offers all of the functionality of the Terracotta Server Array and much more.
Note: For complete enterprise functionality, including Terracotta Management Console, Fast Restartable Store and security, Terracotta recommends you try the BigMemory extended (90 day) trial program, which offers all of the functionality of the Terracotta Server Array and much more.
Open source Terracotta Server Array (3.7) can be downloaded from terracotta-3.7.7.tar.gz.
This is compatible with Ehcache 2.6.8 and Quartz 2.1.7 only. Newer versions of Ehcache & Quartz are not compatible with this.
Ehcache is an open source, standards-based cache for boosting performance, offloading your database, and simplifying scalability. It's the most widely-used Java-based cache because it's robust, proven, and full-featured. Ehcache scales from in-process, with one or more nodes, all the way to mixed in-process/out-of-process configurations with multi-terabyte sized caches. Milestone versions of Ehcache 3.0 with a full implementation of JSR107 and off-heap support are also available as part of Ehcache project.
Visit the Ehcache project (including for downloads) »
Quartz is a full-featured, open source job scheduling service that can be integrated with, or used along side virtually any
Java application - from the smallest stand-alone application to the largest e-commerce system. Quartz can be used to
create simple or complex schedules for executing tens, hundreds, or even tens-of-thousands of jobs; jobs whose tasks are
defined as standard Java components that may execute virtually anything you may program them to do.
The Quartz Scheduler includes many enterprise-class features, such as support for JTA transactions and clustering.
Visit the Quartz project (including for downloads) »
Our servers have plenty of memory, yet the JVM cannot use it all due to GC-related heap limitations. BigMemory can help to improve this.Software Developer, China
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Promoters and Researchers in Non-Conventional Energy
Redirected from Promoters & Researchers in Non Conventional Energy
this wiki
Last updated: May 13, 2016
Promoters and Researchers In Non-Conventional Energy (PRINCE) is a volunteer-based group founded by Ajay Chandak and is dedicated to creating a better world for everyone through the use of renewable energy. We believe that protecting and enhancing the environment is possible only through using non-conventional energy sources. We are based in Dhule, Maharashtra, India and work in association with the local NGO Jankibai Trust.
We have completed an ambitious project that consisted of the manufacture, transport, installation, and commissioning for 300 community cookers at tribal schools in the Indian state of Maharashtra. These are 2.3 m diameter parabolic cookers designed by us. The order was placed by the state government on 14 February 2007 and the project was completed by 31 March 2007. M/s Essential Equipments, one of our trainees, executed the project. This is the single largest solar cooking project in the world, for dish cookers, with the installation of over 1200 m2 of aperture area in just 45 days.
We conduct many training programs for developing manufacturers of parabolic cookers and our efforts are succeeding. I believe that the technology will propagate faster if we can make it accessible to all.
During his teaching at a private engineering college in Dhule, Professor Chandak met with the college management and persuaded the chairman to organise an international renewable energy festival. He promised to contribute some 30-40% of funds for such an event. Professor Chandak's proposal for the festival is as follows:
- To organise solar cooker design competition: We will keep all the technical details and many designs and design plans available on our website. Many good resources are already available on our website, www.solarcooking.org, and will be augmented. We will ask all prospective participants (most of them are likely to be engineering students) to refer to this literature and design some solar cookers of their own. All these cookers will be displayed and will be tested during the conference event and prizes will be given for the good designs. Criteria for awards will be like efficiency, cost, convenience, capabilities etc. Prizes will be awarded for the commercial and amateur categories. Separate prizes will be given for panel, oven and concentrating cookers.
- To have project presentation competition: Prospective participants will be encouraged to visit good sites like 'Tirupati', 'Shirdi', 'Smoke free village', etc. These participants are expected to prepare a story on the project including photographs, videos, interviews, etc., and present the same during the competition. I am expecting many engineering students to get involved in the competition. It will encourage them to study good renewable energy sites in detail and present the material at the competition. Such an exercise can generate interest in renewable energy in the minds of the young.
- To conduct a training program and present lectures by experts: As all participants coming for the event are expected to be budding engineers and science students, we plan to conduct a training program on 'Entrepreneurship opportunities in Renewable Energy' for them. I am already conducting such program for some students with fair success. Lectures from experts like Deepak Gadhia and others will also be organised during the event.
- NEW: May 2016: Usability of the solar dish cooker for large scale community cooking - Kurukshetra Journal
File:Ben2 Ben3 Annex B description of serial production 03-07-2015.pdf
- April 2015: India: PRINCE Offers Solar Cooking Workshops for New Entrepreneurs - Global Solar Thermal Energy Council
- January 2015: Julie Greene, Executive Director of Solar Cookers International, was the Keynote Speaker at the Networking Workshop for Entrepreneurship in Renewable Energy hosted by PRINCE in Dhule, India.
- August 2014: Professor Chandak has written about the recent installation of steam generating solar cooking systems at The Akshardham Temple located in New Delhi and at the Ram Krishna Mission Student's Home, Mylapore, Chennai. The Akshardham Temple system is now able to serve 2,000 - 3,000 meals on a clear sunny day, saving approximately 30 to 50 scm of PNG each day in operation. MNRE has partly funded this installation and Clique Solar has manufactured and installed the system. The system at the Ram Krishna Mission Student's Home as been adapted with the ability to store the excess heat generated mid-day to be able to cook very early in the day and after sunset. Read his reports: ARUN®100 Installation at Akshardham Temple, New Delhi and ARUN®100 with Thermal Storage at Ramkrishna Mission, Chennai - Ajay Chandak
- March 2014: Professor Chandak wants to update the solar cooking community that a Scheffler Community Kitchen has been installed and tested at the Aapla Ghar school for homeless rural children located in Naldurg. After cooking their first meal on this solar system the students and management were more than happy. He brings particular attention and notice of appreciation to the local M.P. Dr. Ashok Ganguly, who arranged financing of the project through their M.P fund, contributing $23,000 USD to the project. Also, another Scheffler system is to be opened soon at an orphanage located in Dhule.
- December 2013: On December 9, 2013 Professor Chandak was elected to the Board of Directors of the International Solar Energy Society (ISES). Chandak will represent "Solar Heating and Cooling". ISES is a UN-accredited NGO that is active in over 110 countries.
- November 2013: PRINCE solar cookers packed for Solar Trek 2013 - The PRINCE - 15 and the PRINCE - 40 parabolic solar cookers, designed by Ajay Chandak, were taken along to prepare meals on the first ever Solar Trek through the Himalayas in Nepal.
- November 2013: More Indian schools to get solar cookers (The Hindu) - After experimenting with solar power in cooking noon meal for students in a corporation school, the Coimbatore Corporation has decided to provide them to a few more schools. The corporation, sometime in August, installed two [institutional] solar cookers at the North Coimbatore School at Rs. 68,000. ...[T]he civic body was keen on tapping alternative sources of energy to bring down reliance on conventional sources of energy and provide a friendly kitchen environment for workers, who had been struggling with firewood. Read more...
- November 2013: Solar cooking receives a new platform to speak from - The second edition of Sun Focus, a quarterly magazine devoted to concentrated solar heat has just been released. The new publication from India was founded by Dr Farooq Addullah. He explains that the magazine will focus on off-grid applications of concentrated solar technologies (CSTs) for the purpose of saving fuel oil, firewood, and LPG in industrial and commercial establishments using heat between 80 °C and 250 °C. Solar cooking plays a major role in the content. This latest edition's cover article is devoted to the latest developments of the Scheffler Community Kitchen, written by Professor Chandak. Read his article on page 11. Scheffler Solar Concentrators in India - Sun Focus
- January 2013: Parabolic community solar cookers used for midday meals in rural schools - WOTR is a nonprofit organization that has been operating in five Indian states since the early nineties. They have untaken a unique solar cooking project targeting Zilla Parishad primary schools in the Sangamner and Akole taluka of the Ahmadnagar district. The objective was to find ways to help prepare their midday meal. Currently, twenty-three solar cookers are in service. After a careful study of all options, it was decided to deploy the PRINCE - 40 parabolic solar cooker, designed by Professor Chandak, for the pilot installation in fifty-three villages across three states – Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Most of the schools where these cookers are installed are using them as main source of energy for the mid-day meals. Read more about the project at: A Report on Deployment of Parabolic Community Solar Cookers for Midday Meals in Rural Schools
- December 2011: We are getting amazing feedbacks from end users for installations carried out for the PRINCE-40 solar community cookers, with the help of NGOs like WOTR and MPSSS. It looks like these organizations will expand the program and we should see few hundred systems in schools in next year. You will find a few more models of community solar cookers from us in coming year.
- October 2011: The latest PRINCE newsletter announces a scheduled training for Scheffler Reflector Solar Cookers coming January 21 -27, 2012. Next, PRINCE founder Ajay Chandak has received an Energy Conservation Award from the Government of Maharashtra. Also, PRINCE has organized a networking workshop for all stakeholders in the renewable energy business on January 25 - 26, 2012. PRINCE Biogas Plants now approved by MNRE. Read more about these items: PRINCE newsletter, Fall 2011
- July 2011: Originally announced as a one-time event Oct. 11-13, 2011 with a related conference, the solar cooker competition has been cancelled, and instead there will be a year-long opportunity for having solar cookers and fuel stoves tested free, starting this month. India's Promoters and Researchers in Non-Conventional Energy (PRINCE) group have updated standards for solar cookers, developed in conjunction with input from SCWNet members. These universal testing standards will be used to evaluate the cookers by simulating real world conditions. Designers, manufacturers, NGOs and individuals are invited to submit solar cookers for testing, and need not be present for the tests. While there will be no cash prizes, solar cookers will be rated on thermal performance, cost of manufacture and transport, and user convenience. Send cookers anytime between now and June 2012 to: Prof. Ajay Chandak, PRINCE, Shamgiri, Opp Swagat Lodge, Agra Road, Deopur, Dhuli – 424005, Maharashtra, India. Include your usual instructions for consumers. If you wish your cooker returned, please arrange to cover return shipping costs. After testing, entrants will be contacted with results, and have the option of omitting their information in the publicly listed ratings. No reply from entrants within two weeks or so after receiving their results will be taken as consent to publish. Other questions? Email: firstname.lastname@example.com.
- June 2011:The International Center for Networking, Ecology, Education and Re-Integration (ICNEER) has announced that Professor Ajay Chandak is one of four recipients of the 'Dr. Shirin Gadhia Sustainability Award' to be presented on June 19, 2011 for his work in renewable energy. Read more..
- March 2009: Energy Day was celebrated in a unique way in city of Dhule, India, by a voluntary organization PRINCE (Promoters & Researchers In Non Conventional Energy). With the help of around 100 students of mechanical engineering from SSVPS BSD College of Engineering a solar canteen was set up by Prof. Ajay Chandak, Prof. Sham Patil and Prof. Deepak Dubey. Three SK-14, solar dish cooker, one square PRINCE design of dish cooker and one Community solar cooker of 2.3 m dia. were used in the canteen. On these gadgets almost 1000 snacks were cooked and sold by the students. Staff and students of the Institute and invited guests from the city enjoyed solar food. Guests had fun watching the food being cooked in front of their eyes in the solar cookers and to taste the same as any other methods of cooking. Snacks cooked and sold on large scale were Idlis and coffee. However other snacks like Khichadi, Cakes etc. were also prepared for demonstration to the visitors. Many students, staff and visitors showed great interest in the solar cooking demonstrations and local manufacturer, M/s Essential Equipments, reported sell of around ten solar cookers in next two days, which is welcome outcome of such event. Many students were thrilled with the experience of this event for the first time in their life and have shown great interest to organize such events at different locations in the city, next year. Principal of the Institute Dr. Jahagirdar has promised to support such events in future. Other programs for energy day celebrations included demonstrations of energy efficient technologies for lighting, fans and domestic appliances. All these equipments were demonstrated to visitors. Many visitors reported having changed their copper and aluminum ballasts with electronic ballasts in next week. After all seeing is believing. One workshop was also organized for local masons, hoteliers and interested people to teach them skills of installation of biogas plants working on food waste. Chairperson of PRINCE, Prof. Ajay Chandak, has given up LPG since last four years and fuel requirement for his family comes up from the solar cookers and biogas plant working on food waste. PRINCE group has come up with a special cost effective design of biogas plant. After the workshop five people have shown interest in installation of the biogas plants.
- November 2007: Professor Ajay Chandak, of PRINCE, reports completion of an ambitious project to manufacture, transport, install and commission over 300 large parabolic solar cookers at tribal schools in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The project was coordinated by Chandak, with manufacturing by PRINCE trainees M/s Essential Equipments and three contractual manufacturers. Twenty-five trained teams carried out installation and testing of the cookers. The entire process took just 45 days, and resulted in 100 schools being equipped. The "community solar cookers," as Chandak refers to them, are 2.3 meters in diameter and powerful enough for a 22-liter pressure cooker. Each cooker cost around Rs. 26,000 ($650) and comes with a large pressure cooker and other accessories.
- November 2006: Professor Chandak won a "Renewable Energy Award 2005" from the Maharashtra Energy Development Agency. Of the state-level award for excellence in renewable energy, Prof. Chandak says, "Such awards are small milestones on our way and keep us pushing forward." He thanks friends from around the world for their contributions, adding, "They are equal partners in the award."
- January 2006: Professor Chandak led a workshop titled "Manufacturing Parabolic Solar Cookers and an introduction to renewable energy technologies." Twenty people from eight states participated in the workshop, mostly renewable energy professionals. Mr. Chandak hopes that several of them will consider manufacturing parabolic solar cookers in their own states. Large community-size cookers, two meters or more in diameter, proved quite popular. These cookers can cook meals for 30-50 people. Smaller, family-side cookers were also shown, as were related technologies like solar food dryers.
- August 2014: Solar Cookers for Community Cooking - Ajay Chandak
- August 2014: ARUN®100 Installation at Akshardham Temple, New Delhi - Ajay Chandak
- August 2014: ARUN®100 with Thermal Storage at Ramkrishna Mission, Chennai - Ajay Chandak
- January 2009: Design of multistage evaporators for integrating with Scheffler Solar concentrators for food processing applications - Prof. Ajay Chandak & Dr. Sunil K. Somani
- January 2009: Design of Solar Dryer with Turboventilator and fireplace - Prof. Ajay Chandak & Dr. Sunil K. Somani
- 2006:Innovative Balcony Model of Concentrating Solar Cooker
Audio and video
- July 2014:
- July 2014:
- March 2012:
See also
- Parabolic solar concentrator for industrial heating
- Balcony Cooker
- Ajay Chandak
- July 2006: Solar Energy for Quality Improvement in the Food-Processing Industry - Prof. Ajay Chandak
External links
Shamgiri, Opp Swagat Lodge, Agra Road, Deopur
Dhuli - 424005
Email: email@example.com
Prof. Ajay Chandak
PRINCE, Suman Foundation
Shamgiri, Opp. Swagat Lodge, Agra Road, Deopur,
Dhule: 424 005.
Tel: +91 2562 271795
Mobile: +91 9823033344
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/ajay.chandak.37
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/user/ajaychandak


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Feb 3, 2014 8:25 AM
We're thinking of every possible excuse to redecorate our foyer so that we can hang this Pearl & Gold Round Mirror ($150, on sale) above a gorgeous antique white console table! It's simply stunning. The capiz shell tiles would look phenomenal against a pale yellow wall.
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So You Want to Be a TV Chef
Poh Ling Yeow has a dream job: She's the chef on her own cooking show.
Ms. Yeow isn't a trained chef. She doesn't own a restaurant. Nor is she a former model or Gwyneth Paltrow. The fifth-generation Chinese Malaysian, who lives in Australia, is a former make-up artist.
She got into the cooking-show industry two years ago when she landed a spot on the first season of the Australian reality series for amateur chefs and home cooks, "MasterChef." She was the runner-up of the contest, the grand prize of which includes 100,000 Australian dollars (US$101,580) in cash, a chance to publish a cookbook, and training from leading professional chefs. Her exposure paved the way for her own show, "Poh's Kitchen," which launched Feb. 14 and airs Mondays and Tuesdays on the Discovery TLC.
On the show she teaches viewers some of her favorite recipes, incorporating inspiration from her Malaysian roots. Cameos from famous chefs and scenes from her travels in Malaysia are also featured.
So what did it take her to get from girl-watching-the-food-show to girl-in-the food show? Ms. Yeow shares her strategy.
Be on a reality TV show. The best way to get your foot in the door? "Apply" for a job by getting some screen time on a reality show, Ms. Yeow says. "Once on the show, you've got to be willing to take risks—try making dishes that are different, even if that means you can fall hard," she says. She was kicked off for a disastrous dish involving meringue and red bean paste, but later returned to the show as a wildcard.
Be Asian. Ms. Yeow was born in Malaysia and spent much of her childhood in Kuala Lumpur. Having a defining background isn't a necessity, but it has definitely helped, she says. "From a culinary standpoint, Eastern cuisine is so much lesser known and really stands out from other contestants cooking Western food," she says.
Be in it for the right reasons. "Everything that looks fun on screen, isn't in real life," says Ms. Yeow. For one 30-minute episode of her show, she needs to film for an entire week. Considering she's filming a whopping 40 episodes, that's a lot of work.
Be quiet. Media have often pried into her private life. "Don't talk to gossip columns!" warns Ms. Yeow. "You'll regret it." Tabloids dug up news on how she posed nude for artist David Bromley, and The Daily Telegraph even tracked down her classmates from college, where Ms. Yeow was better known as Sharon.
Be connected. Having some experience in television helps, says Ms. Yeow, who's ex-partner was a filmmaker. Big industry names can also help boost the popularity of your show, she says. "Poh's Kitchen" features appearances from celebrity chefs including Neil Perry, of Rockpool restaurant in Australia, and David Thompson, of Nahm restaurant in London and Thailand.


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Choosing a course is one of the most important decisions you'll ever make! View our courses and see what our students and lecturers have to say about the courses you are interested in at the links below.
University Life
University Life
Each year more than 4,000 choose NUI Galway as their University of choice. Find out what life at NUI Galway is all about here.
About NUI Galway
About NUI Galway
Since 1845, NUI Galway has been sharing the highest quality teaching and research with Ireland and the world. Find out what makes our University so special – from our distinguished history to the latest news and campus developments.
Colleges & Schools
Colleges & Schools
NUI Galway has earned international recognition as a research-led university with a commitment to top quality teaching across a rang of key areas of expertise.
NUI Galway's vibrant research community take on some of the most pressing challenges of our times.
Business & Industry
Guiding Breakthrough Research at NUI Galway
We explore and facilitate commercial opportunities for the research community at NUI Galway, as well as facilitating industry partnership.
Alumni, Friends & Supporters
Alumni, Friends & Supporters
There are over 90,000 NUI Galway graduates Worldwide, connect with us and tap into the online community.
Community Engagement
Community Engagement
At NUI Galway, we believe that the best learning takes place when you apply what you learn in a real world context. That's why many of our courses include work placements or community projects.
Community Development Practice (Diploma/Certificate)
Expand all
Course Overview
The Certificate/Diploma in Community Development Practice are part-time programmes, designed to enable community activists gain a thorough understanding of community development combined with the practical skills necessary to work effectively in development work.
The Certificate/Diploma programme has previously been delivered in Northern Ireland in response to demand. We would hope to offer this option again in the future, should there be sufficient interest. Individuals who wish to apply for the Northern Ireland option can do so at the relevant link below.
Applications and Selections
Apply Online - Certificate
Apply Online - Diploma
Apply Online Certificate/Diploma (Northern Ireland)
Places are limited so application by itself does not guarantee participation on the programme. In the event of over-subscription, applicants may be invited to attend a brief and informal interview, at which they will meet with the Community Education Officers, and selection for a place on the programme will be based upon the information submitted on the individual's application form and their interview.
Who Teaches this Course
Requirements and Assessment
Classes take place once a week for 3 hours (timeline is dependent on location of delivery). There are also two Saturdays per term when attendance at workshops or fieldtrips are required, and a minimum of 75% attendance per term/overall is mandatory in order to successfully complete the programme.
In addition to the above mentioned attendance requirement, participants will submit assignments for each module (including a profile and a project) and will be required to reach a pass standard in all relevant coursework. Each aspect of the programme will be monitored by the programme board and will be delivered by course tutors who are based locally.
Key Facts
Entry Requirements
Candidates must have experience of working in a community or voluntary organisation. There are no special educational requirements for entry to Certificate or Diploma programmes. Numbers accepted on these programmes are limited. Students are required to complete the programme application form in addition to attending an informal interview.
All applicants whose first language is not English, or who have not been educated through the medium of English language during their two most recent years of study, must present one of the following qualifications in the English language: IELTS: 6.5 or TOEFL (IBT): 92. Please see this page for further information: http://www.nuigalway.ie/international-students/englishlanguagerequirements/
Additional Requirements
8 months, part-time (Certificate); 1 academic year, part-time (Diploma)
Next start date
October 2016
A Level Grades ()
Average intake
Closing Date
Next start date
October 2016
NFQ level
Mode of study
ECTS weighting
15 (Certificate); 30 (Diploma)
PAC code
Course Outline
Students completing the Certificate programme study three modules which involve a minimum of 120 hours of instruction and assignments.
- Community Development Theory and Practice
- Social Analysis
- Communication, Group Work and Leadership Skills
Students completing the Diploma programme study six modules and complete a project. The Diploma course involves a minimum of 240 hours of instruction and project work.
- Community Development Theory and Practice
- Communication, Group Work and Leadership Skills
- Research Techniques
- Social Analysis
- Public Policy
- Project Planning, Development and Evaluation
A number of special interest workshops and field trips will be organised during each course throughout the year, reflecting the needs and interests of the course participants. These visits to other community development projects will give participants opportunities to make contact with the practice of community development in other locations.
Why Choose This Course?
Career Opportunities
Who's Suited to This Course
Learning Outcomes
Work Placement
Study Abroad
Related Student Organisations
Course Fees
Fees: EU
Fees: Tuition
Fees: Student levy
Fees: Non EU
Find out More
Course Coordinator
Centre for Adult Learning and Professional Development
NUI Galway, Nuns' Island
Tel: 091 495241
Email: email@example.com
What Our Students Say
Tony Hogan |
As I work part-time and also volunteer at a Youth Café, I thought this course would help me in my daily activities. As the course progressed, I realised that I would really like to do community work full time, and that this course suited me ideally. I find the workshops and modules easy to understand, and the tutors more than helpful. As I have never attended Third Level education, this is a great way for me to achieve a level of education that, previously, I could only aspire to. I would highly recommend this course to anybody involved or interested in community development.
Olivia Harrington |
...The reasons I chose the course in Community Development Practice is because I have an interest in working with people and have been volunteering with a few charities and wanted to develop my skills in this area. As it had been over 10 years since I did any formal study, I was apprehensive about going back to college but the learning style of the course suited me and I found the tutors excellent and very supportive. I'm now continuing my studies in the BA Programme in Community and Family Studies. The course gave me great confidence and I would recommend it to anyone with an interest in community work...
Diploma in Community Development Practice Brochure PDF (165 KB)
Adult Learning Prospectus PDF (3.4 MB)
ATES Undergraduate Courses Brochure PDF (300 KB)
Diploma Series Brochure PDF (1.6 MB)
Short Courses Series 2016 PDF (1.4 MB)
Postgraduate Taught Prospectus 2016 PDF (14 MB)
Postgraduate Research Prospectus 2016 PDF (6.4 MB)


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Fog Coat to be Applied to Chip Sealed Roads
Submitted by David on
I am not sure this is good news or bad. I am definitely going to avoid these roads for a while.
Fog coat to be applied to chip sealed roads
Boulder County, Colo. – Beginning this Tuesday, Sept. 7, the Boulder County Transportation Department will apply a fog coat to three roads that were recently chip sealed. Fog coat is a petroleum-based material that helps level the surface of a chip-sealed roadway, providing a smoother ride for motorists and cyclists.
Fog coat schedule:
• Sept. 7-8: Nelson Road from U.S. 36 to 75th Street
• Sept. 8-9: Olde Stage Road from Lee Hill Drive to Lefthand Canyon
• Sept. 9-10: Cherryvale Road from Baseline Road to State Highway 170
To minimize traffic delays, the fog coat applications will take place between 8 p.m. and 5 a.m. Message boards are in place to provide advance warning and flagging crews will manage traffic at each location. Schedules are subject to change due to weather and other factors. Visit www.BoulderCounty.org/Transportation for updates.
All three roads are part of popular cycling routes. To mitigate effects on cyclists and improve ride-ability on these roads, Boulder County has made significant changes to its chip seal methodology. The county switched from a 3/8-inch chip to a 1/4-inch chip and is fog coating each chip-sealed road. The smaller chip combined with the application of the fog coat better fills spaces and provides a smoother finish.
"The new surface will not ride like pavement, but we are hopeful this new process will provide a better ride quality – particularly for cyclists – and still extend the life of our pavement investment," Boulder County Transportation Director George Gerstle said. "We have been getting positive feedback from bicyclists on the new chip technique, and I believe the fog coat will provide additional improvement."
Chip seal is a cost-effective preventative maintenance strategy for extending the life of pavement. It can add up to 10 years to the life of asphalt pavement, saving thousands of dollars in maintenance and rehabilitation costs. It is important to seal the entire road surface, including shoulders, to gain the maximum effectiveness from the procedure.
Another method of gaining maximum effectiveness from chip sealing is to perform the work before roads are in poor condition, generally within 5-7 years of a road being newly paved or overlaid. This is why the procedure is often applied to roads that appear to be in good condition.
Dan Rowland, Communications Specialist
Boulder County Commissioners' Office
News Item:
2 Comments
What is a Fog Coat...
Submitted by Boulderite (not verified) on
aka ...Fog Seal
A fog seal is an application of asphalt emulsion sprayed onto a pavement surface with or without a sand cover (figure 3). The emulsion is diluted to the proper consistency in order to get complete coverage on the roadway but not be too thick to cause a slippery surface. A fog seal works better on a coarse aggregate surface where the asphalt emulsion has room to pond between the aggregate particles. On a smooth aggregate surface, the asphalt rests on the surface covering the top of aggregate particles, creating a slippery surface for the vehicles. If the fog seal was not properly applied and a slippery surface exists, a dry choke cover is applied to the surface. The choke is usually clean sand or aggregate that is less than 0.25 inches in diameter.
Points: 17
Fog Coat on US36
Submitted by David on
Was riding US36 on Sunday and they are going to fog coat this section of chip seal next week Sept 20th to 23rd. The sign say Alternative Routes Advised!
Prepare accordingly.
Points: 10


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Jun 25, 2012 8:25 AM
We've sung the praises of BAGGU before, but they continue to come out with new and inventive collections that make us swoon. Our current favorite is the BAGGU Sea Stripe Daypack ($24). It departs from the traditional two-handled style, so we can stash our library books, iPads, and miscellaneous purse items within and leave our hands free for a cuppa iced coffee.
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