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Prefrontal cortex and hybrid learning during iterative competitive games
Abe, Hiroshi
Seo, Hyojung
Lee, Daeyeol
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Behavioral changes driven by reinforcement and punishment are referred to as simple or model-free reinforcement learning. Animals can also change their behaviors by observing events that are neither appetitive nor aversive, when these events provide new information about payoffs available from alternative actions. This is an example of model-based reinforcement learning, and can be accomplished by incorporating hypothetical reward signals into the value functions for specific actions. Recent neuroimaging and single-neuron recording studies showed that the prefrontal cortex and the striatum are involved not only in reinforcement and punishment, but also in model-based reinforcement learning. We found evidence for both types of learning, and hence hybrid learning, in monkeys during simulated competitive games. In addition, in both the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex, individual neurons heterogeneously encoded signals related to actual and hypothetical outcomes from specific actions, suggesting that both areas might contribute to hybrid learning.
belief learning; decision making; game theory; reinforcement learning; reward
Related Articles
Cortical mechanisms for reinforcement learning in competitive games
Seo, Hyojung
Lee, Daeyeol
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
Game theory analyses optimal strategies for multiple decision makers interacting in a social group. However, the behaviours of individual humans and animals often deviate systematically from the optimal strategies described by game theory. The behaviours of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in simple zero-sum games showed similar patterns, but their departures from the optimal strategies were well accounted for by a simple reinforcement-learning algorithm. During a computer-simulated zero-sum game, neurons in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex often encoded the previous choices of the animal and its opponent as well as the animal's reward history. By contrast, the neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex predominantly encoded the animal's reward history. Using simple competitive games, therefore, we have demonstrated functional specialization between different areas of the primate frontal cortex involved in outcome monitoring and action selection. Temporally extended signals related to the animal's previous choices might facilitate the association between choices and their delayed outcomes, whereas information about the choices of the opponent might be used to estimate the reward expected from a particular action. Finally, signals related to the reward history might be used to monitor the overall success of the animal's current decision-making strategy.
prefrontal cortex; decision making; reward
Related Articles
Prefrontal and Striatal Activity Related to Values of Objects and Locations
Kim, Soyoun
Cai, Xinying
Hwang, Jaewon
Lee, Daeyeol
Frontiers in Neuroscience
The value of an object acquired by a particular action often determines the motivation to produce that action. Previous studies found neural signals related to the values of different objects or goods in the orbitofrontal cortex, while the values of outcomes expected from different actions are broadly represented in multiple brain areas implicated in movement planning. However, how the brain combines the values associated with various objects and the information about their locations is not known. In this study, we tested whether the neurons in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and striatum in rhesus monkeys might contribute to translating the value signals between multiple frames of reference. Monkeys were trained to perform an oculomotor intertemporal choice in which the color of a saccade target and the number of its surrounding dots signaled the magnitude of reward and its delay, respectively. In both DLPFC and striatum, temporally discounted values (DVs) associated with specific target colors and locations were encoded by partially overlapping populations of neurons. In the DLPFC, the information about reward delays and DVs of rewards available from specific target locations emerged earlier than the corresponding signals for target colors. Similar results were reproduced by a simple network model built to compute DVs of rewards in different locations. Therefore, DLPFC might play an important role in estimating the values of different actions by combining the previously learned values of objects and their present locations.
intertemporal choice; prefrontal cortex; reward; temporal discounting; utility
Related Articles
Behavioral and Neural Changes Following Gains and Losses of Conditioned Reinforcers
Seo, Hyojung
Lee, Daeyeol
The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
Human behaviors can be more powerfully influenced by conditioned reinforcers, such as money, than by primary reinforcers. Moreover, people often change their behaviors to avoid monetary losses. However, the effect of removing conditioned reinforcers on choices has not been explored in animals, and the neural mechanisms mediating the behavioral effects of gains and losses are not well understood. To investigate the behavioral and neural effects of gaining and losing a conditioned reinforcer, we trained rhesus monkeys for a matching pennies task in which the positive and negative values of its payoff matrix were realized by the delivery and removal of a conditioned reinforcer. Consistent with the findings previously obtained with non-negative payoffs and primary rewards, the animal's choice behavior during this task was nearly optimal. Nevertheless, the gain and loss of a conditioned reinforcer significantly increased and decreased, respectively, the tendency for the animal to choose the same target in subsequent trials. We also found that the neurons in the dorsomedial frontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex often changed their activity according to whether the animal earned or lost a conditioned reinforcer in the current or previous trial. Moreover, many neurons in the dorsomedial frontal cortex also signaled the gain or loss occurring as a result of choosing a particular action as well as changes in the animal's behaviors resulting from such gains or losses. Thus, primate medial frontal cortex might mediate the behavioral effects of conditioned reinforcers and their losses.
cingulate cortex; decision making; prefrontal cortex; reinforcement learning; reward; punishment; neuroeconomics
Related Articles
Monkey orbitofrontal cortex encodes response choices near feedback time
Tsujimoto, Satoshi
Genovesio, Aldo
Wise, Steven P.
The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
The primate prefrontal cortex contributes to stimulus-guided behavior, but the functional specializations among its areas remain uncertain. To better understand such specializations, we contrasted neuronal activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFdl) and the orbital prefrontal cortex (PFo). The task required rhesus monkeys to use a visual cue to choose a saccade target. Some cues instructed the monkeys to repeat their most recent response; others instructed them to change it. Responses were followed by feedback: fluid reward if correct, visual feedback if incorrect. Previous studies, using different tasks, have reported that PFo neurons did not encode responses. We found PFo did encode responses in this task, but only near feedback time, after the response had been completed. PFdl differed from PFo in several respects. As reported previously, some PFdl neurons encoded responses from the previous trial and others encoded planned responses. PFo neurons did not have these properties. After feedback, PFdl encoded rewarded responses better than unrewarded ones and thus combined response and outcome information. PFo, in contrast, encoded the responses chosen, rewarded or not. These findings suggest that PFdl and PFo contribute differently to response knowledge, with PFo using an outcome-independent signal to monitor current responses at feedback time.
Decision; feedback; monitoring; evaluation; frontal lobe; prefrontal cortex
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How do we think machines think? An fMRI study of alleged competition with an artificial intelligence
Chaminade, Thierry
Rosset, Delphine
Da Fonseca, David
Nazarian, Bruno
Lutcher, Ewald
Cheng, Gordon
Deruelle, Christine
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
Mentalizing is defined as the inference of mental states of fellow humans, and is a particularly important skill for social interactions. Here we assessed whether activity in brain areas involved in mentalizing is specific to the processing of mental states or can be generalized to the inference of non-mental states by comparing brain responses during the interaction with an intentional and an artificial agent. Participants were scanned using fMRI during interactive rock-paper-scissors games while believing their opponent was a fellow human (Intentional agent, Int), a humanoid robot endowed with an artificial intelligence (Artificial agent, Art), or a computer playing randomly (Random agent, Rnd). Participants' subjective reports indicated that they adopted different stances against the three agents. The contrast of brain activity during interaction with the artificial and the random agents didn't yield any cluster at the threshold used, suggesting the absence of a reproducible stance when interacting with an artificial intelligence. We probed response to the artificial agent in regions of interest corresponding to clusters found in the contrast between the intentional and the random agents. In the precuneus involved in working memory, the posterior intraparietal suclus, in the control of attention and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, in executive functions, brain activity for Art was larger than for Rnd but lower than for Int, supporting the intrinsically engaging nature of social interactions. A similar pattern in the left premotor cortex and anterior intraparietal sulcus involved in motor resonance suggested that participants simulated human, and to a lesser extend humanoid robot actions, when playing the game. Finally, mentalizing regions, the medial prefrontal cortex and right temporoparietal junction, responded to the human only, supporting the specificity of mentalizing areas for interactions with intentional agents.
social cognition; neuroscience; artificial intelligence; fMRI
Related Articles
Valuation of uncertain and delayed rewards in primate prefrontal cortex
Kim, Soyoun
Hwang, Jaewon
Seo, Hyojung
Lee, Daeyeol
Neural networks : the official journal of the International Neural Network Society
Humans and animals often must choose between rewards that differ in their qualities, magnitudes, immediacy, and likelihood, and must estimate these multiple reward parameters from their experience. However, the neural basis for such complex decision making is not well understood. To understand the role of the primate prefrontal cortex in determining the subjective value of delayed or uncertain reward, we examined the activity of individual prefrontal neurons during an inter-temporal choice task and a computer-simulated competitive game. Consistent with the findings from previous studies in humans and other animals, the monkey's behaviors during inter-temporal choice were well accounted for by a hyperbolic discount function. In addition, the activity of many neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex reflected the signals related to the magnitude and delay of the reward expected from a particular action, and often encoded the difference in temporally discounted values that predicted the animal's choice. During a computerized matching pennies game, the animals approximated the optimal strategy, known as Nash equilibrium, using a reinforcement learning algorithm. We also found that many neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex conveyed the signals related to the animal's previous choices and their outcomes, suggesting that this cortical area might play an important role in forming associations between actions and their outcomes. These results show that the primate lateral prefrontal cortex plays a central role in estimating the values of alternative actions based on multiple sources of information.
game theory; inter-temporal choice; reinforcement learning; utility theory; temporal discounting
Related Articles
Differential Contributions of Dorso-Ventral and Rostro-Caudal Prefrontal White Matter Tracts to Cognitive Control in Healthy Older Adults
Strenziok, Maren
Greenwood, Pamela M.
Santa Cruz, Sophia A.
Thompson, James C.
Parasuraman, Raja
PLoS ONE
Prefrontal cortex mediates cognitive control by means of circuitry organized along dorso-ventral and rostro-caudal axes. Along the dorso-ventral axis, ventrolateral PFC controls semantic information, whereas dorsolateral PFC encodes task rules. Along the rostro-caudal axis, anterior prefrontal cortex encodes complex rules and relationships between stimuli, whereas posterior prefrontal cortex encodes simple relationships between stimuli and behavior. Evidence of these gradients of prefrontal cortex organization has been well documented in fMRI studies, but their functional correlates have not been examined with regard to integrity of underlying white matter tracts. We hypothesized that (a) the integrity of specific white matter tracts is related to cognitive functioning in a manner consistent with the dorso-ventral and rostro-caudal organization of the prefrontal cortex, and (b) this would be particularly evident in healthy older adults. We assessed three cognitive processes that recruit the prefrontal cortex and can distinguish white matter tracts along the dorso-ventral and rostro-caudal dimensions –episodic memory, working memory, and reasoning. Correlations between cognition and fractional anisotropy as well as fiber tractography revealed: (a) Episodic memory was related to ventral prefrontal cortex-thalamo-hippocampal fiber integrity; (b) Working memory was related to integrity of corpus callosum body fibers subserving dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; and (c) Reasoning was related to integrity of corpus callosum body fibers subserving rostral and caudal dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These findings confirm the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex's role in semantic control and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex's role in rule-based processing, in accordance with the dorso-ventral prefrontal cortex gradient. Reasoning-related rostral and caudal superior frontal white matter may facilitate different levels of task rule complexity. This study is the first to demonstrate dorso-ventral and rostro-caudal prefrontal cortex processing gradients in white matter integrity.
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Time-dependent changes in human cortico-spinal excitability reveal value-based competition for action during decision processing
Klein-Flügge, Miriam Cornelia
Bestmann, Sven
The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
Our choices often require appropriate actions in order to obtain a preferred outcome, but the neural underpinnings that link decision making and action selection remain largely undetermined. Recent theories propose that action selection occurs simultaneously, i.e. parallel in time, with the decision process. Specifically, it is thought that action selection in motor regions originates from a competitive process which is gradually biased by evidence signals originating in other regions, such as those specialized in value computations. Biases reflecting the evaluation of choice options should thus emerge in the motor system before the decision process is complete. Using transcranial magnetic stimulation, we sought direct physiological evidence for this prediction by measuring changes in cortico-spinal excitability in human motor cortex during value-based decisions. We found that excitability for chosen versus unchosen actions distinguishes the forthcoming choice before completion of the decision process. Both excitability and reaction times varied as a function of the subjective value-difference between chosen and unchosen actions, consistent with this effect being value-driven. This relationship was not observed in the absence of a decision. Our data provide novel evidence in humans that internally generated value-based decisions influence the competition between action representations in motor cortex before the decision process is complete. This is incompatible with models of serial processing of stimulus, decision, and action.
Related Articles
Ethanol self-administration modulation of NMDA receptor subunit and related synaptic protein mRNA expression in prefrontal cortical fields
Acosta, Glen
Hasenkamp, Wendy
Daunais, James B.
Freidman, David P.
Grant, Kathleen A.
Hemby, Scott E.
Brain Research
Functional impairment of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex underlies deficits in executive control that characterize addictive disorders, including alcohol addiction. Previous studies indicate that alcohol alters glutamate neurotransmission and one substrate of these effects may be through the reconfiguration of the subunits constituting ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) complexes. Glutamatergic transmission is integral to cortico-cortical and cortico-subcortical communication, and alcohol-induced changes in the abundance of the receptor subunits and/or their splice variants may result in critical functional impairments of prefrontal cortex in the alcohol-addicted state.
Methods and results
The effects of chronic ethanol self-administration on glutamate receptor ionotropic NMDA (GRIN), as well as GRIN1 splice variant mRNA expression was studied in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC; Area 13), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; Area 46) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC; Area 24) of male cynomolgus monkeys. Chronic ethanol self-administration resulted in significant changes in the expression of NMDA subunit mRNA expression in the DLPFC and OFC, but not the ACC. In DLPFC, the overall expression of NMDA subunits was significantly decreased in ethanol treated monkeys. Slight but significant changes were observed for synaptic associated protein 102 kD (SAP102) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) mRNAs. In OFC, the NMDAR1 variant GRIN1-1 was reduced while GRIN1-2 was increased. Furthermore, no significant changes in GFAP protein levels were observed in either the DLPFC or OFC.
Results from these studies provide the first demonstration of post-transcriptional regulation of iGluR subunits in the primate brain following long-term ethanol self-administration. Furthermore, changes in these transcripts do not appear to reflect changes in glial activation or loss. Further studies examining the expression and cellular localization of subunit proteins and receptor pharmacology would shed more light on the findings reported here.
Ethanol; Glutamate; messenger RNA; Prefrontal Cortex; qPCR; Primate
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Differential effects of amygdala, orbital prefrontal cortex and prelimbic cortex lesions on goal-directed behavior in rhesus macaques
Rhodes, Sarah E. V.
Murray, Elisabeth A.
The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
We assessed the involvement of the orbital prefrontal cortex (PFo), the prelimbic region of the medial prefrontal cortex (PL), and the amygdala in goal-directed behavior. Rhesus monkeys were trained on a task in which two different instrumental responses were linked to two different outcomes. One response, called 'Tap', required the monkeys to repeatedly touch a colored square on a video monitor, to produce one kind of food reward. The other response, called 'Hold', required persistent contact of an identical stimulus, and it produced a different kind of food reward. Following training, we assessed the effects of satiety-specific reinforcer devaluation as a way to probe each monkey's use of goal-directed behavior. In this procedure, monkeys were allowed to consume one of the two foods to satiety, and were then tested for Tap/Hold preference under extinction. Unoperated control monkeys showed a reduction in the response associated with obtaining the devalued food, called the devaluation effect, a hallmark of goal-directed behavior. Monkeys with bilateral lesions of PFo or the amygdala exhibited significantly reduced devaluation effects. Results from monkeys with PL lesions were equivocal. We conclude that both PFo and the amygdala play a significant role in goal-directed behavior in monkeys. Notably, the findings for PFo challenge the idea that orbital and medial prefrontal regions are exclusively dedicated to object- and action-based processes, respectively.
Related Articles
Topography of connections between human prefrontal cortex and mediodorsal thalamus studied with diffusion tractography
Klein, Johannes C.
Rushworth, Matthew F.S.
Behrens, Timothy E.J.
Mackay, Clare E.
de Crespigny, Alex J.
D'Arceuil, Helen
Johansen-Berg, Heidi
Studies in monkeys show clear anatomical and functional distinctions among networks connecting with subregions within the prefrontal cortex. Three such networks are centered on lateral orbitofrontal cortex, medial frontal and cingulate cortex, and lateral prefrontal cortex and all have been identified with distinct cognitive roles. Although these areas differ in a number of their cortical connections, some of the first anatomical evidence for these networks came from tracer studies demonstrating their distinct patterns of connectivity with the mediodorsal (MD) nucleus of the thalamus. Here, we present evidence for a similar topography of MD thalamus prefrontal connections, using non-invasive imaging and diffusion tractography (DWI–DT) in human and macaque. DWI–DT suggested that there was a high probability of interconnection between medial MD and lateral orbitofrontal cortex, between caudodorsal MD and medial frontal/cingulate cortex, and between lateral MD and lateral prefrontal cortex, in both species. Within the lateral prefrontal cortex a dorsolateral region (the principal sulcus in the macaque and middle frontal gyrus in the human) was found to have a high probability of interconnection with the MD region between the regions with a high probability of interconnection with other parts of the lateral prefrontal cortex and with the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. In addition to suggesting that the thalamic connectivity in the macaque is a good guide to human prefrontal cortex, and therefore that there are likely to be similarities in the cognitive roles played by the prefrontal areas in both species, the present results are also the first to provide insight into the topography of projections of an individual thalamic nucleus in the human brain.
Anatomy; DTI; Human; Macaque; Thalamus
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The contribution of ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to response reversal
Mitchell, DGV
Richell, RA
Pine, DS
Blair, RJR
Behavioural brain research
Studies investigating response reversal consistently implicate regions of medial and lateral prefrontal cortex when reinforcement contingencies change. However, it is unclear from these studies how these regions give rise to the individual components of response reversal, such as reinforcement value encoding, response inhibition, and response change. Here we report a novel instrumental learning task designed to determine whether regions implicated in processing reversal errors are uniquely involved in this process, or whether they play a more general role in representing response competition, reinforcement value, or punishment value in the absence of demands for response change. In line with previous findings, reversal errors activated orbitofrontal cortex, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, caudate, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These regions also showed increased activity to errors in the absence of contingency changes. In addition, ventrolateral PFC, caudate, and dorsolateral PFC each exhibited increased activity following correct reversals. Activity in these regions was not significantly modulated by changes in reinforcement value that were not sufficient to make an alternative response advantageous. These data do not support punishment-processing or prepotent reponse inhibition accounts of ventrolateral prefrontal cortex function. Instead, they support recent conceptualizations of ventrolateral prefrontal cortex function that implicate this region in resolving response competition by manipulating the representation of either motor response options, or object features. These data also suggest that dorsolateral prefrontal cortex plays a role in reversal learning, probably through top down attentional control of object or reinforcement features when task demands increase.
Response reversal; affective shift; response competition; ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; decision-making
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Neuroimaging of Goal-Directed Behavior in Midlife Women
Bosak, Kelly
Martin, Laura
Nursing Research
Motivational interventions to improve health behaviors based on conventional cognitive and behavioral theories have been extensively studied; however, advances in neuroimaging technology make it possible to assess the neurophysiological basis of health behaviors, such as physical activity. The goals of this approach are to support new interventions to achieve optimal outcomes.
This study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess differences in brain responses in healthy weight to obese midlife women during a goal-directed decision task.
Thirty nondiabetic, midlife (age 47–55 years) women with body mass index (BMI) ranging from 18.5 to 40 kg/m2 were recruited. A descriptive, correlational design was used to assess the relationship between brain activations and weight status. Participants underwent a goal-directed behavior task in the fMRI scanner consisting of a learning and implementation phase. The task was designed to assess both goal-directed and habitual behaviors. One participant was omitted from the analysis because of excessive motion (>4 mm), and six were omitted because of fewer than 50% correct responses on the exit survey. Four participants developed claustrophobia in the scanner and were disqualified from further participation. The remaining 19 participants were included in the final analysis.
Brain responses while participants learned goal-directed behavior showed a positive correlation with BMI in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and a negative correlation with BMI in the insula. During the implementation of goal-directed behavior, brain responses in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) negatively correlated with BMI.
These results indicate that overweight women activate regions associated with cognitive control to a greater degree than healthy weight women during goal-directed learning. The brain regions activated (dmPFC, dlPFC, insula) are associated with cognitive control and self-regulation. On the other hand, healthy weight women activate regions associated with emotion processing, planning, and self-regulation (lateral orbitofrontal cortex, anterior insula) to a greater degree than overweight women during goal-directed learning and implementation of goal-directed behavior. Overweight women activate cognitive control regions while learning associations between actions and outcomes; however, this is not the case during the implementation phase—which may make it more difficult to transform goals into action (e.g., maintain physical activity over time). Overall, these results indicate that overweight midlife women respond differently during learning and implementation of actions that lead to positive outcomes during a general test of goal-directed behavior. Future study is needed to assess the transfer of goal-directed and habitual behavior to specific aspects of energy balance to improve health outcomes.
fMRI; health behavior; neuroimaging; neurophysiology; obesity; women's health
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Neuroscientific Model of Motivational Process
Kim, Sung-il
Frontiers in Psychology
Considering the neuroscientific findings on reward, learning, value, decision-making, and cognitive control, motivation can be parsed into three sub processes, a process of generating motivation, a process of maintaining motivation, and a process of regulating motivation. I propose a tentative neuroscientific model of motivational processes which consists of three distinct but continuous sub processes, namely reward-driven approach, value-based decision-making, and goal-directed control. Reward-driven approach is the process in which motivation is generated by reward anticipation and selective approach behaviors toward reward. This process recruits the ventral striatum (reward area) in which basic stimulus-action association is formed, and is classified as an automatic motivation to which relatively less attention is assigned. By contrast, value-based decision-making is the process of evaluating various outcomes of actions, learning through positive prediction error, and calculating the value continuously. The striatum and the orbitofrontal cortex (valuation area) play crucial roles in sustaining motivation. Lastly, the goal-directed control is the process of regulating motivation through cognitive control to achieve goals. This consciously controlled motivation is associated with higher-level cognitive functions such as planning, retaining the goal, monitoring the performance, and regulating action. The anterior cingulate cortex (attention area) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (cognitive control area) are the main neural circuits related to regulation of motivation. These three sub processes interact with each other by sending reward prediction error signals through dopaminergic pathway from the striatum and to the prefrontal cortex. The neuroscientific model of motivational process suggests several educational implications with regard to the generation, maintenance, and regulation of motivation to learn in the learning environment.
motivation; neuroeducation; educational neuroscience; reward; value; goal; decision-making; self-regulation
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Increased Firing Irregularity as an Emergent Property of Neural-State Transition in Monkey Prefrontal Cortex
Sakamoto, Kazuhiro
Katori, Yuichi
Saito, Naohiro
Yoshida, Shun
Aihara, Kazuyuki
Mushiake, Hajime
PLoS ONE
Flexible behaviors are organized by complex neural networks in the prefrontal cortex. Recent studies have suggested that such networks exhibit multiple dynamical states, and can switch rapidly from one state to another. In many complex systems such as the brain, the early-warning signals that may predict whether a critical threshold for state transitions is approaching are extremely difficult to detect. We hypothesized that increases in firing irregularity are a crucial measure for predicting state transitions in the underlying neuronal circuits of the prefrontal cortex. We used both experimental and theoretical approaches to test this hypothesis. Experimentally, we analyzed activities of neurons in the prefrontal cortex while monkeys performed a maze task that required them to perform actions to reach a goal. We observed increased firing irregularity before the activity changed to encode goal-to-action information. Theoretically, we constructed theoretical generic neural networks and demonstrated that changes in neuronal gain on functional connectivity resulted in a loss of stability and an altered state of the networks, accompanied by increased firing irregularity. These results suggest that assessing the temporal pattern of neuronal fluctuations provides important clues regarding the state stability of the prefrontal network. We also introduce a novel scheme that the prefrontal cortex functions in a metastable state near the critical point of bifurcation. According to this scheme, firing irregularity in the prefrontal cortex indicates that the system is about to change its state and the flow of information in a flexible manner, which is essential for executive functions. This metastable and/or critical dynamical state of the prefrontal cortex may account for distractibility and loss of flexibility in the prefrontal cortex in major mental illnesses such as schizophrenia.
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Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: behavioural and neural effects on encoding negative material
Critchley, HD
Lewis, PA
Orth, M
Josephs, O
Deichmann, R
Trimble, MR
Dolan, RJ
Psychosomatic medicine
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) can improve depression. Cognitive models of depression highlight an over-representation of negative thoughts and memories, with depressed individuals showing memory facilitation for negative material. We hypothesized that the antidepressant action of VNS may emerge through corrective influences on 'negativity bias' in memory. We therefore examined the impact of VNS on emotional memory and its underlying brain activity.
We tested a single patient undergoing VNS for treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Stimulation was set at a 30/66 second on/off cycle during three encoding blocks when the patient viewed randomly presented positive, negative and neutral words. Following each block, VNS was switched off and the patient identified previously seen words from distractors in a subsequent recognition memory task. The patient was scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during the first encoding block.
There was robust recall of negative material viewed during 'off cycles' of VNS but subsequent memory of negative words was attenuated during active VNS (on cycles). These effects were not apparent for neutral and positive words. In neuroimaging, direct modulatory effects of VNS were observed in dorsomedial, dorsolateral and orbital regions of prefrontal cortex. Moreover, during encoding of negative words, compared to positive and neutral words, VNS also modulated activity within orbitofrontal, ventromedial and polar prefrontal cortices, mid cingulate cortex and brainstem.
Our observations show that VNS can interfere with memory for negative information, an effect that may contribute to its antidepressant role. Neuroimaging implicates regions including ventral and medial prefrontal cortex as an underlying neural substrate.
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Goal-directed decision making in prefrontal cortex: A computational framework
Botvinick, Matthew
An, James
Advances in neural information processing systems
Research in animal learning and behavioral neuroscience has distinguished between two forms of action control: a habit-based form, which relies on stored actio n values, and a goal-dir ected form, which forecasts and compares action outcomes based on a model of the environment. While habit-based control has been the subject of extensive computational research, the computational principles underlying goal-directed control in animals have so far received less attention. In the present paper, we advance a computational framework for goal-directed control in animals and humans. We take three empirically motivated points as founding premises: (1) Neurons in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex represent action policies, (2) Neurons in orbitofrontal cortex represent rewards, and (3) Neural computation, across domains, can be appropriately understood as performing structured probabilistic inference. On a purely computational level, the resulting account relates closely to previous work using Bayesian inference to solve Markov decision problems, but extends this work by introducing a new algorithm, which provably converges on optimal plans. On a cognitive and neuroscientific level, the theory provides a unifying framework for several different forms of goal-directed action selection, placing emphasis on a novel form, within which orbitofrontal reward representations directly drive policy selection.
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Specific Contributions of Ventromedial, Anterior Cingulate, and Lateral Prefrontal Cortex for Attentional Selection and Stimulus Valuation
Kaping, Daniel
Vinck, Martin
Hutchison, R. Matthew
Everling, Stefan
Womelsdorf, Thilo
PLoS Biology
Functional clusters of neurons in the monkey prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex are involved in guiding attention to the most valuable objects in a scene.
Attentional control ensures that neuronal processes prioritize the most relevant stimulus in a given environment. Controlling which stimulus is attended thus originates from neurons encoding the relevance of stimuli, i.e. their expected value, in hand with neurons encoding contextual information about stimulus locations, features, and rules that guide the conditional allocation of attention. Here, we examined how these distinct processes are encoded and integrated in macaque prefrontal cortex (PFC) by mapping their functional topographies at the time of attentional stimulus selection. We find confined clusters of neurons in ventromedial PFC (vmPFC) that predominantly convey stimulus valuation information during attention shifts. These valuation signals were topographically largely separated from neurons predicting the stimulus location to which attention covertly shifted, and which were evident across the complete medial-to-lateral extent of the PFC, encompassing anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and lateral PFC (LPFC). LPFC responses showed particularly early-onset selectivity and primarily facilitated attention shifts to contralateral targets. Spatial selectivity within ACC was delayed and heterogeneous, with similar proportions of facilitated and suppressed responses during contralateral attention shifts. The integration of spatial and valuation signals about attentional target stimuli was observed in a confined cluster of neurons at the intersection of vmPFC, ACC, and LPFC. These results suggest that valuation processes reflecting stimulus-specific outcome predictions are recruited during covert attentional control. Value predictions and the spatial identification of attentional targets were conveyed by largely separate neuronal populations, but were integrated locally at the intersection of three major prefrontal areas, which may constitute a functional hub within the larger attentional control network.
Author Summary
To navigate within an environment filled with sensory stimuli, the brain must selectively process only the most relevant sensory information. Identifying and shifting attention to the most relevant sensory stimulus requires integrating information about its sensory features as well as its relative value, that is, whether it's worth noticing. In this study, we describe groups of neurons in the monkey prefrontal cortex that convey signals relating to the value of a stimulus and its defining feature and location at the very moment when attention is shifted to the stimulus. We found that signals conveying information about value were clustered in a ventromedial prefrontal region, and were separated from sensory signals within the anterior cingulate cortex and the lateral prefrontal cortex. The integration of valuation and other "top-down" processes, however, was achieved by neurons clustered at the intersection of ventromedial, anterior cingulate, and lateral prefrontal cortex. We conclude that valuation processes are recruited when attention is shifted, independent of any overt behavior. Moreover, our analysis suggests that valuation processes can bias the initiation of attention shifts, as well as ensure sustained attentional focusing.
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Dopaminergic Dysregulation in Prefrontal Cortex of Rhesus Monkeys Following Cocaine Self-Administration
McIntosh, Scot
Howell, Leonard
Hemby, Scott E.
Frontiers in Psychiatry
Chronic cocaine administration regulates the expression of several proteins related to dopaminergic signaling and synaptic function in the mesocorticolimbic pathway, including the prefrontal cortex. Functional abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex are hypothesized to be due in part to the expression of proteins involved in dopamine signaling and plasticity. Adult male rhesus monkeys self-administered cocaine (i.v.) under limited (n = 4) and extended access conditions (n = 6). The abundance of surrogate markers of dopamine signaling and plasticity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were examined: glycosylated and non-glycosylated forms of the dopamine transporter (efficiency of dopamine transport), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH; marker of dopamine synthesis) and phosphorylated TH at Serine 30 and 40 (markers of enzyme activity), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1 and ERK 2), and phosphorylated ERK1 and ERK2 (phosphorylates TH Serine 31; markers of synaptic plasticity), and markers of synaptic integrity, spinophilin and post-synaptic density protein 95 (roles in dopamine signaling and response to cocaine). Extended cocaine access increased non-glycosylated and glycosylated DAT in DLPFC and OFC. While no differences in TH expression were observed between groups for any of the regions, extended access induced significant elevations in pTHSer31 in all regions. In addition, a slight but significant reduction in phosphorylated pTHSer40 was found in the DLPFC. Phosphorylated ERK2 was increased in all regions; however, pERK1 was decreased in ACC and OFC but increased in DLPFC. PSD-95 was increased in the OFC but not in DLPFC or ACC. Furthermore, extended cocaine self-administration elicited significant increases in spinophilin protein expression in all regions. Results from the study provide insight into the biochemical alterations occurring in primate prefrontal cortex.
cocaine; dopamine; orbitofrontal cortex; anterior cingulate cortex; dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; rhesus monkey
Related Articles
Altered Risk-Related Processing in Substance Users: Imbalance of Pain and Gain
Gowin, Joshua L.
Mackey, Scott
Paulus, Martin P.
Drug and alcohol dependence
Substance use disorders (SUDs) can be conceptualized as a form of risk-taking behavior with the potential for highly aversive outcomes such as health or legal problems. Risky decision-making likely draws upon several related brain processes involved in estimations of value and risk, executive control, and emotional processing. SUDs may result from a dysfunction in one or more of these cognitive processes.
We performed a systematic literature review of functional neuroimaging studies examining risk-related decision making in individuals with SUDs. A quantitative meta-analysis tool (GingerALE) and qualitative approach was used to summarize the imaging results.
Meta-analysis findings indicate that individuals with SUDs exhibit differences in neural activity relative to healthy controls during risk-taking in the anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, striatum, insula, and somatosensory cortex. In addition, a qualitative review of the literature suggests that individuals with SUDs may have altered function in the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
The neuroimaging literature reveals that several neural substrates involved in the computation of risk may function suboptimally in SUDs. Future research is warranted to elucidate which computational processes are affected, whether dysfunctional risk-related processing recovers with sobriety, and whether different drugs of abuse have specific effects on risk-taking.
Risk-taking; Drug Abuse; Addiction; Neuroimaging; Decision-making
Related Articles
Alternative Splicing of AMPA Subunits in Prefrontal Cortical Fields of Cynomolgus Monkeys Following Chronic Ethanol Self-Administration
Acosta, Glen
Freidman, David P.
Grant, Kathleen A.
Hemby, Scott E.
Frontiers in Psychiatry
Functional impairment of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex underlies deficits in executive control that characterize addictive disorders, including alcohol addiction. Previous studies indicate that alcohol alters glutamate neurotransmission and one substrate of these effects may be through the reconfiguration of the subunits constituting ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) complexes. Glutamatergic transmission is integral to cortico-cortical and cortico-subcortical communication and alcohol-induced changes in the abundance of the receptor subunits and/or their splice variants may result in critical functional impairments of prefrontal cortex in alcohol dependence. To this end, the effects of chronic ethanol self-administration on glutamate receptor ionotropic AMPA (GRIA) subunit variant and kainate (GRIK) subunit mRNA expression were studied in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of male cynomolgus monkeys. In DLPFC, total AMPA splice variant expression and total kainate receptor subunit expression were significantly decreased in alcohol drinking monkeys. Expression levels of GRIA3 flip and flop and GRIA4 flop mRNAs in this region were positively correlated with daily ethanol intake and blood ethanol concentrations (BEC) averaged over the 6 months prior to necropsy. In OFC, AMPA subunit splice variant expression was reduced in the alcohol treated group. GRIA2 flop mRNA levels in this region were positively correlated with daily ethanol intake and BEC averaged over the 6 months prior to necropsy. Results from these studies provide further evidence of transcriptional regulation of iGluR subunits in the primate brain following chronic alcohol self-administration. Additional studies examining the cellular localization of such effects in the framework of primate prefrontal cortical circuitry are warranted.
ethanol; AMPA; kainate; messenger RNA; prefrontal cortex; qPCR; primate
Related Articles
Temporal filtering of reward signals in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex during a mixed-strategy game
Seo, Hyojung
Lee, Daeyeol
The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
The process of decision making in humans and other animals is adaptive and can be tuned through experience so as to optimize the outcomes of their choices in a dynamic environment. Previous studies have demonstrated that the anterior cingulate cortex plays an important role in updating the animal's behavioral strategies when the action-outcome contingencies change. Moreover, neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex often encode the signals related to expected or actual reward. We investigated whether reward-related activity in the anterior cingulate cortex is affected by the animal's previous reward history. This was tested in rhesus monkeys trained to make binary choices in a computer-simulated competitive zero-sum game. The animal's choice behavior was relatively close to the optimal strategy, but also revealed small but systematic biases that are consistent with the use of a reinforcement learning algorithm. In addition, the activity of neurons in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex that was related to the reward received by the animal in a given trial was often modulated by the rewards in the previous trials. Some of these neurons encoded the rate of rewards in previous trials, whereas others displayed activity modulations more closely related to the reward prediction errors. By contrast, signals related to the animal's choices were only weakly represented in this cortical area. These results suggest that neurons in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex might be involved in the subjective evaluation of choice outcomes based on the animal's reward history.
reinforcement learning; game theory; neuroeconomics; decision making; dopamine
Related Articles
Action-value comparisons in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex control choice between goal-directed actions
Morris, Richard W.
Dezfouli, Amir
Griffiths, Kristi R.
Balleine, Bernard W.
Nature Communications
It is generally assumed that choice between different actions reflects the difference between their action values yet little direct evidence confirming this assumption has been reported. Here we assess whether the brain calculates the absolute difference between action values or their relative advantage, that is, the probability that one action is better than the other alternatives. We use a two-armed bandit task during functional magnetic resonance imaging and modelled responses to determine both the size of the difference between action values (D) and the probability that one action value is better (P). The results show haemodynamic signals corresponding to P in right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) together with evidence that these signals modulate motor cortex activity in an action-specific manner. We find no significant activity related to D. These findings demonstrate that a distinct neuronal population mediates action-value comparisons, and reveals how these comparisons are implemented to mediate value-based decision-making.
In humans, choice between actions depends on the ability to compare action–outcome values. Here, the authors show that action–outcome values are compared on the basis of the relative advantage of a particular action over alternative actions, which takes place in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the brain.
Related Articles
Fictive Reward Signals in Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Hayden, Benjamin Y.
Pearson, John M.
Platt, Michael L.
Science (New York, N.Y.)
Monkeys adjust their behavior in response to outcomes that they have observed but not directly experienced, and single neurons within the anterior cingulate cortex respond to these fictive rewards they same way they respond to experienced rewards.
The neural mechanisms supporting the ability to recognize and respond to fictive outcomes, outcomes of actions that one has not taken, remain obscure. We hypothesized that neurons in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which monitors the consequences of actions and mediates subsequent changes in behavior, would respond to fictive reward information. We recorded responses of single neurons during performance of a choice task that provided information about the reward values of unchosen options. We found that ACC neurons signal fictive reward information, and use a coding scheme similar to that used to signal experienced outcomes. Thus, individual ACC neurons process both experienced and fictive rewards.
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text:
New York's Rick Nash had a goal and assist in the first period, and Ryan Callahan had a pair of assists as the Rangers beat the Florida Panthers 6-1 to hang on to eighth place in the East.
Sat, Apr 20, 2013 - Page 18 News List
NHL: Sharks demolish the Wild, eye playoffs
MIXED FORTUNES:The 6-1 victory marked the third consecutive win for the San Jose Sharks, but saw the Minnesota Wild fall to seventh place in the Western Conference
AP, SAN JOSE, California
This story has been viewed 1244 times.
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Marc Anthony to delight Baku audience
14 February 2014 [13:35] -
World-famous Latin American singer Marc Anthony is supposed to give a concert in Baku on May 23 as part of his world tour.
The concert is to be accompanied with a special dance sector to further excite its audience. Tickets are already on sale in the box offices of the city, with prices starting from 28 manats.
American singer, songwriter and actor Mark Anthony will come to Baku as part of his first World Tour.
He is the author of such hits as "I Need to Know", "You Sang To Me", "Escapemonos", "Y Hubo Alguien."
Anthony is winner of two "Grammy" awards. He is one of the most successful musicians in salsa music, whose albums have been sold over 12 million copies around the world.
Popular particularly in Latin America and beyond, Marc Anthony started his music career by joining a young band where he worked under a pseudonym. For a long time he also worked as a back-vocalist for many famous artists.
Marc started his solo career from 1992, which brought him many prizes and awards. Since 2003, he engaged in acting, casting in romantic comedies and melodramas. However, his music career developed and his music became more multi-genre.
Marc Anthony has already released fifteen albums, and played in twenty films. He has an insatiable appetite for success.
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The Marlin's Motor Toon Hula attraction at park opening
The Marlin's Motor Toon Hula queue is like a journey through the bad part of Toontown. The attraction motors are designed to look like Benny the Cay, and when you drive you can hula them by mutating the wheel.
Shun Pirate Mode
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text: Home Gallery Interactive (video) Xerox Business of Your Brain Xerox: Business of Your Brain Clear away your clutter. Published on May 03, 2011 Editor's Pick Is your inbox slowing you down? Xerox has launched a new desktop app to help filter out the fluff and help you get down to work. The brand's new Business of Your Brain desktop app sifts through your Outlook email and calendar notices to eliminate unnecessary distractions and keep you focused on the job. Among those the app can help users filter out are alarmists (those who send the most emails with exclamation points), motor mouths (lengthy email writers) and most ignored (those you're most likely to delete without even reading.) Rate this Ad You must be registered to rate the ad. Please Login or Register Now About CreditsDateMay 03, 2011Agency:VML/Y&R Chief Creative Officer:Ian ReichenthalClient:XeroxChief Creative Officer:Scott VitroneManaging Director/Executive V.P./Global Creative Director:Jim RadosevicGlobal Creative Director:Mike WenteGlobal Creative Director:Darren MoranAssociate Creative Director/Art Director:Adam GlooAssociate Creative Director/Art Director:Kleber MenezesAssociate Creative Director/Copywriter:Corey RakowskyAssociate Creative Director/Copywriter:Brian MusichDirector of Content Production:Lora SchulsonDirector of Content Production:Nathy AviramExecutive Producer, Content Production:Alex GianniAssistant Producer:Craig SklaverTechnical Lead:Shawn McDonaldLead Developer:Rory PettyLead Developer:Juan CharvetDeveloper:Harold ScissorsSenior Project Manager:Nick LangworthProduction Company/Motion Graphics:Superfad LAMedia Agency:MEC CategoryAppWebsite Latest Creativity News on Ad Age AlmapBBDO, Droga5, Ogilvy, WPP, Tool, UNICEF Take Final Top Honors at Cannes Harvey Nichols' Shoplifting Ad Takes Film Grand Prix at Cannes REI's #OptOutside Takes Titanium Grand Prix, Netflix 'House of Cards' Wins Integrated Grand Prix Advertisement Related work Xerox: First Ad Xerox: Chimp Xerox: Ducati Wind Tunnel Young & Rubicam New York Want to see your work in our gallery? Submit now


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V.19 No.4 | 1/28/2010
Today: Get a Job
By Adam Fox [ Mon Jan 25 2010 10:48 AM ]
Is the economy improving, or isn't it? Numbers and predictions are being thrown around like aimless pebbles, and millions of Americans are still without jobs. To remedy the situation, the U.S. Census Beureau is holding a job fair at the John Marshall Center (1500 Walter SE) today from 9 a.m to 4 p.m. A variety of full- and part-time positions promise to be available to hundreds of thousands of people, boasting great pay and flexible scheduling. After all, those bills are doing a pretty crappy job of paying themselves. For more information, visit 2010censusjobs.gov or call 1-866-861-2010
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A series of fermentation workshops, chef demos, local food trucks and kids' activities.
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tartar control and more • 7.20.2016
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text:
WADA weak reply! Daley's public row with drugs agency
Daley Thompson was accustomed to competition and controversy throughout his career as one of Britain's greatest Olympians, and now he has a new fight on his hands after the World Anti-Doping Agency sharpened their claws on Monday.
Thompson's provocative column for Sportsmail, published last week, was highly critical of WADA's 'weak' drugs policy — and they responded by publishing an open letter rebutting his accusations.
Thompson is not backing down, though, and has repeated his criticism of WADA.
Outspoken: Daley Thompson has been critical of WADA's drugs policy
'They are meant to be protecting my sport for me, the athletes and the spectators,' he said.
'At least WADA have sat up and taken notice of my criticism.'
They have. His views prompted a robust statement from WADA director general David Howman, who addressed the double Olympic champion directly via the organisation's website.
He said: 'The alternative would be to have anti-doping rules that vary from country to country and sport to sport, which would be a return to the dark ages of anti-doping and a problem which existed during your time as an elite athlete.
'Indeed that was the very problem that led to the formation of WADA and the writing of a uniform code.
Speaking out: Daley Thompson
'To create the harmonisation for all sports and all countries that we have is a huge international achievement, not replicated in any other walk of life.
'The code has certainly given the "clarity" to anti-doping that you claim was missing.'
The issue has taken on a sharper focus in recent weeks because of the British Olympic Association's fight to keep their lifetime ban on serious drug cheats.
The BOA are out of step with the rest of the world, who follow WADA's code that stipulates a maximum two-year ban.
If the BOA lose a Court of Arbitration for Sport hearing in London on Monday, sprinter Dwain Chambers and cyclist David Millar — a key component in Mark Cavendish's assault on cycling's road race — will be free to compete at London 2012.
Despite that, Howman insisted the war on drugs is being won, adding: 'Testing is significantly more effective today than it was in your day (or) 10 years ago.
'And if you were competing today I can guarantee that you would notice the difference.
'You would know that the athletes lining up alongside you are no longer able to abuse drugs with impunity.'
But speaking to Sportsmail from South Africa, where he is on a charity bike ride, Thompson renewed his attack.
'Well done WADA!' he said sarcastically.
Chance: Dwain Chambers could earn a reprieve and compete in London
'After spending hundreds of millions of dollars you have brought harmonisation for all sports and all countries except one! So your diplomacy has enabled you to secure measly two-year bans on serious drug cheats.
'It means I can now watch the greatest show on Earth, the Olympics, with a drug cheat coming back in every other heat and you making huge savings in legal fees for yourselves.
'You say if I were competing today that I would notice the difference — well, did you ever compete?
'I ask because, as an athlete, one of the things you want is a level playing field.
'While you can never eradicate cheating, I want the penalties to match the crime because those cheats not only steal money from the Lottery — why is that not a crime? — they cheat other competitors and fans, lessen other people's achievements and take people's dreams away (by taking their places on teams they don't deserve to be on).
Waiting game: David Millar is also currently banned from competing
'I want the guardians of my sport to look after the guy/girl who just missed out on their first international vest or an Olympic place to a drug cheat.'
Thompson's belief that serious drug offenders should be banned from the Olympics for life has retained the overwhelming support of British team members.
He added: 'PS: I'm betting it wasn't too hard to get some of those countries to sign up to your weak code as they would have wanted some of their cheating stars back sooner rather than later.
'What you have done has not given clarity but found a consensus amongst the cheats as to what punishment they will take without going to court.
'PPS: I was going to find an organisation that had spent so much and achieved so frugally, but we have any number of Quangos in the UK that are right up there with you.'
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text:
GIGABYTE GA-MA69GM-S2H Motherboard
Test System Setup
Processor: AMD Athlon 64 X2 3800+
Memory: 2x 1GB DDR2-1066 Corsair (Supplied by Corsair)
Hard Disk: 500GB Seagate 7200.9 SATA-II (Supplied by Seagate)
Graphics Card: Integrated GPU and ATI Radeon X1300XT
Cooling: GIGABYTE Neon K8 (Supplied by GIGABYTE)
Operating System: Microsoft Windows XP Professional SP2
Drivers: ATI SB600 2.506.1540.28, ATI Catalyst 7.3, Nvidia ForceWare 93.73 and DX9c
Again like our MSI AMD 690G motherboard review, no overclocking results were done as the motherboard only hit a marginal 5MHz FSB increase.
Our integrated systems were set with the highest amount of memory available in the BIOS to each - for the ASUS M2NPV-VM (based on Nvidia GeForce 6150) it was 256MB, 512MB on the MSI AMD 690G motherboard and 512MB on the GIGABYTE motherboard.
All memory settings were set at 1:1 SPD with the FSB at 200MHz.
Let us get this show on the road and find out which offers the best performance in our benchmarks.
EVEREST Ultimate Edition
Version and / or Patch Used: 2006
Developer Homepage: http://www.lavalys.com
Product Homepage: http://www.lavalys.com
EVEREST Ultimate Edition is an industry leading system diagnostics and benchmarking solution for enthusiasts PC users, based on the award-winning EVEREST Technology. During system optimizations and tweaking it provides essential system and overclock information, advanced hardware monitoring and diagnostics capabilities to check the effects of the applied settings. CPU, FPU and memory benchmarks are available to measure the actual system performance and compare it to previous states or other systems.
GIGABYTE has not done any extra tweaking to gain a performance advantage over MSI - both 690G motherboards perform identically.
PRICING: You can find products similar to this one for sale below.
United States: Find other tech and computer products like this over at Amazon's website.
United Kingdom: Find other tech and computer products like this over at Amazon UK's website.
Canada: Find other tech and computer products like this over at Amazon Canada's website.
- Page 1 [Introduction]
- Page 2 [Specifications]
- Page 3 [Motherboard]
- Page 4 [BIOS and Overclocking]
- Page 5 [Benchmarks - Test System Setup and Memory Performance]
- Page 6 [Benchmarks - PCMark]
- Page 7 [Benchmarks - WorldBench]
- Page 8 [Benchmarks - Adobe Premiere Elements]
- Page 9 [Benchmarks - HDD Performance]
- Page 10 [Benchmarks - 3DMark06]
- Page 11 [Benchmarks - Prey]
- Page 12 [Benchmarks - Far Cry]
- Page 13 [Final Thoughts]
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text:
The median home value in Humble, TX is $105,200.
This is
lower than
the county median home value of $131,000.
The national median home value is $177,414.
The average price of homes sold in Humble, TX is $105,200.
Approximately 40.59% of Humble homes are owned,
compared to 48.67% rented, while
10.75% are vacant.
Humble real estate listings include condos, townhomes, and single family homes for sale.
Commercial properties are also available.
If you see a property you're interested in, contact a Humble real estate agent to arrange a tour today!
Learn more about Humble Real Estate.
Beautiful 4 bedroom 2.5 bath home with 2-car garage in Canyon Gat at Park Lakes. Home features a study, formal dining room, island kitchen w/ granite & stainless appliances, great room, formal living, 2 fire places, game room with balcony, and all bedrooms down. Master suite with sitting area, dual vanities, separate tub & shower, & walk-in closet. Large backyard with covered patio & full yard irrigation system. Travertine, wood flooring, and many custom upgrades.
This is a nice and cozy 3 Bedroom 2 Bath home with an oversized garage in an excellent location. The deck only add to the charm of this home. It has been well maintained with new roof in 8/2015, new ceramic tile and garage door. In addition the refrigerator stays. Come and see and you might just want to stay.
One-Story with split bedroom floor plan and three car tandem garage. Gourmet kitchen with oversized island, granite counters, abundance of cabinets, a large walk-in pantry and tankless water heater.Computer niche in children's wing. Huge master retreat with sitting area, his and her sinks and large walk in closet.Walk to elementary and neighborhood water park/amenities.
1+ ACRE LOT! This custom home is a must see. Open concept,Large Gourmet Kitchen with custom cabinets and granite counter tops with travertine backsplash, separate dining room and breakfast room. Huge living room great for entertaining with large bay windows and chimney. Large master bedroom has trey ceilings and large walk in closet. Master bath has deal sinks and shower. Love the outdoors come see this covered patio with custom wood ceiling overlooking your large 1 acre lot!
Nice two story home with four bedrooms and two and one half bathrooms. Home is located on a quiet cul-de-sac street. Large back yard which includes patio, extra slab and workshop. Home has nice brick fire place and separate breakfast area. Easy access to Beltway 8 and Atascocita Road.
MLS# 62905284 - Built by Highland Homes - October completion! ~ Spacious 1 story home with brick and stone elevation. This home features 4 bedrooms, 2 full baths and powder bath, outdoor living, study, formal dining and large open family room. Hardwoods in main areas, stainless steel appliances and granite kitchen counters and island. Covered patio, full sod and sprinkler system. Green Built Gulf Coast Builders, Tech Shield, 16 SEER AC and many more energy efficient features.
Reward yourself with this recently updated uniquely wonderful 1 story brick veneer home! Unlike most single story homes, this one even has a game room. Laminate wood flooring, tile, and carpeted areas are combined for the optimal look in each room. Enjoy larger rooms and still have your formal dining room and breakfast area. Walking distance to elementary school. Close proximity to schools, shopping, Bush Airport, and major freeway access there is so much to celebrate with this home.
Tons of natural light and an open floor plan. This four bedroom house has high ceilings throughout. A kitchen that is designed for entertaining. A large master bedroom and master bath with a garden tub. Separate shower and walk in closet in master bath. Spacious Game room Up - Covered rear patio,spacious laundry room, storage, garage opener and a neighborhood playground are a few extras that the home offers.Wood laminate floors, 2013 LG Smart Dishwasher,updated lighting. Great for commuters.
The Good Life awaits you in this FABULOUS OPEN FLOORPLAN David Weekley Ortega floorplan on cul-de-sac lot. Spacious family room has cozy fireplace & walls of windows overlooking the covered patio & private backyard.Elegant master suite & luxury bath downstairs.Formal dining w/hardwood floors. Gourmet island kit w/granite countertops,tile backsplash.Extensive tile floors in all the living areas. Gameroom + 3 secondary bedrooms with ample closets upstairs.
MOVE-IN READY AND GREAT LOCATION AT END OF CUL-DE-SAC! 4BR/2.5BA has everything you need! Formal dining, kitchen with granite counters, undermount ss sink, breakfast bar and breakfast room open to den. Large master with on suite, double sinks, separate shower w/spa tub, and huge walk in closet. Upstairs features game room, 3 BR/1BA. Backyard has a covered patio, a storage shed and a concrete slap with electric supply ready for a hot tub! 2-car garage attached.
This cute 3/2/2 is move-in ready and priced to make it happen. With great new flooring throughout much of the home, and lots of upgrades...if you're looking for a great home in the Atascocita area, priced below the $150,000 mark, that's not a fixer-upper and is ready for a new owner - look no further. This is it!
Gorgeous home! Enjoy the convenience of being walking distance to zoned schools and neighborhood park. Easy access to the excitement of Lake Houston and local golf courses. This open floor plan features elegant archways and crown molding in addition to being filled with natural light. Recent upgrades include a new hot water heater and microwave. Relax in front of the fire with family or gather with friends in an open kitchen. Backyard includes covered patio. Call today!
Look no further for your dream home! Relax with guests in a gorgeous living room with large brick fireplace and large windows. The gourmet kitchen features granite countertops and stainless steel appliances. High, vaulted ceilings make this master suite the perfect place to unwind. Premium tile floors throughout. Escape the heat while maintaining a view from a spacious sun room overlooking a landscaped backyard with exterior storage building. Call today!
Beautiful well-maintained Lennar Home that is in move-in ready condition. This lovely home has lots of character. The owners have installed beautiful laminate flooring throughout the home into all bedrooms. The walls are painted with pops of color to put you in a good mood. Details of custom shelving has been added throughout the home for added storage. The master closet has been customized to accommodate your entire wardrobe. This amazing home won't last long.
This upgraded Energy Star home will impress. The former model home for Brighton, it received all of their upgrades including stainless appliances, granite counter tops, hard wood floors, slate tile, and high grade stain resistant carpet. Pre-wired for whole home audio system. House was previously inspected and all items were addressed by the builder. Don't forget the vinyl energy efficient windows and radiant barrier. Schedule a showing today!!
Come and fall in love with this beautiful 1 story DR Horton home in the desirable community of Eagle Springs! The open floor plan and gorgeous upgrades are sure to please! Kitchen features beautiful granite counters, upgraded 42'' cabinets and a DuPure water filtration system. This home also has the built-in Taexx pest control defense system and is a TechShield Energy Star home. This is a charmer!
Striking Home With Front Porch Elevation! A Great Location Close To Everything (Just Mins To US59); New Carpet And Fresh Paint Throughout; Great Family Floor Plan; Master Bedroom Downstairs With Ensuite Full Bath; Game Room Upstairs; Very Spacious Kitchen With An Abundance Of Cabinets And Counter Space; Large Adjacent Breakfast Area; Separate Formal Dining Room; Convenient Powder Situated Downstairs; Walk-In Closets; All Wet Areas Tiled; Extra Large Backyard Fenced In; Fully Guttered Exterior
This one shines! Soaring ceilings and beautiful windows as you enter this perfect family home. Brand new flooring in most rooms, fresh designer paint throughout (#1 color on Pinterest!) kitchen solid surface counters and gas range is open to den for ease in entertaining and spending time with family. Romantic master bedroom has windows that look out to spacious pool sized backyard. Master bath has shower and separate tub. Upstairs is gameroom, 3 large bedrooms and 2 baths.
Lovely 4/2.5/2 split floorplan with a huge upstairs gameroom plus large storage closet. Almost 3000 square feet open floorplan is great for entertaining. Rounded sheet rock corners and neutral colors thruout. Separate tub and shower with dual vanities in the master bath. Kitchen has upgraded SS appliances, 42'' cabinets, and tile backsplash. Tile floors in all wet areas. Radiant barrier in attic. In great move in condition and ready for new owners to make it home! Come see it today!
Well kept home in Timber Forest. Street is a cul-de-sac and very quiet. Home has 4 bedrooms with master downstairs. Two other bedrooms downstairs that share a bathroom. Upstairs has a large game room with another bedroom and bathroom. Its a perfect for a teenager or college student.
Nice property located on a cul-de-sac. Remodeled in 2014. Home has open floor plan with granite counter tops throughout, huge back yard for your furry friends to play. Home is in need of a few repairs. Don't wait, Scheduled your showing today.
Looking for a backyard oasis with a pool,here is a great two story home with master suite down,and on a cul de sac street. Fall Creek,just off Beltway,so convenient to major highways,golf course community,recreation center, pools, tennis courts,a place to call home. Three bedrooms up, plus gameroom,and computer/study room. Lots of storage space, Texas basements,surround sound,wood and tile floors and carpet,kitchen with hard surface counters and tons of cabinets.
Gently lived in - Popular 1.5 Story Plan with 4th BR, 3rd bath and huge gameroom upstairs. Brick and stone elevation. Many upgrades - 17 x 17 tile floors, Homeowners added laminate floors. Granite counters, Master suite with bay window features private bath with separate tub and shower. Sprinklers, gutters and full blinds & refrigerator are included. Cul de sac location with Atascocita Springs Elementary around the corner!
Beth Wolff REALTORS® Real Living
1775 St. James Place, Suite 100
Houston, TX 77056
Email Us | Visit our Real Estate Website


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- departments
- poetry out loud
- q1 honor roll
- q2 honor roll
- q3 honor roll
- q4 honor roll
- college counseling
- alfond library
- edwards art gallery
In the Holderness classroom every student is in the front row. With an average class size of 12, and with levels ranging from introductory to Advanced Placement, our curriculum is rich with choices. Innovation, collaboration, and flexibility are the prerequisites; passion and accomplishment are the results. Here, again, our community life plays a fundamental role. Our students are known, nurtured, and encouraged. They feel safe enough to take the intellectual risks they need to grow.


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Photo SpecialBritney: Life After Baby
From family fun to spousal spats, see how things have changed for the Federlines since son Sean Preston's arrival. By Emily Fromm
Credit: X17
Updated: Thursday Jan 12, 2006 | 06:00 AM EST
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On Tuesday night, acting Dodgers manager Don Mattingly made a visit to reliever Jonathan Broxton on the pitcher's mound. Upon returning towards the dugout, and after leaving the 18-foot mound circle, Mattingly doubled back to speak to Broxton again, thereby constituting a second visit. This required Broxton to be removed from the game, pursuant to Official Baseball Rule 8.06 (b):
A second trip to the same pitcher in the same inning will cause this pitcher's automatic removal from the game;
On Rule 8.06 Night this Thursday, the Grizzlies will be rewarding their fans instead of punishing them for a second visit. Any fan who purchases a ticket to Thursday's game (first visit), then makes a return trip to the box office that night (second visit), bringing his or her game ticket back to the window and mentioning Rule 8.06, will receive a free ticket to either the Tuesday, July 27 or Wednesday, July 28 home games against the Tacoma Rainiers.
Thursday also marks the return of The Great Fresno Tweetup, presented by FresnoBeehive.com and FresnoGrizzlies.com. Follow the Grizzlies on Twitter @FresnoGrizzlies to RSVP for the event and secure a special $5 ticket offer which gets fans a ticket in a designated section with all the other Grizzlies Tweeps and a Thirsty Thursday drink coupon. As it is with every Thursday home game, the 22nd will also be another Thirsty Thursday, presented by Tecate. Enjoy $1 12-ounce Tecate and Tecate Light beers through the fifth inning, and $1 12-ounce sodas all night long. In addition, Chukchansi Park is proud to showcase the Legends of Baseball memorabilia raffle. Fans will have an opportunity to purchase a raffle ticket to win classic autographed memorabilia including the Grand Prize, a set of 10 signed baseballs by the top-10 all-time home run hitters in Major League history, which will be on display on the concourse.
The first-place Fresno Grizzlies continue their current eight-game homestand tonight against Salt Lake at 7:05pm with Kid-A-Palooza. To get your tickets for any game in the 2010 season, swing by the Chukchansi Park Box Office, visit www.fresnogrizzlies.com or call 559.320.TIXS.
Today on MiLB.com
Top Stories on MiLB.com
- Astros' MacDonald hits for Appy League cycle
- Yankees' Adams takes chance to bounce back
- Shorebirds' Alvarado tosses one-hit shutout
- Rome's Fried posts six zeros to cap hot June
- Brewers affiliate will leave Brevard County
- Top Draft pick Moniak singles in pro debut
- Phillies' Appel done for season after surgery
- Six top-100 prospects among IL All-Stars


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Top Definition
A word for dessert, if you're too lazy to say the whole word.
Free zert on your birthday!
by Pie Lady August 10, 2005
Zombie Emergency Response Team.
Call the ZERT, he's got an arm off.
by benisman November 25, 2011
persian or farsi word for fart
"zert with the wind"
"fart with the wind"
"fart with the wind"
by piratemimi October 11, 2006


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If you're not a BlogAdda member,
register with us and
connect to thousands of
bloggers across India!
KYA TUMNE KABHI KISI SE PYAAR KIYA? *crowd goes silent and gets depressed on being reminded of the heartbreak*...
Nitin Gadkari says Asha Parekh climbed 12 floors to ask him for Padma Bhushan. That's 9 floors more than her previous best - Teesri Manzil.
The Odd Even rule has this great feature where a Delhi elite cannot carpool or take public transport without sharing 5 pictures on Twitter.
2016 ko 2k16 type karne waalon ki time-saving technique ko dhyan mein rakhte hue unhe rashtriya puraskaar se nawaza jaana chahiye!
If you've to think twice before pronouncing the Brand's name, it's definitely going to be expensive.
"The Type Of Heartbreak…"...
"Chasing Eternity"...
"Writing as a Journey of Selfhood"...
"Review: Udta Punjab"...
"My Maths Teacher, Mrs Kapoor"...
This week, it's time to get a little wicked at BlogAdda! No, we're not suddenly turning into a grey character, it is just because we have Bhakti Menon of Wicked Spoon Confessions for company! A food and travel blog with a twist, WSC celebrates the two biggest joys of life - food and travel - with a twist! It is a blog where burgers and beer live happily together, a place which you leave with knowledge, recipes and above all, a love for food! We caught up with Bhakti Menon for some confessions, and this is what we came up with during this fun and foodilicious interview!
Use money as a method to reach a goal, not for the goal itself.
Blog is slowly becoming for me: a medium I could make a living out of.
"A Murder She Saw"
"Lucky Dad, Lucky Us"
"Why wings?"
Blog about how to take the message of #ShareTheLoad to the next generation! Tell us ways in which you can raise the next generation with the right values of gender equality in the household, and no scope of gender stereotypes.
All of us are in an invisible race today, running towards money, fame, stability and trying to check off items in our 'must want' list. But as they say, when you look back at your life, you will remember the time you spent with your loved ones, and not the figure you've accumulated in your bank account. Memories that you make with your loved ones are the true treasure that you accumulate through your life. And we want you to share these #MemoriesForLife with us through a blog post!
Did you just play the the title song of 'The Jungle Book' in your head on reading the title? For the generation that grew up in the 80s and 90s, Sunday mornings meant rushing to the TV when the Jungle Book song started and plonking yourself in front of the screen to be a part of Mowgli, Baloo, Bagheera, Kaa and Shere Khan's adventures! As The Jungle Book movie gets ready to release on the 8th of April, dive into the deep recesses of the jungle where you spent your childhood with Mowgli, and tell us your favourite bits about the The Jungle Book!
Series of articles - Create a series of articles on your blog if the subject you choose to talk about is an extensive one.
Tutorials: For Business Blogs, have tutorials that teach your customers how to use the product/service, what are the features of the product/service and keep your customer views open for them to read.
Post Ideas: At times you will just run out of ideas for post not sure what to do. use google and apps like Evernote to note down all that ticks in your mind. Something will surely turn into a new post.
The clouds have finally dropped their anchors over the nation and waking up to a musical pitter patter is a beautiful routine now. The sun seems to be enjoying a vacation after months of overwork.. Overall, the days have gotten prettier, work doesn't seem that frustrating, walks on sidewalks seem to be fun and evenings have taken on a mushy tone. When such a beautiful time coincides with an impending weekend, perhaps that's heaven on earth. As the raindrops on the roof create their own symphonies, we are sure you might be thinking of sitting down with a steaming pakoras and chai, writing a monsoon inspired post.
Our favourite friend, Friday, is back after what seems like eons, and we couldn't be happier! Life is back to being beautiful with long spells of time to check things off your weekend wishlist. As you finally enter your own world of fantasies breathing in serenity around you, we are here to rev up your thoughts a little.
During our time in this world, there are unnoticed moments that actually hold the power to drive our lives into a completely different course, opening doors that we might not have ever thought of. Yes, this might be a little dose of philosophy, but how many of you have actually tried connecting the dots to the minuscule events that catalyze the biggest events? A journey, a meeting or a random encounter - all of these have the power to change our lives, even when we don't see the hand of destiny behind such things.
Reach out to the vast Indian Blogger Community and engage them to propel your brand's visibility in the digital space.
Write to us at firstname.lastname@example.com
@BlogAdda.com , Largest Indian Blog Directory House To Popular Indian Blogs and Indian Bloggers


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Healthy Home Designs, has a great description of the whole situation. Basically, typical paint releases Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) into the air which before evaporating can get into our bodies, resulting in eye and skin irritation, lung and breathing problems, headaches, nausea, muscle weakness and liver and kidney damage. This is particularly true for people who are elderly, pregnant or have compromised immune systems. The solution? Proper ventilation and low or zero VOC paint, which is made by many companies (see below) and which can be found right here in NYC. Stopping by my favorite haunt, Janovic Plaza, I found that they stock Benjamin Moore's Pristine line of paints AND that they don't cost much more than regular latex paint: $36 for a gallon of custom color latex and $40 for a gallon of custom color Pristine (the white is $10 cheaper). Problems? Colors are somewhat limited, with a predominance of earth tones and reds showing up frequently in many product lines. The fun part is that this limitation really opens the doors to a whole new style and experimentation, which I plan to try out. And for for those who want to really dive in deep, here is a recipe for Milk Paint. MGR
Coat primers, paints and sealers - by American Formulating and manufacturing (AFM)
Manufacturers / Distributors:
Coat primers, paints and sealers - by American Formulating and manufacturing (AFM)
Auro Natural paints - by Sinan Company
Pristine Eco-Spec Paint - by Benjamin Moore & Co.
Bio Shield paints and stains - by Bioshield
Genesis odor-free paint - by Duron
Milk-based (casein) paints and natural pigments - by the Old Fashioned Milk Paint Company
ProMaster paint - by Glidden/ICI
Livos non-toxic paint and thinners - by Livos Phytochemistry
Tempo paint - by McCormick Paint
Low biocide paint - by Miller Paint Company
Casein Milk Solids, Lime, Clay, Cellulose, Asbestos-Free Talcum, Salt (Sodium Phosphate), BioShield Pigments.
milk paint recipe


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By Barbara Gonzalez | 06/27/2016 - 14:30
Puerto Rican allies were out and proud yesterday at the New York City Pride parade, showing their support for the victims of the June 12th shooting in Orlando.
Read more
By Barbara Gonzalez | 06/27/2016 - 11:15
Kaiden Orantes shows that sometimes feeling the rhythm is all you need to get your moves right.
Read more
By Raquel Reichard | 06/24/2016 - 10:54
Workers of Orlando's Pulse nightclub, which was attacked June 12 in a mass shooting that claimed the lives of 49 people and injured 53 more, came together on Thursday for a block party fundraiser to help support
Read more
By Bianca Mendez | 06/23/2016 - 20:01
Police killed nine people and left dozens injured during a violent clash against teachers in Oaxaca over the weekend.
Read more
By Barbara Gonzalez | 06/23/2016 - 12:07
John Anthony Vasquez is being held on 2 million dollar bail after being accused of pouring gasoline on his girlfriend and lighting her on fire with her two children close by at Clear Creek Count
Read more
By Raquel Reichard | 06/23/2016 - 09:56
Last week, archivists found 520 boxes of files proving that the New York Police Department had been spying on Puerto Rican revolutionary group the Young Lords, as well as the Black Panthers and the Nation of Isl
Read more
By Raquel Reichard | 06/22/2016 - 14:35
A 21-year-old karate teacher was arrested last week in Orlando, Fla.
Read more
By Barbara Gonzalez | 06/22/2016 - 10:17
The Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) arrested 331 undocumented immigrants within a month, including people who had ignored deportation orders, had criminal convictions and had re-entered the country aft
Read more
By Raquel Reichard | 06/22/2016 - 09:47
A man who claims he was the lover of Orlando mass murderer Omar Mateen says the killer attacked the gay nightclub Pulse out of revenge because he "hated" Puerto Ricans.
Read more
By Raquel Reichard | 06/21/2016 - 14:49
Brenda Marquez McCool, the mother who died saving her son's life in last week's Orlando massacre at Pulse, was laid to rest on Monday.
Read more
- Page 1
- next ›


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Design Your iPod Giveaway launched
Want to win an iPod in the color of your choice? ColorWare, Inc. and iLounge have teamed up to bring you an amazing, one-time-only giveaway.
Note: The is giveaway is open to entries from ALL countries.
Related Stories
Sucks that its only available to US residents..
will you take Canadian entrants?
Posted by flashpunk in Irvine, CA on March 8, 2004 at 1:54 PM (CST)
id love to win pick me
Posted by brandon in Irvine, CA on March 8, 2004 at 4:14 PM (CST)
Man i would love to a Alpine green 40 gb ipod..PICK ME
Posted by Patrick jensen in Irvine, CA on March 8, 2004 at 5:40 PM (CST)
yay! its open to anyone now!
Posted by flashpunk in Irvine, CA on March 8, 2004 at 7:14 PM (CST)
well i probealy womt win but i mineswell try please pick me
Posted by shaun in Irvine, CA on March 8, 2004 at 11:09 PM (CST)
pick me…. green ipod… pick meee
Posted by bunny bedi in Irvine, CA on March 9, 2004 at 10:37 AM (CST)
Pink iPod here we goooo! LOL
Posted by Susana in Irvine, CA on March 9, 2004 at 6:59 PM (CST)
I have the silver mini.
I really think that the this line of minis should have included a purple or light lavender instead of the gold or green. They all look like easter colors and lavender would fit right in.
But if I could have any color I wanted I would love to have one in a metallic red (shiny car red) or black b/c they are my two favorite colors.
Posted by TipRob in Irvine, CA on March 9, 2004 at 9:43 PM (CST)
yellow ipod im thinking of you every single day and u don't even care!!!
Posted by Juaning in Irvine, CA on March 9, 2004 at 10:46 PM (CST)
Hi TWIMC,
I think a light blue with a thin navy pinstripe would be neat. Calm, yet professional.
I have a stressful job at times, and music helps to relieve the tension.
Thanks. Joan
Posted by Joan in Irvine, CA on March 11, 2004 at 5:43 PM (CST)
Wouldn't be cool to have an entirely chrome ipod with a thin layer of glass or crystal around it so it didn't get scratched?
Or how about a clear one?
if those aren't possible, i'd have a chameleon midnight blue that goes from blue to black at different angles.
Posted by zac in Irvine, CA on March 12, 2004 at 12:02 AM (CST)
How do you design the ipod?
In photoshop or something?
Posted by Gid the Kid in Irvine, CA on March 12, 2004 at 6:46 PM (CST)
well you could do it in paint but ill tell you ya sure wont win!!!
Posted by rivlinm in Irvine, CA on March 13, 2004 at 3:34 PM (CST)
all entries become sole property of ipodlounge? what's up with that? what if a person designed something really great and you claim responsibility for it and sell it to apple?
Posted by kloan in Irvine, CA on March 13, 2004 at 5:38 PM (CST)
it's called a contest, your submission becomes property of contest holder. and that's called "totally normal." if you think you're so brilliant then get a job at apple.
Posted by Frank in Irvine, CA on March 13, 2004 at 10:33 PM (CST)
Pick Me !! Pick Me !! Pick Me !! I want a Silver IPOD 40 GB…..
The price of the ipod is very inflated here in India.
Posted by Kartikeya in Irvine, CA on March 15, 2004 at 6:07 AM (CST)
yeah you're a dick frank. you f yourself.
Posted by jolly in Irvine, CA on March 16, 2004 at 4:39 PM (CST)
I should win cos I seem to be the only person posting that doen't have an iPod!!! Wouldn't it be unfair to let an iPod owner win another iPod - do they have four ears?
Posted by Jim in Irvine, CA on March 17, 2004 at 7:29 AM (CST)
It also sucks that my message is at the bottom of the page - HELLO? Please read me!! I'll buy all the neat gizmos for my newly WON iPod, I promise!!! xx J
Posted by Jim in Irvine, CA on March 17, 2004 at 7:31 AM (CST)
i would like to be picked because i can't afford an ipod and it would mean the world to me! but if you don't pick me i won't be disappointed because i have very bad luck.
sincerly, telly( in search for a miracle)
Posted by telly in Irvine, CA on March 17, 2004 at 5:00 PM (CST)
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Moment #89 Camping Trip PB&J
How-Tos Add a bit of texture and a bunch of flavor to your PB&J by sprinkling toasted coconut flakes on top.
Moment #123 Lazy Day PB&J
Fun Facts The world's largest PB&J was made on November 13, 2010, and weighed 1,342 pounds.
Fun Facts The average American will eat 1,500 peanut butter and jelly sandwiches before graduating high school.
Moment #10 Saturday Morning Cartoons PB&J