text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Aug 21, 1984
|Filing date
|Jul 10, 1981
|Priority date
|Jul 10, 1980
|Fee status
|Also published as
|Publication number
|Erwin Hartung, Martin Klenk, Heinz Moller
|Original Assignee
|Robert Bosch Gmbh
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (9), Referenced by (12), Classifications (23), Legal Events (6)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
The invention is based on a regulating device for control of variables of an internal combustion engine and more particularly relates to providing an intervention capability responsive to knocking signals for developing frequency and amplitude information for evaluation to control ignition adjustment or ignition onset.
A motor vehicle ignition system of the prior art is known which evaluates signals of a knocking sensor for the purpose of adjusting the instant of ignition; this is accomplished in such a fashion that as knocking becomes more pronounced, the instant of ignition is adjusted toward "late". In this known regulating device for the instant of ignition, the signal of a knocking sensor is evaluated directly. It has now been demonstrated that the known device is extremely vulnerable to disturbance voltage variables and responses, and it is thus found to be incapable of producing reliable results.
It is an object and advantage of the invention to provide a regulating device for control variables of an internal combustion engine having the advantage over the prior art that disturbance variables which occur arbitrarily are to the greatest possible extent without influence on the variable to be regulated. Optimal operation of the internal combustion engine is thus assured.
During the course of the work leading to the invention, the combination of characteristics of the system of the invention has proved to be particularly suitable. By applying these characteristics, it is possible to attain the desired precise results on the part of a regulating device.
The invention has as its object the filtering out of the individual peaks in the course of the pressure which occur in the trailing edge of the pressure signal, then appropriately preparing and evaluating them, and finally, in accordance therewith, adjusting the individual control variables of the engine, especially the fuel metering and the instant of ignition. The goal is to keep combustion in the individual cylinders as close as possible to the knocking limit, for reasons of economy.
The invention will be better understood and further objects and advantages thereof will become more apparent from the ensuing detailed description of preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the drawings.
FIG. 1 is a rough schematic representation of the regulating device according to the invention, in combination with an internal combustion engine;
FIG. 2 shows pulse diagrams relating to the signal evaluation;
FIG. 3 is a block circuit diagram of the regulating device itself;
FIGS. 4, 5 and 6 show details of the regulating device according to FIG. 3; and
FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of a Diesel engine used with the regulating device of the invention.
FIG. 1, in a basic schematic layout, shows an internal combustion engine 10 having externally supplied ignition, together with regulating devices for the ignition and for the fuel injection. The internal combustion engine has an intake tube 11 and an exhaust line 12. A fuel metering system includes a control device 13 as well as an injection nozzle 14, the fuel metering signal being determined on the basis of rpm, load and the output signal of a knocking-signal evaluation circuit 15. In corresponding fashion, an ignition system 16 processes various input variables and at the output side sends high-voltage signals to spark plugs 17. The knocking-signal evaluation circuit 15, at its input side, receives signals from knocking sensors 18, of which four are shown in FIG. 1, which can be dialed by means of a switch 19. In this manner, the knocking signals can be ascertained and processed cylinder by cylinder of the internal combustion engine, or in multiplexing operation they may be made available serially to the knocking-signal evaluation circuit 15.
FIG. 2 contains four diagrams. In FIG. 2a, the pressure in the combustion chamber is plotted over time; FIG. 2b shows the closing-angle signal of the ignition system; FIG. 2c shows a signal for the duration of measurement; and, finally, FIG. 2d shows the knocking signal which has been filtered out of FIG. 2a.
It may be seen in FIG. 2a that there is a zigzag signal course in the trailing edge of the pressure signal. These superimposed peaks are caused by engine knocking; that is, localized ignition cycles in the combustion chamber, and the pressure waves caused thereby, produce this overall course of the pressure signal.
Thus, the invention has as its object the filtering out of the individual peaks in the course of the pressure which occur in the trailing edge of the pressure signal, then appropriately preparing and evaluating them, and finally, in accordance therewith, adjusting the individual control variables of the engine, especially the fuel metering and the instant of ignition. The goal is to keep combustion in the individual cylinders as close as possible to the knocking limit, for reasons of economy.
The so-called knocking frequency, which may be seen in FIG. 2a, for example, is specific for each engine type. For this reason, an exact adaptation of the knocking-signal evaluation circuit to the particular engine type being used is required.
According to FIG. 2d, the knocking frequency signal is filtered out of the signal course according to FIG. 2a and prepared for the purpose of a further signal processing.
One example of a knocking-signal evaluation circuit is shown in FIG. 3. The signal from one or more knocking sensors is present at the input of a pulse-shaper circuit 20. A parallel arrangment of a frequency recognition circuit 21 and an amplitude recognition circuit 22 follows, these being connected at the output side to an AND gate 23. A series circuit comprising the synchronizing flip-flop 24, a knocking pulse counter 25 and a memory flip-flop 26 follows the AND gate 23. The ignition system of the engine is identified by reference numeral 27. One of its output signals controls a measurement-duration circuit or measurement-time control circuit 28, and this circuit, in turn, controls the knocking pulse counter 25 via a second input. Finally, leading to the frequency recognition circuit 21 and the amplitude recognition circuit 22 are the respective multi-polar lines 29 and 30, which symbolize control variables for the respective recognition circuit of FIG. 3.
It is essential in the subject of the application that the output signal of the knocking sensor is examined both as to its frequency and to its amplitude. Only if both variables have attained or exceeded values characteristic of the particular engine being used, and in addition if a predetermined number of knocking signals have occured, is there an intentional manipulation of the control variables of the engine. In the case of FIG. 1, these are the fuel metering and ignition characteristics.
FIG. 4 shows one example of a digital amplitude recognition circuit, such as may be used in the subject of FIG. 3. It includes a comparison circuit 32. Via a first input 33, input signals are delivered directly to the comparison circuit 32 via a rapidly-functioning analog-digital converter 34 from a terminal point 35, while via a second input 36 the comparison circuit 32 receives a controllable threshold signal. This signal originates in an adding circuit 37, in which the threshold is formed in accordance with a value taken from a performance graph 38 and in accordance with the input variables. A low-pass filter 39 and, in series therewith, a slow analog-digital converter 40 between the input terminal 35 and the adding circuit 37 serve to provide control of the threshold in accordance with the input variables.
By reason of its design, the amplitude recognition circuit 22 substantially produces the curve of the pulse course shown in FIG. 2a, and the individual signal peaks in the trailing edge of this input signal are filtered out and thus put into a form which can be further processed. The values stored in the performance graph 38 are adapted to the particular engine type being used, and they assure that only the peaks in the signal course of FIG. 2a will be detected, in a manner which is as independent as possible of the load status and the rpm of the engine.
FIG. 5a shows one example of the frequency recognition circuit 21 of FIG. 3, together with a subsequently disposed knocking pulse counter 65. The subject of FIG. 5a, in detail, has the following structure. An input 45 is followed by a pulse-shaper circuit 46, the output of which is connected in turn with the charge input of a counter 47, with the J-input of a JK flip-flop 48, and with a first input 49 of a NAND gate 50. The overflow output 53 of the counter 47 leads to the charge input 51 of a subsequent counter 52, the counter range of which determines the band width of the signal which is to be recognized. The two counters 47 and 52 have multi-polar inputs 54 and 55, with which a respective initial counter status may be pre-specified for the counting procedure. Further inputs 56 and 57 are so-called countenable inputs, by way of which the counting process in general can be controlled. The actual counting signal proceeds via inputs 58 and 59 to the counters 47 and 52.
While the Q output of the flip-flop 48 is connected with the counting input 56 of the first counter 47, the Q output of a second JK flip-flop 60 precedes the counting input 57 of the subsequent counter 52. This flip-flop 60, for the F input, receives the output signal from the overflow output 62 of the counter 52, and the K input is connected with both the overflow output 53 of the counter 47 and the K input of the flip-flop 48. A clock signal is received by both flip-flops 48 and 60 via clock lines, indicated by the arrow but not shown in further detail, from a clock signal source.
The second input 63 of the NAND gate 60 receives its signal from the Q output of the second flip-flop 60. On the output side, the NAND gate 50 is linked with the counting input of a subsequent counter 65, which is followed in turn by a pulse-shaper circuit 66. Both the counter 65 and the pulse-shaper circuit 66 receive, as a further control signal, a signal which comes by way of example from the measurement-duration circuit 28 according to FIG. 3.
The mode of operation of the subject of FIG. 5a will now be appropriately explained with the aid of the pulse diagrams of FIG. 5b.
In FIG. 5b, the letter a identifies the input signal at the input terminal 45, and b identifies the output signal of the pulse-shaper circuit 46. The counter status in the counter 47 is shown at c, and it becomes clear that with each positive forward edge of the input signal at the input 45, the counter is set to a specific counter status. If the counter status reaches a value of zero, and thus the overflow point, then the counting process ceases, and it is only reinitiated upon the next occurrence of a forward edge. Upon the attainment of a counter status of zero in the first counter, however, the counting process in the second counter 52 is initiated and ended in accordance with signal course d, once this counter has traversed a predetermined range of values. If, during the counting process in the second counter 52, a forward edge in the input signal appears, then this is recognized in terms of the desired input frequency, by means of the NAND gate 50, and an output signal appears which corresponds to e in FIG. 5b. The output signal of the measurement-duration circuit 28 is designated by letter f; this means that the only input signals to be examined as to their frequency are those occuring during the course of the corresponding signal f. The signals according to g are counted in the counter 65; if, for example, two such pulses appear, then an adjustment signal for the ignition is produced according to letter h. The purpose of this delay in response is to prevent disturbance signals which by coincidence have the same frequency as the knocking signal from having any effect.
The pulse diagrams of FIG. 5b make it clear that at an excessively high input frequency, the full counting range of the first counter 47 is never traversed, and thus no overflow pulse appears. This overflow occurs only if the input frequency fails to exceed or attain a specific upper threshold value. This upper threshold value is thus established with the aid of the counting range of the first counter.
The band width of the detectable frequency spectrum may be established by means of the counting range of the second counter. Specifically, an output signal appears only when, upon the appearance of the next input pulse, the first counter is no longer counting, but the second counter is still counting.
If the input frequency fails to attain a lower threshold value, then the forward edge of the next input pulse arrives only after the termination of the counting process in the second counter, and the corresponding logic circuitry no longer emits an output signal.
With the circuit layout shown in FIG. 5a, it is thus possible to interrogate input signals as to the occurrence of a very specific frequency range. Since the knocking frequency in an internal combustion engine is specific for a particular engine type, the occurrence of knocking can be detected quite precisely and processed in an appropriate manner with the proposed circuitry.
A second, somewhat modified exemplary embodiment of a frequency recognition circuit, or more precisely a frequency band recognition circuit, is shown in FIG. 6. Once again, there is the series circuit comprising the pulse-shaper circuit 46 and the first and second counters 47 and 52. The transmit outputs of both counters are carried to a flip-flop 70, the output signal of which, like the output signal of the pulse-shaper circuit 46, is carried to an AND gate 71. Following the AND gate 71 is the counter 65, the output counter status of which corresponds to a pre-selectable disturbance interval, and the charge input 72 of which is furnished with the output signal of the measurement-duration circuit 28. With a view to attaining a constant output signal at an output terminal 74, a flip-flop 75 is also furnished with signals from the transmit output of the counter 65 and from the measurement-duration circuit 28. Here, as well, what is essential is that the clock frequency of the counters 47 and 52 is substantially higher than the input frequency at the input terminal 45.
The two subjects of FIGS. 5a and 6 correspond to one another in terms of their fundamental type. What is different between them is solely the manner of signal linkage; the mode of operation and the results produced by the logical signal linkage, however, are identical.
It should be added that the invention is not restricted to its application in internal combustion engines having externally supplied ignition; the invention can also be used in Diesel engines having an injection system, such as shown in FIG. 7 in which corresponding elements are designated similar numerical references. In the latter case, the corresponding feature for the ignition signal means 16 is an injection onset control unit 16a, and for the ignition adjustment means 13 it is the adjustment of injection onset fuel quantity control unit 14a.
The foregoing relates to preferred exemplary embodiments of the invention, it being understood that other embodiments and variants thereof are possible within the spirit and scope of the invention, the latter being defined by the appended claims.
|Cited Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|May 23, 1946
|May 17, 1949
|Macmillan Charles W
|Engine combustion controlling device
|Jan 12, 1976
|Jan 11, 1977
|General Motors Corporation
|Engine and engine spark timing control with knock limiting etc.
|May 17, 1976
|Mar 22, 1977
|General Motors Corporation
|Borderline spark knock detector
|May 26, 1977
|Sep 26, 1978
|Mcdougal John A
|Internal combustion engine ignition system
|Aug 28, 1978
|Aug 21, 1979
|General Motors Corporation
|Method of measurement of bulk temperatures of gas in engine cylinders
|Sep 27, 1979
|Jan 6, 1981
|Brunswick Corporation
|Detonation control apparatus for outboard motor
|Nov 15, 1979
|Feb 10, 1981
|Societe Pour L'equipement De Vehicules
|Internal combustion engine ignition systems
|Apr 17, 1979
|Sep 22, 1981
|Nippondenso Co., Ltd.
|Ignition timing control system for internal combustion engine
|May 2, 1980
|Feb 9, 1982
|Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.
|Feedback control system for internal combustion engine
|Citing Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|Feb 20, 1985
|Sep 23, 1986
|Mitsubishi Denki Kabushiki Kaisha
|Engine operating parameter control apparatus
|Mar 27, 1985
|Sep 23, 1986
|Hitachi, Ltd.
|Knocking control method and apparatus for internal combustion engine
|Mar 14, 1986
|Sep 29, 1987
|Robert Bosch Gmbh
|Method for influencing the metering of fuel to an internal combustion engine
|Feb 4, 1987
|Feb 7, 1989
|Honda Giken Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha
|Device for controlling ignition timing in internal combustion engine
|May 23, 1990
|Aug 20, 1991
|Siemens Aktiengesellschaft
|Method for controlling knocking in internal combustion engines
|Oct 22, 1991
|Nov 17, 1992
|Delco Electronics Corporation
|Vehicle engine ignition timing system and method with windowing knock control
|Aug 30, 1991
|Apr 13, 1993
|Loral Aerospace Corp.
|Apparatus and method for detecting vibration patterns
|Apr 24, 1991
|Jul 27, 1993
|Hitachi, Ltd.
|Method and apparatus for detecting knock in an internal combustion engine
|May 23, 1989
|Nov 28, 1990
|Siemens Aktiengesellschaft
|Method for knocking control in combustion engines
|Apr 26, 1991
|Oct 30, 1991
|Hitachi, Ltd.
|Method and apparatus for detecting knock in an internal combustion engine
|Oct 21, 1988
|May 18, 1989
|Caterpillar Inc.
|Method for delivering an engine shutdown signal
|Dec 15, 1992
|Aug 5, 1993
|Robert Bosch Gmbh
|Device for detecting knocking in an internal combustion engine
|U.S. Classification
|123/406.39, 123/435, 123/487, 123/501, 73/35.03
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Jul 10, 1981
Owner name: ROBERT BOSCH GMBH, 7000 STUTTGART 1, W. GERMANY
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST.;ASSIGNOR:HARTUNG, ERWIN;REEL/FRAME:003900/0577
Effective date: 19810612
|Feb 9, 1988
|Fee payment
Year of fee payment: 4
|Oct 28, 1991
|Fee payment
Year of fee payment: 8
|Mar 26, 1996
|Maintenance fee reminder mailed
|Aug 18, 1996
|Lapse for failure to pay maintenance fees
|Oct 29, 1996
|Expired due to failure to pay maintenance fee
Effective date: 19960821


text:
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This past Saturday I ran 7.14 of 7.71 miles. I did better by 6 minutes than Tuesday on the same route. Not bad for not running most of December! But it was probably the brightest thing to do twice in a week. When I got done there was a pain in t...
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B.L. Goal Update
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text:
How many dimes are in one hundred dollars <~im me x three~>
kgb answers » Records & Statistics » How many dimes are in one hundred dollars <~im me x three~>
Tags: one hundred dollars, dimes
Wednesday, February 01 2012
Source: http://www.math.com
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text: Ludicolo, the problem with this is that the EV's that you gain from another Pokemon is a value that is stored with the Pokemon. The OP is already dealing with a limited amount of space for each Pokemon entry. I don't know if there is a limit on the amount of data that can be stored in a Pokemon's entry, or if it can be expanded, but I know that storing EV information would take more than just a couple of bytes of information.


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Cong, GPP want M B Shah commission dissolvedTNN | Jan 3, 2013, 03.00 AM IST
AHMEDABAD: The state Congress and Gujarat Parivartan Party have demanded that the M B Shah Commission be dissolved. They want investigation into the 17 alleged scams worth Rs 1.07 lakh crore, to be handed over to the Lokayukta. Congress leader Shankersinh Vaghela said that there was no point in the state government's corruption being investigated the one-man commission appointed by the administration itself.
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This paper presents an algorithm for finding a kinematically feasible path for a nonholonomic system in the presence of obstacles. We first consider the path planning problem without obstacles by transforming it into a nonlinear least squares problem in an augmented space which is then iteratively solved. Obstacle avoidance is included as inequality constraints. Exterior penalty functions are used to convert the inequality constraints Into equality constraints. Then the same nonlinear least squares approach is applied. We demonstrate the efficacy of the approach by solving some challenging problems, including a tractor-trailer and a tractor with a steerable trailer backing in a loading dock. These examples demonstrate the performance of the algorithm in the presence of obstacles and steering and jackknife angle constraints
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Deal effectively with construction waste
The recent controversy over sand mining has put the spotlight on the need for recycle and reuse of waste generated during the building of new structures.
The construction industry in India is booming, already a 10 per cent of the GDP, and is growing at an outstanding rate of 10 per cent over the last ten years as against the world average of 5.5 per cent per annum. Almost 70 per cent of the building stock in India is yet to come up, the built up area is expected to swell almost five times from 21 billion sq ft in 2005 to approximately 104 billion sq ft by 2030. Buildings are the core of all our demand — water, energy and material but it also creates waste.
Waste generated in the construction, maintenance and disposal phase of the building is categorised as construction and demolition waste. Globally, cities generate about 1.3 billion tonnes of solid waste per year and this volume is expected to increase to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, says a 2012 report on solid waste by the World Bank. Building materials account for about half of all materials used and about half the solid waste generated worldwide.
There is no documented quantification of amount of construction and demolition waste being generated in India. The Municipal Corporation of Delhi's 2012 estimates show that Delhi generates close to 4,600 tonnes of C&D waste daily, while 1,600-2,000 tonnes per day generation is indicated as per the transport arrangements of the MCD, which points at illegal dumping.
According to the Centre for Science and Environment estimates, since 2005, India has newly constructed 5.75 billion sqm of additional floor space with almost one billion sqm in 2013 itself. If according to Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council's thumb rule a new construction generates 40-60kg of C&D waste per sqm, then taking an average of 50 kg per sqm India must have generated 50 million tonnes of C&D waste this year alone and about 287 million tonnes over last eight years. This estimate is only for new construction. Demolition and renovationwork related waste of the older stock will be extra and waste generated per sqm of demolition is 10 times the waste generated by construction. If C&D waste generated by infrastructure projects like road, dams, is also added India is already drowning in this waste.
The recent controversy over sand mining has put the spotlight on the need for recycle, reuse and substitution of naturally sourced building material to reduce demand for naturally sourced construction material. In 2012, the Supreme Court made the environmental impact assessment process under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, mandatory for all mining sites to regulate mining of minor minerals and to ensure environmental management. On August 5, 2013, the National Green Tribunal declared sand mining with environmental clearance illegal.
Research carried out by premium institutes like Central Building Research Institute, National Council for Cement and Building Materials and IIT-Kanpur, have established that C&D waste can be recycled and adsorbed in construction activities itself. It can be used for making bricks and paver blocks, can also be used to partly replace natural sand and stone in concrete.
The MCD has set up a C&D waste recycling plant at Burari under a public-private partnership model with IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure & Services Limited. This is a pilot project and has capacity of recycling 500 tonnes per day.
Globally cities have initiated legal process to maximise reuse of C&D waste in construction. Effective recycling rate in Korea is 36 per cent with a target of 45 per cent by 2016. The Netherlands has found that 80 per cent of its C&D waste is bricks and concrete that can be recycled. Singapore recycles 98 per cent of its C&D waste.
India needs to start promoting the reuse this ever increasing mound of C&D waste it generates.
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Those WCAG Forgot: Designing for the Cognitively Disabled
1. WCAG 2.0 Background
The World Wide Web Consortium defined 'web accessibility' as "the practice of making websites useable by people of all abilities." More specifically, it means that any person with a disability can perceive, understand, navigate, and interact with the web and can contribute to the web (Caldwell et al.). Web accessibility encompasses all disabilities that affect a person's access to the web including visual, auditory, motor, speech, cognitive, and neurological. The World Wide Web Consortium created the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) to aid web developers in making their technology more available to people with disabilities.
The current guidelines, WCAG 2.0, were published in December of 2008. They contain four main principles; a website must be perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust. Under each principle is a set of guidelines, 12 guidelines in all. Under each guideline is a set of success criteria. The success criteria are ranked on a priority scale, Priority one (priority A) which a web developer must adhere to, Priority two (priority AA) which a web developer should adhere to, and Priority three (priority AAA) which a web developer may adhere to if they so choose. WCAG contains sixty-one very specific success criteria all together, twenty-five of which are Priority A (Caldwell et al.).
2. The Problem with WCAG 2.0
Despite having sixty-one requirements, twenty-five of which must be satisfied, WCAG 2.0 lacks adequate provisions for users with cognitive disabilities and learning difficulties. The World Wide Web Consortium claims in the abstract to WCAG 2.0:
Following these guidelines will make content accessible to a wider range of people with disabilities including blindness and low vision, deafness and hearing loss, learning disabilities, cognitive limitations, limited movement, speech disabilities, and photosensitivity (my emphasis) (Caldwell et al.).
This is not strictly true, however. Five sections later in the same document it states:
Note that even content that conforms at the highest level (AAA) will not be accessible to individuals with all types, degrees, or combinations of disability, particularly in the cognitive language and learning areas (Caldwell et al.).
Of those twenty-five required Priority A success criteria, only five of them pertain solely to cognitive disabilities. Another four may serve the dual purpose of aiding sight, hearing, or motor impaired users along with cognitively disabled users. Most of the success criteria pertaining to cognitive disabilities are placed at Priority AAA.
For example, Criterion 1.4.1, which is Priority A and must be adhered to, requires that color is not used as the only visual means of conveying information, indicating an action, prompting a response, or distinguishing a visual element, which aids users with visual disabilities such as color blindness. Whereas Criterion 1.4.8., which suggests that visual presentations not be justified and are modifiable in size, color, width, and spacing, all of which would be very helpful to someone with a cognitive disability, is only a Priority AAA criterion and can essentially be ignored (Caldwell et al.).
Not only is their insufficient Priority A success criteria for accommodating users with cognitive disabilities, some Priority A criteria may actually be detrimental to them. Success Criterion 3.3.1 is Priority A and covers error identification: If an input error is automatically detected, the item that is in error is identified and the error is described to the user in text (Caldwell et al.). Many people with cognitive disabilities have difficulty deciphering text by itself, especially if the text contains abbreviations or jargon. Therefore, relying on text alone to understand and correct an error may be extremely frustrating or impossible. So it seems that the needs of a large disability group are slipping through the cracks.
3. Common Difficulties Encountered by the Cognitively Disabled
The U.S. department of Health and Human Services estimates that two to three percent of Americans experience some level of cognitive disability. This may seem insignificant but that is seven to eight million people in the United States who may not have adequate access to the web, including 614,000 school-aged children (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services).
The term 'cognitive disability' ranges from mild to severe impairments. It encompasses learning disabilities, such as attention deficit (hyperactive) disorder, dyslexia, and dyscalculia; brain injuries, such as stroke, tumors, or aphasia; genetic disorders, such as Down's syndrome, autism and Asperger's syndrome, and dementia; and mental retardation. An individual is considered to have mental retardation if his or her IQ score is 75 or lower and if he or she has significant limitations in two or more adaptive areas such as communication, home living ability, social skills, self-direction, and functional academics (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services).
Individuals with cognitive disabilities experience a wide variety of complications when accessing the web. They often encounter trouble when viewing a detailed display. Many of these individuals, especially those with learning disabilities, have short attention spans and become easily distracted by large or complex screen layouts (Jiwnani).
Several cognitively disabled people experience some form of short term memory loss. As a result, entering input, i.e. filling out a form, may be complicated. They may have trouble following sequential operations or have difficulty recalling steps in a process. Large sets of information can be overwhelming to someone with a cognitive disability and therefore they may have difficulty selecting from numerous choices (Jiwnani).
Cognitively disabled individuals often experience confusion while deciphering large amounts of text. Consequently, they may have problems navigating a site that relies heavily on text labels alone. These individuals often need a contextual framework to guide their understanding. As a result, buttons or controls that perform more than one function are extremely problematic for their comprehension.
They also may experience difficulty understanding forms of auditory output. Background noises may be distracting and prevent them from effectively hearing. Many have difficulty retaining information that is presented rapidly or is unrepeatable. Timed instructions or responses can cause extreme anxiety in a person with a cognitive disability. They often do not have enough time to process what is expected of them before being forced to move on (Jiwnani).
4. Designing for the Cognitively Disabled
Web users with cognitive disabilities encounter many problems that differ from those of a person with any other disability. Therefore, these unique issues require a specific set of design standards. Content, navigation, site design, and user input each have their own concerns and corrections.
4.1 Typography
Typography is one of the most overlooked design elements. Success criterion 1.4.8 is the only WCAG guideline that comes close and it deals only with line spacing and text justification. The actual letters themselves, however, can pose issues for a cognitively disabled user.
The minimum recommended text size is 12-point font. Printable materials should always be available at this size. Some users may have difficulty reading 12-point, so text should be easily enlargeable. Sans-serif font styles are most often easier for the cognitively disabled to read, especially dyslexic users. Commonly used font styles are Arial, Verdana, Helvetica, Tahoma, and Trebuchet. The "tails" of serif fonts, like Times New Roman, can cause the letters to appear to run together, making them extremely difficult to read. It is important to note that not all cognitively disabled users have trouble with serif fonts if given enough character and line space (Millon 147). Inserting 0.5 to one point of space between characters and double spacing lines can make serif fonts more manageable.
Avoid using capitalization to emphasize portions of text. Extensive capitalized sections are difficult to read (and not just for disabled users). Capitalized words also give the impression of shouting or reprimanding, which can be unsettling for users with autism or Asperger's syndrome (Millon 148).
Moving or blinking words should also be avoided as well. It creates a severe problem because the text does not stay still long enough for a user to focus on the message, making understanding nearly impossible. Italicized words are also difficult to read (Millon 147). The slanting causes the letters to look run together, especially with serif fonts.
Blocks of text should always be left justified with the right side left ragged. Justifying text so that both margins are smooth causes awkward spacing between words and leads to what page designers call "rivers of white." These patterns of white space can be difficult to ignore, consequently distracting readers and making comprehension tricky (Millon 150).
4.2 Navigation
Cognitively disabled people sometimes have problems navigating a website. Short term memory problems are common and can cause them to forget where they were headed and how they got to where they are currently. They may also have difficulty deciphering where the information they need might be located due to a vast amount of potential choices, lack of advanced reading skills, or insufficient problem solving skills. The solution: make navigation as simple as possible.
Remove the need for advanced reading and writing skills in browsing by using graphic representations of navigation labels and headings in addition to textual cues. Navigational labels and page titles should be clear and descriptive of their content. A web page should also be labeled as similarly as possible to its navigational link. This connects the two and enforces that the user ended up where they thought they would (Krug 73).
In addition to similar labels, navigational feedback such as breadcrumbs can provide ongoing confirmation of the user's location and navigational choices. Provide easy ways to navigate backward or start over completely if the user does happen to make an incorrect choice. This helps eliminate anxiety over failure. Multi-sensory feedback, simple tones for positive choices or errors and color coded alert messages, can help users with severely compromised understanding navigate a site (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger). Alert messages should stay on the screen until they are dismissed manually.
Some cognitively disabled users encounter spatial orientation difficulty. As a result they may have difficultly using a mouse pointer as effectively as necessary. Increasing the clickable area size around links can help make navigating with a mouse easier (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger).
Allow for multiple routes to access information. A cognitively impaired user may not remember how to navigate back to specific information, especially if the journey involved multiple steps. Provide a search technique that is easy to find and use to enable users to locate information without involving complex thought processes (Krug 67).
Divide navigation components into small, easily digestible, related groups. This greatly decreases the number of choices a user has to consider at one time. 'Side by side' navigation is considered universally best for accessibility. It shows the hierarchical relationships between categories and shows the user the path they followed. Consistent positioning of navigational elements can also aid the user's memory by grounding them in a solid context (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger).
4.3 Written Content
Many members of the cognitively disabled community have limited reading and writing ability. As a result, they have difficulty decoding text quickly. Since the majority of information presented on a web page is text based, it is particularly important to attend to text content when designing for those with cognitive disabilities.
Written sections should be highly organized and mechanically correct. They should contain precise and meaningful headings. Spelling and grammar mistakes should be avoided at all costs. These kinds of simple errors can degrade the clarity of written work quite quickly.
Use the 'inverted pyramid' style of writing. Start with a summary of the most important information at the top of each paragraph. This is good for readers who get distracted easily while trying to read extensive spans of text, like someone with ADHD (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger).
Present information in small chunks with one idea per paragraph. This gives the user time to process the information thoroughly before moving on to something new. Related information should be put into lists rather than prose. This eliminates unnecessary reading that can further complicate complex associations (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger).
People rarely read a web page. Instead, they scan for keywords related to their topic of interest. In this interest, keep spans of text as short as possible. Line length should not exceed seventy to eighty characters (Krug 178).
Some cognitively disabled users experience severely compromised literacy levels. As a result, the reading level of written text should not exceed the equivalent of six years of schooling. Implementing mouse over or clickable highlighting or underlining of text, paragraphs, or rows in a table, may also aid users who have problems reading due to difficulty negotiating lines of text (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger).
Eliminate confusing jargon wherever possible. Provide in-line definitions or explanations for technical terms, abbreviations, or acronyms if introducing them cannot be avoided. A glossary of terms may also be beneficial, especially if inserting a definition in-line would degrade the clarity of the prose.
Some metaphors or colloquialisms have connotations that differ from their actual meaning. Individuals affected with autism or Asperger's syndrome have particular difficultly understanding figures of speech. They have a tendency to focus on the literal meaning of a phrase, rather than its intended meaning. A phrase such as "It's raining cats and dogs" can therefore be confusing. The literal text makes no sense in the context. Domestic animals have nothing to do with precipitation. Providing alternatives can help eliminate some of this confusion (Hudson, Weakley, and Firminger).
4.4 Site Presentation
Complex or intricate site presentations can be cognitively overloading. Clutter can be overwhelming and divert the user from the content on the page. Design with simplicity in mind. Display important information prominently to draw the user's eye away from distracting details (Krug 38).
Stay away from using patterned or textured backgrounds. Text is harder to read against these types of surroundings. Stick to plain colors with a high contrast to the text color (Millon 150).
Some designs may be more functional or comfortable for one user than another. Allow the user to alter the background color, an off-white background can sometimes be easier to read text against than white; the contrast, some individuals prefer a higher contrast than others; invert the text and background color, some users prefer white text on a black background; or make other design-oriented changes (Millon 150). Provide the option of viewing content on a text-only browser if the user functions better with no site design at all. Again, however, limit the number of available choices. Too many choices can be just as problematic as not enough (Jiwnani).
4.5 User Input
Web input is becoming more and more prominent as the internet evolves. Due to their sequential nature, online forms can be challenging for cognitively impaired users. When designing forms, create fields designed for short, simple data entry. Small increments help users to stay focused on the task at hand (Jiwnani). If complex data entry is necessary, use pictographic symbols in addition to text to help users construct answers.
Cue actions required from the user. They may have difficulty reading and following the steps themselves, especially if there are several. Whenever possible, display and vocalize directions. Allow the user to repeat directions if necessary (Jiwnani).
Avoid applications whose text appears when the mouse cursor touches an area of the screen and disappears when the mouse moves away. This can be disorienting if information is continually vanishing when they need it. It can be especially troublesome if directions are presented in this manner because some cognitively disabled users may need to read the directions multiple times as they perform the action. They cannot do this if the instructions are gone as soon as they move the mouse (Jiwnani).
In the case of forms, there is a high chance of input errors. Include a spell checking technology of some sort to correct simple errors before moving on. In the event of an error, provide prompts to inform the user about the source of a problem and guide them step by step through actions to correct the issue. Ideally this should take place as the user is inputting information so they do not have to navigate backward and risk losing their place (Jiwnani).
Changes in a site's appearance can be disconcerting to a user, particularly when they are unaware that the change will take place until after it has already occurred. If the user clicks on something and suddenly the page looks drastically different from the page they just came from, they will often automatically assume they did something incorrectly and try to start over in an attempt to correct the error. For that reason, any activation of a control that can initiate a change in the context of a site should be signaled with a textual and/or pictorial alert and possibly an auditory cue (Jiwnani). This will let the user know that something will change when they follow through with their action and allow them to adjust accordingly.
5. Conclusion
Cognitive disabilities give rise to problems that differ drastically from those of the visually, auditory, or motor impaired. Difficulty remembering sequences, deciphering text, understanding social cues, and following complex thought processes can make using the web a tedious and frustrating process. Many websites are not built to accommodate these types of issues. As a result, many cognitively disabled people cannot participate to the fullest extent in everything the web has to offer. Often they are shut out completely.
These individuals require content be catered specifically to their needs. The World Wide Web Consortium promises that the WCAG 2.0 guidelines "will make content accessible to a wider range of people" and "work together to provide guidance on how to create more accessible content (Caldwell et al.)" and in some ways this is true. WCAG 2.0 does make the web accessible to a wider range of people. It also provides guidance on how to make the web more accessible for people with cognitive disabilities; but it is just that, merely Priority AAA guidance. In fact "it is not recommended that level AAA conformance be required (Caldwell et al.)." The required success criteria are primarily designated for individuals with sight, hearing, and motor impairments, while those for cognitive impairment typically remain priority AAA criteria that may or may not be implemented.
Designing websites to accommodate the cognitively impaired may look challenging and time consuming, but many of the modifications, increased line space, adjustable page design, and consistent navigation etc., are common courtesies that should be afforded to all websites regardless of their accessibility intentions. If implemented correctly, these design adaptations will not only benefit cognitively disabled users, but the general web browsing public as a whole.
Works Cited
Caldwell, Ben, et al., ed. "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0." W3C. 11 Dec. 2008 Web. Nov. 2010.
Hudson, Roger, Russ Weakley, and Peter Firminger. "An Accessibility Frontier: Cognitive disabilities and learning difficulties." Web Usability, 2004. Web. Nov. 2010.
Jiwnani, Kanta. "Designing for users with Cognitive Disabilities." Universal Usability in Practice. The University of Maryland, 2001. Web. Nov 2010.
Krug, Steve. Don't Make Me Think! A Common Sense Approach to Web Design. New York, New York: New Riders, 2006. Print.
Millon, Marc. Creative Content for the Web. Exeter, England: Intellect Books, 1999. Print.
Last modified November 29, 2011 at 10:18 PM


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These are just a few of the hundreds of attributes cataloged for this track by the Music Genome Project.show more
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Armed police are still looking for a man who held up the Ngamotu Road Dairy in New Plymouth at gunpoint today.
The offender, who was described as a short, light-skinned male of medium build and dressed in blue overalls and wearing a black balaclava, entered the shop brandishing a handgun about 11.30am.
Police believe the man approached and left the dairy from the direction of Onuku Taipari Domain and would have been seen by people in the area.
A police dog handler and the armed offenders squad were quickly on the scene but were unable to locate the offender.
Detective Sergeant Gerard Bouterey said the offender presented the firearm at the shop owner and demanded tobacco.
"He was brandishing what appears to be a revolver-type pistol," Bouterey said.
"He was very calm throughout but has threatened him [the shop owner] not to call police."
The ordeal had left the shop owner "pretty upset".
Bouterey said the owner followed the offender out the door, but he had disappeared quickly.
"He has obviously gone right down into the domain."
Bouterey believed the offender would have been spotted.
"Any number of people in the area could have seen him approaching or leaving the area."
Bouterey urged anyone with information about the robber to contact the New Plymouth police on 06 759 5500 or Crimestoppers anonymously on 0800 555 111.
- Taranaki Daily News
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DENVILLE, N.J. (CBSNewYork) — When residents complained about the condition of a house in Denville, N.J., the owner responded with an in-your-face exterior makeover.
As CBS 2's Emily Smith reported, the house has been painted bright purple and decked out images of pink breast cancer awareness ribbons. At first glance, it provides excitement and hope to some passing by.
"It looks kind of neat – way better than it did before," one passerby said.
But neighbor Brian Walsh said the whole makeover job is a ploy. He said neighbors have been fighting for a decade to get the owner to clean up the property.
"You look at the back of it — he didn't paint the back," Walsh said. "He painted all sides so everyone can see but not the back."
Whether neighbors like the color or not, painting a house purple does not violate any town codes. But the homeowner has been cited before.
The Town of Denville cited owner John Pinto numerous times over the past several years for maintenance issues. The most recent citation came in August, requiring him to repaint and repair a wall that is collapsing.
Walsh said Pinto's choice to paint the house purple shows a bare minimum effort to comply with the orders and avoid a summons.
"What bothers me is that I have to spray for termites twice a year, because this house is infested," Walsh said. "The roof is caving in."
Denville Town Business Administrator Steven Ward issued a statement in response to the complaints.
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Walsh said Pinto can paint the house orange for all he cares. He just wants it clean up.
CBS 2 tried to reach out to the homeowner, but did not get a return call.
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Jennifer Aniston Confirms Her First Tattoo
The mystery of Jennifer Aniston's first ink has been solved. Wearing a pair of flat sandals while out in New York Friday, June 24, the actress let the paparazzi know that she has "Norman" on the inside of her right foot. In addition, her representative has confirmed the word.
Norman is in fact the name of her beloved Welsh corgi-terrier mix, who died in May at 15 years old. She got a a bit teary telling James Lipton on "Inside the Actors Studio" on Thursday that it's her favorite word.
In an interview for "Horrible Bosses" press conference, Aniston said about her body image. "I think I absolutely get more comfortable in my body and my skin as I get older," she said. "More than when I was in my 20s - I was so awkward and uncomfortable."
More Jennifer Aniston News
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- Taylor Swift Flies to U.K. to Meet Tom Hiddleston's Mom. See Picture of Their Happy Outing
- 'Game of Thrones' Season Finale Won't Slow Down the Pace, People Will Die
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- Getting Married? Tyga Calls Kylie Jenner His 'Wifey'
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- Justin Bieber's Music Video Vixen Xenia Deli, 26, Marries 62-Year-Old Man in Lavish Wedding


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After a long hot summer of informal InBetweeners meetups in the public bar it is finally time for the new season of private and slightly more formal meetups. Come along and join us ! We'll kick off with a discussion on the subject of Wicca ... David Chamberlain has kindly done some research for us and posted a brief overview at http://elsteadsouls.blogspot.co.uk/2014/09/new-season-starter-wicca.html ... have a look before Thursday and bring your open mind and any burning questions to the meetup. If you have any personal experiences of Wicca please feel free to share them !
Although we'll be starting the evening with Wicca, if past meetups are anything to go by the topics discussed are likely to range far and wide ... and continue in the bar afterwards :-)
Fancy chewing the spiritual fat with like-minded people and having a bit of fun at the same time ? Then this group is for YOU !!
It's aim is to provide a space where spiritually aware folk of all ages, beliefs and levels of awareness can get together to share thoughts and ideas on all matters spiritual. Because we like to have FUN, and not take ourselves too seriously, we begin and end our meetings at the bar where we can chat informally to friends old and new.
For the more formal part of the evening we adjourn to a private meeting room for around an hour and a half, where we generally focus the discussion on a specific topic which will have been announced in advance. Sometimes we just go for a free flowing discussion, and see where the energy takes us.
Above all what the members of this group do is 'come from the heart'. Right from day one that's how it's worked out, with members opening up to one another about their spiritual thoughts and inclinations in ways they might not with even their nearest and dearest.
You are particularly welcome even if you think of yourself as a 'beginner' on the spiritual path, because you've probably had (or are having) just as many lives as any of us ;-)
We really look forward to welcoming you to our shared journey !
Ken xxx
P.S. To cover the costs of running the group, mainly the hire of the private meeting room, we ask for a donation of £2.50 for each meeting attended.
Forgive me if I sidetracked the discussion at any point but my interest in esoteric traditions came to the fore in my own mind. Some years ago I had a web site and I wrote a lengthy article about the subject - purely from an amateur viewpoint, of course.
For anyone similarly interested, I'll dig up the text of that article and post it on the Elstead Blog when I have a few hours to spare.
By the way, the link to Elstead Souls Blog is:
0 · September 12, 2014
I was pleasantly surprised by this Wicca meeting because I thought the subject was a little 'out there' even for us - even though I think I started it all by posting my favourite witchy woman's video!
But Lynden gave the subject legs by telling of his coven experiences and it broadened out nicely into a wider discussion about whether rituals or meditation could spark off transcendental experiences.
It would be really helpful if others at the meeting - especially those who didn't speak - would add their own critique here of what they thought.
Ken does a great job in holding it together but it would be useful for him to know what everybody thinks about each discussion. All feedback, even negative, is useful.
0 · September 12, 2014
Excellent meeting great insight into Wicca by Lindon
0 · September 12, 2014
I don't have a car at present, so I shall be coming on this adventure by bus..... Also don't know Bournemouth very well either, so I shall leave home about 6 to make sure I find the Pub..... Looks like it is going to be quite a big group of folks so hopefully I wont miss you.... Looking forward to it. Lorna.
0 · September 8, 2014
Unfortunately I am unable to make this meeting as I am a member of a Monthly Quiz Team but hope to make the following get together.
As it would be my first 'proper' meeting how do we get to know the Topic of Discussion on the night? Or do we only find out when we arrive? Ann
0 · September 8, 2014
Making Sense of Animal Rights
Saturday, September 13,[masked]:00 PM to 3:45 PM
Moordown Community Centre
Coronation Avenue,
Bournemouth, BH9 1TW With Emeritus Professor of Genetics Norman Maclean
The relationship between animals and humans has been the subject of differing philosophical views for thousands of years and the controversy continues today. Science has shown beyond doubt that we are part of the same evolutionary continuum as all other life on earth, sharing behaviour, physiology and many of our genes with our animal cousins, yet even the most passionate animal rights campaigner would be unlikely to argue that a cockroach warrants the same rights as a human being. So how should we treat other animals, whether farmed, domesticated, or wild, and what rights should we accord to the diverse range of species with which we share our planet? Is a vegan lifestyle the only moral choice?
More details here:
0 · September 4, 2014
Hi Ken this group sounds in intriguing as I feel we
should all connect more in a philosophy way.
0 · August 22, 2014
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22 Cooran Court, Noosa Sound - Noosa Heads, Sunshine Coast
Noosa Heads, Sunshine Coast Australia (Holiday Rental) Show map
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Foursquare © 2016 Lovingly made in NYC & SF
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Full name Peter Tyronne Manuel
Born November 18, 1950, Kandy
Current age 65 years 223 days
Major teams Burgher Recreation Club
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Other Umpire
|Test debut
|Sri Lanka v India at Colombo (PSS), Aug 4-9, 1993 scorecard
|Last Test
|Sri Lanka v Zimbabwe at Colombo (SSC), Dec 27-31, 2001 scorecard
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|Sri Lanka v New Zealand at Colombo (RPS), Dec 4, 1992 scorecard
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|Sri Lanka v Australia at Dambulla, Feb 22, 2004 scorecard
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|ODI statistics
BCCSL Umpires training instructor
General Secretary and Vice President of ACU Sri Lanka
Married with two children
Profession: senior executive with HongKong Bank in Colombo
Hobbies: country and Western music; reading and watching cricket
More headaches for struggling South Africa (74)
As South Africa's slump gets deeper after the triangular series exit, ESPNcricinfo looks at three areas that need special focus and could possibly salvage them
Why Kumble could work out better for India than Greg Chappell did (73)
He understands the Indian mentality better and doesn't have to deal with star players on the wane
What has to be done to save Test cricket? (71)
A two-division structure will give the format the shake-up it needs. It's important for fans of the traditional game to embrace change
How much is a century against Zimbabwe worth? (56)
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Pakistan, Arthur unite in quest for redemption (32)
Three years on from his sacking as Australia's coach, Mickey Arthur believes the same adherence to discipline will help Pakistan achieve redemption in England


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By Leonie Barrie | 23 January 2014
A new loose fill insulation launched by 3M closely mimics the look and performance of natural down, the company says, with two times the loft when wet and without the allergens.
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Yanukovych says he's "legitimate president", to hold press conference tomorrow from Russia
| updated at xx
Ukraine's Viktor Yanukovich said on Thursday he was still the legitimate president of his country and that people in its southeastern and southern regions would never accept the "lawlessness" brought by leaders chosen by a mob.
Russian news agencies quoted a statement by Yanukovich as saying he had asked Moscow to guarantee his personal safety. The statement could not be independently verified and it was not clear where Yanukovich was, although some media groups have suggested he is in Moscow after fleeing Ukraine, where he was toppled by opposition forces at the weekend.
Russian President Vladimir Putin's spokesman said he had no information and could not comment on the statement. The russian news agency RIA-Novosti reported today that Yanukovych will hold a press conference tomorrow, Friday, at the russian southern city of Rostov-on-Don.
"I, Viktor Fedorovich Yanukovich appeal to the people of Ukraine. As before I still consider myself to be the lawful head of the Ukrainian state, chosen freely by the will of the Ukrainian people," he was quoted as saying. "Now it is becoming clear that the people in southeastern Ukraine and in Crimea do not accept the power vacuum and complete lawlessness in the country, when the heads of ministries are appointed by the mob."
"On the streets of many cities of our country there is an orgy of extremism," he said, adding that he and his closest aides had been threatened physically. "I have to ask the Russian authorities to provide me with personal safety from the actions of extremists."
Russian television showed what it said was a copy of the statement. Interfax news agency quoted a source in the authorities as saying Moscow would ensure Yanukovich's safety on the Russian territory. "In connection with the appeal by president Yanukovich for his personal security to be guaranteed, I report that the request has been granted on the territory of the Russian Federation," the source was quoted as saying.
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- 5Feisty Farage tells MEPs 'You're not laughing now'
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