text:
It's not as simple as it looks for the Menomonee Falls girls softball team, who now have a 14-game winning streak after routing defending Greater Metro Conference champ Brookfield Central in a crisp one-hour, five-inning, 12-1 decision Thursday afternoon.
No, it's not just Nicole Zywiec dominating on the hill, as she did this day with just one hit allowed, 11 strikeouts and the last 11 batters put down in succession.
Nor is it just the big bat of shortstop Hailey Mohrfeld, who hit not one, but two three-run home runs to hasten the end of the game.
It is a lot more than that and Zywiec and Mohrfeld will be the first ones to tell you that.
"I'd say so," said Zywiec. "We're just doing all the little things. We're really coming together and we're just not relying on the one big inning. We're staying strong both offensively and defensively."
Especially on the offensive end, as the Indians recorded their sixth straight game where they reached double digits in terms of runs scored.
Falls improved to 12-1 in Greater Metro Conference play and 15-1 overall. The Indians still need to beat Central (9-3, 13-5) again on Tuesday on the road to clinch at least a share of the league title with West Allis Hale (12-1, 14-2).
And doing that, especially as part of the heady array of opponents the 12th-ranked in state Indians will see next week (Oak Creek, defending state runner-up Homestead and Arrowhead), will require contributions from everyone said the UW-Green Bay bound Mohrfeld.
"It's like I told them in the huddle afterwards," she said. "This is not a one-person show. Just look at today. We had a ton of girls drive in runs. If one person is down, another will step up. It really is a team effort."
That statement is very much true, as Mohrfeld's tablesetters in the batting order, Rachel Defnet and Jamie Ertl, each got on three times and scored all three times, and it was Aleah Van Horne's two-run single in the bottom of the fourth that invoked the 10-run "mercy" rule.
Both of Mohrfeld's home runs (first inning and fourth inning) were screaming ropes hit to left that bounced past the Lancer outfielders. Her quickness was more than the Central fielders could handle once they picked up the ball.
And that was more than enough offense for Zywiec, who gave up a triple in the second to Angie Chartier. Chartier later scored on a groundout but that was it for the day for the Lancers. Zywiec struck out the side in both the first and third innings.
Zywiec, who has worked hard this season with coach Wendy Wolff on her mental toughness, had great location and velocity this day.
"I think the biggest change for me," Zywiec said, "is that instead of moping and being a dead puppy when I'm not hitting my spots or getting the calls is that I now focus on coming back, getting my head in order and pitching the way I know I can."
Wolff concurs.
"She (Zywiec) had to fill in some big shoes a couple of years ago so it took some time for her to get things organized and start believing in her self," she said. "You have to have physical skills to be really good pitcher and she has them, but so much of the game is mental."
'It's just huge, in fact. She (Zywiec) now realizes that she's in charge out there."
Hailey Wilson and Maddie Eikenmeyer added two safeties apiece to augment Falls' 11-hit attack.
For Central, aside from Chartier's hit, the primary highlight was shortstop Andrea Schneider's nifty 6-3 doubleplay that she turned in the second.
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- WFCA banquet about memory, friendship, giving back


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Name: Brenna Kaelin.
School: South Oldham Middle School.
Sport: Volleyball.
Age: 13.
Position: Outside hitter.
Hometown: Crestwood.
Accomplishments: Kaelin is a three-year member of the SOMS program and a starting outside hitter this season who has helped the Lady Dragons to a 2-1 record.
Her serve has been her biggest improvement this season.
"I put a lot of work in and am able to spot serve now," Kaelin said. I am also working on my jump serve."
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Effects of climate change on general hydro-ecology in the Arctic
This is Section 8.4.3 of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
Lead Authors: Frederick J.Wrona,Terry D. Prowse, James D. Reist; Contributing Authors: Richard Beamish, John J. Gibson, John Hobbie, Erik Jeppesen, Jackie King, Guenter Koeck, Atte Korhola, Lucie Lévesque, Robie Macdonald, Michael Power,Vladimir Skvortsov,Warwick Vincent; Consulting Authors: Robert Clark, Brian Dempson, David Lean, Hannu Lehtonen, Sofia Perin, Richard Pienitz, Milla Rautio, John Smol, Ross Tallman, Alexander Zhulidov
Streams and rivers, deltas, and estuaries (188.8.131.52)
A number of hydrologic shifts related to climate change will affect lakes and rivers, including seasonal flow patterns, ice-cover thickness and duration, and the frequency and severity of extreme flood events. In the present climate, most streams and rivers originating within the Arctic have a nival regime in which snowmelt produces high flows and negligible flow occurs in winter. In areas of significant glaciers, such as on some Canadian and Russian islands, Greenland, and Svalbard, ice melt from glaciers can sustain flow during the summer, whereas many other streams produce summer flow only from periodic rainstorm events unless they are fed by upstream storage in lakes and ponds.
The subarctic contains a much broader range of hydrologic regimes, which vary from cold interior continental (comparable to those of the Arctic) to maritime regimes fed moisture directly from open seas even during winter. Overall, a warmer climate is very likely to lead to a shift toward a more pluvial runoff regime as a greater proportion of the annual precipitation falls as rain rather than snow; the magnitude of the peak of spring snowmelt declines; thawing permafrost increases near-surface storage and reduces runoff peaks; and a more active groundwater system augments base flows.
Enhancement of winter flow will very probably lead to the development of a floating ice cover in some streams that currently freeze to the bed. This is very likely to be beneficial to the biological productivity of arctic streams and fish survival where winter freshwater habitat is limited to unfrozen pools[1]. For other arctic streams and rivers, warming is very likely to result in a shortened ice season and thinner ice cover (section 6.7.3). Since river ice is such a major controller of the ecology of northern streams and rivers, there are likely to be numerous significant impacts. Under conditions of overall annual temperature increases, a delay in the timing of freeze-up and an earlier breakup will very probably reduce the duration of river-ice cover. Data compiled over the last century or more indicate that changes in timing of these events are likely to be at a rate of approximately one day per 0.2°C increase in air temperature (see sections 8.4.1 and 6.7.3)[2]. For freeze-up, higher water and air temperatures in the autumn combine to delay the time of first ice formation and eventual freeze-up. If there was also a reduction in the rate of autumn cooling, the interval between these two events would increase. Although all major ice types would continue to form, unless there were also significant changes in the flow regime, the frequency and magnitude of, for example, periods of major frazil ice growth will probably be reduced. This has implications for the types of ice that constitute the freeze-up cover and for the creation of unique under-ice habitats such as air cavities and those influenced by frazil concentrations[3].
Changes in the timing and duration of river ice formation will also alter the dissolved oxygen (DO) regimes of arctic lotic ecosystems. Following freeze-up and the elimination of direct water–atmosphere exchanges, DO concentrations steadily decline, sometimes to near-critical levels for river biota[4]. Reductions in ice-cover duration and a related increase in the number of open-water re-aeration zones are very likely to reduce the potential for this biologically damaging oxygen depletion. Such benefits will possibly be offset by the projected enhanced input of DOC and its subsequent oxidation[5], the rate and magnitude of which would also be increased as a result of the above-noted higher nutrient loading. Worst-case scenarios would develop on rivers where the flow is already comprised of poorly oxygenated groundwater, such as that supplied from extensive bogs and peatlands. Some rivers in the West Siberian Plain offer the best examples of this situation. Here, the River Irtysh drains large quantities of de-oxygenated water from vast peatlands into the River Ob, resulting in DO levels of only about 5% of saturation[6].
The greatest ice-related ecological impacts of climate change on arctic lotic systems are likely to result from changes in breakup timing and intensity. As well as favoring earlier breakup, higher spring air temperatures can affect breakup severity[7]. While thinner ice produced during a warmer winter would tend to promote a less severe breakup, earlier timing of the event could counteract this to some degree. Breakup severity also depends on the size of the spring flood wave. While greater and more rapid snowmelt runoff would favor an increase in breakup severity, the reverse is true for smaller snowpacks and more protracted melt. Hence, changes in breakup severity will vary regionally according to the variations in winter precipitation and spring melt patterns.
For regions that experience a more "thermal" or less dynamic ice breakup[8], the magnitude of the annual spring flood will very probably be reduced. For the many northern communities that historically located near river floodplains for ease of transportation access, reductions in spring ice-jam flooding would be a benefit. In contrast, however, reductions in the frequency and severity of ice-jam flooding would have a serious impact on river ecology since the physical disturbances associated with breakup scouring and flooding are very important to nutrient and organic matter dynamics, spring water chemistry, and the abundance and diversity of river biota[9]. Specifically, ice-induced flooding supplies the flux of sediment, nutrients, and water that is essential to the health of the riparian system; river deltas being particularly dependent on this process[10]. More generally, given that the magnitude and recurrence interval of water levels produced by ice jams often exceed those of open-water conditions, breakup is probably the main supplier of allochthonous organic material in cold-regions rivers[11]. In the same manner, breakup serves as an indirect driver of primary and secondary productivity through the supply of nutrients – a common limiting factor for productivity in cold-regions rivers. Even the mesoscale climate of delta ecosystems and spring plant growth depends on the timing and severity of breakup flooding[12].
River ice is also a key agent of geomorphological change and is responsible for the creation of numerous [erosion]]al and depositional features within river channels and on channel floodplains[13]. Since most geomorphological activity occurs during freeze-up and breakup, changes in the timing of these events are very unlikely to have any significant effect. If, however, climatic conditions alter the severity of such events, this is likely to affect particular geomorphological processes. Furthermore, breakup events affect the general processes of channel enlargement, scour of substrate habitat, and the removal and/or succession of riparian vegetation. All such major river-modifying processes would be altered by any climate-induced shift in breakup intensity.
In summary, if climate change alters the long-term nature of breakup dynamics, the structure and function of rivers and related delta ecosystems are very likely to be significantly altered with direct effects on in-channel and riparian biological productivity. If, for example, significant reductions in dynamic breakups and the related level of disturbance occur, this will reduce overall biological diversity and productivity, with the most pronounced effects on floodplain and delta aquatic systems.
Owing to the reduced ice-cover season and increased air temperatures during the open-water period, summer water temperatures will very probably rise. Combined with greater DOC and nutrient loadings, higher water temperatures are likely to lead to a general increase in total stream productivity, although it is unclear whether temperature will have a significant direct effect on the processing rate of additional particulate detrital material. Irons et al.[14], for example, found a comparable rate of litter processing by invertebrates in Michigan and Alaska and concluded that temperature was not a main factor. The effect of increased temperature on processing efficiency by "cold-climate" species of invertebrates, however, has not been evaluated. The effect of enhanced nutrient loading to arctic streams is more predictable. The current nutrient limitation of many arctic streams is such that even slight increases in available phosphorus, for example, will produce a significant increase in primary productivity[15]. Where productivity responses of stream biota are co-limited by phosphorus and nitrogen[16], increased loadings of both nutrients would be required to sustain high levels of enhanced productivity.
Table 8.1 summarizes the potential impacts of climate change on the dynamics of arctic estuaries[17]. The major factor affecting arctic estuarine systems given the degree of climate change projected by the ACIA-designated models will be the increase in freshwater discharge (section 6.8.3). In some arctic basins, such as the Chukchi Sea, there is presently very little freshwater runoff and consequently no estuarine zones. Increased river discharge could possibly create estuarine areas, providing new habitat opportunities for euryhaline species. In established estuarine systems, such as the Mackenzie River system and the Ob and Yenisey Rivers, increased freshwater input in summer[18] is likely to increase stratification, making these habitats more suitable for freshwater species and less suitable for marine species. There are likely to be shifts in species composition to more euryhaline and anadromous species. In addition, increased freshwater input is likely to deposit more organic material, changing estuarine biogeochemistry and perhaps increasing primary productivity, the positive effects of which will possibly be offset in part by increased resuspension of contaminated sediments in these systems.
Table 8.1. A synthesis of the potential effects of climate change on arctic estuarine systems from both the bottom-up and top-down ecological perspectives.[19]
Cascading consequences from a human perspective as generally: positive (+); negative (-); neutral (0); or unknown (?).
A secondary impact of increased freshwater discharge that is of serious concern, particularly for Siberian rivers that traverse large industrialized watersheds, is the potential for increased contaminant input. The Ob and Yenisey Rivers, for example, have high levels of organochlorine contamination compared to the Lena River[20], which is considered relatively pristine[21]. Larsen et al.[22] noted that arctic fishes have a life strategy that involves intensive feeding in spring and summer, allowing for the buildup of lipid stores and coping with food shortages in winter. The high body-lipid content of arctic fishes may make them more vulnerable to lipid-soluble pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In addition, reduced sea-ice coverage that leads to increased marine traffic is likely to have cascading negative consequences (e.g., pollution, risk of oil spills) for estuarine systems.
Arctic deltas provide overwintering habitat for many species that tolerate brackish waters. These areas are maintained as suitable habitat by a combination of continuous under-ice freshwater flow and the formation of the nearshore ice barrier in the stamukhi zone (area of grounded, nearshore ice pressure ridges). As temperatures rise, the seasonal ice zone of estuaries is likely to expand and the ice-free season lengthen[23]. Disruption of either the flow regime or the ice barrier could possibly have profound effects on the availability of suitable overwintering habitat for desired fish species. Given that such habitat is probably limited and hence limits population abundance, the consequences for local fisheries will probably be significant. In addition, in early winter, subsistence and commercial fisheries target fish that overwinter in deltas. Thinning ice is likely to limit access to these fisheries.
Similar to freshwater systems, ecological control of marine systems can be viewed from bottom-up (i.e., nutrients–production–biota linkages) and/or top-down (i.e., human activities–predators–keystone biota) perspectives[24]. The special role of ice as both a habitat and a major physical force shaping the estuarine and nearshore arctic environment suggests that climate change will work in both modes to affect these systems[25]. One example is the loss of the largest epishelf lake (fresh and brackish water body contained behind the ice shelf) in the Northern Hemisphere with the deterioration and break up of the Ward Hunt ice shelf[26]. The loss of this nearshore water body has affected a unique community of marine and freshwater planktonic species, as well as communities of cold-tolerant microscopic algae and animals that inhabited the upper ice shelf.
Lakes, ponds, and wetlands (126.96.36.199)
Lentic systems north of the Arctic Circle contain numerous small to medium lakes and a multitude of small ponds and wetland systems. Relatively deep lakes are primarily contained within alpine or foothill regions such as those of the Putorana Plateau in the lower basin of the Yenisey River. One very large and deep lake, Great Bear Lake (Northwest Territories, Canada), is found partly within the Arctic Circle. Variations in its water budget primarily depend on flows from its contributing catchment, comprised largely of interior plains lowlands and exposed bedrock north of 60° N. Its southern counterpart, Great Slave Lake, provides a strong hydrologic contrast to this system. Although also part of the main stem Mackenzie River basin and wholly located north of 60° N, its water budget is primarily determined by inflow that originates from Mackenzie River headwater rivers located much further to the south. Moreover, its seasonality in water levels reflects the effects of flow regulation and climatic variability in one of its major tributaries, the Peace River, located about 2,000 kilometers (km) upstream in the Rocky Mountain headwaters of western Canada[27]. As such, the Mackenzie River system offers the best example of a northern lentic system that is unlikely to be significantly affected by changes in hydrologic processes operating within the north (e.g., direct lake evaporation and precipitation) but will be dependent principally on changes in water-balance processes operating well outside the Arctic.
The other major arctic landscape type that contains large, although primarily shallower, lakes is the coastal plains region found around the circumpolar north. As mentioned previously, these shallow systems depend on snowmelt as their primary source of water, with rainfall gains often negated by evapotranspiration during the summer. Evaporation from these shallow water bodies is very likely to increase as the ice-free season lengthens. Hence, the water budget of most lake, pond, and wetland systems is likely to depend more heavily on the supply of spring meltwater to produce a positive annual water balance, and these systems are more likely to dry out during the summer. Another possible outcome of climate change is a shift in vegetation from non-transpiring lichens and mosses to vascular plants as temperatures rise and the growing season extends[28], potentially exacerbating water losses. However, factors such as increasing cloud cover and summer precipitation will possibly mitigate these effects.
Loss of permafrost increases the potential for many northern shallow lotic systems to dry out from a warmer temperature regime. Ponds are likely to become coupled with the groundwater system and drain if losses due to downward percolation and evaporation are greater than resupply by spring snowmelt and summer precipitation. Patchy arctic wetlands are particularly sensitive to permafrost degradation that can link surficial waters to the supra-permafrost groundwater system. Those along the southern limit of permafrost, where increases in temperature are most likely to eliminate the relatively warm permafrost, are at the highest risk of drainage[29]. Traditional ecological knowledge from Nunavut and eastern arctic Canada indicates that recently there has been enhanced drying of lakes and rivers, as well as swamps and bogs, enough to impair access to traditional hunting grounds and, in some instances, fish migration[30] (see section 3.4.5 for detailed discussion of a related case study).
Warming of surface permafrost, however, will very probably enhance the formation of thermokarst wetlands, ponds, and drainage networks, particularly in areas characterized by concentrations of massive ground ice. Thawing of such ice concentrations, however, is very likely to lead to dramatic increases in terrain slumping and subsequent sediment transport and deposition in rivers, lakes, deltas, and nearshore marine environments. This is likely to produce distinct changes in channel geomorphology in systems where sediment transport capacity is limited, and will probably have a significant impact on the aquatic ecology of the receiving water bodies. Catastrophic drainage of permafrost-based lakes that are now in a state of thermal instability, such as those found along the western arctic coast of Canada, is also very likely[31]. Losses of thermokarst lakes within lowlying deltaic areas are also likely to result from rising sea levels. Marine inundation resulting from continually rising sea level commonly drains lakes in the outer portion of the Mackenzie Delta (northern Richards Island[32]). Moreover, Mackay J.[33] estimated that one lake per year has drained in the Tuktoyaktuk coastlands of northern Canada over the last few thousand years. Future, more pronounced rises in sea level are likely to accelerate this process.
Changes in the water balance of northern wetlands are especially important because most wetlands in permafrost regions are peatlands, which can be sources or sinks of carbon and CH4 depending on the depth of the water table (see also section 184.108.40.206). An analysis by Rouse et al.[34] of subarctic sedge fens in a doubled-CO2 climate suggested that increases in temperature (4°C) would reduce water storage in northern peatlands even with a small and persistent increase in precipitation. While acknowledging that storage changes depend on variability in soil moisture and peat properties, projected declines in the water table were 10 to 20 centimeters (cm) over the summer.
As the ice cover of northern lakes and ponds becomes thinner, forms later, and breaks up earlier (section 6.7.3), concomitant limnological changes are very likely. Thinner ice covers with less snow cover will increase the under-ice receipt of solar radiation, thereby increasing under-ice algal production and oxygen[35] and reducing the potential for winter anoxia and fish kills. Lower water levels, which reduce under-ice water volumes and increase the likelihood of winterkill, could possibly counteract this effect. Similarly, greater winter precipitation on a thinner ice cover is very likely to promote the formation of more highly reflective snow and white-ice layers. Such layers would reduce radiation penetration well into the spring because they also tend to delay breakup compared to covers comprised of only black ice. Notably, the ACIA-designated models project that incident radiation will decline. Reductions are likely to be relatively small (i.e., 10–12 W/m2 in May-June between 1981–2000 and 2071–2090, section 4.4.4), however, compared to the major reductions that are likely to result from greater reflective loss from enhanced white-ice formation.
A longer ice-free season will also increase the length of the stratified season and generally increase the depth of mixing (Box 8.4), although the magnitude and duration of the effects will depend on factors such as basin depth and area. This is likely to lower oxygen concentrations in the hypolimnion and increase stress on cold-water organisms[36]. Furthermore, such an enhancement of mixing processes and reduction in ice cover will probably increase the potential for many northern lakes and ponds to become contaminant sinks (section 8.7).
Box 8.4. Lake-ice duration and water column stratification: Lake Saanajärvi, Finnish Lapland
Lake Saanajärvi (maximum depth 24 m, area 0.7 km2; 69º N, 20º E) is the key Finnish site in the European research projects Mountain Lake Research and European Mountain Lake Ecosystems: Regionalisation, Diagnostics and Socio-economic Evaluation. Lake Saanajärvi has been intensively monitored since 1996.The data presented here have been published in several papers, including those by Korhola et al.[37], Rautio et al. [38], Sorvari and Korhola [39], and Sorvari et al. [40].The mean annual temperature of the area is -2.6 ºC, and annual precipitation is approximately 400 mm.The catchment area is mostly covered by bare rocks and alpine vegetation. Lake Saanajärvi is a dimictic, ultra-oligotrophic, clear-water lake.The lake is ice-free for nearly four months of the year, with highly oxygenated waters, and is strongly stratified for two months after spring overturn. Phytoplankton biomass and densities are low[41], consisting predominantly of chrysophytes and diatoms. Bacterial biomass is low as well, and zooplankton are not very abundant. Freshwater shrimp (Gammarus lacustris) are common and form an important food source for fish, which include Arctic char and brown trout (Salmo trutta lacustris).
Figure for Box 8.4. Comparison of diatom assemblage changes with regional and arctic-wide temperature anomalies, showing (a) principal components analysis (PCA) primary axis scores derived from the correlation matrices of the diatom percentage counts from the five study sites; (b) spring (March–May) temperature anomalies for northwestern Finnish Lapland, smoothed using a 10-year low-pass filter; (c) trend in mean annual air temperature in northwestern Finnish Lapland, smoothed using a 10-year low-pass filter; and (d) standardized proxy arctic-wide summer-weighted annual temperature, plotted as departure from the mean (panels a–c from Sorvari et al., 2000; panel d from Overpeck).
Changes in water temperature and stratification of Lake Saanajärvi have been associated with climate changes in Finnish Lapland over the past 200 years[42]. Mean annual air temperatures in Finnish Lapland, as in much of the Arctic, rose 1 to 2 ºC following the Little Ice Age. During this period of warming, diatom communities changed from benthic–periphytic to pelagic, Cladocera increased in abundance, and chrysophytes became less numerous.These changes have been shown to be associated with increased rates of organic matter accumulation and increased concentrations of algal pigments during the climatic warming[43] (see figure). After a period of cooling from the 1950s to the 1970s, air temperatures in the Arctic continued to rise. More recently, interannual variability in temperatures has been shown to account for changes in the thermal gradient and mixing of Lake Saanajärvi surface waters. For example, Lake Saanajärvi normally stratifies in early July, two weeks after ice breakup, and retains a distinct, steep thermocline at a depth of 10 to 12 m throughout the summer. In 2001, this summer stratification was broken after a period of slight cooling in early August, after which the lake was only weakly stratified. In 2002, on the other hand, spring and summer temperatures were extremely warm. Spring ice breakup was early and waters warmed quickly, resulting in a very sharp thermocline that was stable during the entire summer stratification period.
Future temperature increases are therefore very likely to affect the thermal structure of lakes in Finnish Lapland and throughout the Arctic, which is likely to have dramatic consequences for lake biota. Rising mean annual temperatures are very likely to influence the duration of summer stratification and the stability and depth of the thermocline in Finnish lakes. As such, many of the presently isothermal lakes are likely to become dimictic as temperatures increase. In addition, the prolonged thermal stratification that is likely to accompany rising temperatures could possibly lead to lower oxygen concentrations and increased phosphorus concentrations in the hypolimnion, benefiting nutrient-limited primary production. As spring temperatures rise and the ice-free period extends, not only is thermal stratification likely to stabilize, but production in many high latitude lakes could possibly peak twicerather than once during the open-water season[44]. On a broader scale, changes in lake stratification and water mixing will probably affect species composition[45].
With a longer and warmer ice-free season, total primary production is likely to increase in all arctic lakes and ponds, and especially in the oligotrophic high-arctic ponds that are currently frozen for a majority of the year[46]. Similar to the situation for arctic lotic systems, an enhanced supply of nutrients and organic matter from the more biologically productive contributing basins is likely to boost primary productivity[47]. Again, however, there are likely to be offsetting effects because of reductions in light availability resulting from enhanced turbidity due to higher inputs of DOC and suspended sediment. Hecky and Guildford[48] noted that analogous factors caused a switch from nutrient limitation, which is a common control of primary production in northern lakes, to light limitation.
Chapter 8: Freshwater Ecosystems and Fisheries
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Freshwater ecosystems in the Arctic
8.3. Historical changes in freshwater ecosystems
8.4. Climate change effects
8.4.1. Broad-scale effects on freshwater systems
8.4.2. Effects on hydro-ecology of contributing basins
8.4.3. Effects on general hydro-ecology
8.4.4. Changes in aquatic biota and ecosystem structure and function
8.5. Climate change effects on arctic fish, fisheries, and aquatic wildlife
8.5.1. Information required to project responses of arctic fish
8.5.2. Approaches to projecting climate change effects on arctic fish populations
8.5.3. Climate change effects on arctic freshwater fish populations
8.5.4. Effects of climate change on arctic anadromous fish
8.5.5. Impacts on arctic freshwater and anadromous fisheries
8.5.6. Impacts on aquatic birds and mammals
8.6. Ultraviolet radiation effects on freshwater ecosystems
8.7. Global change and contaminants
8.8. Key findings, science gaps, and recommendations
^ Craig, P.C., 1989. An introduction to anadromous fishes in the Alaskan Arctic. In: D.W. Norton (ed.). Research Advances on Anadromous Fish in Arctic Alaska and Canada. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, 24:27–54.
–Prowse, T.D., 2001a. River-ice ecology. I: hydrology, geomorphic, and water-quality aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:1–16.
–Prowse, T.D., 2001b. River-ice ecology. II: biological aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:17–33.
- ^ Magnuson, J.J., D.M. Robertson, B.J. Benson, R.H. Wynne, D.M. Livingstone, T. Arai, R.A. Assel, R.G. Barry, V. Card, E. Kuusisto, N.G. Granin, T.D. Prowse, K.M. Stewart and V.S. Vuglinski, 2000. Historical trends in lake and river ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere. Science, 289:1743–1746.
^ Brown, R.S., S.S. Stanislawski and W.C. Mackay, 1994. Effects of frazil ice on fish. In: T.D. Prowse (ed.). Proceedings of the Workshop on Environmental Aspects of River Ice. National Hydrology Research Institute, Saskatoon, Symposium No. 12, pp. 261–278.
–Cunjak, R.A., T.D. Prowse and D.L. Parrish, 1998. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in winter: the season of parr discontent? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(S1):161–180.
–Prowse, T.D., 2001b. River-ice ecology. II: biological aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:17–33.
^ Chambers, P.A., G.J. Scrimgeour and A. Pietroniro, 1997. Winter oxygen conditions in ice-covered rivers: the impact of pulp mill and municipal effluents. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 54:2796–2806.
–Power, G., R. Cunjak, J. Flannagan and C. Katopodis, 1993. Biological effects of river ice. In: T.D. Prowse and N.C. Gridley (eds.). Environmental Aspects of River Ice. National Hydrology Research Institute, Saskatoon, Science Report No. 5, pp. 97–119.
–Prowse, T.D., 2001a. River-ice ecology. I: hydrology, geomorphic, and water-quality aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:1–16.
–Prowse, T.D., 2001b. River-ice ecology. II: biological aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:17–33.
^ Schreier, H., W. Erlebach and L. Albright, 1980.Variations in water quality during winter in two Yukon rivers with emphasis on dissolved oxygen concentration. Water Research, 14:1345–1351.
–Whitfield, P.H. and B. McNaughton, 1986. Dissolved-oxygen depressions under ice cover in two Yukon rivers. Water Resources Research, 22:1675–1679.
^ Harper, P.P., 1981. Ecology of streams at high latitudes. In: M.A. Lock and D.D.Williams (eds.). Perspectives in Running Water Ecology, pp. 313–337. Plenum Press.
–Hynes, H.B.N., 1970. The Ecology of Running Waters. Liverpool University Press, 555pp.
- ^ Prowse, T.D. and S. Beltaos, 2002. Climatic control of river-ice hydrology: a review. Hydrological Processes, 16:805–822.
- ^ Gray, D.M. and T.D. Prowse, 1993. Snow and floating ice. In: D.R. Maidment (ed.). Handbook of Hydrology, pp. 7.1–7.58. McGraw-Hill.
^ Cunjak, R.A., T.D. Prowse and D.L. Parrish, 1998. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in winter: the season of parr discontent? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(S1):161–180.
–Prowse, T.D. and J.M. Culp, 2003. Ice break-up: a neglected factor in river ecology. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 30:145–155.
–Scrimgeour, G.J., T.D. Prowse, J.M. Culp and P.A. Chambers, 1994. Ecological effects of river ice break-up: a review and perspective. Freshwater Biology, 32:261–275.
^ Lesack, L., R.E. Hecky and P. Marsh, 1991.The influence of frequency and duration of flooding on the nutrient chemistry of the Mackenzie Delta lakes. In: P. Marsh and C.S.L. Ommanney (eds.). Mackenzie Delta: Environmental Interactions and Implications for Development, National Hydrology Research Institute, Saskatoon, Symposium No. 4, pp. 19–36.
–Marsh, P. and M. Hey, 1989. The flooding hydrology of Mackenzie Delta lakes near Inuvik, N.W.T., Canada. Arctic, 42:41–49.
–Prowse, T.D. and F.M. Conly, 2001. Multiple-hydrologic stressors of a northern delta ecosystem. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress and Recovery, 8:17–26.
^ Prowse, T.D. and J.M. Culp, 2003. Ice break-up: a neglected factor in river ecology. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 30:145–155.
–Scrimgeour, G.J., T.D. Prowse, J.M. Culp and P.A. Chambers, 1994. Ecological effects of river ice break-up: a review and perspective. Freshwater Biology, 32:261–275.
^ Gill, D., 1974. Significance of spring breakup to the bioclimate of the Mackenzie River Delta. In: J.C. Reed and J.E. Sater (eds.). The Coast and Shelf of the Beaufort Sea: Proceedings of a Symposium on Beaufort Sea Coast and Shelf Research, pp. 543–544. Arctic Institute of North America.
–Hirst, S.M., 1984. Effects of spring breakup on microscale air temperatures in the Mackenzie River Delta. Arctic, 37:263–269.
–Prowse, T.D., 2001a. River-ice ecology. I: hydrology, geomorphic, and water-quality aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:1–16.
^ Prowse, T.D., 2001a. River-ice ecology. I: hydrology, geomorphic, and water-quality aspects. Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 15:1–16.
–Prowse, T.D. and N.C. Gridley (eds.), 1993. Environmental Aspects of River Ice. National Hydrology Research Institute, Saskatoon, Science Report No. 5, 155pp.
- ^ Irons, J.G., M.W. Oswood, R.J. Stout and C.M. Pringle, 1994. Latitudinal patterns in leaf litter breakdown: is temperature really important? Freshwater Biology, 32:401–411.
- ^ Flanagan, K., E. McCauley, F. Wrona and T.D. Prowse, 2003. Climate change: the potential for latitudinal effects on algal biomass in aquatic ecosystems. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 60:635–639.
- ^ Peterson, B.J., L. Deegan, J. Helfrich, J.E. Hobbie, M. Hullar, B. Moller, T.E. Ford, A. Hershey, A. Hiltner, G. Kipphut, M.A. Lock, D.M. Fiebig, V. McKinley, M.C. Miller, J.R.Vestal, J. Robie, R. Ventullo and G.Volk, 1993. Biological responses of a tundra river to fertilization. Ecology, 74:653–672.
- ^ Carmack, E.C. and R.W. Macdonald, 2002. Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the Beaufort Sea: a setting for marine life. Arctic, 55(S1):29–45.
- ^ Peterson, B.J., R.M. Holmes, J.W. McClelland, C.J.Vorosmarty, R.B. Lammers, A.I. Shiklomanov, I.A. Shiklomanov and S. Rahmstorf, 2002. Increasing river discharge to the Arctic Ocean. Science, 298:2171–2173.
- ^ Carmack, E.C. and R.W. Macdonald, 2002. Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the Beaufort Sea: a setting for marine life. Arctic, 55(S1):29–45.
- ^ Zhulidov, A.V., J.V. Headley, D.F. Pavlov, R.D. Robarts, L.G. Korotova, V.V. Fadeev, O.V. Zhulidova, Y. Volovik and V. Khlobystov, 1998. Distribution of organochlorine insecticides in rivers of the Russian Federation. Journal of Environmental Quality, 27:1356–1366.
- ^ Guieu, C., W.W. Huang, J.-M. Martin and Y.Y. Yong, 1996. Outflow of trace metals into the Laptev Sea by the Lena River. Marine Chemistry, 53:255–267.
- ^ Larsen, L.H., A. Evenset and B. Sirenko, 1995. Linkages and impact hypotheses concerning valued ecosystem components (VECs) invertebrates, fish, the coastal zone and large river estuaries and deltas. International Northern Sea Route Programme, working paper 12, 39pp. +app.
- ^ Carmack, E.C. and R.W. Macdonald, 2002. Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the Beaufort Sea: a setting for marine life. Arctic, 55(S1):29–45.
- ^ Parsons, T.R., 1992.The removal of marine predators by fisheries and the impact of trophic structure. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 25:51–53.
- ^ Carmack, E.C. and R.W. Macdonald, 2002. Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the Beaufort Sea: a setting for marine life. Arctic, 55(S1):29–45.
- ^ Mueller, D.R., W.F. Vincent and M.O. Jeffries, 2003. Break-up of the largest Arctic ice shelf and associated loss of an epishelf lake. Geophysical Research Letters, 30: doi:10.1029/2003GL017931.
^ Gibson, J.J., T.D. Prowse and D.L. Peters, in press. Hydroclimatic controls on water balance and water level variability in Great Slave Lake. Hydrological Processes.
–Peters, D.L. and T.D. Prowse, 2001. Regulation effects on the lower Peace River, Canada. Hydrological Processes, 15:3181–3194.
- ^ Rouse, W.R., M.S.V. Douglas, R.E. Hecky, A.E. Hershey, G.W. Kling, L. Lesack, P. Marsh, M. McDonald, B.J. Nicholson, N.T. Roulet and J.P. Smol, 1997. Effects of climate change on the freshwaters of Arctic and subarctic North America. Hydrological Processes, 11:873–902.
- ^ Woo, M.-K., A.G. Lewkowicz and W.R. Rouse, 1992. Response of the Canadian permafrost environment to climatic change. Physical Geography, 134:287–317.
- ^ Krupnik, I. and D. Jolly (eds.), 2002.The Earth is Faster Now: Indigenous Observations of Arctic Environmental Change. Arctic Research Consortium of the United States, Fairbanks, Alaska, 384pp.
^ Mackay, J.R., 1992. Lake stability in an ice-rich permafrost environment. Examples from the Western Arctic Coast. In: R.D. Roberts and M.L. Bothwell (eds.). Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid Regions. Implications for Resource Management. National Hydrology Research Institute, Saskatoon, Symposium Series 7, pp. 1–26.
–Marsh, P. and N. Neumann, 2001. Processes controlling the rapid drainage of two ice-rich permafrost-dammed lakes in NW Canada. Hydrological Processes, 15:3433–3446.
–Marsh, P. and N. Neumann, 2003. Climate and hydrology of a permafrost dammed lake in NW Canada. In: M. Phillips, S.M. Springman and L.U. Arenson (eds.). Permafrost: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Permafrost, Zurich, Switzerland, 21–25 July 2003, Vol. 2, pp. 729:734. International Permafrost Association, Longyearbyen.
- ^ Dallimore, A., C.J. Schröder-Adams and S.R. Dallimore, 2000. Holocene environmental history of thermokarst lakes on Richards Island, Northwest Territories, Canada: Theocamoebians as paleolimnological indicators. Journal of Paleolimnology, 23:261–283.
- ^ Mackay, J.R., 1992. Lake stability in an ice-rich permafrost environment. Examples from the Western Arctic Coast. In: R.D. Roberts and M.L. Bothwell (eds.). Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid Regions. Implications for Resource Management. National Hydrology Research Institute, Saskatoon, Symposium Series 7, pp. 1–26.
- ^ Rouse, W.R., M.S.V. Douglas, R.E. Hecky, A.E. Hershey, G.W. Kling, L. Lesack, P. Marsh, M. McDonald, B.J. Nicholson, N.T. Roulet and J.P. Smol, 1997. Effects of climate change on the freshwaters of Arctic and subarctic North America. Hydrological Processes, 11:873–902.
- ^ Prowse, T.D. and R.L. Stephenson, 1986.The relationship between winter lake cover, radiation receipts and the oxygen deficit in temperate lakes. Atmosphere-Ocean, 24:386–403.
- ^ Rouse, W.R., M.S.V. Douglas, R.E. Hecky, A.E. Hershey, G.W. Kling, L. Lesack, P. Marsh, M. McDonald, B.J. Nicholson, N.T. Roulet and J.P. Smol, 1997. Effects of climate change on the freshwaters of Arctic and subarctic North America. Hydrological Processes, 11:873–902.
- ^KKorhola, A., S. Sorvari, M. Rautio, P.G. Appleby, J.A. Dearing,Y. Hu, N. Rose, A. Lami and N.G. Cameron, 2002a.A multi-proxy analysis of climate impacts on the recent development of subarctic Lake Sannajärvi in Finnish Lapland. Journal of Paleolimnology, 28(1):59–77.
- ^Rautio, M., S. Sorvari and A. Korhola, 2000. Diatom and crustacean zooplankton communities, their seasonal variability, and representation in the sediments of subarctic Lake Saanajärvi. Journal of Limnology, 59(Suppl.1):81–96.
- ^Sorvari, S. and A. Korhola, 1998. Recent diatom assemblage changes in subarctic Lake Saanajärvi, NW Finnish Lapland, and their paleoenvironmental implications. Journal of Paleolimnology, 20:205–215.
^Sorvari, S., M. Rautio and A. Korhola, 2000. Seasonal dynamics of subarctic Lake Saanajärvi in Finnish Lapland. In:W.D.Williams (ed.). Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen, 27th Congress, Dublin, 1998, 27:507–512.
-- Sorvari, S., A. Korhola and R.Thompson, 2002. Lake diatom response to recent Arctic warming in Finnish Lapland. Global Change Biology, 8:153–163.
^Forsström, L., 2000. Seasonal variability of phytoplankton in Lake Saanajärvi. M.Sc.Thesis, University of Helsinki, 53pp. (In Finnish
- Forsström, L., S. Sorvari, A. Korhola and M. Rautio, in press. Seasonality of phytoplankton in subarctic Lake Saanajärvi in NW Finnish Lapland. Polar Biology.;
Rautio et al., Op. cit
^Alexandersson, H. and B. Eriksson, 1989. Climate fluctuations in Sweden 1860–1987. Reports of Meteorology and Climatology, 58:1–54. Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Stockholm.;
-- Sorvari et al., 2002, Op. cit.;
-- Tuomenvirta, H. and R. Heino, 1996. Climatic changes in Finland – recent findings. Geophysica, 32:61–75.
^Korhola, A., H. Olander and T. Blom, 2000a. Cladoceran and chironomid assemblages as quantitative indicators of water depth in subarctic Fennoscandian lakes. Journal of Paleolimnology, 24:43–54.;
-- Sorvari and Korhola, 1998, Op. cit.;
-- Sorvari et al., 2002, Op. cit.;
^e.g.,Catalan, J., M.Ventura, A. Brancelj, I. Granados, H.Thies, U. Nickus, A. Korhola, A.F. Lotter, A. Barbieri, E. Stuchlik, L. Lien, P. Bitusik, T. Buchaca, L. Camarero, G.H. Goudsmit, J. Kopacek, G. Lemcke, D.M. Livingstone, B. Müller, M. Rautio, M. Sisko, S. Sorvari, F. Sporka, O. Strunecky and M.Toro, 2000. Seasonal ecosystem variability in remote mountain lakes: implications for detecting climatic signals in sediment records. Journal of Paleolimnology, 28(1):25–46.;
-- Hinder, B., M. Gabathuler, B. Steiner, K. Hanselmann and H.R. Preisig, 1999. Seasonal dynamics and phytoplankton diversity in high mountain lakes (Jöri lakes, Swiss Alps). Journal of Limnology, 58:152–161.;
-- Lepistö, L., 1999. Phytoplankton assemblages reflecting the ecological status of lakes in Finland. Monographs of the Boreal Environment
Research, 16. 97pp.;
-- Lotter, A.F. and C. Bigler, 2000. Do diatoms in the Swiss Alps reflect the length of ice-cover? Aquatic Sciences, 62:125–141.;
Medina-Sánchez et al., 1999;
-- Rautio et. al., 2000, Op. cit.
- ^e.g., diatoms; Agbeti, M.D., J.C. Kingston, J.P. Smol and C.Watters, 1997 Comparison of phytoplankton succession in two lakes of different mixing regimes. Archiv für Hydrobiologie, 140:37–69.
- ^ Douglas, M.S.V. and J.P. Smol, 1999. Freshwater diatoms as indicators of environmental change in the High Arctic. In: E.F. Stoermer and J.P. Smol (eds.).The Diatoms: Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences, pp. 227–244. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Hobbie, J.E., B.J. Peterson, N. Bettez, L. Deegan, W.J. O'Brien, G.W. Kling, G.W. Kipphut, W.B. Bowden and A.E. Hershey, 1999. Impact of global change on the biogeochemistry and ecosystems of an arctic freshwater system. Polar Research, 18:207–214.
- ^ Hecky, R.E. and S.J. Guildford, 1984. Primary productivity of Southern Indian Lake before, during and after impoundment and Churchill River Diversion. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 41:591–604.


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Cherry Pecan Drops
Instructions:1 cup granulated sugar
3/4 cup shortening
2 tablespoons milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
2 large eggs
2-1/4 cups all-purpose flour
1 teaspoons baking powder
1/2 teaspoon baking soda
1/2 teaspoon salt
1 cup chopped pecans
1 cup chopped dates
1/3 cup chopped maraschino cherries, well drained
1-1/2 cup coarsely crushed cornflakes cereal
15 maraschino cherries, quartered, drained
Heat oven to 375 degrees. Grease cookies sheets. In large bowl, combine sugar, shortening, milk, vanilla, and eggs; beat well. Stir in flour, baking powder, baking soda, salt, pecans, dates, and 1/3 cup chopped cherries; mix well. Cover dough with plastic wrap and refrigerate for easier handling. Drop dough by rounded teaspoonfuls into cereal; thoroughly coat. Form into balls; place 2-inches apart on greased cookie sheets. Press maraschino cherry piece into top of each ball. Bake for 10-15 minutes until light golden brown.
Similar activities:Pecan Petits, Cherry Nut Balls, Chocolate Cherry Kris Kringles, Aunt Jackie's Pecan Tarts, White-Chocolate Cherry Shortbread, Green Cherry Trees Cookies, Hidden Treasures, Malabar Pecans, Holiday Fruit Drops, Santa's Whiskers II, Hidden Treasures, Cereal Wreaths, Cranberry Biscotti in a Jar, Cherry Tuiles, Pecan Pie
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I'm looking for a fuel bottle for my denatured alcohol. The stores around me didn't not have any of the 22oz fuel bottles that fit nicely into a water bottle cage so I started looking into other methods. I looked at http://zenstoves.net/FuelStorage.htm, which indicates any plastic water bottle would work.
Any thoughts on this? I know some other people on this forum have alcohol stoves, what do you carry your denatured alcohol in?


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Free health screenings at Forum on Aging - preregister by Tuesday, Feb. 8
The 29th annual Community Forum on Aging, "A Health and Wellbeing event for mature adults and senior care professionals" is presented by the Peninsula Agency on Aging and Christopher Newport University at the Ferguson Center for the Arts on Tuesday, March 1. Deadline to preregister is Tuesday, Feb. 8.
Events, presentations and exhibits from 8 a.m. to noon. Health screenings are free, but no medical diagnoses given. Choose among bone density, foot screening, blood pressure, skin cancer awareness, hearing, balance, and more.
Workshops, given in 3 sessions, include: Outpatient total joint replacement; Creative play and lifelong games; Planning for the Unknown; Understanding Dementia; legal issues for family and caregivers and Health Reform in Virginia.
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Steroo, "no problems just opportunities" is glib and meaningless management speak. The companies I advise all have problems, that's why pay their professional advisors to try to solve them. Sometimes those problems are also opportunities, but quite often not, or the problem far outweighs the opportunity. When a company is sued, and it faces a significant liability, where is the opportunity there? As far as Ipswich go, it is self-evident that a few wins would be a good thing but you totally miss the point. How does the club progress to a point where it is able to deliver that type of success? What would YOU do if you were owner. How would you do things differently. ALL you do on here is to take pleasure in pointing out the obvious, and to say what not to do. Anyone can do that, it's not difficult. Really, it isn't. The challenge is to offer an alternative. Or, in your parlance, what is the "opportunity" here. Steroo, you spend a lot of time on here, being very negative, but your analysis is not insightful, just boringly predictable.
Monday, February 25, 2013


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The Gradient 1.3 Revisited
The following article is being reprinted because of the ongoing interest of the ideas that the speaker embodies. The speaker itself is no longer available, but the later Gradient models, the Revolution and the Evidence , embody related ideas about controlling radiation pattern. ( My review of the latest version of the Revolution will be appearing in The Absolute Sound Issue 154 , June 2005.
My continuing experience with the Gradient 1.3s --I bought my review pair and still have it--has been one of my formative experiences in audio. Through these speakers, I learned a lot about the audible effects of early room reflections and of their absence. The 1.3s can , like almost all speakers, benefit from a little analogue or DSP correction of their intrinsic frequency response. But they need surprisingly little help with eliminating room effects.
If you make them anechoically flat, they sound neutral in-room too, with only a little touch-up of the bass needed as it always is. And even the bass is freer than usual of broad-band deviations. You can see the good behavior in the graph shown later. If you EQ out the boom at 50 Hz and pull down the 300 Hz region a little, something very like true neutrality emerges.
The basic ideas of the 1.3s are these:
First, the speaker is designed geometrically to minimize the delayed floor-bounce effect. The bass is fired at the floor , so direct sound and floor bounce are combined. The midrange is produced by a directional dipole driver that points somewhat upward, so not much hits the floor. And the treble is produced by a line array that produces a horizontal beam. So ,altogether ,little comes off the floor.
The second idea is that the speaker has high directivity as well as quite uniform directivity. (Recall that directivity at a frequency is by definition the difference in dB between the total radiated power at the given frequency and the radiated power that would be produced by an omni directional source with the same direct-arrival SPL at the frequency: Directional speakers have high directivity while an omni-radiator has 0dB directivity by definition. A speaker with constant directivity produces flat power response if its anechoic on-axis response is flat.
High directivity speakers put less sound into the room compared to the direct sound. Uniform directivity speakers have uncolored room sound. The Gradient 1.3 does both things. Read on for what this does for you.
May 2005
We all agree that the goal of the audio chain, from recording microphone all the way to your ears in your home listening room, is the reproduction of the original musical experience. Between the microphones and your speakers, the goal is precisely specified: a voltage should appear at your speaker terminals that is an exactly amplified copy of the voltages of the two channels of microphone output (or mixings, as the case may be). This may be hard in practice, but it is clear and precise in principle. But at the two ends, no such precise paradigms of perfection persist.
For all the attractiveness in theory of the Blumlein method, it is not so easy to implement in practice. For one thing, microphones do not "edit" the literal sound the way the ear-brain does. And the theory of spaced microphone techniques---well, the theory shows it's a wonder they work at all, much less work as marvelously as they can work.
At the speaker end, things are even more confused--sound bouncing every which way around the room is supposed somehow to recreate the original, absolute sound? What are we supposed to expect out of this mish-mash, this process sans predictability, sans repeatability, sans consistency, apparently sans everything?
Let's think first about something simpler, though not so simple as it appears: getting the perceived tonal balance right; or at least predictable, from a single, mono source in an actual home listening room. In an anechoic chamber, or outdoors up in the air, all you need is flat on-axis response, and you yourself on axis. But in a room, aye, there's the rub. There are two ways to try, ways which can in fact be combined: (a) Try to make both the on-axis and the total power responses flat, so that the room sound has roughly the same correct balance as the direct sound and (b) try to make the speaker highly directional so that there is relatively little room sound to worry about.
Surely, you might say, this problem is so basic that all speaker designers get it solved immediately, before they go on to worry about High End exotica like soundstage shape, etc. Surely such a primitive, basic issue cannot fail to be treated and disposed of almost ab initio. But no. Virtually no speaker on the market delivers a flat response at the listening position.
For a start, the vast majority of speakers have a rather severe suckout in the midbass or lower midrange (usually around 250 Hz) from the floor cancelation: The direct sound and the reflection from the floor are 1800 out-of-phase at some frequencies and cancel, in good part---though not entirely, because the floor reflection is typically a bit weaker than the direct sound. This cancelation occurs at many frequencies but the lowest frequency at which it happens usually has the biggest suckout because the floor is an almost perfect reflector at low frequencies, even if it is carpeted. High frequencies may be soaked up by the carpet, but carpet won't do anything to the (approximately) 4-foot waves of 250 Hz. Even ignoring the wall reflections for the moment, you can take it for granted that floor reflections are playing merry hell with the integrity and in particular the frequency response of what you hear.
Ah, but you say, almost everything we hear has a floor reflection; we're used to it. True, but the real, original floor reflections are already recorded. Moreover, the floor reflections from a cello, say, on stage for you listening in the audience are entirely different from the floor reflections from your speakers eight feet away in your listening room. Speakers with strong floor reflections will always be offering aural clues that you are hearing speakers, not hearing the original music. Those floor reflections are always going to be saying to your brain, subconsciously or consciously, "Speaker, speaker," or "Source eight feet away." The original recorded acoustics--hardly. 1
What about the wall reflections? Those are bad, too, but if you have a largish room you can delay them-speakers far from walls, yourself close to speakers. And the precedence effect will minimize the damage they do. And then you can point the speakers at the listening position, or, better yet, cross their axes a bit in front of the listening position, minimizing what hits the walls (for speakers that are somewhat directional, anyway). But floor reflections remain fast and deadly.
How bad is the combined effect of all these reflections? There is some good, if somewhat anecdotal, evidence that the reflection problem is the main failing of speakers as they are used in rooms. Jim Thiel, a man much given to modesty, once said to me that, on-axis and anechoically, his speakers produced an acoustic signal that resembled the input so much it was "scary." Other designers have told me the same thing--if a speaker is on-axis flat, its sound, picked up anechoically by a high quality mike, is remarkably close to its electrical input. How can this be? What about resonances, phase shifts, distortions, etc.? Such experiences seem to suggest that in today's better speakers they don't amount to much compared to room effects, or should I say, room-related defects.
This is particularly interesting relative to distortion: Speakers at low volume typically have really low distortion. As volume increases, up goes distortion, but up too go the masking thresholds. Speaker distortion remains masked by the distortion content of the music, and of your hearing mechanism, at least for good speakers. I don't want to dismiss utterly all other problems, but the room interaction seems to be the fundamental problem.
There is almost nothing new under the sun, and serious speaker designers have been thinking about these problems for a long time. Keith Johnson's design for one of the larger Precise models included compensation for the first floor reflection. Earlier, Peter Snell's Type A and Type 1 both addressed floor reflection questions by putting the woofer, and in the Type 1, the tweeter, too, on the floor. More recently, the Snell Type B, designed by Kevin Voecks, put the (forward-firing) woofer close to the floor and made the midrange have limited vertical dispersion to deal with the same problem. And, over the years, a long succession of planar radiators have minimized vertical dispersion and thus reduced the floor reflection problem.
The Gradient 1.3 designers, Jorma Salmi and Anders Weckstrom, have attacked the floor reflection problem, and room interaction in general, flat out. Their position paper (AES preprint No. 1871) describes their anechoic experiments, which yielded the same conclusion that Thiel and others had reached independently: Speakers can sound nearly perfect, anechoically. They go on to identify the floor reflections as the worst source of degradation. And, in the 1.3, they set out to solve the problem.
It is relatively easy to make a speaker that has very narrow dispersion in the vertical direction in the higher frequencies, and will thus have not much energy hitting the floor and bouncing off to cause trouble. But how to deal with the lower frequencies, which almost inevitably have wide dispersion because of their long wavelengths? The Gradient, like the Snell Type A model, takes this bull by the horns: The woofer fires at the floor, downward, at very close range (about 1 "). So for the frequencies over which it operates, up to 250 Hz, the reflection and the direct sound are virtually perfectly in phase. (One inch out of the four or more feet of wavelength, corresponding to 250 Hz or lower, amounts in effect to no phase difference). Or, thought of another way, all, or virtually all, of the woofer sound is reflection; there is effectively no direct sound to cancel with. The bass thus produced has 3 dB directivity (half-space radiation). So in addition to no reflection-cancelation problems, it also has the advantage of putting less energy into irrelevant room modes. (Dipoles, at 4.8 dB directivity are even better, but they don't deal as well with the floor cancelation question.)
The midrange of the Gradient (250 Hz to 1500 Hz, as it happens) is handled by a dynamic (cone) driver operated as a dipole. The dipole is passively equalized (rolled off in the highs) so that it has flat response in spite of the increasing dipole cancelation at lower frequencies. (Otherwise the upper ranges would be more prominent than the lower, partially canceled ranges; since at 250 Hz, the wavelength is four feet, there is indeed serious cancelation happening by 250 Hz.)
The tweeter unit is compound, made of four tweeters in a vertical array. These all operate from 1500 Hz and a little up from there. With increasing frequency, various ones of the four are EQed in such a way that the unit as a whole maintains flat response and constant, or essentially constant, directivity.
The tweeter unit has strongly limited vertical dispersion. The dipole midrange has the usual dipole "figure eight" pattern at its lower frequencies but becomes more directional near the top of its range. The dipole unit is tilted upwards somewhat to aim its edge-on null at the floor at an angle. This angle is chosen to reduce floor reflection while still keeping the listening position with the essentially flat part of the dipole units radiation pattern.
The reflection suppression really does work. Look at the picture of the impulse response here and compare it to the impulse response graphs in the articles on DSP room correction. The (uncorrected) Gradient has direct arrival and then--more or less nothing!
(In this measurement, the speaker was equipped, as the designers suggested , with a small piece of foam, mounted cross-ways below the tweeter array. This eliminates a refection of the treble off the mid-driver and improves both measured and audible performance. (graph and indented material added 2005)
Admittedly, the result is a highly unusual looking speaker. The bass unit resembles a large oval hat box sitting on three small wheels. Atop the hatbox is an exposed woofer-size driver supported by a metal frame which extends upwards to support the tweeter array-shades of Star Wars' robots. (The woofer enclosure is vented, with vent and woofer pointing at the floor). More to the point, one might wonder how such disparate radiation patterns could be made to sound integrated. The acoustic logic goes as follows (according to the designers, and I find their analysis convincing both theoretically and audibly):
At 250 Hz, the standing wave modes of usual rooms are at very closely spaced frequencies and many different directions, so in effect, one is dealing with a diffuse sound-field as far as "room sound" is concerned. So the fact that the floor-firing woofer and the dipole midrange interact differently with standing wave modes is not too troublesome. There is a certain compromise in changing from the 3 dB directivity of the floor-firing woofer to the 4.8 dB directivity of the dipole midrange: It is impossible to make both on-axis and "power" response flat in this transition. But for a listening room of reasonably standardized size, one can choose a relationship between driver levels that will give a smooth-sounding transition.
As to the dipole midrange to tweeter transition, again a slight compromise is involved, since the tweeters fire forward only. The choice is to make the forward radiation of the tweeters equal to that of (the forward half of) the dipole, i.e., to give the tweeter unit directivity approximately 3 to 4.8 dB. Between 6 and 8 dB for the tweeter unit, depending on frequency, is attained in practice. For smoothness of power response, on-axis response is allowed a small rise above the 1500 Hz crossover.
If it seems that the word "compromise" has popped up a few times here, keep in mind that the average box speaker is compromised far more. Indeed, for most box speakers, the word "disaster" would be more appropriate as far as smoothness of power response is concerned. According to the manufacturer's data, the Gradient 1.3 has very smooth power response and, by the usual standards of speakers, commendably flat axial response, too. (The bass is "anechoic" down in level, since it automatically is reinforced by the floor; this assumed, the response becomes flat to around 50 Hz.)
What does all this add up to in listening terms? The most striking aspect of the Gradients is their ability to act acoustically as if the room around them was simply not there. Measurably, but most especially audibly, the listening room's own acoustics are almost completely differentiated against. One feels as if the speakers were being heard in a nearly anechoic environment.
Reaction to this is likely to vary from one person to another. Some of the people who wandered through described the sound as "nonresonant" and "small," though "clear." Well, clear the Gradients certainly are, in terms of midrange detail, for instance. But it is true that records and CDs are typically recorded/monitored with different speakers in mind, speakers that in general excite the room much more. And without this room excitation effect, many recordings do sound dry.
Moreover, the peculiarities and inconsistencies of the microphone techniques commonly used are distinctly, even cruelly revealed, even in audiophile classics. The Mercurys generally sound like one, two, three microphones. Many of the classic RCAs slam the first violins solidly into the left channel, the celli into the right. And typical multi-mike (non-classic!) recordings stand revealed as having the incomprehensible imaging that one might expect.
What works well here is one-point microphoning: the Sheffield Firebird, the Unicorn Fenby-conducted Delius. (Issue 64, p. 142), the awesome Varese-Sarabande Christmas record Do You Hear What I Hear [VCDM 1000.70]. These produce the orderly, focused sound that one-point (Blumlein) microphone technique promises in theory.2
I found this aspect of the Gradients' performance, this revelation of the intrinsic acoustics of the recordings and their environments, to be fascinating to the point of hypnosis. The Gradients are not free of problems (to be discussed momentarily). But they stand as a landmark of how a controlled radiation pattern can nullify the erratic influences of the listening room and reproduce the truth of what is recorded.
It is interesting to compare the Gradients in this regard to the more familiar types of speakers offering minimized room interaction, in particular, to dipole planar radiators. A dipole planar has limited vertical and horizontal dispersion by nature. As such, its forward radiation offers much the same general advantages as the Gradients. But without careful positioning (angling of the speaker) and back wall damping, the back radiation of dipole speakers reflects to the listening position quite soon after the first-arrival, direct sound. This produces what I personally regard as an artificial, though often pleasing, kind of image enlargement and spaciousness.
Because the Gradients' dipole midrange is angled about 300 upward in the listener's direction, its backwave is aimed downward by the same amount. Thus the backwave's reflection does not bounce directly off the back wall at the listener. Rather, it can reach the listener only after a series of oblique reflections. The backwave becomes, in effect, part of the diffuse sound-field. And, as indicated, the tilt of the dipole midrange together with the floor-firing woofer minimize irrelevant floor reflections even more than dipoles do.
Presumably for these reasons, the Gradients sound even more "anechoic" than dipoles. In this regard, of ignoring the room around them, the Gradients stand in the top echelon of speakers in my experience.
How do the Gradients sound otherwise? From the bottom up: As might be expected from a relatively small box woofer, bottom bass is missing. But bass in the main orchestral range (say 50 Hz and up) is excellent. Indeed, one of the strong points of the Gradients outside the radiation pattern business is the delineation of bass. Tuba parts become instrumental lines, not vague rumblings. Double basses change bows and articulate notes. On the (fabulous) Telarc/Previn/Vienna recording of the Alpine Symphony, the full glory of Strauss's bass scoring is revealed not just with weight but with d_tail and delineation, too. I couldn't help wondering why there aren't more speakers with floor-firing woofers since they, work so well here.
The midbass and lower midrange of the Gradients is rather full by prevailing standards, presumably because the usual cancelations from floor reflections are not happening. Relatively speaking, the midrange driver then seems down a bit in level. While the transition from woofer to midrange is smooth and integrated, the overall orchestral balance is directed more at midbass instruments less at midrange ones. The midrange itself, however, is extremely smooth and neutral, and, of course, totally free of box colorations. In fact, the midrange is very low in coloration altogether, and at the same time is superbly detailed. Woodwinds, for instance, are essentially spot-on in tonal character, as are well-recorded strings.
Here is the in-room response of the Gradient. Perhaps it looks a bit irregular--until you first note the quite expanded vertical scale and then compare it to , say, speakers A and B in "Digital Room and Speaker Correction: The Big Picture" ( on this site ) .
There is a boom at 50 Hz, easily EQed out, and some extra energy at 200-300 Hz, as noted in the original review (which was done by listening only !--this measurement was done much later. ) But the overall balance octave-by -octave is very good, with no broad-band dips or the like. ( graph and indented material added 2005)
The one truly troublesome aspect of the Gradients, their Achilles' heel, as it were, is their treble. [ See the "Further Thought" that follows this article---this problem essentially resolved itself.] The treble has constant, or essentially constant, directivity. Now it is the prevailing, conventional wisdom that speakers that are on-axis flat and have constant directivity (i.e., flat power response, too) will sound too bright with most material. And in the Gradients the treble is even a bit elevated relative to the midrange on-axis, as well as having essentially constant directivity. Of course, such conventional wisdom is self-fulfilling prophecy: If recordings were balanced with constant-directivity, flat-on-axis speakers, they would be balanced correctly for them! But, self-fulfilling or not, I'm afraid the conventional wisdom is true. The Gradients do tend to sound bright with most source material. (Actually, the extreme top sounds rolled-off. Cymbal crashes and the like are rather airless.I am talking here about the lower and mid-treble.)
On top of this, the treble drivers of the Gradients don't seem to me to be "state-of-the-art," if you'll pardon the hackneyed phrase. As noted, they sound airless at the very top and somewhat colored in their lower regions, and not as clean and articulate as the finest tweeters available. For all that, however, I would estimate that by far the main source of the problem with the treble is simply quantity. Most speakers roll down the total high-frequency forward radiation very severely in the top octave, however flat on-axis they may be. The Gradients do not. You hear what you'd expect to under these circumstances. Don't even think about using these with a rising-top moving coil cartridge. And be prepared to hear all the digital grain there is to hear. Interestingly, though, the tonal balance tends to be more compatible with contemporary orchestral CD recording than with any but the more subdued recordings of the analogue era. (Apparently, the relentless flatness of the digital top end has led generally to a more tonally distant balance on CDs, if not always to a purist mike technique as such, and seldom to a truly sufficiently distant mike placement.)
The Gradients bring to mind some important general points about home listening versus concert listening. It is a familiar consideration in concert hall design that listeners like to hear strong side wall reflections. These reflections give "intimacy," as the resulting sense of being immersed in sound is usually called. Now, in a recording, these side wall reflections should be part of the recorded ambience. But the Gradients bring to one's attention most emphatically that the side wall reflections are seldom recorded strongly enough to be satisfying. Recording engineers, whether by conscious decision or subconscious habit, are apparently relying on the home listening room's acoustics to generate intimacy. No wonder that so many audiophiles have taken to pointing their speakers straight ahead from one end of a long narrow room and listening from the far end.
I have discussed before the lack of standardization for bass balance and, to an extent, treble balance in the relationship between recording and playback. The Gradients point up the fact that there is need for standards of reflective behavior, too. The only theoretically sensible standard is minimization of early reflections. But if this reasonable standard is to be used in practice, then recordings need to be made at a sufficient distance to have relatively strong, correctly timed wall reflections. The old way, which is still too often with us, of making recordings from far too close for natural listening and hoping that listening room wall reflections would fill in-that way can never work consistently and predictably. Not to mention that the wall reflections of a home listening room are totally inappropriate in timing and angles to large-scaled music.
In any case, the Gradients reveal spatial detail as it is actually recorded very well. Real width and depth is well reproduced indeed. There is almost nothing added, and recorded spatial errors are again ruthlessly revealed. But on properly recorded material, remarkable things can happen. The Gradients can float a realistic dimensional center image in a way few other speakers can. The Gradients themselves can simply vanish as apparent sources; the usual subliminal hints that you are hearing sound from speakers, the little reflections that tell you there are two speakers out there, not one clarinet player--all those distractions are gone. This can be an almost hypnotic experience. The Gradients make most other speakers sound like speakers in their spatial performance.
Though the Gradients do tend to exhibit emphatically the defects of recordings, I want to emphasize that on suitable material they can sound amazingly realistic. Choral music can sound superb, e.g., the Proprius Cantate Domino which is given great word clarity and delineation of individual voices (it is December as I write this). So can chamber music, such as the wonderful Paula3 Zemlinsky and Brahms clarinet trio recording. Kavi Alexander's violin classic (Bach, Kreisler, and Ysaye played by Delmoni) sounds ultra-realistic, even in CD version.
Incidentally, the realism in all cases is aided by the dynamic ease. Neither solo sopranos nor loud clarinet notes, nor orchestra at full volume, nor chorus plus organ yield any sign of stress. (At 86 dB/2.83V/1 m, the Gradients are intermediate in sensitivity, but they will absorb lots of power without problems.) At their best, the Gradients can altogether sound remarkably like the live experience, and in particular can transport one into the original acoustics of the recording to an extent that is startling compared to almost all other speakers.
The key ingredients for the Gradients to sound their best seem to be good (read distant, in general) microphone technique and warm acoustics. But, as noted, many orchestral recordings decompose into incoherent, bright, grainy mish-mashes--which is exactly what many of them are, I think.
Again with good recordings" the Gradients offer remarkable levels of information about what is going on musically in complex textures. I am almost reluctant to mention this, because so much sonically abusive equipment has been supposedly justified via the "separation of lines" idea. But in the case of the Gradients, one does indeed hear lines clearly, even when the treble is EQed not just to the usual levels but even far below that (EO courtesy of the Cello Palette preamplifier, review forthcoming). If I needed to transcribe a complex work into score from listening alone,4 the Gradients would be my speaker of choice. They quite often don't sound beautiful, or even particularly "musical" in the usual audiophile sense of the word (i.e., smooth, sweet, recessed), but with some caveats about treble grain, I would guess that they sound a lot like what was happening at the location of the microphones---a location, as like as not, where the music itself sounds raucous, edgy, and aggressive. In any case, the Gradients will give you a good idea indeed of what the musicians were up to.
The last of such philosophical questions summarizes the others. The Gradients remind one to ask the question: How has the audio industry come to expect that, using microphone placements not even close to a natural listening position--too close-up, elevated, picking up practically none of the indispensable sidewall reflections--using those microphone positions, how have they come to expect anything like the absolute sound on playback?
In this sense, of reminding me so strongly of the intrinsic errors of most recordings, I found the Gradients more than a little disturbing. On the other hand, with recordings that suited the Gradients' presentation, its emphasis on direct-from-the-speaker sound, the Gradients provide reassurance that replication of the live experience is possible. On occasion, they really can sound surprisingly close to reality.
The Gradients are a speaker built to a theory. Within that theory, they are a remarkable success. This is a design with real thought behind it about fundamental acoustical matters. (Space restrictions prevent detailed discussion of it here, but, among other things, the Gradient designers developed a new, psychoacoustically-motivated idea of how to measure frequency response in rooms, and tried to make their speakers flat according to this criterion.) Regardless of the vagaries of recording as it is practiced commercially and the compatibility of those practices with the theory of the Gradients, the achievement in acoustic design here commands respect.
I believe strongly that the only hope of really approximating the live experience lies in an almost complete discrimination against the acoustics of the home listening room, along the general lines of the Gradients and other controlled-radiation speakers. The sooner that recordings are made to sound like music when heard on such speakers, the sooner we shall have recordings that have a predictable sound at all. And predictable results on playback are necessary for recording accuracy to be a concept with meaning, much less a concept that can be realized.
There is a potential crisis here that passed almost unnoticed in the days when speakers were almost all wildly inaccurate. The crisis is simply that recording engineers can deal effectively with the refined aspects of sound only if they can know how the recordings will be played back. Until we have speakers that sound the same in different rooms, no one can know what a given recording will sound like in any kind of detail. Recording, and the reviewing of recording, become a matter of shooting at moving targets.
The Gradients must be heard by anyone interested in speaker design, or audio in general. Whether you will want to own them will be a complex decision. But I can almost guarantee that they will rearrange your ideas about what recordings really sound like, and what most speakers are doing to that reality.
TAS issue 77 February/March 1992
1 This has all been covered before in my article "Directional Hearing: How to Listen to Stereo," Issue 64, pp. 40-56. ( Also reprinted on this site )There I was concentrating on stereo imaging, for which the floor reflection is not as bad as wall reflections because it is "in fine" with the speaker laterally. But tonally it remains disastrous, particularly disastrous.
2Do You Hear What I Hear is not really Blumlein stereo. It is done with two Calrec mikes, one for orchestra, one for chorus, set as angled hypercardioids. But the result still has the essential coherence of one-point miking, for each of the groups separately at best.
3 Karin Jurgensen of Paula told me at some point that she felt she was on the track of how to eliminate the generally cold, hard character of CD sound. This recording indicates that she was, indeed.
4 Mozart, Glazunov and others of musical genius could do this after a single (live) listen. The almost supernatural abilities of such people should be kept in mind when the temptation arises to indulge in cocktail-party criticism of the great musicians' works.
Manufacturer: Gradient, Finland. Distributor: Quad USA, 111 South Drive, Barrington, Illinois 60010. (708) 526-1646. Source: Manufacturer Loan. Serial Number: N/A. Price: $2500 per pair. Warranty: Five years parts and labor.
Manufacturer's Response:
It is encouraging to find that there still are reviewers who deeply involve themselves in the given subject matter. REG's findings covering the sound reproduction chain, from recording location to the listener's room, are of the real in-depth grist.
We agree with the opinion that the weakest link in many cases is the recording occasion. With accurate reproducers like the Quad ESL -63, mediocre recordings sound bad, proper ones excellent. We feel that the tendency in recording technique is toward simpler miking and thus better sounding recordings containing the original acoustics.
The design goal for the Gradient 1.3 was to design a speaker which would replicate the original soundstage to the listening room, with minimum coloration. Hearing the subtle acoustic differences of the great symphony halls, not one's living room, is what high fidelity is all about. Unfortunately the acoustics of the listening room of the final user is not under the speaker designer's control. If a "good" speaker sounds bad in one's living room, the blame is usually put on disasterous acoustics. We have tried to combine the design ways (a) and (b) described by REG in the beginning of this review: reasonably flat on-axis, off-axis and power response combined with higher than normal directivity. Thus the room acoustics will not contribute to the recordings and the reproduction of music will sound similar in different rooms.
The proper treble level is a complicated matter. In our seven years experience with this design, this is the first instance where a reviewer has raised this point. Subjective taste and equipment (especially vinyl) related factors must be considered. One way to reduce treble level is to cross the speaker axis in front of the listener, thereby also increasing the listening area.
We also agree with the conclusions of the review. The only way to improve the listening accuracy at home, is to eliminate the room induced colorations. That is why we at Gradient continue working on controlled directivity design in loudspeakers.
Jorma Salmi, Director Gradient Ltd., Jarvanpaa, Finland
THE Gradient 1.3 Speakers
The essence of TAS reviewing is time. Not for us the audio cowboy's thirty-second listen, with one thing "blowing away" another immediately. Long term listening can reveal failings and virtues, too, that are hidden in the quick listen. Well, I certainly listened for a long time to the Gradient 1.3s before writing my review in Issue 77. But I found their sonic performance so intriguing that I continued listening after I had completed the review --that's something that seldom occurs. And, as it happened, the speakers changed somewhat, and for the better. What changed was that a persistent, almost pervasive graininess in the treble, that one perceived as exaggerated treble, went away almost entirely.
One wonders how this could have happened. Driver break-in is one possibility. But my guess is capacitor "forming." Capacitors do change their behavior as they are used and there are, I would suppose, quite a number of caps in the complex treble crossover of the Gradient, which has four tweeters per channel, each tweeter with its own roll-off rate. In any case, for whatever reason, the grain diminished.
The Gradient 1.3s were an intriguing and impressive design as I reviewed them. With the grain in their treble virtually gone, they are now even more attractive listening than before. The scrutiny they apply to records is still revealing of recording defects; but now, even more than before, they can sound truly exceptional on well recorded material. Try to audition a pair that has been broken-in long term. You'll find it a sonically revealing experience, even more than I indicated the first time around
(TAS issue 80 June 1992 )


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The program is auto installing. If your operating system does not support auto installing, after the CD is loaded, go to "My Computer" on your desktop and choose the CD drive. Follow the instructions on the installation screen.
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He hasn't formally endorsed a candidate, but former President Jimmy Carter leaves little doubt who he'd like to see in the White House next year.
Speaking with reporters during a trip to Nigeria, Carter notes that his children, their spouses and his grandchildren are "pro-Obama." But he adds that as a superdelegate he won't disclose who he's rooting for. He said he's leaving it up to reporters to guess.
How does Hillary Clinton's camp feel about Carter's comments? Spokesman Howard Wolfson notes that both Senator and President Clinton respect and have enjoyed their relationship with the former president.
Carter was in Nigeria for a ceremony celebrating a reduction in Guinea worm disease in West Africa.
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Top Trends to Watch– What's Hot, What's Uncertain, and What's Hype Attracting Angels and Venture Capital for Early and Mid Stage Startups
In Person
During GEW
Leading investors from top VC firms share their insights on the current market trends for investing. Learn about how they select a management team, develop a revenue strategy, attract a purchases, negotiate deal terms and determine valuation. Some trends we discuss include: hardware, Internet of Things, Mobile apps, crowdfunding, wearable tech, niche communities, eCommerce, and connected cars.
Salil Pradhan, Partner, Draper Nexus
Vignesh, Ravikumark, Partner, Sierra Ventures
Brtyan Stolle, Partner, Mohr Davidow
Entrepreneurs / Startups
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Support The High Bridge
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The High Bridge Coalition
The High Bridge Coalition, founded in 2001, is an alliance of public agencies, nonprofit organizations, and individuals who have led the campaign to restore the High Bridge and reopen it to the public.
The High Bridge Historical Sign
Individuals not listed. Members of the High Bridge Coalition Steering Committee are denoted with an asterisk (*).
Alianza Dominicana
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Inspired by the film looks found in movies such as Traffic and The Matrix, the software provides 50 custom looks that alter shading, contrast and the tint of scenes to mimic that of 35mm film. Users can choose to use presets or customize their own film treatments, which can be saved in the Library feature.
Magic Bullet for Editors also includes the film damage creation tool, called Misfire, which accurately recreates characteristics of old film, including grain, splotches, and scratches, as well as projection artifacts like flicker and gate weave.
The tool is optimized for use of Power Mac G4s and 5s. It is available exclusively through Red Giant Software for $299


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Thursday, Jun 27, 2013 7:15 PM PDT (7:15 PM Doors)
Roxy Theatre, West Hollywood, CA
With an eclectic mix of musicians hailing from across the United States, the sonic realm of Zookeeper's Palace can best be described as tribal space rock with a progressive edge. Melding a unique yet accessible blend of unearthly guitars, polyrhythmic beats, tasty keyboards, groove-ridden bass lines and infectious vocal harmonies, the ZkP sound is a testament to how they insist on shifting the face of rock. This Los Angeles-based band, known for its visceral live show, bridges a diverse audience with its distinguishing sonic vision.
Combining years of musical experience, the members of Zookeeper's Palace have opened for major recording artists and have many played popular venues around the country


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It might not have the history of the Masters, but the PGA Championship also hosts a Champions Dinner with the year's previous winner picking the menu.
What did defending champion Rory McIlroy have out for the winners this year? A taste of Ireland. The full menu is after the jump, but just image "Irish" beef tenderloin and pig cave mustard and you'll be right on track for what Rory was going with.
The menu looked delicious, but how would you compare it to what Bubba Watson picked earlier this year at Augusta National? I'm going with Bubba.
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• Is this the most anticipated PGA Championship ever?
- Sports & Recreation
- Rory McIlroy
- PGA Championship