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Ecoregions of Colombia
Atrato River (Rio Atrato) in northwestern Colombia. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Colombia has thirty one ecoregions that occur entirely or partly within its borders: [1] Western Ecuador moist forests, [2] South American Pacific mangroves, [3] Chocó-Darién moist forests, [4] Eastern Panamanian montane forests, [5] Amazon-Orinoco-Southern Caribbean mangroves, [6] Magdalena-Urabá moist forests, [7] Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub, [8] Sinú Valley dry forests, [9] Santa Marta montane forests, [10] Santa Marta páramo, [11] Cordillera Oriental montane forests, [12] Northern Andean paramo, [13] Magdalena Valley montane forests, [14] Magdalena Valley dry forests, [15] Cauca Valley montane forests, [16] Cauca Valley dry forests, [17] Northwestern Andean montane forests, [18] Patía Valley dry forests, [19] Eastern Cordillera real montane forests, [20] Napo moist forests, [21] Purus varzea, [22] Solimoes-Japura moist forest, [23] Caqueta moist forests, [24] Japurá-Solimoes-Negro moist forests, [25] Negro-Branco moist forests, [26] Rio Negro campinarana, [27] Llanos, [28] Apure-Villavicencio dry forests, and [29] Catatumbo moist forests. And off shore: [30] Cayos Miskitos-San Andrés and Providencia moist forests, and [31] Malpelo Island xeric scrub.
Western Ecuador moist forests
The moist forests of western Ecuador encompass a large part of the Pacific Coast covering a series of plains and small elevation variations that make this ecoregion unique by enhancing its ecological complexity. Located in south western Colombia and western Ecuador, most of this ecoregions moist forests are concentrated in the province of Esmeraldas to the north between the area of San Lorenzo (south of the Colombian Chocó) and Quinindé (Mangoya river). The ecoregions boundaries extend from the Patia River in the north then through the provinces of Manabí and Guayas to the south where it touches the Golfo de Guayaquil, ending among the foothills of the Andes Mountains in the east.
These forests that once covered vast areas of the coastal region and were home to an enormous wealth and diversity of species are now a dispersed chain of remnants under constant threat and facing an uncertain future. These moist forests of western Ecuador previously covered most of the north western Ecuadoran coast, but have now lost more than 1500 kilometers2 (km2) and are continuing to disappear at one of the highest rates in the world.
South American Pacific mangroves
Esmeraldes-Pacific Colombia mangroves - This extensive mangrove ecoregion follows along the Pacific Coasts of Colombia and Ecuador encompassing stands of mangrove ecosystems along the way. Some of the larger stands are found in Tribugo Bay at the northern extent of the ecoregion then working south through the mouth of the San Juan River, Naya River, Guapi River, Mira River, Esmeraldas River finally ending at just south of the Mompiche Bay. The ecoregion generally has two large mangrove zones divided by Cabo Corrientes in Colombia.
On the continent, Colombia has two Natural National Parks (Sanquianga and Ensenada de Utría) that based on their status as protected areas promote mangrove development and positively reduce the effects of human action on the ecosystem. In addition, positive expectations have been created with the implementation of Civil Society Natural Reserves. Three reserves have been established in northern Colombia and efforts to increase this number are ongoing.
Chocó-Darién moist forests
Choco, Colombia Photograph by WWF/ Jorge Orejeula The ecoregion of the wet forests of Chocó-Darién extends from eastern Panama, in the provinces of Darién and Kuna-Yala, along almost the entire Pacific coast of Colombia, in the departments of Chocó, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Nariño. Thus running between latitudes 9º to 1º15' north, then down to 2°S and longitudes 79º to 76º15' west. This ecoregion encompasses a strip of land from sea level to an elevation of approximately 1,000 meters (m). It lies between the Pacific Ocean and the western range of the Andes; from west of the mouth of the Atrato River, in Panama to the Patia River, in Colombia.
This moist forest ecoregion is considered one of the most species rich lowland areas in the world, with exceptional abundance and endemism over a broad range of taxons that include plants, birds, amphibians, and butterflies. Its biological distinctiveness is outstanding in the world, with great biological, ecological, and evolutionary biodiversity. Due to the multiple threats in the ecoregion, its conservation status is vulnerable although relatively stable. There are, however threats of habitat conversion and the attendant degradation, in a system of areas with insufficient conservation. In addition, this ecoregion is culturally rich in that numerous indigenous communities with strong ties to its ecosystems still persist here.
The region has great potential for ecotourism and scientific research. Its forests are of great interest because some of them may be secondary forests that are nearly 500 years old, which would clearly allow for studies on the subject of the regeneration of tropical forests. The areas with remaining vegetation correspond to the central area of the ecoregion, while the northern areas of Darién and Urabá, in Colombia are devoted primarily to the production of bananas and cattle ranching. Southern areas of Bajo Calima and Tumaco, are devoted in part to plantations for the production of oil palm and extraction of timber for paper pulp are those that require greater urgency and efforts for their protection and conservation.
Eastern Panamanian montane forests
This ecoregion is found in the highlands of eastern Panama with small extensions into Colombia, and contains montane forests which grow at elevations from 500 to 1,800 m. Located on the land bridge between South and North America, complex forests cover this mountainous region and are home to extremely high diversity and endemism. A number of endemic avifauna inhabit this region, including the acaruna tapaculo, Pierre bush tanager, Pierre warbler, and Tacaruna quail-dove. Parque Nacional Darién, Central America's largest national park, is found here and protects twenty-four species of endangered herpetofauna. The inaccessibility of the slopes has left much of the region intact, but the extension of the Pan-American Highway has led to an increase in slash-and-burn agriculture, gold mining, and illegal trade in local wildlife.
Amazon-Orinoco-Southern Caribbean mangroves
Magdalena-Santa Marta mangroves - Running along the Carribean Sea coast of Colombia this ecoregion is a perfect example of how diverse a mangrove ecosystem can be with species distributions varied throughout the ecoregion depending on the conditions of each patch including the salinity gradient and tidal flux. Species are representative of the surrounding ecoregions such as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta montane moist forests and the arid Sinú Valley dry forests as well as mangrove specialists. The avifauna of the ecoregion is compiled by two separate endemic bird areas with at least one endemic hummingbird species and innumerable numbers of migrants. It is located in northern Colombia in the Department of Magdalena encompassing the Gulfo de Urabá then east to just past the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta at the base of the Guayjira Peninsula, at 10°30' and 11° north latitude.
Magdalena-Urabá moist forests
Located in northern Colombia, these jungles link the northern ecoregions of Mesoamerica and the Chocó with the Andean and Amazonian ecoregions. Extremely rich in both species richness and endemism, this region serves as an important migration point for many avifauna species.
Several areas of considerable size still intact and with little human intervention; around the Serranía de San Lucas is the largest patch. But the conditions and fragmentation of the ecoregion are diverse, depending of the location.
There are many official figures of conservation in this important region; there is not a National Park or alike; several projects with international funds are aimed to rescue some important wetlands, and the establishment of private nature reserves is starting with strong forces in some areas. There are several areas of intact habitat remain such as Serranía de San Lucas.
The region is surrounded by most of the Colombian population and the pressure for the natural resources are tremendous; large scale colonization, cattle ranching, gold mining, oil drilling, valuable timber, narcotic crops, and warfare, together with the extreme pollution of the two most important rivers, the Magdalena and the Cauca, are putting tremendous pressure on these fragile and unique ecosystems.
Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub
Tayrona National Park, Colombia Photograph by Luke Mastin The Guajira/Barranquilla xeric scrub is located in three enclaves along the Caribbean Sea. The largest enclave is located in the Guajira Peninsula, which is the northernmost point of South America, in both northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia. The enclave extends south between the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Serrania de Perijá. The second and smallest of the three enclaves is located east of the Santa Marta Bay, in the north of the Magdalena department of Colombia. The third enclave is found in the north of the Cordoba, Sucre, Bolivar and Atlantico departments, along the Caribbean Sea. The largest city in the ecoregion is Barranquilla.
The Guajira/Barranquilla ecoregion is a unique xerophytic area in the neotropics. Proposed as a bird center of endemism, this arid habitat is dominated by thorn scrub. Herpetofauna is particularly rich with sixty-six species including the endangered species Geochelone carbonaria, and Phrynops dahli.
Even though the dry climate in this region does not favor crops, the whole ecoregion has been effected by humans, principally through agriculture and grazing. The southernmost part of the Guajira peninsula has been severely altered by such activities.
There are two important protected areas in the region, Macuira National Park (IUCN Category II) and Tayrona National Park (IUCN Category II). Macuira Park is located in the northeastern side of the Guajira Peninsula. The park has an area of 25,000 hectares (ha.), and is part of the Serranía de Macuira, which is an "island" of dense vegetation different from the surrounding desert. The elevation of the Serranía is 500 masl. The most common species are Acacia farnesiana, Anacardium excelsum, Cardiospermum carindum, Cassia tora, Cephalocereus colombianus, Dodonea viscosa, Fagara sp., Genipa americana, Lemaireocereus griseus, Pristimera vernicosa, Ruperchtia ramiflora The Park has isolated populations of caiman (Caiman crocodylus), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), margay (Leopardus wiedii), and primates of the genus Alouatta. There are 7 endemic subspecies of birds in the Park.
Tayrona National Park has an area of 150 square kilometers (km2). The Park consists of mangroves and xeric scrubs. The most common species are Capparis odoratissima and Pltymiscium plystachum. The Park has recorded appriximately 100 species of mammals, 200 birds, and 31 species of amphibians. Some of the mammals are jaguar (Felis onca), paca (Cuniculus paca), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus seniculus), and various species of Chiropterans.
Sinú Valley dry forests
For its location at the northwestern extreme of the Andes, near the Darien-Panama bridge and between the two major ecoregions: Chocó wet forests and Magdalena Medio rain forests, the Sinú region is a bridge, a genetic corridor, a contact zone and a center of endemism, and it is strongly believed, a paleo-environment.
Located in the northern sector of Colombia and the South American continent ( between 7° N, 75° W and 10° N, 77° W ), and surrounded by the Magdalena moist forest, the Sinú river flows from the northernmost branches of the western Cordillera of the Andes, towards the Caribbean sea, forming a valley between the Serranías de Abibe and San Jerónimo
The altitudinal gradient, from the upper peaks of the Paramillo, at 3.960 meters (m) above sea level (masl.) to the low alluvial valley at 200 masl. and to the mangroves at sea level, makes it possible for the region to have several types of ecosystems and forests in within a relatively small area.
Due to recent large-scale human intervention, of no more than sixty years, mainly deforestation for cattle ranching and agriculture, damming of the river for large hydroelectric projects, and desiccation of wetlands, very few intact habitat remains in the low valley or in the drier ecosystems, but around it, in the mountains and in the upper Sinú, the forest cover stills present and the presence of a National Park and Indigenous territories assures its conservation.
Wetlands and swamps are at different levels of intervention, but most still in good conditions, until now, when a new dam is filling up in the upper Sinú. The aquatic ecosystems are in need of conservation actions.
Santa Marta montane forests
Tayrona National Park, Colombia Photograph by Luke Mastin The Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta montane forest ecoregion lies in northern Colombia between 10° 01'05'' and 11° 20'11'' north latitude and 72° 36'16'' and 74° 12'49'' east longitude, in the extreme northwest of South America. It is a mountain massif with a pyramid-shape and a surface area of 12,230 km2. On the shores of the Caribbean Sea these mountains rise to an altitude of 5775 m. This ecoregion forms a triangular shape.
This montane ecoregion is a characteristic moist forest; however, it rises from very different habitat of xeric scrub and dry forest that surround it. This ecoregion is limited by altitude running from lowlands to 3300 meters(m) or ending when the vegetative structure changes to paramo, which is then considered the Sierra Marta paramo ecoregion. Parts of the two ecoregions are together in a national park and listed as an endemic bird area by Stattersfield. These monuments and titles further justify the need to protect and recognize this unique habitat and the amount of diversity held within this ecoregion.
Much of this ecoregion has been destroyed leaving about 15% of the original vegetation intact, mainly on the north-facing slopes. Although not much help to this ecoregion it is found within the limits of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park and in 1980 the Cogui–Arsario Arhuaco indigenous reserve was created as a strategy for conserving the ecosystems and aboriginal cultures in this territory further. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve and Tayrona National Park also hold parts of this ecoregion but offer it little formal protection as areas are continuing to be cleared. The jurisdiction of the indigenous reserve was subsequently expanded so that it now overlays and exceeds the area covered by the National Park.
The mountains of this Sierra ecoregion previously held a settlement of pre-Columbian aboriginal communities that left signs of their presence in various areas. In addition, they have been settled at different times since the late nineteenth century. All of this led to a process that modifies the natural environment. The area covered by mountain forests has declined drastically during the last 50 years. In some cases, it is estimated that the reduction in the original forest is between 70% and 80%.
Santa Marta páramo
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia Photograph by Diego Miguel Garcés This isolated ecoregion in Columbia is found in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
The southernmost areas of páramos high moors in South America (11° North Latitude) are found in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system of the Andes range that rises to 5,775 meters (m) above sea level (m.a.s.l.) on the shores of the Caribbean in northern Colombia. This massif located between 10° 01'05 and 11° 20'11 north latitude and 72° 36'16 and 74° 12'49 west longitude, sits on a base of sub-triangular contours the northern edge of which runs parallel to the coastline. One edge looks to the west facing the Great Swamp de Santa Marta, while the other faces south-southwest to the Perijá mountains, from which it is separated by the valleys of the Cesar and Ranchería rivers.
Due to this isolation, a range of endemic flora and fauna occur here including the genus Cabreriela, Castenedia and Raouliopsis. This ecoregion is included in the jurisdiction of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park, however existing cattle grazing and agricultural development by the indigenous people have severely altered the landscape.
The páramos of the Sierra Nevada are included in the jurisdiction of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park, which was created in 1964 and now encompasses an area of approximately 383,000 hectares. It is also included in the Cogui-Arsario and Aruhaco indigenous refuges that have special jurisdiction over the territory. However, they are seriously affected by the existence of extensive cattle herds belonging to indigenous communities that reach up to 3800 m above sea level. A large part of the subpáramo or lower limit has been altered by burning to expand the scrublands and establish local potato and onion crops. Communities of small trees or shrubs are altered by extraction of wood for building and firewood, an activity associated with extensive burning on the páramo as such, to expand the scrubland, clearly degrading biological diversity, eliminating the cover of fallen leaves, reducing moisture retention, and promoting erosion on slopes. Cleef and Rangel note that the high coverage of Acaena cylindrostachya and Lupinus carrikeri in some sectors of scrubland seems to indicate a change in the original vegetation, as a result of extensive livestock, modifying the structure of the vegetation.
Cordillera Oriental montane forests
These Andean montane forests span the eastern slopes of the Andean Cordillera Oriental from their northernmost point southwards through most of Colombia. The Cordillera Oriental Montane Forests are clearly distinguishable from the rest of the montane forest ecoregions of the Northern Andes because of the influence of the piedmont dry forests and the Llanos grasslands of the Orinoco basin, as well as species associations shared with the isolated Santa Marta Mountains.
In Colombia, 60% of the original ecosystems of the ecoregion have been altered. In the montane forests of the Macarena Mountains around 17% has been intervened and approximately 60% of the area has been converted. In Venezuela, the degree of habitat loss is unknown but thought to be limited. In the Colombian portion of the ecoregion, Parque Catatumbo – Bari covers some 821 km2, and various indigenous territories cover another 1,746 km2.
Logging, agriculture, and extensive ranching activities, such as in the flatter foothills, have led to fragmentation, while hydroelectric projects and road infrastructure are being developed in some areas continue to threaten the ecoregion.
Northern Andean paramo
This ecoregion occurs in elevational, mountaintop patches between treeline and the permanent snowline, from northern central Colombia, down the Andean Cordillera to Central Ecuador. This is an extensive ecoregion with a diversity of vegetation types within its parameters, however they all share the characteristic páramo vegetation; high alpine grasslands, bunchgrass, bogs, and open meadows. Although these areas have proven resilient to the influence of man, their capacities are being forced to their limit by burning, grazing, and farming.
Magdalena Valley montane forests
Magdalena Valley, Colombia Photograph by WWF/ R.G. Bermal The montane forests that grow along the Magdalena river valley, on the inner slopes of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, of the Northern Andes in Colombia, are very rich both in animal and plant diversity and endemic species. Being the Eastern cordillera of sedimentary origin, due the uprising of the highly volcanic Central cordillera, the soils are very diverse so the forests that grows on them. In the middle of the Magdalena Medio, surrounded by moist forests, rises the Serranía de San Lucas, up to 2,000 meters, little known biologically.
Few areas are still in good condition due to large scale use of the slopes for coffee growing and farming, but also because more than 70% of the Colombian population lives in this region. The best-preserved areas are the upper Magdalena around the Los Guacharos National Park; the slopes of Nevados del Puracé and Huila, and the Serranía de San Lucas. The remaining areas have forest fragments of variable size. Today many canyons, basins and forest fragments have the remaining biodiversity of the region and all of remains are in urgent need of conservation.
There are several parks in the upper Magdalena basin, such as Guácharos, Puracé, Huila, Hermosas, Nevados, Picachos, Sumapaz and Chingaza, that conserve most of the high montane forests, mostly above 3,000 masl, but unfortunately, below 2,000 masl there are few conservation figures or initiatives, besides an insipient movement of nature reserves of the civilian society that is aiming to protect most of the remaining fragments of native forests among a "sea of grasses and exotic conifers and eucalyptus". Besides protecting the remnant fragments of native habitats, forest corridors between fragments, conservation areas and altitudinal gradients should be established.
Magdalena Valley dry forests
This ecoregion, located within the Northern Andes, occurs along the dry inter-Andean valley formed by the Magdalena River, which is the largest in Colombia. The climate is dry and vegetation includes cati such as Armathocereus humilis and Stenocereus griseus. Fauna biodiversity is relatively unknown, but includes a few endemic subspecies such as the burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia tolimae), tropical bobwhite (Colinus cristatus leucotis), and euphonia (Euphonia concinna). Agriculture, and overgrazing, especially from introduced goats, has destroyed much of the original habitat. Major conservation plans are needed to save this ecoregion since there are no national parks.
Today, most of the original forest cover has disappeared due to conversion of these to farmland and cattle-ranching. Only few forest patches still present around the Cabrera river in Tolima and along creeks. Goats were introduced since the XVI century by the Spanish, and their descendants are still roaming today on the vegetation left.
Several oil deposits are present in the region, and the drilling and extraction of it is a cause of pollution around the Tatacoa desert
Cauca Valley montane forests
Risaralda, Colombia Photograph by WWF/ Jorge Orejuela Located at the northwestern end of the Andes Mountain Range in southwestern Colombia, the Cauca Valley, nestled between the Western and Central ranges of the Andes, stretches for 600 kilometers (km) in a south-north direction between 2° and 8° N latitude.
The montane forests of the Cauca Valley in southwestern Colombia are highly diverse and are an important center of endemism of plants and animals. However, the ecoregion has suffered large losses of forest cover and only small remnants of native vegetation remain, especially at the lower elevations.
The montane forests of the Cauca Valley are strongly fragmented, especially at the lower elevations. Between 1,000 and 2,000 meters (m), most forest has disappeared, and only scattered remnants remain. The largest remaining block within this elevational belt is the Yotoco Forest Reserve, with an extension of 519 hectares (ha). Substantial forest remains at the higher elevations, on both slopes of the valley. However, only small portions receive nominal protection in national parks such as Farallones de Cali, Tatamá, and Los Nevados. Some protection is also afforded by small regional reserves such as Ucumarí Regional Park.
Cauca Valley dry forests
A narrow strip of dry forest is situate in a dry valley of the Cauca River in northwestern Colombia, this ecoregion is one of the most degraded in area. Little is left of the natural vegetation in the valley due to agricultural expansion and urban development. There are many endemics within this region that desperately need protection in order to avoid extinction.
The Sonso Lagoon Reserve is the only protected area located in an ancient oxbow of the Cauca River. The reserve consists of wetlands and forests, and has an area of 2,050 hectares (IUCN category IV). The species found in the reserve are representative of wetlands and gallery forests. There are no protected areas in the dry forests.
Northwestern Andean montane forests
The Northwestern Andean montane forest ecoregion is among the most diverse regions on the planet. The disjunct formation of Andean topography and pronounced glacial period of isolation forced plant and animal communities to adapt to different areas after being cut off from each other; therefore laying the perfect foundation for speciation. For a variety of reasons, related to their complex topography and a biogeographical history featuring continual altitudinal migration of vegetation zones in response to changing climate, these ecosystems today present a diverse array of distinctive biological communities, characterized by unusually high levels of species endemism. This region not only boasts the highest biodiversity, but also the highest percentage of endemic species. About 50% of its flora is found nowhere else, and this area contains the highest concentration of endemic bird areas. Unfortunately, people have found these areas livable and have disturbed these natural areas in many ways since pre-Colombian times. Although some reasonably sized continuous forest stands still exist, patchiness from farms and other anthropogenic influences have disturbed these highly sensitive forests.
Patía Valley dry forests
Near Popayán, Colombia Photograph by Luke Mastin This small dry inter-Andean Valley in southwestern Colombia flanks the Patía River Valley and vicinity. Completely surrounded by the formidable barrier of the Andean chain, and encompassed by moist and cloud forests, this valley has remained isolated from similar habitats for long enough for speciation to occur among its flora and fauna. Like most of the dry valleys in the Andes, the Patía Valley is threatened by human settlement and urban sprawl.
Today most of the valley has suffered from human activity, but there are pockets with original vegetation that could be preserved; there are some conservation initiatives in private lands that can may conserve a good proportion of the original species. But in general, conservation initiatives are urgently needed in this valley.
If the current trend of use continues, very few original ecosystem could be left for conservation. Promotion of private conservation is one way to save what is left, and there is a Colombian NGO, the Network of Nature Reserves of the Civilian Society that is addressing this challenge.
Eastern Cordillera real montane forests
This tropical montane forest ecoregion is located on the eastern slopes of the middle Andes, extending north-south from southern Colombia, through Ecuador, and into northern Peru. This rugged premontane habitat receives between 1,500-2,000 millimeters (mm) of rain each year, but can get as much as 4,500 in a heavy rain year. The dominant vegetation in this region varies dramatically with altitude, which ranges from 900 meters (m) to over 2100 m. In general, the plant communities here are tropical evergreen seasonal broad-leaved forests. The lower elevational areas, known locally as ceja de montaña, consists of closed, luxuriant forests. As elevation increased forests stature decreases and at higher elevations grades into cloud forests and finally elfin woodlands.. This area is home to several endangered and endemic birds, including the white-necked parakeet, coppery-chested jacamar, and bicoloured antvireo.
These moist montane forests are naturally isolated and have also been fragmented by the clearing away of forests to make way for agriculture and pasture. As access is relatively easy, in recent years these forests have been increasingly more threatened by the removal of valuable commercial species such as Podocarpus. Perhaps 75 percent of the coverage of original wet forest has been removed, having been cut and replaced by agricultural systems or thickets.
Napo moist forests
The Rio Napo region is situated at the western extreme of Amazonia where it hosts extraordinarily rich tropical moist forests. The ecoregion covers the northwestern portion of Peru, the Amazon region of Ecuador and the southwestern corner of Colombia's Amazon. It is bounded on the west by the foothills of the Andes Mountains, on the south by the Marañon River in Peru, on the north by the Napo in Peru and the Caguán in Colombia. The region extends east almost to the Peruvian City of Iquitos near the confluence of the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Many important Amazon rivers including the Morona, Pastaza, Tigre, and Curaray in Ecuador and Peru, and the headwaters of the Caquetá and Putumayo in Colombia bisect the region. All of these rivers drain into the Amazon Basin.
This ecoregion belongs to the Amazon floristic province, an area of extreme diversity and endemism in species of both flora and fauna. This diversity results in some of the most species-rich forests in the world. For example, below 300 meters (m) elevation there are 138 orchid species that have been identified in Ecuador alone. Much of this ecoregion is not well known by scientists, possibly holding species currently undiscovered with the possibility of increasing worldwide biodiversity.
La Paya National Park in Colombia is situated on the interfluve between the Caquetá and Putumayo Rivers, but its forests and species are under threat from colonization, plantation agriculture, and hunting in and around the reserve. The entire area around La Paya National Park is deforested. The large triangle between the Caguán and Upper Putumayo Rivers in Colombia and the province of Napo in Ecuador at the northern extent of the ecoregion are areas of notable deforestation, resulting from forest conversion to cattle pasture and coca (Erythroxylum coca) plantations. The remaining intact Napo moist forest is considered threatened by degradation resulting from ongoing human activities.
Purus varzea
The flooded river basins of the Amazon make up this ecoregion. Avifauna diversity is extraoridinary with over six hundred and thirty species. Terrestrial mammal diversity is smaller because the habitat is often flooded; two narrow endemic primates inhabit this region, the white uakari monkeys (Cacajao calvus calvus) and blackish squirrel monkeys (Saimiri vanzolinii) . Also, the largest snake in the world, the great anaconda (Eunectes murinus), is found here. Much of the ecoregion is effected by human presence, because of the waterways used for transportation.
Solimoes-Japura moist forest
The Solimões-Japurá moist forest ecoregion lies on well-drained upland Tertiary alluvial plains in western Amazonia. The region straddles the Putumayo River which forms the Peru-Colombia border north extending to the Caquetá River in Colombia and south to the Amazon and Napo Rivers in Peru. The eastern flank covers the interfluve between the Japurá (Caquetá) and Solimões (Amazon) Rivers in Brazil. The western extent of the ecoregion is well before the lowest foothills of the Andes near Puerto Laguízamo, Colombia.
This rolling terrain on the plains of western Amazonia is high in biodiversity. Avifauna diversity is extremely high with 542 species, including restricted range species such as the blue-tufted starthroats (Heliomaster furcifer), and the endemic ochre-striped antpittas (Grallaria dignissima). The largest freshwater turtle in the world (Podocnemys expansa) inhabits the rivers of this region. Much of the native habitat in this ecoregion remains intact, but recent advances of coca (Erythroxylum coca) production, logging and mining operations, and cattle ranching have damaged huge tracks of land.
About one-third of this ecoregion, in Colombia between the Putumayo and Caquetá Rivers, is under the jurisdiction of indigenous people who practice extractive activities and small-scale shifting cultivation. Although Colombia has strong legislation to regulate timber extraction from these forests, enforcement suffers because of insufficient administrative capacity.
Caqueta moist forests
Apaporis River, Colombia Photograph by WWF/ Aldo Brando The Caquetá moist forest occurs in the Colombian Amazon. It is bound on the northeast by the Guainía, Guaviare, and Guayabero rivers and to the western extreme at the small Rio Losada, south of the Serrania de la Macarena. The southern border of the region extends southeast from the headwaters of the Rio Caguan, which then converges with the Caquetá. The region extends east just into Brazil. The Apaporis, Vaupés, and Yari rivers dissect this region, and large expanses of seasonally flooded forest occur on their banks.
Located in the Colombian Amazon and high in rainfall, flora diversity is rich as is a transitional area between these floristic provinces of the Amazon Basin forests and the Guayana region. Fauna diversity is high although endemism is not. A few species that are endemic include the Chiribiquete emerald (Chlorostilbon olivaresi) and grey-legged tinamou (Crypturellus duidae), and tamarin (Saguinus inustus). Large-scale cattle ranching poses the most serious threat to this ecoregion. Large tracts of forest have been logged to cultivate pastures for grazing.
Large-scale cattle ranching in the western extreme of this ecoregion at the headwaters of the Vaupés River has resulted in the clearing of vast expanses of forestland. A large triangle of deforestation has occurred, fanning out from the San Jose-Calamar road south of the Rio Guayabero. In the interior of the region small settlements of indigenous people have little impact on the natural habitat; however, colonists are now migrating down the Rio Negro, deforesting along the way for small-scale agriculture or cattle grazing. Large forested areas along the Vaupés and Apaporis rivers are also falling to coca (Erythroxylum coca) production. The one protected area in this region is the 8,550 square kilometers Nukak Tuhahi National Reserve in the center. The remaining intact forest is considered threatened frontier forest that may eventually be degraded by ongoing human activities.
Japurá-Solimoes-Negro moist forests
This region of dense tropical rain forest is situated on the lowland plateau in the central northern portion of the Amazon Basin in Brazil with tiny sections just touching Colombia and Venezuela. This tropical rainforest in the northern Amazon Basin is dissected by rivers. Biodiversity is high and includes a number of primates such as black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus), red-handed tamarins (Saguinus midas), and common squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). This ecoregion contains the largest national park in Brazil, Jaú National Park. Although much of this habitat has remained intact, areas along the rivers have high levels of mining, logging, agriculture, hunting, and fishing.
Negro-Branco moist forests
The Negro-Branco ecoregion abuts to the northern banks of the Rio Negro, along the southwestern edge of the Guayana Shield in eastern Colombia, southwestern Venezuela, and northwestern Brazil. This area consists of forested lowland plains, with some wide, rolling hill-lands, and low sandstone table mountains. This area hosts diverse plant communities, including both seasonally flooded and non-flooded tall evergreen lowland forests, that can reach 40 meters (m) in height, as well as low evergreen flooded palm forests, which reach only 20 m in height. Elevations range from 120 m-400 m and annual precipitation is between 2,000-3,000 millimeters (mm).
Due to the inaccessibility of this ecoregion, the forest remains largely intact. No paved roads exist here although unpaved roads exist to the north and west of the ecoregion in Colombia. People living in settlements along the rivers practice small-scale rotational agriculture, and boat traffic along the rivers brings loggers and merchants. Brazil nut collectors set fire to the lower portion of the forest as a management practice. This alters the understory in some stands, but this is a localized practice. The largest biosphere reserve in the tropics, the Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare Biosphere Reserve, lies mostly in this ecoregion.
Rio Negro campinarana
The Rio Negro Campinarana ecoregion occur in isolated patches along the Rio Negro and Rio Branco basins in northern Brazil. These isolated patches of oligotrophic, or low nutrient, soils host a range of vegetation types from herbaceous savannas to closed-canopy forests. Patches of similar vegetation occur in northern Peru, southwestern Venezuela, and eastern Colombia as well. Campinarana habitat is very unique with vegetation adapted to extremely poor soil types, leading to a high number of endemic species. There are multiple vegetative layers in this one ecoregion, moving from herbaceous savannas with lichens and grasses through stages to trees and forests. With this structure comes a wide variety of primitive faunal species including at least four species of primates and plant species that are exclusive to the compinarana ecoregion.
The llanos ecoregion covers a large elongated area 1,200-1,300 kilometers (km) long, that extends in a gentle curve in a northeast direction, beginning at the foothills of the Oriental Andes of Colombia and extending along the course of the Orinoco River almost to its delta at the sea. The Llanos ecoregion is located in a great depression, limited by the Andes in the west, the Venezuelan coastal range that isolates it from the Caribbean Sea in the north, and the Guiana shield in the south. In Colombia they occupy the departments of Meta, Arauca, Vichada, and Casanare, and continue in Venezuela in the states of Apure, Barinas, Portuguesa, Cojedes, Guarico, Anzoategui, and Monagas. The area of the lowlands of Colombia and Apure State collects the rainfall from the Andes and the Guiana plateau and draining, due to the presence of a slight downward slope in the north-east direction, through the Meta, Arauca, Vichada, Cinaruco, Apure, and Capanaparo Rivers, just to name a few, to the Orinoco River.
In South America the savanna ecosystem covers a total of 269 million hectares (ha.) Most of it (76%) belongs to the Cerrados of Brazil but about 11% (28 million ha) form the Venezuelan Llanos and 6% (16-17 million ha) the "Llanos Orientales" of Colombia. These two areas, although belonging to different countries, form a single ecoregion, the Llanos of the Orinoquia (latitude 3° to 10° N and longitude 62° to 74° W). This is an area of extensive plains, covered mainly by savanna vegetation, of great economic importance for both countries. This ecoregion is relatively young, perhaps less than 10,000 years old, and developed in a great geosyncline between the Guiana Plateau and the Andes Range. This extensive basin was, over time, filled with sediments from the Guiana Plateau and the cordilleras during the Tertiary. The ecoregion then experienced a series of subsidences resulting in a landscape made up mainly of alluvial plains and highlands.
A total of 1.2 million ha are protected in the Colombian Orinoquia as National Parks of "Cordillera de Los Picachos", "El Tuparro" and "Tinigua".
Apure-Villavicencio dry forests
The Apure/Villavicencio dry forests extend southwest, bordering the eastern Cordillera de Mérida, from Venezuela to the Serranía de Macarena in Colombia. The ecoregion is located in the states of Portuguesa, Barinas, and Apure in Venezuela and the departments of Arauca, Casanare, and Meta in Colombia. The ecoregion is wide in the north and narrows as it extends southward.
This transitional habitat is located between the montane forests of the eastern Andean slope and the lowland grasslands. The ecoregion is a mosaic of premontane forest, dry forest, savanna, and gallery forest. Small mammals are characteristic of area and include a mouse opossum (Marmosa xerophila), a vesper mouse (Calomys hummelincki) and the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). Only two parks, the Serranía de la Macarena and Tinigua National Parks, are located within this ecoregion that as been almost destroyed by agriculture and livestock grazing.
Most of the area has been highly degraded by agriculture and livestock grazing. In Venezuela, the agricultural lands are in the north of the ecoregion. In Colombia, the agricultural lands extend throughout the ecoregion, except for some natural habitat remaining in the lowlands of the Serranía de la Macarena and Tinigua National Parks. These two Parks are the only protected areas located in the southernmost part of the ecoregion.
Catatumbo moist forests
The Catatumbo moist forests exist as four distinct enclaves within the Catatumbo Valley, in both northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia.
The Catatumbo moist forests are among the richest in floral diversity in humid tropical areas of Venezuela. These forests flank the lower slopes and lowlands between the Cordillera de Mérida and the Cordillera Oriental of the northern Andes, and occur as several outliers in the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo.
Cayos Miskitos-San Andrés and Providencia moist forests
The islands of San Andrés (the southernmost, at 12º36'N-81º42'W, with a surface area of 24 km2), Santa Catalina and Providencia (the northernmost, at 13º23'N-81º22'W, with a surface area of approximately 17 km2) and a group of keys and small islands, are located 150 km east of the Nicaraguan coast (Bluefields) and 620 km northwest of Cartagena (Colombia). The Miskitos Keys, with more than 85 islands, are located 40 km east of Awas Tara (northeastern Nicaraguan coast on the Caribbean) at 14º26'N-82º50'W and cover a total area of 500 km2, i.e., each key has an average area of some 6 km2.
Moist forests of the Cayos Mistitos / San Andés and Providencia islands form this ecoregion, and cover an area of some 96 square kilometers (km2). This region forms part of the Colombian territory and the greatest source of income is tourism; in addition to coconut production in San Andrés and citrus fruit, particularly oranges in Providencia. Due to deforestation associated with agriculture in San Andrés and intense cattle raising in Providencia, the tropical rain forests which once covered most of the islands are now almost completely destroyed. There are, however, two species of land birds and reptiles that are endemic to San Andrés Island and have managed to survive the vegetative destruction.
Malpelo Island xeric scrub
Malpelo Island (3¸59'05N - 81¸35'28W) is a small isolated Pacific island, 270 miles to the west of Colombia and south of Panama. It is one of several oceanic islands in the eastern tropical Pacific, along with Cocos Island and the Galapagos. The main island itself is roughly 8 square kilometers (km2), its elongate shape is 2.5 kilometers (km) long and 800m wide at its widest point, and is surrounded by a number of smaller rock outcroppings.
Malpelo, a small isolated Pacific island, is host to several endemic plants, a number of breeding seabirds, a land crab, and two endemic species of lizards. Much of the island's perimeter consists of near vertical rock faces which reach 60 to 230 meters (m) above the sea - making access very difficult. Malpelo was uninhabited until 1986 when a small military garrison was established. Because the island is seldom visited, little is know of its natural history.
The terrestrial species on Malpelo Island remain in relatively good condition. That is to say no exotic species have thus far been introduced, no permanent human habitations exist, and the island is otherwise unchanged by mankind. A military garrison is in place on the island and houses several people at any given time. At present, Malpelo Island is recognized as a Fauna and Floa Sanctuary.
Ecoregions are areas that:
[1] share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics;
[2] share similar environmental conditions; and,
[3] interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.
Scientists at the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), have established a classification system that divides the world in 867 terrestrial ecoregions, 426 freshwater ecoregions and 229 marine ecoregions that reflect the distribution of a broad range of fauna and flora across the entire planet.


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stupid filter cartridge question.. Penguin 350
Which way are these cartridges supposed to face? the blue part toward the front of the aquarium, or the black (Carbon?) part?
thanks... :roll:
The black part faces the BIO-wheel while the blue part faces the "wall" and incoming flow.
blue part is where water enters. carbon where it leaves.
Ok, phew. thanks fellas ;p
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Yoga Adventures, Retreats & Tours | Nova Scotia
Adding yoga to your active holiday can be a great way to gain new perspectives and foster transformation. This gentle practice helps you break daily habits and affords you the luxury of time and space to do things just for you. Indulge in deep relaxation, contemplation, and clarity.
We offer a variety of yoga options in conjunction with our Nova Scotia trips; you can take a class at the Sail Loft Yoga Studio, request a private session, join a yoga trip or have a custom retreat designed especially for you.
Enjoy peaceful and beautiful surroundings,
food that is good and good for you, while mixing activities like yoga,
cycling, paddling, walking, chanting, meditating, dancing,
and whatever your dreams dictate!
Option 1:
Attend a regularly scheduled class, ongoing throughout the year, in Hubbards Nova Scotia.
Please see the current class schedule.
Option 2:
Request a private yoga session. Try a 90 minute flow session with comfortable warm up, closing, and meditation. Alternatively, two and a half hour workshop style classes are available followed by light refreshments providing better opportunities for questions, discussions, and in-depth work on postures.
Option 3:
Book one of the following adventures designed with yogis in mind...


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« Strange Days | Main | Chavez Ravine »
June 8, 2005
A Few Thoughts
Uuugggghhhh. It's Interleague time again. Call me a traditionalist, but I believe the only time an American League team should play a National League team is in the World Series. Wow!!! Did you happen to see the hit that Darin Erstad of the Angels put on Johnny Estrada of the Braves the other night at home plate? I know Erstad was a punter for the '94 Nebraska Cornhusker National Championship Team, but that was a hit an NFL defensive back would be proud of. The Braves need to quit griping, the hit was clean and any of their players would have done the same. OK, what's with baseball players suffering the freakiest of injuries? The latest to join the list is Colorado Rockies shortstop Clint Barmes, a shoo-in for NL Rookie of the year, who broke his collarbone while carrying groceries to his apartment. With apologies to my friend Craig, I smile when I see the Yankees 2 games below 500 and 7 games out of first in the AL East. You might want to keep an eye on New York City because Mt. George (Steinbrenner) is going to erupt any day now. Rumor has it that GM Brian Cashman was seen upoading his resume to Monster.com while Manager Joe Torre was seen at a local U-Haul scoring some boxes to help clean out his office.
I see that the Mets scooped up released Reds closer, Danny Graves. He's the guy who endeared himself to Cincinnati by giving a Reds fan a One-Fingered wave while leaving the field. As the Mets have a solid bullpen and a pretty good closer in Braden Looper, it appears they did this to keep Graves out of the Braves bullpen, or any other team in the NL East for that matter. You can criticize Dodger GM Paul DePodesta all you want, and TJ Simers of the LA Times certainly piles on, but a little pitching help at the trading deadline could certainly make the NL West a three team race. OK, to whom do these stats belong - 11 Gms, 31 ABs, 8 Rs, 6 Hs, 1 HR, 5 RBIs, .479 OBP, .323 SLG, .194 AVG? The answer appears at the end of this column. Gee, homeruns are down, imagine that? Major League Baseball implements a steroid policy that has some teeth and HRs decrease, go figure. If Jason Giambi went from looking like Bluto to Gumby in about 9 month, sans juice, I can't wait to see what Barry Bonds looks like when/if he returns to the field. Barry was spotted at a San Francisco tailor last week having all of his uniforms taken in, not his hats however, as steroids were not the reason for his swelled head. I read in Time Magazine that in 24 homes games the Washington Nationals have drawn over 762,000 fans, which surpasses the entire season attendance for all 80 games played in Montreal last season. By the end of the season they expect the Nat's to overtake the attendance for the entire time the Expos played in Montreal. Don't look now, but the Nationals are for real and they're starting to believe they can win the NL East. If they keep it close the front office should bring someone up from the minors just to sit next to Frank Robinson and keep from nodding off during games. How many boxes of toothpics would you guess Manager Dusty Baker goes thru in a season? Dusty, aka "The Lizzard", is quite a character, in addition to the aforementioned habit of eating a small tree every game, Dusty sticks his tongue out about 500 to 600 times a game and he also wears wristbands for no apparent reason. I missed the Dodger game on TV the other night and was disappointed because I heard that Vin Scully was going to have Sparky Anderson up in the box with him.....what a treat that must have been. I tried to imagine all the great games and great players those two men have had the pleasure to watch and I had to quit counting out of envy. The day Vin Scully steps down will be a sad day for baseball. OK, here's the answer to whose stats appeared above; 46 year old Ricky Hendeson of the San Diego Surf Dawgs. That's it, I'm outta here. Enjoy.
Posted by Kevin O'Leary at 4:56 PM
Here are some questions for you: Why are the Nationals 10 games over .500 when they've only outscored their opponents by a total of five runs? Is Frank Robinson a great manager, or what? By the same token, your beloved Braves are just two games above .500 while having outscored their opponents by 31 runs. What's up with that? Has Bobby Cox lost the ability to manage effectively in close games?
--Cubs Fan
Posted by: Bill Davis on June 13, 2005 6:52 PM


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USDA solicits new bids for sugar
SPRINGFIELD — The U.S. Department of Agriculture announced the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) is offering to sell its recently acquired sugar inventory for use as a feedstock for bio-energy production using the authority of the Feedstock Flexibility Program (FFP). CCC successfully sold 143,143 short tons under its previous FFP tenders.
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Parallel Verses
New International Version
The dragon stood on the shore of the sea. And I saw a beast coming out of the sea. It had ten horns and seven heads, with ten crowns on its horns, and on each head a blasphemous name.
New Living Translation
Then I saw a beast rising up out of the sea. It had seven heads and ten horns, with ten crowns on its horns. And written on each head were names that blasphemed God.
English Standard Version
And I saw a beast rising out of the sea, with ten horns and seven heads, with ten diadems on its horns and blasphemous names on its heads.
Berean Study Bible
Then I saw a beast with ten horns and seven heads rising out of the sea. There were ten royal crowns on its horns and blasphemous names on its heads.
Berean Literal Bible
And I saw rising out of the sea a beast, having ten horns, and seven heads, and on its horns, ten diadems, and upon its heads, names of blasphemy.
New American Standard Bible
And the dragon stood on the sand of the seashore. Then I saw a beast coming up out of the sea, having ten horns and seven heads, and on his horns were ten diadems, and on his heads were blasphemous names.
King James Bible
And I stood upon the sand of the sea, and saw a beast rise up out of the sea, having seven heads and ten horns, and upon his horns ten crowns, and upon his heads the name of blasphemy.
Holman Christian Standard Bible
And I saw a beast coming up out of the sea. He had 10 horns and seven heads. On his horns were 10 diadems, and on his heads were blasphemous names.
International Standard Version
I saw a beast coming out of the sea. It had ten horns, seven heads, and ten royal crowns on its horns. On its heads were blasphemous names.
NET Bible
Then I saw a beast coming up out of the sea. It had ten horns and seven heads, and on its horns were ten diadem crowns, and on its heads a blasphemous name.
Aramaic Bible in Plain English
And I stood on the sand of the Sea, and I saw a beast ascending from the Sea, which had 10 horns and seven heads, and upon its horns, 10 diadems, and upon its heads the name of blasphemy.
GOD'S WORD® Translation
I saw a beast coming out of the sea. It had ten horns, seven heads, and ten crowns on its horns. There were insulting names on its heads.
New American Standard 1977
And he stood on the sand of the seashore.
And I saw a beast coming up out of the sea, having ten horns and seven heads, and on his horns were ten diadems, and on his heads were blasphemous names.
Parallel CommentariesMatthew Henry's Concise Commentary
13:1-10 The apostle, standing on the shore, saw a savage beast rise out of the sea; a tyrannical, idolatrous, persecuting power, springing up out of the troubles which took place. It was a frightful monster! It appears to mean that worldly, oppressing dominion, which for many ages, even from the times of the Babylonish captivity, had been hostile to the church. The first beast then began to oppress and persecute the righteous for righteousness' sake, but they suffered most under the fourth beast of Daniel, (the Roman empire,) which has afflicted the saints with many cruel persecutions. The source of its power was the dragon. It was set up by the devil, and supported by him. The wounding the head may be the abolishing pagan idolatry; and the healing of the wound, introducing popish idolatry, the same in substance, only in a new dress, but which as effectually answers the devil's design. The world admired its power, policy and success. They paid honour and subjection to the devil and his instruments. It exercised infernal power and policy, requiring men to render that honour to creatures which belongs to God alone. Yet the devil's power and success are limited. Christ has a chosen remnant, redeemed by his blood, recorded in his book, sealed by his Spirit; and though the devil and antichrist may overcome the body, and take away the natural life, they cannot conquer the soul, nor prevail with true believers to forsake their Saviour, and join his enemies. Perseverance in the faith of the gospel and true worship of God, in this great hour of trial and temptation, which would deceive all but the elect, is the character of those registered in the book of life. This powerful motive and encouragement to constancy, is the great design of the whole Revelation.
Pulpit Commentary
Verse 1. - And I stood upon the sand of the sea. The Revised Version, agreeing with א, A, C, Vulgate, Syriac, AEthiopic, Armenian, Victorinus, reads ἐστάθη, "he stood." The Authorized Version follows the reading ἐστάθην, "I stood," which is found in B, P, Coptic, Andreas, Arethas. Fortunately, the point is not important. Whether St. John or the dragon stood on the edge of the sea is not material, since we are distinctly told that the ten-horned beast rose from the sea. Wordsworth aptly contrasts this station on the unstable sand in proximity to the sea, the clement of commotion, with the vision of the Lamb on Mount Zion (Revelation 14:1-5). The imagery which follows is founded upon the vision of Daniel 7. The phrase should probably be joined on to the preceding passage, as in the Revised Version. The new vision then opens in the customary manner with εῖδον, "I saw," as in Revelation 4, 5, 6, 7, etc. And saw a beast rise up out of the sea. Supply "I," and make this the beginning of the fresh paragraph (see above). The one beast here takes the place of the four beasts of Daniel 7, and is distinguished by the characteristics of the first three (see on ver. 2). This beast arises from the sea, the second beast from the earth (see ver. 11). They are the instruments of the woe which is denounced against the earth and the sea in Revelation 12:12. The sea, again, is the type of instability, confusion, and commotion, frequently signifying the ungovernable nations of the earth in opposition to the Church of God (cf. Revelation 17:15; Revelation 21:1). Probably this is the beast referred to in Revelation 11:7, and (more fully) in Revelation 17. It is the power of the world which is directed towards the persecution of Christians. Having seven heads and ten horns. Nearly every manuscript has, having ten horns and seven heads. The order is reversed in Revelation 12:3 and Revelation 17:3; possibly the horns are mentioned first in this passage, because they are first seen as the beast rises from the sea. The essential identity of this beast with the dragon of Revelation 12:3 is plainly shown. There Satan is described in his personal character; here he is described under the aspect of the persecuting power of the world. The symbolism is analogous to that found in Daniel 7, where we may find the key to the interpretation. First, the heads signify dominion. The head is naturally looked upon as the chief, the controlling and guiding part of the body; that part to which all the members of the body are subject. This is the idea conveyed in Daniel 7:6. The third beast there is distinguished by the possession of four heads, and (we are immediately told) "dominion was given to it." Seven, as we have repeatedly seen, is the number typical of universality (cf. Revelation 1:4; Revelation 5:1, etc.). The seven, heads, therefore, are symbolical of universal dominion. In the second place, horns are the type of power. Thus, in Daniel 7:7, the beast which is distinguished by the possession of the horns is described as being "diverse from all the beasts that were before it." It was "dreadful and terrible, and strong exceedingly; and it had great iron teeth: it devoured and brake in pieces, and stamped the residue with the feet of it" (cf. Deuteronomy 33:17; Psalm 132:17; Jeremiah 48:25, etc.). The number ten is the sign of completeness; not of universality or totality, but of sufficiency and abundancy for the purpose in view (cf. Genesis 18:32, the ten righteous wanting at Sodom; Exodus 27:12, the ten pillars of the tabernacle; the ten commandments; the tithe; Psalm 33:2, etc.). The ten horns, therefore, denote plenitude of power. The words of this passage thus signify that the beast should possess worldwide dominion and ample power. These are the qualities ascribed to the power which Satan now directs against the "seed of the woman." At the time of the writing of the Apocalypse, this power was evidently heathen Rome; but the meaning may be extended to embrace all the forms which this world opposition has assumed, whether Roman, Mohammedan, or Gothic, etc. It is consequently unnecessary, as it certainly seems fruitless, to attempt to interpret the heads and horns of individual nations and kings. In endeavouring to do so, many writers have imported into the description here given other details from Daniel, or deduced by themselves, for which there is no warrant in the narrative here supplied. For the same reason, it is useless to inquire into the disposition of the ten horns and seven heads; since the whole is a figure intended to convey certain ideas, and is not a description of an actual bodily form. And upon his horns ten crowns. "Ten crowns;" διαδήματα, crowns denoting sovereignty; not στέφανος, the victor's wreath. The crowns upon the horns denote the sovereign nature of the power with which the beast is invested. The nations of the world who have persecuted the Church of God have the chief rule in this world. And upon his heads the name of blasphemy. The plural ὀνόματα, "names," adopted by the Revised Version, is found in A, B, Vulgate, Coptic, Andreas, Primasius. Alford reads the singular ὄνομα, with א, C, P, Coptic, Andreas, Primasius. There is no article. Possibly each head bore a name, which was the same in each case, and which might therefore with equal propriety be described as name or names. "Upon his heads" (ἐπὶ κεφαλάς); the accusative being used (as Afford suggests) because the action of inscription carries with it a tinge of motion. In the preceding clause we have the genitive Or; ἐπὶ κεράτων, where the preposition denotes rest. We have no hint given as to what the name was; the nature only is indicated. St. John very possibly had in his mind the mitre of the high priest, upon the plate of which was inscribed, "Holiness to the Lord" (Exodus 28:36). It is a "name of blasphemy;" that is, the worldly power, typified by this beast, denies the Divinity and might of the true God, and exalts itself above him. Bede, Hengstenberg, etc., see the fulfilment in the assumption by the Roman emperors of titles which belong rightly only to Christ - King of kings, Divus, etc. But the application is wider. As partial fulfilments of that which will never be completely fulfilled until the end of the world, we may mention Pharaoh, when he said, "Who is the Lord, that I should obey his voice?" (Exodus 5:2); Sennacherib (2 Kings 18.); Herod Agrippa (Acts 12:22); as well as those since St. John's time who have blasphemed by denying the existence or omnipotence of Christ.
Gill's Exposition of the Entire Bible
And I stood upon the sand of the sea,.... The Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic versions read, "and he stood", &c. and so the Alexandrian copy; meaning the dragon, said to be wroth with the woman, and to go forth to make war with her seed, in the latter part of the preceding chapter, where some versions place this clause; and the Arabic version reads expressly, "and the serpent stood", &c. And this is thought by some to be the better reading, because of the connection with what goes before, and because there is no mention of the name of John, nor of his being called or removed from heaven, where he was beholding sights, and continuing the account of them, Revelation 4:1, as there is when he is shown sights elsewhere; see Revelation 17:3. And besides, as the dragon was contriving a new way of persecuting the saints, and about to raise up a beast out of the sea, by which he might do it, to whom he would give his power, seat, and authority, he is represented as standing in a proper place for this purpose; it was upon the sand, which may signify a multitude of people employed by him, and also may denote the weakness and failure of his efforts in the issue; yet the Greek copies in general agree in the common reading, and refer it to John, who stood on the shore of the isle of Patmos, and in a fit place, in a visionary way, to behold the following sight: for that the next clause belongs to him is without doubt,
and saw a beast rise up out of the sea: by which is meant, not the devil, because it is in Revelation 13:2, distinguished from the dragon, who is the devil and Satan, as also elsewhere, Revelation 16:13, nor the old Roman empire, though there are many things which seem to agree; the Roman monarchy is called a beast it is one of the four beasts in Daniel 7:2; which rose up out of the sea, from a multitude of people and nations, which were gathered to it and composed it. Rome Pagan had, as this beast has, seven heads and ten horns, Revelation 12:3; and had power over all nations, and is therefore sometimes called the whole world, and exercised great cruelty upon the Christians; but then this is signified by the red dragon itself, in the preceding chapter, and, besides, had risen up before the times of John, whereas this is one of the things shown him, which should be hereafter: this beast then was not, but was to come, Revelation 4:1; and was not to arise, nor did it arise till after the downfall of Rome Pagan, and after the Arian persecution, after the woman's flight into the wilderness, and after, and upon the inundation of the barbarous nations into the empire, as appears from the preceding chapter; nor will the time of this beast's duration agree with the old Roman empire, for this beast is to continue forty two months, Revelation 13:5; which is the whole time of the holy city being trodden under foot, and of the church's being in the wilderness, and of the witnesses prophesying in sackcloth; whereas the Roman monarchy, governed by emperors, did not last four hundred years. Moreover, as this beast is distinguished from the dragon, so it is said to have its power from him; whereas the Roman empire was of God, and obedience and subjection to it are always recommended to the saints in the Scriptures, Romans 13:1, much less can the empire, as become truly Christian, be intended; nor are either the eastern or the Turkish empires designed, for neither of these had their seat at Rome, which the dragon save to this beast, but at Constantinople: it remains then, that by it meant the Roman empire, when divided into ten kingdoms, and united in the Papacy; or it designs Christ in his secular power, with the ten kings, that receive power with him as such one hour, and give their kingdom to him: now this beast is said to "rise up out of the sea"; either out of the abyss, the bottomless pit of hell, see Revelation 11:7; or out of the sea of this world, and the wicked in it, who are like a troubled sea that cannot rest; or out of the floods of errors and heresies, by which this man of sin was conceived and cherished, and a way was paved for his open rising and appearance in the world; or rather, since waters design, in this book, nations, people, and tongues, see Revelation 17:15; and the four beasts in Daniel are said to rise out of the sea, Revelation 7:2; and a multitude of people are compared to the waves of the sea, Ezekiel 26:3; see also Isaiah 17:12, where the Jewish writers say (b), the nations are compared to the sea, as Israel to the sand, the inundation of the barbarous nations, the Goths, Huns, and Vandals, into the empire, seem to be intended, which made great commotions and changes in it: these set up ten kingdoms in it, upon which antichrist arose, and placed himself at the head of them; these gave their kingdoms to the beast; and so may be said to give rise unto him, especially as to his secular power.
Having seven heads: which some understand the seat of knowledge, and seven a number of perfection; and so may refer to those boasted treasures of wisdom and knowledge which antichrist pretends to have, as being the judge of controversies, and the infallible interpreter of the Scriptures; or else the seven fold form of government among the Romans is intended, as in Revelation 12:3; or rather as it is interpreted in Revelation 17:9; the seven mountains on which Rome was built, and so design the city itself built on them, that being the metropolis of the empire; or the seven capital cities of the empire, as Mr. Daubuz thinks; the whole is meant, for it is the same Roman monarchy as before, only in a different form:
and ten horns; the ten kingdoms, into which the empire was divide it upon its being wasted and vanquished by the Goths, and the ten kings of them, which reigned with the beast, and gave their kingdoms to him; so horns signify kingdoms in Zechariah 1:18.
And upon his horns ten crowns; which distinguishes Rome Papal from Rome Pagan; the crowns in Rome Pagan were upon the heads, or the emperors, that resided at Rome; and though it had ten horns, as here, and was divided into so many provinces, which were governed by deputies, proconsuls, &c. yet they were not kings, they had no crowns; but here the horns have crowns on them because the governors of these ten kingdoms are crowned kings:
and upon his heads the name of blasphemy; which refers not to Rome Pagan being called the eternal city, and Rome the goddess, and the like; but to Rome Papal, or antichrist, who elsewhere is said to have the name "Mystery" written upon the forehead, and to have blasphemy on his heads; and is called blasphemy in the abstract, as being a most blasphemous creature against God, Christ, and his people, and so his name is suitable to his character, mouth, and language, Revelation 13:5; assuming that to himself which only belongs to God and Christ, as power over the conscience, to forgive sin, &c. and even deity itself; see 2 Thessalonians 1:4. The Alexandrian copy, and some others, the Complutensian edition, the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Arabic versions, read, "names of blasphemy".
(b) Yalkut Simeoni, par. 2. fol. 41. 4. & 55. 2. & 63. 3.
Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary
Re 13:1-18. Vision of the Beast that Came Out of the Sea: The Second Beast, Out of the Earth, Exercising the Power of the First Beast, and Causing the Earth to Worship Him.
1. I stood—So B, Aleph, and Coptic read. But A, C, Vulgate, and Syriac, "He stood." Standing on the sand of the sea, HE gave his power to the beast that rose out of the sea.
upon the sand of the sea—where the four winds were to be seen striving upon the great sea (Da 7:2).
beast—Greek, "wild beast." Man becomes "brutish" when he severs himself from God, the archetype and true ideal, in whose image he was first made, which ideal is realized by the man Christ Jesus. Hence, the world powers seeking their own glory, and not God's, are represented as beasts; and Nebuchadnezzar, when in self-deification he forgot that "the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men," was driven among the beasts. In Da 7:4-7 there are four beasts: here the one beast expresses the sum-total of the God-opposed world power viewed in its universal development, not restricted to one manifestation alone, as Rome. This first beast expresses the world power attacking the Church more from without; the second, which is a revival of, and minister to, the first, is the world power as the false prophet corrupting and destroying the Church from within.
out of the sea—(Da 7:3; compare Note, see on [2718]Re 8:8); out of the troubled waves of peoples, multitudes, nations, and tongues. The earth (Re 13:11), on the other hand, means the consolidated, ordered world of nations, with its culture and learning.
seven heads and ten horns—A, B, and C transpose, "ten horns and seven heads." The ten horns are now put first (contrast the order, Re 12:3) because they are crowned. They shall not be so till the last stage of the fourth kingdom (the Roman), which shall continue until the fifth kingdom, Christ's, shall supplant it and destroy it utterly; this last stage is marked by the ten toes of the two feet of the image in Da 2:33, 41, 42. The seven implies the world power setting up itself as God, and caricaturing the seven Spirits of God; yet its true character as God-opposed is detected by the number ten accompanying the seven. Dragon and beast both wear crowns, but the former on the heads, the latter on the horns (Re 12:3; 13:1). Therefore, both heads and horns refer to kingdoms; compare Re 17:7, 10, 12, "kings" representing the kingdoms whose heads they are. The seven kings, as peculiarly powerful—the great powers of the world—are distinguished from the ten, represented by the horns (simply called "kings," Re 17:12). In Daniel, the ten mean the last phase of the world power, the fourth kingdom divided into ten parts. They are connected with the seventh head (Re 17:12), and are as yet future [Auberlen]. The mistake of those who interpret the beast to be Rome exclusively, and the ten horns to mean kingdoms which have taken the place of Rome in Europe already, is, the fourth kingdom in the image has TWO legs, representing the eastern as well as the western empire; the ten toes are not upon the one foot (the west), as these interpretations require, but on the two (east and west) together, so that any theory which makes the ten kingdoms belong to the west alone must err. If the ten kingdoms meant were those which sprung up on the overthrow of Rome, the ten would be accurately known, whereas twenty-eight different lists are given by so many interpreters, making in all sixty-five kingdoms! [Tyso in De Burgh]. The seven heads are the seven world monarchies, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome, the Germanic empire, under the last of which we live [Auberlen], and which devolved for a time on Napoleon, after Francis, emperor of Germany and king of Rome, had resigned the title in 1806. Faber explains the healing of the deadly wound to be the revival of the Napoleonic dynasty after its overthrow at Waterloo. That secular dynasty, in alliance with the ecclesiastical power, the Papacy (Re 13:11, etc.), being "the eighth head," and yet "of the seven" (Re 17:11), will temporarily triumph over the saints, until destroyed in Armageddon (Re 19:17-21). A Napoleon, in this view, will be the Antichrist, restoring the Jews to Palestine, and accepted as their Messiah at first, and afterwards fearfully oppressing them. Antichrist, the summing up and concentration of all the world evil that preceded, is the eighth, but yet one of the seven (Re 17:11).
crowns—Greek, "diadems."
name of blasphemy—So C, Coptic, and Andreas. A, B, and Vulgate read, "names of blasphemy," namely, a name on each of the heads; blasphemously arrogating attributes belonging to God alone (compare Note, see on [2719]Re 17:3). A characteristic of the little horn in Da 7:8, 20, 21; 2Th 2:4.
Revelation 13:1 Additional Commentaries
The Beast Out of the Sea
1And the dragon stood on the sand of the seashore. Then I saw a beast coming up out of the sea, having ten horns and seven heads, and on his horns were ten diadems, and on his heads were blasphemous names. 2And the beast which I saw was like a leopard, and his feet were like those of a bear, and his mouth like the mouth of a lion. And the dragon gave him his power and his throne and great authority.…
Cross References
Daniel 7:3
Four great beasts, each different from the others, came up out of the sea.
Daniel 7:7
"After that, in my vision at night I looked, and there before me was a fourth beast--terrifying and frightening and very powerful. It had large iron teeth; it crushed and devoured its victims and trampled underfoot whatever was left. It was different from all the former beasts, and it had ten horns.
Daniel 7:8
"While I was thinking about the horns, there before me was another horn, a little one, which came up among them; and three of the first horns were uprooted before it. This horn had eyes like the eyes of a human being and a mouth that spoke boastfully.
Daniel 11:36
"The king will do as he pleases. He will exalt and magnify himself above every god and will say unheard-of things against the God of gods. He will be successful until the time of wrath is completed, for what has been determined must take place.
Revelation 11:7
Now when they have finished their testimony, the beast that comes up from the Abyss will attack them, and overpower and kill them.
Revelation 12:3
Then another sign appeared in heaven: an enormous red dragon with seven heads and ten horns and seven crowns on its heads.
Revelation 13:11
Then I saw a second beast, coming out of the earth. It had two horns like a lamb, but it spoke like a dragon.
Revelation 13:14
Because of the signs it was given power to perform on behalf of the first beast, it deceived the inhabitants of the earth. It ordered them to set up an image in honor of the beast who was wounded by the sword and yet lived.
Revelation 13:15
The second beast was given power to give breath to the image of the first beast, so that the image could speak and cause all who refused to worship the image to be killed.
Revelation 15:2
And I saw what looked like a sea of glass glowing with fire and, standing beside the sea, those who had been victorious over the beast and its image and over the number of its name. They held harps given them by God
Revelation 16:13
Then I saw three impure spirits that looked like frogs; they came out of the mouth of the dragon, out of the mouth of the beast and out of the mouth of the false prophet.
Revelation 17:3
Then the angel carried me away in the Spirit into a wilderness. There I saw a woman sitting on a scarlet beast that was covered with blasphemous names and had seven heads and ten horns.
Revelation 17:8
The beast, which you saw, once was, now is not, and yet will come up out of the Abyss and go to its destruction. The inhabitants of the earth whose names have not been written in the book of life from the creation of the world will be astonished when they see the beast, because it once was, now is not, and yet will come.
Revelation 17:12
"The ten horns you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a kingdom, but who for one hour will receive authority as kings along with the beast.
Revelation 19:19
Then I saw the beast and the kings of the earth and their armies gathered together to wage war against the rider on the horse and his army.
Treasury of Scripture
And I stood on the sand of the sea, and saw a beast rise up out of the sea, having seven heads and ten horns, and on his horns ten crowns, and on his heads the name of blasphemy.
Jeremiah 5:22 Fear you not me? said the LORD: will you not tremble at my presence…
and saw.
Revelation 11:7 And when they shall have finished their testimony, the beast that …
Revelation 17:8 The beast that you saw was, and is not; and shall ascend out of the …
Daniel 7:2,3 Daniel spoke and said, I saw in my vision by night, and, behold, …
having. See on ch.
Revelation 12:3 And there appeared another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red …
Revelation 17:3,7-12,16 So he carried me away in the spirit into the wilderness: and I saw …
Daniel 7:7,8,19,20,23,24 After this I saw in the night visions, and behold a fourth beast, …
ten crowns.
Revelation 12:3 And there appeared another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red …
name. or, names. blasphemy.
Revelation 13:5,6 And there was given to him a mouth speaking great things and blasphemies; …
Revelation 17:3,5 So he carried me away in the spirit into the wilderness: and I saw …
Daniel 7:25 And he shall speak great words against the most High, and shall wear …
Daniel 11:36 And the king shall do according to his will; and he shall exalt himself, …
2 Thessalonians 2:3,4 Let no man deceive you by any means: for that day shall not come, …
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May 3, 2016
The man lawmen say killed his girlfriend Tuesday and then shot two deputies, one fatally, has a long criminal history.
Records filed with the North Carolina Department of Corrections show 43-year-old Clarence Douglas Phillips was first convicted of a crime in 1983 with a felony count of breaking and entering. That same month, records show Phillips was charged with driving under the influence and damage to property. Phillips was 17 years old at the time.
Philips was convicted in September 1984 with misdemeanor charges of drunk and disorderly conduct and resisting an officer. Another drunk and disorderly conviction was handed down against Phillips in January 1987, along with a damage to property conviction.
Records show Phillips spent three months behind bars in late 1986 and early 1987 for assault with a deadly weapon.
Phillips was put on probation in 1993 after a conviction of drug possession.
The next conviction against Phillips was not until 1999, when he was found guilty of assault of a female.
Phillips spent 20 months in prison from 2004 - 2005 after getting convicted of assault with a deadly weapon with intent to kill and communicating threats.
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What can be stored in a kitchen pantry? Whatever you want: jams, pickles, pastas, sauces, cookbooks, wines, and all other kinds of food that can be stored without a fridge and household supplies. You can even put a washing machine, an iron and an ironing board there if you haven't a dedicated laundry room.
There are many different approaches to the pantry design. For example if it is a separate room it can have doors that make it looks like built-in cabinet or it is simply separated by curtains. The pantry can be part of the kitchen itself. It can even be a large cabinet with labels inside.
Here are some pantry design ideas that I hope can help you.
Source: flashdecor


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Rebecca Hall and Ken Anderson perform original folk songs under the name, Hungrytown. They join me in the studio for conversation and four of their songs in advance of a free show at the Dover Free Library tomorrow (Saturday, July 13) at 7pm. They will also be joined by Kyle Carey.
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ESR Offering Alumni Travel Course to Assisi, Italy
ESR is offering an alumni travel course to Assisi, Italy May 27 - June 5, 2014. The Soul's Journey into God: A Pilgrimage with the Franciscan Mystics will be led by Margaret Benefiel and is limited to 12 participants.
The pilgrimage is based in the beautiful Umbrian town of Assisi, hometown of Francis and Clare. With its cobblestone streets, sacred shrines, and rich tradition of culture, Assisi has been a pilgrimage destination for centuries. Days will afford ample opportunity to enjoy local cuisine, sample wines, and savor the beauty of landscape, art, and culture. From Assisi, participants will travel to other Franciscan sites in Umbria and Tuscany.
The trip will explore the life and thought of the thirteenth-century Italian mystics: Francis of Assisi, Clare of Assisi, Angela of Foligno, and Bonaventure, and the medieval culture and context that shaped them. Participants will stay in the historic center of Assisi and travel to the places and shrines in the surrounding areas where these saints lived and ministered and where they have left a spiritual imprint upon the local cultures through their writings, art, architecture, and legends.
Cost: $1900 per person for double room, $2200 per person for single room. Cost includes room and breakfast and lunch daily, plus dinner on three nights, and all land travel and entrance fees during the pilgrimage. Participants are responsible for their own travel arrangements and costs to Assisi.
For more information please contact Margaret Benefiel at firstname.lastname@example.com.
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This job posting is no longer available on Indeed.
Find similar jobs:Intermediate Accountant jobs
- Alpine Aerotech jobs
Alpine Aerotech is repair, maintenance and overhaul facility for Bell Helicopters that was founded in 1991 and grown from 4 employees to 110 in 2013. Based in West Kelowna, Aerotech has flourished by focusing on customer service, technical expertise, quality of workmanship and delivering what we promise. Aerotech has established a reputation as a high quality service provider to Bell Helicopter operators and achieves an extremely high level of repeat customers and referrals.We are seeking a highly motivated accounting professional to join our finance team in West Kelowna. This role is suited to an individual committed to advancing their career in a fast paced, team oriented organization.
Reporting to the Financial Controller, key components of the role include:
Alpine Aerotech offers a competitive compensation and benefits package. We thank all applicants for their interest; only those under consideration will be contacted.


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Uncyclopedia:Pee Review/Eric Vale
From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
< Uncyclopedia:Pee Review
Revision as of 17:38, January 5, 2011 by John Lydon (talk | contribs)
Someone piss on this, its been awhile now!
Never fear, Underdog is here! (Actually it's just me, but that doesn't sound as cool.) --—John Lydon 17:38, January 5, 2011 (UTC)
Eric Vale
The Thriller 02:11, November 27, 2010 (UTC)
Not reviewed yet!
Review now
Review now


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Election Day is November 2, and advocates of animal protection need to know who is standing up for their interests. The Humane Society Legislative Fund is the non-partisan political arm of the humane movement, and we want you to know that Harry Reid is a friend of animal protection in the U.S. Senate.
Be a part of the growing humane voting bloc by supporting Harry Reid for U.S. Senate on Tuesday, November 2.
Currently representing Nevada in the U.S. Senate, Reid has been an important ally on animal protection issues in Congress. As Senate Majority Leader, Reid is uniquely positioned to champion animal protection issues on the Senate floor. Here are a few of his pro-animal votes and actions:
Click here for a link to view this message online that you can share with your friends and family. Please urge all your fellow Nevadans to vote for Harry Reid on November 2, too.
Thanks for all you do for animals!
Sincerely,Mike MarkarianPresidentHumane Society Legislative Fund
P.S. To view the list of other HSLF-endorsed federal candidates in Nevada, visit our Voter Guide.
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