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View Job
Organize to Win Legislative Campaigns! (Salary & Health Care)
Work for Progress | Columbus OH 43085 USA | Full Time | Posted: 11/26/2012
Job Descriptiontop
As a Citizen Outreach Director for the Fund, you run a campaign office in one of dozens of cities throughout the country. The staff you supervise educate citizens about the issues and get them involved in campaigns to win progressive change. In essence, you build a team of committed activists who, in turn, mobilize hundreds, even thousands of citizens to take action. The Human Rights Campaign is fighting bigotry to protect civil rights of all Americans, regardless of sexual orientation and gender identity. Environment America is working to protect our waterways and preserve our wilderness areas. U.S. PIRG is standing up to powerful special interests in order to improve public transportation, fix our health care system, and stop the government from subsidizing unhealthy food.
At the Fund for the Public Interest, we work with these and other leading progressive groups to help fight for the future of our health, our environment, and our democracy. We are looking for candidates to join us as Citizen Outreach Directors.
We are looking for smart, motivated, action-oriented college graduates who are interested in politics and have a commitment to public interest issues. To do this work, you need stamina. You need to be able to convey the sense of urgency and passion you feel about these issues. You need to be able and willing to work hard. You need to be resourceful on a shoestring budget.
Citizen Outreach Directors will earn $24,500-$28,000 in their first year, depending on position. The Fund offers a generous benefits package that includes full paid health care, college loan assistance, two weeks of paid vacation, paid holidays, and paid sick days. Directors are also eligible to join our 401(k) program in their second year. We also offer an extensive training program that includes both classroom study and hands-on field work. Salary and benefits differ in CA, NY, and MA.
Staff Management
• Recruit and manage a campaign staff of 10-40 canvassers or callers.
• Teach staff effective canvassing and campaigning techniques.
• Identify strong staff and teach them to run local campaigns and develop leadership skills.
• Run staff meetings and leadership trainings.
• Arrange briefings and issue workshops to educate and motivate staff.
• Evaluate staff performance and give ongoing feedback.
Campaign Strategies
• Run letter-writing or petition drives to state legislators, local government, corporate boards and congressional representatives.
• Build coalitions of local and state organizations and elected officials.
• Identify local activists within state legislative and congressional districts. Organize them into networks for quick political action.
• Attract media coverage for campaigns. Send out news releases, hold news conferences, and meet with editorial boards to release research, expose problems and promote solutions.
Canvassing & Field Work
• Reach or exceed your office's fundraising and membership goals. Most offices have goals of raising $250,000 and identifying 5,000 members each year.
• Canvass three times each week to train staff, raise money, identify and activate members, and educate the public on the issues.
• Oversee all administrative functions related to fundraising, membership development, campaign work and general office management.
We are running campaigns in AZ, CA, CO, FL, GA, IL, MA, MD, MI, MN, MO, NC, NJ, NM, NY, OH, OR, PA, TX, WA, WI, and Washington, D.C.
• Visit our Web page: www.fundjobs.org; or
• Contact Peggy Mansperger 617.747.4329 or
• Apply directly at http://www.fundforthepublicinterest.org/jobs/leadership/application3
Job Detailstop
|Columbus, OH, 43085, United States
|Civil Rights/Social Action Advocacy, Environment/Wildlife/Quality Protection/Beautification, Foundation/Grant-making/Philanthropy/Volunteerism, Energy
|Campaign Organizer
Location Maptop
Contact Informationtop
|Contact Name
|David Vinson
|How to apply
|Applications are no longer accepted for this job posting.
|Job Code
|Organize to Win Legislative Ca


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41 U.S. Code § 1908 - Inflation adjustment of acquisition-related dollar thresholds
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(a) Definition.— In this section, the term "Council" has the meaning given that term in section 1301 of this title.
(b) Application.—
(1) In general.— Except as provided in paragraph (2), the requirement for adjustment under subsection (c) applies to a dollar threshold that is specified in law as a factor in defining the scope of the applicability of a policy, procedure, requirement, or restriction provided in that law to the procurement of property or services by an executive agency, as the Council determines.
(2) Exceptions.— Subsection (c) does not apply to dollar thresholds—
(c) Requirement for Periodic Adjustment.—
(1) Baseline constant dollar value.— For purposes of paragraph (2), the baseline constant dollar value for a dollar threshold—
(A) in effect on October 1, 2000, that was first specified in a law that took effect on or before October 1, 2000, is the October 1, 2000, constant dollar value of that dollar threshold; and
(2) Adjustment.— On October 1 of each year evenly divisible by 5, the Council shall adjust each acquisition-related dollar threshold provided by law, as described in subsection (b)(1), to the baseline constant dollar value of that threshold.
(d) Publication.— The Council shall publish a notice of the adjusted dollar thresholds under this section in the Federal Register. The thresholds take effect on the date of publication.
(e) Calculation.— An adjustment under this section shall be—
(1) calculated on the basis of changes in the Consumer Price Index for all-urban consumers published monthly by the Secretary of Labor; and
(2) rounded, in the case of a dollar threshold that on the day before the adjustment is—
(f) Petition for Inclusion of Omitted Threshold.—
(1) Petition submitted to administrator.— A person may request adjustment of a dollar threshold adjustable under this section that is not included in a notice of adjustment published under subsection (d) by submitting a petition for adjustment to the Administrator.
(2) Actions of administrator.— On receipt of a petition for adjustment of a dollar threshold under paragraph (1), the Administrator—
(A) shall determine, in writing, whether the dollar threshold is required to be adjusted under this section; and
Source(Pub. L. 111–350, § 3,Jan. 4, 2011, 124 Stat. 3725.)
|Revised Section
|Source (U.S. Code)
|Source (Statutes at Large)
|no source.
|Pub. L. 93–400, § 35A, as added Pub. L. 108–375, title VIII, § 807(a)(1), Oct. 28, 2004, 118 Stat. 2010.
|41:431a note.
|Pub. L. 108–375, title VIII, § 807(c)(1), Oct. 28, 2004, 118 Stat. 2011.
|1908(c)(1), (2)
|41:431a note.
|Pub. L. 108–375, title VIII, § 807(c)(2), Oct. 28, 2004, 118 Stat. 2011.
In subsection (c)(3), the words "After the date of the enactment of this Act" are omitted as obsolete.
In subsection (e)(1), the words "Secretary of Labor" are substituted for "Department of Labor" because of 29:551.
References in Text
The Trade Agreements Act of 1979, referred to in subsec. (b)(2)(C), is Pub. L. 96–39, July 26, 1979, 93 Stat. 144. Title III of the Act is classified generally to subchapter I (§ 2511 et seq.) of chapter 13 of Title 19, Customs Duties. For complete classification of this Act to the Code, see References in Text note set out under section 2501 of Title 19 and Tables.
Adjustment for Inflation of Right-Hand Drive Passenger Sedans
Pub. L. 112–81, div. A, title VIII, § 814(b),Dec. 31, 2011, 125 Stat. 1491, provided that: "The Department of Defense representative to the Federal Acquisition Regulatory Council established under section 1302 of title 41, United States Code, shall ensure that the threshold established in section 2253 of title 10, United States Code, for the acquisition of right-hand drive passenger sedans is included on the list of dollar thresholds that are subject to adjustment for inflation in accordance with the requirements of section 1908 of title 41, United States Code, and is adjusted pursuant to such provision, as appropriate."
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subset: commoncrawl


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Voters in El Paso County passed an increase to sales tax Tuesday. About 60 percent of voters were in favor of the measure. Since it passed for every 10 dollars you spend, it will be about two cents more in El Paso County.
11 News talked to voters who say they felt compelled to pass the measure, "We are a growing community and as a growing community I think we need all facets of police and sheriff and this is one way to keep that going," Daniel Romero said.
Sheriff Terry Maketa told 11 News when he first proposed the measure that he's simply being honest with voters. He asked for more money four years ago and didn't get it.
KKTV firmly believes in freedom of speech for all and we are happy to provide this forum for the community to share opinions and facts. We ask that commenters keep it clean, keep it truthful, stay on topic and be responsible. Comments left here do not necessarily represent the viewpoint of KKTV 11 News.
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If you're headed to the University of Tennessee's first football game under new head coach Butch Jones, be ready to stand the heat. The forecast for the home-opener against Austin Peay calls for hot and humid conditions that will bake the stadium throughout the day.
That's why 10 News reporter Jim Matheny spent this week literally
chasing shadows around Neyland Stadium. He tracked exactly when and
where fans could fry in the sun as well as when they'll finally have it made in the shade.
UT's Director of Sports Surface Management, Darren Seybold, said expect some warmth no matter where you sit because the stadium's concrete and steel may spend much of the day baking in the sun.
"The concrete around [the field] absorbs all of the heat," said Seybold. "What people don't realize is the moisture the ground gives off [from the field] makes it more humid. Then you get the mixture of sun and 102,000 people, so it can feel like 110 or 115 degrees up there."
Some fans will find relief sooner than others. This linked photo gallery provides diagrams of where the shade moves from kickoff at 6:00 p.m. until 7:30 p.m. inside Neyland Stadium. Full size images of the diagrams can also be seen on the WBIR Channel 10 Facebook page.
The bright side of Saturday's game is the 6:00 p.m. kickoff. At that point around half of Neyland Stadium will be shielded from the sun. Those sitting beneath the press box in the west stands and much of the area above the north end zone will arrive at Neyland Stadium with immediate relief from the sun.
"I would guess the home side beneath the press box would be the best spot. You'll probably get in the shade there the fastest. Or inside [the sky boxes] with the air conditioning would be the best spot," joked Seybold.
The folks sitting in those comfy sky boxes can look across the field and gaze amusingly at a sliver of shade that has just started slowly creeping into the bottom corner of Section A.
When the clock strikes 6:30, the stadium lights above the press box will begin casting a shadow into the upper deck for the first time. Those on the first few rows of sections LL and MM will enjoy the shade, but that's it for the upper deck beneath the jumbotron. Around half of the seats behind the south end zone will have some shade 30 minutes into the game.
At 6:45 p.m., think about the number 45. That's because at this point in time the entire section beneath the sign honoring #45 Johnny Majors will finally be completely shaded. You can also remember to say "HI" at 6:45 p.m. because the point where Sections H and I come together will be split half sun and half shade.
By 7:00 p.m., the sun remains a beast on the east stands of Neyland, especially in the upper deck. But relief is in sight as a large strip of shade works its way from bottom to top as the sun drops lower in the western sky.
By 7:30 the shade will cover every lower section of Neyland Stadium. Yet, even this late in the day the sun's beams will continue to bombard some of the upper deck in the southeast corner of the stadium.
Die-hard UT fans in the southern portion of the upper deck will benefit from spending almost two hours as a prisoner of the sun. They will not receive shade, but will reap the reward of a view unavailable to the rest of the stadium. From 7:45 p.m. until 8:04 p.m. these fans will bask in a beautiful golden glow and watch the sunset over "Big Orange Country."
No relief next game.
UT's second game of the season against Western Kentucky comes with a 12:21 p.m. kickoff. The showdown just after high noon on September 7 means the only people shielded from the sun will be those seated in the lower section beneath the overhangs of the upper deck, fans sitting under the covered area of the upper deck above the north end zone, and those in sky boxes. The rest of the crowd will have to hope for shade in the form of cloud cover from Mother Nature, although the very end of the game will likely provide some shade for people seated beneath the press box who have not already melted.
Hot stands, hotter field
The only thing brighter than the East Tennessee sun in Neyland Stadium is the fresh coat of orange paint throughout the stadium and on the field. All of these painting projects and the manicured surface of Shields-Watkins Field have benefited from the high sun and heat.
"This week we've really gotten lucky with the higher temperatures," said Seybold. "Obviously the Bermuda Grass likes that a whole lot better."
The sun-soaked field had another bright side for Seybold and his grounds crews. They spent less time watching paint dry.
"Painting the field took two and a half days with 10 guys per day painting. We used 250 gallons of paint. That gives you the product you see on the field," said Seybold. "In cooler weather the dew points make it take a lot longer to dry."
Seybold monitors moisture in the soil as well as surface temperatures. He said the temperatures on the field can skyrocket.
"I think one time we had a reading of 128 degrees. That is probably the hottest I've ever seen in Neyland," said Seybold. "It was for a scrimmage and was during the summer when we had all of those 100 degree days."
Fall flips fortunes
Seybold said those who endure the brutal heat early in the season are also able to stay warmer during chilly fall football games while those in the shade deal with frigid conditions.
"I say this is the hottest and coldest place on all of campus. It gets really cold in the late fall and winter in Neyland Stadium and a lot more of the stadium stays in the shade all day long," said Seybold.


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Top Definition
in a position of risk or vulnerability.
Jill was on the line once more.
av The Return of Light Joker 10. juli 2008
When a bro only texts a girl when he's lonely or needs attention. Usually he's inconsistent and keeps her on a rotation with other girls. Basically leading a girl on through text. No commitment.
"yeah, i'm not really looking for a relationship right now so I'm just keeping this girl on the line."
av TripleC 27. oktober 2014


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22 U.S. Code § 2198 - Definitions
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As used in this subpart—
(a) the term "investment" includes any contribution or commitment of funds, commodities, services, patents, processes, or techniques, in the form of
(b) the term "expropriation" includes, but is not limited to, any abrogation, repudiation, or impairment by a foreign government, a political subdivision of a foreign government, or a corporation owned or controlled by a foreign government, of its own contract with an investor with respect to a project, where such abrogation, repudiation, or impairment is not caused by the investor's own fault or misconduct, and materially adversely affects the continued operation of the project;
(c) the term "eligible investor" means:
(2) corporations, partnerships, or other associations including nonprofit associations, created under the laws of the United States, any State or territory thereof, or the District of Columbia, and substantially beneficially owned by United States citizens; and
(3) foreign corporations, partnerships, of other associations wholly owned by one or more such United States citizens, corporations, partnerships, or other associations: Provided, however, That the eligibility of such foreign corporation shall be determined without regard to any shares, in aggregate less than 5 per centum of the total of issued and subscribed share capital, held by other than the United States owners: Provided further, That in the case of any loan investment a final determination of eligibility may be made at the time the insurance or guaranty is issued; in all other cases, the investor must be eligible at the time a claim arises as well as at the time the insurance or guaranty is issued;
(d) the term "noncredit account revolving fund" means the account in which funds under section 2196 of this title and all funds from noncredit activities are held;
(e) the term "noncredit activities" means all activities of the Corporation other than its loan guarantee program under section 2194 (b) of this title and its direct loan program under section 2194 (c) of this title;
(f) the term "predecessor guaranty authority" means prior guaranty authorities (other than housing guaranty authorities) repealed by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1969, and sections 1509 (b)(3), 1872 (b), and 1933 (b) [1] of this title (exclusive of authority relating to informational media guaranties); and
(g) the term "local financial institution"—
(1) means any bank or financial institution that is organized under the laws of any country or area in which the Corporation operates; but
[1] See References in Text note below.
Source(Pub. L. 87–195, pt. I, § 238, as added Pub. L. 91–175, pt. I, § 105,Dec. 30, 1969, 83 Stat. 815; amended Pub. L. 92–226, pt. I, § 104(a),Feb. 7, 1972, 86 Stat. 22; Pub. L. 97–65, § 7,Oct. 16, 1981, 95 Stat. 1024; Pub. L. 99–204, § 17(a),Dec. 23, 1985, 99 Stat. 1676; Pub. L. 102–549, title I, § 106,Oct. 28, 1992, 106 Stat. 3653; Pub. L. 108–158, §§ 4(b), 5 (b),Dec. 3, 2003, 117 Stat. 1950.)
References in Text
The Foreign Assistance Act of 1969, referred to in subsec. (f), is Pub. L. 91–175, Dec. 30, 1969, 83 Stat. 805, as amended. For complete classification of this Act to the Code, see Short Title of 1969 Amendment note set out under section 2151 of this title and Tables. The guaranty authorities repealed by the 1969 Act were the guaranty authorities contained in sections 2181 to 2184 prior to the general reorganization of subpart III by the 1969 Act.
Section 1509 (b)(3) of this title, referred to in subsec. (f), was repealed by act Aug. 26, 1954, ch. 937, title V, § 542(a)(4),68 Stat. 861.
Sections 1872 (b) and 1933 (b) of this title, referred to in subsec. (f), were repealed by Pub. L. 87–195, pt. III, § 642(a)(2),Sept. 4, 1961, 75 Stat. 460. Section 642(b) ofPub. L. 87–195provided that references to provisions of law repealed by subsec. (a) were to be deemed references to the appropriate provisions of Pub. L. 87–195. See sections 2163 and 2351 of this title.
2003—Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 108–158, § 4(b), inserted ", a political subdivision of a foreign government, or a corporation owned or controlled by a foreign government," after "government".
Subsec. (d). Pub. L. 108–158, § 5(b)(1), struck out "and" after semicolon at end.
Subsec. (g). Pub. L. 108–158, § 5(b)(2), (3), added subsec. (g).
1992—Subsecs. (c) to (f). Pub. L. 102–549struck out "and" at end of subsec. (c), added subsecs. (d) and (e), and redesignated former subsec. (d) as (f).
1985—Subsec. (c)(2). Pub. L. 99–204inserted reference to the District of Columbia.
1981—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 97–65substituted "contribution or commitment of funds" for "contribution of funds".
1972—Subsec. (c). Pub. L. 92–226struck out "required by law to be" after "share capital," in first proviso.
LII has no control over and does not endorse any external Internet site that contains links to or references LII.


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This job posting is no longer available on Indeed.
Find similar jobs:Intermediate jobs
- Stantec Consulting jobs
Overview:Our Architecture and Buildings Engineering group specializes in design and development processes unique to buildings. Working closely with our clients, our dedicated professionals help to establish and understand the specific needs of a range of building projects. This is where great ideas and rewarding careers are built. For both public and private sector clients, we provide unique design capabilities, covering each of the major buildings design disciplines—architecture, structural, mechanical, and electrical. Focused on providing cost-effective solutions to project challenges, we are involved in a diverse range of projects from the initial planning stages to design, construction, and commissioning. Our internal structure cultivates career growth and provides opportunities as unique as you are.
Responsibilities:Stantec's office in Red Deer is currently seeking an Intermediate /Senior Buildings Mechanical Engineer to join our multidisciplinary team. In this role you will be responsible for the design and execution of projects with a diverse spectrum ranging in size and complexity, mainly in the commercial and light industrial sectors.
Qualifications:The successful candidate will possess the following:
Mechanical Engineering Degree from an accredited universityProfessional Engineering designation with APEGA or another provinceMinimum of 6 years Mechanical HVAC experience, preferably in the commercial /retail sectorDemonstrated competency in HVAC, plumbing, fire protection and other fields in mechanical engineeringExperience implementing sustainable design/LEED®projectsSound communication skills as demonstrated through client and staff relationsProject Management experience would be considered an assetLEED®or Certified Energy Manager accreditation would also be considered an assetLocated in Central Alberta, the Red Deer office has a vibrant environment with excellent opportunities for professional growth. Red Deer is a family oriented community of approximately 85,000 residents with recreational facilities, park system and a variety of schools. Red Deer is within 1 ½ hours of Alberta's two largest cities of Calgary and Edmonton.
Qualified candidates who are highly motivated and eager to commit to Stantec's strategic initiative to become a Top 10 global design firm should submit their resume and cover letter, including a detailed project list, online at www.stantec.com/careers. Committed to the principles of Employment Equity, we thank all candidates; however, only those selected for an interview will be contacted.


text:
Gynecologic oncologists are medical doctors who specialize in the
care and treatment of women who have cancers of the ovaries, uterus, cervix, and
Gynecologic oncologists can be board-certified through the Board of
Obstetrics and Gynecology, which is recognized by the American Board of Medical
Current as of:
November 14, 2014
Healthwise Staff
Medical Review:
Sarah Marshall, MD - Family Medicine & Ross Berkowitz, MD - Obstetrics and Gynecology
This information does not replace the advice of a doctor. Healthwise, Incorporated disclaims any warranty or liability for your use of this information. Your use of this information means that you agree to the Terms of Use.
How this information was developed to help you make better health decisions.
To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org
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text:
Choate Stocks feature tough construction, made from a fiberglass reinforced polymer to withstand heavy use. This stock comes with two 1/2" spacers. Additional spacers are available (sold separately) allowing for use with body armor or smaller framed shooters. While extended the stock offers a solid cheek weld for more accurate shooting. Fold the stock up and you have a smaller package for easy carry and transportation. Firearm can be fired with the stock folded. All Choate Stocks feature a lifetime warranty.
Choate Adjustable Side Folding Stock HK 93 Steel and Synthetic Black
Product #: 115170 Choate #: 15-01-13
Product Information
The statements and opinions expressed within Customer Reviews reflect each author's personal perspective and do not imply endorsement by MidwayUSA, its Employees or any other organization. Customers should in no way infer that MidwayUSA has validated review information as safe, accurate or appropriate.
The total weight of the product, including the product's packaging as it sits on our shelf. Since some products ship directly from partner, their weight may be unavailable. Because of variations in the manufacturing process, similar products may have differing weights. Unless the product is designated as "Ships Alone", Shipping Weight does not include the shipping box or packing materials associated with your order.
Product ships from MidwayUSA, separate from any other products on your order due to its size. Products that are Shipped Alone incur separate "Per Order" and "Per Pound" shipping charges.
Product is regulated by the US Department of Transportation (DOT) and cannot be shipped via USPS or air shipping methods. DOT-Regulated products must ship UPS Ground.
Product is restricted by shipping carriers and cannot be shipped to certain locations or via certain shipping methods.
Additional shipping charge for HazMat products. Carriers charge extra to ship packages with products they consider hazardous, such as reloading powder and primers.


text:
The Power of Independent Thinking
Jeffrey A. Miron on Legalizing Drugs
Recorded: Friday, November 20, 2009
Originally aired on 11/20/09 on FoxBusiness.com Live. Jeffrey A. Miron, Research Fellow at the Independent Institute and author of Drug War Crimes, argues in favor of legalizing marijuana and other drugs in the U.S.
Experts: Jeffrey A. MironType: TelevisionIssues: Crime, Criminal Justice/ Prisons, Drugs (Illicit)
Don Kates on the San Francisco Gun Ban Lawsuit
Recorded: Wednesday, September 10, 2008
Don B. Kates discusses his support for the lawsuit challenging San Francisco's public housing gun ban in a KRON 4 report.
Experts: Don B. Kates Jr.Type: TelevisionIssues: Constitutional Law, Gun Control


text: The exterior of this handbag is in good condition. The vachetta leather has a moderate patina and the top handles are lightly worn. There are a few tiny scuffs along the edges of the patent leather as well. The interior is in good condition, with a small mark on one of the pockets. It ships with a designer dust bag.


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What is RM Cash
"Customer service is priority #1 at Rocky Mountain ATV/MC. We value our customers and strive to be the best shopping experience- when you buy from us, you are buying lifetime service."
-Dan Thomas, CEO and Founder
We take pride in offering no hassle returns. In the event of a return, please call, email or chat with us to receive a solution to the problem. For apparel that doesn't fit quite right, Click here to see our Fit Guaranteed Program.
We will stand behind all products we sell with regards to manufacturing defects in workmanship and material. Most products are limited to the manufacturer's warranty. However, we will do everything in our power to take care of the problem.
Each review submitted enters you into a $100 gift card monthly drawing, and a $500 gift card quarterly drawing!
Comments On Jun 27, 2014:Very well made. What makes it nice is the 3 liters of water. If your out in hot weather 2 liters is just not enough. worth every penny.
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Bail Bonds
Full Video Transcript
When you're arrested one of the first things you want to do is get out. Often, you must post bail as a guarantee you will return to court when ordered. When you appear in court the bail gets refunded. You can pay cash but a lot of people don't necessarily have the money to pay the entire bail amount. That's where a bail bonds person can come in very handy. A bail bond can be purchased for about 10 percent of the total bond. The premium you pay for it is usually retained by the bonds person as a fee for their service. For more information about bail bonds, contact a bonds person or an attorney in your area today.


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Nestled near Niagara Falls is Nightmares Fear Factory, a haunted house that has been running for over 30 years. In addition to actors wearing Halloween costumes, the haunted house has a huge, huge, huge amount of animated props. One of those props is a car that explodes out of the darkness and accelerates quickly toward you. Right when the car should run you over, it stops, and a photo is taken of your reaction.
Here are some of those photos:
For more photos, check out the official Flickr account: http://www.flickr.com/photos/nightmaresfearfactory/


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Assessment |
Biopsychology |
Comparative |
Cognitive |
Developmental |
Language |
Individual differences |
Personality |
Philosophy |
Social |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Philosophy Index: Aesthetics · Epistemology · Ethics · Logic · Metaphysics · Consciousness · Philosophy of Language · Philosophy of Mind · Philosophy of Science · Social and Political philosophy · Philosophies · Philosophers · List of lists
Consciousness is a combinatorial system of psychological aspects such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. It is a subject of much research in philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science.
Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is subjective experience itself, and access consciousness, which refers to the universal availability of information to processing systems in the brain.[1] Phenomenal consciousness is being something and access consciousness is being conscious of something.
Consciousness is not scientifically defined in terms of absolute laws, and will not be until the laws of quantum physics are established. Because of this, every society in the world functions utilizing a mind-body dichotomy, with a vast range of differences among methods or beliefs of law and order.
An understanding of necessary preconditions for consciousness in the human brain may allow humanity to address important ethical questions. For instance, how is the presence of consciousness to be assessed in severely ill or disabled individuals?[2] To what extent are non-human animals conscious? At what point in fetal development does consciousness begin? Can machines achieve conscious states?[3][4] Are today's autonomous and intelligent machines already conscious? These issues are of great interest to those concerned with the ethical treatment of other beings, be they animals, fetuses, or machines.[5]
In common parlance, consciousness denotes being awake and responsive to one's environment; this contrasts with being asleep or being in a coma.
"Consciousness" derives from Latin conscientia which primarily means moral conscience. In the literal sense, "conscientia" (or "con scientia") means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridic texts by writers such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else. In Christian theology, conscience stands for the moral conscience in which our actions and intentions are registered and which is only fully known to God. Medieval writers such as Thomas Aquinas describe the conscientia as the act by which we apply practical and moral knowledge to our own actions.[6] René Descartes has been said to be the first philosopher to use "conscientia" in a way that does not seem to fit this traditional meaning, and, as a consequence, the translators of his writings in other languages like French and English coined new words in order to denote merely psychological consciousness. These are, for instance, conscience, and Bewusstsein.[7] However, it has also been argued that John Locke was in fact the first one to use the modern meaning of consciousness in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, although it remains closely intertwined with moral conscience (I may be held morally responsible only for the act of which I am conscious of having achieved; and my personal identity - my self - goes as far as my consciousness extends itself). The modern sense of "consciousness" was therefore first found not in Descartes' work - who sometimes used the word in a modern sense, but did not distinguish it as much as Locke would do -, but in Locke's text. The contemporary sense of the word (consciousness associated to the idea of personal identity, which is assured by the repeated consciousness of oneself) was therefore introduced by Locke; but the word "conscience" itself was coined by Pierre Costes, French translator of Locke. Henceforth, the modern sense first appeared in Locke's works, but the word itself first appeared in the French language.[8] Locke's influence upon the concept can be found in Samuel Johnson's celebrated Dictionary, in which Johnson abstains from offering a definition of "consciousness," choosing instead to simply quote Locke.
Philosophical approaches
- Main article: Philosophy of mind
There are many philosophical stances on consciousness, including: behaviorism, dualism, idealism, functionalism, reflexive monism, phenomenalism, phenomenology and intentionality, physicalism, emergentism, mysticism, personal identity etc.
Phenomenal and access consciousness
Phenomenal consciousness (P-consciousness) is simply experience; it is moving, coloured forms, sounds, sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center. These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called qualia. The hard problem of consciousness was formulated by Chalmers in 1996, dealing with the issue of "how to explain a state of phenomenal consciousness in terms of its neurological basis" (Block 2004).
Access consciousness (A-consciousness) is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior. So, when we perceive, information about what we perceive is often access conscious; when we introspect, information about our thoughts is access conscious; when we remember, information about the past (e.g., something that we learned) is often access conscious; and so on. Chalmers thinks that access consciousness is less mysterious than phenomenal consciousness, so that it is held to pose one of the easy problems of consciousness. Dennett denies that there is a "hard problem", asserting that the totality of consciousness can be understood in terms of impact on behavior, as studied through heterophenomenology. There have been numerous approaches to the processes that act on conscious experience from instant to instant. Philosophers who have explored this problem include Gerald Edelman, Edmund Husserl and Daniel Dennett. Daniel Dennett (1988) suggests that what people think of as phenomenal consciousness, such as qualia, are judgements and consequent behaviour. He extends this analysis (Dennett, 1996) by arguing that phenomenal consciousness can be explained in terms of access consciousness, denying the existence of qualia, hence denying the existence of a "hard problem."
Events that occur in the mind or brain that are not within phenomenal or access consciousness are known as subconscious events.
The description and location of phenomenal consciousness
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Philosophers have investigated phenomenal consciousness for centuries. René Descartes, who arrived upon the famous dictum 'cogito ergo sum', wrote Meditations on First Philosophy in the seventeenth century, containing extensive descriptions of what it is to be conscious. Descartes described conscious experience as ideas such as imaginings and perceptions laid out in space and time that are viewed from a point, and appearing as a result of some quality (qualia) such as color, smell, and so on; this notion of interchangeability between the terms 'idea' and 'imaginings' can cause confusion among modern readers.
Like Aristotle Descartes defines ideas as extended things, as in this excerpt from his Treatise on Man:
Now among these figures, it is not those imprinted on the external sense organs, or on the internal surface of the brain, which should be taken to be ideas - but only those which are traced in the spirits on the surface of gland H [where the seat of the imagination and the 'common sense' is located]. That is to say, it is only the latter figures which should be taken to be the forms or images which the rational soul united to this machine will consider directly when it imagines some object or perceives it by the senses.
Thus Descartes does not identify mental ideas or 'qualia' with activity within the sense organs, or even with brain activity, but rather with interaction between body and the 'rational soul', through the mediating 'gland H'. This organ is now known as the pineal gland. Descartes notes that, anatomically, while the human brain consists of two symmetrical hemispheres the pineal gland, which lies close to the brain's centre, is singular. Thus he extrapolated from this that it was the mediator between body and soul.
Other philosophers agreed with Descartes to varying degrees, such as Nicolas Malebranche, Thomas Reid, John Locke, David Hume and Immanuel Kant. Malebranche, for example, agreed with Descartes that the human being was composed of two elements, body and mind, and that conscious experience resided in the latter. He did, however, disagree with Descartes as to the ease with which we might become aware of our mental constitution, stating 'I am not my own light unto myself'. David Hume and Immanuel Kant also differ from Descartes, in that they avoid mentioning a place from which experience is viewed (see "Further reading" below); certainly, few if any modern philosophers have identified the pineal gland as the seat of dualist interaction.
The extension of things in time was considered in more detail by Kant and James. Kant wrote that "only on the presupposition of time can we represent to ourselves a number of things as existing at one and the same time [simultaneously] or at different times [successively]." William James stressed the extension of experience in time and said that time is "the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible."
When we look around a room or have a dream, things are laid out in space and time and viewed as if from a point. However, when philosophers and scientists consider the location of the form and contents of this phenomenal consciousness, there are fierce disagreements. As an example, Descartes proposed that the contents are brain activity seen by a non-physical place without extension (the Res Cogitans), which, in Meditations on First Philosophy, he identified as the soul. This idea is known as Cartesian Dualism. Another example is found in the work of Thomas Reid who thought the contents of consciousness are the world itself, which becomes conscious experience in some way. This concept is a type of Direct realism. The precise physical substrate of conscious experience in the world, such as photons, quantum fields, etc. is usually not specified.
Other philosophers, such as George Berkeley, have proposed that the contents of consciousness are an aspect of minds and do not necessarily involve matter at all. This is a type of Idealism. Yet others, such as Leibniz, have considered that each point in the universe is endowed with conscious content. This is a form of Panpsychism. Panpsychism is the belief that all matter, including rocks for example, is sentient or conscious. The concept of the things in conscious experience being impressions in the brain is a type of representationalism, and representationalism is a form of indirect realism.
It is sometimes held that consciousness emerges from the complexity of brain processing. The general label 'emergence' applies to new phenomena that emerge from a physical basis without the connection between the two explicitly specified.
Some theorists hold that phenomenal consciousness poses an explanatory gap. Colin McGinn takes the New Mysterianism position that it can't be solved, and Chalmers criticizes purely physical accounts of mental experiences based on the idea that philosophical zombies are logically possible and supports property dualism. But others have proposed speculative scientific theories to explain the explanatory gap, such as Quantum mind, space-time theories of consciousness, reflexive monism, and Electromagnetic theories of consciousness to explain the correspondence between brain activity and experience.
Parapsychologists sometimes appeal to the unproven concepts of psychokinesis or telepathy to support the dualistic belief that consciousness is not confined to the brain.
Philosophical criticisms of the concept of consciousness
From the eighteenth to twentieth centuries many philosophers concentrated on relations, processes and thought as the most important aspects of consciousness. These aspects would later become known as "access consciousness" and this focus on relations allowed philosophers such as Marx, Nietzsche and Foucault to claim that individual consciousness was dependent on such factors as social relations, political relations and ideology.
Locke's "forensic" notion of personal identity founded on an individual conscious subject would be criticized in the 19th century by Marx, Nietzsche and Freud following different angles. Martin Heidegger's concept of the Dasein ("Being-there") would also be an attempt to think beyond the conscious subject.
Marx considered that social relations ontologically preceded individual consciousness, and criticized the conception of a conscious subject as an ideological conception on which liberal political thought was founded. Marx in particular criticized the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, considering that the so-called individual natural rights were ideological fictions camouflaging social inequality in the attribution of those rights. Later, Louis Althusser would criticize the "bourgeois ideology of the subject" through the concept of interpellation ("Hey, you!").
Nietzsche, for his part, once wrote that "they give you free will only to later blame yourself", thus reversing the classical liberal conception of free will in a critical account of the genealogy of consciousness as the effect of guilt and ressentiment, which he described in On the Genealogy of Morals. Hence, Nietzsche was the first one to make the claim that the modern notion of consciousness was indebted to the modern system of penalty, which judged a man according to his "responsibility", that is by the consciousness through which acts can be attributed to an individual subject: "I did this! this is me!". Consciousness is thus related by Nietzsche to the classic philosopheme of recognition which, according to him, defines knowledge.[9]
According to Pierre Klossowski (1969), Nietzsche considered consciousness to be a hypostatization of the body, composed of multiple forces (the "Will to Power"). According to him, the subject was only a "grammatical fiction": we believed in the existence of an individual subject, and therefore of a specific author of each act, insofar as we speak. Therefore, the conscious subject is dependent on the existence of language, a claim which would be generalized by critical discourse analysis (see for example Judith Butler).
Michel Foucault's analysis of the creation of the individual subject through disciplines, in Discipline and Punish (1975), would extend Nietzsche's genealogy of consciousness and personal identity - i.e. individualism - to the change in the juridico-penal system: the emergence of penology and the disciplinization of the individual subject through the creation of a penal system which judged not the acts as it alleged to, but the personal identity of the wrong-doer. In other words, Foucault maintained that, by judging not the acts (the crime), but the person behind those acts (the criminal), the modern penal system was not only following the philosophical definition of consciousness, once again demonstrating the imbrications between ideas and social institutions ("material ideology" as Althusser would call it); it was by itself creating the individual person, categorizing and dividing the masses into a category of poor but honest and law-abiding citizens and another category of "professional criminals" or recidivists.
Gilbert Ryle has argued that traditional understandings of consciousness depend on a Cartesian outlook that divides into mind and body, mind and world. He proposed that we speak not of minds, bodies, and the world, but of individuals, or persons, acting in the world. Thus, by saying 'consciousness,' we end up misleading ourselves by thinking that there is any sort of thing as consciousness separated from behavioral and linguistic understandings.
The failure to produce a workable definition of consciousness also raises formidable philosophical questions. When Antonio Dimasio[10] defines consciousness as "an organism's awareness of its own self and its surroundings," he hasn't said anything. The words "consciousness," "awareness," and "perception" convey a very passive sense, bringing up images of the homunculus observer. The idea of consciousness also implies a gratuitous distinction between awareness and sensation, as if sensation or thought is something we have to be aware of.
The neurological data shows, however, that experience is a very interactive thing. Our brain massages vast libraries of experience that it draws upon to create a coherent body and a coherent world for us. As in the act of reading a text, our reading of our bodies and the world around us is a very active thing. Maturana and Varela[11] showed that the brain is massively involved with creating worlds of experience for us with meager input from the senses.
Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins[12] sums up the interactive view of experience: "In a way, what sense organs do is assist our brains to construct a useful model and it is this model that we move around in. It is a kind of virtual reality simulation of the world."
Consciousness and language
Because humans express their conscious states using language, it is tempting to equate language abilities and consciousness. There are, however, speechless humans (infants, feral children, aphasics, severe forms of autism), to whom consciousness is attributed despite language lost or not yet acquired. Moreover, the study of brain states of non-linguistic primates, in particular the macaques, has been used extensively by scientists and philosophers in their quest for the neural correlates of the contents of consciousness.
Julian Jaynes argued to the contrary, in The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, that for consciousness to arise in a person, language needs to have reached a fairly high level of complexity. According to Jaynes, human consciousness emerged as recently as 1300 BCE or thereabouts. Many philosophers, including W.V. Quine and neuroscientists, including Christof Koch, contest this hypothesis, as it suggests that prior to this "discovery" of consciousness, experience simply did not exist.[13] Ned Block argued that Jaynes had confused consciousness with the concept of consciousness, the latter being what was discovered between the Iliad and the Odyssey.[14] Daniel Dennett argues that consciousness is like money in that having the thing requires having the concept of it, so it is a revolutionary proposal and not a ridiculous error to suppose that consciousness only emerges when its concept does.
Consciousness and Brain Evolution
Other accounts of the origin of consciousness as a brain function approach it as an adaptation, a trait that must in some fashion increase biological fitness. [15] Sir John C. Eccles considers the problem in his paper "Evolution of consciousness." He argues that special anatomical and physical properties of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness. [16] Budiansky, by contrast, limits consciousness to humans, proposing that human consciousness may have evolved as an adaptation to anticipate and counter social strategems of other humans, predators, and prey.[17] Alternatively, it has been argued that the recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness is much more primitive, having evolved initially in pre-mammalian species because it improves the capacity for interaction with both social and natural environments by providing an energy saving "neutral" gear in an otherwise energy expensive motor output machine.[18] Once in place, this recursive circuitry may well have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions which consciousness facilitates in higher organisms, as outlined by Bernard J. Baars.[19]
Cognitive neuroscience approaches
Modern investigations into and discoveries about consciousness are based on psychological statistical studies and case studies of consciousness states and the deficits caused by lesions, stroke, injury, or surgery that disrupt the normal functioning of human senses and cognition. These discoveries suggest that the mind is a complex structure derived from various localized functions that are bound together with a unitary awareness.
Several studies point to common mechanisms in different clinical conditions that lead to loss of consciousness. Persistent vegetative state (PVS) is a condition in which an individual loses the higher cerebral powers of the brain, but maintains sleep-wake cycles with full or partial autonomic functions. Studies comparing PVS with healthy, awake subjects consistently demonstrate an impaired connectivity between the deeper (brainstem and thalamic) and the upper (cortical) areas of the brain. In addition, it is agreed that the general brain activity in the cortex is lower in the PVS state. Some electroneurobiological interpretations of consciousness characterize this loss of consciousness as a loss of the ability to resolve time (similar to playing an old phonographic record at very slow or very rapid speed), along a continuum that starts with inattention, continues on sleep, and arrives to coma and death [20] . It is likely that different components of consciousness can be teased apart with anesthetics, sedatives and hypnotics. These drugs appear to differentially act on several brain areas to disrupt, to varying degrees, different components of consciousness. The ability to recall information, for example, may be disrupted by anesthetics acting on the hippocampal cortex. Neurons in this region are particularly sensitive to anesthetics at the time loss of recall occurs. Direct anesthetic actions on hippocampal neurons have been shown to underlie EEG effects that occur in humans and animals during loss of recall (MacIver et al 1996; see also: http://www.stanford.edu/group/maciverlab/research.html).
Loss of consciousness also occurs in other conditions, such as general (tonic-clonic) epileptic seizures, in general anaesthesia, maybe even in deep (slow-wave) sleep. At present, the best-supported hypotheses about such cases of loss of consciousness (or loss of time resolution) focus on the need for 1) a widespread cortical network, including particularly the frontal, parietal and temporal cortices, and 2) cooperation between the deep layers of the brain, especially the thalamus, and the upper layers, the cortex. Such hypotheses go under the common term "globalist theories" of consciousness, due to the claim for a widespread, global network necessary for consciousness to interact with non-mental reality in the first place.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Brain chemistry affects human consciousness. Sleeping drugs (such as Midazolam = Dormicum) can bring the brain from the awake condition (conscious) to the sleep (unconscious). Wake-up drugs such as Anexate reverse this process. Many other drugs (such as alcohol, nicotine, Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), heroin, cocaine, LSD, MDMA) have a consciousness-changing effect.
There is a neural link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, known as the corpus callosum. This link is sometimes surgically severed to control severe seizures in epilepsy patients. This procedure was first performed by Roger Sperry in the 1960s. Tests of these patients have shown that, after the link is completely severed, the hemispheres are no longer able to communicate, leading to certain problems that usually arise only in test conditions. For example, while the left side of the brain can verbally describe what is going on in the right visual field, the right hemisphere is essentially mute, instead relying on its spatial abilities to interact with the world on the left visual field. Some say that it is as if two separate minds now share the same skull, but both still represent themselves as a single "I" to the outside world.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
The bilateral removal of the centromedian nucleus (part of the Intra-laminar nucleus of the Thalamus) appears to abolish consciousness, causing coma, PVS, severe mutism and other features that mimic brain death. The centromedian nucleus is also one of the principal sites of action of general anaesthetics and anti-psychotic drugs. This evidence suggests that a functioning thalamus is necessary, but not sufficient, for human consciousness.
Neurophysiological studies in awake, behaving monkeys point to advanced cortical areas in prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes as carriers of neuronal correlates of consciousness. Christof Koch and Francis Crick argued that neuronal mechanisms of consciousness are intricately related to prefrontal cortex — the most advanced cortical area. Rodolfo Llinas proposes that consciousness results from recurrent thalamo-cortical resonance where the specific (dorsal thalamus) thalamocortical system (content) and the non-specific (centromedial thalamus) thalamocortical system (context) interact at gamma band frequency via time coincidence. According to this view the "I" represents a global predictive function required for intentionality.[21][22] Experimental work of Steven Wise, Mikhail Lebedev and their colleagues supports this view. They demonstrated that activity of prefrontal cortex neurons reflects illusory perceptions of movements of visual stimuli. Nikos Logothetis and colleagues made similar observations on visually responsive neurons in the temporal lobe. These neurons reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry). The studies of blindsight — vision without awareness after lesions to parts of the visual system such as the primary visual cortex — performed by Lawrence Weiskrantz and David P. Carey provided important insights on how conscious perception arises in the brain. In recent years the theory of two visual streams, vision for perception versus vision for action was developed by Melvyn Goodale, David Milner and others. According to this theory, visual perception arises as the result of processing of visual information by the ventral stream areas (located mostly in the temporal lobe), whereas the dorsal stream areas (located mostly in the parietal lobe) process visual information unconsciously. For example, quick catching of the ball would engage mostly the dorsal stream areas, and viewing a painting would be handled by the ventral stream. Overall, these studies show that conscious versus unconscious behaviors can be linked to specific brain areas and patterns of neuronal activation.[How to reference and link to summary or text]. However, neuroscience only focuses on the neural correlates of consciousness. The hard problem of consciousness is to explain how all these flows and electrochemical processes in the brain give rise to the inner experience of subjective awareness.
One of the promising approaches in modern Neuroscience is Operational Architectonicstheory of brain-mind functioning developed by Andrew and Alexander Fingelkurts. This theory states that whenever any pattern of phenomenality (including reflective thought) is instantiated, there is neuro-physiological pattern (revealed directly by EEG) of appropriate kind that corresponds to it.[23][24] These neuron-physiological EEG patterns (expressed as the virtual operational modules) are brought to existence by joint operations of many functional and transient neuronal assemblies in the brain.[25] The activity of neuronal assemblies per se is 'hidden' in the complex nonstationary structure of EEG field.[26] Therefore, a proper EEG analysis is needed that would be able to reveal the EEG architecture which reflects or instantiates the kind of phenomenal world (considering that there should be the 'well-defined' and 'well-detected' EEG phenomena) which humans subjectively experience. Currently available EEG methods can reveal the EEG architecture which is amazingly similar to the architecture of a phenomenal world of consciousness (see review on EEG and Operational Architectonics).
Physical approaches
Even at the dawn of Newtonian science, Leibniz and many others were suggesting physical theories of consciousness. Modern physical theories of consciousness can be divided into three types: theories to explain behaviour and access consciousness, theories to explain phenomenal consciousness and theories to explain the quantum mechanical (QM) Quantum mind. Theories that seek to explain behaviour are an everyday part of neuroscience, some of these theories of access consciousness, such as Edelman's theory, contentiously identify phenomenal consciousness with reflex events in the brain. Theories that seek to explain phenomenal consciousness directly, such as Space-time theories of consciousness and Electromagnetic theories of consciousness, have been available for almost a century, but have not yet been confirmed by experiment. Theories that attempt to explain the QM measurement problem include Pribram and Bohm's Holonomic brain theory, Hameroff and Penrose's Orch-OR theory and the Many-minds interpretation. Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness. None of the quantum mechanical theories has been confirmed by experiment, and there are philosophers who argue that QM has no bearing on consciousness.
There is also a concerted effort in the field of Artificial Intelligence to create digital computer programs that can simulate consciousness.
Functions of consciousness
We generally agree that our fellow human beings are conscious, and that much simpler life forms, such as bacteria, are not. Many of us attribute consciousness to higher-order animals such as dolphins and primates; academic research is investigating the extent to which animals are conscious. This suggests the hypothesis that consciousness has co-evolved with life, which would require it to have some sort of added value, especially survival value. People have therefore looked for specific functions and benefits of consciousness. Bernard Baars (1997), for instance, states that "consciousness is a supremely functional adaptation" and suggests a variety of functions in which consciousness plays an important, if not essential, role: prioritization of alternatives, problem solving, decision making, brain processes recruiting, action control, error detection, planning, learning, adaptation, context creation, and access to information.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Antonio Damasio (1999) regards consciousness as part of an organism's survival kit, allowing planned rather than instinctual responses.[How to reference and link to summary or text] He also points out that awareness of self allows a concern for one's own survival, which increases the drive to survive, although how far consciousness is involved in behaviour is an actively debated issue. Many psychologists, such as radical behaviorists, and many philosophers, such as those that support Ryle's approach, would maintain that behavior can be explained by non-conscious processes akin to artificial intelligence, and might consider consciousness to be epiphenomenal or only weakly related to function.
Regarding the primary function of conscious processing, a recurring idea in recent theories is that phenomenal states somehow integrate neural activities and information-processing that would otherwise be independent (see review in Baars, 2002). This has been called the integration consensus. However, it has remained unspecified which kinds of information are integrated in a conscious manner and which kinds can be integrated without consciousness. Obviously not all kinds of information are capable of being disseminated consciously (e.g., neural activity related to vegetative functions, reflexes, unconscious motor programs, low-level perceptual analyses, etc.) and many kinds can be disseminated and combined with other kinds without consciousness, as in intersensory interactions such as the ventriloquism effect (cf., Morsella, 2005).
Ervin Laszlo argues that self-awareness, the ability to make observations of oneself, evolved. Emile Durkheim formulated the concept of so called collective consciousness, which is essential for organization of human, social relations. The accelerating drive of human race to explorations, cognition, understanding and technological progress[1] can be explained by some features of collective consciousness (collective self - concepts) and collective intelligence
Tests of consciousness
As there is no clear definition of consciousness and no empirical measure exists to test for its presence, it has been argued that due to the nature of the problem of consciousness, empirical tests are intrinsically impossible. However, several tests have been developed which attempt to provide an operational definition of consciousness and try to determine whether computers and other non-human animals can demonstrate through their behavior, by passing these tests, that they are conscious.
In medicine, several neurological and brain imaging techniques, like EEG and fMRI, have proven useful for physical measures of brain activity associated with consciousness. This is particularly true for EEG measures during anesthesia[2] that can provide an indication of anesthetic depth, although with still limited accuracies of ~ 70 % and a high degree of patient and drug variability seen.
Turing Test
- See also: Turing test and philosophy of artificial intelligence
Though often thought of as a test for consciousness, the Turing test (named after computer scientist Alan Turing, who first proposed it) is actually a test to determine whether or not a computer satisfied his operational definition of "intelligent" (which is actually quite different from a test for consciousness or self-awareness). This test is commonly cited in discussion of artificial intelligence. The essence of the test is based on "the Imitation Game", in which a human experimenter attempts to converse, via computer keyboards, with two others. One of the others is a human (who, it is assumed, is conscious) while the other is a computer. Because all of the conversation is via keyboards (teletypes, in Turing's original conception) no cues such as voice, prosody, or appearance will be available to indicate which is the human and which is the computer. If the human is unable to determine which of the conversants is human, and which is a computer, the computer is said to have "passed" the Turing test (satisfied Turing's operational definition of "intelligent").
The Turing test has generated a great deal of research and philosophical debate. For example, Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter argue that anything capable of passing the Turing test is necessarily conscious,[27] while David Chalmers, argues that a philosophical zombie could pass the test, yet fail to be conscious.[28]
It has been argued that the question itself is excessively anthropomorphic. Edsger Dijkstra commented that "The question of whether a computer can think is no more interesting than the question of whether a submarine can swim", expressing the view that different words are appropriate for the workings of a machine to those of animals even if they produce similar results, just as submarines are not normally said to swim.
Philosopher John Searle developed a thought experiment, the Chinese room argument, which is intended to show problems with the Turing Test.[29] Searle asks the reader to imagine a non-Chinese speaker in a room in which there are stored a very large number of Chinese symbols and rule books. Questions are passed to the person in the form of written Chinese symbols via a slot, and the person responds by looking up the symbols and the correct replies in the rule books. Based on the purely input-output operations, the "Chinese room" gives the appearance of understanding Chinese. However, the person in the room understands no Chinese at all. This argument has been the subject of intense philosophical debate since it was introduced in 1980, even leading to edited volumes on this topic alone.
The application of the Turing test to human consciousness has even led to an annual competition, the Loebner Prize with "Grand Prize of $100,000 and a Gold Medal for the first computer whose responses were indistinguishable from a human's." For a summary of research on the Turing Test, see here.
Mirror test
See also the concept of the Mirror stage by Jacques Lacan
With the mirror test, devised by Gordon Gallup in the 1970s, one is interested in whether animals are able to recognize themselves in a mirror. The classic example of the test involves placing a spot of coloring on the skin or fur near the individual's forehead and seeing if they attempt to remove it or at least touch the spot, thus indicating that they recognize that the individual they are seeing in the mirror is themselves. Humans (older than 18 months), great apes (except for gorillas), bottlenose dolphins, pigeons [3], and elephants [4] have all been observed to pass this test. The test is usually carried out with an identical 'spot' being placed elsewhere on the head with a non-visible material as a control, to assure the subject is not responding to the touch stimuli of the spot's presence. Proponents of the hard problem of consciousness claim that the mirror test only demonstrates that some animals possess a particular cognitive capacity for modelling their environment, but not for the presence of phenomenal consciousness per se.
Delay test
One problem researchers face is distinguishing nonconscious reflexes and instinctual responses from conscious responses. Neuroscientists Francis Crick and Christof Koch have proposed that by placing a delay between stimulus and execution of action, one may determine the extent of involvement of consciousness in an action of a biological organism.
For example, when psychologists Larry Squire and Robert Clark combined a tone of a specific pitch with a puff of air to the eye, test subjects came to blink their eyes in anticipation of the puff of air when the appropriate tone was played. When the puff of air followed a half of a second later, no such conditioning occurred. When subjects were asked about the experiment, only those who were asked to pay attention could consciously distinguish which tone preceded the puff of air.
Ability to delay the response to an action implies that the information must be stored in short-term memory, which is conjectured to be a closely associated prerequisite for consciousness. However, this test is only valid for biological organisms. While it is simple to create a computer program that passes, such success does not suggest anything beyond a clever programmer.[13]
- ↑ Ned Block: "On a Confusion about a Function of Consciousness" in: The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1995.
- ↑ Late recovery from the minimally conscious state: ethical and policy implications. Fins JJ, Schiff ND, Foley KM. Neurology. 2007 Jan 23;68(4):304-7. Abstract at Pubmed, retrieved 27 February 2007
- ↑ Samuel Butler first raised the possibility of mechanical consciousness in an article signed with the nom de plume Cellarius and headed "Darwin among the Machines", which appeared in the Christchurch, New Zealand, newspaper The Press on 13 June 1863: retrieved from PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION, Project Gutenberg eBook Erewhon, by Samuel Butler. Release Date: March 20, 2005.
- ↑ Stuart Shieber (ed): The Turing test : verbal behavior as the hallmark of intelligence, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-262-69293-9
- ↑ Steven Marcus: Neuroethics: mapping the field. Dana Press, New York 2002. ISBN 978-0-9723830-0-4.
- ↑ See Aquinas, De Veritate 17,1 c.a.
- ↑ See Catherine G. Davies, Conscience as Consciousness, Oxford 1990, and Hennig, Cartesian Conscientia.
- ↑ See Etienne Balibar, Identité et différence. Le chapitre II, xxvii de l'Essay concerning Human Understanding de Locke. L'invention de la conscience. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1998. ISBN 978-2-02-026300-9
- ↑ See Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science, §355.
- ↑ Dimasio. A. 1999. The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace. p. 4.
- ↑ Maturana, H. R. and F. J. Varela. 1980. Autopoesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living. Boston: D. Reidel.
- ↑ Dawkins, R. 2003. A Devil's Chaplain; Reflections on Hope, Lies, Science, and Love. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 46.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Christof Koch, The Quest for Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach. Englewood, Colorado: Roberts and Company Publishers.
- ↑ Ned Block, "What is Dennett's Theory a Theory of?" Philosophical Topics 22, 1994.
- ↑ Freeman and Herron. Evolutionary Analysis. 2007. Pearson Education, NJ.
- ↑ Eccles, John C. "Evolution of consciousness." 1992. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 89 pp. 7320-7324
- ↑ Budiansky, Stephen. If a Lion Could Talk: Animal Intelligence and the Evolution of Consciousness. 1998. The Free Press, NY.
- ↑ Peters, Frederic "Consciousness as Recursive, Spatiotemporal Self-Location" http://precedings.nature.com/documents/2444/version/1
- ↑ Baars, Bernard J. A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness. 1993. Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ Mariela Szirko: "Effects of relativistic motions in the brain and their physiological relevance", Chapter 10 (pp. 313-358) in: Helmut Wautischer, editor, Ontology of Consciousness: Percipient Action, A Bradford Book: The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1st edition, 2007.
- ↑ Llinas R.. (2001) "I of the Vortex. From Neurons to Self" MIT Press, Cambridge
- ↑ Llinas R.,Ribary,U. Contreras,D. and Pedroarena, C. (1998) "The neuronal basis for consciousness" Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, B. 353:1841-1849
- ↑ Template:Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A. Operational architectonics of the human brain biopotential field: Towards solving the mind-brain problem. Brain and Mind, vol. 2, pp. 261-296, 2001.
- ↑ Template:Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A. Timing in cognition and EEG brain dynamics: discreteness versus continuity. Cognitive Proces., vol. 7, pp. 135-162, 2006.
- ↑ Template:Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A. Mapping of the brain operational architectonics, in Focus on Brain Mapping Research, Chapter 2, F.J. Chen, Ed. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2005, pp. 59-98.
- ↑ Template:Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A. Making complexity simpler: multivariability and metastability in the Brain. Int. J. Neurosci., vol. 114, pp. 843-862, 2004.
- ↑ Dennett, D.C. and Hofstadter, D. (1985). The Mind's I: Fantasies and reflections on self and soul (ISBN 978-0-553-34584-1)
- ↑ Chalmers, D. (1997) The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511789 Please check ISBN|0195117891
- ↑ Searle, J. (1980) "Minds, Brains and Programs" Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3, 417-424.
See also
- Awareness
- Centering
- Conscious (personality factor)
- Consciousness disturbances
- Consciousness raising groups
- Consciousness states
- Deja vu
- Dissociation
- History of Consciousness
- Level of consciousness
- Mind
- Physiological arousal
- Sleep
- Wakefulness
Cognitive Neuroscience
- Attention
- Binocular rivalry
- Blindsight
- Body awareness
- Change blindness
- Cognitive science
- Iconic memory
- Multistable perception
- Neural correlates of consciousness
- Neural Darwinism
- Perception
- Reticular activating system
- Short term memory
- Society of Mind
- Split brain
- Stream of consciousness (psychology)
- Unconscious mind
- Visual short term memory
- 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness
- Bodymind
- Donald Davidson's swamp man thought experiment ("Knowing One Own's Mind", 1987)
- Dream argument
- False Consciousness (Marxism)
- Freedom of thought
- Homunculus
- Mental body
- Mind
- Mind at Large
- Mind-body problem
- Multiple Drafts theory (Daniel Dennett) cf. also Marvin Minsky
- New Mysterianism
- Personhood Theory
- Philosophy of mind
- Philosophy of perception
- Political consciousness, pertaining to marxist and post-marxist conceptions of consciousness.
- Qualia
- Stream of consciousness
- Supervenience
- Theory of mind
Physical Hypotheses about Consciousness
- Orch-OR theory
- Electromagnetic theories of consciousness
- Holonomic brain theory
- Quantum mind
- Space-time theories of consciousness
- Simulated Reality
- Association for Consciousness Exploration
- Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness
- Mind and Life Institute
- Mind Science Foundation
Other disciplines
Further reading
- Baars, B. (1997). In the Theater of Consciousness: The Workspace of the Mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2001 reprint: ISBN 978-0-19-514703-2
- Baars, Bernard J and Stan Franklin. 2003. How conscious experience and working memory interact. Trends in Cognitive Science 7: 166–172.
- Bar-Yam, Yaneer (2003). Dynamics of Complex Systems, Chapter 3.
- Blackmore, S. (2003). Consciousness: an Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515343-9
- Block, N. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science.
- Carter, Rita. (2002) Exploring Consciousness. UC Berkeley Press. ISBN 0-520-23737-4
- Chalmers, D. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511789-9
- Charlton, Bruce G. "Evolution and the Cognitive Neuroscience of Awareness, Consciousness and Language"
- Cleermans, A. (Ed.) (2003). The Unity of Consciousness: Binding, Integration, and Dissociation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850857-1
- Rodney M. J. Cotterill (1998). Enchanted Looms : Conscious networks in brains and computer, Cambridge University Press.
- Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Press. ISBN 978-0-15-601075-7
- Dennett, D. (1991). Consciousness Explained, Boston: Little & Company. ISBN 978-0-316-18066-5
- Eccles, J.C. (1994), How the Self Controls its Brain, (Springer-Verlag).
- Franklin, S, B J Baars, U Ramamurthy, and Matthew Ventura. 2005. The role of consciousness in memory. Brains, Minds and Media 1: 1–38, pdf.
- Halliday, Eugene, Reflexive Self-Consciousness, ISBN 0-872240-01-1
- Harnad, S. (2005) What is Consciousness? New York Review of Books 52(11).
- James, W. (1902) The Varieties of Religious Experience
- Immanuel Kant (1781). Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. Norman Kemp Smith with preface by Howard Caygill. Pub: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Koch, C. (2004). The Quest for Consciousness. Englewood, CO: Roberts & Company. ISBN 978-0-9747077-0-9
- John Locke (1689). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
- Libet, B., Freeman, A. & Sutherland, K. ed. (1999). The Volitional Brain: Towards a neuroscience of free will. Exeter, UK: Short Run Press, Ltd.
- Llinas R.,Ribary,U. Contreras,D. and Pedroarena, C. (1998) "The neuronal basis for consciousness" Phil. Tranns. R. Soc. London, B. 353:1841-1849
- Llinas R. (2001) "I of the Vortex. From Neurons to Self" MIT Press, Cambridge
- Metzinger, T. (2003). Being No One: the Self-model Theory of Subjectivity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Metzinger, T. (Ed.) (2000). The Neural Correlates of Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13370-8
- Morgan, John H. (2007. In the Beginning: The Paleolithic Origins of Religious Consciousness. Cloverdale Books, South Bend. ISBN 978-1-929569-41-0
- Morsella, E. (2005). The Function of Phenomenal States: Supramodular Interaction Theory. Psychological Review, 112, 1000-1021.
- Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R. (1996), 'Conscious Events as Orchestrated Space-Time Selections', Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3 (1), pp. 36-53.
- Pharoah, M.C. (online). Looking to systems theory for a reductive explanation of phenomenal experience and evolutionary foundations for higher order thought Retrieved Dec.14 2007.
- Scaruffi, P. (2006). The Nature Of Consciousness. Omniware.
- Searle, J. (2004). Mind: A Brief Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
- Velmans, M. (2000) Understanding Consciousness. London: Routledge/Psychology Press.
- Velmans, M. and Schneider, S. (Eds.)(2006) The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness. New York: Blackwell.
External links
- Anthropology of Consciousness
- Journal of Consciousness Studies
- Consciousness and Cognition
- Psyche
- Science & Consciousness Review
- ASSC e-print archive containing articles, book chapters, theses, conference presentations by members of the ASSC.
Philosophy resources
- Publications of the Tufts Center for Cognitive Studies, including Daniel Dennett
- David Chalmers' directory of online papers on consciousness
- Intuitions about Consciousness: Experimental Studies an article describing the folk intuitions about what is a conscious agent
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Miscellaneous sites
- History of Consciousness Graduate Program, ("consciousness as forms of human expression and social action manifested in historical, cultural, and political contexts") at the University of California, Santa Cruz, headed by Dr. Angela Davis* Online lecture videos, from an undergraduate course taught by Christof Koch at Caltech on the neurobiological basis of consciousness in 2004.
- Piero Scaruffi's annotated bibliography on the mind
- Anesthesia and Drug effects on consciousness
- Brain Atlas, Brain Maps, Neuroinformatics
- Online course in consciousness at University of Virginia
- A survey course at University of Florida
- Edinburgh thesis (.ps) on consciousness including up-to-date reviews
- Consciousness-Related Engineering Anomaly Princeton
- Thy Mystery of Consciousness TIME.com
- Helen Keller Language and Consciousness
- Theory of the Red Blood Cells
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).


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Portland, OR (Sports Network) - Renado Parker tied a career-high with 20
points as the Portland State Vikings defeated the Eastern Washington Eagles,
89-80, in a Big Sky Conference matchup at the Stott Center.
Parker shot 9-of-17 from the field and also grabbed seven rebounds for PSU
(7-16, 5-11 Big Sky), while Michael Harthun was nearly perfect en route to 18
points, going 5-of-6 from the field and 6-of-6 from the foul line. Aaron Moore
(17 points, nine rebounds) and Gary Winston (14 points, five assists) were
also stellar for the Vikings, who have won two straight on the heels of an
eight-game losing streak.
For EWU (8-18, 6-10), Tyler Harvey also had a career-high with 23 points off
the bench. Venky Jois (17 points, nine rebounds) and Martin Seiferth (16
points, nine rebounds, three blocks) were both strong in the trenches, while
Jeffrey Forbes added 17 points before fouling out. The Eagles had won their
previous two bouts heading into tonight's action.
The Vikings played outstanding on both ends of the floor in the first half,
outshooting the Eagles from the field, 65.5 percent to 36.1 percent, as they
took a 43-31 lead into intermission.
EWU made a push early in the second half, using a 16-0 run to take a 53-50
advantage with 12:33 to play, but PSU managed to retake the lead a few minutes
later on a Winston 3-pointer and it never again trailed. The Vikings iced the
game in the final 1:29 by shooting 11-of-13 from the foul line.
EWU lost despite outscoring PSU in the paint (46-36) and in points off
turnovers (16-13).
The Sports Network


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Fryeburg Water, a privately-owned utility, wants to extend the contract to as long as 45 years - an initial 25 years, with four five-year extensions.
A proposal by Fryeburg Water Company to extend its contract with Nestle Waters to provide water for Poland Spring, drew supporters and opponents to a public hearing last night in the western Maine town.
Fryeburg Water, a privately-owned utility, wants to extend the contract to as long as 45 years - an initial 25 years, with four five-year extensions. The agreement would lock in payments and rules that govern Nestle's withdrawls of water for Poland Spring.
Supporter Kimberly Clark argued that it's important for Poland Spring to have access to as much water as it needs to meet demand - and, sometimes, emergency demand.
"The very first product asked for in a natural or man-made disaster is potable bottled water - it's critically important," Clark told members of the Maine Public Utilities Commission, which held the hearing. "In my opinion, it's a product that's vital to the national security of our country."
She disagreed with the view of some opponents that the deal is driven by greed. "There's another kind of greed and that's the greed of hoarding, that's the greed of saying that, 'Well I'm going to keep this from you. I'm going to keep this in case I run out. I'm not going to share what I have of value with other people in the country,'" Clark said.
Debbie Lennon spoke in opposition to the agreement. "It's fortune telling, and I'm not sure I'm willing to put my quarter into the fortune-telling machine of Nestle," she said.
Also speaking in opposition was Deborah Walters. She said the only beneficiaries of the agreement would be Fryeburg Water Company, its stockholders and Nestle. "This is not just a simple business agreement," Walters said. "It is a nightmare for the town of Fryeburg and surrounding towns."
PUC Chair Thomas Welch says the commission will make the final decision on the proposal, based on whether it's in the interest of ratepayers.
This story was reported by Susan Sharon and written by Ed Morin.


text:
12,915pages on
this wiki
this wiki
Episode Plot
Anxious to leave for Driftveil City again, Ash and co. decide to take in some culture with the Pokémon musical. They meet Toby, a young trainer and his Maractus trio: Marra, Racca and Tussy. However, Tussy was struggling to overcome with its fear of heights as it was trying to perform an "Over the Rainbow" technique before the performance competition and the audition in Nimbasa City for the Pokémon Musical. Can Tussy get over its fear of heights by showtime? Yes.
- This is the first episode to feature an official Triple Battle.
- Like the character name Cowardly Lion from "The Wizard of Oz", the only reason why Tussy can't get over its fear because she's confusing her wisdom.
- Professor Oak's Live Caster: Mandibuzz
- Who's That Pokémon?: Maractus
|This article is an anime stub.
Please help the Pokémon Wiki by expanding it.


text:
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STARmeterSEE RANK
Up 602 this week
Allan Corduner
Actor | Producer | Soundtrack
Born in Stockholm, Sweden to a German mother and Russo-Finnish father, Allan Corduner moved to England with his parents at the age of one year old, growing up in London. His parents were artistic and encouraged his early ambition to become a concert pianist - he is still extremely accomplished on the piano - but after attending Bristol University ... See full bio »
Born:in Stockholm, Stockholms län, Sweden
More at IMDbPro » Contact Info: View agent
Represent Allan Corduner? Add or change photos


text:
I have a few questions before I start writing the script.
- Will your stairs always descend counter-clockwise (ie. start from the bottom)?
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Dalton "who's written an aMazing script ... if he could just get it to work" Spence


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Nikki Reed
Born: 05/17/1988
Birth Place: Los Angeles, California, USA
Beautiful and multitalented American actress, screenwriter, singer-songwriter and model Nikki Reed was best known for her debut in "Thirteen" (2003) and her portrayal of the vampire Rosalie Hale in the "Twilight" films (2008-2012). Born Nicole Houston Reed in West Los Angeles, California on May 17, 1988, Reed was the daughter of Cheryl Houston and Seth Reed. After her parents divorced, Reed and her older brother Nathan August Reed were raised solely by her mother. At an early age, Reed displayed an interest in acting and through her mother she received her first big break. Director Catherine Hardwicke, a friend of Reed's mother, invited the precociously aspiring actress to work on a scrip... Continue Bio >>
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WASHINGTON,D.C. (WUSA) - Now that the economy is turning around retailers are hoping to turn around the dismissal performance of past holiday seasons.
Black Friday has now begun on Thursday at the Hyattsville Kmart, where shoppers were taking advantage of great discounts on many items but especially electronics as the store opened its doors at 4 a.m.
See Armando Trull's report, above, for more on the early buying.


text: Hey all. I was reading an old article on balkline play -- from 1909 in the NYT-- and they stated some averages in a form I cannot make sense of. Here's a quote:I understand normal billiard averages quite well: you make ten points in five innings at three cushion you're averaging 2; you make 50 points in 2 innings at straight rail you're averaging 25 and so on. But what can these averages of "14 12-17" and "8 12-17" mean? Thanks in advance.In the evening Demarest beat Gallagher by 250 to 148, with an average of 14 12-17 and a high run of 82, to Gallagher's average of 8 12-17, and a high run of 42.


text:
Mugs: Florida Prostitution Arrests
Clearwater, Florida -- Police arrested four women Friday afternoon on prostitution charges, according to jail records.
They are Victoria Tawse, 48, of Howard Street, Mary Hammonds, 28, of Court Street and Lorene Francisco, 34, a transient, and Valerie Hamick, 50, of Windham Dr., Holiday.
All four were booked into the Pinellas County jail.
Pinellas County Jail


text:
Use the form below to search the Health Library.
What is Maté Used for Today?
Safety Issues
Interactions You Should Know About
1 Gonzalez de Mejia E, Song YS, Ramirez-Mares MV, et al. Effect of yerba mate ( Ilex paraguariensis ) tea on topoisomerase inhibition and oral carcinoma cell proliferation. J Agric Food Chem . 2005;53:1966–73.
2 Ramirez-Mares MV, Chandra S, de Mejia EG, et al. In vitro chemopreventive activity of Camellia sinensis , Ilexparaguariensis and Ardisia compressa tea extracts and selected polyphenols. Mutat Res . 2004;554:53–65.
3 Chandra S, De Mejia Gonzalez E. Polyphenolic compounds, antioxidant capacity, and quinone reductase activity of an aqueous extract of Ardisia compressa in comparison to mate ( Ilex paraguariensis ) and green ( Camelliasinensis ) teas. J Agric Food Chem . 2004;52:3583–9.
4 Lunceford N, Gugliucci A. Ilex paraguariensis extracts inhibit AGE formation more efficiently than green tea. Fitoterapia . 2005 May 12 [Epub ahead of print]
5 Martinet A, Hostettmann K, Schutz Y, et al. Thermogenic effects of commercially available plant preparations aimed at treating human obesity. Phytomedicine . 2000;6:231–8.
6 Andersen T, Fogh J. Weight loss and delayed gastric emptying following a South American herbal preparation in overweight patients. J Hum Nutr Diet . 2001;14:243–50.
7 Gorzalczany S, Filip R, Alonso MR, et al. Choleretic effect and intestinal propulsion of 'mate' ( Ilex paraguariensis ) and its substitutes or adulterants. J Ethnopharmacol . 2001;75:291–4.
8 Goldenberg D, Lee J, Koch WM, et al. Habitual risk factors for head and neck cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg . 2004;131:986–93.
9 Sewram V, De Stefani E, Brennan P, et al. Mate consumption and the risk of squamous cell esophageal cancer in Uruguay. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev . 2003;12:508–13.
10 Goldenberg D, Golz A, Joachims HZ, et al. The beverage mate: a risk factor for cancer of the head and neck. Head Neck . 2003;25:595–601.
11 De Stefani E, Fierro L, Mendilaharsu M, et al. Meat intake, 'mate' drinking and renal cell cancer in Uruguay: a case-control study. Br J Cancer . 1998;78:1239–43.
12 De Stefani E, Fierro L, Correa P, et al. Mate drinking and risk of lung cancer in males: a case-control study from Uruguay. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev . 1996;5:515–9.
13 Leitao AC, Braga RS. Mutagenic and genotoxic effects of mate ( Ilex paraguariensis ) in prokaryotic organisms. Braz J Med Biol Res . 1995;27:1517–5.
14 Cannon ME, Cooke CT, McCarthy JS. Caffeine-induced cardiac arrhythmia: an unrecognised danger of healthfood products. Med J Aust . 2001;174:520–1.