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Photosynthesis: what color was its origin?
- Jin Xiong1Email author
Affiliated with
DOI: 10.1186/gb-2006-7-12-245
© BioMed Central Ltd 2006
Published: 3 January 2007
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DOI: 10.1186/gb-2006-7-12-245
© BioMed Central Ltd 2006
Published: 3 January 2007
Recent studies using geological and molecular phylogenetic evidence suggest several alternative evolutionary scenarios for the origin of photosynthesis. The earliest photosynthetic group is variously thought to be heliobacteria, proteobacteria or a precursor of cyanobacteria, organisms whose photosynthetic pigments make them different colors.
The origin of photosynthesis using tetrapyrrole compounds (such as chlorophylls) has long been one of the most complex and challenging issues in biology. Many schools of thought have emerged, each with its own assumptions and with evidence supporting a particular origin of photosynthesis. A number of recently published landmark papers [1–3] have contributed further to the debate.
To get a better grasp of the important issue, one needs to first understand the distribution of extant photosynthetic groups and the types of photosynthetic apparatus within each group. Within the prokaryotic domain, there are five main groups of bacteria that perform tetrapyrrole-based photosynthesis. They are proteobacteria (also known as purple bacteria), heliobacteria, Chloroflexi (filamentous bacteria also known as green non-sulfur bacteria), Chlorobi (green sulfur bacteria) and cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are known evolutionary progenitors of chloroplasts in algae and plants which evolved at a later stage [4]. Therefore, to understand the early evolution of photosynthesis, one needs to focus on the photosynthetic prokaryotes. The types of photosynthesis and photosynthetic apparatus in these groups of organisms also vary. Cyanobacteria contain two types of photosystems (type I, also known as Fe-S type, and type II, also known as quinone type) and carry out oxygen-evolving photosynthesis. The other four groups of photosynthetic bacteria contain only one type of photosystem and perform non-oxygen-evolving photosynthesis. Proteobacteria and Chloroflexi are known to contain a simplified type II photosystem whereas Chlorobi and heliobacteria contain a simplified type I photosystem only.
In addition, the chlorophyll pigments contained in the photosystems of these bacterial groups also differ structurally with cyanobacteria having chlorophyll a, heliobacteria having bacteriochlorophyll g, and the other three groups synthesizing various bacteriochlorophylls from a to e. These pigments absorb light at different frequencies and thus have slightly different colors. The question of the original nature of the most ancestral photosynthetic apparatus can thus be metaphorically encapsulated by asking the color of the first photosynthetic apparatus. (It needs to be pointed out that the actual colors of the photosynthetic organisms are often masked by non-chlorophyll pigments such as carotenoids and phycobilins).
The advent of photosynthesis is known from geological studies to be a very ancient event. The earliest evidence for biological carbon fixation was dated to 3.8 billion years ago (or Giga-annum, Ga) [5, 6] from the isotopic composition of sedimentary rocks. The best known fossil evidence of the earliest photosynthetic forms of life has been dated to 3.5 Ga and was found to contain filamentous cellular structures [7, 8]. From their morphology alone, Schopf and co-workers [7, 8] proposed that these structures were oxygen-evolving cyanobacteria. This finding is significant in that it suggests that photosynthetic organisms were the earliest forms of life on Earth and that oxygen-evolving photosynthesis started in the early Archean age [9]. The finding remains controversial, however, because it is difficult to determine cell physiology on the basis of the shape of the structures in ancient microfossils. More recently, Brasier et al. [10] challenged the early interpretation of the microfossils by suggesting (using data from electron microscopy, digital imaging and Raman spectroscopy) that the structures were in fact artifacts of amorphous graphite. However, emerging geochemical studies [11, 12] seem to have reconfirmed the biogenic nature of the microfossils and thus reversed the conclusion of Brasier et al. [10].
Despite the controversies surrounding the 3.5 Ga fossils, there are some other microfossils thought to be cyanobacteria that are more likely to be genuine, the oldest of which were dated to 2.6-2.7 Ga by more reliable biomarkers [13, 14]. This timing is significant because it predates slightly the early rise of oxygen on Earth, which was about 2.3 Ga [15–17]. Recently, Tice and Lowe [1] showed additional evidence of photosynthetic carbon fixation by filamentous microbial mats found in 3.4 Ga cherts (flint-like sedimentary rocks) in completely anoxic environments. Their geochemical analysis further ruled out the possibility that the primary electron donor for the carbon fixation could be H2O (as used by plants), Fe2+ or H2S. Instead, the primary electron source for this type of photosynthesis is most likely to have been hydrogen, which was abundant in the atmosphere in the early Archean age. The result is consistent with the view that the early photosynthesis was most likely to have been carried out by anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria rather than cyanobacteria.
Although the geological records provide the timing information for the evolutionary events, finding the sequence with which the five main groups of photosynthetic micro-organisms evolved from a common ancestor requires molecular phylogenetic analysis of the genetic components of extant photosynthetic organisms. The use of molecular sequences to discover this ordering has, however, so far generated even greater controversies than the study of microfossils. Various hypotheses have been proposed and various methodologies used in the course of reconstructing the early history of photosynthesis.
Gupta et al. [20] used heat shock proteins (Hsp60 and Hsp70) as the molecular markers and relied heavily on conserved insertions and deletions (indels) in the sequence alignment to derive phylogenetic trees for the photosynthetic bacterial groups. The results led to the conclusion that the heliobacterial group was the most ancestral out of the photosynthetic groups and that the evolutionary pathway followed a linear order, with Chloroflexi branching second, then cyanobacteria, Chlorobi and proteobacteria in that order (Figure 1b).
With the rapid accumulation of bacterial whole-genome sequence data, phylogenetic relationships are now more often studied at the whole-genome level to obtain a clearer picture of bacterial evolution. Raymond et al. [21] analyzed one representative genome from each of the five photosynthetic taxa and discovered highly incongruent evolutionary patterns among the five genomes. They observed 15 possible tree topologies from the commonly shared proteins encoded by all five genomes. To resolve the evolutionary pattern for photosynthesis further, the authors [21] then compiled a set of 'photosynthesis-specific' and 'photosynthesis-related' genes and performed phylogenetic analysis on each gene product, but they failed to reach a phylogenetic consensus. This confirms that bacterial genome evolution involves extensive lateral gene transfer, which also had a role in the development of the photosynthetic apparatus.
Recently, Mulkidjanian et al. [2] analyzed 15 cyanobacterial genomes and derived a set of genes commonly shared by all the genomes, in the form of a minimal cyanobacterial genome. The photosynthesis-related portion of the minimal gene set was found to be much larger than the gene set previously derived by the Blankenship group [21] because many genes are specific to cyanobacteria. The more comprehensive nature of the cyanobacterial gene set prompted the conclusion that cyanobacteria were the most ancestral phototroph. As the conclusion was not drawn from accepted rooted phylogenies using bona fide photosynthesis genes found in all photosynthetic lineages, however, the logic behind this proposal seems weak.
Because (bacterio)chlorophylls are integral components of the photosynthetic apparatus, enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of this pigment (encoded by the bch genes) could be used as specific indicators for the evolution of photosynthesis. The main advantage of this set of markers is their ubiquitous presence among all the photosynthetic bacterial groups. Most of the bch trees can be unambiguously rooted, because a composite tree can be constructed with a reliable outgroup from a different but homologous enzyme family.
The analysis of the Bch enzymes has been instrumental in testing the long-standing Granick hypothesis [22], which states that biosynthetic pathways recapitulate their evolution: in a multi-step biosynthetic pathway, products produced in early steps would evolutionarily predate products produced in later steps. As a general guide to biochemical evolution, this hypothesis makes sense, but when it is used to reconstruct the evolutionary history of photosynthesis, it may generate erroneous conclusions.
In the chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway, chlorophyll a biosynthesis requires shorter steps and appears before bacteriochlorophyll a [23]. According to the Granick hypothesis, this would indicate that cyanobacteria (which contain chlorophyll a) predate anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria (containing bacteriochlorophyll a) [24, 25]. Therefore, by applying the Granick hypothesis, one would conclude that photosynthesis originated with cyanobacteria. This view agrees with that of Mulkidjanian et al. [2]. But the molecular phylogenetic analysis of a number of enzymes involved in (bacterio)chlorophyll biosynthesis, performed by my group and others [26–28] using carefully selected outgroups for rooting the trees, indicates that the anoxygenic photosynthetic lineages are almost certain to be more deeply rooted than the oxygenic cyanobacterial and chloroplast lineages. Proteobacteria seem to be the earliest evolving among the anoxygenic lineages, suggesting that bacteriochlorophyll a predates chlorophyll a during evolution. A Bayesian analysis that we subsequently performed on the dataset delineated the sequence of evolution for (bacterio)cholorophyll biosynthesis [29] (Figure 1b). In this scenario, the pigment biosynthesis genes were laterally transferred from proteobacteria to Chlorobi, from which the lineage bifurcated to Chloroflexi and cyanobacteria, which gave rise to heliobacteria (Figure 1c). This result seems to contradict the Granick hypothesis. A simple explanation for this paradox could be that gene loss of some of the bch genes occurred during the evolution of the genes in the cyanobacterial lineage, leading to a shortened biosynthesis pathway.
The reaction center is the core of the (bacterio)chlorophyll-containing protein complex where the primary electron transfer event takes place during photosynthesis. Because of their central importance, reaction center proteins have naturally become the focus of study for the evolutionary pathway of photosynthesis. However, the main difficulty of using the reaction center proteins as molecular markers is the extremely high divergence of the sequences between the two types of reaction center, making it difficult to derive an evolutionary scenario for all five photosynthetic bacterial groups. Currently, several hypotheses have been put forward to postulate the origin and developmental pathway of the photosynthetic apparatus. Generally, they fall within two schools of thought, the selective loss model and the fusion model.
The selective loss model [24, 25, 30] postulates an ancestral photosynthetic organism, similar to oxygenic cyanobacteria, containing both types of reaction center. A subsequent loss of one of the reaction center types gave rise to a single reaction center found in extant anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. The model suggests that organisms like cyanobacteria were present in the prebiotic phase, when life first originated. This view can find initial support from the 3.5 Ga microfossil study by Schopf and coworkers [7, 8].
The most recent support for the selective loss theory came from Mulkidjanian et al. [2], who believe that the enlarged photosynthesis core gene set suggests a cyanobacterial origin of photosynthesis. Given the compelling geological evidence that anoxygenic photosynthesis evolved before oxygenic photosynthesis, the authors [2] offered a revised selective loss model in which a group termed 'procyanobacteria', which was largely similar to extant cyanobacteria but did not evolve oxygen, was the most ancient phototroph and that it subsequently spread photosynthesis genes to other anoxygenic photosynthetic bacterial groups by lateral gene transfer and large-scale gene loss (Figure 1d).
The authors [2] further postulated that procyanobacteria, as the photosynthetic progenitors, contained the type I reaction center only. This idea was based primarily on the geological evidence of Tice and Lowe [1] that the 3.4 Ga phototroph performed hydrogen-based photosynthesis. According to Mulkidjanian et al. [2], only procyanobacteria were suitable for this type of photosynthesis. Chlorobi and heliobacteria were excluded from consideration because they do not contain the Calvin cycle (in which a six carbon sugar molecule is synthesized by fixing CO2 and combining it with a five carbon molecule, 1,5-ribulose bisphosphate). Chloroflexi and proteobacteria were excluded because hydrogen is too reducing for the quinone-type reaction centers that they contain. Both arguments seem weak because green sulfur bacteria (Chlorobi) are known to fix CO2 not through the Calvin cycle but through the reductive tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle [31] (the traditional citric acid cycle running in reverse), which uses hydrogen or reduced sulfur compounds as electron donors. In addition, it is well established that Chlorobi, Chloroflexi and proteobacteria can use hydrogen as the sole electron donor and CO2 the sole electron acceptor for photoautotrophic growth [32] (that is, growth that solely depends on light and inorganic nutrients). In contrast, normal cyanobacterial cells are not capable of using hydrogen as the sole electron donor in photosynthesis. Though some specialized cyanobacterial cells such as heterocysts (nitrogen fixing cells with multi-layered cell walls) are capable of anoxic photosynthetic electron transfer using the type I photosystem only with hydrogen or sulfur compounds serving as electron donors, this special type of differentiated cells are considered a relatively recent evolutionary invention [33].
The fusion model [4, 34] postulates that the type I and type II reaction centers could have been established independently in two different ancestral lineages (one in proteobacteria or Chloroflexi and the other in heliobacteria or Chlorobi) before being brought together into one lineage to produce the cyanobacterial dual photosystem. The model envisages the photosynthetic apparatus as having evolved from simple to complex, which seems more reasonable than the opposite scenario.
A colleague and I proposed one version of the fusion model [29], in which the direction of reaction-center evolution was inferred from a Bayesian analysis. The most ancestral form of the reaction center was proposed to be a type II reaction center of proteobacterial origin. The subsequent divergence of the proteobacterial lineage into Chloroflexi and cyanobacteria gave rise to the extant type II reaction center in these two lineages. The type I reaction center, which was thought to be relatively late evolving, may have been formed through a fusion by the primordial type II reaction center and a light-harvesting antenna protein (which contains chlorophyll pigments that harvest light energy and transfer it to the reaction center). We proposed that the gene fusion event occurred in a heliobacterial lineage, resulting in an enlarged reaction center. This type I-like reaction center later diverged into those found in Chlorobi and cyanobacteria. The arrival of both types of reaction centers in cyanobacteria enabled the later establishment of a linear electron transfer between the two. Our proposed evolutionary scenario for the reaction centers is distinct from the evolutionary pathway for (bacterio)chlorophyll biosynthesis (Figure 1c), which adds an additional layer of lateral gene transfer relative to the 16S rRNA evolutionary pathway.
In view of the lack of obvious sequence similarity between the two types of reaction centers, which makes it difficult to derive a common evolutionary tree for them, a new approach was adopted by the Blankenship group [3], based on both structure and sequence. Because of the known structural similarity of the two types of reaction centers, Blankenship and coworkers [3] first aligned the conserved core structures of two reaction centers, which exposed the structurally corresponding residues. The structurally aligned residues were then used to construct a sequence alignment that was then used to build a unified phylogeny of the reaction centers. The reaction center trees were unrooted and thus did not allow direct inference of the most ancestral reaction center. If a midpoint rooting technique were used, however, the trees would suggest that the earliest reaction center was anoxygenic and probably a homodimeric complex.
In conclusion, although no consensus for the evolutionary history of photosynthetic apparatus has yet emerged, it is widely accepted that it is a very complex process involving multi-layered lateral gene transfer [35]. The lateral gene transfer events can seem so complex that the origin of photosynthesis could become an intractable issue. As a solution to the problem, instead of assuming that all genes are equally important in their ability to reveal the early evolutionary history of photosynthesis, we [29] suggested focusing on a sub-process, (bacterio)chlorophyll biosynthesis, as the factor most likely to have determined the advent of photosynthesis. Along with the development of the most important elements of the photosynthetic apparatus, a functional apparatus could have been assembled through a multi-staged recruitment of reaction center proteins and antenna proteins, which could conceivably have had separate evolutionary histories and performed different functions before the recruitment. The recruitment process may have undergone several intermediate stages, producing products with various degrees of complexity. In essence, the precise picture of early evolution of photosynthesis still remains to be understood. To reveal the true color of the origin of photosynthesis will require years of painstaking biogeochemistry and molecular phylogenetic studies.
I thank the Welch Foundation for support (grant no. A1589).


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Valhalla Rising
6 Filmmaking Tips From Nicolas Winding Refn
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While doing press for Valhalla Rising, Danish American filmmaker Nicolas Winding Refn announced that the film marked a new stage in his career. After the manic, Brechtian anti-biopic Bronson; the sprawling Pusher trilogy that's more Gaspar Noe than Gaspar Noe; and the little-seen Fear X, Refn began a series of...
Culture Warrior: The Manly Men of Nicolas Winding Refn's Films
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- September 20, 2011
Masculinity has always been the major topic of concern in the work of Danish filmmaker Nicolas Winding Refn. Just look at the series he made his name with, the Pusher trilogy, which in three installments provide three very different but equally compelling stories of occasionally brazen, often buffoonish masculinity within...
This Week In DVD: November 30th
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This week sees a first in the history of the column… at least I think it's a first. Not only are there no new DVDs worth buying this week, but there are also none worth avoiding. It's an all rental week here at the West Coast offices of FSR! That...
Interview: Nicolas Winding Refn on Violent Men, Valhalla and Pretty Woman
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To say Nicolas Winding Refn is interesting would be a major understatement. Refn oozes with ambiguity, blending poignancy and a sense of wackiness. I'd be lying if I said I could take in everything he was saying, but like his films, the more you think about what he's trying to get...
Import This! Valhalla Rising (DVD)
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This week's column recommends you import the latest movie from the director of Bronson. Before you do though, take a close look at the DVD cover within. Then put any thoughts of epic action or grand battle scenes out of your mind. The cover art lies....
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consciousnessA novel strategy that has emerged in the wake of J.J.C. Smart's discussions of identity theory is the suggestion that these apparent features of experience are not genuine properties "in the mind" or "in the world" but only the contents of mental representations (perhaps in a language of thought). Because this representationalist strategy may initially seem quite...
materialism...must be defended if Materialism is to be advanced as a form of ontology with a serious claim for attention. It is interesting in this connection to notice the arguments advanced by scholars like J.J.C. Smart, which purport to identify states of mind with states of the brain. If the two are identical—literally the same thing described from two points of view—thoughts may really be......the materialist, however, opts for his contention on various grounds. The British materialist U.T. Place did so on the ground of normal scientific methodology; and the Australian materialist J.J.C. Smart did so with a metaphysical application of the principle (called "Ockham's razor") that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity. A physicalistic materialist has, of...
utilitarianism...he drew from moral language and moral concepts. Moore, on the other hand, simply found it self-evident that certain things were intrinsically good. Another utilitarian, the Australian philosopher J.J.C. Smart, defended hedonistic utilitarianism by asserting that he took a favourable attitude toward making the surplus of happiness over misery as large as possible. As these differences suggest,......John Rawls, a Harvard political philosopher, of the significance for utilitarianism of two different conceptions of moral rules. "Act" utilitarianism, on the other hand, was defended by J.J.C. Smart, a British Australian philosopher.
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516 5th Street
What most in southeast Nebraska and surrounding areas know today as The Fairbury Journal-News has a long history, really coming into existence on Tuesday, August 31, 1965. This involved the merger of the two newspapers in Fairbury, Nebraska at the time, The Fairbury Daily News and The Fairbury Journal. The Fairbury Journal-News then became the only newspaper in Jefferson County.
According to a front-page story in the August 20, 1965 Fairbury Journal, Fairbury Journal, Inc. purchased the assets of Fairbury News, Inc., combining both newspapers into one with Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday afternoon issues. The story explained the merger of the newspapers in one city was a trend of the times, due in part to the rising costs of printing plant operation. The story also cited the combination of newspapers in cities like Lexington, NE, O'Neill, NE and Marysville, KS.
Publishers for the new newspaper were Mrs. Pauline C. Nuckolls and William C. Nuckolls, long-time Fairbury residents. Other staff retained who would continue to work at The Fairbury Journal-News included: Clyde R. Moore, editor; Helen L. Green, associate editor and women's news editor and William J. Ehrett, shop foreman. These individuals were long-time newspaper personnel in Fairbury, with some like Moore also working at The Fairbury Daily News prior to joining the Journal staff.
Until the merger, Fairbury supported two newspapers from as early as 1885. In 1891, there were even four newspapers; The Fairbury Gazette, Fairbury Enterprise, The Liberator and Fairbury World. The Fairbury Gazette, forerunner of the Fairbury Daily News, was established by George Cross, on September 3, 1870, a few months after the town of Fairbury was platted. This remained in operation through lease arrangements with several editors until 1911 when Lew Shelly and Scott Merrell, owners of the Fairbury News, purchased it and consolidated it with this paper.
Al Hammond, a veteran newspaperman, established the Fairbury News in December, 1897. Five years earlier, in April 1892, he had established The Jefferson County Journal, which would later become The Fairbury Journal. Its legacy would continue over the years with different owners and leasing arrangements. An interesting note, which began in 1897 for The Fairbury Journal, is its continuous family management by some member of the W.F. Cramb family. Its legacy passed from father and brother to daughter and grandson. This ended on October 1, 1990 when William C. Nuckolls sold The Fairbury Journal-News to Fred A. Arnold.
After all these years, The Fairbury Journal-News proudly continues to serve its readers, keeping everyone up-to-date on the latest local and regional news stories and happenings.
©Main Street Consulting Group 1997-2016


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We've always imagined that being a pregnant celebrity is like starring in a commercial for fancy cat food: You lay around on fluffy pillows, get food served to you in crystal dishes, and side-eye anyone who doesn't cater to your every whim. Leave it to a very pregnant Ciara to ruin our fantasy — slash, make it a hundred-million times better.
The "Overdose" singer posted an Instagram video, in which she asks: "Hey, guys, have you ever seen a pregnant woman moonwalk before?" Then, before we can answer ("LOL WUT? NOPE."), CiCi demonstrates what a flawless maternal goddess she really is by going full-on Michael Jackson in front of a floral display.
We've gotta give it up for the future Mrs. Future's clip, which she captioned: "1 Big Belly Don't Stop No Show! #PLMoonwalker:)." We can't even moonwalk WITHOUT a tiny human growing inside of us. Don't believe us? Look. *immediately stumbles backward into open stairwell*
Anyone else think that Ciara's kid will moonwalk out of the delivery room? Taking bets now!
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Villa Elleftheria with Super Sea Views - Sleeps 11
From $130 / night
Description from the owner
Description from the owner
Bedrooms: 3/
Bathrooms: 3/
Sleeps: 11/
Type: Villa
Fantastic Views Overlooking the Ionian Sea and the surrounding Countryside
Seclusion, Privacy and Tranquillity is what we offer & can sleep up to 11 guests
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Additional Location Information
The area of Zacharo is unique to Greece as it combines mountain, lake, sea and very many old style villages where you can meet the hospitality and warm heartedness of the locals. Here you will meet the Real Greek Greece!
The area of the Neda Valley is unique to Greece as it combines mountain, lake, sea, beaches, rivers, waterfalls and very many old style villages where you can meet the hospitality and warm-heartedness of the locals. Here you will meet the Real Greek Greece!
For lovers of ancient Greek cultural heritage, The area is the pivotal point for a visit to Ancient Olympia, birthplace of the Olympic Games, Navarino Bay, Gialova Lagoon and numerous ancient sites such as Peristeria, Figaleia, Messini, Ithomi, Methoni Castle and Nestors Palace, the prehistoric wall in Lepreon, It is the perfect place to experience authentic Greek nature and culture.
In the surrounding mountains lie rustic stone villages, historic towers, caves, tombs, waterfalls and panoramic views. The intact marble Temple of Apollo at Vassae, a UNESCO World Heritage Site is an hours drive away.
The nearby beach resort village of Kalo Nero is 20 mins away located on a 2.5 km stretch of beach, with both organised and secluded natural areas including sea turtle nests. Small sea front tavernas with authentic Greek food, fresh fish and live traditional music. Swimming pool bar inc kids pool. The beach extends north for 60km along the shores of the Bay of Kyparissia, with its wide sandy beaches lined by sand dunes, coastal forest and watermelon fields.
The Information Kiosk and Environmental Exhibition Centre of the Greek Sea Turtle Society (Archelon) are located nearby at the nearby village of Kalo Nero. The cosmopolitan market town of Kyparissia is 30 mins drive with all facilities including banks, supermarkets, nightclubs and car hire as well as ancient castle ruins.
The Kyparissia/Zacharo/Pyrgos area has something to interest you and the family all year and the winters are mild. Easy access from Kalamata airport (1 hour) and Araxos (1.45 hours) or Athens (3 hours). The ferry port of Patras is less than 2 hours.
In July and August traditional village fiestas are held with much feasting and Greek dancing. Late autumn sees the start of the annual olive harvest and bird migrations south.
Winter fun, skiing and snowboarding at reasonable prices can be found at Mainalo Ski Centre (1.30 hrs drive). Spring brings meadows of wild flowers, Easter celebrations and the return of the nesting sea turtles.
Of course the beautiful long sandy beaches and the wooded mountainsides with their flowing streams and gorges and the exquisite areas of Kaiafas Lake with its Hot Springs and the Neda Valley and Waterfalls will guarantee a relaxing and unforgettable visit.
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Beach or lakeside relaxation, Lake nearby, Mountain nearby, Rural retreats, Warm winter getaways, Waterfront
Getting There
Nearest train station: Pyrgos, 20.01 miles
Nearest airport: Kalamata and Araxos - April to October only - Athens all year, 50.02 miles
Nearest ferry port: Patras, 79.97 miles
Car is essential


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When the Supreme Court upheld a judge's decision to cut by more than half the suggested prison sentences of the police officers who beat Rodney King (to 30 months), there was no media outcry calling the justices, or the public, "soft" on cops who commit crimes. Yet when a Cambridge judge decided to let Louise Woodward go free on time served, the same media that had blanketed the nation with emotive reporting on the British au pear lashed back at the public. "There's just something about a woman behind bars that sets people off," suggested Laura Mansnerus in a front-page feature in the New York Times' "Week in Review" (11/16/97), under the label "Soft Touch."
Contemporary U.S. crime policy is anything but "soft" on women. Despite damning complaints from many judges involved, mandated prison sentences are sending record numbers of women to jail, two out of three of them for non-violent crimes. The trial judge in the Los Angeles case cited the loss of the men's police careers and the likelihood 0f abuse in jail. But neither the Supreme Court nor the U.S. public have been "set off" by the likelihood of women's abuse behind bars. And neither has the Times.
500 percent increase
It has been estimated that by 2000, the number of people imprisoned in the U.S. will surpass 4 million, at a cost of over $40 billion a year (Philadelphia Inquirer, 8/29/94). Almost anything to do with incarceration is a valuable subject for journalism. Women are a small minority–just over 6 percent of those behind bars–but their story should indeed be setting people off–and reporters into action. For one thing, it's breaking news. In 1980, U.S. authorities had locked 25,000 females into Federal and state prisons and local jails. In 1996 that soared to 116,000–almost a 500 percent increase over a decade and a half–twice the rate of increase for men.
As for abuse, rape in prison is rampant. It's screaming for investigation. The National Prison Project of the ACLU and Human Rights Watch have both released urgent reports on the subject in last few years. The ACLU reported that a female entering prison can pretty much count on being sexually harassed and abused. "Given our sense that correction authorities are ignoring the problem, there is a possibility it may get worse, and it's already bad," Human Rights Watch concluded in 1996. To date, the New York Times has dedicated a single article to the issues Human Rights Watch raised (12/27/96), the week the report was released.
The paper did publish a human-interest feature on prison abuse almost a year later: "From Thief to Cellblock Sex Slave: A Convict's Testimony" (10/19/97). The piece told the story of M.B., a 28-year-old white man who says he was raped at the Menard Correctional Center in Chester, Illinois in 1993. His attackers were fellow inmates, "black gang members" who "sold him off for the sexual pleasure of other inmates," the paper reported. Now M.B.'s suing the state prison guards whom he accuses of ignoring his requests for help. He's HIV positive, a fact he blames on the assault, and suffers post-traumatic repercussions: He's scared of places, like shopping malls, where there are too many: "black people" he's sorry to admit.
Confirming Stereotypes
The New York Times' story, in the well-read "Week In Review" Sunday section, addressed a serious problem, and gave a prisoner a valuable chance to tell his story in his own words. It was also a clear example how one individual's story, appearing outside its political context, can confirm familiar stereotypes. And it was noteworthy that for its first serious feature beneath the heading "Prison Rape," the paper focused on a victim who was white and male.
M.B. says his assailants were other inmates, all black. His words echo what many people assume already–that jail is a miserable, violent place, because of the "savagery" of the other inmates. The most savage players in M.B.'s story were black–another common media cliche. A look at women's prisons would challenge that picture.
Men are mostly raped by other prisoners, but the majority of women who report being raped in jail accuse their guards. The majority of prison guards are men; in Illinois, the ratio of male to female guards is 3 to 1. According to Human Rights Watch, "What is growing is the potential for the problems, because you have more women in prison and more often than not you're going to have male officers guarding them." (New York Times, 12/27/96) Since it involves public employees (for the most part, despite the trend towards privatization), prisoner abuse by guards is by definition a public responsibility–or should be.
Based on interviews with more than 60 current and former inmates in five states and D.C., Human Rights Watch determined that rape by guards is widespread. It's not tracked by prison officials (which is part of the problem), but it's not unnoticed–and has been prosecuted. Data, documentation and sources exist for reporters–even those who don't want to do the investigative digging into the issue for themselves.
Since 1990, the Justice Department's Civil Rights division has won convictions in seven cases involving male employees. In 1994, a federal judge detailed the horrifying conditions endured by women in three correctional facilities under the jurisdiction of Washington, D.C. Judge June Green's opinion described rape, sexual harassment, poor medical care, lack of privacy and failure to investigate misconduct by prison staff. Some inmates were forced to perform sex acts for their jailors in exchange for food or cigarettes, wrote Green. On March 9, 1997, contending that Arizona and Michigan failed to protect female inmates from rape and sexual assault by prison workers, the Justice Department filed two lawsuits against those states. As 1997 ended, a similar case was being prepared in New York State.
Political context
Bobbie Stein, a professor at New College School of Law in San Francisco, quoted Green in a damning piece on jail sexual abuse for The Progressive (6/96). Whereas stories like the Times' confirm the public's impressions about the cruelty of the criminal world–and the idea that the brutality is nothing for which politicians or their supporters should be made to account–Stein pointed out that there is an immediate, political context: "With the increase in numbers [of women in prison] has come a decrease in rights"–accelerated by the passage, in April 1996, of the Prison Litigation Reform Act. That act makes it harder for prisoners to sue prison authorities. It went into law with "little debate and virtually no media attention," says Stein.
The so-called Personal Responsibility Act (or welfare "reform") provides another hook for news. The law stipulates that those convicted of drug crimes–now one-third of female inmates (compared to one-fifth of males)–are no longer eligible for welfare benefits upon their release. Nina Bernstein wrote a solid investigative piece about criminal law and welfare for the New York Times (8/20/96) before the president signed the act. But media follow-up has been feeble.
Reporters could ask some questions, like: How is a female ex-convict supposed to support herself with few skills, most likely children, and a record that bars her from many jobs–and from public help? A staff worker at a Rhode Island facility told the Christian Science Monitor (5/19/97): "There are two ways, crime and prostitution."
Some outlets have grasped the significance of the story. Beginning in April 1995, the Rochester Democrat and Chronicle ran a two-year series investigating prison life in New York. "The state corrections department has a tremendous resource division that's virtually untapped," D&C reporter Gary Craig exclaimed. Asked if his excellent series got much pick-up in other media, Craig said no. The only piece that was followed up, as far as he knows, was the sole story that mentioned Amy Fisher–a celebrity inmate made famous in the tabloid press. "Amy Fisher's Time" (New York Times, 7/21/96) raised and immediately dropped the fact that Fisher filed a lawsuit against New York State in 1996 claiming sexual abuse by prison guards.
When the New York Times Magazine (7/26/96) ran a feature on "Women Behind Bars" shortly thereafter, the story spilled page after page on the curious, sometimes romantic culture that women inmates create for themselves. Sexual abuse got just one mention in a passing paragraph which referred to "the already ancient problems of troubled women, many of whom are accustomed to coercive relationships when they are placed in highly sexualized, paramilitary settings in the custody mostly of men." In that telling, the question is one of "relationships," not rape; the setting is "sexualized" by unnamed forces, just as women are "troubled"–we're not told by whom, or by what; the problem is the woman's, not society's (she, not we, are "troubled") and the whole issue is old ("ancient").
One man's prison rape story doesn't come close to filling this kind of vacuum and mis-reporting in the newspaper of record. "Newspapers in New York could have a full time corrections reporter, there's so much out there," says Gary Craig. Not a bad idea.
At M.B.'s request, his name was replaced with initials in this article.


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After showing off its camera phone savvy on the 808 PureView, Nokia wasn't about to let the buck stop there. The firm said it themselves: PureView would someday be coming to Windows Phone. And that day has come with the Lumia 1020, the follow-up to the outstanding Lumia 925. On sale in the UK as of yesterday, the Lumia 1020 is the first Windows Phone to sport a 41-Megapixel PureView camera sensor, which is said to deliver sterling photos in any lighting conditions.
High-end handset that it is, the Lumia 1020 has respectable specs: a 4.5-inch AMOLED screen with 1280 x 768 pixels, a 1.5 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 dual-core processor (not the company's most recent chip), 2 GB of RAM, 32 GB of internal memory and a 2,000 mAh battery.
"The Nokia Lumia 1020 will change how you shoot and how you create forever," boasted CEO Stephen Elop while presenting the phone last June, adding that the camera can detect "more than your eyes can see." Those are some lofty claims, so we thought we'd check them out. Is the Lumia 1020 really the ultimate camera phone, capable of pleasing pros and amateurs alike? Let's see...
High-end handset that it is, the Lumia 1020 has respectable specs: a 4.5-inch AMOLED screen with 1280 x 768 pixels, a 1.5 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 dual-core processor (not the company's most recent chip), 2 GB of RAM, 32 GB of internal memory and a 2,000 mAh battery.
"The Nokia Lumia 1020 will change how you shoot and how you create forever," boasted CEO Stephen Elop while presenting the phone last June, adding that the camera can detect "more than your eyes can see." Those are some lofty claims, so we thought we'd check them out. Is the Lumia 1020 really the ultimate camera phone, capable of pleasing pros and amateurs alike? Let's see...
Despite the Lumia 1020's imposing size, the black borders surrounding the screen are quite wide compared to other recent high-end Android phones (Galaxy S4, LG G2, etc.). Why not make the display bigger?
The black PureView camera unit is elevated from the rest of the back—not at all as much as the Galaxy S4 Zoom's lens unit, but still enough to catch first-time users off guard.
The headphone jack is somewhat awkwardly positioned in the centre of the top edge, so when you listen to music your headphone cable dangles in front of the screen. The far-right corner would have been much better.
The 1020 is thinner than the Galaxy Zoom, but it's also wider
At 158 grams, the 1020 isn't the lightest phone out there (the LG G2 weighs 142 g, the Lumia 925 weighs 139 g, the Galaxy S4 weighs 130 g and the iPhone 5 weighs 112 g). But it isn't the heaviest either—the Xperia Z1 outdoes it at 170 g, as does the Galaxy Zoom, at 208 g.
If smartphone bodies don't get your inner photographer's juices flowing as much as a compact camera's does, you can buy the dedicated grip case (sold separately). Naturally, it makes the phone that much bigger, but it really helps when you want to take pictures with one hand. The grip case also has a 1,020 mAh rechargeable battery inside that beefs up the overall battery life. Great idea.
The finish and manufacturing is all impeccable. Home run. However, Nokia advertises the 1020 as being shock-resistant for drops from up to 1.5 metres high. We don't do drop tests—feel free to do one and let us know—but a colleague of ours dropped hers from only half that height and saw the screen shatter before her eyes. Buyers beware.
The AMOLED panel inside the display guarantees the 1020—at the very least—insane contrast. You can see the it just looking at the Windows Phone interface, which plays on the contrast between the coloured tiles and the black background. And it checks out. Our sensor measured deep black and an average contrast ratio of almost 50,000:1. That's exceptional, however it's also tempered by low brightness of 286 cd/m². That makes the screen difficult to see outdoors in the sunlight, especially when using the photo viewer and web browser.
With an average Delta E of 5.2, the Lumia 1020 doesn't quite make it into the upper average for colour fidelity on high-end smartphone screens. It's far from catastrophic, but most similarly priced handsets have a Delta E of under 3. Of course, blacks and greys are what help keep the average in line—the reds have the opposite effect, reaching astronomical heights and making skin tones more blushy than they should be, and the other primary colours are somewhere in between the two. As a result, the screen isn't the best place to enjoy your PureView photos.
But the colour temperature is practically flawless. It stays consistent across the spectrum, at 6,577 K, making the image quite neutral. But that's only if you're looking at the screen straight-on, because when you look from an angle (below, above, left, right), even just a slight bit, you start to see blue overtones.
The display has a 150 millisecond touch response delay, which is two times slower than the iPhone 5 and nearly 60% slower than the GS4. But it's also the Windows Phone with the least amount of ghosting and picture delay.
1280 x 768 pixel resolution on a 4.5-inch screen makes for high pixel density, so content looks beautiful and highly legible onscreen.
Like the Lumia 925, the 1020 comes with the latest update to Windows Phone, which includes Smart Cam, an app that, among other things, lets you take a burst of ten shots and the pick out moving subjects from each shot and paste them into a single master shot, for a cool time-bending motion effect. The update also brings the clock and battery level to the home screen, that way you don't have to go to the lock screen to see them.
To get to the lock screen you can just double-tap on the display. That might not sound like much, but it actually comes in handy and quickly became a habit for us.
Of course, the 1020 has all of Nokia's great maps and navigation services in Nokia Here, and the Windows Phone interface is just as innovative as ever.
The OS is stable and well integrated with the hardware. Everything runs impeccably well and there are no notable lags or delays. The whole system is responsive and effective, no matter what you're doing on it. However, a newer, faster processor would have helped speed up the camera function... (see the Camera section below).
The 1020 has upper-average sound quality via the headphone output. It may not rival the best—iPhone 5 and HTC One—but it keeps safely in line with the rest of the Lumia range, with good volume and relatively clean sound. The speakers can't compete with the HTC One, either, but the sound is clear with no distortion, even at maximum volume.
The Windows Phone Store keeps growing, with now just over 170,000 apps, but it's still a ways behind the Apple App Store and Google Play, especially when it comes to games.
Now on to the camera function, the 1020's raison d'être. The camera is what stands out—both physically and conceptually—as the primary selling point of this smartphone that claims to bury all other camera phones.
The lens and sensor are descendants of the 808 PureView, and Nokia included a shutter and mechanical image stabiliser, all encased in a module that juts out of the back of the phone, coupled with a physical shutter release. In theory, PureView delivers 41 Megapixel images, but in reality it's more like 38 + 5 Mpx in 4:3 or 34 + 5 Mpx in 16:9, as all "full res" photos are accompanied by a duplicate 5 Mpx picture for social networking and the like.
Before we get to the image quality, let's quickly talk about the handling. Everything goes through Nokia Pro Cam, an app that comes hardwired into Windows Phone 8 and adds a number of settings and options ordinarily found only in digital cameras. On the interface, when you swipe the camera button to the left, the traditional thumb wheel settings open up in a simple, stylish graphical display that appears on top of the image. This truly opens up your creative possibilities, allowing you to do things such as adjust the bokeh effect by intuitively sliding the touchscreen ring.
However, there's one major inconvenience with the shooting experience: it takes three seconds(!) to take a photo, between the time you hit the camera button and when the phone is ready for the next picture. That's a long wait. It means you can't do even semi-rapid-fire snapping on the 1020. Also, we ran into errors with the autofocus, especially when using the physical shutter release (both the one on the phone and the one on the grip case).
Now for the picture quality.
The thing is, the 1020's camera is tricky to review, given the company's advertising. What you have to know is that for every picture taken on the 1020, two files are saved: one 41 Mpx image (the native resolution pic) and one 5 Mpx image, which is created using an oversampling technique that fuses every seven pixels from the 41 Mpx image into one highly detailed pixel, for a total of 5 million in the smaller image (or you can zoom in to the 41 Mpx shot—without losing quality—and crop your 5 Mpx version however you like).
These 5 Mpx shots look gorgeous. They are essentially what has gotten the 1020 such rave reviews as a camera phone. You can zoom in or out, either way these pictures look beautiful. Even though 5 Mpx is lower resolution than all the competing high-end camera phones, there's tons of light in the image and the overall quality beats the competition, resolution notwithstanding.
The problem is that Nokia doesn't advertise 5 Megapixels, they advertise 41 Megapixels. And as a buyer, you're expecting amazing 41 Mpx shots, as stated in the adverts. But the results we found at that resolution were much more mixed than that.
Essentially, the 41 Mpx images are similar to pictures taken on the HTC One: the sensor is able to pack tons of light into the shot, but the detail isn't that amazing when you zoom in. We think a pixel combination like 8+33 or 13+28 would have been preferable, because the smaller pics could have competed better with all the 8-to-13 Mpx camera phones. Also, if you want to edit your photos in Nokia's dedicated software, you had better be a PC user, because it isn't Mac-compatible.
Click here to compare the 41 Mpx and 5 Mpx photos in the Face-Off
The 41 Mpx images look sharp, but there's a loss of detail and a very slight blurring toward the edges of the frame. The picture is clean everywhere else, but this is far from the uniformity that the PureView 808 delivers. And the 1020 performs very well in low lighting, but not better than the Lumia 925 or Galaxy S4 Zoom.
Don't get us wrong, the Lumia 1020 is a great camera phone, but all in all, the Galaxy S4 Zoom—which shoots pictures faster and has a better autofocus—and the LG G2 outperform it, providing more uniform rendering, more detail and cleaner contours across the frame. As a result, we say the Lumia 1020 is definitely buy-worthy for photography lovers—it's one of the best—but isn't quite the revolution Nokia makes it out to be.
Like the Lumia 925 before it, the Lumia 1020 has "standard" battery life for a smartphone: a good day's worth. Depending how much you use your phone (we use ours pretty intensively), you can get it to last a day and a half. Of course, the camera function is what uses up the most battery, but it's still better than your average compact camera.


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Going up to Minneapolis in a week. Should I go to Matt's bar and have a Jucy Lucy? Can't wait to bring back a million cans of Surly you guys.
Plz add "sandwiches" to thread title k thx
had.one last weekend fron groveland tap in saint paul. not sure why this hasnt caught on in iowa, other than the lack of independant restaurants
2015 CF Avatar of the Year winner.
Yes, you should have one. The Juicy Lucy is yummy.
The burger at Matt's is good. It's kind of a crappy hole in the wall place with no seating though. If you go during busy times expect to wait. They also only take cash. I've heard there are other places around St. Paul that are better than both Matt's and 5-8, even though they are both the claimed originals. I thought Matt's burger was way better than 5-8.
Matt's all day. 5-8 only has the option of doing different cheeses in their's, Matt's is better as just the original. I second the cash, no need to pay a $4 service fee at the ATM there. I dunno if I believe some other place could be better than Matt's. Something about a griddle that hasn't been replaced since the 30's and is constantly seasoned day to day makes those burgers the best.
Scar tissue is stronger than regular tissue. Realize the strength, move on. - Henry Rollins
Gotta go to the Nook. You won't regret it.
"Beer is proof that God loves us and wants us to be happy."
- Benjamin Franklin
Blue Door pub is another good one. Check out the new location in Longfellow though
'Any fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius-and a lot of courage-to move in the opposite direction.'
5-8 isn't very good imo. Nothing to write home about. Get your surly furious on... Also, abrasive ale is out right now, but at $16 a 4 pack you likely won't be taking too many of those home with you.
"If baseball players speaking in front of Congress can be put on trial for perjury, then why shouldn't the politicians we vote for be held accountable to the same standard during their campaigns?" -Paraphrased from The Newsroom
Matt's is the bomb, 5-8 sucks and yes Blue Door is amazing.
I haven't been to Matt's but I agree with people on the Blue Door. It is my favorite but it is a little small. The Nook/Shamrock also are pretty good.
Also I love the places that have the seasoned waffle fries with the sour cream dip.
I met a juicy lucy once. I never called her back.
That said, the Nook in St. Paul is the best.
Originally Posted by letsCYber
That said, the Nook in St. Paul is the best.
right across from my high school! and across the street is where joe mauer used to get his hair cut. nook is small so go early. blue door is bigger and a few more beers.
Originally Posted by mtowncyclone13
right across from my high school! and across the street is where joe mauer used to get his hair cut. nook is small so go early. blue door is bigger and a few more beers.
Yeah but they have an old school bowling alley in the downstairs area.
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I got the mirena last august after i had my little girl and now it seems like all my PCOS symptoms are back and are twice as bad. Before i got pregnant i was on BC for about 3 years then was off of them for about 3 months before i started taking Provera then i started Vitex for a couple of months and ended up pregnant. During that time i had a few symptoms but never anything with hair loss and too much hair and now that i have the mirena, my symptoms are horrible. I really want it removed b/c im starting to feel very self-concious about myself even with my husband around. Does anybody else have Mirena and PCOS?? Are your symptoms worse or better?? This is really bugging me any advice or thoughts are really appreciated....TIA
Mirena and PCOS??
Married to my best friend Chris 10-15-05!!
Proud mommy to Sophie Elizabeth born 7/6/09 7lbs 6oz, 20 1/4 inches long, 5 59pm.
Comments (9)
I had Mirena after the birth of my daughter and loved it for over 3 years because I never worried about getting periods. I did however notice that my PCOS symptoms were worse than before but not much. I had it removed in August 08 as we are trying again with not much luck. I did use BCP for a short time after removal and symptoms were much better. After going off my symptoms are now the same as when I had the Mirena, I think that for me it was more my body after pregnancy than the Mirena.
Good luck and if you don't want it get it out and go back to what makes you feel better!
DD1 5/05 Rainbow baby DD3 1/15
^^DD2 Reese Addison^^ Stillborn at 38+5 12/20/13
My OB said she normally recommends the Mirena, except for PCOS patients. While it works as birth control, it does not offer the same hormonal balance to stop any cysts and other side effects from causing trouble. She said I could have it if I wanted, but she'd also recommend being on the pill too...
Good luck with whatever you choose~ DH and I decided to play Russian Roulette and see if we have a mutual infertility miracle.
Let time be your friend, let peace rule your mind, and be kind to yourself. Trust in the things you're hoping to find ~Mom
Proud mama of Elle 11/21/09
i know this was almost 3 years ago but i was wondering if you had your mirena removed? and which symptoms worsened? I got a Mirena inserted 8 weeks after having my daughter. I was not told it wasnt reccommended for ppl with PCOS...Ive just found that out after i google it this morning..my symptoms are back and my hair is falling out =( im thinking i want it removed but there really arent many birth control options left for me...i got pregnant on the pill TWICE, the first resulting in miscarriage.
thank you for posting this...right now i am using orthotrycycline for my birth control...ive been thinking about getting mirena but after reading this i am rethinking the idea
I had mirena after my daughter was born in 2010. After about 18 months I couldn't take it anymore. I had not been diagnosed with PCOS. I did have alopecia and crazy periods and 4 MC's prior to having my daughter. At 18 months my acne was out of control I have a HUMONGOUS bald spot, weight gain in my belly, I was exercising 4-5 days a week and I could not gain weight, and horrible body hair. Long story short, the mirena is out and I now have metformin and we are TTC! Good luck. I loved my mirena for its purpose but DID NOT love the "side effects" I experienced.
Married to Jason 8/2007* DS 7/10/08*^10/2009^^12/2009^ TWINS^02/14/2009^DD 12/30/2010*Expecting # 3 10/02/13!
yeah, I have had the mirena twice. One after my second daughter was born which i had it in for a year and then got pregnant really quick then i got it after he was born which was may 21st, 2010 had the mirena in for about 2 years till i figured out thats what was causing me to have really bad acne. When i finally went to a doctor about my acne they told it was CYST. Then Today i wa finally diogas with PCOS. I was fine until i had the mirena. So i dont recommed anyone getting the MIRENA if i could and would have learned what i do know now i would have never got this!


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How To Make Tie Dye Shirts, Decor & More: 18 Tie Dye Patterns
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Field of Fireworks Beach Towel
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Celebrate with this Field of Fireworks Beach Towel from I Love to Create and Alexa Westerfield. Make tie dye projects like this for a fun pool accessory or a nice comfy place to enjoy the fireworks. This beach towel is one of the tie dye projects kids will love to make the most.
Find this project and many more in our free eBook, How to Make Tie Dye Shirts, Decor, and More: 18 Tie Dye Patterns!
- Tulip® One-Step Tie-Dye Kit™ - Carousel
- White terrycloth towel, 100% natural fabric
Large plastic bucket
Use rubber bands, found in the kit, and pull up 4 inches of fabric into a tube shape and place rubber band at the base of the 4 inch mark. The larger amount of fabric the larger the sunburst. Repeat banding process randomly over the towel to create the sunburst pattern.
Dampen towel and wring out the excess water in the sink.
Wearing rubber gloves, add water to dye bottle. Replace cap tightly. Shake until dye is dissolved.
Place towel into bucket and randomly squeeze dye colors. Use full-strength for intense colors. For a lighter shade of color, add more water using extra bottle if needed. Check to make sure dye has penetrated.
Wrap towel in plastic surface cover. Let set 6 to 8 hours.
Rinse under faucet to remove all of the dye until the water runs clear.
- Remove rubber bands. Fill washer to large load setting with hottest water suitable for fabric and a small amount of detergent. Wash separately for the first few washes.
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Our friends at Presente Action are airing Spanish radio ads in key congressional districts in Florida -- calling out Republican politicians for refusing to denounce racist attacks on Judge Sotomayor.
We set up a fund to help them air their ads -- can you chip in? Every 100 people who give $25 allow the ads to air for one more day.
(Democratic Rep. Alan Grayson from Florida denounced Limbaugh despite representing a long-time Republican district. He's a top Republican target in 2010 for being an outspoken progressive -- on this page, you can contribute to his campaign too.)


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The PDC Spas 19 x 7 R is a compatible replacement for the following pool filters:
The PDC Spas 19 5/8 x 7 Comp. Pool Filter Replacement is a pool filter cartridge that measures 19 5/8" in length x 7" in diameter with top/bottom styles that measure 3" Open with Gaskets. This compatible PDC Spas filter replacement improves is constructed with 50 square feet of media area. This pool water filter swimming pool and spa water quality and clarity.


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Definition of dwell time in English:
Time spent in the same position, area, or stage of a process: dwell time at US airports has reached a new high—almost 70 minutes
More example sentences
- Critical in postassembly dispense processes, flow or dwell time is the time required to allow dispensed adhesive to fully flow into the well and core.
- A nonparametric kernel density estimate is constructed by representing each sojourn by a kernel function positioned at the actual value of the sampled dwell time.
- These 'multi-tau' correlators calculate the correlation function using many different dwell times in comparison with the single dwell time used in earlier linear correlators.
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August 13, 2014
Coolest Looking Helmets In New Mexico
Today we're ranking the 2014 coolest looking New Mexico High School Football Helmets. Rankings are based off color scheme, decal, and just the overall look.
1. Eldorado Eagles *New for 2014
2. Mayfield Trojans
3. Cleveland Storm
4. Centennial Hawks *New for 2014
5. Santa Fe Demons
6. Valley Vikings *New for 2014
7. Bernalillo Spartans
8. Las Cruces Bulldawgs
9. Rio Rancho
10. Goddard Rockets
Honorable Mention
Volcano Vista Hawks
Lovington Wildcats
Carlsbad Cavemen
St. Michael's Horsemen
Hobbs Eagles
Clayton Yellowjackets
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Clayton Lockett was scheduled to die by lethal injection for the 1999 shooting death of 19-year-old Stephanie Nieman. Corrections spokesman Jerry Massie says Monday's stay order put the punishment on hold.
The stay also canceled the scheduled April 29 execution of Charles Warner, who was convicted in the 1997 death of his roommate's 11-month-old daughter.
The stay halted the executions until the state Supreme Court can hold a hearing on the inmates' lawsuit challenging the secrecy protocol surrounding the source of Oklahoma's lethal injection drugs. A hearing date has not been set.
The Supreme Court rejected a request from Attorney General Scott Pruitt's office to reconsider its ruling.


text:
bang by originalASKERWatch
©2006-2016 originalASKER
hahah xD very funny, i like it
che bello che è!!!
hihi...grassie!...skleri mentre si studia con poka voglia!
that's funny and really well drawn
eheh...tnx a lot!!...craze while I studing.... :-P
I wanna go BANG! really old house track. A little more form to the legs like you formed out the arms and that would be fire. Maybe also have the ASKER disapear into the frame.. and have the rest as a ghost image...
adamın saçına bayıldım
eline sağlık çok güzel olmuş
eline sağlık çok güzel olmuş
I'm sory İ thought that you are turk because of your name.
any way your drawing is very nice it is what i tried to say.
any way your drawing is very nice it is what i tried to say.
waht??...in english please!!
Cool! hehe
dope. i hope 2 see that on a wall


text:
horse.com > Pest Control > Fly Repellent & Fly Spray > Item # SLT100013
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While you sit around and wait about another month for Intel's launch of Core i5 and new socket 1156-based Core i7 processors, PC builders living in China and Taiwan can already purchase the new parts, says news and rumor site DigiTimes. Citing un-named market sources, DigiTimes says Core i5 750, Core i7 860, and Core i7 870 processors along with P55-based motherboards are already available in small volumes in some retail channels in Taiwan and China, while the rest of us will have to wait until September 6.
Take these prices with a grain of salt, but at the current exchange rate, Core i5 750 (2.6GHz, *MB L3 cache) is selling for about $206. The Core i7 860 (2.8Ghz, 8MB L3 cache) comes to about $303, and the Core i7 860 (2.93GHz, 3MB L3 cache) is selling for around $575, the sources said.
On the motherboard front, P55-based boards from Gigabyte range anywhere from $165 to $280, with MSI is selling P55 boards for anywhere from $150 to $245 depending on features.
Image Credit: Intel


text:
I loved the post on the restoration of Old Customs House – do you have any earlier images of the Old Customs House?
Stepping further back in time this post will look at images of Old Customs House from 1957-1969. Customs officers moved out of Old Customs House in 1965. The building was then used as the Melbourne offices for the Commonwealth Parliament and its local members.
The following images sourced from the National Archives of Australia show the Old Customs House during this period.
Eastern View, Long Room 1957 Image: National Archives of AustraliaSource: National Archives of Australia
The chandeliers, clock and parquetry flooring are no longer a feature of the Long Room today. The restoration of the Long Room included researching the original flooring, and sourcing and laying a near exact copy of the original tiling.
Old Customs House, Eastern View, Long Room 1965 Image: National Archives of AustraliaSource: National Archives of Australia
Desks and partitions were installed to create a workspace for office staff.
Old Customs House, Western View, Ground Floor 1969 Image: National Archives of AustraliaSource: National ARchives Australia
In this image the lifts are directly opposite the grand staircase on the western side of the building. The lift today is still on the western side but moved about three meters to the left.
South East View, Ground Floor Foyer 1969Image: National Archives of AustraliaSource: National Archives Australia
One of the main differences here is the glass wall creating a vestibule from the street entrance. Other differences include the central desk and carpeted floor.
Old Customs House, First or Second Floor Corridor, 1965Image: National Archives of AustraliaSource: National Archives of Australia
Cupboards, shelving and seating line the walls of the corridor and linoleum covers the original marbled flooring.
South View, Rear Courtyard Old Customs House 1969Image: National Archives of AustraliaSource: National Archives Australia
The rear courtyard area now features the Immigration Museum's Tribute Garden. There is now also a glass atrium attached to the rear entrance of the building.
The Immigration Museum opened in the Old Customs House in 1998 and houses a number of exciting exhibitions exploring the history of immigration to Victoria, contemporary issues exploring identity, international and local community exhibitions and the history of The Old Customs House.
Immigration Museum is open daily from 10am - 5pm
Got a question? Ask us!
Your Question: Does the museum hold any images of the restoration of Old Customs House?
In 1998, the Immigration Museum opened in Old Customs House. Since its completion in 1876, considerable changes had been made to the building's interior. Customs officers vacated in 1965 and the building was used as Melbourne offices for the Commonwealth Parliament. Linoleum tiles had replaced original floors, office partitions disguised the original layout, plasterwork was cracked and paintwork peeling.
Customs House being renovated prior to housing Immmigration MuseumSource: Museum Victoria
Much work was required to restore the building and to adapt the facilities so it could function as a contemporary museum. Consequently, many of the twentieth century additions were removed and architectural features such as tiled floors, moulded ceilings and timber details were restored.
Customs House renovation: Immigration MuseumSource: Museum Victoria
The images from the Museum Victoria collection demonstrate some of this restoration process as well as the development of some of the Immigration Museum's original exhibits (many of which have now changed).
Old Customs House exterior being renovatedSource: Museum Victoria
To see the Old Customs House as it looked as the offices for the Commonwealth Parliament, the National Archives of Australia have a series of images of the building during those years. You can search for these images on Picture Australia or on the National Archives website.
Customs House being renovated prior to housing Immmigration Museum. Long Room with finished tesselated flooringSource: Museum Victoria
Customs House being renovated prior to housing Immmigration Museum. Construction of The Boat in the Long RoomSource: Museum Victoria
Old Customs House
Updates on what's happening at Melbourne Museum, the Immigration Museum, Scienceworks, the Royal Exhibition Building, and beyond.
Hi I was hoping to breed some yabbies I have two I think the male is about 5 cm long and the female about 7 cm how are they sure posed to breed when ever the fe...
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I'm also looking forward to going to Melbourne for this. My ancestors also migrated from Salina in the 1880s. Though they eventually settled in Sydney, the...


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Carhartt Men's Duck Active Jacket J140From: $79.99
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text:
CNN: The quake-maker you've never heard of: Cascadia
Feb 12, 2016 at 7:39 AM
News story posted to CNN.com February 11, 2016.
Phone: 503-823-4375
Fax: 503-823-3903
News story posted to CNN.com February 11, 2016.
Interactive map posted to oregonlive.com showing areas that flooded in 1996.
Blog posted to portlandoregon.gov/novick January 26, 2016.
Read PBEM's progress report on what the bureau did in 2015.
2015 was a busy year at the Portland Bureau of Emergency Management (click here to review our annual report). Over the past 12 months, we:
Please take a few minutes and review our annual progress report for an update on what we've been doing.
And if you want to see where we're headed, check out our three-year strategic plan. Look for an update to the plan later this year.
News story posted to oregonlive.com January 24, 2016.


text:
Concrete bra by romanticiderazorWatch
©2011-2016 romanticiderazor
Inspired by the colours of concrete. My first padded bra. Silk chiffon and lining fabric with freshwater pearl embroidery.
Oh I want this ^-^ IT is so lovely
Oh wow, this is beautiful, darlin'. Love the construction and the delicate lines the fabric creates. If you ever plan to make these for sale, I'd totally purchase from you. <3
Thank you so much! This one's probably a one off I'm afraid but I always welcome commissions if you'd like something similar
the colours are gorgeous, love all the little details
Wow that's beautiful, amazingly well done


text:
It's free to apply for an Australian business number (ABN) with the Australian Business Register (ABR). You can apply online or lodge a form by mail.
To get an ABN you must be carrying on an enterprise in the form of a business. Your application will be refused if you are not entitled.
Once you are registered your details will be added to the ABR and it's your responsibility to keep them up-to-date.
Your application will be processed faster if we can identify you with the information you provide.
Find out more
Read What you need for your ABN application to ensure you have the required information before starting the application.
If your application is successful or if you get a reference number you can continue and apply for other business registrations.
If the effective start date of your ABN is in the future, your ABN (and/or Business Name) will not display on ABN LookupExternal Link until the ABN start date has been reached.
You can save and return to your application as many times as required before the expiry date.


text:
The Genzyme (GENZ) play is about more than Sanofi-Aventis (SNY) looking for growth. It reflects Big Pharma's push into treating rare illnesses, with the assumption that niche diseases can be a good way to fatten margins, and product pipelines, that are under pressure elsewhere.
The Genzyme (GENZ) play is about more than Sanofi-Aventis (SNY) looking for growth. It reflects...
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Video at CNBC.com (Apr 30, 2015)
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ETF Hub
ETF Screener: Search and filter by asset class, strategy, theme, performance, yield, and much more
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Mohamed Salah and the Maccabi Tel Aviv handshake furore surrounding
Chelsea's new signing accused of snubbing opposition before match
Chelsea's new signing accused of snubbing opposition before match
Mourinho defends his decision to alter with the side's tactics despite suffering shock defeat to FC Basle earlier this week
A look ahead to tonight's Champions League fixture at Stamford Bridge
Yves Kugelmann says 'it's a matter of fact' that a Dutch institution is again trying to seize the family's possessions
Last night's MasterChef final was watched by 5.5 million people as Hackney DJ Natalie Coleman took the trophy.
The first leg of the semi-final takes place tonight
Spurs battling for Champions League qualification
Aggregate 4-4 (aet); Basel win 4-1 on penalties
A look ahead to tonight's Europa League quarter-final second leg at St. Jakob Park
Star player certain to miss Premier League clash against Everton this weekend
A look ahead to tonight's Europa League quarter-final at White Hart Lane
Meet Mr Black. The new owner of The Scream. By David Usborne
Can a large, cork-lined hole in the ground in London's Hyde Park – with a steel disc floating above it, mind – be architecture? It can if it's designed by Herzog & de Meuron, and Ai Weiwei, the Chinese artist considered a threat to cultural order by his country's political apparatchiks.
From jumping out of planes to mountain biking and canyoning, <b>Richard Madden</b> enjoys the thrill of Switzerland's spectacular Bernese Oberland region
Thousands of plant lovers have flocked to the northern Swiss city of Basel to see a giant, foul-smelling flower bloom for the first time. The Basel Botanical Gardens expects 10,000 people to have filed past its Amorphophallus titanum, or corpse flower, standing in its full glory before the bloom wilts.
Einstein made his greatest discoveries in the Swiss capital – yet you need not be a genius to work out that the city makes an ideal weekend escape, with the prospect of good skiing nearby.
Prized for centuries for its pungent aroma and golden colour, saffron commands the highest price of any spice. Shoppers may wish to query its purity and quality, though.


text:
Respond to Review of CLOSED: Effulgence-Waves
by RachelLouise
Review: Cute restaurant with a pretty big menu. Some of the items that can be made vegan, like the Mexican ones, look like they would be pretty plain without the cheese. The selection of already vegan items is pretty small. The daily special, which is pretty cheap, is usually not vegan, and neither is the dessert. I had the Tofu Chili and my boyfriend had the Japanese Garden. Both were good. The tofu in the chili was especially good, as was the miso sauce on the Japanese Garden. My boyfriend was still hungry afterward.
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Top Definition
Russian special forces.
"The Spetznaz are now creamed because of the end of the Cold War. Now slowly-but-surely they're getting back to normal so they can serve in counterterrorism and other special ops."
بواسطة Dave مارس 31, 2004
A person who enjoys spetz immensely.
argh, dont touch me you dirty spetz naz artist!
بواسطة Squatdog نوفمبر 26, 2003
jeeze spetz naz!
بواسطة McStooge نوفمبر 26, 2003


text:
Your Shopping Cart is empty.
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The Filbur FC-2625 is the replacement filter for the Unicel C-4430 R.
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Narrow your search
Nokia will move its remaining operations to another Finland-based campus where its networking business is based.
The new facility for the Galaxy S maker is apparently set to open in Espoo, Finland, on June 13, and will focus on "advanced technologies."
CNET's Roger Cheng visits Rovio's headquarters in Espoo, Finland, to talk about its evolution from a simple mobile gaming company.
Nokia will sell its headquarters in Espoo, Finland, before leasing it back, in a move to inject cash into its struggling business.
The Nokia N97 is a touchscreen with a slide-out Qwerty keyboard and 32GB of memory comin' straight outta Espoo, Finland -- and it's hitting our shops on 19 June
Wicom Communications has raised $12 million in a third round of funding. Investors included Accenture Technology Ventures, 3i and Stratos Ventures. Espoo, Finland-based Wicom has raised a total of $13 million. The company develops software applications designed to provide voice-over-Internet Protocol networks.
Telecom equipment maker Tellabs announced Wednesday plans to reduce its work force by 1,000, further trimming its staff amid tough times for the industry. The Lisle, Ill.-based company will lay off 950 people and offer early retirement to 50 employees. Tellabs will also close its manufacturing facility in Drogheda, Ireland, and move that work into its Shannon, Ireland, and Espoo, Finland, plants. The company will cancel plans to open an office building in Chelmsford, Mass. Tellabs previously announced in April that it had eliminated 450 temporary and contract jobs in April and would not fill 1,100 open positions. The cuts are part of the company's plans to reduce its operating expenses by 5 percent by the fourth quarter. Tellabs expects to save $120 million a year, but to take a $50 million restructuring charge of $50 million for the third quarter. For the second quarter ending in June, Tellabs slightly exceeded lowered expectations and reported earnings of 2 cents a share, excluding items, on revenue of $516 million. That compares with earnings of 39 cents a share on revenue of $801 million for the same quarter a year ago. The company's sales in optical equipment have increased in the first and second quarter from last year as sales of broadband access and voice telecom equipment have pulled back.