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Schema Merging and Mapping Creation for Relational Sources Rachel Pottinger University of British Columbia 201-2366 Main Mall Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada email@example.com Philip A. Bernstein Microsoft Research One Microsoft Way Redmond, WA 98052-6399, USA email@example.com ABSTRACT We address the problem of generating a mediated schema from a set of relational data source schemas and conjunctive queries that specify where those schemas overlap. Unlike past approaches that generate only the mediated schema, our algorithm also generates view definitions, i.e., source-to-mediated schema mappings. Our main goal is to understand the requirements that a mediated schema and views should satisfy, such as completeness, preserva-tion of overlapping information, normalization, and minimality. We show how these requirements influence the detailed structure of schemas and view definitions that are produced. We introduce a normal form for mediated schemas and view definitions, show how to generate them, and prove that schemas and views in this normal form satisfy our requirements. The view definitions in our normal form use stylized GLAV mappings, for which query rewriting is easier than general GLAV mappings. We demonstrate the efficiency of query rewriting in a prototype implementation. 1. INTRODUCTION In data integration, users query multiple sources using a unified, mediated schema rather than querying each source separately. Each query over the mediated schema is then translated into queries over the source schemas. The results of these queries are combined and returned to the user. To enable this scenario, the system needs view definitions, that is, mappings that relate the mediated schema to its data sources. In this paper, we analyze what constitutes a good mediated schema and mappings and show how to obtain them. We focus on the case where one starts with a set of data source schemas. Although the disjoint union of the data source schemas could be used as the mediated schema, this is usually not what is wanted because it is highly redundant. The reason why a mediated schema over multiple data sources makes sense is that the data sources are closely related. Thus, some information is represented in two or more schemas, often in different ways. Even if a user were willing to deal with this redundancy, the complexity of accessing the information in different representations would make the schema hard to use. Therefore, such overlapping information should have just one representation in the mediated schema with a mapping to each of its representations in the source schemas. One step in the development of the mediated schema is identifying the overlapping source-schema elements that should be collapsed. This is the database designer's job—to identify those overlapping elements, possibly with the help of a schema match-ing tool. The designer needs to explain how each overlapping element is mapped to each of the data sources in which it appears. Example 1 Suppose we want a mediated schema to integrate two travel databases, Go-travel and Ok-travel. Go-travel has three relations: Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) Go-price(f-num, date, price) Go-airline(airline, phone) The attribute f-num is the flight number and meal is a bool-ean. The other attributes are self-explanatory. Ok-travel has just one relation: Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop), where nonstop is a boolean. The overlapping information in Ok-travel's and Go-travel's schemas could be represented in a mediated schema by Flight(f-num, date, time, price). ? The overlapping elements are only part of the mediated schema. Some elements that are unique to a particular data source are also passed through to the mediated schema. For example, if the schemas are all relational, then a data source may have a relation R that does not overlap any relation in any other data source and should be made part of the mediated schema. In addition, even if R does overlap a relation R′ of another data source, R may have an attribute that does not appear in R′ or any other data source and that may be valuable to pass through to the mediated schema. In the previous paragraph, to be technically precise we should be calling R a relation schema, not a relation. However, since this paper is focused on schemas more than data, we usually use "relation" to mean a relation schema. We use the more precise terminology only when the meaning is not clear from the context. Suppose one wants the mediated schema to expose all of the information in the data sources. In that case, the mediated schema should include all of the overlapping schema elements, plus all source-specific elements. By source-specific, we mean that the schema elements are not subsumed by overlapping elements. Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. EDBT'08, March 25-30, 2008, Nantes, France. Copyright 2008 ACM 978-1-59593-926-5/08/0003...$5.00.
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Example 2 Continuing with Example 1, suppose we want to expose all of Ok-travel's and Go-travel's information in the mediated schema. In addition to the overlapping information in Flight(f-num, date, time, price), we see that OK-travel has source-specific information about flights being nonstop, which does not appear in Go-travel's schema. There are two choices on how to include nonstop. We can pass through Ok-flight as a separate relation in the mediated schema. However, since we already have most of Ok-flight's attributes in the Flight relation, it seems more natural to add nonstop to Flight, yielding Flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop). A similar issue arises with meal in Go-flight. Go-travel also has source-specific data about airline phone numbers, so we need to pass through Go-airline(airline, phone). We could handle this just like nonstop, by adding the attributes airline and phone to Flight. However, this would represent two independent types of information in the same relation, information about flights and about airlines. This violates standard database design principles, which say that independent relationships should be represented in different relations. It is better simply to add a relation Airline(airline, phone) to the mediated schema. ? So far, we have identified two issues that affect the design of mediated schemas: (1) overlapping information should have a unique representation in the mediated schema; and (2) source-specific schema information can be passed through to the mediated schema either by extending relations that represent the overlapping information or by adding relations, depending on whether the source-specific information is or is not closely dependent on the overlapping information. Now let us look at the mapping between the mediated schema and source schemas. The database designer needs a language in which to express overlapping schema elements. If the data sources are relational, a natural choice is relational queries. The overlap is defined by a set of queries, one over each data source, which return type-compatible data. In what follows, we frequently refer to global-as-view (GAV), local-as-view (LAV), and mappings. We assume a basic understanding of these concepts. A recent survey appears in [10]. global-local-as-view (GLAV) Example 3 The overlapping flight information in Example 1 could be expressed by the following Datalog queries: Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Go-flight(f-num, time, meal), Go-price(f-num, date, price) Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop) The Flight relation is a view of Go-travel and Ok-travel. The above queries comprise a simple GAV mapping. The left side of the mapping is a relation in the mediated schema, and the right side is a query over the data sources. Hence these queries appear to be the mapping we need between the mediated schema Flight and the data sources. However, if we pass through Go-flight.meal and Ok-flight.nonstop to the mediated schema, we obtain Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop). This situation is more complex. One problem is that Ok-flight does not have a meal attribute. Therefore, we are driven to represent the mapping between Flight and Ok-flight using a LAV mapping: Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop) :- Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop). (More details are in Section 4.2.) This mapping is different than what the database designer specified in the second query above. Combined with the first mapping, the overall mapping between the mediated schema and data sources uses GLAV. ? Past work on mediated schema creation has focused on identifying and collapsing overlapping elements. This is the problem of schema merging. Certainly, schema merging is an important ingredient. However, as the examples above show, there is more to it. We need to pass through some source schema elements to the mediated schema. There may be more than one way to do this, and the resulting mapping may be more complex than a simple GAV query. In this paper, we generalize these observations into requirements for mediated schema and mapping design and an algorithm for obtaining them. We call this problem semantic merge. The semantic merge problem is the following: Given mapping expressions that define the overlapping parts of a set of relational schemas that represent data sources, (i) generate a mediated schema that collapses these overlapping elements according to a given specification and passes through source schema elements as appropriate and (ii) generate mappings between the mediated schema and data sources. Our contributions are as follows: • We propose conjunctive queries as a way of expressing over-lapping information in data sources (Sections 2.2 and 2.3) • We define technical requirements for mediated schema and mapping design (Section 2.4). • We define a normal form for mediated schemas and map-pings (Sections 3.1 and 3.2), prove that it satisfies the technical requirements (Section 3.4), and comment on its properties (Section 4). • We give an algorithm that generates normal-form mediated schemas and mappings (Section 3.3). • We report on an implementation of the algorithm (Section 5). We discuss related work in Section 6. Section 7 is the conclusion. 2. REQUIREMENTS 2.1 Introduction The motivation and examples in Section 1 lead to the following five criteria that we propose as requirements for a mediated schema and mapping to satisfy: i. Completeness: All information in the source schema should be exposed in the mediated schema. ii. Overlap preservation: Each of the overlapping elements specified in the input mapping is exposed in a mediated schema relation. iii. Extended overlap preservation: Source-specific elements that are associated with a source's overlapping elements are passed through to the mediated schema. iv. Normalization: Independent entities and relationships in the source schemas should not be grouped together in the same
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relation in the mediated schema. In particular, source-specific schema elements should not be grouped with overlapping schema elements if the grouping co-locates independent entities or relationships. v. Minimality: If any elements of the mediated schema are dropped then the mediated no longer satisfies (i) – (iv) above We do not claim that users will want their mediated schema and mapping to satisfy all of these criteria in all scenarios. However, we do claim that these criteria are often desirable and that it is worthwhile to understand how these criteria influence the choice of mediated schema and mapping. We will have more to say about this in Section 4. We also show how these criteria correspond to hand-crafted mediated schemas in Section 5. To make the above requirements technically precise, we start by defining the language in which to express overlapping parts of the source schemas. Simple correspondences between elements are not enough, because we need a formal semantics of the overlapping parts to guide the development of an output mapping. We choose conjunctive queries for this purpose, which are defined in Section 2.2. They are expressive enough to demonstrate our design principles. Additionally, they comprise the mapping language that is most commonly used in the research literature on data integration (e.g., [8]). We explain how to use conjunctive queries to express overlapping schema elements in Section 2.3. Using this mapping language, we then define technical requirements for a mediated schema and mapping that correspond to the intuition developed in Section 1. 2.2 Conjunctive Queries We express mappings over relational schemas as conjunctive queries using Datalog notation, as in Example 3. A database schema is a set of relation schemas. Each relation schema R has a relation name and a sequence of attribute names, denoted attr(R). The arity of a relation schema is the number of attribute names it has. A conjunctive query Q has the form q(X) :- e1(X1), …, en(Xn), where q and e1, ..., en are relation names. The subgoals e1(X1), …, en(Xn) are collectively the body of Q, denoted body(Q). The predicate that appears on the left side of the query, q(X), is called the head of query. The predicate name q of the head is the Inten-sional Database (IDB) of Q, denoted IDB(Q). The tuples X, X1, …, Xn have the same arity as the relations in which they appear. They contain variables or constants. The query Q must be safe, meaning that every variable in X also appears in body(Q). Vars(Q) refers to the variables of Q. The variables in the body of Q but not the head (i.e., Vars(Q)-X) are called existential variables. The answer to query Q is an assignment of constants to the variables X such that for some assignment of constants to Q's existential variables, body(Q) is true. The answer to a set of queries with a common head is the union of the answers of the queries in the set. A conjunctive query has the same expressive power as a SQL select-project-join query without arithmetic comparisons. Example 4 The following query asks for the prices of flights that are listed in both Go-travel and Ok-travel: Q(f,p) :- Go-price(f,d,p), Ok-flight(f,d,t,p,n) Vars(Q) = {f, p, d, t, n}. Variables d, t and n are existential. ? Let Q1 and Q2 be two sets of queries whose heads have the same arity. We say that Q1 is contained in Q2, denoted Q1 ⊆ Q2, if the answer to Q1 is a subset of the answer to Q2 for all database instances. Q1 and Q2 are equivalent if Q1 ⊆ Q2 and Q2 ⊆ Q1, i.e., they produce the same answer for every given database. 2.3 Conjunctive Mappings A mapping is a relationship between the instances (i.e., the states) of two schemas. Formally, let Inst(S) be the set of all instances of a schema S. Then a mapping between database schemas U and V is a subset of Inst(U) × Inst(V). In this paper, we use conjunctive queries to define mappings. Let S = {S1, … Sn} be a set of database schemas, one for each data source. We express each overlapping part of a set of source schemas by a set of two or more conjunctive queries with a common IDB, where the body of each query is defined over one schema in S. This is called an overlap specification (or, simply, an overlap). For example, the queries in Example 3 comprise a overlap specification over S = {Go-travel, Ok-travel}, where Flight is the common IDB. We interpret each query in an overlap using open world semantics, i.e., it computes a subset of the tuples satisfied by the head. Subgoals ei, ek of query Q are connected if ei has a variable in common with ek or ei is connected to another subgoal of Q that is connected to ek. For every query Q in an overlap, all subgoals of Q must be connected. That is, Q has no Cartesian products. To simplify the case analysis of definitions and theorems that follow, we do not allow constants to appear in conjunctive map-pings. None of our technical results depend on this assumption. To avoid having to rename attributes and relations in the mediated schema, we require that overlap specifications adhere to naming conventions. The conventions do not affect the expressive power of mappings; any set of conjunctive queries can be made to satisfy them just by renaming variables. The conventions are as follows i. In an IDB q(a1, …, am), each ai (1 ≤ i ≤ m) is called a variable position. For each IDB name q in a set of overlap specifications and for each variable position of q, the same variable name must be used in all appearances in that varia-ble position. For example, the following overlap violates this requirement because name and aname appear in the only variable position of Airline. Airline(name) :- TravelOn-airline (name, phone) Airline(aname) :- MyTravel-airline(aname, address) This convention allows us to use, without ambiguity, the variable name in each variable position as the name of the corresponding attribute in the mediated schema. ii. For a given IDB name in an overlap, an existential variable name may appear in at most one conjunctive query with that IDB name. For example, the following overlap violates this requirement because phone is existential in both queries: Airline(name) :- TO-airline(name, phone) Airline(name) :- H-airline(name, phone, fax). Like the previous convention, this allows us to use the name of each existential variable as the name of the corresponding attribute in the mediated schema.
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iii. The relation names in S and the IDBs of overlaps are distinct. That is, for each database schema Si in S if relation name R appears in Si, then R does not appear in any other schema Sk (i ≠ k) or as an IDB in any overlap. An overlap specification that conforms to the above conventions is said to be well-formed. 2.4 Technical Requirements In this section, we make the correctness criteria of Section 2.1 more precise: completeness, overlap preservation, extended overlap preservation, normalization, and minimality. 2.4.1 Completeness We want to ensure there is no information loss in the mediated schema. We can do this with the following completeness require-ment: for each source relation R there is a query over the mediated schema that is equivalent to the identity query over R. This corres-ponds to the notion of query dominance in Hull's information capacity model [9], which is a common way to judge the informa-tion preservation of one schema with respect to another [17]. This completeness criterion ensures that each source relation is accessible by a query over the mediated schema. But it says noth-ing about how complex that query might need to be. To ensure the mediated schema is understandable and easy to use, we strengthen completeness by requiring that the query over the mediated schema M refers to only one relation in M. That is, we require that for each source relation R there is a query over one relation in the mediated schema that is equivalent to the identity query over R. This requirement implies that for each relation R in a source, there is a corresponding relation in the mediated schema that has all of the attributes of R and possibly others. It also says something about the mapping between R and the mediated schema, namely that all data from the sources can be accessed and that similarly structured data from different sources can be distinguished. For example, suppose that in addition to the relation Go-airline(airline, phone) in Go-travel there is a relation Ok-airline(airline, phone) in Ok-travel. Then it is not enough to include a relation Airline in the mediated schema defined as follows: Airline(airline, phone) :- Go-airline(airline, phone) Airline(airline, phone) :- Ok-airline(airline, phone) because only the union of the two relations Go-airline and Ok-airline can be queried in the mediated schema. We will show how to create mediated schemas that avoid this problem in Section 3. 2.4.2 Overlap preservation Overlap preservation requires that each of the overlapping elements specified in the input mapping is exposed in a mediated schema relation. Overlapping elements are defined by an overlap, which is a set of conjunctive queries. Therefore, this requirement can be stated in an analogous fashion to completeness, as follows: For each overlap, there is a query Q over one relation in the mediated schema that is equivalent to the overlap. 2.4.3 Extended overlap preservation To satisfy completeness, we may want to add attributes to a mediated schema relation beyond those that are needed for overlap preservation. For example, consider the second query in the overlap specification of Example 3: Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop) Overlap preservation implies that there is a relation in the mediated schema that includes the attributes f-num, date, time, price. Completeness requires that there is a query over one relation in the mediated schema that is equivalent to the identity query over Ok-flight. Since nonstop is the only attribute of Ok-flight that does not appear in Flight, one way to satisfy completeness is simply to add nonstop to the mediated schema relation that includes Flight (we will call it M-Flight). This seems more economical than, and hence preferable to, adding Ok-flight to the mediated schema in addition to Flight. Another reason to add attributes to a mediated schema is convenience. For example, consider the first query in the overlap specification of Example 3: Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Go-flight(f-num, time, meal), Go-price(f-num, date, price) The attribute meal appears in Go-flight but not in Flight. By including meal in M-Flight, we enable the user to query this information without performing a join. Given that meal already appears in a source relation (namely, Go-flight) with the other attributes of Flight, we know that it has a strong relationship with those attributes. Therefore, including it in M-Flight seems like a worthwhile convenience. Unlike the previous example, we cannot claim completeness as a reason to include meal in M-Flight. One might think that meal would help us with completeness (along with the right mapping), because a projection query on M-Flight over f-num, time, meal would return the content of Go-flight. But this is incorrect. It only returns the subset of Go-flight that joins with Go-price, which does not help us with respect to completeness. Therefore, whether or not we include meal in M-Flight, for completeness we will need another mediated schema relation R such that a query over R is equivalent to Go-flight(f-num, time, meal). Thus, from a completeness standpoint, including meal in M-Flight is unnecessary. Still, from a convenience standpoint, it is desirable to include it, to avoid requiring a join with R to associate meal with the other attributes of M-Flight. The convenience attribute might even be a join variable, as in the following overlap specification: Flight(date, price, nonstop) :- My-flight(time, f-num, nonstop), My-price(date, time, f-num, price) Flight(date, price, non-stop):- Auction-Flight(date, price, nonstop) For a flight in My-flight, it would be handy to get the flight number if you can get it (and the time, which is also existential) without performing a join. We capture the convenience aspect of adding attributes to an overlap as follows. If Q is a query in an overlap and has an existential variable, then we define the extended overlap query of Q to be a query Q′ whose IDB is augmented with all of the existential variables in body(Q). We then add the requirement that for each extended overlap query Q′, there is a query over one relation in the mediated schema that is equivalent to Q′.
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2.4.4 Normalization Taking the logic of extended overlaps to the extreme, one could argue to make the mediated schema a universal relation, i.e., one relation that includes all of the attributes of all of the source relations. This is not the problem we are addressing. Sidestepping a debate about the merits of a universal relation, we simply remind the reader that our goal is to generate a mediated schema that collapses these overlapping elements according to a given specification. We therefore need a principle that limits the amount of source schema that is collapsed. One such principle could be that the mediated schema should satisfy fourth normal form (or pick your favorite stronger normal form). However, we do not recommend this because a user may want a mediated schema that violates a normal form. For example, in the overlap above, it might be that f-num is the key of Go-flight and (f-num, date) is the compound key of Go-price. So Flight vio-lates second normal form. The main justification for normal forms relates to update behavior. We see no reason to prohibit Flight from appearing in a mediated schema that is used only for queries. We therefore define a weaker criterion whose goal is to avoid causing normalization violations beyond those introduced by the overlap specifications. The criterion is that for each mediated schema relation R that corresponds to an overlap specification O, every attribute of R appears in the head or a body of O. By R corresponds to O, we mean that R includes the attributes of IDB(O) and the query that projects R on those attributes is equivalent to O. 2.4.5 Minimality We require that the mediated schema cannot be made smaller and still satisfy completeness, overlap preservation, extended overlap preservation, and normalization. We say that database schema V is minimal with respect to property P if there is no database schema U satisfying P such that: 1. For all relations R ∈ U there exists a relation R′∈ V such that attr(R) ⊆ attr(R′), and 2. For some relation R ∈ V, R ∉ U or attr(R) ⊂ attr(R′). Intuitively, the above definition says that V is minimal with respect to P if there is no smaller schema U satisfying P (condition 1) that can be derived from V by deleting a relation from V or deleting an attribute of a relation of V (condition 2). 2.4.6 Summary In Section 2.1 we presented informal requirements for a mediated schema and mapping. In the rest of Section 2, we formalized these requirements, which we restate here. The input to mediated schema creation consists of relation schemas for the data sources and a set of overlap specifications, which are conjunctive queries. The output is a relational mediated schema and a mapping between the mediated schema and data sources that satisfies the following mediated schema criteria: i. Completeness: For each source relation R, there is a query over the mediated schema that is equivalent to the identity query over R. ii. Overlap preservation: For each overlap, there is a query over one relation in the mediated schema that is equivalent to the overlap. iii. Extended overlap preservation: For each extended overlap query Q, there is a query over one relation in the mediated schema that is equivalent to Q. iv. Normalization: For each mediated schema relation R that corresponds to an overlap specification O, every attribute of R appears in the head or a body of O. v. Minimality: The mediated schema cannot be made smaller and still satisfy (i) – (iv) above. 3. MEDIATED SCHEMA NORMAL FORM For a given set of source schemas S and a set of overlap specifications O, we define a normal form for a mediated schema M over S and O (in Section 3.1) and for a conjunctive mapping mapMS between M and S (in Section 3.2). In Section 3.3, we show that this normal form satisfies the mediated schema criteria. 3.1 The Mediated Schema In what follows, we often use the same relation names in the mediated schema and data sources, when they obviously correspond. To distinguish between them, we use the prefix "M." for relation names in the mediated schema, M. The mediated schema criteria give us two main reasons to create a relation M.R in the mediated schema: a. Overlap Relation – M.R is derived by applying overlap preservation and extended overlap preservation to each overlap specification, mitigated by normalization. More concretely, R is the IDB of an overlap specification O and M.R's attributes are the set of all variables in the bodies of all queries in O. We call M.R an overlap relation and say that M.R corresponds to O. b. Completeness Relation - R is a source relation whose content is not equivalent to a query over the relations defined by (a). In this case, add M.R to the mediated schema. We call M.R a completeness relation and say that M.R corresponds to R. If a mediated schema conforms to rules (a) and (b), we say it is in mediated schema normal form (MSNF). Example 5 Reconsider the overlap specification in Example 3 Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Go-flight(f-num, time, meal), Go-price(f-num, date, price) Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop) The mediated schema should include an overlap relation M.Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop), because Flight is the IDB of the overlap and {f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop} is the set of all variables in the bodies of all queries in the overlap. With a suitable mapping (which we have not defined yet), it is possible that a query on M.Flight that projects f-num, date, time, price, and nonstop would be equivalent to the content of Ok-flight. Therefore, case (b) does not apply to Ok-flight. The same approach would not work for Go-flight(f-num, time, meal), since the body of the first query in the overlap includes a join with Go-price. So a query on M.Flight that projects f-num, time, and meal would return the subset of Go-flight that
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joins with Go-price. Therefore, following (b) above, we need to include completeness relations M.Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) and M.Go-price(f-num, date, price) in the mediated schema. Due to (b), we also need to include M.Go-airline(airline, phone), which is in the schema in Example 1 but not in any overlap at all. ? Example 5 suggests that we need to add a source relation to M unless it appears alone in the body of a query in an overlap. But this is not quite enough, as the following example shows. Example 6 Suppose we add the following query to the overlap specification of Example 3: Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- US-flight(f-num,date,time,price) The mediated schema would still be M.Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop). A query on M.Flight that projects f-num, date, time, and price would return a relation that includes the content of US-Flight. But it would also include the projection of Ok-flight on f-num, date, time, and price and of Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) joined with Go-price(f-num, date, price). Thus, (b) tells us to add M.US-flight(f-num, date, time, price) to M. ? We say that a source relation R is subsumed by an overlap O if R appears alone in the body of a query Q in O and R has at least one existential variable in Q. In Example 5 Ok-flight is subsumed by Flight, since it appears alone in the second query of the overlap and has an existential variable nonstop. As was shown for Ok-flight in Example 5, when R is subsumed by an overlap O, case (b) above does not apply. Notice that it is important that O is well-formed (see Section 2.3), so that the existential variable is unique-ly named. This ensures that the projection query on attr(R) applied to the completeness relation returns the tuples of R and no other source relation. This property of the projection query also explains why we defined an extended overlap query only for cases where there is an existential variable in the body of the overlap query. If there is no existential variable, then the projection of the overlap relation on the attributes returns tuples in addition to those of R and hence doesn't help us with respect to completeness. Given the definition of subsumed, we can now restate case (b): b. Completeness Relation – If R is a source relation that is not subsumed by an overlap, then add R to the mediated schema. Suppose two completeness relations have the same set of attributes, such as the example Airline(airline, phone) :- Go-airline(airline, phone) Airline(airline, phone) :- Ok-airline(airline, phone) that we saw at the end of Section 2.4.1.These could be combined into a single mediated schema relation by adding a tag attribute, such as Airline(airline, phone, tag). For each tuple, the tag identifies which source relation(s) contain the relevant tuple. This is a valid alternative to our completeness relations. However, it makes the mediated schema less self-describing by hiding the corresponding source in the value of the tag attribute. For clarity, we therefore use completeness relations in what follows. Notice that according to our definition of minimality, the database schema {Airline(phone, airline, tag)} does not contradict the minimality of the database schema {Go-airline(phone, airline), Ok-airline(phone,airline), Airline(phone, airline)}, because the former cannot be obtained from the latter by deleting relations and/or attributes. Thus, our notion of minimality is that of a local minimum, not a global minimum. 3.2 The Mapping between Mediated and Source Schemas In Example 3 we showed that the use of an extended overlap in the mediated schema made it desirable to use a GLAV mapping between a mediated schema and data sources. In this section, we define a stylized GLAV mapping between M and S, called an MSNF mapping, which has two nice properties: it ensures the mediated schema and mapping satisfy the mediated schema criteria; and it ensures that it is easy to produce exact rewritings of the queries required by completeness, overlap preservation, and extended overlap preservation. Let M be an MSNF schema derived from source schemas S and overlap specifications O. The MSNF mapping mapMS between M and S is defined using a schema I, called the intermediate schema, that is distinct from M and S. Schema I is a "helper sche-ma" that sits between M and S. The relations of I with respect to (w.r.t.) M and O are (1) copies of the completeness relations in M and (2) the heads of the extended overlap queries of all overlaps in O. The latter relations are named by adding to the IDB of the overlap a subscript that is the index of the query in the overlap. For example, I would include the following two relations for the overlap in Example 3: I.Flight1(f-num, date, time, price, meal) and I.Flight2(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop). More precisely: i. For each completeness relation M.R in M, there is a relation I.R′ in I that has the same attributes as M.R. We say that I.Ri corresponds to M.R. ii. For each overlap O in O, for each query Qi in O (1 ≤ i ≤ |O|) there is a relation I.Ri in I where R = IDB(Qi) and I.Ri has the same attributes as body(Qi). We say that I.Ri corresponds to Qi in O . The MSNF mapping mapMS between M and S has LAV and GAV queries for completeness relations and for extended overlap queries, both of which are expressed using the intermediate schema I. They are defined as follows: a. LAV: 1. For each completeness relation M.R in M, mapMS includes the following query: I.R(attr(M.R)) :- M.R(attr(M.R)). 2. For each relation I.Ri in I that corresponds to some overlap O in O, mapMS includes the following query: I.Ri(attr(I.Ri)) :- M.R(attr(M.R)) where M.R corresponds to O. b. GAV: 1. For each completeness relation I.R in I, mapMS includes the following query: I.R(attr(I.R)) :- R(attr(I.R)).
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2. For each relation I.Ri in I that corresponds to some query Qi in overlap O in O, mapMS includes the following query: I.Ri(attr(I.Ri)) :- body(Q). Cases (a1) and (b1) apply to completeness relations. Each completeness relation is identical to its corresponding source relation and intermediate relation. For example, the source relation Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) has a corresponding mediated schema relation M.Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) (see Example 5) and a corresponding intermediate schema relation I.Go-flight(f-num, time, meal). Therefore, by (a1), mapMS includes the LAV query I.Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) :- M.Go-flight(f-num, time, meal). And by (b1), mapMS includes the GAV query I.Go-flight(f-num, time, meal) :- Go-flight(f-num, time, meal). Cases (a2) and (b2) apply to extended overlap queries. Consider the ith query Qi in an overlap O whose IDB is R. The head of Qi's overlap or extended overlap query has IDB R and its attributes are Ai = attr(body(Qi)). The corresponding intermediate schema relation is I.Ri(Ai). Hence, Qi's GAV query in (b2) is its overlap or extended overlap query with a slightly different IDB, namely I.Ri. By contrast, the mediated schema relation M.R that corresponds to O has the union of attributes in the heads of all overlap queries and extended overlap queries for O. So in general, M.R's attributes are a proper superset of Ai. Hence the LAV query for Qi's overlap or extended overlap query is a projection of M.R on Ai. For example, consider the second query (call it Q2) in the overlap of Example 5: Flight(f-num, date, time, price) :- Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop). The corresponding intermediate schema relation is I.Flight2(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop). The corresponding extended overlap relation in the mediated schema is M.Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop); it includes meal which comes from the other overlap query in Example 5. So the LAV query for I.Flight2 is I.Flight2(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop) :- M.Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop), and the GAV query for Q2 is I.Flight2(f-num, date, time, price) :- Ok-flight(f-num, date, time, price, nonstop). 3.3 An Algorithm to Generate MSNF The definitions of MSNF schema and mapping are, in effect, algo-rithms that generate the schema and mapping. For completeness, we restate them in a more procedural format in Figure 3-1. 3.4 Correctness In this section, we prove that every MSNF schema and mapping satisfy the mediated schema criteria of Section 2.4. A reader can skip this section without loss of continuity. Theorem 1: Let S be a set of source schemas and O a set of overlap specifications. Every MSNF mediated schema M over S and O and mapping mapMS satisfy the mediated schema criteria. ? We prove Theorem 1 in Lemmas 2-6 below, showing that each of the five mediated schema criteria is satisfied. To do this, we need to weaken slightly the notion of query equivalence that appears in the mediated schema criteria. Since MSNF uses GLAV mappings to relate M and S, we instead use maximally-contained rewritings, which return the maximal set of sound answers that can be obtained given the sources in S, which are not assumed to be complete [8]. For example, completeness says that "For each source relation R, there is a query over the mediated schema that is equivalent to the identity query over R." Instead, we will show there is a query over the mediated schema whose maximally-contained rewriting is the identity query over R. We start with a technical result about maximally-contained rewritings of projection queries over the mediated schema. This is used in the proof since the queries required for completeness and overlap preservation are projection queries. The result says that to Procedure MSNFMappingCreation(S, O, M) // S is a set of schemas, O is an overlap // M is the output from MSNFSchemaMerge(S, O) LAV-viewsM = ∅ GAV-viewsM = ∅ For each relation m ∈ M If e ∈ S and e corresponds to m Let q be a fresh IDB name // i.e., q is an IDB name that does not appear as an // IDB name elsewhere in O or mapMS. Let lavm = q(attr(m)) :- m(attr(m)) Let gavm = q(attr(m)) :- e(attr(e)) // The relations m and e in the definition of lavm // and gavm respectively are the same (from the // definition of MSNFSchemaMerge). // Similarly, attr(m) = attr(e). Add lavm to LAV-viewsM Add gavm to GAV-viewsM For each overlap query oq ∈O Let cname = IDB(oq) Let m be the relation in M such that cname corresponds to m Let q be a fresh IDB name lavc = q(Vars(oq)) :- m(attr(m)) gavc = q(Vars(oq)) :- body(oq) Add lavc to LAV-viewsM Add gavc to GAV-viewsM Return LAV-viewsM and GAVviewsM. Figure 3-1 Algorithms to generate an MSNF schema and mapping Procedure MSNFSchemaMerge(S, O) // S is the set of schemas to be merged // O is a set of overlaps between them M = ∅ //the merged schema to create Let R = {r ∈ S | r is not subsumed by an overlap in O} For each relation r ∈ R Let m be a new relation name(m) = M.name(r) attr(m) = attr(r) Add m to M For each IDB name q ∈ IDB names in O Let m be a new relation Let Varsq be the duplicate-free union of the variables of queries that define q in O name(m) = name(q) attr(m) = Varsq Add m to M Return M
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rewrite a projection query Q over M.R to be a query over I, replace it by the union of the set of all queries whose head is Q and whose body is an intermediate relation that includes all of Q's attributes and that has an associated LAV view whose body is R. Lemma 1: Let M be an MSNF schema derived from source schemas S and overlap specifications O. Let I be the intermediate schema w.r.t. M and O. Let mapMI be the LAV part of the MSNF mapping between M and S. Let Q be a projection query over a relation M.R such that the variables of M.R in Q match the names of the attributes of M.R. Let {I1, …, In} be the set of all intermediate relations Ii such that (i) the body of Ii's LAV view is M.R(attr(R))1, and (ii) Vars(head(Q)) ⊆ Vars(head(Ii)). Then ∪1≤j≤n (head(Q) :- Ij(attr(Ij)) is a maximal rewriting of Q w.r.t. mapMI. Proof: Let Q be "Q(A′) :- M.R(A′)". By [12], answering queries using views can be used to construct a maximally-contained rewriting of Q; we consider the MiniCon algorithm which produces maximally-contained rewritings (see proof in [19]). Due to the simple structure of the LAV views and the fact that Q has only one subgoal, the MiniCon algorithm is nearly trivial. There is only one subgoal to consider, which is for M.R. Each MiniCon Description (MCD) thus contains Ii for each LAV view whose body is M.R(attr(R)); since the query is a projection query, the head homomorphism is the identity homomorphism. Since the query is one subgoal long, the combination step will simply re-turn the MCD. The resulting query is ∪1≤j≤n (Q :- Ij), as desired. ? Lemma 2: (Completeness): For each source relation R, there is a query over the mediated schema whose maximally-contained rewriting is the identity query over R. Proof: There are two cases, depending on whether R is subsumed by an overlap. Case (1): If R is not subsumed by an overlap, then it appears in M. We show that the identity query over R is a maximally-contained rewriting of the identity query over M.R. Let Q(attr(M.R)) :- M.R(attr(R)) be the identity query over M.R. There is only one view in mapMS that refers to M.R, a LAV view I(attr(M.R)) :- M.R(attr(M.R)). By Lemma 1, Q(attr(M.R)) :- I(attr(M.R)) is a maximally-contained rewriting of Q. The only other view that mentions I is the GAV view I(attr(R)) :- R(attr(R)). By unfolding the GAV view into Q, we conclude that Q(attr(M.R)) :- I(attr(M.R)) is equivalent to Q(attr(M.R)) :- R(attr(R)) as desired. Case (2): If R is subsumed by an overlap O, then R appears alone in the body of a query Q in O and R has at least one existential variable in Q. Let R′ be the extended overlap relation for O. We show that the identity query over R is a maximally-contained rewriting of the projection query of M.R′ over attr(R). Let Q′(attr(R)) :- M.R′(attr(M.R′)). Since R′ is an extended-overlap relation, it corresponds to an overlap O. Hence, for each query Qi in O (1 ≤ i ≤ |O|) there is a relation I.Ri in I where name(Ri) = name(R′) = IDB(Qi) and attr(I.Ri) = the duplicate-free union of the variables of Qi. By definition of mapMS, there are LAV views 1 By the construction in Section 3.2, attr(head(Q)) uses the same naming scheme as the variables of any corresponding relation R, so a renaming step is not required. I.Ri(attr(I.Ri)) :- M.R′(attr(M.R′)) for 1 ≤ i ≤ |O|. Moreover, these are the only LAV views that refer to M.R′. Since R is subsumed by O, R appears alone in the body of a query Q″ in O and R has an existential variable in Q″. Since the input mapping is well-formed, that existential variable appears only in Q″. Hence, among all of the intermediate relations, only one Ij has the property that Vars(head(Q″)) ⊆ attr(Ij), namely, the intermedi-ate relation that corresponds to Q″. Hence, by Lemma 1, Ij(attr(R)) :- M.R′(attr(M.R′)) is a maximally-contained rewriting of Q′. ? Lemma 3: (Overlap preservation) For each overlap O, there is a query Q over one relation in the mediated schema such that O is a maximal rewriting of Q. Proof: Let M.R be the overlap relation for O. Let QO = {QO1, …, QOm} be the set of all overlap queries for O. We will show that Q(attr(head(O)) :- M.R(attr(R)) is the required query by showing QO1 ∪ … ∪ QOm is a maximal rewriting of Q. To rewrite Q w.r.t. mapMI, conditions (i) and (ii) of Lemma 1 apply, so by Lemma 1 ∪1≤k≤m (head(Q) :- Ik(attr(Ik)) is a maximal rewriting of Q w.r.t. mapMI. By definition of the GAV views (b2) in MSNF mapping, each Ik corresponds to a query QOk in the overlap and hence can be replaced by body(QOk), yielding ∪1≤k≤m (head(Q) :- body(QOk), which is QO1 ∪ … ∪ QOm as desired. ? Lemma 4: (Extended overlap preservation) For each extended overlap query Q′, there is a query Q″ over one relation in the mediated schema whose maximal rewriting is Q′. Proof: Suppose Q′ is the extended overlap query of query Q in some overlap O. Let M.R be the overlap relation for O and let Q″(Vars(head(Q′))) :- M.R(attr(R)) be the required query over M. We first rewrite Q″ w.r.t. mapMI. Since Q has an existential variable, there is a unique relation Ii in I that satisfies conditions (i) and (ii) of Lemma 1. Hence, by Lemma 1 head(Q″) :- Ii(attr(Ii)) is a maximal rewriting of Q w.r.t. mapMI. Since Ii corresponds only to Q, by definition of the GAV views (b2) in MSNF mapping, Ii(attr(Ii)) :- body(Q) is the only query in mapIS with IDB Ii. Unfolding that query into head(Q″) :- Ii(attr(Ii)) we get head(Q″) :- body(Q) as the maximal rewriting of Q as desired. ? Lemma 5: (Normalization) For each mediated schema relation R that corresponds to an overlap specification O, every attribute of R appears in the head or a body of O. Proof: Follows directly from the definition of overlap relation. ? Lemma 6: (Minimality) The mediated schema is minimal with respect to mediated schema criteria (i) – (iv). Proof: Partition M into the set of overlap relations MO and the set of completeness relations MS. We show that if any relation or attribute is deleted from MO or MS then M does not satisfy one of the mediated schema criteria (i) – (iv). MO: To satisfy overlap preservation, there must be a relation m ∈ M for each overlap O ∈ O. Due to normalization, we cannot combine two relations in MO because they are not in the same overlap. Overlap and extended overlap preservation require every overlap and extended overlap query qo ∈ O to be answered using one relation. Therefore, attrs(m) ⊇ Vars(O). MSNF defines
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attrs(m) = Vars(O), so no attributes of m may be deleted. Hence MO is minimal given the mediated schema criteria. MS: By definition of completeness relation, every ms ∈ MS is not subsumed by an overlap. Suppose ms corresponds to s ∈ S. There are two cases: (1) s is not in the body of any overlap; (2) for every overlap query qo where ms∈body(qo), either qo has no existential variables or body(qo) has more than one subgoal. Case (1): Relation ms is the only completeness relation that corresponds to s. There can be no overlap relation that corres-ponds to an overlap whose body contains s, because s is not in the body of any overlap. Hence, the only queries that relate s to M are the LAV and GAV queries for the completeness relation ms (see definitions a1 and b1 in MSNF mapping). Hence, deleting ms or any of its attributes from M would violate completeness. Case (2): By completeness, at least one relation must contain attr(s). The only relations in M besides ms that contain attr(s) are the overlap relations. Let O be the overlap with qo ∈ O, and let mO be the overlap relation corresponding to O. We claim the projection query Q(attr(s)) :- mo(attr(mo)) is not a maximal rewrite of Q′(attr(s)) :- s(attr(s)). By definition of case (2), either (a) qo has no existential variables or (b) body(qo) has more than one subgoal. If (a), then by Lemma 1 Q returns the union of s and the other queries in O. If (b), then since qo is connected (see defini-tion of overlap), Q returns the subset of s that joins with another relation in body(qo). Thus Q is not a maximal rewrite of Q. Since no overlap relation satisfies completeness for s, ms cannot be deleted from M without violating completeness. ? 4. DISCUSSION In this section, we discuss several issues related to the choice of MSNF schemas and mappings and their effect on query processing performance and completeness. 4.1 Is MSNF Always Needed? In Section 3.4 we proved that MSNF schemas and mappings have a number of desirable properties, characterized by the mediated schema criteria. A database designer may not require all of the criteria and hence may not want an MSNF schema and mapping in all application scenarios. Still, we believe the criteria are at least a worthwhile starting point to consider which criteria are relevant in a particular scenario. To help one decide which criteria are relevant, Sections 2 and 3 show how each criterion affects the choice of mediated schema and mappings. Moreover, as will be shown in Section 5.2, there are practical examples where every type of MSNF relation and mapping is needed. Even when MSNF is not needed, it may be useful to develop an MSNF schema as an early step of the mediated schema creation process. This yields a complete, minimal schema with a complete set of mappings. One can then prune portions of the meditated schema that are not needed for the given application and modify the mapping accordingly. However this is just a proposal. A user study is needed to determine if such a methodology has merit. 4.2 Why GLAV Views? Section 1 showed examples to motivate the need for GLAV views for mapping sources to a mediated schema. Now that we have the precise definition of MSNF, we can reconsider the issue in more detail. The question is, why not use GAV or LAV instead? GAV breaks down as a mapping language for mediated schemas when there are overlapping concepts in the source schemas that have additional non-overlapping information. For schemas that adhere to MSNF, this comes up when there is an existential variable in an overlap query. For example, take the mapping in Example 3. Most concepts of Flight are in common, but Go-travel contains additional information about meals. In MSNF, the corresponding mediated schema relation in M for Flight is M.Flight(f-num, date, time, price, meal, nonstop). A GAV mapping must provide a value for each attribute in M.Flight. However, no conjunctive query can do this for Flight unless it populates nonstop with NULL. But this is undesirable as it leads to the usual ambiguity between two interpretations of NULL, namely "irrelevant" for tuples coming from Flight vs. "missing" for tuples coming from OK-Flight that have nonstop = NULL. E.g., these two interpretations are not supported by SQL. LAV enables us to handle this situation elegantly by expressing Flight and OK-Flight as projections of M.Flight. However, LAV too has a limitation. It cannot map a mediated schema relation to the join of relations in a source. An example of this is Go-Flight and Go-price in Example 3. The obvious LAV mapping for this example would be: Go-flight(f, t, m) :- M.Flight(f, d, t, p, m, n) Go-price(f, d, p) :- M.Flight(f, d, t, p, m, n) Ok-flight(f, d, t, p) :- M.Flight(f, d, t, p, m, n) While this would allow queries on M.Flight to access Go-flight or Go-price to answer some queries, it would not allow easy access to their join. For example, it could not answer the query All-flight-info(f, t, m, d, p) :- Flight (f, d, t, p, m, n). Due to these limitations of LAV and GAV, MSNF uses a stylized combination of LAV and GAV mappings, which are a subset of GLAV mappings. This allows both GAV and LAV views between the source and mediated schema. The subset of GLAV required is very limited; the local views are only projections. 4.3 Query Rewriting GLAV views require a query rewriting algorithm for answering queries using views. For conjunctive queries and views this problem is NP-Complete in the number of query subgoals [12]. Nevertheless, rewriting queries is often fast enough in practice, as was shown in [19] and as is known from the widespread use of materialized views for data warehousing. Moreover, query rewriting for our limited GLAV views is more efficient than the general case; e.g., each of our LAV views has only one subgoal. In Section 5.3, we show some experiments to provide further evidence that query rewriting is fast enough. Some additional improvement in query rewriting performance may be attainable by replacing MSNF views by pure GAV views where possible. For example, completeness relations could be mapped using GAV views. We avoided this optimization in the definition of MSNF because the lack of symmetry complicates the proof of correctness by requiring a case analysis. 4.4 Completeness Completeness ensures that all queries that can be asked over the source schemas can be asked over the mediated schema. Naïvely, one might expect this to require that all source relations be retained in the mediated schema. However, as we showed in
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Example 5, this is not true. Some source relations can be made accessible in the mediated schema simply by adding attributes to a mediated schema relation that is needed for other reasons. 5. IMPLEMENTATION & EVALUATION We implemented an algorithm to generate MNSF in Java. With this implementation, we tested a number of hypotheses: • Is the expressiveness of the input mapping necessary and sufficient? • Can this method reproduce a mediated schema that has been created independently? • Can queries over the mediated schema be rewritten efficiently? To test these hypotheses, we used 4 of the 5 available data sets in the Illinois Semantic Integration Archive [1]: "Courses" (5 schemas), "Inventory" (3 schemas), "Real Estate 1" (5 schemas) and "Real Estate 2" (3 schemas). All schemas in the fifth data set, "Faculty," are isomorphic, so we excluded it. All schemas are in XML that is readily translatable to relational schemas. Data is available for each source to resolve ambiguities. The source schemas have an average of 2.9 relations and each relation has an average of 11 attributes. In each experiment, we merged the schemas pair-wise to create the final mediated schema. 5.1 Implementing Mediated Schema Creation First we investigated whether conjunctive queries are rich enough to express the common cases in mediated schema creation, and whether that richness is necessary. Conjunctive queries could express most relationships required. There were two types of relationships that semantic merge could not reproduce: concatenation of data values and arithmetic manipulation. This experiment also showed that the power of conjunctive queries was required to fully express how the schemas related to one another. Of the 16 overlaps created in this experiment, 11 (69%) required joins, and all required the use of existential variables. 5.2 Mimicking Hand-Crafted Schemas To evaluate whether MSNF schemas are understandable and useful, we compared them to hand-crafted mediated schemas in the "Courses" and "Real Estate 1" data sets. These given mediated schemas were created with the sources in mind, but they differed, sometimes substantially, from the input schemas. We tried to rep-licate these mediated schemas as closely as possible using MSNF. For the "Courses" dataset, MSNF came very close to creating the provided mediated schema. Of the six relations in the mediated schema, our approach replicated two of them exactly. The remain-ing four MSNF relations were similar to the given mediated schema but they included extra attributes—at least one attribute that only appeared in one source. Still, the given mediated schema included some of the attributes that correspond to existential variables in an overlap query and that appeared in the MSNF relations. So extended overlap preservation must be considered when developing a mediated schema. The same four mediated schema relations also required joins in the input mappings. Thus, neither GAV nor LAV would have been an appropriate choice for a mapping language between the mediated schema and source schemas (see Section 4.2). The mediated schema provided for "Real Estate 1" differed substantially from the sources, and hence the MSNF generation algorithm had more difficulties. As in the "Courses" domain, most of the generated MSNF relations contained additional attributes. Of the 105 attributes in the given mediated schema there were 22 attributes that the MSNF generation algorithm could not create. These fell into three categories: • Fourteen attributes had no corresponding source schema data. For example, the "Superstructure" relation in the mediated schema included an "elevator" attribute, but no source included elevator information. • Two attributes required more complex manipulation, as in the previous experiment. For example, the given mediated schema included an attribute for "number of bathrooms" which would have required adding "half baths" and "full baths" attributes. • The remaining six attributes required examining data values. For example, one relation included "mountain view", "city lights view", and "water view" attributes, but the sources only included "view" attributes. Hence MSNF generation generated 83 of the 91 attributes (91%) for which there was information available in data source schemas. 5.3 Rewriting Queries Our goal was to show that queries could be translated efficiently enough for the method to be considered; our goal was not to show how fast the algorithm was, so the code was un-optimized. Since unfolding GAV mappings is trivial, we only compared against LAV rewriting times. We created an MSNF version of the schema that could express as much of the mediated schema as was possi-ble in LAV. As explained in Section 4.2, the LAV mapping is less expressive, so we limited our tests to queries that could be asked over both schemas. As shown in Figure 5-1, despite the fact that both algorithms are asymptotically the same, since the LAV views also contained only one relation, LAV was in practice much slow-er as more query subgoals were added. The Course and RealEstate lines show rewriting times for the schemas created using the MSNF; for queries that contain 6 subgoals, both finish in under 2 seconds on a 850 MHz single-cpu PC with 256MB of RAM. To summarize the results on the practicality of MSNF: MSNF schemas are similar to hand-crafted mediated schemas. The examples required at least the expressiveness of conjunctive queries for overlap specification and of GLAV mappings for views. More expressive overlaps and views that express arithmetic and concatenation are needed. Finally, we showed that query rewriting over MSNF mediated schemas is fast. Figure 5-1 Query rewriting time is modest
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6. RELATED WORK 6.1 Requirements Mediated schema criteria for schema merging were introduced by Batini, Lenzerini, and Navathe in their 1986 survey of schema integration methods [2]. Their criteria are as follows: • Completeness and correctness: users can get the same data from the mediated schema as they can from the sources. Understandability: the mediated schema is comprehensible to the user; i.e., queries that the user wants to ask should be easy to ask. Minimality: the mediated schema does not contain multiple ways of accessing the same concept or have any data beyond what is required for completeness and understandability. They distinguish between view integration and data integration. View integration defines a database schema that can support a given set of views. Data integration defines a database schema to query a given set of data sources. Both require merging the input schemas into a schema that covers the input. The main difference is whether it is meaningful to define constraints between the given schemas. For view integration, the given views are views of one database. In this case, the integration process can be driven by constraints between the given views, such as referential constraints (e.g., the full-time-students view is contained in the all-students view). For data integration, the data sources are independent (e.g., student databases of different universities). In this case, there are no constraints between the given source schemas that describe how their instances are related. Rather, there are relationships that explain where the given schemas represent the same information and therefore can be collapsed. • • 6.2 Generating View Definitions Among the many papers on view and data integration, to our knowledge only one other paper gives an algorithm to generate both a merged schema and view definitions (i.e., mappings) to support it, namely Melnik et al. [15]. They give formal properties that a merged schema and views must satisfy for view integration. They show that the output of their algorithm in [16] satisfies these formal properties provided that the input schemas are snowflake schemas and the input mappings are "path morphisms." A path morphism is a set of equality constraints between a pair of snow-flake schemas, each of which says that a query over one input schema equals a query over the other schema. The query is limited to using join expressions that follow the snowflake relationships. Melnik et al.'s work differs from ours in several ways: First, they address view integration, not schema integration. This has a major effect on correctness criteria. For example, in [15], they require that the input mapping between the two source schemas S1, S2 is equivalent to the composition of the two view definitions between the source schemas and mediated schema M. That is, mapping S1- S2 is equivalent to the composition of S1-M and M-S2. This makes sense for view integration, where S1 and S2 are views of the same source, but not for data integration where the instance data of S1 and S2 are unrelated. Second, in [15] the inputs are limited to snowflake schemas and path morphisms. By contrast, we allow arbitrary relational schemas and conjunctive queries. And third, since their input does not characterize overlaps as conjunctive queries, they have no notion of extended overlap or extended overlap preservation in either their correctness criteria or merge algorithm. An extension of the merge algorithm of [15] with reverse engineering support is in [7]. 6.3 Conflict-driven Schema Merge There are many papers on schema merging algorithms that pro-duce an integrated schema from the source schemas. Since there are too many to cover here, we discuss just a few from the last decade as a representative sample. We refer the reader to the Batini et al. survey [1] for most earlier ones. Schema merging's goal is to collapse overlapping schema elements in the output schema. This may not be straightforward due to conflicting representations in the sources. For example, Buneman, Davidson, and Kosky [4] merge two schemas by collapsing classes and attributes having the same name. If a class C appears in both input schemas S1 and S2, but C has two different attributes in S1 and S2 that have the same name but different ranges, then the naming conflict has to be solved in the merged schema. They describe a merge algorithm that solves this type of conflict and prove that it produces a unique output independent of the order in which the conflicts were resolved. In our model, such a naming conflict would show up as a violation of well-formed-ness of the overlap specification (see Section 2.3). We assume such conflicts are eliminated in a preliminary renaming step. A later algorithm by Spaccapietra and Parent treats a broader class of conflicts [22]. Unlike [4], they assume an explicit set of correspondences between the input schema elements. They describe merge procedures as a sequence of integration rules: integrate objects, integrate links, integrate paths, etc. They create correspondences between the merged schema and input schemas, but do not show how to turn those correspondences into views. We followed a similar approach in a merge algorithm we pre-sented in a previous paper [20]. We allowed more expressive input mappings than [1], where the mapping itself was a schema, and resolved other conflict types in addition to those of [4] and [1]. Like [1], [20] generates correspondences but not views between the merged schema and input schemas. In fact, the present paper started as an attempt to extend [20] to generate views, which led us to the more general question of choosing correctness criteria and proving the merged schema and views satisfy them. The algorithm in [20] can simulate the algorithm in Section 3.3 of this paper by interpreting the output correspondences as view definitions. Some details are in [18]. Both-As-View (BAV) focuses on updating a mediated schema based on the integration of new source schemas [14]. A BAV mapping calls for adding, deleting, and renaming attributes and relations in the mediated schema. Our work differs from theirs in several ways. First, our work creates the mapping between the mediated schema and the sources. Second, their method does not guarantee that the resulting mediated schema adheres to many of our mediated schema criteria. Finally, our work creates the mediated schema based on the relationship of the sources to each other, not to a previously existing mediated schema. 6.4 Constraint-Driven Merge Two early works, by Casanova and Vidal [6] and by Biskup and Convent [3], study view integration using constraints between two
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given view schemas. In both papers the goal is to create a merged schema that is complete, reduces redundancy, and is minimal. In [6], Casanova and Vidal assume an input consisting of view schemas that are in Boyce-Codd Normal Form and have constraints within and between views: key constraints, inclusion (i.e., foreign key) constraints, exclusion constraints (the key values in two relations are disjoint.), and union-key constraints (given attribute A in relations R1 and R2 with common key K, πK(R1) = πK(R2) implies πA(R1) = πA(R2), where πK(R) is the projection of R on attributes K). To create the merged schema, they start with the disjoint union of the view schemas and then apply optimizations to reduce the number of relations and columns based on the constraints. For example, union-key con-straints may indicate that a set of relations can be replaced by one relation. They do not produce view definitions (i.e., mappings). In [3], Biskup and Convent extend [6] by using a formal notion of completeness that is essentially Hull's query dominance [9]. Their integration constraints between views are inclusions, exclusions, identities (i.e., bidirectional inclusions), and selection constraints (identities on a subset of tuples satisfying a selection condition). They optimize to reduce the size of the schema by applying constraints between views. Relations connected by exclusion, identity and selection constraints are combined, provided that this does not break any constraints within views. The algorithm defines the output merged schema, but there is only an example of a mapping between the view schema and global schema, not an algorithm for generating it. However, the output mappings between the views and the global schema are essentially the same as the input mappings for most of the given constraints, so an algorithm to cover these cases would be straightforward. 7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK We have presented the first algorithm for generating a mediated schema and view definitions for data integration from a given set of source schemas and specifications of overlapping information. We defined a new normal form for a mediated schema and its view definitions, called Mediated Schema Normal Form (MSNF). We developed formal correctness criteria for a mediated schema and view definitions and proved that an MSNF mediated schema and view definitions satisfy the criteria. We presented an algo-rithm that generates an MSNF schema and views and described what we learned from its implementation. We see several opportunities for future work. First, it would be useful to enrich the mapping language beyond conjunctive queries, include functions and constraints, especially key and foreign key constraints. Second, we would like to incorporate our algorithm into a tool for developing integrated schemas, so that a user study could evaluate its utility. Third, we feel that enough new work has appeared since Batini et al.'s survey [1] that a new survey of schema integration techniques would be worthwhile. 8. Acknowledgements We thank Xun Sun for helping with the experiments in Section 5. 9. REFERENCES [1] C. Batini, M. Lenzerini, and S. B. Navathe, "A Comparative Analysis of Methodologies for Database Schema Integra-tion," ACM Computing Surveys 18(4), pp. 323-364, 1986. [2] P. A. Bernstein, "Applying Model Management to Classical Meta Data Problems," CIDR 2003, pp. 209-220. [3] J. Biskup and B. Convent, "A formal view integration method," SIGMOD 1986, pp. 398-407. [4] P. Buneman, S. B. Davidson, and A. Kosky, "Theoretical Aspects of Schema Merging," EDBT 1992, pp. 152-167. [5] A. Cali, D. Calvanese, G. D. Giacomo, and M. Lenzerini, "On the Expressive Power of Data Integration Systems," ER 2002, pp. 338-350. [6] M. A. Cassanova and V.M.P. Vidal, "Towards a Sound View Integration Methodology," PODS 1983, pp. 36-47. [7] M. Gubanov, P.A. Bernstein, M. Moshchuk, "Model Management Engine for Data Integration with Reverse-Engineering Support," ICDE 2008, to appear. [8] A. Y. Halevy, "Answering Queries Using Views: A Survey," VLDB J. 10(4), pp. 270-294, 2001. [9] R. Hull, "Relative Information Capacity of Simple Relational Database Schemata," SIAM J. Comput. 15(3): 856-886,1986. [10] Illinois Semantic Integration Archive. http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~anhai/wisc-si-archive/. [11] M. Lenzerini, "Data Integration: A Theoretical Perspective," PODS 2002, pp. 233-246. [12] A. Y. Levy, A. O. Mendelzon, Y. Sagiv, and D. Srivastava, "Answering Queries Using Views," PODS 1995, pp. 95-104. [13] A. Y. Levy, A. Rajaraman, and J. J. Ordille, "Querying Heterogeneous Information Sources Using Source Descriptions," VLDB 1996, pp. 251-262. [14] P. McBrien, A. Poulovassilis, "Data Integration by Bi-Direc-tional Schema Transformation Rules," ICDE 2003, 227-238. [15] S. Melnik, P. A. Bernstein, A. Halevy, and E. Rahm, "Supporting Executable Mappings in Model Management," SIGMOD 2005, pp. 167-178. [16] S. Melnik, E. Rahm, and P. A. Bernstein, "Rondo: A Programming Platform for Generic Model Management," SIGMOD 2003, pp. 193-204. [17] R. J. Miller, Y. E. Ioannidis, and R. Ramakrishnan, "The Use of Information Capacity in Schema Integration and Translation," VLDB 1993, pp. 120-133. [18] R. Pottinger, Processing Queries and Merging Schemas in Support of Data Integration, PhD thesis, Univ. of Washing-ton, 2004, http://www.cs.ubc.ca/~rap/publications/thesis.pdf [19] R. Pottinger and A. Levy, "A Scalable Algorithm for Answering Queries Using Views," VLDB 2000, pp. 484-495. [20] R. A. Pottinger and P. A. Bernstein, "Merging Models Based on Given Correspondences," VLDB 2003, pp. 862-873. [21] R. A. Pottinger and A. Y. Halevy, "MiniCon: A scalable algorithm for answering queries using views," VLDB J.10 (2-3), pp. 182-198, 2001. [22] S. Spaccapietra and C. Parent, "View Integration: A Step Forward in Solving Structural Conflicts," TKDE 6(2), pp. 258-274, 1994.


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The BA in Music Education provides a variety of experiences that prepare talented individuals to meet the challenges of teaching K-12 choral, instrumental and general music in the 21st Century. West Liberty University is an institutional member of the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), and is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission/North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (HLC/NCA), and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE).
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The Bachelor of Music in Music Technology degree is the only such degree offered by institutions of higher learning in the state of West Virginia. Students learn in state-of-the-art facilities with experienced and dedicated instructors. The foundation of the degree combines study in general musicianship with advanced experience in recording, mixing, and electronic music.
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The Division of Music at West Liberty University offers undergraduate degrees in Music Education, Music Performance, and Music Technology. Among our many ensembles are University Chorus, Wind Ensemble, Chamber Choir, Percussion Ensemble, Jazz Ensemble, and The Hilltopper Marching Band. Our award-winning faculty members are very active as performers, clinicians, and adjudicators.
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subset: commoncrawl


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looks all great!
1257 AD Middle Europe mod is a completely new mod for M&B, which is aiming for the historical medieval Middle-Europe. We want to make a historically correct mod (unit names are in real form by every nation), but not an unenjoyable one!
looks all great!
A remarkable update.
and obviously 2 of thoes are croatian :D
To be included in the next version.


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Source: 'serious' gaps divide NFL, officials
|Referee Tony Veteri (36) calls a penalty during the third quarter of an NFL football game between the Carolina Panthers and the New York Giants in Charlotte, N.C., Thursday, Sept. 20, 2012. (AP Photo/Chuck Burton)
NEW YORK — The NFL and its locked-out officials met the last two days, but a person familiar with the negotiations said Friday the sides remain far apart and no further talks are scheduled.
he person said in an email to The Associated Press that there are "significant and serious economic gaps." The person requested anonymity in characterizing the negotiations because they are intended to remain private.
Michael Arnold, counsel and lead negotiator for NFL Referees Association, acknowledged the discussions, saying his group reached out to the league last week and the NFL agreed to meet. He said there may be additional talks, but it is "not appropriate" to comment on specific issues.
The NFL locked out the regular officials in June and has been using replacements as the season enters its third full weekend. Many players, coaches and fans have been upset with what they say is poor officiating. The NFL has warned teams that it won't tolerate confrontational behavior toward the new officials.
The NFL locked out the regular officials after their contract expired. Negotiations with the NFLRA broke down several times during the summer, including just before the season. This is the first time the league is using replacements since 2001.
The collection of small college officials working the games has drawn tough criticism from those on the field. Monday night's game between Atlanta and Denver underlined the matter, with Broncos coach John Fox and defensive coordinator Jack Del Rio engaging in heated arguments with officials.
In response, the league, according to NFL.com, said Thursday night that senior NFL officials called owners, general managers and coaches from all 32 teams to tell them that respect for the game demands better conduct.
NFL executive vice president Ray Anderson noted "unacceptable behavior" and added "we're not going to tolerate it." He said flags, fines and suspensions are possible for coaches or players who cross the line.
"There's no doubt the integrity of the game has been compromised not having the regular officials out there," Giants linebacker Mathias Kiwanuka has said. "We've got to get that taken care of."
What the fans seem most annoyed with is the lack of pace to games, notably Monday night's win by the Falcons that dragged on past midnight. The NFL has said that it is trying to upgrade the officiating through training tapes, conference calls and meetings.
The league and the NFLRA, which covers more than 120 on-field officials, are at odds over salary, retirement benefits and operational issues. The NFL has said its offer includes annual pay increases that could earn an experienced official more than $200,000 annually by 2018. The union has disputed the value of the proposal, insisting it would ultimately reduce their compensation.
"We just all hope, and I'm speaking on behalf of all 31 other head coaches, we hope they get something done," Rams coach Jeff Fisher has said. "We're trusting that they will."
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Monday February 8, 2016
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Motto/Mission Statement: To be Alaska's best source of news and information, enhancing the lives of Alaskans.
Founded: The paper's first publisher was Norman Brown. On Jan. 13, 1946, Volume 1, Number 1 of his weekly Anchorage News rolled off a Linotype hand-fed press from type set by hand. The first edition was 16 tabloid-sized pages, which were sold on newsstands and distributed through the post office. There was no home delivery. In May 1948, the News went from weekly to six days a week.
On April 13, 1964, the Daily News converted from afternoon to morning delivery. The switchover came only two weeks after the Good Friday Earthquake. The next year -- on June 13 -- the Daily News began publishing Alaska's first Sunday newspaper.
In January 1979, McClatchy Newspapers acquired 80 percent ownership of the Daily News. And in February, McClatchy purchased a $1.1 million building complex on Potter Drive to house the Daily News.
In June 1986, the Daily News operation moved into its new, $30 million building at 1001 Northway Drive. The facility included a new Goss Headliner press, a new computer system and room for more than 400 employees.
General Hiring Contact: www.adn.com/careers or Human Resources Manager Kara Ridenour: 907-257-4586, fax 907-257-4472, or e-mail firstname.lastname@example.com
Market: Anchorage residents tend to have higher incomes than their counterparts in the lower 48 markets. The median family income in Anchorage is $85,682. By comparison, the median income in Lower 48 markets is $72,585. In Anchorage, one third of all adults have a college degree.
Newspaper Designated Market: Anchorage, Mat-Su valleys, Kenai Peninsula and Cordova-Valdez census area.
Customers: The Anchorage Daily News reaches 68% of Southcentral Alaska residents daily, and 73% Sunday.
Site: The Anchorage Daily News building is located at 1001 Northway Drive in Anchorage; 4851 E Lupine Road (Mat-Su); 36251 Kenai Spur Hwy, #A (Soldotna)
Total Readership: Daily 221,800 and Sunday 63,851
Circulation: Daily 57,622 and Sunday 71,233
Size: Averages 28 pages daily; 52 pages Sunday
Production: Headliner offfset
Color: Print in process inks Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black (CMYK). 144 pages with 40 pages of spot color or 80 pages with 32 pages of full process and 8 pages of spot color. Extensive use of spot color.
Average Monthly Page Views/Unique Visitors: 14.4 million views/month; 2 million unique visitors
Employees: 203
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Top Editors: 3
Local News Reporters and Editors: 15
Business Reporters: 1
Features/Entertainment/Arts: 3
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Sports/Outdoors: 4
Bureaus: Mat-Su and Washington D.C.
In 1995, the Daily News was recognized by the Society of Newspaper Design with 50 awards, placing it third in the world. Other awards included a national first-place for science coverage and an Associated Press Sports Editors' award for best special section.
In 2008, the Daily News was presented with the Ernie Pyle Award for human interest writing.
Community Involvement: The Daily News sponsors numerous organizations, including United Way, Anchorage Chamber of Commerce, Anchorage Economic Development Corporation, Alaska Aces, Mat-Su Miners, Junior Achievement, University of Alaska Anchorage, Alaska Pacific University, Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, Fur Rondy, Anchorage Museum and many more. The Daily News employees also volunteer many hours to the Chamber Citywide clean up, Military Appreciation Picnic and United Way Day of Caring.
Major Advertisers: Cal Worthington; Prudential Vista; Fred Meyer; Sadler's Furniture; Carrs; State of Alaska; Lithia; Alaska Sales & Service; Northern Trust Real Estate; Nye Frontier Toyota; Gottschalks; Continental Motors; General Communications Inc (GCI); Alaska Communication Systems (ACS); JC Penney; Spenard Builders Supply; Dynamic Properties; Home Depot; Alaska USA FCU; Valassis Inserts, Inc.; Best Buy; Kohl's and Lowe's.
Creative Ventures: Annual moose calendar, Visitors' Guide and 61 degrees N magazine.
Special Publications: Neighborhood Values, AK Auto Saver, HomeFinder magazine, House to Home, Play (weekly entertainment guide)
Well-known Newsroom Personalities: Editor Patrick Dougherty; metro columnist Julia O'Malley; sports columnist Doyle Woody
Market: The Anchorage Daily News is the leading newspaper in the largest state in the union. Its primary market area is Anchorage, where roughly 291,000 of Alaska's 692,000 inhabitants live, but it is distributed widely throughout the state. The newspaper's website, adn.com, is the state's leading online news source. Anchorage, Alaska's largest city, is the state's center of commerce. The Port of Anchorage, the Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport and the Alaska Railroad combine to make Anchorage the primary cargo distributor in the state. More than 12,000 military personnel are stationed at Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Air Force Base. Anchorage is gradually becoming less industrialized and is broadening its economic landscape with more retail trade and a larger tourism service sector.
Location: Anchorage sits in Southcentral Alaska between Cook Inlet – the junction of Knik and Turnagain Arms – and the wilderness of the Chugach Mountains. The municipality covers 1,955 square miles, about the size of Delaware. One of America's most livable cities, Anchorage is located in one of the world's most spectacular settings and prides itself on being an all-season gateway to adventure and natural beauty. Anchorage is located at the hub of the world's strongest economies. The thriving community, with its extraordinary and unique quality of life, lies on the most direct air route from San Francisco to Tokyo and is nearly equidistant from Japan, New York and the capitals of Europe. It is understandable why its airport is one of the busiest cargo airports in the entire country. Locations such as Seward (127 miles), Denali National Park (237 miles) and Fairbanks (357 miles) are popular to visit.
Transportation: Cars and RVs can be rented in Anchorage and driven to highway-accessible locations around the state. The Seward highway, the main highway south to the Kenai Peninsula, traces the shores of Turnagain Arm. The Parks Highway, heading north, slips through the Alaska Range and passes Denali National Park on the way to Fairbanks. The Glenn Highway follows the Matanuska River Valley. Alaska Airlines offers the only jet service to cities beyond Anchorage. Propeller planes ferry commuters and other passengers to and from Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau and regional hubs. Bush planes (single-engine planes equipped with wheels, floats or skis) are popular on adventure vacations. They take sightseers, wildlife viewers, anglers and hunters to remote areas where runways may be a river bar, a lake or a glacier. The Alaska Railroad, based in Anchorage, has two main trains: The Coastal Classic carries passengers between Anchorage, Girdwood and Seward. The Denali Star connects Anchorage, Talkeetna, Denali National Park and Fairbanks.
Median Age: 33.4
Median Family Household Income: $85,682
Population Growth Rate: 7.3% between 2000 and 2008. Average annual population growth rate is .92%.
Average Home Price: $328,000 for a single-family home
Mean Rent: $867 for a one bedroom, $1,020 for two bedrooms
Climate: Anchorage's climate is milder than many visitors expect. Spring arrives in May. Summers are pleasant, with highs reaching the 70s. August and September bring rain, and snow comes in October. The longest day is 19.5 hours, and the shortest is 5.5 hours.
Major Retailers: Nordstrom; JCPenney; GAP; Old Navy; Sears; WalMart; BestBuy; Michaels; Sports Authority; REI; Fred Meyers
Higher Learning: University of Alaska, Alaska Pacific University, Wayland Baptist University and Charter College
Arts & Culture: Anchorage Opera; Anchorage Symphony; Anchorage Concert Association; Anchorage Museum of History and Art; Alaska Native Heritage Center
Sports: Alaska Aces hockey team (2006 Kelly Cup champions); Seawolves (University of Alaska Anchorage)
Major Annual Events: Fur Rendezvous in mid- to late February and the start of the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race in early March.
Tourist Attractions: Alaska Botanical Garden; Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum; Alaska Native Heritage Center; Alaska Zoo; Earthquake Park; Anchorage Museum of History and Art; Imaginarium Science Discovery Center; and the 4th Avenue Theatre.
Nightlife: Bear tooth Theatre Pub; Chilkoot Charlie's; Cyrano's Off Center Playhouse. (Restaurants) Orso; Glacier BrewHouse; Sacks Café; Jen's; Southside Bistro; Kincaid Grill; Simon & Seaforts; Peanut Farm; Crow's Nest; Lone Star; Outback Steakhouse; Sullivan's Steakhouse; Snow Goose and many more.
Claim to Fame: Alaska is a geographical marvel. When a scale map of Alaska is superimposed on a map of the lower 48 states, Alaska reaches from west coast to east.
Famous Residents: (Sports) Rosey Fletcher, formerly of Girdwood, World Cup and Olympic bronze medalist snowboarder; Scott Gomez, Anchorage, Montreal Canadiens player; Norman Vaughan, Anchorage, member of Byrd Antarctic expedition 1928-30, sled-dog handler at the Battle of the Bulge in World War II, Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race musher. (Arts) Sydney Laurence, painter; Byron Birdsall, painter.
Trivia: Anchorage has the most coffee shops per capita: nearly three coffee shops per 10,000 people, followed by the Seattle-Bellevue-Everett region, which has 2.5 shops per 10,000 people.
Recent Issues of the Newspaper: Articles and photo reprints are available for a fee by calling 907-257-4429. Limited back issues of the paper are available through the circulation department at 866-528-0236.
(This profile was last updated on Dec. 20, 2010)


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Weather oil paint by BoiasWatch
©2014-2016 Boias
I like it. Really like it. Everything I love-the darkness, water, rocks and the moon)
I agree, very dramatic!
Very dramatic looking!!!
Love the mood on this one.
Wow this is really beautiful!! I wish I could paint like that.
Wonderful dark.
interesting colours!
Thanks Olga . Just took an hour to paint , it´s kind of a dark but nice atmosphere I guess .
The colours ...lemon yellow hue ,cobalt violet , greenish umber , (white) (just a tinny bit mixed with yellow for the foam)
And then I stopped because I didn´t want to mess it up anymore .