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The following commentary does not necessarily reflect the views of AgWeb or Farm Journal Media. The opinions expressed below are the author's own.
Dairy Today Healthline
By Tom Van Dyke, DVM, Merial Veterinary Services
We are lucky to have people in the dairy industry who think big about cow comfort. They have paved the way for major improvements, and they have the ability to enhance our farm production, economics1, animal stewardship and consumer perception.2 But even with these benefits, there are times when it pays to think small about cow comfort. Thinking small means directing attention to the tiny but significant threat to dairy cattle comfort caused by lice and mange mites.
Cattle lice are among the most important arthropod pests affecting dairy cattle because all lice – the blood-sucking or skin-chewing varieties – can cause extreme annoyance to the host animals. The animals' tendency to rub leads to hair loss, reduced feed conversion efficiency, and unthriftiness.3 Milk production in heavily infested cattle can be reduced as much as 25 percent.4
Knowledge of the louse life cycle is important to ensure proper insecticidal management of a lice infestation. Lice, in contrast to other livestock pests, are permanent parasites that spend their entire lives on the host animal. Their spread within the herd depends on cow-to-cow contact. Female lice attach their eggs to cattle hairs with a glue-like substance to make sure they stay put. The eggs hatch within approximately 10 to 14 days, and a few short weeks later, the lice are fully developed.3 Their shells, which are strong and thick, help them survive insecticides.4
Lice may be small (<1/8 inch), but they make up for their size in sheer quantity. Lice persist on a few reservoir animals, and peak population usually occurs in cooler months.4 And though winter's reduced light intensity may contribute to lice amounts, nutrition, weather patterns, and animals' overall immune system responses are also significant.5
Smaller still are mange mites, almost invisible to the naked eye. Mange mites, like lice, are permanent external parasites that spend their entire life on the animal and, depending on direct contact, with infested carriers. There are two economically important mites that affect dairy cattle – Chorioptes spp. and Sarcoptes spp. You have no doubt seen dairy cows with scabbiness and hair loss around the tail head, feet, and legs. That is the work of the Chorioptes mite. These mites live on the surface of the cow's skin, causing inflammation and irritation, and then feeding on lymph and dead cells. Populations of mites usually increase with cooler weather, and high levels in dairy herds can reduce milk production.3 The results of a Chorioptic mange trial showed an increased milk yield of 3.3 lbs. per cow, per day, after whole herd treatment.6
Skin lesions caused by Sarcoptes are so severe that infestation with this mite is considered a reportable and quarantinable disease. These lesions are the result of an animal's immune reaction as the mites burrow deeply into the skin. It only takes a few mites to cause intense itching, hair loss and scabbing. This mange may first appear around the tail, udder, legs and feet, but can eventually cover the cow's entire body.3 In a Sarcoptic mange study, the results showed increased milk production of nearly 4.4 lbs. per cow, per day, after whole herd treatment.7
Because they are so small and inconspicuous, lice and mange mites may be out of sight and out of mind until cattle start showing characteristic signs of infestation, such as itching, hair loss and scabbing. By this time, populations of these parasites are well above economic injury levels in the herd, and successful treatment cannot only be more difficult, but also more urgent.3 Prevention and treatment protocols should be in place to avoid reaching this point.
First, try not to bring new animals into the herd that may be infected. Closely inspect new purchases and pass on cattle with suspicious skin lesions. If new cattle are brought in, fully treat and quarantine before mixing them with the rest of the herd. Closely monitor the herd for early signs of lice or mange. Choose timely, whole-herd treatments to prevent buildup of external parasite numbers. Even at low levels, lice and intestinal nematodes can combine to decrease weight gain by more than 8 percent.5
The ideal treatment product should:
Controlling external parasites fits into the big picture of cow comfort, and cow comfort pays big in many ways. But this time, think small.
About Merial
Merial is a world-leading, innovation-driven animal health company, providing a comprehensive range of products to enhance the health and well-being of a wide range of animals. Merial employs 6,100 people and operates in more than 150 countries worldwide with more than €2 billion of sales in 2014.
Merial is a Sanofi company.
For more information, please see www.merial.com.
©2015 Merial, Inc., Duluth, GA. All rights reserved. RUMILGN1586 (09/15)
1Grant R. Economic Benefits of Improved Cow Comfort. NOVUS, William H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute. Rev 2013. Available at: http://www.dairychallenge.org/ne_event.php. Accessed September 9, 2015.
2Walker J, Golab GC. What?! Animal Welfare? & Why Now?. Available at: www.agweb.com/assets/1/6/Why_Welfare_Why_Now_JW_GCG_DBA_Meeting.pdf. Accessed September 9, 2015.
3Rutz D, Geden CJ. Pest Management Recommendation for Dairy Cattle.
A Cornell and Penn State Cooperative Extension Publication. 2010;1-12.
4Youngman R. Now Is The Winter Of Our Discontent: Well, At Least Where Cattle And Lice Are Concerned. Virginia Cooperative Extension Livestock Update. 2001.
5Townsend L. Lice on Beef and Dairy Cattle. University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. 2000. Bulletin no. ENTFACT512.
6Schönberg J, Ilchmann G, Schein E. Eradication of Chorioptic Mange in a Grazing Dairy Herd With Eprinex Pour-On. Berl. Münch. Tieräztle. Wschr. 2000;113:144-148.
7Watson CL, Forbes AB. An Outbreak of Sarcoptic Mange in Dairy Cows. UK Vet Livestock. 2000:5(4):48-50.
8Currin J. Lice in Dairy Cattle. Virginia Cooperative Extension Dairy Pipeline. 2008;29(1).
By Gene Boomer, manager, field technical services, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
A dairy heifer's future success depends on a great start beginning on day one. Early nutrition and its impact lay the foundation of performance later in life.
Results from a number of studies show that calves fed more nutrients up to eight weeks of age produced more milk during their first lactation—as much as 3,000 additional pounds compared to calves fed a more restricted diet during the same time period.1,2
Researchers at Cornell University have confirmed the effects of this higher plane of nutrition. According to their data the relationship between two factors—growth rate prior to weaning, and intake over maintenance and first lactation milk yield—are key. In addition, these are factors easily impacted by management decisions and actions.
Improved Gain = More Milk
The researchers discovered that for every 1 pound of average daily gain prior to weaning (or at least 42 to 56 days of age), the heifers produced between 800 and 1,500 pounds more milk.1,2
They also learned that producers must account for energy needs beyond maintenance requirements during cold weather so that calves receive the nutrients needed for growth, not just the energy needed for body heat generation.
Data also suggest that the long-term milk response is related to protein synthesis. That means a combination of energy intake above maintenance coupled with adequate metabolizable protein levels in the ration are essential to "switch on" an animal's signaling mechanism associated with long-term changes in productivity.
The Path to Success
When preweaning heifers get off to an optimum start, it makes it easier for producers to keep them on the right path toward a successful transition into the milking herd.
Proper nutrition at this next stage of development also is based on a sound nutrition foundation.
On the other hand, overfeeding energy in relation to metabolizable protein can result in overconditioned heifers that lack the appropriate stature and capacity. These heifers, too, often have difficulties in the transition period that result in lowered production or health challenges that result in early departure from the herd.
Opportunity to Improve
Once heifers are confirmed pregnant, they begin the journey toward lactation. Helping heifers prepare for their first lactation through proper nutrition and management is critical to successful navigation of their first transition and ensuring that heifers begin to generate income in a timely fashion.
While dairies have made strides in heifer nutrition, evidence suggests there is room to do an even better job in getting these animals through their first transition period and beyond.
According to data from the Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding:
Keep in mind the nutritional and management steps you took—or didn't take—nearly two years ago are having an impact at this stage of the animal's life.
Dairy producers and calf managers need to talk about metabolizable energy and protein intake and status relative to maintenance. Stop talking about bottles, buckets, pounds and grams of dry matter, milk and milk replacer.
Focus on managing calves and heifers so they get off to the best start possible—and then keep them on that path.
1 Soberon F, Van Amburgh ME. Lactation Biology Symposium: The effect of nutrient intake from milk or milk replacer of preweaned dairy calves on lactation milk yield as adults: a meta-analysis of current data. J Anim Sci. 2013;91:706-12. doi: 10.2527/jas.2012-5834.
2 Soberon F, Raffrenato E, Everett RW, Van Amburgh ME. Pre-weaning milk replacer intake and effects on long-term productivity of dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2012;95:783-93.
3 Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition Case Study. Available at: http://www.ahdairy.com/uploads/articles/FERMENTEN_CaseStudy.pdf. Accessed February 23, 2015.
4 Norman HD, Walton LM. Reasons that Cows in Dairy Herd Improvement programs exit the milking herd. Available at: https://www.cdcb.us/publish/dhi/current/cullall.html. Accessed March 5, 2015.
Know When to Breed Heifers
Remember that breeding timing should be based on size goals, not strict age requirements. That's because undersized heifers are usually less productive than those of optimum size when they reach the milking herd.
Depending on breed and individual herd dynamics, Holstein heifers should be about 51 inches at the hip, about 55 percent of their dam's mature bodyweight at breeding and about 82 to 85 percent of their dam's mature bodyweight at calving.
Accuracy is important when it comes to determining whether a heifer is big enough to breed.
If you don't have a weight tape or hipometer on hand, use a tape measure and mark where 51 inches is in relation to the height of your headlocks or feed lane. That way, you can tell at a glance whether heifers have reached an acceptable size to enter the breeding pen.
By Dr. Jeff Weyers, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition Technical Service Manager, Central Region
Many jobs must be done on a dairy each day. From properly milking the herd to ensuring newborn calves receive adequate levels of high-quality colostrum to grooming stalls and pens, every job is important. Success in each role depends on doing the right things at the right times to obtain desired outcomes that enhance the performance of the operation.
Unfortunately, this objective isn't always accomplished. For example, feeders sometimes evolve into "feed delivery guys" without fully understanding the importance of their job—but nothing could be further from the truth.
A dairy depends on its nutrition program—it is the foundation for animal health, milk production, reproduction and overall dairy profitability. Cows must receive properly formulated diets of quality ingredients that are accurately and adequately mixed and delivered in a timely, precise fashion.
Whether helping to get a new feeder set in the right direction or reinforcing protocols to prevent procedural drift, consider the following factors to determine how you might improve feed management and delivery compliance on your dairy.
Education is Essential
The operations primed for success are those that treat training as an opportunity to achieve goals—for employees and the dairy. Building its employees' knowledge base and encouraging effective communication is the best thing a dairy can do. Confident and responsible employees troubleshoot issues more efficiently and keep your nutrition program running more smoothly and effectively than employees without these skills.
Regular, mandatory team meetings are effective as a springboard to improve understanding of protocols, troubleshooting and expectations. Keep these meetings short and focused. Emphasize learning and improving, not negativity or blaming. Continuing education should be an essential component of every part of your dairy business.
Define Bunk Management Protocols
Consider the following recommendations to include in your bunk management training and protocols:
Outline Mixer Management Protocols
The best feeders know their mixers inside and out and can spot potential issues before they occur. Help your team develop this level of understanding with the following hints:
Other than obvious mechanical issues, poor TMRs usually result from undermixing, so be sure your protocol includes adequate mixing time to ensure that feed ingredients are evenly distributed.
Outline feed delivery steps, too, including:
Specifically outline and continually inform employees about the importance of feeding protocols—and reinforce protocol adherence. This helps ensure consistent TMR content and delivery for optimal cow performance. And it offers teaching points to help bring new hires on board or assist with troubleshooting.
Feeders are much more than "feed delivery guys." Make sure they are a valued part of your dairy's team.
The Rumen Report
Three acidosis risk factors to consider in your fresh cow pen
Kevin Miller, PhD
Fresh cows have an inherently high demand for energy to support milk production. Feed intake and energy density of the diet determine how much energy we can provide her. After calving the cow's intake is typically low, but will increase rapidly during early lactation. There are several factors that restrict the amount high energy feedstuffs (grains) we can safely introduce to the fresh cow.
One of these factors is the risk of acidosis which we all know is a problem when feeding cows highly fermentable feedstuffs. Acidosis is a decrease in rumen pH due to accumulation of volatile fatty acids and lactic acid that negatively impacts fiber digestion, intake, health, and productivity of the cow. The following are 3 acidosis risk factors that should be considered when evaluating your fresh cow program.
Abrupt Diet Change
Abrupt diet changes can disrupt the balance of the rumen microbial populations. The classic case of this happening is when significant amounts of starches are abruptly introduced into the diet or a cow overconsumes a large amount of starches. Streptococcus bovis populations grow rapidly producing large amounts of volatile fatty acids and lactic acid. While lactic acid utilizing bacterial species such as Megasphaera elsdenii can't keep up with the lactic acid production leading to lactic acid accumulation.
Diet Fermentability
Diet fermentability is often associated with the amount of cereal grains in the diet and the extent of processing. Increasing the proportion of concentrates in the diet or the fermentability of the grains in the diet (grain processing) tends to increase milk production, but there becomes a point where further increases in diet fermentability may compromise the health of the cow in the long term. During the fresh period, intakes are increasing rapidly and the rumen microbial population is naive to these types of diets. When highly fermentable feeds are fed during this period it can add to the risk of succumbing to acidosis.
Bunk Management
Bunk management can greatly impact the feeding behavior of cows. Most dairies target a 5% daily feed refusal to insure maximum intake, however if refusals are not monitored closely it provides to opportunity for overconsumption. Feeding times and number of feedings per day can also alter a cow's feeding behavior. Variation in feeding times can cause cows to become hungry and overeat when feed is delivered later than normal. Increasing the number of times cows are fed daily tends to increase the number of meals consumed per day and decrease the size of each meal resulting in a more stable rumen environment.
Providing a quality well balanced diet and paying attention to details related to bunk management can greatly reduce the risk of acidosis in fresh cows. There is also an array of technologies available to help reduce the risk of acidosis and allow for feeding higher energy diets. Some ionophores have been shown to alter feeding patterns by decreasing meal size which reduces the risk of over consumption. Direct fed microbials have also been effective in helping to stabilize the rumen microbial population and preventing accumulation of lactic acid.
Allen, M. S. 2015. Starch availability, measurement and implications for ration formulation. Herd Health and Nutrition Conference. Liverpool, NY.
Krause, K. M. and G. R. Oetzel. 2006. Understanding and preventing subacute ruminal acidosis in dairy herds: A review. Anim. Feed. Sci. 126:215-236.
Dr. Kevin Miller, Director of Technical Services, MS Biotec
Dr. Kevin Miller plays a key role in supporting the sales and marketing team and is also involved in R&D as the Director of Technical Services at MS Biotec. Kevin received his MS and PhD in ruminant nutrition from Kansas State University where his research included developing a novel process for manufacturing low-moisture supplement blocks and utilizing Megasphaera elsdenii as a DFM for receiving and finishing cattle. As a graduate student, Kevin also managed the K-State research feedlot for 4 years and was involved with research related to growth promotion, nutrition, physiology, and health of cattle. He has presented research findings at international symposiums, national animal science meetings, producer meetings, and university events. Kevin is very passionate about the livestock business and enjoys working alongside nutritionists, veterinarians, and producers implementing new technologies to improve our industry.
Why one university is bringing efficient and humane dairy-cow handling techniques to the next generation of farmers.
Dr. Katharine F. Knowlton, The Colonel Horace E. Alphin Professor of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech
Calm, efficient and humane handling practices are the goal of nearly all dairy farmers, but finding employees that know how to carry this out is difficult and becoming more so. It seems that the demand for quality farm labor has always exceeded the supply and increased expectations for humane handling make this challenge even more difficult.
As a professor in a university dairy science department, one of my highest priorities is to help students identify, prepare for, and achieve their career goals, and most of our graduates want to work directly with cows. Nearly half of our students go on to careers managing dairies, and even the younger students are in strong demand as on-farm interns. Every grad has multiple good job offers.
Similarly, vet schools struggle to find students who can meet the academic standards and also have the experience working with food animals. We take seriously the need to prepare our pre-vet students be admitted to vet school and (more importantly) to be good vets! Even researchers and governmental agencies seeking graduate students are excited to see large animal handling experience on the resume of an academically strong candidate.
Clearly, the opportunities for new graduates with solid hands-on dairy experience are nearly limitless. As is true at most universities, however, an increasing proportion of our Virginia Tech Dairy Science majors are not from farms. The demand for students with significant on-farm experience far exceeds the supply.
As a faculty member, one of my (admittedly self-serving) goals is for my department to remain the go-to source of skilled herd managers, useful veterinarians, and top notch graduate students. To ensure that we're serving our students and the industry, we update and upgrade our curriculum annually. This past year one change we made was to add 5 day immersion workshops focused on humane and effective dairy handling to our course offerings.
The workshops we offer are adapted from the www.dairystockmanship.com program. This is based on established principles of animal behavior, and teaches efficient and humane handling of dairy cattle, with training focused as much on the cows as on the handlers.
Because of the nature of the information, we decided that an immersive, hands-on approach was needed. We offer students 5 day workshops, beginning each day with classroom discussion, and quickly transitioning to the barns, pens or fields. During the week the students also review published scientific articles and review papers covering key principles of applied animal behavior. Some students go further, using this workshop as a springboard for an undergraduate research or academic capstone project.
We pitched this course to three target audiences: Students with dairy experience who want to adopt and be certified in the latest cutting-edge training, students with modest dairy experience who want to climb to "certified" level, and students with no dairy experience who aspire to an entry-level on-farm internship. Students can choose to take the course the week before classes begin or the week after the semester ends.
The workshop we offered focused on how cattle learn and how to apply this information. We started in the calf pens, analyzing calf behavior and using that information to efficiently halter-train calves. While halter training isn't seen as a need on most commercial farms, it's a dramatic example for students of the power of reinforcement training for animal and handler. Taking a calf from the first fighting and flailing response to the halter and having that calf follow you wherever you lead just 60 minutes later – that's clear evidence that this approach is a game changer for the low-energy, safe and efficient handling of cattle. This is especially true for 4-H and youth programs.
Next we worked with groups of animals, again analyzing their behavior and using that information to sort out individual animals and to efficiently and quietly move the group from pen to pen and in free-stall environments. Later, we advanced to handling older heifers and at all key stages: dry cows, maternity pens, and fresh heifers learning about the milking parlor. Again and again, basic principles of animal learning followed by efficient application.
Student and employer response to this new course has been resoundingly positive: This training is needed and this format is effective. What students particularly like is the opportunity to connect academic concepts with immediate real-world application and practice.
In the larger picture I really believe that integration of humane management practices in all of our courses and learning opportunities is essential. When it comes to handling dairy cattle, consumers and dairy farmers share the same goal – for all human-animal interactions on the farm to be calm and efficient. Our industry needs a workforce trained to handle dairy cattle efficiently and humanely. The workshops we're offering our students will help create the calm, efficient, and yes, humane system of dairy herd management that producers want and our consumers expect.
Dr. Katharine F. Knowlton is the Colonel Horace E. Alphin Professor of Dairy Science at Virginia Tech University. Contact Knowlton at firstname.lastname@example.com or 540-231-5287.
Management tips to help you improve your herd's milk quality and your bottom line.
By Tom Lorenzen, Alltech On-farm specialist
2015 could be a challenging year to maintain profitability on the dairy. As Mike Hutjens, University of Illinois, stated in a recent press release, there are some "golden rules" when it comes to dairy nutrition that should never be broken, even when milk prices plummet.
When milk prices drop, it is also important to review dairy herd management. Milk quality starts from the top down. As owners and managers of your dairies, the quality of product leaving your farm is your responsibility.
These five management tips will help dairy producers improve their milk quality and their bottom line:
Automatic takeoffs need to be set to maximize end of milk settings and complement proper milking routines. The better the milking routine, the higher end of milk settings (shorter milking durations), which means cows spend less time in the holding area and parlor and have more time to eat, drink and lay down.
Post dipping of teats is important. Often dip is applied incorrectly and wasted. Teat dip use and price are often the largest expenditures, accounting for 18 to 47 percent of supply costs on dairies.
There are no "magic bullets" in producing quality milk. It is the "little things" that may not require a major investment to improve quality milk production in your herd. Remember: always do what is best for your cows and they will reward you!
For more information, visit www.alltech.com.
Science-based, safe and efficient dairy stockmanship is central to animal well-being programs on the farm.
Think for a minute – you walk into the barn, drive by the heifer pen, what do you want to see?
How's this for an idyllic image? Calm and confident workers guiding cows to do what they need cows to do; cows readily moving from pen to parlor; workers quickly and calmly separating animals from the herd when needed. No cows running, slipping, falling, balking, or charging, and none of the havoc and injury to animals or workers that can result.
When it comes to handling dairy cattle, consumers and dairy farmers actually share the same goal – for all human-animal interactions on the farm to be calm and efficient.
The ability to get cows and heifers to do what you want them to do isn't magic, isn't something available only to a gifted few "whisperers." Instead, using observations of behavior and of responses to stimulus, we can reinforce desired behavior in cows, and reduce undesired behaviors. We can train cows to do what we want them to do! Trained staff plus trained cows equals animal handling practices that will stand up to scrutiny.
Here is an example. Usually when we're moving calves, heifers, or cows, we want them to walk AWAY from us toward the destination – toward the gate, toward the parlor, toward the trailer. How can we make this happen? First, remember the escape zone principle – when you come too close to an animal, infringe on her escape zone, she'll likely attempt to flee. Also, with eyes positioned more to the side of their head, cows have excellent peripheral vision but can't see behind without turning their head. Like the driver of an 18-wheeler, cows have blind spots. If you can't see the cow's eye, she can't see you.
These seem obvious, and in some ways they are, but on the other hand, they're not. Like most of you, I grew up bringing cows in from pasture (or trying to, anyway) by walking behind them. For many cows, it worked fine, but there was always that "stupid" one who kept stopping and turning around. I'd come closer to get her turned around to follow the rest, and she'd bolt. How much time did I waste chasing "stupid" cows? More than I'd like to remember.
But really, who was the stupid one? The cow who sensed something was behind her that she couldn't see, and turned to observe it and perhaps identify it? Or the girl who expected the cow to ignore millennia of evolutionary development and instead "trust" me, and blindly follow the herd?
As Virginia Tech Dairy Science students recently learned from Dr. Don Höglund, educator with DairyStockmanship.com, a key principle in training animals is the concept of negative reinforcement, a concept easily misunderstood. Negative reinforcement is NOT punishing an animal when they do something "bad." Instead, the concept is to reinforce the desired behavior. An example will make this clear.
If you want one animal or a group of heifers to move forward a few steps, take a half a step back when they arrive at the intended spot. Notice – they'll stop and stay at the spot for a few to many seconds. Repeat this again to teach yourself about the value of negative reinforcement – move toward them (until you enter their escape zone) and they usually walk away from you to the next intended spot, and when they arrive as intended, then step back. It's not magic, it's negative reinforcement. You have reduced the handler stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior that just preceded the reduction of stimulus. Practice this enough and you'll become like a rheostat – able to micromanage cow behavior to start and stop them when YOU want them to.
Combine that with what you know of how cows see. Instead of driving her from behind (where she can't see you), zig zag behind her. Move to your left until you can see her left eye. She'll move forward to the right to get away from you. Calmly and steadily move to your right, moving forward at a 45 degree angle, until you can see her right eye. There she goes – away from you, and forward. Zig to the left, zag to the right. Zig, zag, zig, zag. See Figure 1.
This works with one cow, and it works with a group of cows. If one cow spins and gets behind you, let her go. For efficiency, you want to keep the herd moving forward toward the destination. After a bit, when the cow who spun has calmed, go back and get her. For larger groups, do this in handler pairs, synchronizing your movements with your partner. Do it in the calf pens repeatedly, and watch as those calves grow up to become cows in the habit of moving readily with the herd from pen to parlor.
There's obviously much more to dairy stockmanship training than this one technique, but the important thing is the value this training provides. In business terms, it's a value proposition.
Dairy handling education and on-farm training provides a safer, more efficient on-farm work environment for both man and animal. Farmers who've adopted this training report increased on-farm employee satisfaction, reduced injury rates for both cows AND employees. In fact, a consortium of large dairies in California reported that completing dairy stockmanship education and workshops cut their workers compensation bill in half in the year following training.
And, going back to the goals we share with our consumers, this training helps create the calm, efficient, and yes, humane system of dairy herd management that our consumers expect.
Dr. Katharine F. Knowlton is Colonel Horace E. Alphin Professor of Dairy Science at Virginia Tech University. Contact her at email@example.com.
Every sick day in the young dairy heifer takes its toll on future production. Here's how to minimize BRD sick days.
Sick days must be dealt with in any workplace. Though no one wishes illness upon anyone, sick days mean loss of production because the remaining workers sometimes must neglect their own post and cover for the no shows. Meanwhile, overall expenses continue or may even go up, and overall efficiency drops. Even after prolonged absences, there is still the expectation that the sick worker will be back to full productivity and efficiency upon return. Nevertheless, the attempt should be made to minimize the number of sick days.
But what if every day sick reduced the chances of ever coming back to full production? This is exactly the case when talking about illness in general – and BRD specifically – in replacement dairy heifers. Though obviously not in production yet, the job of the dairy calf is to achieve timely entry into the milking herd, prepared for a long and productive lactating life without excessive rearing costs. BRD represents a considerable concern due to the high economic and welfare costs accrued both in the time of sickness and in the future.1,2,3
It is easy for dairy producers to see the immediate costs of BRD, such as veterinary services, medication, labor and death loss.1,3 But there are less obvious and more ravaging long-term costs. BRD has negative effects on dairy heifer growth, age at first calving, dystocia, mortality, milk production in first lactation and lifetime profit.1,2,3
Every sick day in the young dairy heifer takes its toll on future production.1 So, how do you minimize BRD sick days?
Dairy producers can make meaningful improvements in calf health and performance by focusing on management interventions that reduce exposure to respiratory pathogens and improve the immune status of the calf.2,3 Strategic use of antimicrobials for control (prevention) or as a treatment after early detection has also been recommended as a tool to reduce sick days in calves.1
BRD is often observed following the first movement to group housing after weaning.2 Studies have shown treatment of calves with the appropriate antimicrobial at this first movement significantly reduces the incidence of BRD in the subsequent 60 days.1 These calves grew better, were more likely to survive to first lactation, were younger at first calving and were less likely to have calving difficulty.1 Calves with no BRD reported within 60 days after this control therapy also produced more milk on the first test day after calving.1
Producers should work with their veterinarian to help minimize BRD risk factors, determine the threatening pathogens and develop appropriate prevention and treatment protocols. Taking these management measures can help minimize the detrimental consequences of BRD.
©2015 Merial, Inc., Duluth, GA. All rights reserved. RUMILGN1526 (03/15)
1Stanton AL, Kelton DF, Leblanc SJ, Wormuth J, Leslie KE. The effect of respiratory disease and a preventative antibiotic treatment on growth, survival, age at first calving, and milk production of dairy heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 2012;95:4950–4960.
2McGuirk S, Ruegg P. Calf Diseases and Prevention, University of Wisconsin-Madison Publication, Available at http://www.milkquality.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/calf-diseases-and-prevention.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2015.
3Leslie K. Health and Immune Function of Dairy Calves. Western Canadian Dairy Seminar Advances in Dairy Technology. 2012;24:177-188.
These management practices can prevent acidosis, helping the cow and her rumen microbial population advance smoothly through the transition period.
By Kevin Miller, PhD, MSBiotec
During the transition period, the rumen of the dairy cow is changing in terms of volume, physiology, and microbial population.
In the three weeks prior to calving, fetal growth is rapid and a large portion of the abdominal cavity is occupied by the fetus, resulting in a reduction in rumen capacity, which is partially responsible for the decrease in DMI often observed as calving approaches.
Following parturition, the cow's rumen capacity is no longer restricted by the fetus and she has a huge increase in energy demand for milk production. In addition, cows are typically put on high energy diets containing significant quantities of cereal grains following calving due to the increase in nutrient demand.
The combination of rapidly increasing DMI and a change in diet puts the cow at risk of acidosis. Acidosis is a decrease in rumen pH that is caused by excessive or rapid production of volatile fatty acids and lactic acid, which are products of rumen fermentation. The decrease in rumen pH hinders fiber digestion, reduces dry matter intake, decreases milk production, and puts the cow at higher risk of other fresh cow disorders.
Just as the cow is going through changes during the transition period, the rumen microbial population is also changing. The introduction of the fresh cow diet typically means a greater quantity of starches and sugars will be fed, requiring a shift in the rumen microbial population to facilitate fermentation of these feedstuffs. As the microbial populations begin to adapt, there is risk of an unbalanced shift which can result in acidosis. These unbalanced shifts are often associated with changes in diet composition, excessive intake such as slug feeding, or sorting resulting in overconsumption of starches and sugars. In these cases where large quantities of readily fermentable feeds are available, opportunist microbes grow rapidly and produce acids that decrease pH and inhibit other microbes, particularly fiber fermenting microbes. The decrease in pH also favors the production of lactic acid, which is as strong acid that further decreases rumen pH.
There are several management practices that can be used to help the cow and the rumen microbial population make this transition smoothly. Providing a properly formulated diet that is well mixed, along with preventing long periods of time away from the bunk (milking), will aid in preventing slug feeding and sorting.
Additionally, offering feed multiple times a day has been shown to decrease sorting and spread meals out more evenly over the course of the day. Overcrowding of pens, particularly in the fresh period, will lead to slug feeding and should be avoided whenever possible. Making sure that fresh feed is available and cows are fed at a consistent time daily will also aid in preventing overconsumption.
Providing adequate effective fiber in the diet encourages chewing and rumination. Chewing and rumination produce saliva, which is a buffer that helps maintain a stable rumen pH. Ionophores can also be used to alter the rumen microbial population to improve feed efficiency; and some have been shown to alter feeding patterns resulting in smaller meal sizes. Direct fed microbials are often used during the transition period to provide desirable populations of microbes or stimulate growth of desirable microbial populations.
The transition period sets the scene for the cow's milk production for the remainder of her lactation; and her ability to make it through the transition period smoothly decreases her risk of being culled. Acidosis is a problem during the transition period and can decrease performance and increase the risk of succumbing to other disorders in the transition period. This means that making sound management decisions during the transition period will pay dividends on the entire lactation.
DeVries, T. J. 2010. Feeding behavior, feed selection and risk of digestive problems in dairy cattle. 21st Annual Florida Ruminant Nutrition Symposium. Gainesville, Florida. Pg 50-59.
Owens, F. N., D. S. Secrist, W. J. Hill, D. R. Gill. 1998. Acidosis in cattle: A review. J. Anim. Sci. 1:275-286.
RAGFAR. 2007. Ruminal acidosis – understandings, prevention and treatment. A review for veterinarians and nutritional professionals. Australian Veterinary Association: Qld.
Dr. Kevin Miller plays a key role in supporting the sales and marketing team and is also involved in R&D as the Director of Technical Services at MS Biotec. Kevin received his MS and PhD in ruminant nutrition from Kansas State University where his research included developing a novel process for manufacturing low-moisture supplement blocks and utilizing Megasphaera elsdenii as a DFM for receiving and finishing cattle. As a graduate student, Kevin also managed the K-State research feedlot for 4 years and was involved with research related to growth promotion, nutrition, physiology, and health of cattle. He has presented research findings at international symposiums, national animal science meetings, producer meetings, and university events. Kevin is very passionate about the livestock industry and enjoys working alongside nutritionists, veterinarians, and producers implementing new technologies to improve our industry.
By Dr. Joel Pankowski, manager, field services, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
Cows with subclinical hypocalcaemia (SCH) are rarely easy to identify. Yet this invisible health challenge causes serious issues on dairies.
Cows with SCH do not show clinical symptoms, but have a low blood concentration of calcium below a still-undefined critical threshold. This level has not yet fallen low enough to cause clinical milk fever, but it's low enough to cause health and production challenges for the cow.
SCH impacts a significant number of cows in herds all across the country. The National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) estimates as many as 54% of multiparous cows and 25% of first-calf heifers succumb to SCH, even though clinical cases of hypocalcaemia are much lower overall and almost absent from first-calf heifers.
An even bigger issue is that SCH negatively affects immune function, production performance and reproductive function. It also increases the risk for postpartum metabolic diseases. Therefore, it's critical that you take steps to reduce the risk of SCH within your herd and address underlying causes to protect animal performance and your dairy's profitability.
Manage for Improvement
There are a couple of fundamental practices that you should implement to minimize incidence of SCH. These include:
Remember that the benefit of carefully formulated, negative DCAD close-up diets relies on cows consuming this diet—and consuming it for an adequate amount of time. (Learn more about time spent on prefresh diets here.)
Management factors including stocking density, cow comfort, bunk space, water quality and availability, and heat abatement will all impact ration effectiveness—and can impact SCH incidence in your herd. Take measures to ensure that cows are not limited by any of these considerations.
To learn more, visit transition.ahdairy.com.
By Dr. Liz Adams, Dairy Technical Service Veterinarian, Merck Animal Health
The responsibility of care of a newborn calf begins as soon as it is born. Feeding clean, high-quality colostrum to newborn calves is important to ensure their health and future as a productive animal. Heifer calves are the future of a dairy operation, and fed bull calves will be a significant contribution to the beef market. When formulating a colostrum protocol for your dairy, it is important to include newborn bull and heifer calves.
Newborn calves are vulnerable to disease pathogens in their environment because their immune systems are naive and no transfer of maternal antibodies occurred in utero. The first feeding of colostrum gives the calf antibodies for immune protection. To give a calf the best potential for success, feed it clean, high-quality colostrum within the first two hours of birth.
Warmed colostrum should be fed as soon as possible after the calf is born. If colostrum is stored frozen or refrigerated, it is important that it is gently warmed to 105 degrees Fahrenheit before being fed. Hot water on a dairy can often come out at 160 degrees Fahrenheit, and heating colostrum rapidly at these high temperatures can damage the antibody proteins in the colostrum. The timing of colostrum feeding is important because a calf's ability to absorb antibodies into the bloodstream decreases rapidly after birth. Within six hours of calving, the ability of the gut walls to absorb immunoglobulins decreases by approximately 30 percent.
High-quality colostrum refers to colostrum that has high levels of maternal antibodies. This is accomplished by milking the colostrum from the cow soon after she gives birth and by vaccinating the dam with a scours vaccine while she is pregnant. Viruses are a common cause of calfhood scours, and antibiotics are not an option for treatment of viral scours. High-quality colostrum from animals that have been vaccinated has a better chance at combating the challenges of viral scours.
Work with your veterinarian to develop a vaccination program that fits your management program.
Other tips to help you get the most from colostrum include:
Guardian® is a registered trademark of Intervet Inc.
Dr. Liz Adams is a graduate of the University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine. Dr. Adams is known for her work in using ultrasound technology and she also specializes in the use of microbiology diagnostics to evaluate milk quality. Prior to joining the company, Dr. Adams owned and operated an ambulatory dairy veterinary practice, as well as served as a veterinary consultant, providing herd health consultations on large dairies in Central Valley California. Learn more at www.merck-animal-health.com.
By Dr. Gene Boomer, manager, field technical services, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
When troubleshooting rations, it's not uncommon to find that transition cows and first-calf heifers do not receive rations as nutritionists and managers intended.
Prefresh rations are formulated to contain higher levels of protein, energy and minerals than far-off dry cow rations. The goal of these rations is to help cows prepare for lactation and maintain adequate body condition—without excessive weight gain—while providing essential nutrients at the proper level.
When it comes to energy, for instance, it's important for prefresh rations to not overfeed or underfeed energy, explains Heather Dann, research scientist at the William H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute in Chazy, N.Y. "The optimum range is from 100% to 110% of a cow's metabolizable energy requirement. The requirement is going to be affected by her environment and actual dry matter intake," Dann notes.
"It's a balancing act. If cows don't receive sufficient energy prior to calving, they experience more metabolic challenges after calving. But if cows consume excessive energy prior to calving they also experience more metabolic challenges after calving," she adds.
Pay Attention to Protein
Likewise, it's essential for these rations to contain adequate metabolizable protein (MP) levels. While cows always have an MP requirement, these needs ramp up about three to four weeks prior to calving.
Since MP supplies the amino acids the cows need for growth—to maintain body condition, udder development, fetal growth and support the immune systems of dam and fetus—it's critical that cows receive adequate levels, especially in the vulnerable transition period. Not only are the cow's needs increasing, but this is also the time frame when dry matter intake (DMI) decreases. This means many cows do not receive enough of this critical dietary component, especially those that do not receive prefresh diets for the necessary length of time.
It is also extremely important to ensure proper ration mixing and feed delivery to cows in the prefresh pens. This is one area where variation often is observed. However, if the prefresh ration is not mixed properly, cows will exhibit variation in intake of MP, which leads to health problems during the transition period and beyond.
Don't Skimp
The key to success is for cows to receive properly formulated, mixed and delivered prefresh rations for an adequate period of time. While it may be a struggle for operations with limited facilities to accomplish this objective, the benefits are worth the effort. A week to 10 days spent on the prefresh diet just isn't enough time to meet the animal's needs.
Data from 13,000 cows on five dairies found that feeding a transition diet for at least 21 days prepartum had a significant impact on cow health and metabolic disease incidence. The study1 examined varying lengths of time in the prefresh pen and found that cows that spent three weeks on the prefresh ration had the lowest incidence of milk fever, retained placentas and uterine infections.
Not surprisingly this 21-day time frame also is important when it comes to dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) levels, which should be -8 to -12 meq/100g ration dry matter. Precalving rations at this DCAD level have repeatedly shown to decrease incidence of clinical and subclinical hypocalcaemia—which positively influences postpartum health and performance.
An Australian study2 showed that when cows received a negative DCAD diet for 20 or more days prepartum, it increased peak milk by more than 7 pounds per day. Based on 305-day predicted milk, this would translate to 1,870 additional pounds of milk.
What This Means
It's easy to believe a week or so doesn't make a big difference to a transition cow. However, as research continually confirms, inadequate time spent on the prefresh diet sets cows up for multiple challenges after calving.
It is vital that you monitor and manage variation in days in the close-up pen, as well as monitor and manage feed mixing and delivery.
If current facilities do not make prefresh feeding an easy task, consider taking steps to modify your nutrition plan so that transition cows have access to the prefresh diet as long as possible.
If facilities do allow, but getting cows on the prefresh diet has not always been a priority, it's critical to make it one moving forward. Be sure to routinely monitor this time spent on the prefresh diet and ration variation over time to make sure your protocols stay on target and to ensure desired fresh cow performance. It will be time and effort well spent.
1 Corbett R. Data on file.
2 Lean IJ, Miller Webster TK, Hoover W, Chalupa W, Sniffin CJ, Evans E, Block E, Rabiee AR. Effects of BioChlor and Fermenten on Microbial Protein Synthesis in Continuous Culture Fermenters. J. Dairy Sci 2005;88:2524-2536.
By Dr. Glenn Holub, dairy technology manager, Phibro Animal Health Corporation
The traditional way to manage dry cow programs is being challenged. Most dairy programs have a 60-day dry-cow program with two unique rations for far-off and close-up periods. More and more producers are considering and transitioning to shorter, one-group programs of 40 to 42 days coupled with a negative dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) nutrition program. Consider the benefits of this approach:
Research has suggested that 30-day dry periods may reduce milk production, so dry periods of less than 40 days are not recommended. Research also has shown cows with shorter dry cow periods of 45 or 30 days had the same milk components and milk quality in the following lactation.
Housing considerations
Going from a two-group to a one-group dry-cow strategy provides the option to separate prepartum heifers from mature cows. By reducing social competition and allowing for better feed bunk access, heifers transition better when given the opportunity to consume more energy and produce more milk in the subsequent lactation.
Acidify the diet
The benefit-to-cost ratio of a short dry period is improved by feeding a negative DCAD diet, because transition diseases such as subclinical hypocalcemia, metritis, mastitis and ketosis may be reduced. This is especially true for cows that calve earlier than anticipated and are more vulnerable to the transition diseases.
A University of Georgia study published in 2014, demonstrated no adverse effects of feeding a negative DCAD diet for as long as six weeks prior to calving. In the study, no differences were observed in health or milk production whether cows were fed a negative DCAD ration for three, four or six weeks. In addition, serum calcium levels post-calving were similar in cows fed the negative DCAD diet for only three weeks or up to six weeks prior to calving. If cows do not calve as early as expected, benefits of the negative DCAD diet and calcium mobilization are still effective for a planned or unplanned longer dry period.
Recommended Guidelines for a Negative DCAD Diet
The combination of all of these benefits simplifies dry-cow feeding and provides an opportunity for a one-group dry cow DCAD program. A one-group dry-cow program helps reduce social stress of cows undergoing pen moves and ration changes. A negative DCAD diet also has been shown to reduce health problems observed during the transition period while increasing production during the lactation prior to the dry period.
Negative DCAD diets are proven to work. Shortened dry cow periods have many benefits. Combining the two can benefit the dairy in numerous ways and add to the bottom line.
Glenn Holub, Ph.D., PAS, is a dairy technology manager for Phibro Animal Health Corporation. He is a former animal science professor specializing in dairy cattle nutrition and can be contacted at email@example.com.
References omitted due to space, but are available by request.
This year's variable weather could put valuable stored corn silage at risk for mold and mycotoxins.
By Max Hawkins, Alltech
With temperatures reaching 50 degrees Fahrenheit one week and dipping to minus 2 the next week in the Midwest, it's not hard to believe that this year's variable weather could put valuable stored corn silage at risk for mold and mycotoxins. Furthermore, corn silage is at increased mycotoxin risk levels from harvest through late spring or early summer.
Since December 2012, corn silage samples received at the Analytical Services Laboratory of Alltech have been at high risk or above for dairy cows. The average number of mycotoxins per sample varies by year, but the Risk Equivalent Quantity (REQ) has increased due to the levels of mycotoxins present in corn silage. The REQ is an evaluation of the total toxicity of a given mycotoxin mixture based on the amount of individual mycotoxins in reference to Aflatoxin B1. The average REQ for 2014 corn silage was 276.
A survey of 59 North American corn silage samples from across the United States and Canada from September to November 2014 tested through Alltech's 37 TM mycotoxin analysis found an average 6.1 mycotoxins per sample. Scientific literature shows that, at a similar risk level, cows may produce 3.5 pounds (1.6 L)/milk/day less. Additionally, milk somatic cell count was shown to increase by 39 percent. With this loss of performance, the reduction in profitability per cow is an estimated decrease of $1.54/day.
Reductions in milk yield and rising SCC numbers may not be observable on a daily basis, but producers will notice the difference in production at the milk tank. Many times it is not an acute case that can be readily identified but a chronic situation associated with the ingestion of a low level of mycotoxins over an extended period of time. This results in a wide array of subclinical symptoms that slowly reduce performance, eat away at the producer's bottom line and compromise animal health.
The 37 survey sets the baseline for forage quality when producers start feeding the 2014 crop. The crop condition at harvest and the storage environment (temperature, oxygen, moisture) will determine if these levels rise during storage and increase the risk to cows. Weather stress, pest damage or delayed harvest often gives mycotoxin-producing molds a greater foothold in the plant. This brings not only increased mycotoxins with the crop, but also additional mold spores that can produce more mycotoxins while in storage.
Mycotoxin production in storage is dependent on packing density, oxygen exposure, face management and temperature. When corn silage is harvested drier, the ability to achieve proper packing density is decreased and results in poorer fermentation and greater oxygen exposure.
When dairy producers are looking to increase energy and raise the corn inclusion rate, they are also increasing the mycotoxin risk. The risk often increases during the spring months, especially for stored corn. Field stress on corn grain is the same as corn silage but the difference is that corn is subjected to risks more extensively as it remains in the field longer, exposed to greater amounts of rain and weather damage.
Also, it is a general rule of thumb that the later the harvest, the greater the risk. The 2014 crop was a record crop but it was forced to tolerate much cooler, wetter weather due to the prolonged harvest season. Much of the crop was also harvested at higher percent moisture, putting a greater emphasis on drying to ensure proper storage.
Furthermore, there was variation in percentage moisture within a field and when producers thought they had dried corn to 14 percent moisture, their range was more likely somewhere around 13-17 percent moisture in the bin. This additional moisture can easily provide the right environment for mold to flourish in pockets. Once mold begins to grow, it can produce enough moisture to sustain itself. Stored corn needs to be closely monitored with proper aeration employed when required.
There is a historical trend that mycotoxins increase over time during storage, and stored forages and grains need to be closely monitored for increased mycotoxins. Remember that what you feed today is not the same as what you fed yesterday and will be different from what you feed tomorrow.
Hawkins holds a Ph.D. in animal science from the University of Tennessee and currently serves as a nutritionist on the Alltech Mycotoxin Management Team. Contact him at email@example.com.
By Dr. Joel Pankowski, manager, Technical Services, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
"It sounds simple, but it's all about trust and communication," say Dr. Adam Ward, veterinarian with Prairie Veterinary Associates in Sun Prairie, Wis., and Todd Follendorf, an independent nutritionist based in Dane, Wis., when asked about working within successful management teams for dairy clients. Without trust and communication, Follendorf and Ward adamantly insist they would not be able to work as well together for the good of their dairy clients.
The duo doesn't wait for monthly management meetings to talk to each other about things they've seen or dealt with in mutual client herds. "We talk about potential problems before they become problems and try to get ahead of them," Ward explains.
Since Ward and Follendorf are not always at a dairy at the same time, this information exchange keeps them both up to speed regarding the ever-changing on-farm health- and nutrition-related conditions and influences.
Frequent Communication
"We probably talk two or three times a week," adds Follendorf. "We have a common goal—if the dairy does well, we do well, and we want to keep it that way. We understand that it doesn't do any good to point fingers."
Instead, Ward and Follendorf have made a concerted effort to extend this communication commitment to clients with the approach of: "Here's an issue we hope to solve for your dairy." And then they walk through the steps needed to do so. The analyses are not so much about who has the best solution, but rely rather on asking a lot of questions to help everyone on the dairy understand what's happening.
Missing Tools
When the veterinarian-nutritionist relationship is not as transparent, favorable results for the dairy are not as forthcoming.
"It ends up being an extremely frustrating experience—for me and for the client," says Ward. "It feels like I am missing tools in my toolbox to help them solve problems."
Words of Advice
Ward and Follendorf offer the following advice to build and maintain a positive professional veterinarian-nutritionist relationship:
Visit transition.ahdairy.com to hear more from Ward and Follendorf about what makes a good veterinarian-nutritionist relationship tick. Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition will help you navigate before, during and after, with the right resources and the right solutions at the right time. Together, we'll get the job done, always moving forward on a productive road ahead. To learn more about how the Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition team can help navigate the transition, visit transition.ahdairy.com.
A quick primer on how your milk-replacer feeding program affects rumen development, what tools you can use for this crucial growth phase and the economic benefits you can gain.
By Kevin Miller, Ph.D, MSBiotec
Proper rumen development is a key factor for successfully weaning calves. A calf is not able to efficiently utilize feed for maintenance and growth if the rumen is not adequately developed at weaning. This can cause a performance slump. Efforts to enhance rumen development can prevent this slump, and even allow for earlier weaning of calves, reducing your feed and labor cost.
Here are some questions to consider as you go about the important job of developing the rumen of your calves.
Q: How does my milk/milk replacer feeding program affect rumen development?
A conventional feeding program – one that limits the amount of milk or milk replacer given to calves daily – is designed to encourage calf starter intake and rumen development, allowing calves to be weaned as soon as possible. In contrast, feeding a higher plane of nutrition pre-weaning can decrease starter intake and slow rumen development because of the higher volume of liquid fed. The tradeoff is that this approach has been shown to enhance calf growth and milk production when these animals enter the milking herd.
Q: Does the composition of my calf starter impact rumen development?
Yes, highly palatable concentrate-based diets result in optimal rumen development. Both grain type and grain processing method impact the rate at which the rumen develops. Although forages stimulate the musculature and volume of the rumen, as well as help maintain papillae health, they may limit intake. Forages also have limited efficacy for stimulating papillae development. Therefore, limit or delay feeding forages until the rumen has reached adequate development, which occurs when the calf is consuming about 4-6 pounds of feed daily. Other dietary ingredients, such as molasses, may increase starter intake by increasing diet palatability and reducing dustiness of the diet.
By Dr. Elliot Block, Arm& Hammer Animal Nutrition Research Fellow
Subclinical hypocalcaemia (SCH) negatively affects immune function, production performance and reproductive function. It also increases the risk for postpartum metabolic diseases. Without question, reducing the risk of SCH within a herd is critical to protect animal performance and profitability.
The following questions and answers outline common misunderstandings about monitoring the disease and best practices that can be implemented, along with how you can reduce the incidence through proper ration formulation.
How prevalent is SCH?
The National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) estimates as many as 54% of multiparous cows and 25% of first-calf heifers succumb to SCH, even though clinical cases of hypocalcaemia, or milk fever, are much lower overall and almost absent from first-calf heifers.
What causes SCH?
SCH occurs within the first 24 to 48 hours postpartum with the initiation of lactation when blood calcium (Ca) levels fall below a still-undefined critical threshold, but have not yet fallen low enough to cause clinical milk fever. The drop in blood Ca is caused by the inability of the animal to respond to Ca demand due to sudden onset of lactation and the demand for Ca to be put into colostrum.
What fundamental practices should be in place first to assist with SCH monitoring and reduce its risk?
There are three fundamental practices that should be implemented on the dairy. Forage wet chemistry analysis and urine pH testing are proven practices for timely, cost-effective monitoring.
Target urine pH levels for the following:
Learn more about how to properly monitor and prevent SCH.
By Gene Goenner, Alltech Territory Sales Manager
As winter begins to set in across the United States, many farmers will need to start thinking about their animals' nutritional requirements. Plummeting winter temperatures may send many dairy operations reconsidering their winter survival tactics and preparing for disease challenges that can come with the change of the seasons.
One challenge that can often show up in dairy herds during this time is winter dysentery. Occurring from early fall through late spring, winter dysentery is characterized by the sudden onset of diarrhea and can affect 15 percent or more of the herd. Fresh blood in the feces may be present, as well as dehydration, loss in body condition, respiratory issues like coughing and nasal discharge. A varying decline in milk production of 10 percent or greater is also noted.
Winter dysentery has a high rate of morbidity, but a low rate of mortality. Twenty to 50 percent of animals in the herd will exhibit clinical symptoms within the first few days and the rest of the herd within a week to 10 days.
The causative agent in winter dysentery is still unclear. However, Bovine coronavirus (BCV) has been cultured from the feces of affected animals, which is also a culprit in bouts of diarrhea and respiratory disease in young calves. Additionally, elevated BCV titers have been measured in afflicted herds. Ingestion of contaminated feed or water is the most common route of infection. Viral particles in the respiratory secretions of affected animals can also exacerbate transmission.
Clinical symptoms of winter dysentery typically subside within two weeks of onset. However, the time to recover the loss in body condition and milk production can take months. Thus, financial ramifications of an outbreak of winter dysentery can be severe. Recovered animals appear to be immune from the disease from one to five years, but carrier animals can be a source of repeated outbreaks.
The first step in managing the disease is to stop the cycle. It is also recommended to caution access to outside visitors during an outbreak of winter dysentery. Controlling the movement patterns of cattle and people on the farm can be beneficial, as well as having farm employees working with cattle change out of soiled clothes and sanitize boots as often as necessary for their particular job.
Eliminating manure contamination in water, feed, feed bunks, and feeding equipment is also critical in avoiding transmission of this virus.
Besides management practices, producers may also want to consider their nutritional programs in assisting the herd to get through an outbreak with less stress. Alternative non-antimicrobial products such as direct-fed microbials and/or mannan oligosaccharides (Bio-Mos®) have shown some benefits in improving the animal's balance of intestinal bacteria (International Dairy Topics Vol. 4 No. 3, 2005). Direct-fed microbials and mannan oligosaccharides can help to maintain healthy immune systems in dairy and efficient nutrient transfer from cow to calf.
Palatable feed and fresh water should be available at all times, and in severely affected cattle, fluid therapy should be administered. Currently, there are no vaccines for BCV.
In most cases, affected cattle recover spontaneously. However, measures such as proper hygiene, constant awareness, quarantining of new animals, and certified testing remain important and should continue to be used on the farm to help in preventing and treating potential outbreaks.
To learn more about maintaining herd health this winter, please find us at Alltech.com.
By Dr. Elliot Block, Research Fellow, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition and Dr. Gene Boomer, Manager, Field Technical Services, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
Two studies presented at the 2014 American Dairy Science Association Annual Meeting offer compelling evidence of dietary cation anion difference (DCAD) influence on lactating cow performance and health. The data also show that many dairies currently feed rations with insufficient DCAD levels—and are missing opportunities to positively impact productivity and profitability.
DCAD History
A University of Maryland meta-analysis1 looked at data from 1965 through 2011 to determine if there are production responses to DCAD over a wide range of studies.
The researchers examined hundreds of treatments across 44 studies that had been conducted over a long period of time—essentially performing a reanalysis.
Results of this analysis showed a linear response (P<0.001) to increasing DCAD levels for a number of important production parameters. For example, each 10-point increase in DCAD [(Na K) – (Cl S)] increased:
It's currently unknown if there is an upper limit to DCAD's impact. However, the results indicate that a significant number of dairies are missing an opportunity by not increasing DCAD levels, especially in early lactation.
"We have a lot of data to support higher ration DCAD levels and also can conclude that the amount of feed additives used to influence DCAD are likely being fed at insufficient levels in most cases," explains Dr. Rich Erdman, University of Maryland professor of animal science. "We don't know that there's an upper limit at this point, but most herds can increase lactating cow ration DCAD levels as an opportunity to increase milk fat production, for example."
Feed Efficiency and DCAD
The University of Maryland researchers also conducted follow-up research2 to 2013 data to determine the optimal dietary DCAD level needed to maximize lactating cow feed efficiency.
They found:
The researchers concluded that DCAD can be used to increase feed efficiency to help dairy producers reduce feed costs and improve profitability. In other words, DCAD should not be a fixed number for all stages of lactation.
Both studies strongly support feeding lactating cow rations with higher levels of DCAD. "Increasing postpartum ration DCAD levels has a tremendous amount of upside potential that's not being taken advantage of on many farms," concludes Erdman. "Look at it as an opportunity to increase cow productivity rather than just a tool to prevent losses."
1 Iwaniuk ME, Erdman RA. Intake, milk production, ruminal and feed efficiency responses to DCAD in lactating dairy cows. American Dairy Science Association Abstract # M139.
2 Weidman A, Iwaniuk ME, Erdman RA. Potassium carbonate as a cation supplement to increase dietary cation anion difference and improve dairy feed efficiency in lactating dairy cows. American Dairy Science Association Abstract # W336.
3 Data on file. Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition. DCAD Nutrition for Dairy Cattle Research Summary. PC 2063-1003, 2010.
By Linda Tikofsky, Boehringer Ingelheim
A growing number of farms whose local veterinarians do not offer milk culturing services are bringing microbiology in house. On-farm milk culturing (OFMC) can be an effective option for a farm seeking to make treatment decisions sooner, save money, and determine what mastitis-causing pathogens are being dealt with.
Culturing must be approached scientifically in a clean, careful environment. Each farm should designate the culturing responsibility to one member of the farm's staff who is given time in their work day to complete necessary lab work.
Getting started
At the most basic level, OFMC will allow you to determine if the pathogens causing mastitis are gram positive or gram negative. In other words, should I use an intramammary antibiotic treatment or can I opt to allow the cow to attempt to eliminate the infection herself?
If you believe that OFMC may be right for you, several commercially offered systems are available. A local veterinarian or extension employee could be a great resource for finding the proper equipment. Culture plates containing growth media or agar are an essential tool. For beginners, a bi-plate is a simple place to start. These plates contain a divider with two different types of growth medium on either side.
Each section of the plate is then swabbed with the milk sample that has been collected appropriately. After 24 hours of incubation, you can identify if the mastitis is gram-negative or gram-positive based upon the bacterial growth pattern. It is important to remember, though, when no growth occurs there could be other organisms present such as mycoplasma – a much more serious mastitis issue. Therefore, OFMC should never fully replace a high-quality off-farm laboratory.
Targeted treatment
Training manuals are available to assist you in reading the results of cultures. However, hands-on training may be a simpler way to learn. Contact local extension personnel, a local milk quality lab, or your farm's veterinarian to see if they are available to provide some training.
In the case of gram positive growth, treatment using intramammary antibiotics (mastitis tubes) will provide the most effective, quickest therapy. Infections caused by gram negative pathogens on the other hand, have a high rate of spontaneous cure and most antibiotics have limited efficacy against these pathogens.1
For clinical cases of mastitis, making an educated treatment decision 24 hours after detection can make a difference in cow health, treatment costs, and milk discarded.
Culture outcomes should be shared with your veterinarian to develop treatment protocols for your farm. These outcomes may also be compared to the product label to make the most informed targeted treatment.
With targeted treatment, the goal is a better response to treatment of infections caused by gram positive pathogens like staphylococci (staph) and some environmental streps. A recent study looked at the cost effectiveness of using on-farm culturing to identify and treat only gram positive infections. The 189 cases, after accounting for all costs, resulted in a net income of about $3,342 per month.2 With many cases of mastitis caused by gram negative pathogens, the cow will clear the infection on her own without antibiotics. Research has shown that 50 to 60 percent of clinical milk samples would earn a "no treatment" decision because they are negative for bacteria or it is a gram negative pathogen.3
At the end of the day, the information provided by on-farm culturing means producers can save money and increase the odds of a full cure on first treatment. Successful treatment the first time will put a cow back in the tank faster, and milk discarded will be minimized.
Linda Tikofsky is a Professional Services Veterinarian with Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc. She is based in Ithaca, N.Y.
1Neeser NL, Hueston WD, Godden SM: Evaluation of the use of an on-farm system for bacteriologic culture of milk from cows with low grade mastitis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 228:254-260, 2006.
2Pol M, Bearzi C, Maito J, Chaves J. On-farm culture: characteristics of the test in Proceedings. 48th Ann National Mastitis Council Meet 2009.
3Ruegg P, Godden S, Lago A, Bey R, Leslie K. On-farm culturing for better milk quality in Proceedings. Western Dairy Mgt Conf, 2010, 156.
By Shane St. Cyr, SCR Dairy Field Support Manager
You've carefully designed and outlined standard operating procedures (SOPs) on your dairy to ensure continuity of routine cow care and management. Not only do these SOPs help employees know what to do and when to do it, but they also support the consistency that animals crave.
Yet sometimes SOPs fail, or people do not follow them as they should.
What if you had a way to identify these challenges with SOP implementation before cow health challenges arise? Predictive technologies like activity and rumination monitoring can fulfill this need. This information helps pinpoint the sources of issues and enables dairies to address the "human factor" in protocol errors during the investigation process.
For more and more dairies, this actionable data from time-tested, proven leaders in this information-gathering realm has successfully supported and replaced more subjective measures of cow health and activity monitoring. Predictive information also helps target group and herd-wide health, nutrition, reproductive and feeding programs to keep them on track.
Establish Base Lines
The first step is to establish a baseline of cow performance. This is quickly determined by the system during the first week of technology adoption. Continuously recorded data builds a record for each animal, which can then be used to assess individual animal, group and herd performance.
Regardless, when rumination time deviates more than what's typical for a herd, group or cow, managers know it's time to check on what's going on within the operation.
Initiate Investigations and Interventions
While most cows spend about eight hours or so (450 – 550 minutes) ruminating each day, it's not the total number that's critically important to track. It's the variability in your herd's rumination time that should be monitored and used to assess potential challenges—and solutions. You can track individual animals, groups or pens and the entire herd to obtain a wide-scale view of what's happening on your operation.
When rumination variations occur outside your herd "norm" and you need to investigate the cause, begin with the easiest questions first. For instance, when exploring whether a nutrition challenge is causing an increase in health problems, ask:
Once you've addressed these angles, then it's time to explore areas like feed source consistency, ration ingredients, heat abatement, cow flow, grouping strategies and other feed and management-related factors.
Nutritionists who have used rumination data say the tool is one more way to help them keep track of what actually happens in cows, noting the information helps significantly shorten the lag time between when a nutritional problem crops up and when issues with health or performance are identified. The data can be used to isolate problems as far as 24 to 36 hours in advance of when physical symptoms appear or there is a drop in milk production.
The data also help identify opportunities to improve performance for specific groups.
For example, these charts show how much rumination, and ultimately cow health and productivity, can be improved by segregating first-lactation cows from older cows in the herd.
After regrouping, the first-lactation cows added more than an hour of rumination time as well as improving the rumination consistency within the group. The additional rumination time is important because rumination is critical for saliva production—which impacts the rumen's buffering capacity. For example, research1 shows that increasing rumination time by about two hours generates more than 9 gal. of saliva (equivalent to about 200 grams per day of bicarbonate) that the cow can use to better buffer the ration she receives.
Monitor Protocol Compliance
A Midwest dairy recently used rumination data to track down the sources of a strange pattern of variation.
The dairy maintained a strong nutrition program, which was overseen by a member of the farm's management team. Everyone who was part of the feeding program had been trained to follow established protocols and had been taught the reason these protocols were in place.
However, the herd experienced an unexplained dip in rumination time of about 75 minutes or so every Wednesday. The scenario went on for a number of weeks. Forages were tested, protocols examined and cow routines were checked for disruption, but no clear answers emerged.
Then one week, the primary feeder switched his day off from Wednesday to Thursday.
Herd rumination time remained steady on Wednesday. However, rumination time on Thursday took a 75-minute drop, then rose back to normal levels on Friday.
The problem wasn't with the forages or the cows or the protocols. It was slight changes in feeding techniques when the primary feeder was away from the dairy.
Despite training, procedural drift had crept in. Whether intentional or not, the relief feeder did things slightly differently from what occurred the other six days of the week. The differences could not be detected by looking at the ration, but they were enough to cause a rumination change.
The dairy re-emphasized to relief feeding personnel the importance of precise protocol compliance, and rumination levels remained steady regardless of who was mixing the feed. The dairy was able to demonstrate the importance of proper feeding management to key personnel and had proof as to the impact of small differences in procedures.
Support SOPs
Ultimately, the technology consistently measures cow rumination performance 24 hours a day, seven days a week so that users can interpret this information to take needed action and better manage all aspects of their herd.
Rumination monitoring data doesn't replace key personnel, but it can provide greater peace of mind and help everyone be more efficient with their time and resources while keeping SOPs effective.
1 Krawczel PD, Klaiber LB, Butzler RE, Klaiber LM, Dann HM, Mooney CS, Grant RJ. Short-term increases in stocking density affect the lying and social behavior, but not the productivity, of lactating Holstein dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 95:4298-4308. 2012.
By Tony Moravec, DVM, Merial Veterinary Services
I have never known an antibiotic to not work.
Before you splatter the ripe tomato intended for your cheeseburger on these words, consider that when treatments fail, we tend to blame one thing: the antibiotic.
Treating disease in cattle is much more complicated than that. We oversimplify and rarely see it for what it truly is. Set your cheeseburger down and consider the rest of the "stuff" impacting the outcomes that ultimately affect your animals, which are not only difficult to understand as a producer but also frustrating for your veterinarians. (See fig. 1 below - "Confusogram")
"Confusogram" by Mike Apley, DVM, PhD, ACVCP, Kansas State University, August 2014.
In vet school, we are taught that there are essentially three elements involved in disease outcome: the animal, the bug and the drug. Within these three elements, there is some other "stuff" that influences the outcome of disease.
The Animal
Have you checked the immune status of your lactating cows lately? How about those stressed newborns heading to the hutches? There is an immunological difference between these types of animals – based upon the individual animal – affecting treatment outcome. Has the animal had appropriate feed and water recently? Has there been a change in the acidity of the rumen – and consequently the blood – where the antibiotic may have to travel to treat disease? Changes in hydration status and acid/base status can affect how well an antibiotic may perform.
Are you the cow whisperer or Yosemite Sam of cattle handling? Many of us know that low-stress cattle handling can positively influence milk production, immune response and overall cattle health.
The Bug
So, does that coughing animal have Mannheimia or Mycoplasma? Is it a tough strain? What bug is responsible for the pinkeye or diarrhea in your herd? Too many times we treat, hope and wait, throwing perfectly good antibiotics – and time to treat the TRUE offending bug – out the window.
Where exactly is the bug? Is it in the feed, water or bedding? The manure, urine or blood? Or maybe it's in a walled-off abscess? What is the progression of the disease – mild or severe? Unfortunately, some cattle die. Having your local veterinarian do a site visit and necropsy may provide the diagnostics necessary to craft a treatment protocol to thwart ongoing disease caused by the identified bug.
The Drug
As mentioned, knowing the situation of the cattle and the bug are critical for the selection of the antibiotic. Knowledge is power. Such is true with other situations we face in life.
For example, in football, would you give the ball to the 250-pound running back if you knew you were inches from the end zone? What if his nickname is "Butterfingers" and he tends to fumble on big plays? Knowledge of the complete situation will directly affect your approach.
Knowing how the drugs work is critical, too. Some inhibit cell wall synthesis of the bug. Some are dose- and time-dependent. Some work best in the blood of the animal. Some work best in the fat, while some get hung up in the plasma or milk. This is why working with your local veterinarian is so critical.
In the End
Of all of the "stuff" in the "Confusogram" of disease outcome, the antibiotic is really the only factor that remains consistent from situation to situation. As a manufactured substance, it simply does not change from bottle to bottle. Applied to the right situation, antibiotics work!
Influencing better disease outcomes is a matter of gaining knowledge through collecting enough information – the RIGHT information – to judiciously use the appropriate product to keep our herds and our foods safe and healthy.
Safety and health – that's what we're all about as producers and veterinarians.
Now, back to that cheeseburger. . . .
Merial is a world-leading, innovation-driven animal health company, providing a comprehensive range of products to enhance the health, well-being and performance of a wide range of animals. Merial employs approximately 6,200 people and operates in more than 150 countries worldwide with close to €2 billion of sales in 2013. Merial is a Sanofi company. For more information, please see www.merial.com.
By Dr. Elliot Block, Research Fellow, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition and Dr. Ian Lean, Director, SBScibus
It's been repeatedly shown that lowering ration dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) prior to calving helps reduce the incidence of serious health challenges, including milk fever (clinical and subclinical), displaced abomasum and retained placenta. The practice also boosts immune function. As a result, milk component production and reproductive performance improve in the ensuing lactation, too.
Meanwhile, increased start-up milk and higher overall milk production as a result of lowered prepartum DCAD levels sometimes gets lost in the message.
Calcium's Influence
Reducing DCAD to negative values at least three weeks prior to calving has been shown by many researchers to prevent a rapid decline in blood calcium at calving.1
Failure to address blood calcium losses often leads to a surge of negative results, especially as cows get older. For example1:
In addition, subclinical hypocalcaemia, which may be as high as 66% for second-lactation and higher cows after calving, is a serious concern. Just as with clinical milk fever, subclinical low blood calcium often leads to low dry matter intake (DMI) after calving, dystocia, ketosis and retained placentas.
Meta-Analysis Results
A study from researchers in the United States and Australia reinforces the concept that healthy cows produce more milk. In work published in 2005, a meta-analysis2 focused on factors that affected milk fever. These factors were identified as:
When researchers recently dug further into the results, they found additional data that lent credence to the argument that healthy cows produce more milk.
In data presented at the 2014 American Dairy Science Association Annual Meeting in Kansas City, Missouri, researchers explored the milk production impact of feeding a negative DCAD diet for at least 21 days prepartum. The meta-analysis included 15 different studies and 34 comparisons.
The results were significant and showed:
At $22 per hundredweight (cwt), that equals $36 per cow gross profit. When multiplied by 1,000 cows, $36 becomes $36,000. Consider that when milk prices are not as high as $22 per cwt, the impact of start-up milk is of even greater economic importance to your bottom line.
Why is DCAD Important?
Clinical and subclinical hypocalcaemia is a multifactorial disease whose occurrence is not solely dependent on DCAD.
However, balancing prepartum rations for negative DCAD levels has a significant impact on blood calcium, incidence of disease challenges and metabolic disorders, and postpartum milk production, especially when higher fiber, reduced starch diets are fed. In trials that have measured postpartum milk production, cows in second lactation or higher produce more milk after being fed a prepartum diet with a negative DCAD whether milk fever occurred or not.3
Ultimately, it is in your best interest to incorporate negative DCAD into prepartum diets for at least 21 days before calving. The rewards—in improved cow health, improved milk production response and resulting financial performance—are worth the investment.
For the most effective DCAD formulation, dietary sodium and potassium should be reduced as much as is practically possible before adding supplemental anions.4 In order to avoid possible adverse effects of supplemental anions on dry matter intake while still achieving mild systemic acidosis, a DCAD of -8 to -12 mEq/100g is suggested.
Visit the Transition Hub to learn more about balancing rations for DCAD in the prefresh pen.
1 Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition. DCAD Nutrition for Dairy Cattle Research Summary. Available at: http://www.ahdairy.com/uploads/articles/DCAD_ResearchSummary.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2014.
2 Lean IJ, Miller Webster TK, Hoover W, Chalupa W, Sniffin CJ, Evans E, Block E, Rabiee AR. Effects of BioChlor and Fermenten on Microbial Protein Synthesis in Continuous Culture Fermenters. J Dairy Sci 2005;88:2524-2536.
3 Block E. Transition Cow Research – What Makes Sense Today? In Proceedings. 2010 High Plains Dairy Conference. Available at: http://www.highplainsdairy.org/2010/18_Block_Transition CowResearch_FINAL.pdf. Accessed August 6, 2014.
4 Shire JA, Beede DK. DCAD Revisited: Prepartum Use to Optimize Health and Lactational Performance. In Proceedings. 28th Annual Southwest Nutrition and Management Conference. Available at: http://www.cals.arizona.edu/ans/swnmc/Proceedings/FinalProceedings_2013.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2014.
By Dr. Dana Tomlinson, Research Nutritionist, Zinpro Corporation
Digital dermatitis (DD) affects the vast majority of U.S. dairy operations and is the most prevalent infectious claw lesion in intensively managed cattle operations worldwide. Also known as "Hairy Heel Warts," DD can cause painful lesions that often lead to lameness, which decreases milk production and reproductive performance of dairy cattle. With such a costly and wide-reaching effect on animal performance, it's no wonder that digital dermatitis is a serious concern for dairy producers.
Once introduced, this highly infectious disease spreads rapidly through the herd, so an integrated prevention and control strategy is essential to keeping the disease at a manageable level. Calves and heifers are often neglected in traditional DD prevention strategies, but this is often the key point in an animal's development where digital dermatitis can be prevented from occurring in the first place.
Early Prevention Is Critical
Digital dermatitis develops from multiple risk factors as a result of a weakening of the skin barrier, due to irritation and wet conditions. Poor hygiene results in mixed infection with multiple naturally occurring bacteria, among them Treponema species, in a low-oxygen environment.
Improving skin integrity and enhancing immune response in the presence of bacteria (including Treponema species) that cause DD can help provide a barrier of protection against the disease. One way to enhance disease resistance is to provide pre-calving heifers with an adequate supply of complexed trace minerals, which have been shown to play a critical role in maintaining skin integrity and boosting immune system response.
Based on the premise that cows and heifers with healthy skin on their feet should be able to better resist infection and/or heal more quickly once infected by bacteria, research was conducted at the University of Wisconsin to evaluate the potential effectiveness of a nutritional strategy to protect against DD.
Results from this recent research indicate that preventing DD lesions during the rearing period can have significant long-term benefits. Research results show that in 45 and 67 percent of cases, respectively, animals experiencing either one or multiple cases of DD between breeding and first calving had a DD case diagnosed during first lactation. In comparison, only 13 percent of animals experienced a DD lesion during the first lactation when they were kept DD disease-free between breeding and calving.
Additional Prevention, Treatment and Control Strategies
Footbaths (for prevention) and topical antibiotics (for treatment) are widely used in the fight against DD; however, each comes with its own set of challenges. Additional measures for controlling DD risk factors in cattle include implementing good hygiene, sound biosecurity practices, and understanding whether an animal suffers chronically from the disease or has a single occurrence.
The best way to control digital dermatitis outbreaks is by preventing them from occurring in the first place. From calves to heifers and lactating cows to dry cows, there is a need for an integrated strategy that manages risk factors to help control DD. This strategy should include the following:
• Biosecurity measures to prevent infected animals from being introduced into the herd.
• Regular inspection of hind feet.
• Identify M2 (painful, acute ulcer stage) lesions early and treat promptly.
• Keep records of lesions on animals for informed decision-making based on their history.
• Promote a clean, dry environment, and use footbaths as needed.
• Understand nutrition's role in helping to prevent digital dermatitis during all cattle phases, including heifers and young stock.
• Formulate diets for adequate nutrient and micronutrient fortification.
About the Author:
Dana Tomlinson, Ph.D., Research Nutritionist, Zinpro Corporation
Dr. Tomlinson has a doctorate degree in animal science, ruminant nutrition and management from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and is employed by Zinpro Corporation as a research nutritionist based in Virginia.
By Dr. Elliot Block, Research Fellow, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
Dairy producers and nutritionists are evaluating rations carefully these days. When doing so, their focus should be on developing rations that will promote efficient nutrient utilization and cow health and productivity while addressing opportunities for improving Income Over Feed Cost (IOFC).
Balancing rations for amino acid levels is one potential solution that's gaining in popularity.
What is it?
Amino acid balancing is a scientifically proven nutritional strategy of feeding limiting amino acids at optimal levels and ratios (approximately 7.5% lysine and 2.5% methionine as a percentage of metabolizable protein). When done correctly, it results in increased milk and component production, reduced dietary protein needs, more efficient nutrient utilization and economic benefits.
It is designed to better deliver the building blocks needed to efficiently synthesize protein, which is one of the most important nutrients in dairy cow diets since cows depend on protein for all bodily functions—from immune system regulation to growth and reproduction to milk and component production. In addition, the practice helps maintain peak performance and lessen a dairy's environmental impact.
When lysine and methionine are delivered properly, cows can more efficiently use dietary protein to increase productivity and health. This is where the opportunity to lower total dietary protein occurs and gives producers nutritional flexibility that can result in improved dairy financial performance.
How Low Can You Go?
The answer to this question relies on the herd's current total dietary protein levels and ration ingredients used. Many herds significantly overfeed protein in an attempt to ensure proper amino acid supplementation.
Herds that overfeed protein at higher levels will be able to reduce protein levels (more so than herds with lower dietary protein levels).
Decreasing total dietary protein is important for four key reasons.1 That's because overfeeding results in:
• Lowered lysine and methionine concentrations in metabolizable protein. Most sources of supplemental rumen undegradable protein contain low concentrations of lysine, methionine or both relative to optimal concentrations.
• Lowered milk production. Surplus rumen undegradable protein usually replaces dietary fermentable carbohydrates, the primary sources for milk component synthesis.
• A more expensive diet. Most sources of supplemental protein are more costly.
• Increased urinary and fecal nitrogen. This is due to lower conversions of feed protein to milk protein.
It's not unusual for producers to be able to successfully lower dietary crude protein levels by a full percentage point as long as lysine and methionine are fed at optimal levels. Even a half-percentage point reduction can be significant to financial and animal performance.
Keep in mind that as amino acids are delivered to the diet, production improvements may not be seen immediately. These protein building blocks may be needed first for greater growth or to reduce health concerns. However, as the diet approaches optimal levels of supplementation, improvements will appear in milk and component production levels.
New Tools
Today's advanced ration formulation software—with its focus on metabolizable protein (MP) rather than on crude protein—and better bypass lysine sources allow nutritionists to more precisely balance rations for optimal levels of amino acids.
For example, commodity sources rich in amino acids, like blood meal, are frequently used in the ration. But, research2 conducted at The Ohio State University demonstrates just how variable and inconsistent blood meal can be—the lysine content in each load was shown to be markedly different, making it impossible to ensure diets contained consistent, let alone optimal, levels. This matters for ration balancing as well as cow performance.
Commercial bypass lysine sources now available allow producers and nutritionists to consistently balance rations for optimal levels of amino acids. In short, these sources remove the guesswork associated with amino acid balancing. As a result, consistent lysine delivery to the cow's small intestine improves herd production performance and nutrient utilization. In turn, this aids a dairy's bottom line.
1 Schwab C. The Principles of Balancing Diets for Amino Acids and Their Impact on N Utilization Efficiency, 2012 Florida Nutrition Symposium. Available at: http://dairy.ifas.ufl.edu/rns/2012/1SchwabRNS2012.pdf Accessed June 28, 2012.
2 Boucher SE. Challenges of Predicting Metabolizable Lysine Content of Ingredients, in Proceedings. Cornell Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufacturers 2009;16-27.
You can reach Dr. Block at firstname.lastname@example.com. For more information, visit http://transition.ahdairy.com/.
By Dr. Liz Adams, Technical Service Veterinarian, Merck Animal Health
Ever have a non-ag person ask you why a dairy cow is so skinny? My answer is that she is not skinny; she has the body of an Olympic athlete. Then I ask the person to think about the body of a long- distance runner. That is the body of a dairy cow. We require our cows to perform like Olympic athletes.
To perform this well, we need the cow to be in her top condition and this begins when she is a calf. The rate-limiting organ in a calf the first year of life is her lung. This means that if she doesn't have full use of her lung volume, such as what happens with pneumonia, then she will not grow or perform as well compared to her herd mates with healthy lungs.
Compared to a horse, an adult resting dairy cow has 30 percent of the physical lung volume but uses 250 percent more oxygen. Just ruminating and making milk requires a great deal of energy, and a cow will maximize lung capacity even though she is not running in a race. A cow does not have any reserve lung capacity to spare. If we want her to perform at her peak, then we need to ensure that she has the best feed and water, the necessary rest and the lung volume capacity to do the job.
This is where calf lung ultrasound has become a great tool for veterinarians and producers. With an ultrasound, you are able to visualize the lungs and any damage from pneumonia in real time, on-farm and in a live animal. With the same probe that is used for transrectal pregnancy diagnosis and fetal sexing, the lungs can be visualized.
Diseased lung from current or previous pneumonia can be easily distinguished from healthy lung. The ultrasound eliminates guesswork for veterinarians and producers when they need an accurate snapshot of what the state of respiratory disease is on their farm.
Questions that can potentially be answered are:
• How well is my calf doctor diagnosing pneumonia?
• How well are treatments working?
• How well is my transition program working?
• How well are my vaccines and prevention programs working?
The ultrasound can be applied to an individual animal or a group animal setting. On an individual animal, we want to know if more should be invested in treatment for the animal or if she is suited to stay in the herd. On a group basis, animals can be scanned after a period of stress or transition to monitor respiratory health based on objective ultrasound images, as opposed to treatment records that can be subjective or entirely missing.
For the busy veterinarian, lung ultrasound allows him or her to gain knowledge of the respiratory state of an operation in one visit. With ultrasound, the veterinarian can monitor the prevalence and incidence of calf pneumonia on an operation to make a final diagnosis. Both sides of the thorax are scanned, and the lung, from in front of the heart back to the diaphragm, can be visualized. Free fluid or effusion, fibrin and abscesses also can be seen with the ultrasound. After some practice, an entire exam can be performed in two minutes per calf.
Remember that adult cows are top-notch athletes and we expect them to perform at peak levels for at least 10 months of the year. We expect the same thing in our calves, as we want them to grow, come into puberty and never get sick.
Calfhood pneumonia can set a calf back on her growth as she battles the disease and lungs heal. Worst-case scenario is that the lungs never heal completely and she is later a fresh heifer with pneumonia that never makes it into the milking string. With the added tool of lung ultrasound, veterinarians and producers can work together to determine where the challenges are in an operation and monitor improvements and minimize procedural drift.
Dr. Liz Adams is a graduate of the University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine. Dr. Adams is known for her work in using ultrasound technology to assess lung damage that heifers may have experience from early bouts of pneumonia, as well as evaluate bovine pregnancies and fetal sexing. She also specializes in the use of microbiology diagnostics to evaluate milk quality. Learn more at www.merck-animal-health.com.
Genomic tests correlate well with heifers' milk production
By Cheryl Marti, senior marketing manager, U.S. Dairy Genetics and Reproductives, Zoetis
The availability of commercial genomics testing came just at the right time for Larson Acres, Inc., of Evansville, Wis. "We doubled our herd size about three years ago to 2,800 cows," said Mike Larson, general manager. "Most of that growth came from purchased heifers, and we didn't have a lot of genetic information on them. Testing all of the heifer calves born to those purchased replacements allowed us to get a handle on their genetic status."
Heifer inventory analyzed
The results of that first round of testing showed that the purchased replacements did not match the genetic caliber of the Larsons' home-bred replacements. "In a way, I was glad to see that," said Larson. "We've invested a lot in our breeding program over the years, and I would have been disappointed if our own animals hadn't outperformed the purchased ones."
Today, Larson Acres continues to use genomic testing to strategically manage its replacement heifer inventory. Here's how:
With about 20 percent registered animals in the herd, Larson said genomic information has helped them manage that segment of animals more effectively. "We do a lot more ET work now because we have much more complete and reliable information on our registered females, and which ones will have the most marketable offspring," said Larson.
Reliable results, outstanding service
Now that the Larsons' earliest genomic-tested animals have entered the milking herd, Larson is impressed with the correlation between genomic data and actual performance of those heifers. "When this technology first became available, the jury was still out as to whether the results would be evident in actual animal performance," he said. "I'm pleased to say that they are. Especially in milk production, they correlate very closely. It's amazing and extremely helpful that we can evaluate calves at just a few months old and predict their future value to the herd."
To his fellow dairy producers who may be interested in adopting genomic testing, Larson advises a team approach for implementing genomic results. Members of that team may include the herd veterinarian, genetic advisor, nutritionist and a Zoetis representative. "Develop a plan ahead of time for how you're going to use the data," he said. "If you don't have a plan in place, it's not worth spending the money on the testing."
Larson said he values the advice and support he receives from the Zoetis team. They have developed a custom index of traits specific to Larson Acres' genetic goals, which can be easily adapted if those goals change over time. Zoetis representatives also visit the farm regularly to share additional information, such as how genomic results would correlate with parent averages.
"The CLARIFIDE® results give us so much more information, and it is considerably more reliable than the limited data we previously had available," said Larson. "We are going to be able to increase the genetic value of our herd quite rapidly now."
Learn more about genomic testing and hear from more dairy producers who are using it to maximize herd performance at DairyWellness.com/Repro.
All trademarks are the property of Zoetis Inc., its affiliates and/or licensors. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. ©2014 Zoetis Inc. All rights reserved. CLR_00018
Dairy cow feedstuffs contain many different proteins at various levels and quality. For years crude protein content was used for formulating dairy diets as one way to overcome this variability.
But crude protein has no relation to what is supplied to the animal that is useful for productive functions. Crude protein values only measure the nitrogen content of a feedstuff, which is the building block of proteins. It does not indicate if the nitrogen is an amino acid, non-protein nitrogen, the bioavailability or degradability of the nitrogen in the rumen, how much of the nitrogen escapes the rumen or if it is bound-nitrogen.1
In short, there is no dietary requirement for crude protein, yet this value still plays a significant role in dairy ration ingredient use and purchase decisions.
Crude protein is worth monitoring for a number of reasons, but it should no longer be the target value for ration balancing.
It is what's in the protein and its impact on the cow, rumen and/or bacterial output performance that really matters.
Protein Breakdown
A combination of rumen bypass protein, endogenous protein and bacterial protein reaches the intestine and is available for absorption. This is metabolizable protein—it is what the animal needs, and should be the protein basis used to formulate rations.
Metabolizable protein supplies the amino acids the cows need for growth, to maintain body condition, produce milk and support fetal growth. Metabolizable protein is defined as the true protein that is digested postruminally, along with its amino acid components that are absorbed by the small intestine. Absorbed amino acids are used for the synthesis of proteins, which are essential for an animal's growth, reproduction and milk production.
The Dairy National Research Council (2001) has suggested moving to a metabolizable protein system to better define and refine protein formulation and utilization, says Dr. Larry Chase, extension dairy nutrition specialist at Cornell University. "This system fits with the biology of the cow," he adds.
Stop Overfeeding Protein
Of utmost concern to dairy producers should be that when they base diets on crude protein, they are likely over- or underfeeding protein to cows. Either way, cows do not receive what they need.
For example, a ration may meet a cow's metabolizable protein needs at varying crude protein levels—you can meet needs at 15% crude protein and/or 18% crude protein depending on the ration and feedstuffs included.
Plus overfeeding protein results in cows excreting excessive nitrogen. This has environmental impacts for dairies in regard to the release of nitrogen and ammonia emissions—both of which are under increasing scrutiny.
Furthermore, when buying feedstuffs based on crude protein, producers are not being efficient with their feed dollars, as shown by the chart below.
As you can see, rations with similar crude protein levels can deliver vastly different metabolizable protein levels. Note that the values shown here are based on the increase in metabolizable protein predicted in CPM Dairy (v5.0) by adding one pound of each supplement to a high-producing cow's diet. Furthermore, it was assumed that the price per ton of soybean meal, FERMENTEN™, blood meal and canola were $500, $650, $1,000 and $375, respectively.
What's Stopping You?
Balancing rations based on metabolizable protein is increasing in the dairy industry, but not everyone is doing so yet.
The challenge is that this system is not as simple as it is with crude protein, and requires the use of ration balancing programs to calculate both metabolizable protein requirements and the metabolizable protein supplied by feeds and microbial protein synthesized in the rumen, explains Chase. Still, he says, the industry is changing to a metabolizable protein approach.
Successful implementation will require working more closely with nutritionists and other nutritional partners to determine the metabolizable protein value of feedstuffs under consideration for ration inclusion. It also means working with these partners during purchase decisions to help producers make the most economical decisions when determining which feed ingredients to buy.
Don't let this change in this relationship throw you. "This system should provide an opportunity to improve the efficiency of protein use in dairy cattle," Chase concludes. That improvement can have long-lasting impacts on your dairy's productivity and profitability.
1 Varga G. Why Use Metabolizable Protein for Ration Balancing. eXtension.org. Available at: http://www.extension.org/pages/26135/why-use-metabolizable-protein-for-ration-balancing#.UqDduZWA1dg. Accessed November 17, 2013.
By Tom Lorenzen, Alltech Dairy Specialist
Stop, look and listen to your cows. When was the last time you spent some time observing your herd in their freestalls? What did you hear and see?
Cows don't lie when it comes to how they prefer to lie down. Cows lying backwards are often turning away from stall features they dislike and pointing to open space needed for freedom of normal motion.
Cows lie in the stall in one of four normal resting positions: wide, narrow, short and long. The short resting position is where the cow can place her head next to her body. She can also groom herself while lying down. It's natural behavior to see a cow in the wide position, sunning herself in the pasture. In the freestall, the cow will rest more on her side with the rear legs extended. In the long position, the cow rests with her head extended forward.
No matter what position the cow chooses, the freestall needs to provide the cow the freedom to rest with her legs, udder and tail on the platform. Every dairy needs to provide a clean, dry and comfortable stall so that cows can lie down 10 to 14 hours per day.
One dairy I recently visited had many rough and bruised top lines on its cows. More than 33% of the cows perched in their stalls.
We made spacers to raise the neck rail up from 42 inches to 50 and perching went down 20%. It is important to remember the neck rail positions the cow to stand up so that she can defecate in the alley.
The dairy also removed the concrete and 2x8 brisket boards. They used sand in the front of the stalls as brisket locators and perching went down another 2%. Milk production increased by 4 lb. per cow and the dairy also noticed a decrease in lameness.
Without a brisket locator, a cow will lie too far forward so when she gets up she will disrupt three other cows lying down. We can reduce these events with a deterrent strap.
A deterrent strap must not interfere with the upward bobbing of the head. A suggested placemat
is 0.7 x rump height above stall surface (cow's feet). A deterrent strap, not a steel cable, will reduce the number of cows walking through the stalls.
Also, if there is not enough sand in the front of the stall to act as the "'brisket locator'" to position the cow, then she tends to lay too far forward in the stall and then crawls backward to get up to avoid pain from the neck rail.
Once sand is added, the dairy should use a tool to level out the stalls so that the cows have a nice, soft, even bed to lie down in. What causes cows to lie diagonally in their stall? The answer is inadequate lunge space and too short of a resting space.
We also need to remember the dry/transition cows when it comes to space. We need to provide a minimum of 150 square feet per cow and 30 to 36 inches of bunk space. We also need to ensure we are providing enough water space for these cows. A dry cow has 45 to 60 days to re-charge her battery for the next lactation. Are we providing enough feed bunk space and water space for these cows?
According to Dr. Neil Anderson, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, there are six cow freedoms to consider in stall design:
1. Freedom to stretch their front legs forward
2. Freedom to lie on their sides with unobstructed space for their neck and head
3. Freedom to rest their heads against their sides without hindrance from a partition
4. Freedom to rest with their legs, udder and tails on the platform
5. Freedom to stand or lie without fear or pain from neck rails, partitions or supports
6. Freedom to rest on a clean, dry and soft bed
In conclusion, it's important to remember a cow's stall is designed to allow the cow to get up straight in the stall without pain or injury. The success of the stall is measured in inches, not feet. Always do what is best for your cow and provide continuous training for parlor efficiency.
Tom Lorenzen is an Alltech On-Farm Support Manager in Juneau, Wis. Prior to joining Alltech, Lorenzen spent 10 years with a feed ingredient company looking for non-nutritional bottlenecks that affect quality milk production and performance. His interest in the dairy industry led him to develop the Udder Health and Sanitation program for a major milking equipment company. His focus with Alltech is on three areas: dairy audits, education through milking technician schools, and education through milk quality presentations to the dairy industry. He has spoken at the World Dairy Expo in China, the Cigal Dairy Show in Mexico, and the National Mastitis Council Meeting in the U.S. Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.com.
By Tom Van Dyke, Merial Veterinary Services
If parasites are such a health threat to my cattle, then why wouldn't I want to deworm all of them? This is a logical and typical follow-up question by producers learning about the concept of refugia. Now, instead of eliminating all internal parasites, maintaining refugia means intentionally allowing some worms to survive.1,2,3
Internal parasites have long been recognized as one of the most costly health challenges in the livestock industries.3,4,5 Dairy calves and replacement heifers on grass are at greatest risk from the costly negative effects of internal parasites.6,7 Parasitism reduces weight gains in dairy calves and yearlings, affects body condition scores, delays time to first breeding and impairs milk production during first lactation.6,7
Dewormers, or anthelmintics, have been recognized as one of the most cost-effective pharmaceutical technologies.5 Anthelmintics have improved in spectrum and efficacy over time.3 There is a growing concern that repeated use of products from the available dewormer classes may lead to widespread parasite resistance.1,2,4,5,8
Resistance means that an increasing percentage of parasites in a population survive treatment with a dewormer that has been effective in the past. With each successive treatment, a few resistant parasites may survive to pass on their genetics to the next generation. After repeated treatments, the percentage of resistant parasites on a farm may outnumber the more susceptible ones, and then the dewormer loses effectiveness.1,3,4,8
Refugia is being advocated as an important tool to slow the progress of resistance and maintain effectiveness of the dewormers currently available.1,2,3,4 Refugia is the part of the total parasite population which is not exposed to the antiparasitic drug being used. The worms, and their genes, in "refuge" could hide out in non-treated animals, eggs and larvae on the pasture or parasite stages not reached by a specific dewormer.1,2,4 If there is sufficient refugia and if a very effective dewormer is used, then the proportion of resistant genes in the population can be kept low.1,9 The resistant parasites are diluted by susceptible parasites. Animals will more likely be re-infected with susceptible parasites and continue to shed more eggs from susceptible worms back to the pasture. The dewormer remains effective.1,9
Studies and computer models where 10% of the sheep in a herd were left untreated indicated that a significant delay in resistance development can be accomplished.9 Refugia in herds of sheep can also be maintained by using a method to detect and treat only the severely infected animals.1 But cattle are not sheep, and the primary parasites of concern are different between the species.
Management practices used to minimize the effect of parasites and resistance may be similar, but don't translate exactly from sheep to cattle.10
Unfortunately, there is not a total consensus among the parasitology experts regarding the best practices to forestall anthelmintic resistance.1,3,4,8,9,10,11
So what does all this mean to the producer who wants optimal health and production for all cattle while seeking to maintain efficacy of the dewormers? "How many untreated animals are needed for refugia? Which class of animal needs treatment the least? On which class of animal does treatment have the biggest impact? Which class is the cheapest to treat? Which is the easiest to treat?"
These are all questions South Dakota State University's Dr. Mike Hildreth suggests will need to be answered at the individual farm level.11
1 FDA.gov. Antiparasitic Resistance in Cattle and Small Ruminants in the United States: How to Detect It and What to Do About It. Helpful Information for Veterinarians. Available at http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/UCM347442.pdf. Accessed January 39, 2014.
2 Beef + Lamb New Zealand. Worms in refugia as a tool to delay drench resistance. Beef + Lamb New Zealand R & D Brief; Number 130: August 2007. Available at http://www.beeflambnz.com/Documents/Farm/Managing%20drench%20resistance.pdf . Accessed June 11, 2014.
3 Wolfgang D. Can Parasite Control be More Effective and Reduce Resistance at the Same
Time? Penn State Extension. April 24, 2013. Available at
http://extension.psu.edu/animals/dairy/news/2013/can-parasite-control-be-more-effective-and-reduce-resistance-at-the-same-time. Accessed June 11, 2014.
4 Navarre CB. Best Management Practices: Internal Parasite Control in Louisiana Beef Cattle. June 2013. Available at http://www.lsuagcenter.com/NR/rdonlyres/6BC02F27-60B6-43BA-B2FF-DD5F58FD1F9C/91919/BestManagementPracticesParasitesControlinBeefCattl.pdf. Accessed June 11, 2014.
5 Lawrence JD, Ibarburu MA. Economic analysis of pharmaceutical technologies in modern beef production in a bioeconomy era. 2007. Iowa State University. Available at http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/37560/2/confp05-07.pdf. Accessed June 11, 2014.
6 Elsener J, Villeneuve A, DesCoteaux L. Evaluation of a strategic deworming program
in dairy heifers in Quebec based on the use of moxidectin, an endectocide with
a long persistency. Can Vet J 2001;42;38-44.
7 Boyles S, Johnson LJ, Slanger WD, Dreft BJ, Kirsch JD. Effect of Deworming Heifers on Gain and Reproduction. NDSU Institutional Repository. Farm Research: Vol. 49, No.6(Winter 1992-1993)
8 Cima G. Worms' adaptation a critical problem. JAVMA news, May 01, 2013. Available at c. Accessed June 11, 2014.
9 Leathwick DM, Waghorn TS, Miller CM, Candy PM, Oliver MB. Managing anthelmintic resistance - Use of a combination anthelmintic and leaving some lambs untreated to slow the development of resistance to ivermectin. Vet Parasitol. 2012;187:285-294.
10 Maday J. Parasitologist Gasbarre response to FDA report. Drovers CattleNetwork. April 29, 2013. Available at http://www.bovinevetonline.com/news/Parasitologist-Gasbarre-responds-to-FDA-report-205302581.html. Accessed January 30, 2014.
11 Hildreth M. Trichostrongyle Parasite Management in Cows, Calves and Stockers from the Northern Great Plains. Presented Merial Veterinary Symposium; Sioux Falls, South Dakota. January 24, 2014.
Proper blocking is essential to the recovery of diseased, damaged or improperly trimmed claws. Summer and early fall are especially important times with respect to development of claw damage or Claw Horn Disruption (CHD) resulting in the need for pain relief through therapeutic blocking.
Heat stress, for example, often causes cows to increase standing time and can result in CHDs such as sole ulcer, white line disease and heel fracture. Heat abatement measures may also weaken claw horn, as time standing in manure, urine and water increase. Breakdown in horn integrity may accelerate claw wear, resulting in thin soles, as well as loss of heel horn and claw angle. The subsequent weight imbalance can cause sole hemorrhaging, sole ulcers, and painful lameness.
Another often overlooked factor is the increased frequency of parturition (calving) in late-summer and early-fall months. Unfortunately, painful lameness frequently occurs in early lactation (the first two through five months of lactation). Parturition often results in mobility of the pedal bone with potential damage to sole corium, especially if further complicated by extended standing time due to poor stall comfort, additional time in headlocks for health management, high stocking density and poor stockmanship.
Parturition is also closely associated with metabolic disorders such as hypocalcemia (milk fever) and hypoglycemia (ketosis), which often result in production of inferior claw horn. In addition, significant loss of body fat in early lactation may lead to loss of sole fat pad support, which results in sinking of the pedal bone with potential development of a sole ulcer.
When are hoof blocks needed?
There are five main triggers that drive the need to apply hoof blocks:
1. Heat stress, which contributes to CHD due to:
• extended standing time, sole concussion, corium damage and hemorrhage;
• excessive sole wear;
• increased claw hydration due to standing in water, manure and urine; and
• heel fracture from extended standing times.
2. Excessive sole wear caused by:
• long walking distances;
• poor flooring – broken, irregular or deteriorated walking surfaces;
• improperly finished or aggressively grooved flooring;
• walking up and down sloped walkways; and
• sand or other abrasive bedding materials.
3. Metabolic disorders, including milk fever, ketosis, SARA and systemic infections (reproductive or respiratory). These may cause CHD and repeated production of inferior horn with subsequent loss of pedal bone support, sole hemorrhage development, and greater potential for sole ulcer.
4. Infectious claw diseases may result in cows with significant imbalance or loss of sole horn (such as heel horn erosion) or cows that walk on their toes (such as digital dermatitis and foot rot).
5. Improper trimming. Toes trimmed too short, soles trimmed too thin, excess removal of sole horn at the toe, abaxial wall, or excess removal of heel horn (claw angle too shallow) may also require blocking.
Block application steps
Blocking shifts weight bearing within the claw to allow for recovery of damaged living tissue and claw horn. Since sole horn grows at approximately 5 mm (about 0.25 inch) per month, blocks should last at least four weeks or longer. Use the following proper block application steps to help ensure good results.
Dr. Tomlinson has a doctorate degree in animal science, ruminant nutrition and management from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and is employed by Zinpro Corporation as a research nutritionist based in Virginia. Email him at firstname.lastname@example.com.
By Dr. Joel Pankowski, Manager, Field Technical Services, Arm & Hammer Animal Nutrition
The most successful rations feature ingredients that are mixed and fed properly, and are consistent in nutrient value and quality day-in and day-out. This attention to detail enhances feed intake and maximizes cow health and productivity.
However, the nutrient values—like protein, fiber and starch levels—of various feedstuffs are not consistent from load to load. The situation gets even more challenging if you do not work with the right data to make ration decisions.
Variation Occurs Often
The same variation found in forages occurs within many other commodity feedstuffs like soybean meal, dried distillers grains, cottonseed and beet pulp—not all of which are considered to be highly variable. As a result, it's common practice to simply follow supplier guarantees for many of these ingredients.
However, assuming these values are accurate means you may be overestimating or underestimating the nutrient value of half your ration, since rations are commonly split 50/50 between forages and commodity ingredients. That assumption can lead to unnecessarily high feed cost and/or undesirable animal performance.
"What if the ingredient contributed to 100 more grams of metabolizable protein than the book value projected?" asks John Goeser, director of nutrition, research and innovation at Rock River Laboratory, Inc. "That knowledge of that difference can mean the ability to shave from 7 to 15 cents off your ration cost."
Differences in field conditions, varieties, harvesting, processing and a host of other variables mean it is unrealistic to expect commodity byproduct feed ingredients to remain constant. Still, it's common to treat them as though their nutrient composition is unchanging when formulating rations.
Book Values a Best-Guess
It's tempting to use book values to account for ingredient nutrient values to help average or "smooth" out some of the disparity. And while a good resource, some of the values for various commodity feeds housed in the National Research Council (NRC) database may be based on a small sample size. Or, the data used for the library may not be accurate for your region.
In 1989 researchers from the University of Missouri noted that, "Diets incorporating byproduct feeds should be evaluated carefully to avoid mineral imbalances and to maintain protein quality. Use of book values for balancing diets containing significant quantities of byproduct feeds could lead to nutritional problems, and testing should be encouraged."1
Furthermore, a 1995 survey2 of nine commodity feeds in California showed that the nutrient content of these ingredients differed by more than 20% from NRC results. Additional California studies in 2000 and 2007 featuring even more ingredients found similar nutrient variation results.
Feedstuff Variation Is Significant
Data presented by Goeser and his colleagues at the 2013 American Dairy Science Annual Meeting showed significant differences in rumen dry matter digestibility, protein bypass and substantial variation within feeds for soybean meal, canola meal, corn distillers grain, corn gluten, soy hulls and expeller meal.3
"Concentrate feed fiber content variation is just one parameter that's not generally accounted for in dairy rations," explains Goeser. "Fiber, protein and starch levels are three parameters in these feeds that you really need to monitor to increase ration consistency and accuracy."
A 2012 study at Ohio State University illustrated that the variation in NDF among commodity feed ingredients was similar to the NDF variation found in forages. Assuming a 20% inclusion rate and average within farm variation for concentrate NDF, diet NDF could change by 0.3 to 0.8 percentage units.4
Inaccuracies Impact Performance
It's not easy for a cow's rumen to adapt to feed ingredient variation. As a result, suboptimal performance may occur.
For example, research5 conducted at Ohio State University last year showed that dairy cows fed a diet that contained either 7% long-chain fatty acids or 4.8% long-chain fatty acids produced less milk and had lower dry matter intake than cows fed diets with less variation.
What to Do?
While variation will always occur in forages and commodity feeds, you have options to deal with it.
The inclusion of less variable feed ingredients is one area to explore. For example, you can select an ingredient with a consistent level of dietary protein so you know more precisely what cows receive, and then deal with variability for other ration nutrients. At least you can be confident in ration protein.
Another suggestion is to adopt a routine commodity testing program similar to a testing program for your forages. While commodity feeds are not on hand as long as forages, you can compare nutrient composition of a current sample to that of the previous two truckloads to get a sense of the variability for which you must account in formulating diets.
To learn more about managing your ration to minimize variability and achieve consistent performance, visit http://www.transition.ahdairy.com/.
1 Belyea RL, Steevens BJ, Restropo RJ, Clubb AP. Variation in Composition of By-Product Feeds. J of Dairy Sci 1989;72:2339-2345.
2 Arosemena A, DePeters EJ, Fadel JG. Extent of Variability in Nutrient Composition Within Selected By-product Feedstuffs. Animal Feed Science and Technology 1995;54:103-120.
3 Goeser J, Heuer C, Meyer L. Midwestern U.S. Byproduct Feedstuffs Vary in Ruminal Nutrient Digestion. 2013;ADSA-ASAS JAM Poster TH112.
4 Weiss WP, St.-Pierre NR. Nutrient Variability in Feeds Within Farms, in Proceedings. Cornell Nutrition Conference 2012;157-166.
5 Weiss WP, Yoder P, McBeth L, Shoemaker D, St.-Pierre NR. Effect of Variation in Nutrient Composition of Diets of Lactating Dairy Cows, in Proceedings. 2013 Tri-State Dairy Nutrition Conference. Available at: http://tristatedairy.osu.edu/Proceedings%202013/William%20Weiss.pdf. Accessed June 2, 2014.
By Travis Thayer, Diamond V
In my role as Dairy Technical Trainer with Diamond V, I work with dairy producers to help their employees understand the "why" behind the protocols that they are asked to follow (milking, feeding, fresh cow treatment, calf care, maternity, etc.).
With the recent flurry of animal activist videos showing grievous cases of animal abuse, I am increasingly asked to talk to employees about animal welfare, down cow care and basic animal handling, with the goal of preventing any of these types of unfortunate situations on their farms.
Many dairies are very progressive and have solid animal care programs in place before I ever step foot on the farm. In that case, I just review the issues of public perception and humane animal care with the employees and go over the protocols that are already in place.
However, some dairies have not yet fully implemented programs to train and direct employees with protocols on proper animal care. This is a ticking time bomb just waiting for a video that could result in loss of your market and livelihood, and will decrease consumer confidence in our industry. Consumers are increasingly interested and aware of where their food comes from, and they want to feel confident that the animals in your care are treated humanely.
Following are a few key points to consider in the animal care program on your operation:
It Starts at the Top
Create an animal care agreement (in employees' appropriate native language) that employees must sign stating that they understand that animal abuse on your farm is not tolerated and will result in immediate termination. It should also include a statement that employees are expected to report any abuse they observe on the farm by other employees, and that failure to do so will result in their termination as well. Hold a meeting to discuss the issues and let employees know that proper animal care is expected. From that point forward, make the animal care agreement part of new employee training, and consider periodic meetings to reinforce these guidelines with all employees.
Have a Plan
Consider the following questions:
• Do you have a plan to safely (for people and cows) and humanely move non-ambulatory animals out of tight spots (milking parlors, holding pens, alleyways, etc.) without dragging them or otherwise causing additional harm?
• Do you have a down cow care protocol that lays out proper animal care guidelines, including timely, humane euthanasia, if necessary?
• Do the employees have access to all the tools they need to do the job safely and humanely?
• Are the employees aware of the protocols, and have they been properly trained to execute them?
If the answer to these questions is yes, great! You are way ahead of the game. But, if you answered no to any of these questions, it is time to review your program and make changes.
Behave as if Everything You Do is on Video
I advise owners, managers, and employees to always act as if you are already on video. If you are doing something that you would not feel comfortable seeing on YouTube, rethink what you are doing.
Consider Context
Several of the videos out there not only show physical mistreatment of animals, but are also accompanied by audio with language that might make a sailor blush. Consider the following situation that shows up on video:
You have a cow that just slipped in the alley. She looks alert and strong and you think she can get up on her own, and she is in a place that allows her the space to do so. You make sure she has good footing, and you slap her on the rump to startle her to get up, lifting her tail to help, and when that does not work, you decide to touch her once with a hotshot to see if you can get her to make the effort. This is an acceptable, humane attempt to help her get up.Now overlay two different audio tracks that go with the video:
First Audio Track: The handler is speaking words of encouragement in a caring voice – "Come on, mama." "You can do it!" "Almost there!" accompanied by gentle sounds, kisses, clucks, etc.
Second Audio Track: The handler shouts loudly, in anger and frustration and releases a string of cusswords that they would never utter in polite company. "Get up you miserable ****!"
Which audio track is likely to convey compassion and caring, and instill confidence in the consumer that this animal is being taken care of humanely? Attitude is everything. It is natural to be frustrated, especially when one is very busy and has a lot of work to get done. Take a time out. Count to 10. Go get a drink. Take a break. Do whatever it takes to get your emotions under control and do the best job you can to help the cow. If she is unable to get up on her own after a reasonable attempt at encouragement, follow your non-ambulatory cow protocol to move her to a safe, clean, comfortable place where you can give her proper treatment and supportive care.
Consult Your Herd Veterinarian
Veterinarians are the best resource for proper animal care protocols on your farm. Ask a veterinarian familiar with your farm to review and/or create protocols on your farm, unique to your facilities. They can offer solutions for proper non- ambulatory cow movement, down cow treatment protocols, and proper euthanasia techniques.
Accidents happen on farms sometimes, creating unpleasant situations that need to be managed properly. Anticipate and plan, and they can be resolved in a humane way that shows that you care.
Travis Thayer, DVM, is Dairy Technical Trainer for Diamond V. Based in California, he can be reached at 510-910-3126 or email@example.com.
By Doug Scholz, DVM, Director of Veterinary Services, Novartis Animal Health
Reducing bovine respiratory disease (BRD) in developing dairy heifers is important from both an animal welfare and economic standpoint, regardless of the season or climate.
Calf pneumonia can strike any time of year and puts future herd productivity at risk. A study tracking the effects of respiratory disease on Holstein calves showed those with a history of respiratory disease are two-and-one-half times more likely to die prior to delivering their first calves, as compared to calves that remained healthy.1
Bovine respiratory disease associated with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica, in particular, is recognized for its severity and rapid onset in dairy calves, so vaccinating to prevent BRD is a smart herd health management protocol. To get the most protection vaccines can offer, producers need to remember that other factors such as stress, nutrition and weather should all be taken into account to ensure that vaccine programs provide the best result.
As summer heats up, so does the likelihood of calves experiencing heat stress. One of the challenges of heat stress is that it limits an animal's ability to build an immune response, and there is no way to predict which animals are more sensitive to its effects. Administering vaccines in excessively hot or humid conditions should be avoided whenever possible. It's always better to vaccinate early in the day when air temperatures are cooler. And that goes for both calves and cows. In the summertime, this means avoiding vaccinating cattle if the temperature is above 85 degrees with humidity above 40%, or at higher temperatures with lower humidity.
Heat stress can also lower an animal's natural barriers to bacteria.2 That's why it's also important not to overload cattle with gram-negative vaccines in the heat of summer. For the best advice regarding summertime vaccinations and timing, consult with your herd veterinarian.
Additional Vaccination Tips:
• Properly store products.
• Administer vaccines according to label directions.
• Use good hygiene when administering vaccines.
• Keep appropriate treatments like epinephrine on hand to quickly address any adverse animal reaction.
1. Waltner-Toews D, Martin SW, Meek AH. The effect of early calfhood health status on survivorship and age at first calving. Can J Vet Res 1986;50:314-317.
2. Lambert GP. Stress-induced gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction and its inflammatory effects. J Animal Sci 2009;87:E101-E108.
For more information visit www.ah.novartis.us or www.nuplura.com.
By Glenn Holub, Prince Agri Products, Inc.
The transition period is the most challenging time during the production cycle of a dairy cow. One of the major determinants of whether a cow transitions properly is her ability to maintain normal blood calcium concentrations of more than 8.5 mg/dL.
A recent study reported more than 50 percent of cows and 25 percent of first lactation heifers have blood calcium concentrations after calving in the range considered subclinical (Reinhardt, 2011). Subclinical hypocalcemic cows are at greater risk for developing metabolic and infectious diseases postpartum, illustrating the importance of calcium status during the transition period. Fortunately, the physiology of calcium status is now more fully understood and can be effectively managed through proper management and nutrition. Through the use of these nutritional strategies, it is possible to help reduce the diseases related to low blood calcium.
The metabolic and physiological demands for calcium increase dramatically as calving approaches. The calving process, colostrum production and milk synthesis all have a requirement for calcium and collectively may exceed the available levels in circulation, leading to either subclinical hypocalcemia or clinical milk fever. Calcium is essential for normal cellular activity and function of almost all cells. Cells of the immune system have the same need, and cows that become hypocalcemic are more susceptible to infection and disease because immune cell activity is impaired.
Meeting calcium needs
There are several strategies for maintaining blood calcium concentrations to avoid hypocalcemia. Most practical and effective approaches nutritionally manipulate dietary macro-mineral ions, such as chloride, sulfur, sodium and potassium. By feeding a diet higher in the negative ions (chlorine and sulfur) and lower in the positive ions (sodium and potassium), the cow's blood becomes mildly acidic. This stimulates the physiological processes needed to mobilize bone calcium stores and initiate dietary intestinal calcium uptake necessary for meeting the calcium demands associated with transition. This strategy is referred to as feeding a negative dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) diet or 'acidified' diet.
The success of a negative DCAD nutritional strategy can be measured using urine pH prepartum and blood calcium levels within the first 24 to 48 hours of calving. Urine pH targets, when samples are tested after three to four days of feeding a negative DCAD diet, should be within the range of 5.5 to 6.0 for all breeds.
Negative DCAD diets are most effective when fed at a calculated DCAD value of -10 to -15 mEq/100g of dry matter and fed continuously for a minimum of 21 days prior to calving. Because some DCAD feed additives are not palatable, it is important to feed a product that promotes a high level of dry matter intake during this period.
Monitoring blood calcium levels
If postpartum blood calcium concentrations are monitored, values should be near or above 8.5 mg/dL. Blood calcium concentrations begin to fall two or three days prior to calving due to demand for colostrum production. During this time, a dry matter intake reduction usually takes place and exacerbates the issue of lowered calcium concentrations.
Typically, blood calcium concentrations are lowest two to three days after calving, and cows do not usually recover fully until three to four days later when normal blood calcium concentrations return to 8.5 to 10 mg/dL. Fresh cow diets containing calcium concentrations between 1.0 and 1.1 percent may provide the necessary levels to avoid prolonged subclinical hypocalcemia status. Utilizing ingredients with high bioavailability may be warranted.
In addition to feeding the proper dietary levels of anions, other nutritional adjustments need to be made to the pre-fresh negative DCAD diet to ensure optimal transition success. These include feeding dietary dry matter levels of 1.4 to 1.6 percent for calcium and 0.45 to 0.5 percent for magnesium.
Keeping a cow's blood calcium level at or above 8.5 mg/dL throughout the transition period by feeding a highly palatable -10 to -15 mEq/100g negative DCAD or fully acidified diet will help reduce the incidence of hypocalcemia and its related cascade of diseases. Following this with a highly bioavailable calcium diet postpartum will further enhance the recovery from transition to peak milk.
Strategies for meeting your herd's calcium needs.
Glenn Holub, Ph.D., PAS, is a dairy technology manager for Prince Agri Products, Inc. He is a former animal science professor specializing in dairy cattle nutrition and can be contacted at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Reinhardt, T. A., J. D. Lippolis, B. J. Mc Cluskey, J. P. Goff, and R.L. Horst. 2011. Prevalence of subclinical hypocalcemia in dairy herds. Vet. J. 188:122–124.