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Islam in China
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Islam in China has existed through 1,400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society.[1] Currently, there are Muslims living in every region of China.[2] Various sources estimate different numbers of adherents with some sources indicating that 2% of the total population in China are Muslims.[3] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Sunni Muslim.[2]
- 1 History
- 2 People
- 3 Religious practices
- 4 Representative bodies
- 5 Culture and heritage
- 6 Famous Muslims in China
- 7 See also
- 8 Footnotes
- 9 Notes
- 10 References
- 11 External links
Chinese Muslims have been in China for the last 1,400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society.[1] "Islam expanded gradually across the maritime and inland silk routes from the 7th to the 10th centuries through trade and diplomatic exchanges."[4]
Introduction of Islam 616-18 AD[edit]
According to Chinese Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first introduced to China in 616-18 AD by Sahaba (companions) of Prophet Muhammad: Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, Sayid, Wahab ibn Abu Kabcha and another Sahaba.[5] Wahab ibn abu Kabcha (Wahb abi Kabcha) may have been be a son of al-Harth ibn Abdul Uzza (aknown as Abu Kabsha).[6] It is noted in other accounts that Wahab Abu Kabcha reached Canton by sea in 629 CE.[7]
Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas, along with three Sahabas, namely Suhayla Abuarja, Uwais al-Qarani, and Hassan ibn Thabit, returned to China from Arabia in 637 by the Yunan-Manipur-Chittagong route, then reached Arabia by sea.[8] Some sources date the introduction of Islam in China to 650 AD, the third sojourn of Saad ibn abi Waqqas,[9] when he was sent as an official envoy to Emperor Gaozong during Caliph Uthman's reign.[10]
Tang dynasty[edit]
Earlier visits of Saad ibn abi Waqqas were noted in Arab accounts since it was a period of nascent Islam mixed with events of many hectic preaching and warfare. They (Sahabas) were more concerned with writings of verses of the Koran as revealed to Muhammad, and his sayings (hadiths) and ways of life (sunnah). According to China Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first brought to China by an embassy led by Saad ibn abi Waqqas that was sent by Uthman, the third Caliph, (that was in 651, less than twenty years after the death of Muhammad) which are confusions with Saad ibn abi Waqqas's earlier visits. The embassy was led by Sa'ad ibn Abī Waqqās, the maternal uncle of Muhammad himself. Emperor Gaozong, the Tang emperor who received the envoy then ordered the construction of the Memorial mosque in Canton, the first mosque in the country, in memory of Muhammad.[9][11]
While modern secular historians tend to say that there is no evidence for Waqqās himself ever coming to China,[11] they do believe that Muslim diplomats and merchants came to Tang China within a few decades from the beginning of the Muslim Era.[11] The Tang Dynasty's cosmopolitan culture, with its intensive contacts with Central Asia and its significant communities of (originally non-Muslim) Central and Western Asian merchants resident in Chinese cities, which helped the introduction of Islam.[11] The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants.[12] During the Tang and especially the Song eras, comparatively well-established, even if somewhat segregated, mercantile Muslim communities existed in the port cities of Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Hangzhou on China's southeastern seaboard, as well as in the interior centers such as Chang'an, Kaifeng, and Yangzhou.[13] After critical analysis, it is evident that Saad ibn abi Waqqas and the three other Sahabas who were preaching from 616-18 were noticed by Emperor Wu-De by 618 AD. Guangzhou is home to four mosques, including the famous Huaisheng Mosque believed to have been built by Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, the uncle of Muhammad. The city also has a grave believed to be that of ibn Abi Waqqas (father of Sa'd ibn abi Waqqas).[14]
Islam was brought to China during the Tang dynasty by Arab traders, who were primarily concerned with trading and commerce, and not concerned at all with spreading Islam. They did not try to convert Chinese at all and only did commerce. It was because of this low profile that the 845 anti-Buddhist edict during the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution said absolutely nothing about Islam.[15] It seems that trade occupied the attention of the early Muslim settlers rather than religious propagandism; that while they observed the tenets and practised the rites of their faith in China, they did not undertake any strenuous campaign against either Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, or the State creed, and that they constituted a floating rather than a fixed element of the population, coming and going between China and the West by the oversea or the overland routes.[16][17]
Song dynasty[edit]
By the time of the Song Dynasty, Muslims had come to play a major role in the import/export industry.[9][13] The office of Director General of Shipping was consistently held by a Muslim during this period.[18] In 1070, the Song emperor Shenzong invited 5,300 Muslim men from Bukhara, to settle in China in order to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao empire in the northeast. Later on these men were settled between the Sung capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern day Beijing).[19] They were led by Prince Amir Sayyid "So-fei-er" (his Chinese name) who was reputed of being called the "father" of the Muslim community in China. Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as Dashi fa ("law of the Arabs").[20] He renamed it to Huihui Jiao ("the Religion of the Huihui").[21]
Tombs of Imam Asim and Mazaar of Zafar Sadiq[edit]
"On the foothills of Mount Lingshan are the tombs of two of the four companions that Prophet Muhammad sent eastwards to preach Islam. Known as the "Holy Tombs," they house the companions Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun—their Chinese names, of course. The other two companions went to Guangzhou and Yangzhou."[22] "The Imam (Islamic Holy Man) Asim is said to have been one of the first Islamic missionaries in the region. His name is also spelled Imam Hashim (man of c.1000 CE in Hotan). The shrine site includes the reputed tomb of the Imam, a mosque, and several related tombs."[23] There is also a mazaar of Imam Zafar Sadiq.[24]
Yuan dynasty[edit]
During the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), large numbers of Muslims settled in China. The Mongols, a minority in China, gave foreign immigrants, such as Muslims, Christians, and Jews from west Asia an elevated status over the native Han Chinese as part of their governing strategy, thus giving Muslims a heavy influence. Mongols recruited and forcibly relocated hundreds of thousands of Muslim immigrants from Western and Central Asia to help them administer their rapidly expanding empire.[2] The Mongols used Persian, Arab and Buddhist Uyghur administrators, generically known as semu [色目]("various eye color")[25] to act as officers of taxation and finance. Muslims headed many corporations in China in the early Yuan period.[26][page needed] Muslim scholars were brought to work on calendar making and astronomy. The architect Yeheidie'erding (Amir al-Din) learned from Han architecture and helped to design the construction of the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, Dadu, otherwise known as Khanbaliq or Khanbaligh, the predecessor of present-day Beijing.[27] The term Hui originated from the Mandarin "Huihui," a term first used in the Yuan Dynasty to describe Central Asian, Persian and Arab residents in China.[11]
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asians to work as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to work as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara of Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.[28]
Genghis Khan and his successors forbade Islamic practices like halal butchering, as well as other restrictions. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.[29] Genghis Khan outright called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were affected by these laws and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.[30] Towards the end of the Yuan Dynasty, corruption and persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined the Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, led Muslim generals like Lan Yu against the Mongols, whom they defeated in combat. Some Muslim communities had a name in Chinese which meant "baracks" or "thanks," which many Hui Muslims claim comes from the gratitude which Chinese people have towards them for their role in defeating the Mongols.[31]
Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa'an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.
The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
Ming dynasty[edit]
Hu Dahai was a Chinese Muslim general of the Hongwu Emperor.
Chang Yuchun is said to be the father of the famous "Kaiping spear method".[33][34]
Mu Ying general
Chinese Muslim explorer and admiral, Zheng He.
During the following Ming dynasty, Muslims continued to be influential around government circles. Six of Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang's most trusted generals are said to have been Muslim, including Lan Yu who, in 1388, led a strong imperial Ming army out of the Great Wall and won a decisive victory over the Mongols in Mongolia, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. Zhu Yuanzhang also wrote a praise of Islam, the The Hundred-word Eulogy. It was recorded that "His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing [the capital cities], and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong. His Majesty also personally wrote baizizan [a eulogy] in praise of the Prophet's virtues."[35] Additionally, the Yongle Emperor hired Zheng He, perhaps the most famous Chinese of Muslim birth although at least in later life not a Muslim himself, to lead seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean from 1405 and 1433. However, during the Ming Dynasty, new immigration to China from Muslim countries was restricted in an increasingly isolationist nation. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by speaking Chinese and by adopting Chinese names and culture. Mosque architecture began to follow traditional Chinese architecture. This era, sometimes considered the Golden Age of Islam in China,[36] also saw Nanjing become an important center of Islamic study.[37]
Muslims in Ming dynasty Beijing were given relative freedom by the Chinese, with no restrictions placed on their religious practices or freedom of worship, and being normal citizens in Beijing. In contrast to the freedom granted to Muslims, followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism suffered from restrictions and censure in Beijing.[38]
The Ming policy towards the Islamic religion was tolerant, while their racial policy towards ethnic minorities was of integration through forced marriage. Muslims were allowed to practice Islam, but if they were members of other ethnic groups they were required by law to intermarry, so Hui had to marry Han since they were different ethnic groups, with the Han often converting to Islam.
Integration was mandated through intermarriage by Ming law, ethnic minorities had to marry people of other ethnic groups. The Chinese during the Ming dynasty also tried to force foreigners like the Hui into marrying Chinese women.[39] Marriage between upper class Han Chinese and Hui Muslims was low, since upper class Han Chinese men would both refuse to marry Muslim women, and forbid their daughters from marrying Muslim men, since they did not want to convert due to their upper class status. Only low and mean status Han Chinese men would convert if they wanted to marry a Hui woman. Ming law allowed Han Chinese men and women to not have to marry Hui, and only marry each other, while Hui men and women were required to marry a spouse not of their race.[40][41][42]
The Hongwu Emperor decreed the building of multiple mosques throughout China in many locations. A Nanjing mosque was built by the Xuande Emperor.[43]
When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists led by Muslim leaders Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Ma Shouying led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin and Ding Guodong killed.
In Guangzhou, the national monuments known as "The Muslim's Loyal Trio" are the tombs of Ming loyalist Muslims who were martyred while fighting in battle against the Qing in the Manchu conquest of China in Guangzhou.[44]
Qing dynasty[edit]
The Qing dynasty (1644–1911) witnessed multiple revolts. The Qing rulers belonged to the Manchu, a minority in China.
When the Qing dynasty replaced the Ming dynasty starting in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin[45] and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor.[46] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.[47][48][49] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt.[50] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged alleigance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.[51] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.[52] The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.
The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.[53] Zhu Yu'ai, the Ming Prince Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to Ming.[54]
In Guangzhou, the national monuments known as "The Muslim's Loyal Trio" are the tombs of Ming loyalist Muslims who were martyred while fighting in battle against the Qing in the Manchu conquest of China in Guangzhou.[44] The Ming Muslim loyalists were called "jiaomen sanzhong "Three defenders of the faith".[54]
The Muslim revolt in the northwest occurred due to violent and bloody infighting between Muslim groups, the Gedimu, Khafiya, and Jahriyya. The rebellion in Yunnan occurred because of repression by Qing officials, resulting in five bloody Hui rebellions, most notably the Panthay Rebellion, which occurred in Yunnan province from 1855 to 1873, and the Dungan revolt, which occurred mostly in Xinjiang, Shensi and Gansu, from 1862 to 1877. The Manchu government ordered the execution of all rebels, killing a million people in the Panthay rebellion,[55][page needed] several million in the Dungan revolt[55]
The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt.[56]
Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from the Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."[57]
However, many Muslims like Ma Zhan'ao, Ma Anliang, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Qianling, and Ma Julung defected to the Qing dynasty side, and helped the Qing general Zuo Zongtang exterminate the Muslim rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the Khafiya sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels.
In 1895, another Dungan Revolt (1895) broke out, and loyalist Muslims like Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang suppressed and massacred the rebel Muslims led by Ma Dahan, Ma Yonglin, and Ma Wanfu. A Muslim army called the Kansu Braves led by General Dong Fuxiang fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. They included well known generals like Ma Anliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang.
In Yunnan, the Qing armies exterminated only the Muslims who had rebelled and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.[58]
Republic of China[edit]
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Sun Yat-sen, who established the Republic of China, immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Man (Manchu), Meng (Mongol), Hui (Muslim),[n 1] Tsang (Tibetan), and Miao peoples.
During the rule of the Kuomintang party, the Kuomintang appointed the Muslim warlords of the family known as the Ma clique as the Military Governors of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia. Bai Chongxi was a Muslim General and Defence Minister of China during this time.
During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese persecuted, killed, and raped Hui Muslims. Mosques were destroyed and in many provinces Hui were slaughtered by Japanese troops or bombed. During the Rape of Nanking the Mosques in Nanjing were flowing with dead bodies after the Japanese slaughters. Japanese smeared Hui Mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui girls to serve as sex slaves and destroyed the cemeteries of the Hui.[59] Many Hui, Salar, Dongxiang, and Bonan Muslims fought in the war against Japan.
On 10 February 1938, Legation Secretary of the German Embassy, Rosen, wrote to his Foreign Ministry about a film made in December by Reverend John Magee about the Nanking Massacre to recommend its purchase. Here is an excerpt from his letter and a description of some of its shots, kept in the Political Archives of the Foreign Ministry in Berlin. One of the victims killed by the Japanese was a Muslim (Mohammedan) whose name was Ha.
During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanking – which, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degree – the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese ... One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today.[60]
On December 13, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at #5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanking, and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a Mohammedan named Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. Mrs. Ha asked them why they killed her husband and they shot her. Mrs. Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide with her 1 year old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest, and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina. The baby was killed with a bayonet. Some soldiers then went to the next room, where Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and her two daughters aged 16 and 14. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them. The soldiers killed her with a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were then stripped, the elder being raped by 2–3 men, and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwards and a cane was rammed in her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horrible treatment that had been meted out to her sister and mother. The soldiers then bayoneted another sister of between 7–8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4 and 2 respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with a sword.[61]
In 1937, the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang notified the Chinese government that he was prepared to lead his army into battle against the Japanese during the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin.[62] Immediately after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Ma Bufang arranged for a cavalry division under the Muslim General Ma Biao to be sent east to battle the Japanese.[63] Ethnic Turkic Salar Muslims made up the majority of the first cavalry division which was sent by Ma Bufang.[64]
People's Republic of China[edit]
During the Cultural Revolution, mosques along with other religious buildings were often defaced, destroyed or closed and copies of the Quran were destroyed along with temples, churches, Buddhist and Daoist monasteries, and cemeteries by the Red Guards.[65][page needed] During that time, the government also constantly accused Muslims and other religious groups of holding "superstitious beliefs" and promoting "anti-socialist trends".[66] The government began to relax its policies towards Muslims in 1978. When comparing persecution, Chinese Muslims say that the Soviet Union was worse in regards to its treatment of Islam than China during the "ten black years" (of the Cultural Revolution).[67] Today, Islam is experiencing a modest revival and there are now[68] many mosques in China. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nationwide Islamic associations have been organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims.[69]
China banned a book titled "Xing Fengsu" ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Hui Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book.[70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs,[80] Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned.[81]
In 2007, anticipating the coming "Year of the Pig" in the Chinese calendar, depictions of pigs were banned from CCTV "to avoid conflicts with ethnic minorities".[82] This is believed to refer to China's population of 20 million Muslims (to whom pigs are considered "unclean").
In response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run Xinhua advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper Global Times said the attack was "payback" for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations.[83][84]
Different Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[85] Since the 1980s Islamic private schools have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Muslim areas, only specifically excluding Xinjiang from allowing these schools because of separatist sentiment there.[86]
Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the Communist party allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.[87] China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang.[88][89]
Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during Ramadan unlike Uyghurs in the same positions, the amount of Hui going on Hajj is expanding, and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them and Uyghurs find it difficult to get passports to go on Hajj.[90]
Hui religious schools are allowed a massive autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even as he admitted to attending an event where Bin Laden spoke.[91][92]
Uyghur views vary by the oasis they live in. China has historically favored Turpan and Hami. Uyghurs in Turfan and Hami and their leaders like Emin Khoja allied with the Qing against Uyghurs in Altishahr. During the Qing dynasty, China enfeoffed the rulers of Turpan and Hami (Kumul) as autonomous princes, while the rest of the Uyghurs in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin) were ruled by Begs.[93] Uyghurs from Turpan and Hami were appointed by China as officials to rule over Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin. Turpan is more economically prosperous and views China more positively than the rebellious Kashgar, which is the most anti-China oasis. Uyghurs in Turpan are treated leniently and favourably by China with regards to religious policies, while Kashgar is subjected to controls by the government.[94][95] In Turpan and Hami, religion is viewed more positively by China than religion in Kashgar and Khotan in southern Xinjiang.[96] Both Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turn a blind eye to the law and allow religious Islamic education for Uyghur children.[97][98] Celebrating at religious functions and going on Hajj to Mecca is encouraged by the Chinese government, for Uyghur members of the Communist party. From 1979-1989, 350 mosques were built in Turpan.[99] Han, Hui, and the Chinese government are viewed much more positively by Uyghurs specifically in Turpan, with the government providing better economic, religious, and political treatment for them.[100]
Tensions between Hui Muslims and Uyghurs arise because Hui troops and officials often dominated the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts.[101] Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations. Some Uyghurs in Kashgar remember that the Hui army at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.[102] Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries.[103] Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques.[104]
The Uyghur terrorist organization East Turkestan Islamic Movement's magazine Islamic Turkistan has accused the Chinese "Muslim Brotherhood" (the Yihewani) of being responsible for the moderation of Hui Muslims and the lack of Hui joining terrorist jihadist groups in addition to blaming other things for the lack of Hui Jihadists, such as the fact that for more than 300 years Hui and Uyghurs have been enemies of each other, no separatist Islamist organizations among the Hui, the fact that the Hui view China as their home, and the fact that the "infidel Chinese" language is the language of the Hui.[105][106]
Tibetan-Muslim sectarian violence[edit]
In Tibet, the majority of Muslims are Hui people. Hatred between Tibeans and Muslims stems from events during the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang's rule in Qinghai such as Ngolok rebellions (1917–49) and the Sino-Tibetan War, but in 1949 the Communists put an end to the violence between Tibetans and Muslims, however, new Tibetan-Muslim violence broke out after China engaged in liberalization. Riots broke out between Muslims and Tibetans over incidents such as bones in soups and prices of balloons, and Tibetans accused Muslims of being cannibals who cooked humans in their soup and of contaminating food with urine. Tibetans attacked Muslim restaurants. Fires set by Tibetans which burned the apartments and shops of Muslims resulted in Muslim families being killed and wounded in the 2008 mid-March riots. Due to Tibetan violence against Muslims, the traditional Islamic white caps have not been worn by many Muslims. Scarfs were removed and replaced with hairnets by Muslim women in order to hide. Muslims prayed in secret at home when in August 2008 the Tibetans burned the Mosque. Incidents such as these which make Tibetans look bad on the international stage are covered up by the Tibetan exile community. The repression of Tibetan separatism by the Chinese government is supported by Hui Muslims.[107] In addition, Chinese-speaking Hui have problems with Tibetan Hui (the Tibetan speaking Kache minority of Muslims).[108]
The main Mosque in Lhasa was burned down by Tibetans and Chinese Hui Muslims were violently assaulted by Tibetan rioters in the 2008 Tibetan unrest.[109] Tibetan exiles and foreign scholars like ignore and do not talk about sectarian violence between Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims.[110] The majority of Tibetans viewed the wars against Iraq and Afghanistan after 9/11 positively and it had the effect of galvanizing anti-Muslim attitudes among Tibetans and resulted in an anti-Muslim boycott against Muslim owned businesses.[111] Tibetan Buddhists propagate a false libel that Muslims cremate their Imams and use the ashes to convert Tibetans to Islam by making Tibetans inhale the ashes, even though the Tibetans seem to be aware that Muslims practice burial and not cremation since they frequently clash against proposed Muslim cemeteries in their area.[112]
Ethnic groups[edit]
Muslims live in every region in China.[2] The highest concentrations are found in the northwest provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, and Ningxia, with significant populations also found throughout Yunnan province in southwest China and Henan province in central China.[2] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are Hui (9.8 million in year 2000 census, or 48% of the officially tabulated number of Muslims), Uyghur (8.4 million, 41%), Kazakh (1.25 million, 6.1%), Dongxiang (514,000, 2.5%), Kyrgyz (144,000), Uzbeks (125,000), Salar (105,000), Tajik (41,000), Bonan (17,000), and Tatar (5,000).[2] However, individual members of traditionally Muslim ethnic groups may profess other religions or none at all. Additionally, Tibetan Muslims are officially classified along with the Tibetan people. Muslims live predominantly in the areas that border Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia, i.e. Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is known as the "Quran Belt".[113]
Number of Muslims in China[edit]
China is home to a large population of adherents of Islam. According to the CIA World Factbook, about 1–2% of the total population in China are Muslims.[114] The 2000 census counts imply that there may be up to 20 million Muslims in China.[115] A 2009 study done by the Pew Research Center, based on China's census, concluded there are 21,667,000 Muslims in China, accounting for 1.6% of the total population.[9][116] According to the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), there are more than 21 million Muslims in the country. According to SARA there are approximately 36,000 Islamic places of worship, more than 45,000 imams, and 10 Islamic schools in the country.[117] Within the next two decades from 2011, Pew projects a slowing down of Muslim population growth in China than in previous years, with Muslim women in China having a 1.7 fertility rate.[118] Many Hui Muslims voluntarily limit themselves to one child in China since their Imams preach to them about the benefits of population control, the amount of children Hui in different areas are allowed to have varies between one and three children.[119] Chinese family planning policy allows minorities including Muslims to have up to two children in urban areas, and three to four children in rural areas.
An early historical estimate of the Muslim population of the then Qing Empire belongs to the Christian missionary Marshall Broomhall. In his book, published in 1910, he produced estimates for each province, based on the reports of missionaries working there, who had counted mosques, talked to mullahs, etc. Broomhall admits the inadequacy of the data for Xinjiang, estimating the Muslim population of Xinjiang (i.e., virtually the entire population of the province at the time) in the range from 1,000,000 (based on the total population number of 1,200,000 in the contemporary Statesman's Yearbook) to 2,400,000 (2 million "Turki", 200,000 "Hasak", and 200,000 "Tungan", as per George Hunter). He uses the estimates of 2,000,000 to 3,500,000 for Gansu (which then also included today's Ningxia and parts of Qinghai), 500,000 to 1,000,000 for Zhili (i.e., Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei), 300,000 to 1,000,000 for Yunnan, and smaller numbers for other provinces, down to 1,000 in Fujian. For Mongolia (then, part of the Qing Empire) he takes an arbitrary range of 50,000 to 100,000.[120] Summing up, he arrives to the grand total of 4,727,000 to 9,821,000 Muslims throughout the Qing Empire of its last years, i.e. just over 1-2% of the entire country's estimated population of 426,045,305.[121][122][123]
Religious practices[edit]
Islamic education in China[edit]
Over the last twenty years a wide range of Islamic educational opportunities have been developed to meet the needs of China's Muslim population. In addition to mosque schools, government Islamic colleges, and independent Islamic colleges, a growing number of students have gone overseas to continue their studies at international Islamic universities in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and Malaysia.[2] Qīngzhēn (清真) is the Chinese term for certain Islamic institutions. Its literal meaning is "pure truth."
Muslim groups[edit]
The vast majority of China's Muslims are Sunni Muslims. A notable feature of some Muslim communities in China is the presence of female imams.[124] Islamic scholar Ma Tong recorded that the 6,781,500 Hui in China predominately followed the Orthodox form of Islam (58.2% were Gedimu a non-Sufi mainstream tradition that opposed unorthodoxy and religious innovation) mainly adhering to the Hanafi Madh'hab. However a large minority of Hui are members of Sufi groups. According to Tong, 21% Yihewani, 10.9% Jahriyya, 7.2% Khuffiya, 1.4% Qadariyya, and 0.7% Kubrawiyya.[125] Shia Chinese Muslims are mostly Ismailis including Tajiks of the Tashkurgan and Sarikul areas of Xinjiang.
Chinese Muslims and the Hajj[edit]
It is known that Admiral Zheng He (1371–1435) and his Muslim crews had made the journey to Mecca and performed the Hajj during one of the former's voyages to the western ocean between 1401-1433.[126] Other Chinese Muslims may have made the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in the following centuries; however, there is little information on this. General Ma Lin made a Hajj to Mecca.[127] General Ma Fuxiang along with Ma Linyi sponsored Imam Wang Jingzhai when he went on hajj to Mecca in 1921.[128] Yihewani Imam Hu Songshan went on Hajj in 1925.[129] Briefly during the Cultural Revolution, Chinese Muslims were not allowed to attend the Hajj, and only did so through Pakistan, but this policy was reversed in 1979. Chinese Muslims now attend the Hajj in large numbers, typically in organized groups, with a record 10,700 Chinese Muslim pilgrims from all over the country making the Hajj in 2007.[130]
Relations with non-Muslims[edit]
In their early history, Muslims residing in China had closer interactions with adherents of other various faiths. Muslims treated the works of Confucius with considerable respect, pointing out the harmony between the two doctrines[131] and ethical norms.[132] Muslims saw their numbers increase in the 17th century with a large number of Chinese Jews converting to Islam.[131] Muslim General Ma Bufang allowed polytheists to openly worship, and Christian missionaries to station themselves in Qinghai. General Ma and other high ranking Muslim generals even attended the Kokonuur Lake Ceremony where the God of the Lake was worshipped, and during the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung, all participants bowed to a portrait of Kuomintang party founder Dr. Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat Sen), and the God of the Lake was also bowed to, and offerings were given to him by the participants, which included the Muslims.[133] Ma Bufang invited Kazakh Muslims to attend the ceremony honoring the God.[134] Ma Bufang received audiences of Christian missionaries, who sometimes gave him the Gospel.[135] His son Ma Jiyuan received a silver cup from Christian missionaries.[136]
Before the early 20th century, some observers did not note any difference among Muslims and non-Muslims in the prevalence of foot binding of women in China.[137][138] However, in southern China, James Legge encountered a mosque which had a placard denouncing footbinding, saying it constituted violating the creation of God.[139]
Representative bodies[edit]
Islamic Association of China[edit]
The Islamic Association of China claims to represent Chinese Muslims nationwide. At its inaugural meeting on May 11, 1953, in Beijing, representatives from 10 nationalities of the People's Republic of China were in attendance.
China Islamic Association[edit]
In May 1953, the government set up the China Islamic Association, which was described as aiming to "help the spread of the Qur'an in China and oppose religious extremism". The association is to be run by 16 Islamic religious leaders who are charged with making "a correct and authoritative interpretation" of Islamic creed and canon.
It will compile and spread inspirational speeches and help imams improve themselves, and vet sermons made by clerics around the country. This latter function is probably the key job as far as the central government is concerned. It is worried that some clerics are using their sermons to spread sedition.
Some examples of the religious concessions granted to Muslims are:
- Muslim communities are allowed separate cemeteries
- Muslim couples may have their marriage consecrated by an Imam
- Muslim workers are permitted holidays during major religious festivals
- Chinese Muslims are also allowed to make the Hajj to Mecca, and more than 45,000 Chinese Muslims have done so in recent years.[140]
Culture and heritage[edit]
Although contacts and previous conquests have occurred before, the Mongol conquest of the greater part of Eurasia in the 13th century permanently brought the extensive cultural traditions of China, central Asia and western Asia into a single empire, albeit one of separate khanates, for the first time in history. The intimate interaction that resulted is evident in the legacy of both traditions. In China, Islam influenced technology, sciences, philosophy and the arts. In terms of material culture, one finds decorative motifs from central Asian Islamic architecture and calligraphy and the marked halal impact on northern Chinese cuisine.
Taking the Mongol Eurasian empire as a point of departure, the ethnogenesis of the Hui, or Sinophone Muslims, can also be charted through the emergence of distinctly Chinese Muslim traditions in architecture, food, epigraphy and Islamic written culture. This multifaceted cultural heritage continues to the present day.[141]
Muslims have often filled distinguished military positions, and many Muslims have joined the Chinese army.[142] Muslims served extensively in the Chinese military, as both officials and soldiers. It was said that the Muslim Dongxiang and Salar were given to "eating rations", a reference to military service.[143]
Islamic architecture in China[edit]
In Chinese, a mosque is called qīngzhēn sì (清真寺) or "pure truth temple." The Great Mosque of Xi'an (first established during the Tang era) and the Great Southern Mosque in Jinan, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, do not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, they follow traditional Chinese architecture. Mosques in western China incorporate more of the elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.[144]
An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur; this applies to everything from palaces to mosques. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.
On the foothills of Mount Lingshan are the tombs of two of the four companions that Muhammad sent eastwards to preach Islam. Known as the "Holy Tombs," they house the companions Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun—their Chinese names, of course. The other two companions went to Guangzhou and Yangzhou.[145]
Chinese buildings may be built with bricks, but wooden structures are the most common; these are more capable of withstanding earthquakes, but are vulnerable to fire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved; there are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the classical orders of European columns.
As in all regions the Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style. China is renowned for its beautiful mosques, which resemble temples. However, in western China the mosques resemble those of the middle east, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of east and west. The mosques have flared Chinese-style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets.[144] The first mosque was the Great Mosque of Xian, or the Xian Mosque, which was created in the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century.[146]
Halal food in China[edit]
Halal food has a long history in China. The arrival of Arabian and Persian merchants during the Tang and Song dynasties saw the introduction of the Muslim diet. Chinese Muslim cuisine adheres strictly to the Islamic dietary rules with mutton and lamb being the predominant ingredient. The advantage of Muslim cuisine in China is that it has inherited the diverse cooking methods of Chinese cuisine for example, braising, roasting, steaming, stewing and many more. Due to China's multicultural background Muslim cuisine retains its own style and characteristics according to regions.[147]
Due to the large Muslim population in western China, many Chinese restaurants cater to Muslims or cater to the general public but are run by Muslims. In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants or food stalls typically run by migrants from Western China (e.g., Uyghurs), which offer inexpensive noodle soup. Lamb and mutton dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions. Commercially prepared food can be certified Halal by approved agencies. [148] In Chinese, halal is called qīngzhēn cài (清真菜) or "pure truth food." Beef and lamb slaughtered according to Islamic rituals is also commonly available in public markets, especially in North China. Such meat is sold by Muslim butchers, who operate independent stalls next to non-Muslim butchers.
Islamic finance in China[edit]
China and Chinese Muslim economists have a long tradition with Islamic finance. The latest official attempt is Bank of Ningxia; while Hong Kong as financial center is discussing intensively its role.[149]
Sini is a Chinese Islamic calligraphic form for the Arabic script. It can refer to any type of Chinese Islamic calligraphy, but is commonly used to refer to one with thick and tapered effects, much like Chinese calligraphy. It is used extensively in mosques in eastern China, and to a lesser extent in Gansu, Ningxia, and Shaanxi. A famous Sini calligrapher is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang.
Xiao'erjing (also Xiao'erjin or Xiaojing) is the practice of writing Sinitic languages such as Mandarin (especially the Lanyin, Zhongyuan, and Northeastern dialects) or the Dungan language in the Arabic script. It is used on occasion by many ethnic minorities who adhere to the Islamic faith in China (mostly the Hui, but also the Dongxiang, and the Salar), and formerly by their Dungan descendants in Central Asia.
Martial arts[edit]
There is a long history of Muslim development and participation at the highest level of Chinese wushu. The Hui started and adapted many of the styles of wushu such as bajiquan, piguazhang, and liuhequan. There were specific areas that were known to be centers of Muslim wushu, such as Cang County in Hebei Province. These traditional Hui martial arts were very distinct from the Turkic styles practiced in Xinjiang.[150]
The Han Kitab was a collection of Chinese Islamic texts written by Chinese Muslim which synthesized Islam and Confucianism. It was written in the early 18th century during the Qing dynasty. Han is Chinese for Chinese, and kitab (ketabu in Chinese) is Arabic for book.[151] Liu Zhi wrote his Han Kitab in Nanjing in the early 18th century. The works of Wu Sunqie, Zhang Zhong, and Wang Daiyu were also included in the Han Kitab.[152]
The Han Kitab was widely read and approved of by later Chinese Muslims such as Ma Qixi, Ma Fuxiang, and Hu Songshan. They believed that Islam could be understood through Confucianism.
A lot of Chinese students including male and females join International Islamic University, Islamabad to gain Islamic knowledge. For some Muslim groups in China, such as Hui and Salars minorities, coeducation is frowned upon; for some groups such as Uyghurs, it is not.[153]
Famous Muslims in China[edit]
- Generals from the Ming era:
- Generals from the Qing era:
- Dong Fuxiang
- Ma Julung
- Ma Xinyi (late Qing dynasty)
- Generals in the Republic of China:
- Ma Zhancang
- Ma Fuyuan
- Ma Ju-lung
- Ma Zhanhai
- Bai Chongxi
- Ma Ching-chiang (Lt. General)
- Warlords of the Ma clique during the Republic of China era:
- Generals from the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army):
- Du Wenxiu, Ma Hualong and Ma Zhan'ao, leaders of the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan and the Muslim rebellion in northwestern China.
- Ma Shenglin, great-uncle of Ma Shaowu and rebel during the Panthay Rebellion.
- Liu Bin Di, Hui Kuomintang officer who died while fighting against Uyghur rebels during the Ili Rebellion.
- Ma Zhanshan, guerilla during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
- Ma Xiao, General (Liu Wenhui).
- Zuo Baogui (左寶貴; 1837–1894), Qing Muslim general from Shandong who died while defending Pingyang, Korea, from the Japanese.[154]
- Liu Zhi (c. 1660 – c. 1739), Islamic author (Qing dynasty).
- Qi Jingyi (1656–1719), Sufi master who introduced the Qadiriyyah school to China.
- Ma Laichi (1681?-1766?), Sufi master who brought the Khufiyya Naqshbandi movement to China.
- Ma Mingxin (1719–1781), founder of the Jahriyya Naqshbandi movement.
- Ma Wanfu, founder of the Yihewani.
- Ma Qixi(1857–1914), founder of the Xidaotang.
- Ma Yuanzhang, Jahriyya Sufi leader.
- Hu Songshan (1880–1956), Yihewani reformer and Chinese nationalist.
Scholars and writers[edit]
- Bai Shouyi, historian.
- Tohti Tunyaz, historian.
- Yusuf Ma Dexin, first translator of the Qur'an into Chinese.
- Muhammad Ma Jian, author of the most popular Chinese translation of the Qur'an.
- Wang Daiyu, Master Supervisor of the Imperial Observatory (Ming dynasty).[155]
- Zhang Chengzhi, contemporary author.
- Ma Linyi Gansu Minister of Education.
- Pai Hsien-yung, contemporary author, son of Bai Chongxi.
Martial arts[edit]
- Ma Xianda, martial artist.
- Wang Zi-Ping, member of the The Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the "Boxers") during the Boxer Rebellion.
- Chang Tung Sheng, martial artist and Shuai jiao teacher.
- Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang, calligrapher.
See also[edit]
- Islamic Association of China
- Islam in Hong Kong
- Islam in Macau
- Islam in Taiwan
- The Hundred-word Eulogy
- Chinese Muslim cuisine
- Islam by country
- Religion in China
- Demographics of the People's Republic of China
- Christianity in China
- ^ Currently, "Hui" in Chinese refers to both Islamic and ethnic Hui Chinese. Previously, however, "Hui" referred to Islam and all Chinese Muslims, particularly ethnic Hui and Uyghurs.
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For instance, in the early years of Emperor Hongwu's reign in the Ming Dynasty ' His Majesty ordered mosques to be built in Xijing and Nanjing [the capital cities], and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong. His Majesty also personally wrote baizizan [a eulogy] in praise of the Prophet's virtues'. The Ming Emperor Xuanzong once issued imperial orders to build a mosque in Nanjing in response to Zheng He's request (Liu Zhi, 1984 reprint: 358-374). Mosques built by imperial decree raised the social position of Islam, and assistance from upper-class Muslims helped to sustain religious sites in certain areas.
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- ^ Savadove, Bill. 2005. "Faith Flourishes in an Arid Wasteland; Muslim Sect in Ningxia Accepts Beijing's Authority and Is Allowed to Build a Virtual Religious State." South China Morning Post, August 17.
- ^ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, p. 31.
- ^ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, pp. 46-7.
- ^ Central Asia Monitor 1993, p. 19.
- ^ Mackerras 2003, p. 118.
- ^ Svanberg & Westerlund 2012, p. 202.
- ^ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, p. 81.
- ^ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, p. 129.
- ^ Svanberg & Westerlund 2012, p. 205.
- ^ Starr 2004, p. 311.
- ^ Starr 2004, p. 113.
- ^ Van Wie Davis, Elizabath. "Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China". Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Safran, William (1998). Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Psychology Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-7146-4921-X. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
- ^ Zenn, Jacob (March 17, 2011). [tt_news=37662&no_cache=1#.Vf3TiJdGQrc "Jihad in China? Marketing the Turkistan Islamic Party"]. Terrorism Monitor (The Jamestown Foundation) 9 (11). Retrieved 18 September 2015.
- ^ Zenn, Jacob (February 2013). "Terrorism and Islamic Radicalization in Central Asia A Compendium of Recent Jamestown Analysis" (PDF). p. 57. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
- ^ Demick, Barbara (23 June 2008). "Tibetan-Muslim tensions roil China". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Mayaram, Shail (2009). The other global city. Taylor Francis US. p. 75. ISBN 0-415-99194-3. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
- ^ "Police shut Muslim quarter in Lhasa". CNN (LHASA, Tibet). updated 11:36 a.m. EDT, Fri March 28, 2008. Check date values in:
- ^ Fischer, Andrew Martin (September 2005). "CLOSE ENCOUNTERS OF AN INNER - ASIAN KIND : TIBETAN -MUSLIM COEXISTENCE AND CONFLICT IN TIBET , PAST AND PRESENT" (PDF). CSRC Working Paper series (Crisis States Research Centre) (Working Paper no.68): 1–2. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
- ^ ibid. p. 17.
- ^ ibid. p. 19.
- ^ Barnett 1963, p. 183
- ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov.
- ^ Counting up the number of people of traditionally Muslim nationalities who were enumerated in the 1990 census gives a total of 17.6 million, 96% of whom belong to just three nationalities: Hui 8.6 million, Uyghurs 7.2 million, and Kazakhs 1.1 million. Other nationalities that are traditionally Muslim include Kyrghyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Tatars, Salar, Bonan, and Dongxiang. See Dru C. Gladney, "Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism?", Paper presented at Symposium on Islam in Southeast Asia and China, Hong Kong, 2002. Available at islamsymposium.cityu.edu.hk. The 2000 census reported a total of 20.3 million members of Muslim nationalities, of which again 96% belonged to just three groups: Hui 9.8 million, Uyghurs 8.4 million, and Kazakhs 1.25 million.
- ^ "Mapping the Global Muslim Population." Pew Research Center. October 2009. See pages 13 and 45.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report for 2011". state.gov. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ "Region: Asia-Pacific". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 27 January 2011.
- ^ "Exemptions in China's 'one-child policy' - iLook China". iLook China.
- ^ Broomhall 1910, p. 214 Quote: "No definite information has been received concerning Mongolia".
- ^ Broomhall 1910, pp. 196–215
- ^ Broomhall 1910, pp. 216–217
- ^ Ferm 1976, p. 145
- ^ "Chinese Muslims forge isolated path", BBC News, 2004-09-15, retrieved 2008-08-05
- ^ Esposito 1999, p. 458
- ^ Mohammed Rasooldeen; Ali Al-Zahrani (2006-07-06), Legacy of Chinese Muslim Mariner Relived, retrieved 2010-09-19
- ^ "His brother, Ma Lin, went to Mecca and found common cause with the Muslim modernist movements in the Middle East, in contrast to Ma Fuxiang's Confucian - Google Search". google.com.
- ^ Dudoignon, Komatsu & Kosugi 2006, p. 315
- ^ Lipman 1997, p. 209
- ^ A record 10,700 Chinese Muslims to perform Hajj, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Hajj, 2007-11-15, retrieved 2010-09-19
- ^ a b The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.249-253
- ^ Cetinkaya, Kenan (2011). "Ren and Imán: A Comparative Approach to Confucian and Islamic Virtues" (PDF). International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology 1 (1): 135. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
- ^ Bulag 2002, p. 51
- ^ Bulag 2002, p. 52
- ^ American Water Works Association (1947). Journal of the American Water Works Association, Volume 39, Part 1. The Association. p. 24. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ HORLEMANN, BIANCA. "The Divine Word Missionaries in Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang, 1922–1953: A Bibliographic Note". Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. EDINBURGH: T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved January 1, 2011.(Original from Harvard University)
- ^ Touraj Atabaki, Sanjyot Mehendale; Sanjyot Mehendale (2005). Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora. Psychology Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-415-33260-6. Retrieved January 1, 2011.
- ^ James Legge (1880). The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity. LONDON: Hodder and Stoughton. p. 111. Retrieved June 28, 2010.(Original from Harvard University)
- ^ BBC 2002, China Islamic Association
- ^ CHINA HERITAGE NEWSLETTER China Heritage Project, The Australian National University ISSN 1833-8461 No. 5, March 2006
- ^ James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ^ Christian Literature Society for India, Hartford Seminary Foundation (1920). Samuel Marinus Zwemer, eds. The Moslem World, Volume 10. Hartford Seminary Foundation. p. 379. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
- ^ a b Cowen, Jill S. (July–August 1985), "Muslims in China: The Mosque", Saudi Aramco World: 30–35, retrieved 2006-04-08
- ^ The Muslim History of China
- ^ "Let's Go China 5th Edition". google.com.
- ^ Halal Food in China from Muslim2China
- ^ Halal Food
- ^ "Error". islamicfinance.de.
- ^ http://club.ntu.edu.tw/~ntubachi/Bajiquan/en_about.htm
- ^ Dillon 1999, p. 104
- ^ Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-295-97644-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Ruth Hayhoe (1996). China's universities, 1895-1995: a century of cultural conflict. Taylor & Francis. p. 202. ISBN 0-8153-1859-6. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
- ^ A memorial to him was built.[where?] Aliya Ma Lynn (2007). Muslims in China. University Press. p. 44. ISBN 0-88093-861-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Called "Master of the Four Religions" due to his knowledge of Islam, Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. British and Muslim?
- ALLÈS, ÉLISABETH; CHÉRIF-CHEBBI, LEÏLA; HALFON, CONSTANCE-HÉLÈNE (2003). Translated from the French by Anne Evans. "Chinese Islam: Unity and Fragmentation" (PDF). Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions (Keston Institute) 31 (1): 7–35. doi:10.1080/0963749032000045837. ISSN 0963-7494. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- Broomhall, Marshall (1910), Islam in China: a neglected problem, China Inland Mission, OCLC 347514. A 1966 reprint by Paragon Book Reprint is available; written with a strong Christian missionary point of view, but contains valuable first-hand evidence and photographs.
- Keim, Jean (1954), "Les Musulmans Chinois", France-Asie 10, OCLC 457005588
- Ting, Dawood C. M. (1958), "Chapter 9: Islamic Culture in China", in Morgan, Kenneth W., Islam—The Straight Path: Islam Interpreted by Muslims, New York: The Ronald Press Company, pp. 344–374, OCLC 378570
- Reischauer, Edwin O.; Fairbank, John K. (1960), East Asia: The Great Tradition, Houghton Mifflin, OCLC 994133
- Barnett, A. Doak (1963), China on the Eve of Communist Takeover, Praeger publications in Russian history and world communism 130, New York: Praeger, OCLC 412125
- Ferm, Vergilius, ed. (1976), An Encyclopedia of Religion (reprinted ed.), Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 978-0-8371-8638-2; first published as Ferm, ed. (1945), New York: Philosophical Library, OCLC 263969 Missing or empty
|title=(help). 1976 reprint is unrevised.
- American Water Works Association (1947), Journal of the American Water Works Association, Volume 39, Part 1, The Association
- Fairbank, John King; Liu, Kwang-ching; Twitchett, Denis Crispin (1980), Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22029-7
- Forbes, Andrew, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986; republished Bangkok: White Lotus, 2010)
- Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (1997, 2011). Traders of the Golden Triangle. Bangkok: Teak House, 1997; republished Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books, 2011. ASIN: B006GMID5K
- Goldman, Merle (1986), "Religion in Post-Mao China", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 483 (1): 146–156, doi:10.1177/0002716286483001013
- Gernet, Jacques (1996), A History of Chinese Civilization (2nd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-49712-4
- Lipman, Jonathan Newman (1997), Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, ISBN 0-295-97644-6
- Esposito, John L. (1999), The Oxford history of Islam, United States of America: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-510799-3
- Dillon, Michael (1999), China's Muslim Hui Community, Curzon, ISBN 0-7007-1026-4
- Gillette, Maris Boyd (2000), Between Mecca and Beijing: modernization and consumption among urban Chinese Muslims, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-3694-4
- Uradyn Erden Bulag (2002), Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-1144-8
- Rubin, Barry (2000), Guide to Islamist Movements, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 0-7656-1747-1
- Israeli, Raphael (2002), Islam in China, United States of America: Lexington Books, ISBN 0-7391-0375-X
- Islam in China (650-present), Religion and Ethics, BBC, 2002, retrieved 2010-03-15
- Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman; Northrup, David (2005), The Earth and Its Peoples, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-618-42770-8
- Levene, Mark (2005), Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I. B.Tauris, ISBN 1-84511-057-9
- Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu, Yasushi Kosugi (2006), Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-415-36835-9
- Armijo, Jackie (2006), "Islamic Education in China", Harvard Asia Quarterly 10 (1), archived from the original on 2007-09-28
- Giersch, Charles Patterson (2006), Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier, Harvard University Press, ISBN 1-84511-057-9
- Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon, eds. (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Volume 5 of International Dictionary of Historic Places (illustrated, annotated ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1884964044. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Islam in China, Hui and Uyghurs: between modernization and sinicization, the study of the Hui and Uyghurs of China, Jean A. Berlie, White Lotus Press editor, Bangkok, Thailand, published in 2004. ISBN 974-480-062-3, ISBN 978-974-480-062-6.
- Cetinkaya, Kenan (2011), "Ren and Imán: A Comparative Approach to Confucian and Islamic Virtues" (PDF), International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology 1 (1): 135–143, retrieved 28 June 2013
- This article incorporates text from The Moslem World, Volume 10, by Christian Literature Society for India, Hartford Seminary Foundation, a publication from 1920 now in the public domain in the United States.
- This article incorporates text from Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8, by James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray, a publication from 1916 now in the public domain in the United States.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islam in China.
- Asia Times Online: China News - Islam with Chinese characteristics
- Islam in China
- islamawareness.net
- (Chinese) www.islamcn.net
- Islamic Architecture in China with lots of photographs
- A Sketch of the Islamic Law from 1796 China


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Von Wafer's Missed Dunk: A Sideline Exposé
Sure, the best thing about the missed Von Wafer dunk on Monday night was him unknowingly flexing/basking in his own non-accomplishment afterward on the baseline, and then turning around to run back on defense only to find a teammate who'd recovered the live ball directly in his path. That teammate, Jermaine O'Neal, ended up being called for a violation because Wafer ran into him after he'd picked up his dribble, causing him to take another dribble. Boston turnover.
Actually, the "best thing" was that Wafer's dunk would have put the Celtics up four points with three minutes left in overtime; Washington ended up winning by one point. But another "thing" about the failed dunk attempt was the warm towel and icy-hot rubdown that JaVale McGee and Andray Blatche offered Wafer as he easily glided toward the basket, unimpeded and observed from a comfy distance by the defense. Maybe the courteous treatment actually helped Wafer blow his easy dunk off the rim. We'll never know.
What we do know is what the whole event looked like from the sideline, in picture form, and partially obscured by referee Dick Bavetta:
The Dunk Attempt.
The Rebound.
The Gaffe.
The Reaction.
The Smirk.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Most visitors to the Albright-Knox Art Gallery make a point of exploring the amazing Fine Art Collection in the interior of the museum, but many overlook the world-class collection of art displayed on the museum's Grounds. Over the past few years, a number of dynamic additions have been made to the campus; however, it is important to note that a wealth of outdoor sculpture has populated the campus' lawns since the opening of the museum in this location in 1905.
This virtual tour explores both past and present installations of sculptures that reflect varied art movements and highlight the excellence of the museum's Collection. This virtual tour allows users, no matter where you are, to view and enjoy the museum's campus, and learn about each of the artworks on view.
Created by Albright-Knox Art Gallery
Do Ho Suh's "Karma," 2010
Augustus Saint-Gaudens's "Eight Caryatid Figures," 1906–07
Alan Sonfist's "The Rock Monument of Buffalo," 1980
Augustus Saint-Gaudens's "Eight Caryatid Figures," 1906–07
Liam Gillick's "Stacked Revision Structure," 2005
Fletcher Benton's "Folded Circle T," 1991
Installation of Jason Middlebrook's "Underlife," 2012–13
Jason Middlebrook's "Underlife," 2012-2013
Installation of Andy Goldsworthy's "Rising Stone," 2013
Andy Goldsworthy's "Rising Stone," 2013
Andy Goldsworthy's "Path," 2012–13
James Rosati's "Big Red," 1970–71
Installation of Tony Smith's "Cigarette," 1961–67
Tony Smith's "Cigarette," 1961–67
Beverly Pepper's "Zig-Zag," 1967
Previous Location of Fletcher Benton's "Folded Square Alphabet O," 1989
Installation of Nancy Rubins's "Stainless Steel, Aluminum, Monochrome I, Built to Live Anywhere, at Home Here," 2010–11
Nancy Rubins's "Stainless Steel, Aluminum, Monochrome I, Built to Live Anywhere, at Home Here," 2010–11
Kenneth D. Snelson's "Four Chances," 1982 - June 1982
Antoni Milkowski's "Diamond - #I of III," 1967
Franz West's "Meeting Point 3," 2004
Previous Location of Anish Kapoor's "Turning the World Upside Down, IV," 1998
Previous Location of Henry Moore's "Two Piece Reclining Figure No. 1," 1959
Previous Location of Lyman Kipp's "Flat Rate II," 1969
Leo Villareal's "Light Matrix," 2005
Alexander Liberman's "Bond," 1969
Charles Cary Rumsey's "Pizarro," 1910
Lyman Kipp's "Flat Rate II," 1969
Installation of Jaume Plensa's "Laura," 2012
Jaume Plensa's "Laura," 2012
Previous Location of Do Ho Suh's "Karma," 2010


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Gift cards > | Order by 7pm for next working day delivery > | FREE Click and Collect at over 100 UK stores >
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Learn about letters with Wordsearch Junior.
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Suitable for two to four players aged four and up, this fantastic game helps kids develop reading, spelling and vocabulary skills.
Rated 4.5 out of 5 by 8 reviewers.
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Rated 5 out of 5 by Julied59 Great I brought this for my niece for Christmas as she requested it 08 November 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by Cmzl29 Great learning game Bought for my 4 yo for Christmas and she loves to play, and there is plenty of scope for longevity as we haven't got to just the words alone discs yet. Only criticism would be it becomes more tricky to see the letter or picture underneath if you need to put more than one disc on top and the discs are a little fiddly for younger children. 11 February 2014
- Age
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text:
NEW ORLEANS — They said she was too frail, that the mold growing on the warped walls of her flooded house would make her ill. They said she shouldn't bother since her mottled, mud-filled home likely would be bulldozed anyway.
But Willie Lee Barnes, who recently turned 94, didn't listen.
Standing outside her house, she clasped her rosary in her frail hands and prayed. "Lord," she said, "I'm not asking that you climb the mountain for me. I'm only asking that you give me the strength to do it myself."
Strapping on a dust mask, Miss Barnes grabbed a shovel and with all her force began pounding the deformed walls of her living room until they fell to the floor. She filled buckets with the broken drywall, which her son ferried outside. Bucket by bucket and week after week, she kept at it, resting occasionally on a stool, the only piece of furniture in her house to survive the flooding. Flanked by a worn statue of the Virgin Mary, hers is now one of the few houses that's been gutted in the city's Lower Ninth Ward.
Ask her to explain how a nonagenarian succeeded in doing what thousands of younger families have failed to do, and Miss Barnes offers an analogy: "I'm like bad grass. Because it never dies. You gotta pull it up, and even though you do, it still grows back. I don't care how hard something looks, I'm still going to try."
In a city that still lies largely in ruin after Hurricane Katrina hit Aug. 29, life is pushing through like "bad grass," forcing its way through cracks in the pavement.
Those who choose to return do so in spite of the city's broken infrastructure, which nearly a year later remains in tatters: Nearly 60 percent of homes and businesses are still not receiving electricity or heating gas. Only three out of nine New Orleans hospitals have reopened. Only 56 of 128 public schools will enroll students this fall.
The city itself still has no master plan.
Still, even in the worst-hit neighborhoods, where homes were ripped from their foundations and spit into the street, and where mattresses still lie impaled in the branches of trees, the rebirth is taking place.
Those who have returned to live here proudly proclaim their existence.
"I'm back. R U?" asks a sign in the window of a flooded pickup truck at a house slowly being repaired.
Down the block, another sign stands outside a gutted home. "I'm Coming Home," it says — except "Coming" has been struck out with a bold, red line.
"This house is my soul," Carolyn Parker says. It has neither electricity nor running water, so each morning, until a government-issued trailer arrived last month, she walked to a nearby fire hydrant and screwed it open with a wrench. The water gushed out, and she filled two buckets. Then, she carried them back to her home, using them to bathe.
Throughout the city, institutions have learned to adapt, too.
For more than 150 years, those who attended Sunday Mass at the Church of the Annunciation heard the Scripture read in Elizabethan English. Now, the traditional Anglican Church's priest reads the ancient Scripture, still dotted with 'Thees' and 'Thous,' inside a doublewide trailer, parked in the flooded Broadmoor neighborhood. Because there is no air conditioning, the clergy shed their ornate wool cassocks.


text:
4941 search results for new album
Review: Phoenix's new album 'Bankrupt!'
Type: Post | Date: Tuesday, Apr 23, 2013The after-party to hits-rich 'Wolfgang Amadeus'
HitFix Mix | Lady Antebellum worked hard to bring you new album '747'
Type: Video | Date: Wednesday, Oct 15, 2014Lady Antabellum discuss their collaboration on 'The Best of Me' soundtrack and their upcoming album 747.
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Type: Article | Date: Monday, Oct 6, 2014Listen to 'Blame' feat. John Newman now
Skrillex draws inspiration from Kanye West for new album 'Recess'
Type: Article | Date: Wednesday, Mar 19, 2014Guests include Chance the Rapper and Passion Pit's Michael Angelakos
Pink Floyd is releasing their first new album in 20 years
Type: Article | Date: Monday, Sep 22, 2014'The Endless River' out on Nov. 10
Interview: Brantley Gilbert on new album, 'Just As I Am'
Type: Post | Date: Wednesday, Mar 19, 2014First single, 'Bottoms Up' rises to the top of the country charts
Jennifer Lopez's new album slated for June 17 release
Type: Post | Date: Tuesday, Mar 18, 2014Guests include Robin Thicke, Maxwell, and Tyga
33 million users 'accessed' U2's new album 'Songs of Innocence'
Type: Article | Date: Monday, Sep 15, 2014iTunes gave the album away for free ahead of Oct. 14 release to general public
Miranda Lambert 'ready to rock' as she preps new album
Type: Article | Date: Monday, Mar 10, 2014'Platinum' is out June 3
Album Review: Brad Paisley's wide-ranging 'Wheelhouse'
Type: Post | Date: Monday, Apr 8, 2013Hear his provocative song with LL Cool J, 'Accidental Racist'


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Home > City Tours > Hangzhou Tours > 5-day Hangzhou & Huangshan Tour
Vicky Wen
Tour designer
Within easy reach, Huangshan, aka Yellow Mountain offers an excellent escape for dwellers in Hangzhou. Our local Hangzhou and Huangshan tour guides will show you how beautiful a short trip can be.
- Return-trip visit from Hangzhou to Huangshan
- Perfect weekend trip for expats and travelers in Hangzhou
- Yellow Mountain and Hangzhou city highlights
Tour Itinerary
What's Included & Excluded
Price Inclusion
- Entrance fees.
- Meals listed in the itinerary.
- Private transfers.
- Private English-speaking guide and driver.
- Hotels listed in the itinerary.
- Service Charge & Taxes.
- China Life Tourist Accident/Casualty Insurance.
- Luggage Transfers.
Price Exclusion
- International Airfare or Train Tickets to enter or leave China.
- China Entry Visa Fees.
- Excess Baggage Charges.
- Personal Expenses.
- Any meals that are not mentioned in the tour itinerary.
- Single Room Supplement.
Tailor-make a China tour based on your needs.
Key sites in the three major cities Beijing, Xi'an and Shanghai are all included in this 8-day China tour. Plus, No hidden fees and No tourist traps at all!
Vernessa Zheng - Travel Advisor
800-9337181 (Free in US & CA)
from US $739 p/p


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Chandelier Lighting Fixtures & Collections
Typically used in entryways and dining rooms, but appropriate for use in any room, a chandelier can instantly make the room feel richer and more elegant. Chandeliers can make a striking addition to your interior design. Our assortment of chandeliers offers several size and style options, suitable for a wide variety of budgets.
ELK Lighting - 85004 - Cristallo Fiore 18 Light Chandelier$3,984.00
Savoy House - 1-2239-20-25 - San Gallo Slate 20 Arm Chandelier$3,998.00
Metropolitan Lighting - N6499-270 - Terraza Villa 13 Light Aged Patina Chandelier$3,349.50
Metropolitan Lighting - N6704-254 - Castellina 20 Light Aged Iron Chandelier$3,139.50


text:
Want to Move Abroad?
Get essential information on the best places to live, advice on navigating language and culture, and tips on planning a fact-finding trip—all from authors who have already made the move to live or work abroad.
Recent Moon Living Abroad Guides
Living Abroad Articles
- Moon Living Abroad New Zealand Author and educator Michelle Waitzman first visited New Zealand in 1998—and she's been hooked ever since. Now a New Zealand citizen, Waitzman outlines all the information you need to manage your move abroad in a smart, organized, and straightforward manner in Moon Living Abroad New Zealand. She offers straightforward tips and advice on how businesspeople, ...
- Moon Living Abroad France Journalist Aurelia d'Andrea knows what it takes to make the move to France—she's done it twice. In Moon Living Abroad France, she provides insight and firsthand advice on navigating the language and culture of this enchanting European country, outlining all the information you need to manage your move abroad in a smart, organized, and straightforward ...
- What I Love About Paris Whether it's mastering the myriad meanings of "oh là là" as you bask in the Parisian sunshine or enjoying classic French culinary delights, Aurelia d'Andrea shares her abiding love of living abroad in the City of Light.
- Moon Living Abroad London Writer and adoptive Londoner Karen White knows what it takes to make the move to London. In Moon Living Abroad London, she shares her seasoned advice on transplanting to this bustling English city. From obtaining visas and arranging your finances to finding employment and choosing schools for your kids, White uses her firsthand knowledge of ...
- Italy's Gay and Lesbian Culture All across Italy are visible and vibrant gay communities. Learn more about Italy's gay and lesbian culture, including why travel magazines regularly rate Italy as the top destination for gay travelers.
- LGBT Life in Costa Rica Gay life in Costa Rica is fairly similar to life in the U.S. in that it varies from region to region, city to city, even neighborhood to neighborhood. San José is known as a gay-friendly city, and all around the country there are pockets of openly gay culture.
- Gay and Lesbian Culture in Paris Though the Assemblée Nationale didn't vote to decriminalize homosexuality until 1982, the closet door has long swung wide open throughout Paris's history—a tradition that is happily embraced today in legal rights, day-to-day life, and festivals.
- LGBT Culture in Japan Same-sex attraction and love has long been a part of Japanese Buddhism and samurai tradition, according to historical and literary references. Compared to the United States, Japanese society seems rather nonchalant toward gender, as far as dress and mannerisms go.
- Living in Paris: Housing and Transportation Costs Both renters and buyers will find good housing values in France, but it's très cher (very expensive) to own a car in France, particularly in the big cities where forking out €50,000 for a permanent parking spot is not unheard of, plus maintenance, fuel, and insurance. Alternative transportation is a must.
- New Zealand: Your Study Abroad Adventure Studying in a foreign country is bound to be an exciting experience; in New Zealand, you can take that experience to new levels. Some students spend their days in New Zealand hiking up mountains, exploring active volcanoes, swimming and diving with whales and dolphins, or wandering through centuries-old ice caves. Here's how you can join ...


text:
Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
mzushi (needs class)
- slanderer (one who slanders)
This Swahili entry was created from the translations listed at slanderer. It may be less reliable than other entries, and may be missing parts of speech or additional senses. Please also see mzushi in the Swahili Wiktionary. This notice will be removed when the entry is checked. (more information) August 2010


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Chandelier Lighting Fixtures & Collections
Typically used in entryways and dining rooms, but appropriate for use in any room, a chandelier can instantly make the room feel richer and more elegant. Chandeliers can make a striking addition to your interior design. Our assortment of chandeliers offers several size and style options, suitable for a wide variety of budgets.
Maxim Lighting - Aurora 3 Light ChandelierPrice From: $178.00 - $186.00
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This game is so much damn fun. I got the achievement for doing every side activity in the game. I never get that achievement on anything, even other games I love. 507 more words
Tags » Saint's Row 3
Too Many Games: Saint's Row the Third
Saint's Row as a series has done an impressive job of transitioning from blatantly trashy cash grab designed to trick grandmothers into purchasing the wrong title for Christmas to legitimately interesting series. 485 more words
A to Z Challenge - S is for...
Day 20 of the challenge and today we are on S
S is for Street Fighter 2
The version I am talking about here is the one which was released for the Sega Megadrive with the full tile of Street Fighter II: Special Championship Edition. 2,244 more words
Saints Row: The Third Blog (DLC and the fungineer)
I really thought that I was done with this game. I really did. I sank 17 hours into the Steam version, completed it for a second time and I should be well on my way to the next game, which I am, but I came back to Saints Row: The Third for the major DLC. 528 more words
Saints Row: The Third Steam Review
Saints Row: The Third is an over the top, open world over the shoulder third person shooter with strong action, good controls and some over sexualized comedy. 1,305 more words
Saints Row: The Third Blog (glitches, war zones and tanks)
I've now played through the Steam version of Saints Row: The Third. The game not only brought chaos and war zones, but zombies and shark jumping. 964 more words
Saints Row: The Third Blog (all of the players in place and taking over the city)
I keep going further into my Steam replay of Saints Row: The Third. The game is a joy to play and a breeze to put in four hours straight. 641 more words


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President should do something to show his people that every single life is valuable and that he doesn't need to just sit down and count how many more lives are to be lost. Israel needs a good leader that can protect them from this kind of violence. This must end soon before the whole country collapses and blame him for his inefficiency as a leader thus creating more chaos in their country.
UN to hold off on separate Afghan bombing probe for now (Reuters)
from the article: Preparing for Israel's previous war, not its next peace


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How can knowing how DNA repairs itself help defeat cancer?
Copyrighted image Credit: The Open University / Karen Parker
Introductory level Duration 5 mins Updated 07 Oct 2015
Tags are a great way of finding unexpected links between pages. This cloud shows the most common tags for content in this section - choose one you like the sound of to discover lots more on that subject.


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featured deal
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Get ready for an evening of big hair, bracelets, and acid-washed jeans: The Ultimate Retro Party with The Mega 80s is the place to be for those loo...
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With some of the brightest stars in the action sports world launching themselves into the air on motorbikes, BMX, and even a jet-fueled wheel barro...
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Multiple Locations
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TiVo Inc
Campaign Finance$40,264 Given
Figures are based on itemized contributions reported to the Federal Election Commission and state agencies. Please note that:
- contributions under $200 are not reported, and so are not included in totals.
- only contributions from individuals and organizations to candidates are included. Various accounting measures and more exotic contribution types are excluded.
- contributions are matched based on organization and recipient name reported within each election cycle. Contributions using an incorrect or non-standard version of the name may be missed.
- corporate name changes and mergers may cause figures to differ from those of the Center for Responsive Politics.
- organization totals include known subsidiaries of the organization.
For more information, please see our campaign finance methodology page. Lobbyist bundling data is described on our lobbyist bundling methodology page.
Top Recipients
- PAC Color Block
- Organization's PAC(s)
- Employee Color Block
- Associated Individuals
Republicans vs. Democratsin dollars
State vs. Federalin dollars
Top PAC Recipients
- PAC Color Block
- Organization's PAC(s)
- Employee Color Block
- Associated Individuals
Lobbying$240,000 Spent
Figures are based on lobbying activity reported to the Senate Office of Public Records. Reported dollar amounts are required to be accurate only to the nearest $20,000. For organizations whose primary business is lobbying, we display total income and top clients. For organizations that are not primarily lobbying firms, we display total amount spent on lobbying and top lobbying firms hired.
For more information, please see our lobbying methodology page.
Lobbying on Behalf of TiVo Inc
Names of Lobbyists
Most Frequently Disclosed Lobbying Issues
- Copyright, Patent & Trademark,
- Telecommunications
Most Frequently Disclosed Bills
Bill No. Title S.23 Patent Reform Act of 2011 H.R.1249 America Invents Act H.J.RES.37 Disapproving the rule submitted by the Federal Communications Commission with respect to regulating the Internet and broadband industry practices. S.968 PIPA H.R.3261 Stop Online Piracy Act S.1228 Combating Military Counterfeits Act of 2011
RegulationsMentioned in 8 dockets; Submitted to 1 docket
All data is based on documents downloaded from Regulations.gov. The first table shows mentions: all documents that include the name of the company anywhere in the document or document metadata. The second table shows submissions: all documents where the submitter metadata included the company name. Each table shows the top 10 dockets, ranked by number of occurrences.
Matches are based on a search for the company name. Variations in the company name, such as acronyms, nicknames or alternate names may cause documents to be missed. The mention of a company name in a document may be incidental and does not necessarily indicate that the company has any relevance to the document. Company names that are common English words may erroneously match with text that is not referring to the company.
Not all agencies submit public comments to Regulations.gov. For a list of participating and non-participating agencies see here. Agencies that do submit to Regulations.gov have varying levels of accuracy and completeness.
Regulations and public comments can be downloaded in bulk here.
The tables show occurrences of "TiVo Inc" in public comments on proposed federal regulations.
Documents Submitted by the Organization
View all submissions data for TiVo Inc
- Submissions
- Agency
- Docket
- Date
Mentions in Document Text
- Mentions
- Agency
- Docket
- Date
View all mentions data for TiVo Inc
- Toggle 1 SEC Self-Regulatory Organizations; Proposed Rule Changes: International Securities Exchange, LLC 2012
- Toggle 1 ITC Complaints: Certain Set-Top Boxes, and Hardware and Software Components Thereof 2011
- Toggle 1 FCC Carriage of Digital Television Broadcast Signals 2012
- Toggle 1 FDA Patent Term Extension Application for SAPIEN®, U.S. Patent No. 5,411,552 2012
- Toggle 1 FCC Media Bureau Seeks Comment on TiVo's Request for Clarification and Waiver of Commission's Audiovisual Output Requirement 2012
- Toggle 1 EERE Energy Conservation Program: Test Procedure for Set-Top Boxes 2012
- Toggle 1 SEC Self-Regulatory Organizations; Proposed Rule Changes: Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Inc. 2012
- Toggle 1 EIB Sunshine Act Notices - FY 2012 2011