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Foreign relations of Australia
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The foreign relations of Australia are influenced by its position as a leading trading nation and as a significant donor of humanitarian aid. Australia's foreign policy is guided by a commitment to multilateralism and regionalism, as well as to strong bilateral relations with its allies. Key concerns include free trade, terrorism, refugees, economic cooperation with Asia and stability in the Asia-Pacific. Australia is active in the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Australia's imports of major weapons increased 65 per cent between 2005–2009 and 2010–14, making it the sixth largest importer in the world according to SIPRI.[1]
It has become steadfastly allied with New Zealand, through long-standing ANZAC ties dating back to the early 1900s, as well as the United States, throughout the Cold War and since. With the rapid growth in trade relations with China, however, Australia has been debating whether to shift its emphasis to Asia.[2] A major debate has been underway with a large numbers of refugees streaming into Australia, often via very dangerous smuggling.[3][4]
- 1 History
- 2 International agencies, treaties, and agreements
- 3 Trade
- 4 Foreign missions
- 5 Oceania
- 6 Southeast and East Asia
- 7 Americas
- 8 Europe
- 9 South Asia and Central Asia
- 10 Western Asia
- 11 Africa
- 12 International disputes
- 13 See also
- 14 References
- 15 Further reading
- 16 External links
Before the Second World War, London handled most of Australia's foreign policy. The critical decision during the war was to more closely align the military and the diplomacy with the United States. The first accredited diplomat sent to any foreign country was B. G. Casey, appointed in January 1940.[5] Since 1941, United States has been the most important ally and trading partner. Australian concluded an agreement in 1944 with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact).[6] After the war, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch (1945–49).[7]
Australia was one of the founders of both the United Nations and the South Pacific Commission (1947), and in 1950, it proposed the Colombo Plan to assist developing countries in Asia. In addition to contributing to UN forces in the Korean War – it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States – Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the communist revolt in Malaya in 1948–60 and later to combat the Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak in 1963–65.[8]
Australia sent troops to repel communism and assist South Vietnamese and American forces in the Vietnam War, in a move that stirred up antiwar activism at home.[9] It joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War in 1991. Australia has been active in the Australia – New Zealand – United Kingdom agreement and the Five Power Defence Arrangement—successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.
In 1999 Australian peace keeping forces intervened in East Timor following its referendum to secede from Indonesia. In 2006 Australia sent a contingent of Australian troops to the state in order to assist in the 2006 East Timor crisis.[10]
International agencies, treaties, and agreements[edit]
|This section does not cite any references or sources. (May 2011)
One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialised agencies. It was a member of the Security Council in 1986–87, a member of the Economic and Social Council in 1986–89, and a member of the UN Commission on Human Rights in 1994–96. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control.
Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group — countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations — and in the APEC forum. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory.
Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) — Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Brunei — and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues. Australia was a participant at the inaugural ASEAN sponsored East Asia Summit in 2005. Australia's place at the summit was only secured after it agreed to reverse its policy and accede to ASEAN's Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. Australia had been reluctant to sign the treaty out of concerns regarding how it would affect Australia's obligation under other treaty arrangements including ANZUS.
Papua New Guinea (PNG), a former Australian territory, is the largest recipient of Australian assistance. Starting in 1997–99 Australia contributed to the IMF program for Thailand and assisted Indonesia and PNG with regional environmental crisis and drought relief efforts.
Security treaties[edit]
Australia is party to the Australia, New Zealand, United States security treaty.
It has also been a party of the Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom force.
Overall Australia's largest trading partners are the United States, Korea, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom. Australia currently has bilateral Free Trade Agreements with New Zealand, the United States, Thailand and Singapore as of 2007. As well as this, Australia is in the process undertaking studies on Free Trade Agreements with ASEAN, China, Chile, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
- Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement
- Australia–China Free Trade Agreement
- Australia–Korea Free Trade Agreement
- Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement
- Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement
To bolster its foreign policy, Australia maintains a very well-equipped military, According to SIPRI, Australia is the sixth largest importer of major weapons in the world. The US supplied 68 per cent of Australia's imports and Spain 19 per cent. Australia is modernizing its armed forces but also acquiring weapons that significantly increase its long-range capabilities. Among the weapons imported in 2010–14 were 5 tanker aircraft and the first of 2 amphibious assault ships from Spain, along with 2 large transport aircraft and 4 airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft from the USA. Australia also received 26 combat aircraft from the USA, with 82 more on order (see box 3), as well as 8 anti-submarine warfare aircraft from the USA and 3 Hobart destroyers from Spain.[1]
Foreign missions[edit]
Australia has diplomatic representatives in over 90 locations. Australia has official relations with a number of countries. In a number of countries, Australia maintains an embassy, or in the case of Commonwealth countries, a high commission. Australia has consulates in many countries where there are no official government ties in existence, and these serve primarily to assist Australian travellers and business people visiting those countries. A number of Canadian missions provide consular assistance to Australians in countries in Africa where Australia does not maintain an office (and Australia reciprocates this arrangement for Canada in some other countries) through the Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.[11]
Due to the One China Policy of the People's Republic of China, in Taiwan the Australian Commerce and Industry Office unofficially represents Australia's interest. It serves the functions similar to other Australian Consulates. It's now been renamed to Australian Office in Taiwan since 2012
Australia is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and other regional organisations. It has High Commissions in Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. It has an embassy in the Federated States of Micronesia. Australia provides aid to many of its developing Pacific Islands neighbours, and to Papua New Guinea.
Australia's approach to the Pacific has included frequent references to what it has perceived as an "Arc of Instability" among its island neighbours. In August 2006 Australian Defence Minister Brendan Nelson stated to the Australian Parliament:
We cannot afford to have failing states in our region. The so-called 'arc of instability', which basically goes from East Timor through to the south-west Pacific states, means that not only does Australia have a responsibility in preventing and indeed assisting with humanitarian and disaster relief, but also that we cannot allow any of these countries to become havens for transnational crime, nor indeed havens for terrorism.[12]
As from early 2008, the Australian government led by Kevin Rudd began what it called a "new approach" to relations between Australia and the Pacific, appointing a Parliamentary Secretary for Pacific Island Affairs, Duncan Kerr. In February, Kerr and fellow Parliamentary Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Bob McMullan visited Samoa, Tonga and Kiribati in February, and stated:
- "Broadly, the approach is one of much more partnership and engagement on the basis of mutual respect. We're not going to be lecturing or hectoring, we're going to try and work together with them and I think we set a pretty good standard with the way we started. The relationships we've established with ministers and leaders in those countries [Kiribati, Tonga and Samoa] is very positive."[13]
Relations with Fiji are strained due to Australia's condemnation of the military coup which overthrew the government of Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase in December 2006. Military leader and "interim Prime Minister" Voreqe Bainimarama accused Australia of "bullying" Fiji by applying sanctions and insisting on a swift return to a democratic government. In March 2008 the Fiji Human Rights Commission published a report which alleged that Australia might have been planning an armed intervention in Fiji in late 2006. Australian Foreign Minister Stephen Smith dismissed the allegations, and stated: "The best thing that can happen in Fiji is not spurious suggestions about Australian activity but having an election, returning Fiji to democracy, respecting human rights".[14]
On 4 November 2009, Fijian military leader, Voreqe (Frank) Bainimarama, expelled the Australian high commissioner James Batley and his New Zealand counterpart. He said that Australia and New Zealand had tried to undermine Fiji's judiciary and weaken its economy. New Zealand and Australia disputed key aspects of Fiji's claims.[15] In response, Australia quickly expelled Fiji's acting high commissioner, Kamlesh Kumar Arya.[16]
Australian-Nauruan relations go back almost a century. Australia administered Nauru as a dependent territory from 1914 to 1968, and has remained one of Nauru's foremost economic and aid partners thereafter.
Relations between Australia and Nauru were essentially framed by the Pacific Solution, whereby Nauru housed a detention centre for unauthorised refugee applicants who had attempted to enter Australia, and Australia provided financial aid in return. The detention centre was closed by Australia in February 2008, causing Nauru to express concern regarding the future of its economy.[citation needed]
New Zealand[edit]
The relationship between Australia and New Zealand is exceptionally close on both the national and interpersonal scales.[17] This close relationship goes back to the time of the first World War and the ANZAC Spirit forged at Gallipoli. Former New Zealand Prime Minister Mike Moore declared that Australians and New Zealanders have more in common than New Yorkers and Californians.[18]
Papua New Guinea[edit]
Papua New Guinea is Australia's closest neighbor, and former dependent territory. Relations between Canberra and Port Moresby are close, although there have been tensions in recent years. Papua New Guinea has developed much closer relations with Australia than with Indonesia, the only country it shares a border with. The two countries are Commonwealth realms, and Papua New Guinea benefits from economic development aid from Australia.
Under the government of John Howard, Australia's relations with Michael Somare's Papua New Guinea worsened, primarily because of the "Julian Moti affair", but also because of the "shoes episode".
Solomon Islands[edit]
Under the government of John Howard, Australia's relations with Manasseh Sogavare's Solomon Islands were strained, primarily because of the "Julian Moti affair". Sogavare notably accused Australia of conducting neo-colonialism in the Solomons via RAMSI. On 1 October 2007, the Solomon Islands' Foreign Affairs Minister Patteson Oti addressed the General Assembly of the United Nations, and accused Australia of undermining his country's sovereignty:
Mine is too nationalistic a government to become captive to the fortunes which justify our perpetual retention under siege. My [country's government] remain[s] unmoved by Australian resistance to our attempts to reclaim our sovereignty and independence.[19]
This led Australia to exercise its right of reply, denying the accusation.[20] Relations subsequently improved when both Howard and Sogavare lost office in December 2007, and their successors -Kevin Rudd and Derek Sikua- immediately set out to improve relations between Canberra and Honiara.
Australia currently leads the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands, at the request of the Governor-General of the Solomon Islands.
Following the 2006 riots in Tonga, Australia sent police officers, at Tonga's request, to help stabilise the situation in the kingdom.
Southeast and East Asia[edit]
|Formal Relations Began
|East Timor
|See Australia–East Timor relations
Australia and East Timor are near neighbours with close political and trade ties. East Timor, one of the poorest countries in Asia, lies about 610 kilometres (380 mi) northwest of the Australian city of Darwin and Australia has played a prominent role in the young republic's history. Australia led the military force that helped stabilise the country after it chose independence from Indonesia in 1999 and has been a major source of aid since.
|See Australia–Brunei relations
|See Australia–Cambodia relations
|See Australia–Indonesia relations
Since Indonesian independence, the two countries have maintained mutual diplomatic relations, formalised co-operation (especially in the fields of fisheries conservation, law enforcement, and justice cooperation), a measure of security co-operation, broadening treaty relationships, co-membership of regional forums, and co-participation in several multilateral Treaties of significance.
Recent years have seen a deepening of Australia's aid commitment to Indonesia, and Australia has become a popular venue for Indonesian students.[21]
In 2008–09 Indonesia is the largest recipient of Australian aid at a value of $462 million.[22]
|See Australia–Japan relations
Australia-Japan relations are generally warm, substantial and driven by mutual interests, and have expanded beyond strong economic and commercial links to other spheres, including culture, tourism, defence and scientific cooperation.
|See Australia–Malaysia relations
Australia and Mongolia established relations in 1972. Relations have grown stronger in recent years with free-market reforms in Mongolia and high profile visits from leaders of both countries. Trade between the two countries is small but mainly based on mining and there have been steps to grow this. Australia provides foreign aid to Mongolia.[24]
Australia and Nepal have had diplomatic relations for over 50 years. They have a modest trade relationship but Australia provides more foreign aid than exports. Australia has a few points of interest such as in tourism, commerce and education.[25]
|North Korea
|See Foreign relations of North Korea
Diplomatic relations are stressed due to North Korea's nuclear weapons program. Since October 2006 visas have not been issued for North Korean citizens and North Korean ships have been banned from Australia's ports. Economically, relations are more modest; North Korea ranks 125th in the order of Australia's trade partners, with two way trade valued between A$6–11 million.
|People's Republic of China
|See Australia–China relations
|See Australia–Philippines relations
|See Australia–Taiwan relations
|See Australia–Singapore relations
|South Korea
|October 1961[28]
|See Australia–South Korea relations
|See Australia–Thailand relations
Each country has an embassy with the other.[30]
|Formal Relations Began
|See Foreign relations of Argentina#Australia
Australia and Argentina both have embassies in each other's capitals. They are both members of multi-national groups such as the G20 and Cairns Group and share common interests in many issues such as Antarctica and international peacekeeping. There is significant trade and investment between the two countries.
|See Australia–Barbados relations
Bolivia and Australia work together on a wide variety of issues. There is investment in mining services and technology. Bolivia and Australia are part of the Cairns Group. Still trade is quite small, In 2002 The Hon Mark Vaile visited Santa Cruz for the Cairns Group meeting. Bolivia has an embassy in Canberra. Australia has a Consulate in La Paz.
|See Australia–Brazil relations
Brazil has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate general in Sydney. Australia has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate in São Paulo.
|See Australia–Canada relations
Canada's and Australia's militaries have fought alongside each other numerous times including the Second Boer War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War and many United Nations Security Council-sanctioned missions. To maintain this military alliance, a Canadian Defence Advisor is stationed at the High Commission in Canberra to share intelligence.[32] Australia and Canada both contributed the International force in East Timor and both worked closely together to fight terrorism in Afghanistan
During the Australian gold rush of the 1850s, Chile became one of Australia's major food suppliers. After 1866, however, interaction and trade was minimal.[33] Today both are members of the APEC the Cairns Group.
Australia and Chile signed the Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement on 30 July 2008. The agreement came into effect in the first quarter of 2009.
Australia and Colombia are part of the Cairns Group. Colombia reopened its embassy in Canberra in 2008.[34] Colombia and Australia have a growing trade relationship in mining and Agriculture. Both armies fought alongside each other in the Korean war. Australia established an honorary consulate in Bogota in 1989.
Official relations began in January 1989. Cuba opened an embassy in Australia on 24 October 2008. The relations between the countries were given a fresh new start in 2009, When the foreign minister at the time Stephen Smith visited Cuba. Foreign Minister of Cuba Bruno Rodriguez, visited Australia as a guest of government in 2010.
Ecuador has an embassy in Canberra. Australia's embassy in Santiago, Chile is accredited to Ecuador. Trade between the two countries is small but is increasing and there are future opportunities to strengthen trade and investment.
|El Salvador
There is a large Salvadoran community in Australia. Caused by the Salvadoran Civil War, Which helps more links between the two countries.
Australia and Jamaica enjoy warm and friendly relations. Both are members of the Commonwealth of nations and enjoy sporting ties, particularly cricket. Trade is modest, with the balance heavily in Australia's favour.
|See Australia-Mexico relations
Australia and Mexico's partnership is strong and still increasing. The two APEC allies Australia and Mexico celebrated the 40th anniversary of diplomatic relations in 2006. Cooperation expansions recently has resulted in several commercial outcomes, including bilateral double taxation agreements signed in 2004, a memorandum of understanding on mining (MOU) in 2002, an MOU on Training and Education signed in 2003 an MOU on energy in 2005 and in August 2005 an MOU on investment protection and promotion agreement. Two-way trade is worth A$2.5 billion.[citation needed]
|See Australia–Paraguay relations
Australia's positive relations with Paraguay are growing. In 2011, Paraguay opened an embassy in Canberra, Australia opened a consulate in Asunción. As agricultural producers and exporters, they work together to achieve fairer international trade in agricultural products through membership of the Cairns Group and cooperation in other multilateral fora. Australia is also increasing its engagement with Paraguay through development cooperation and people-to-people exchanges. An increasing number of Paraguayan students are pursuing their education at Australian institutions.[35]
|See Foreign relations of Peru#Australia
Australia and Peru have an expanding relationship in all areas. The two APEC allies have worked together on a wide range of issues. The two countries have mutual interests. In 2006 the Australian Bureau of Meteorology has signed a memorandum of understanding to help with the El Nino and La Nina weather patterns.[citation needed] Another memorandum of understanding was signed on cooperation with education. With goodwill the Peruvian congress signed a Peru Australia Friendship league in 2004. Trade ties are strong and are growing. Many big mining companies have offices in Peru. Peru has an embassy in Canberra. Australia has an embassy in Lima.
|United States
See Australia–United States relations
While Australia has traditionally been aligned with the Commonwealth of Nations, it has strengthened its relationship with the United States since 1942, as Britain's influence in Asia declined. At the governmental level, United-States-Australia relations are formalised by the ANZUS treaty and the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement.
|See Australia–Uruguay relations
|Formal Relations Began
|See Armenia–Australia relations
The first Armenians migrated to Australia in the 1850s, during the gold rush. The majority came to Australia in the 1960s, starting with the Armenians of Egypt after Nasser came to power then, in the early 1970s, from Cyprus after the Turkish occupation of the island and from 1975 until 1992, a period of civil unrest in Lebanon. Person-to-person governmental links are increasing although they are still modest. In September 2003, The Hon Mr Philip Ruddock MP visited Armenia in his former capacity as Australian Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. In October 2005, the Armenian Foreign Minister, H.E. Mr Vardan Oskanyan, visited Australia. In November 2005, The Hon Mr Joe Hockey MP, Minister for Human Services, visited Armenia. The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia refuses to recognise the mass murder of Armenians in 1915 as Genocide, although the State of N.S.W passed a law recognising this several years earlier. The Australian Government elections of 2007 created an atmosphere in which the Opposition Labor party declared it will push for the Recognition of the Armenian Genocide in Australian Parliament if Labor wins the Elections.
|See Foreign relations of Austria#Bilateral relationships
|January 9, 1992[37]
|See Australia–Belarus relations
|Bosnia and Herzegovina
Australia gave recognition of Croatia in January 1992
|Czech Republic
|See Australia–Denmark relations
|22 September 1921[50]
|See Australia–Estonia relations
Australia was among the first countries to re-recognise Estonia's independence on 27 August 1991. Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 21 November 1991.[50]
Australia is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden), and through an honorary consulate in Tallinn. Estonia is represented in Australia through its embassy in Tokyo (Japan) and through three honorary consulates (in Claremont, Hobart, and two in Sydney). Australia is host to one of the largest communities of Estonians abroad, with 8,232 people identifying as Estonian in the 2006 Australian Census.[50][51]
|See Australia–Finland relations
Diplomatic relations were established on 31 May 1949. Australia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden, and through an honorary consulate in Helsinki. Finland has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate in Sydney.
|See Australia–France relations
France and Australia have a close relationship founded on historical contacts, shared values of democracy and human rights, substantial commercial links, and a keen interest in each other's culture.
|See Australia–Germany relations
|See Australia–Ireland relations
|21 May 2008[63]
|See Australia–Kosovo relations
|1 September 2006
See Australia–Netherlands relations
|18 March 1968
|See Australia–Russia relations
|See Australia–Serbia relations
|5 February 1992
|See Australia–Sweden relations
Australia has an embassy in Stockholm. Sweden has an embassy in Canberra as well as a Consulate-General in Sydney. Sweden is also represented by consulates in Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Darwin, Hobart, Melbourne and Perth.
The small but active Ukrainian community in Australia plays an important role in developing bilateral relations. In 2002 the Australian Federation of Ukrainian Organisations helped establish Ukrainian-Australian House in Kyiv to promote commercial ties.
|United Kingdom
|See Australia–United Kingdom relations
British-Australian relations are close, marked by shared history, culture, institutions and language, extensive people-to-people links, aligned security interests, and vibrant trade and investment cooperation.
|Vatican City
South Asia and Central Asia[edit]
|Formal Relations Began
Australia has had relations with Afghanistan since the 1860s when Afghan camel riders came to Australia. The Ghan train is named after them. Australia has been fighting against the Taliban in the Afghanistan war since 2001. Australia has contributed nearly $500 million in assistance[citation needed] to Afghanistan since they entered the war and has accepted many Afghan refugees.
|See Australia–Bangladesh relations
|See Australia–India relations[82]
Australia and Kazakhstan relations began in 1992. Since then Kazakhstan has opened a consulate in Sydney in 1996, but it closed in 2003 due to resource constraints.[citation needed] There have been a number of high level visits taken place between the two countries to sign cooperation agreements between the two countries. Trade relations are modest.
|See Australia–Pakistan relations
The relations between the two countries have been friendly, with former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf having visited Australia in 2005[89] and the former Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, also having extended a visit to Pakistan in 2005 as well, following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which had immensely targeted the northern areas of Pakistan. He also announced 500 new scholarships for students in Pakistan to study in Australia.[90]
|Sri Lanka
Western Asia[edit]
|Formal relations began
|See Australia–Israel relations
|Saudi Arabia
|See Australia–Turkey relations
|United Arab Emirates
|Formal Relations Began
|South Africa
|See Australia–South Africa relations
|See Australia–Zimbabwe relations
Both countries have full embassy level diplomatic relations.[117] Australia currently manintains an embassy in Harare,[118] and Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in Canberra.[119]
International disputes[edit]
Australia has a number of ongoing international disputes. Australia's role in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq without UN sanction has been a cause of protest. Presently, there is tension in Australia's relations with Indonesia over the release of Abu Bakar Bashir as well as Australia's recent decision to grant temporary protection visas to 42 West Papuans, after which Indonesia's ambassador was recalled.[citation needed] There was also minor tensions between the two countries in 2004–05 when Schapelle Corby was imprisoned for 20 years for possessing 4.2 kg of marijuana.[citation needed]
Australia has removed an Israeli diplomat after Israel forged Australian passports to carry out a Mossad assassination.[120] Relations with Israel further deteriorated after Israel attacked an AID ship in Gaza,[121] injuring an Australian. Former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd condemned Israel's actions.[122]
See also[edit]
- Australia and the United Nations
- Australia House (Ottawa)
- Australian contribution to the 2003 Gulf War
- Defence of Australia Policy
- List of Australians imprisoned or executed abroad
- List of diplomatic missions in Australia
- List of diplomatic missions of Australia
- Visa requirements for Australian citizens
- Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
- This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2000 edition".
- 2003 US Department of State website
- ^ a b "Trends in International Arms Transfer, 2014". www.sipri.org. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Amry Vandenbosch and Mary Belle Vandenbosch, Australia Faces Southeast Asia: The Emergence of a Foreign Policy (2014)
- ^ Janet Phillips, "Asylum seekers and refugees: what are the facts?" (Department of Parliamentary Services, Parliament of Australia, 2013) Online
- ^ Stewart Firth, Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy (2005)
- ^ Roger John Bell, Unequal allies: Australian-American relations and the Pacific war (Melbourne University Press, 1977)
- ^ Joseph Gabriel Starke, The ANZUS Treaty Alliance (Melbourne University Press, 1965)
- ^ E. G. Whitlam, "Australia, Indonesia and Europe's empires." Australian Journal of International Affairs (1980) 34#1 pp: 3-12.
- ^ Percy Claude Spender, Exercises in diplomacy; the ANZUS treaty and the Colombo Plan (1969).
- ^ Peter Geoffrey Edwards, A Nation at War: Australian Politics, society and diplomacy during the Vietnam War 1965-1975 (Allen & Unwin, 1997)
- ^ James Cotton, East Timor, Australia and regional order: intervention and its aftermath in Southeast Asia (Routledge, 2004)
- ^ "Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement"
- ^ Dobell, Graeme (20 August 2006). "The Pacific 'arc of instability'". Correspondent's Report.
- ^ "Aust, Pacific working on damaged relationship", Edmond Roy, ABC News, 10 February 2008
- ^ "Smith rejects Fiji accusations", The Australian, 2 April 2008
- ^ Chris Merritt and Patrick Walters, 'Fiji Expels High Commissioner',The Australian 4 November 2009, [1]
- ^ Samantha Maiden, 'Australia expels top Fiji Diplomat in retaliation move', The Australian, 4 November 2009, [2]
- ^ "NZ, Australia 'should consider merger'". Sydney Morning Herald. 4 December 2006. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
The House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs [found] "While Australia and New Zealand are of course two sovereign nations, it seems to the committee that the strong ties between the two countries – the economic, cultural, migration, defence, governmental and people-to-people linkages – suggest that an even closer relationship, including the possibility of union, is both desirable and realistic,"
- ^ Australia and New Zealand Cooks – Community – Allrecipes
- ^ Patteson Oti, statement at the 62nd session of the United Nations General Assembly, 2 October 2007
- ^ Australia exercises its right of reply to Patteson Oti's statement, United Nations General Assembly, 2 October 2007
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/media/speeches/foreign/1996/austindo.html see reference to '12000 students' from Indonesia
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/indonesia/indonesia_brief.html
- ^ a b Australian Department of Defence
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/mongolia/mongolia_country_brief.html
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/nepal/nepal_country_brief.html
- ^ Australian embassy in Manila
- ^ Philippine embassy in Canberra
- ^ a b http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/countries/asiapacific/countries/20071018/1_24404.jsp?menu=m_30_10
- ^ (Korean)Greetings in Korean embassy
- ^ Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs VIETNAM – AUSTRALIA RELATIONS
- ^ Australian High Commission to Trinidad and Tobago (Accredited to Barbados)
- ^ "Australia-Canada bilateral relations". Government of Canada. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
- ^ James Jupp (2001). The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins. p. 196.
- ^ Colombia, President of (20 June 2011). "Decreto 2182 de 2011" (PDF). Diario Oficial (decree) (in Spanish) (Bogotá: Colombia, National Printing Office) (48,107). ISSN 0122-2112. OCLC 500057889. Retrieved 14 December 2012.
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/paraguay/paraguay_brief.html
- ^ http://foreignminister.gov.au/releases/2012/bc_mr_120824a.html
- ^ http://australia.mfa.gov.by/en/bilateral_relations/aubel/
- ^ Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Australia
- ^ [ http://australia.mfa.gov.by/ru/Embassy of Belarus in Canberra]
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/belgium/belgium_brief.html
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/bosnia_herzegovina/b_h_brief.html
- ^ Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Bulgaria
- ^ Bulgarian embassy in Canberra
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/croatia/croatia_brief.html
- ^ Australian High Commission in Nicosia
- ^ Cyprus High Commission in Canberra
- ^ Australian embassy in Warsaw (also accredited to the Czech Republic)
- ^ Czech embassy in Canberra
- ^ Czech consulate in Sydney
- ^ a b c "Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Estonia". Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
- ^ "Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Australia". Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/germany/germany_brief.html
- ^ Australian embassy in Athens
- ^ Greek embassy in Canberra
- ^ Commonwealth of Australia. "About the Australian Embassy in Hungary". Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- ^ Hungarian consulate general in Sydney
- ^ Australia embassy in Dublin
- ^ Irish honorary consulate in Victoria
- ^ Australian embassy in Rome
- ^ Italian embassy in Canberra
- ^ Italian general consulate in Sydney
- ^ Italian general consulate in Perth
- ^ "Kosovo Country Brief". Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 3 October 2008. Retrieved 2009-03-28.
- ^ "Australia Recognises the Republic of Kosovo". Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 19 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
- ^ "Australia's International Relations". Australian Embassy and Permanent Mission to the United Nations, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Retrieved 2009-03-28.
- ^ "Flamuri i Kosovës shpaloset në Canberra të Australisë". Kosovo MFA. 15 February 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
- ^ Australian High Commission in Valletta
- ^ Maltese representations in Australia
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/poland/poland_brief.html
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/portugal/portugal_brief.html
- ^ Romanian embassy in Canberra
- ^ Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Romania
- ^ Australian embassy in Moscow
- ^ Russian embassy in Canberra
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/slovakia/slovakia_brief.html
- ^ "Diplomatic relations". Embassy of the Republic of Slovenia Canberra. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
- ^ Slovenian embassy in Canberra
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/spain/spain_brief.html
- ^ Ukrainian embassy in Canberra
- ^ Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Holy See Brief, http://www.dfat.gov.au/GEO/holy_see/holy_see_brief.html
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/bangladesh/bangladesh_country_brief.html
- ^ Foreign relations of India#Australia
- ^ "Ben Chifley". Australia's Prime Ministers. National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 July 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009.[dead link]
- ^ Clare, Nelson (7 January 2008). "Harbhajan Singh handed lengthy ban". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 25 April 2010.
- ^ India-Australia trade on new pitch
- ^ 'Curry bashings' strain Australia-India relations
- ^ 'Race' attacks spark Indian rally – BBC News
- ^ Labor ends ban on uranium exports to India
- ^ Musharraf on key Australia visit – BBC News
- ^ Earthquakes in South Asia – Australian Government
- ^ http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/sri_lanka/sri_lanka_country_brief.html
- ^ "Azerbaijan - Australia relations". Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand and Republic of Fiji. Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand and Republic of Fiji. 2013. Retrieved 2015-07-24.
Diplomatic contacts between two countries have been established on June 19, 1992.
- ^ Nina Markovic (9 May 2013). "It's complicated: a timeline of Australia–Iran relations in a historical perspective". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/iran/iran_country_brief.html
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/iraq/iraq_country_brief.html
- ^ Australian embassy in Tel Aviv
- ^ Israeli embassy in Canberra
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/lebanon/country_brief.html
- ^ http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/releases/2012/bc_mr_120625d.html
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/saudi_arabia/saudi_brief.html
- ^ Australian embassy in Ankara
- ^ Turkish embassy in Canberra
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/uae/uae_country_brief.html
- ^ Australian embassy Cairo
- ^ Egyptian embassy in Canberra
- ^ Egyptian Consulate-General in Sydney
- ^ http://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Consulate/view.rails?id=76
- ^ http://ghana.org.au/
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/ghana/ghana_brief.html
- ^ "Australia Supports the New Libya at International Conference". Australian Minister of Trade. 1 September 2011. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
- ^ Willingham, Richard (28 April 2011). "Australia Funding Libyan Evacuation Ship, Reveals Rudd". The Age. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
- ^ "Australia's FM says Libyan opposition NTC only representative of Libya". Xinhua. 9 June 2011. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ^ Oakes, Dan (10 June 2011). "Canberra backs new Libya". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
- ^ Pollard, Ruth (10 December 2011). "Australia extends a helping hand to Libya". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
- ^ http://dfat.gov.au/geo/nigeria/nigeria_brief.html
- ^ http://foreignminister.gov.au/releases/2012/bc_mr_120919a.html
- ^ "Zimbabwe – Country Brief". Archived from the original on 6 August 2007. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
- ^ "Australian Embassy, Zimbabwe". Retrieved 9 May 2008.
- ^ "Zimbabwe Details". Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
- ^ http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/24768/20100525/passport-row-between-australia-israel-worsens-with-the-expulsion-of-israeli-diplomat.htm
- ^ http://qcl.farmonline.com.au/news/world/world/general/gaza-flotilla-attack-australian-injured/1845801.aspx
- ^ "Kevin Rudd has condemned Israel over raid on Gaza aid ships". news.com.au. 1 June 2010.
Further reading[edit]
- Abbondanza, Gabriele. The Geopolitics of Australia in the New Millennium: the Asia-Pacific Context (Aracne, 2013)
- Beeson, Mark. "Issues in Australian Foreign Policy," The Australian Journal of Politics and History (2002) 48#2 online
- Bisley, Nick. "Issues in Australian Foreign Policy: July to December 2011," Australian Journal of Politics & History (2012) 58#2 pp 268–82 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8497.2012.01636.x
- Chieocharnpraphan, Thosaphon. Australian Foreign Policy under the Howard Government: Australia as a Middle Power? (2011)
- Curley, Melissa, and Dane Moores. "Issues in Australian Foreign Policy, January to June 2011," Australian Journal of Politics & History (2011) 57#4 pp 597–613 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8497.2011.01617.x
- Firth, Stewart. Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy (3rd ed. 2011) online 2005 edition
- Gyngell; Allan, and Michael Wesley. Making Australian Foreign Policy (Cambridge University Press, 2003) online
- Hundt, David. "Issues in Australian Foreign Policy: July to December 2010," Australian Journal of Politics & History (2011) DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8497.2011.01597.x
- Ungerer, Carl. "The 'middle power' concept in Australian foreign policy." Australian Journal of Politics & History 53.4 (2007): 538-551.
External links[edit]
- Australian Department of Foreign Affairs
- Australian Customs Service
- Australian Embassies, high commissions, consulates, multilateral missions and representative offices
- Index of Foreign Embassies in Australia


text:
Science Briefs
How People Organize Their Political Attitudes: The Roles of Ideology, Expertise, and Evaluative Motivation
By Christopher M. Federico
Christopher M. Federico is Associate Professor of Psychology and Political Science at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. He is also Director of the University of Minnesota's Center for the Study of Political Psychology. Dr. Federico received a B.A. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, and M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of California, Los Angeles. His research focuses on political psychology, with specific interests in the psychological foundations of ideology, the structure of attitudes, values, and beliefs, and racial attitudes. Dr. Federico is the current chair of the American Political Science Association's Organized Section on Political Psychology, and he was the recipient of the International Society of Political Psychology's 2007 Erik Erikson Award for Early Career Research Achievements.
Democracy provides people with the opportunity to be active citizens rather than passive subjects. However, the promise of participation comes with a number of challenges. Citizens must evaluate a large number of political objects (such as candidates, parties, and platforms) and then aggregate these preferences in a way which allows them to be mapped onto a simple vote decision. So, how are these challenges met? Political psychologists have often emphasized the role of ideology in the form of the bipolar distinction between "left" and "right" (Jost, 2006). The successful learning and "use" of this ideological continuum allows individuals to adopt ideologically consistent positions toward different political objects and it contributes to the crystallization of opinions about particular political objects (Zaller, 1992). Ideology is thought to do these things by bundling a large number of potential evaluative criteria together under the rubric of a single left-right dimension. Once an individual understands the logic of this dimension and locates herself somewhere on it, the otherwise-overwhelming task of evaluating the multitude of objects encountered in the political world and mapping the resulting attitudes onto simple political choices is eased (Sniderman & Bullock, 2004).
Despite these benefits, research suggests that most individuals are not able to use ideology when forming and organizing their opinions. This raises the question of what citizens need in order to make effective use of ideology. Information in the form of political expertise, or factual political knowledge, is the answer most frequently given (e.g., Converse, 2000). In contrast, almost no attention has been devoted to the role of motivation - that is, needs, goals, and wants - in the use of ideology. In an effort to fill this gap, my recent work offers a general perspective on the motivational underpinnings of the use of ideology. This perspective suggests that expertise will not be associated with the use of ideology unless individuals also possess a high level of evaluative motivation - i.e., the desire to form clear opinions about attitude objects. In the sections which follow, I review the theoretical and empirical bases for my approach.
Ideological Thinking in Mass Publics-and the Role of Expertise
One of the most significant and controversial conclusions of modern public opinion research is that a large portion of the public does not anchor its attitudes toward various political objects in terms of abstract ideological concepts. Converse (1964) famously argued that use of a central ideological reference point – to which judgments about specific objects are all tied – would manifest itself primarily as consistency in attitudes toward different issues at the same point in time, i.e., constraint. Secondarily, he suggested that a key feature of constraint – the presence of strong links between issue positions and a central ideological reference point – would also make it difficult to alter any one attitude without disrupting the internal consistency of an individual's belief system, thus encouraging attitude crystallization and stability (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). However, Converse's own highly-influential analyses suggested that neither of these hallmarks of ideological thinking were highly evident in samples of citizens from the mass public. Much of the subsequent research in this area has also found similar results, with most research indicating the broad majority of citizens do not appear to form opinions about issues and candidates that are ideologically consistent or stable (Campbell et al., 1960; Converse, 2000; Jost, Federico, & Napier, 2009; Zaller, 1992).
These findings are troubling, since political elites conduct business largely in the language of ideology. This implies that citizens who cannot make use of ideology-who are disproportionately concentrated in social groups that are already relatively powerless (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996)-will be at a disadvantage in comprehending those in power and holding them to account. So, it is clear that there are not only differences in the degree to which individuals use "sophisticated" conceptual tools like ideology, but also meaningful consequences associated with these differences.
In that case, what factors make it easier for individuals to "use" ideology in order to form and organize opinions? In this regard, researchers have zeroed in on political expertise, which is generally defined as the possession of greater amounts of factual political knowledge (Delli Carpini & Keeter 1996). A substantial body of research indicates that expertise is reliably associated with increased attitude constraint and to a lesser extent stability (Converse, 2000; Jost, Federico, & Napier, 2009; Zaller, 1992). Work in this area suggests that experts are more likely to display constrained attitudes because they possess more well-developed political schemas, or organized clusters of information about politics in general and about the values, beliefs, and issue stances associated with a given position on the left-right continuum (Fiske, Lau, & Smith, 1990). In turn, this knowledge provides citizens with a basis for adopting an informed ideological orientation based on a real comprehension of the content of different ideological positions (e.g., Stimson, 2004). The resulting orientation can then be used to make evaluative judgments about a broader set of political objects.
Motivational Influences on the Use of Ideology: Evaluation as a Goal
Given the wide range of evidence for the role of expertise, scholarship tends to depict the successful use of ideology as an informational problem: individuals will develop a substantively meaningful ideological orientation and ideologically organize their attitudes toward specific political objects if they have acquired enough information about the conceptual content of the left-right continuum. What it does not explicitly attend to is the role of motivational factors, i.e., the needs or goals that determine how individuals actually use expertise-based ideological reference points when making judgments.
But what is the actual "motivational factor" behind the use of ideology? My own approach suggests that the critical process relates to the need to use expertise for evaluative purposes. In this vein, the use of ideology actually consists of two different processes: a first process in which expertise provides individuals an understanding of the left-right continuum, enabling them to meaningfully identify themselves with an ideological position; and a second process in which the resulting ideological predispositions are used for a specifically evaluative purpose, i.e., to judge various political objects as "good" or "bad" (e.g., Jarvis & Petty, 1996).
In other words, the actual application of ideology may depend not just on expertise but also on citizens being motivated to evaluate political objects as good or bad. This suggests that it may be more appropriate to model the use of ideology as resulting from an interaction between expertise and the motivation to use predispositions rooted in expertise in an evaluative fashion. This point leads to a simple hypothesis which forms the basis for my recent work: the presence or absence of a motive to evaluate should moderate the positive relationship between expertise and the use of ideology, such that this relationship is stronger among those who approach politics with a high level of evaluative motivation. The necessary "evaluative motivation" may come from a number of sources. These include general individual differences like the need to evaluate, i.e., the extent to which an individual is motivated to spontaneously form evaluations of experiences, ideas, and social objects as either "good" or "bad" (Jarvis & Petty, 1996); as well as individual differences in motivation specific to politics, such as the extent to which the political domain is seen as important and relevant to the self (see Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995; Luskin, 1990; Thomsen, Borgida, & Lavine, 1995). While they have been less thoroughly explored in the program of research reviewed below, situational variables such as the extent to which goals related to impression formation are made salient in a particular context (Lavine, 2002; Lodge, 1995; see also Hastie & Park, 1986) should also matter.
Regardless of its source, evaluative motivation should have critical effects on the process by which attitude responses occur. As we have seen, ideology provides a common reference point that helps individuals reach a consistent set of evaluative conclusions about a wide variety of political objects, and it simplifies the process by which citizens map their preferences onto political choices offered by elites (e.g., candidates; Sniderman & Bullock, 2004). This suggests that the ideological self-placements afforded by expertise may have different levels of utility and different consequences among those high and low in evaluative motivation. On one hand, individuals with a strong evaluative motive should approach the political world with an inclination to form attitudes toward various objects. Since ideology offers a handy conceptual framework for the systematic evaluation of multiple issues, the ability to understand the left-right distinction and place oneself on it in an informed way should be more useful to these individuals. Thus, experts high in evaluative motivation may be particularly inclined to use the ideological orientation afforded by their expertise to simplify the process of evaluating other political objects, thus increasing the extent to which individuals display constraint and other manifestations of ideological judgment. On the other hand, experts without a strong evaluative motive should have little need to actually use the ideological orientation afforded by their expertise. Instead of relying on ideology, these experts may episodically construct evaluations of specific objects when prompted to do so (e.g., Wilson & Hodges, 1992). As such, their attitude responses should be influenced less by a common ideological reference point than by whatever happens to be salient, leading to less evidence of the use of ideology.
Evidence for the Interactive Model
Using data from three large surveys of American adults-the 1998 American National Election Study (ANES) Pilot, the 2000 ANES, and the 2004 ANES (American National Election Studies, 2009)-my colleagues and I have provided evidence for this interactive hypothesis with respect to a number of dependent variables indicative of the use of ideology. In several studies, we have used the short 2-item version of Jarvis and Petty's (1996) Need to Evaluate Scale developed by Bizer et al. (2004) to operationalize evaluative motivation in terms of individual personality differences. Our analyses using this measure indicate that people high in political expertise are more likely to approach politics in an ideological fashion when they are also high in the need to evaluate. For example, using data from the 1998 ANES Pilot and the 2000 ANES, we found that the usual positive relationship between expertise and ideological constraint was stronger among individuals high in the need to evaluate (Federico & Schneider, 2007). Similarly, in the 2000 and 2004 ANES, I have shown that expertise was more strongly associated with a tendency to evaluate ideologically antagonistic groups, candidates, and parties in an affectively opposed fashion among those with a high need to evaluate (Federico, 2004, 2007). In other words, experts were more "consistent" in their evaluations of opposed political actors-for example, evaluating liberals and Democrats positively if they evaluated conservatives and Republicans negatively-if they were also high in the need to evaluate.
In other studies, I have found similar patterns with respect to variables less directly related to ideological consistency. For example, using data from the 2000 ANES, I found that expertise is more strongly associated with extreme ideological self-placement-i.e., one that deviates more from a neutral, centrist position to either the right or left-among those with a high need to evaluate (Federico 2004). Similarly, in another set of analyses using the 2000 ANES, we have shown that experts are more likely to describe the differences between the Democratic and Republican parties in ideological or near-ideological terms when they are also high in the need to evaluate (Federico & Schneider, 2007).
In a more recent set of analyses, my colleagues and I have conceptually replicated this basic result using other operationalizations of evaluative motivation (Federico & Hunt, 2009). As noted earlier, domain-specific sources of evaluative motivation-such as personal involvement in politics-should also moderate the relationship between expertise and the use of ideology. Consistent with this prediction, we have found that expertise is more strongly associated with higher scores on composite measures of ideological consistency and extremity in ideological self-placement among individuals who are high in a key indicator of personal involvement in politics, i.e., interest in politics. Similarly, our analyses also indicated that a second indicator of personal involvement in politics-strength of partisanship-had a similar moderating effect, such that expertise was more strongly related to consistency and extremity among those who identified as "strong" Democrats or Republicans (as opposed to weak partisans or independents).
In sum, analyses using data from multiple samples of American adults provide a healthy pattern of support for the interactive hypotheses I outline above. Across a range of relevant dependent measures-including measures of constraint and other forms of ideological consistency and measures of ideological extremity-higher levels of political expertise are more strongly associated with greater evidence of an "ideological" approach to politics among those high in evaluative motivation. This pattern holds for both global sources of evaluative motivation (e.g., the need to evaluate) and sources of evaluative motivation specific to the political domain (i.e., interest in politics). All in all, the data thus point to the value of understanding the use of ideology not merely as an informational process rooted in expertise, but as an interactive process involving both expertise and the motivation to use it in an evaluative fashion.
Author Note
The author would like to thank the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research for the 2000 and 2004 National Election Study datasets used in the data analyses reviewed here. Please direct all correspondence to Christopher M. Federico, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, 75 E. River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455. E-mail
The American National Election Studies. (2009). The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Voting Behavior. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Center for Political Studies. Retrieved August 26, 2009 from www.electionstudies.org/nesguide/nesguide.htm
Bizer, G. Y., Krosnick, J. A., Holbrook, A. L., Wheeler, S. C, Rucker, D. E.., & Petty, R. E. (2004). The impact of personality on cognitive, behavioral, and affective political processes: The effects of the need to evaluate. Journal of Personality, 72, 995-1027.
Boninger, D. S., Krosnick, J. A., Berent, M. K., & Fabrigar, L. R. (1995). The causes and consequences of attitude importance. In R. E. Petty and J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 159-189). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Campbell, A., Converse, P., Miller, W., & Stokes, W. (1960). The American voter. New York: Wiley.
Converse, P. (1964). The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In D. Apter (Ed.), Ideology and discontent (pp. 206-261). New York: Free Press.
Converse, P. (2000). Assessing the capacity of mass electorates. Annual Review of Political Science, 3, 331-353.
Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Eagly, A., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.
Federico, C. M. (2004). Predicting attitude extremity: The interactive effects of schema development and the need to evaluate - and their mediation by evaluative integration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1281-1294.
Federico, C. M. (2007). Expertise, evaluative motivation, and the structure of citizens' ideological commitments. Political Psychology, 28, 535-562.
Federico, C. M., &, Hunt, C. V. (2009). Political expertise, political interest, and reliance on ideology in political evaluation and self-identification. Manuscript submitted for publication (copy on file with authors).
Federico, C. M., & Schneider, M. (2007). Political expertise and the use of ideology: Moderating effects of evaluative motivation. Public Opinion Quarterly, 71, 221-252.
Fiske, S. T., Lau, R. R., Smith, R. A. (1990). On the varieties and utilities of political expertise. Social Cognition, 8, 31-48.
Hastie, R., & Park, B. (1986). The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the task is memory-based or online. Psychological Review, 93, 258-68.
Jarvis, W. B., & Petty, R. E. (1996). The need to evaluate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 172-194.
Jost, J. T. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. American Psychologist, 61, 651-670.
Jost, J. T., Federico, C. M., & Napier, J. (2009). Political ideology: Its structure, function, and elective affinities. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 307-338.
Lavine, H. (2002). Online versus memory-based process models of political evaluation. In K. R. Monroe (Ed.), Political psychology (pp. 225-247). Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
Lodge, M. (1995). Toward a procedural model of candidate evaluation. In M. Lodge & K. M. McGraw (Eds.), Political judgment: Structure and process (pp. 111-140). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Luskin, R. C. (1990). Explaining political sophistication. Political Behavior, 12, 331-361.
Sniderman, P. M., & Bullock, J. (2004). A consistency theory of public opinion and political choice: The hypothesis of menu dependence. In W. E. Saris & P. M. Sniderman (Eds.), Studies in public opinion: Attitudes, nonattitudes, measurement error, and change (pp. 337-357). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Stimson, J. A. (2004). Tides of consent: How public opinion shapes American politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Thomsen, C. J., Borgida, E. & Lavine. H. (1995). The causes and consequences of personal involvement. In R. E. Petty and J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 191-214). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wilson, T. D., & Hodges, S. D. (1992). Attitudes as temporary constructions. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 37-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Now it's time to weigh in on the coming year. I've got more than enough predictions for what's going to blow up over the next 12 months. Among my guesses: Ramen will have its day, only to be pushed aside by pho; unctuous beef tendon will replace overdone pork belly; and macarons will upstage mini cupcakes. Other things that will go mainstream: sustainable seafood, chicharrones, castelvetranos, tamales, neo tiki culture, yakitori, and anything that ends in "wurst."
What are your predictions?


text: Alex Salmond, Scottish National Party Leader, is reflected in the glasses of a member of public during campaigning for the Scottish Parliamentary elections on May 3, 2011 in Dundee, Scotland. The political parties are on campaign trail on the final two full days of campaigning ahead of polling day. By Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images.


text:
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Votes: 79,851
20. Kill Bill: Vol. 1 (2003)
R | 111 min | Action
The Bride wakens from a four-year coma. The child she carried in her womb is gone. Now she must wreak vengeance on the team of assassins who betrayed her - a team she was once part of.
Writers: Quentin Tarantino, Uma Thurman | Director: Quentin Tarantino | Stars: Uma Thurman, David Carradine, Daryl Hannah, Michael Madsen
Votes: 665,623
21. TRON: Legacy (2010)
PG | 125 min | Action, Adventure, Fantasy
The son of a virtual world designer goes looking for his father and ends up inside the digital world that his father designed. He meets his father's corrupted creation and a unique ally who was born inside the digital world.
Writers: Edward Kitsis, Adam Horowitz, Brian Klugman, Lee Sternthal, Steven Lisberger, Bonnie MacBird | Director: Joseph Kosinski | Stars: Jeff Bridges, Garrett Hedlund, Olivia Wilde, Bruce Boxleitner
Votes: 250,211
22. Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971)
G | 100 min | Family, Fantasy, Musical
A poor boy wins the opportunity to tour the most eccentric and wonderful candy factory of all.
Writer: Roald Dahl | Director: Mel Stuart | Stars: Gene Wilder, Jack Albertson, Peter Ostrum, Roy Kinnear
Votes: 118,067
23. Hannibal (2001)
R | 131 min | Crime, Drama, Thriller
Living in exile, Hannibal Lecter tries to reconnect with now disgraced FBI agent Clarice Starling and finds himself a target for revenge from a powerful victim.
Writers: Thomas Harris, David Mamet, Steven Zaillian | Director: Ridley Scott | Stars: Anthony Hopkins, Julianne Moore, Gary Oldman, Ray Liotta
Votes: 197,572
24. Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014)
PG-13 | 130 min | Action, Drama, Sci-Fi
A growing nation of genetically evolved apes led by Caesar is threatened by a band of human survivors of the devastating virus unleashed a decade earlier.
Writers: Mark Bomback, Rick Jaffa, Amanda Silver, Pierre Boulle | Director: Matt Reeves | Stars: Gary Oldman, Keri Russell, Andy Serkis, Kodi Smit-McPhee
Votes: 283,259
25. The Devil's Rejects (2005)
R | 107 min | Crime, Drama, Horror
The murderous, backwoods Firefly family take to the road to escape a vengeful police force which is not afraid of being as ruthless as their target.
Writer: Rob Zombie | Director: Rob Zombie | Stars: Sid Haig, Sheri Moon Zombie, Bill Moseley, William Forsythe
Votes: 72,583
26. The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008)
PG-13 | 166 min | Drama, Fantasy, Romance
Tells the story of Benjamin Button, a man who starts aging backwards with bizarre consequences.
Writers: Eric Roth, Robin Swicord, F. Scott Fitzgerald | Director: David Fincher | Stars: Brad Pitt, Cate Blanchett, Tilda Swinton, Julia Ormond
Votes: 425,564
27. Gangs of New York (2002)
R | 167 min | Crime, Drama, History
In 1863, Amsterdam Vallon returns to the Five Points area of New York City seeking revenge against Bill the Butcher, his father's killer.
Writers: Jay Cocks, Steven Zaillian, Kenneth Lonergan | Director: Martin Scorsese | Stars: Leonardo DiCaprio, Cameron Diaz, Daniel Day-Lewis, Jim Broadbent
Votes: 289,746
28. Beauty and the Beast (1991)
G | 84 min | Animation, Family, Fantasy
Belle, whose father is imprisoned by the Beast, offers herself instead, unaware her captor to be an enchanted prince.
Writers: Linda Woolverton, Roger Allers, Brenda Chapman, Burny Mattinson, Brian Pimental, Joe Ranft, Kelly Asbury, Chris Sanders, Kevin Harkey, Bruce Woodside, Robert Lence | Directors: Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise | Stars: Paige O'Hara, Robby Benson, Jesse Corti, Rex Everhart
Votes: 276,656
29. Seventh Son (I) (2014)
PG-13 | 102 min | Action, Adventure, Fantasy
When Mother Malkin, the queen of evil witches, escapes the pit she was imprisoned in by professional monster hunter Spook decades ago and kills his apprentice, he recruits young Tom, the seventh son of the seventh son, to help him.
Writers: Charles Leavitt, Steven Knight, Matt Greenberg, Joseph Delaney | Director: Sergey Bodrov | Stars: Ben Barnes, Julianne Moore, Jeff Bridges, Alicia Vikander
Votes: 43,859
30. The Thing (1982)
R | 109 min | Horror, Sci-Fi
Scientists in the Antarctic are confronted by a shape-shifting alien that assumes the appearance of the people that it kills.
Writers: Bill Lancaster, John W. Campbell Jr. | Director: John Carpenter | Stars: Kurt Russell, Wilford Brimley, Keith David, Richard Masur
Votes: 233,922
31. Batman Forever (1995)
PG-13 | 121 min | Action, Adventure, Fantasy
Batman must battle Two-Face and The Riddler with help of an amourous psychologist and a young circus acrobat who becomes his sidekick, Robin.
Writers: Bob Kane, Lee Batchler, Janet Scott Batchler, Akiva Goldsman | Director: Joel Schumacher | Stars: Val Kilmer, Tommy Lee Jones, Jim Carrey, Nicole Kidman
Votes: 177,761
32. The Phantom of the Opera (2004)
PG-13 | 143 min | Drama, Musical, Romance
A young soprano becomes the obsession of a disfigured musical genius who lives beneath the Paris Opéra House.
Writers: Gaston Leroux, Andrew Lloyd Webber, Joel Schumacher | Director: Joel Schumacher | Stars: Gerard Butler, Emmy Rossum, Patrick Wilson, Miranda Richardson
Votes: 91,314
33. Batman Returns (1992)
PG-13 | 126 min | Action
When a corrupt businessman and the grotesque Penguin plot to take control of Gotham City, only Batman can stop them, while the Catwoman has her own agenda.
Writers: Bob Kane, Daniel Waters, Sam Hamm | Director: Tim Burton | Stars: Michael Keaton, Danny DeVito, Michelle Pfeiffer, Christopher Walken
Votes: 198,751
34. GoldenEye (1995)
PG-13 | 130 min | Action, Adventure, Sci-Fi
James Bond teams up with the lone survivor of a destroyed Russian research center to stop the hijacking of a nuclear space weapon by a fellow agent formerly believed to be dead.
Writers: Ian Fleming, Michael France, Jeffrey Caine, Bruce Feirstein | Director: Martin Campbell | Stars: Pierce Brosnan, Sean Bean, Izabella Scorupco, Famke Janssen
Votes: 185,034
35. Hellboy (2004)
PG-13 | 122 min | Action, Fantasy, Sci-Fi
A demon, raised from infancy after being conjured by and rescued from the Nazis, grows up to become a defender against the forces of darkness.
Writers: Guillermo del Toro, Peter Briggs, Mike Mignola | Director: Guillermo del Toro | Stars: Ron Perlman, Doug Jones, Selma Blair, John Hurt
Votes: 229,182
36. Beowulf (2007)
PG-13 | 115 min | Animation, Action, Adventure
The warrior Beowulf must fight and defeat the monster Grendel who is terrorizing towns, and later, Grendel's mother, who begins killing out of revenge.
Writers: Neil Gaiman, Roger Avary, Anonymous | Director: Robert Zemeckis | Stars: Ray Winstone, Crispin Glover, Angelina Jolie, Robin Wright
Votes: 136,842
37. Shrek (2001)
PG | 90 min | Animation, Adventure, Comedy
After his swamp is filled with magical creatures, an ogre agrees to rescue a princess for a villainous lord in order to get his land back.
Writers: William Steig, Ted Elliott, Terry Rossio, Joe Stillman, Roger S.H. Schulman, Cody Cameron, Chris Miller, Conrad Vernon | Directors: Andrew Adamson, Vicky Jenson | Stars: Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, Cameron Diaz, John Lithgow
Votes: 427,350
38. Friday the 13th (2009)
R | 97 min | Horror
A group of young adults discover a boarded up Camp Crystal Lake, where they soon encounter Jason Voorhees and his deadly intentions.
Writers: Damian Shannon, Mark Swift, Mark Wheaton, Victor Miller | Director: Marcus Nispel | Stars: Jared Padalecki, Amanda Righetti, Derek Mears, Danielle Panabaker
Votes: 70,441
39. The World Is Not Enough (1999)
PG-13 | 128 min | Action, Adventure, Thriller
James Bond uncovers a nuclear plot when he protects an oil heiress from her former kidnapper, an international terrorist who can't feel pain.
Writers: Neal Purvis, Robert Wade, Bruce Feirstein | Director: Michael Apted | Stars: Pierce Brosnan, Sophie Marceau, Robert Carlyle, Denise Richards
Votes: 146,852
40. A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010)
R | 95 min | Horror, Mystery, Thriller
The spectre of a dead child rapist haunts the children of the parents who murdered him, stalking and killing them in their dreams.
Writers: Wesley Strick, Eric Heisserer, Wes Craven | Director: Samuel Bayer | Stars: Jackie Earle Haley, Rooney Mara, Kyle Gallner, Katie Cassidy
Votes: 70,804
41. Jack Reacher (2012)
PG-13 | 130 min | Action, Crime, Mystery
A homicide investigator digs deeper into a case involving a trained military sniper who shot five random victims.
Writers: Lee Child, Christopher McQuarrie | Director: Christopher McQuarrie | Stars: Tom Cruise, Rosamund Pike, Richard Jenkins, Werner Herzog
Votes: 208,721
42. Conan the Barbarian (2011)
R | 113 min | Action, Adventure, Fantasy
A vengeful barbarian warrior sets off to get his revenge on the evil warlord who attacked his village and murdered his father when he was a boy.
Writers: Thomas Dean Donnelly, Joshua Oppenheimer, Sean Hood, Robert E. Howard | Director: Marcus Nispel | Stars: Jason Momoa, Ron Perlman, Rose McGowan, Stephen Lang
Votes: 79,032
43. Riddick (2013)
R | 119 min | Action, Sci-Fi, Thriller
Left for dead on a sun-scorched planet, Riddick finds himself up against an alien race of predators. Activating an emergency beacon alerts two ships: one carrying a new breed of mercenary, the other captained by a man from Riddick's past.
Writers: David Twohy, Jim Wheat, Ken Wheat | Director: David Twohy | Stars: Vin Diesel, Karl Urban, Katee Sackhoff, Jordi Mollà
Votes: 115,023
44. Dredd (2012)
R | 95 min | Action, Sci-Fi
In a violent, futuristic city where the police have the authority to act as judge, jury and executioner, a cop teams with a trainee to take down a gang that deals the reality-altering drug, SLO-MO.
Writers: John Wagner, Carlos Ezquerra, Alex Garland | Director: Pete Travis | Stars: Karl Urban, Olivia Thirlby, Lena Headey, Rachel Wood
Votes: 188,749
45. The Lone Ranger (2013)
PG-13 | 149 min | Action, Adventure, Western
Native American warrior Tonto recounts the untold tales that transformed John Reid, a man of the law, into a legend of justice.
Writers: Justin Haythe, Ted Elliott, Terry Rossio | Director: Gore Verbinski | Stars: Johnny Depp, Armie Hammer, William Fichtner, Tom Wilkinson
Votes: 168,465
46. The Elephant Man (1980)
PG | 124 min | Biography, Drama
A Victorian surgeon rescues a heavily disfigured man who is mistreated while scraping a living as a side-show freak. Behind his monstrous facade, there is revealed a person of intelligence and sensitivity.
Writers: Christopher De Vore, Eric Bergren, David Lynch, Frederick Treves, Ashley Montagu | Director: David Lynch | Stars: Anthony Hopkins, John Hurt, Anne Bancroft, John Gielgud
Votes: 149,037
47. A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors (1987)
X | 96 min | Horror, Thriller
Survivors of undead serial killer Freddy Krueger - who stalks his victims in their dreams - learn to take control of their own dreams in order to fight back.
Writers: Wes Craven, Bruce Wagner, Frank Darabont, Chuck Russell | Director: Chuck Russell | Stars: Heather Langenkamp, Robert Englund, Craig Wasson, Patricia Arquette
Votes: 45,610
48. A Nightmare on Elm Street 2: Freddy's Revenge (1985)
R | 87 min | Horror
A teenage boy is haunted in his dreams by Freddy Krueger who is out to possess him to continue his murdering in the real world.
Writers: David Chaskin, Wes Craven | Director: Jack Sholder | Stars: Robert Englund, Mark Patton, Kim Myers, Robert Rusler
Votes: 39,719
49. Machete Kills (2013)
R | 107 min | Action, Crime, Thriller
The U.S. government recruits Machete to battle his way through Mexico in order to take down an arms dealer who looks to launch a weapon into space.
Writers: Kyle Ward, Robert Rodriguez, Marcel Rodriguez | Director: Robert Rodriguez | Stars: Danny Trejo, Alexa PenaVega, Mel Gibson, Jessica Alba
Votes: 53,671
50. G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra (2009)
PG-13 | 118 min | Action, Adventure, Sci-Fi
An elite military unit comprised of special operatives known as G.I. Joe, operating out of The Pit, takes on an evil organization led by a notorious arms dealer.
Writers: Stuart Beattie, David Elliot, Paul Lovett, Michael Gordon, Stephen Sommers | Director: Stephen Sommers | Stars: Dennis Quaid, Channing Tatum, Marlon Wayans, Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje
Votes: 165,648


text: A Pair of Silk Stockings | IBDB: The official source for Broadway Information IBDB: The official source for Broadway Information Official Broadway League sites: - sites - broadway.org broadwayleague.com broadwayfanclub.com kidsnightonbroadway.com stagespecs.org tonyawards.com Quick Search For: In This Category: All Show People/Org. Theatre Season The credits for this production have not yet been completed or verified. A Pair of Silk Stockings Little Theatre, (10/20/1914 - circa. 5/1915) First Preview: Total Previews: Opening Date: Oct 20, 1914 Closing Date: May 1915 Total Performances: 223 Category: Play, Original, Broadway Opening Night Credits Production Staff Produced by Winthrop Ames Written by Cyril Harcourt Cast Barbara AllenAngelaCaroline BayleyMolly ThornhillSybil CarlisleIrene MaitlandEdward DouglasHugh MacIntyreKenneth DouglasSam ThornhillMary GlynnePamela BristoweP. Clayton GreeneCaptain BagnalH. Hamley-CliffordLady GowerCyril HarcourtSir John GowerHazel HousleyPaulineWalter McEwenA TrampGeorge OdellMorganByron RussellWilsonLawrence WhiteArthur Brock © 2001-2015, The Broadway League, All Rights Reserved. (Copyright and Disclaimer)


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Review of MLB at Bat – The Ultimate Baseball Fan App
One Strike.
Game 6 of the 2011 World Series. As a die hard Texas Rangers fan, it was going to be the shining moment after 40 years of frustration for the franchise. But like Chicago Cub fans, as I write this review, I'm reminded that there is always next year. The Rangers, in their second consecutive World Series, failed to get that last strike – twice – and ended up losing the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in Game 7. Fortunately for me and all Major League Baseball fans everywhere, next year is here! Opening Day has proven to be exciting and a good start to the 2012 campaign and with the Texas Rangers season opening up on Friday, April 6th, I can hardly wait to see if they can make it to their third World Series in a row.
For the third year in a row my baseball addiction will be supplemented with MLB's fantastic app MLB at Bat. The 2012 edition brings all of the great features of the 2011 version but now comes with the ability to subscribe to MLB.tv so you can watch hundreds of games throughout the season right from within the app. In fact, if you purchase a MLB.tv subscription you get the app for free. There are several options though which I will cover in this review.
I have contended publicly for a couple of years now that MLB at Bat is the best sports app in the App Store. Its closest rivals are NHL Game Day and F1 Timing App for Hockey and Formula One respectively. And perhaps it is my love of the Great Game that makes MLB at Bat hold a special place in my digital heart but I still contend it is the best. The depth of information provided in the app is stunning but getting to that information is quick and easy thanks to an intuitive user interface. Everything a baseball fan would want is in the app: Play-by-play both in video and local radio broadcasts, stats, scores, highlights and news from around the league are all in there. You can select your favorite teams which will have the app focus on that team(s) when you start the app. If you are a baseball fan there should be no long thinking about getting this app. It is a must, indeed a requirement.


text: Recognize your Louisville Athletic Club "Working Woman of the Week"! 1. Tell us about the person you are nominating below, or fax us at (502) 589-1377. 2. Listen to Lite 106.9. They will unveil a new Working Woman of the Week every Friday. Official Contest Rules. Winners will receive: * Dozen Roses from Nanz & Kraft * 1 month free membership to Louisville Athletic Club, including 1 month unlimited access to cross fit classes (value of $69.95 per month)


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Katherine Heigl to Leave 'Grey's Anatomy': Report
Katherine Heigl may be getting ready to check out, at last, from Grey's Anatomy.
Citing sources, Entertainment Weekly reports that the ABC show's creator, Shonda Rimes, has agreed to release Heigl from her contract; a final exit agreement still needs to be worked out.
PHOTOS: Adorable snaps of Katherine's daughter Naleigh and other celeb babies!
Heigl had been on leave from the hit show while she tended to her film career as well as her newly- adopted daughter, Naleigh, but was scheduled to resume shooting episodes March 1.
PHOTOS: See Katherine and other new Hollywood moms!
EW.com reports the actress never appeared at the studio on or after that date , and she may end up not shooting any additional episodes. An ABC rep declined to comment.
The rising star's relationship with the series has been increasingly bumpy over the years. In 2008, Heigl pulled herself out of the running for the Emmys, complaining that that she wasn't given any "material...to warrant a nomination."
PHOTOS: The best moments on Grey's Anatomy
Last summer, she told David Letterman that the "17-hour work day" on the show was "cruel and mean."