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A fiber optic reflectometer employs an optical fiber near a target substrate in a deposition chamber. The optical fiber is positioned within the chamber so that deposition of a thin film on the substrate also occurs on a portion of the optical fiber. A combination of monochromatic and broadband white light is transmitted through the optical fiber to the film deposited on it, and light reflectance measurements are made to determine, in situ and substantially in real time, such characteristics of the film as its growth rate, thickness, composition, surface roughness and refractive index. Such measurements can be made without bulk optics and without the precise alignment requirements of ellipsometry techniques and apparatus.
1. A system for in situ characterization of thin films deposited on a substrate, comprising:
a) a deposition chamber, including input means for introducing one or more process reactants into the chamber, output means for exhausting by-products from the chamber, and means for monitoring and controlling the environment within the chamber;
b) means within the deposition chamber for supporting a substrate onto which a film is to be deposited;
c) one or more optical fibers mounted within the deposition chamber so that the film deposited on the substrate is also deposited onto at least a portion of an optical fiber;
d) a light source disposed outside of the deposition chamber and coupled to the optical fiber for transmitting light through the optical fiber to the film deposited on the fiber and establishing a light reflectance pattern from the film on the optical fiber, wherein the light source comprises a source of monochromatic light and a source of polychromatic light and means for transmitting both types of light through the optical fiber;
e) detector means for detecting light reflected from the film on the optical fiber and for generating a signal representative of the reflected light; and
f) means for analyzing the signal to characterize the film substantially in real time and to provide a feedback signal for controlling the environment of the chamber and the temperature of the substrate to achieve desired properties of the film.
2. A system according to claim 1, wherein the means for monitoring and controlling the environment within the chamber includes means for controlling one or more of the temperature, pressure, composition and flow rate of the process reactants.
3. A system according to claim 1, wherein the means for supporting a substrate includes means for controlling the temperature of the substrate.
4. A system according to claim 1, wherein the optical fibers are mounted within the deposition chamber so that the film deposited on the substrate is also deposited onto an end of each optical fiber.
5. A system according to claim 1, wherein the optical fiber is pretreated with a layer of the material of the substrate prior to deposition of a film thereon so that the surface properties of the optical fiber and the substrate are substantially the same.
6. A system according to claim 1, wherein the source of monochromatic light comprises a light-emitting diode and the source of polychromatic light comprises white light.
7. A system according to claim 1, wherein the means for analyzing the signal comprises signal processing means for smoothing the signal against fluctuations in intensity of input light, and means for displaying the signal.
8. A system according to claim 1, wherein the optical fiber includes a plurality of deposition surfaces.
9. A system according to claim 8, further comprising means for providing a renewable deposition surface on each optical fiber.
10. A system according to claim 9, wherein the optical fiber includes a replaceable tip.
11. A system according to claim 10, wherein the optical fiber includes a cleaved end facet for deposition of the film thereon.
12. A system according to claim 1, wherein the optical fiber is adapted for use at temperatures in excess of 1100� C.
13. A system according to claim 1, wherein thin films are formed by a deposition process selected from the group consisting of chemical vapor deposition, metal organic chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, ion beam assisted deposition, and molecular beam epitaxy.
14. A system according to claim 1, wherein the properties of the film which can be characterized are selected from the group consisting of the rate of film growth, film thickness, film composition, film surface roughness and film refractive index.
15. A system according to claim 1, wherein the process reactants are selected from the group consisting of silane, ammonia, gallium metalorganics, niobium chloride, metalorganics, and silicon precursors, and wherein the film is selected from the group consisting of silicon, quartz, gallium arsenide, sapphire, silicon nitride, gallium nitride, and niobium silicide.
16. A method for characterizing in situ a thin film deposited on a substrate, comprising the steps of:
mounting an optical fiber near a substrate onto which a film is to be deposited in a deposition chamber,
transmitting light through the optical fiber to the film deposited on the surface of the fiber and generating a signal representative of a reflectance pattern of light from the film, wherein both monochromatic and polychromatic light are transmitted through the optical fiber, and wherein analysis of the reflected monochromatic and polychromatic light provides information about the film thickness, composition refractive index and deposition rate, and
analyzing the signal to characterize the film substantially in real time and provide a feedback signal for controlling the environment of the chamber and the temperature of the substrate to achieve one or more desired properties of the film.
This application is a continuation of commonly owned and copending provisional Application No. 60/048,130 filed May 30, 1997, which is hereby incorporated by reference.
The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms, as provided for by the terms of National Science Foundation Grant number ECS9202961 and of Air Force Grant number F49620-93-1-0049.
The present invention relates to apparatus for characterizing thin films deposited on opto-electronic and photonic devices, and more particularly to apparatus for in situ monitoring, measurement and control of the optical properties of such films, without the need for bulk optics.
Thin film deposition plays a key role in the fabrication of almost all opto-electronic or photonic devices, regardless of the means by which such films are created, such as, for example, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD), sputtering, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), or metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD).
Although the semiconductor industry represents a large market, many industrial and consumer goods also employ thin films. These include anti-reflection and scratch-resistant coatings for optics (including eyewear), the manufacture of photovoltaic cells, thermal control coatings for residential- and office-window materials, and deposition of thermal- and/or wear-resistant coatings on turbine blades, tools, and bearing surfaces. This list is hardly inclusive; the number of consumer products requiring deposition of a thin-film (or application of a thin-film coating) is estimated to be far larger than the volume of high-tech electronic and opto-electronic goods.
Whatever the application, monitoring and precisely controlling film thickness is key to maximizing the yield of high-quality, affordable parts. Accurate, real-time information on structure, quality, and film composition permits adjustment of process parameters to reliably and repeatably deliver films with the desired properties. In situ measurements now employed for certain film deposition configurations include RHEED (reflection high energy electron difraction), TOF (time of flight) ion beam surface analysis, quartz crystal monitors, and optical probe techniques, including ellipsometry and interferometry.
By far the most commonly used technique, and the only one permitting a wide-band thickness measurement, is the quartz oscillator, which performs a very indirect measurement of film thickness. Conversion from the oscillator's frequency shift to weight of the coating, then to its thickness, is prone to numerous errors arising from subtle changes in material properties (strain, density, age of crystal, temperature of sensor). Also, quartz oscillators provide no index of refraction information. Furthermore, to avoid shadowing the workpiece, crystal monitors must necessarily be placed a few inches away from the part to be coated. This results in a difference in deposition rates between the workpiece and monitor, which can fluctuate randomly from run-to-run and lead to unpredictable changes in indicated thickness.
Interferometry, ellipsometry, and other optical-probe techniques have been under development for many years and can provide a large amount of information on as-grown films. These techniques are among the most common diagnostics for post-deposition examination and evaluation of films. However, when employed as real-time diagnostics, apparatus employed in phase- and polarization-sensitive measurements must be reproducibly positioned on or about the reactor to within a fraction of a wavelength of light, not an easy adjustment to make in an industrial setting. All of these processes typically proceed "blindly," without real-time knowledge of the growing layer's characteristics. Reliable, affordable information on the structure, quality, and composition of the growing film would be welcomed and would surely lead to lower cost, swifter development of new devices, and improved quality.
Furthermore, no remote optical diagnostic can escape the need to probe the deposition region through a window; in real-life deposition systems, material is deposited not just on the substrate but also on chamber walls, fixtures, liners, and most particularly on windows. This is no small detail; windows through which interferometric or ellipsometric measurements are made must be coating-free. Although this condition can be met in a (very expensive and very slow-growing) molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) system, even with shields and shutters it is virtually impossible to achieve in the relatively high-throughput CVD reactors and physical deposition systems characteristically employed in production situations. In these systems, the environment is inherently "dirty", and it is extremely difficult to keep windows from becoming coated.
In addition to these difficulties, many important coating processes require very high temperature substrates; the growth rate and ultimate film thickness achievable by these processes can be effectively limited not by deposition conditions, but by the inability of present optical monitoring techniques to function reliably above 800� C.
According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a system for in situ characterization of thin films deposited on a substrate. The system comprises:
a) a deposition chamber which includes an input port for introducing one or more process reactants into the chamber, an output port for exhausting by-products from the chamber, and one or more controllers for monitoring and controlling the environment within the chamber;
b) a support within the deposition chamber for supporting a substrate upon which a film is to be deposited;
c) at least one optical fiber mounted within the deposition chamber so that the film deposited on the substrate is also deposited onto at least a portion of the optical fiber;
d) a light source disposed outside of the deposition chamber and coupled to the optical fiber for transmitting light through the optical fiber to the film deposited on the fiber and establishing a light reflectance pattern from the film on the optical fiber;
e) a detector for detecting light reflected from the film on the optical fiber and for generating a signal representative of the reflected light; and
f) a signal analyzer for analyzing the signal to characterize the film substantially in real time and to provide a feedback signal for controlling the environment of the chamber and the temperature of substrate to achieve desired properties of the film.
The controllers in the deposition chamber preferably control one or more of the temperature, pressure, composition and flow rate of the process reactants.
The support for the substrate preferably includes a temperature control element for controlling and regulating the temperature of the substrate before, during and after the deposition process.
The optical fiber is preferably mounted within the deposition chamber so that the film deposited on the substrate is also deposited onto an end of an optical fiber.
The light source preferably includes a source of monochromatic light and a source of polychromatic light. The two types of light are coupled into the optical fiber in a predetermined ratio. The source of monochromatic light preferably includes a light-emitting diode, such as a laser diode, and the source of polychromatic light preferably includes broadband white light.
The signal analyzer preferably includes a signal processor for smoothing the signal against fluctuations in intensity of input light. It can also include a display element for displaying the signal.
In a preferred embodiment, the optical fiber includes a plurality of deposition surfaces or end facets which are renewable or replaceable after each deposition cycle so as to present a fresh facet for deposition. The optical fiber can include, for example, a replaceable tip. In a preferred embodiment, the optical fiber is adapted for use at temperatures in excess of 1100� C. and can be made of, for example, sapphire.
The films deposited onto the substrate and the optical fiber can be formed by a deposition process selected from the group consisting of chemical vapor deposition, metal organic chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, ion beam assisted deposition, and molecular beam epitaxy. The properties of the film which can be characterized include the rate of film growth, the thickness and composition of the film, the surface roughness of the film, and its refractive index.
The process reactants can include silane and ammonia (for silicon nitride films), gallium metalorganic precursors and ammonia (for gallium nitride films), and silane and niobium chloride (for niobium silicide films.
In one embodiment, the optical fiber can be pretreated with a layer of the material of the substrate prior to deposition of a film thereon so that the surface properties of the optical fiber and the substrate are substantially the same.
According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for characterizing in situ a thin film deposited on a substrate. The method comprises the steps of:
mounting at least one optical fiber near a substrate upon which a film is to be deposited in a deposition chamber,
transmitting light through the optical fiber to film deposited on the surface of the fiber and generating a signal representative of light reflected from the film, and
analyzing the signal to measure growth rate, composition, thickness and refractive index of the film substantially in real time and providing a feedback signal for controlling the environment of the chamber and the temperature of substrate to control the properties of the film.
Preferably, both monochromatic and polychromatic light are transmitted through the optical fiber, wherein analysis of the reflected monochromatic and polychromatic light provides information about the film thickness, composition, refractive index and deposition rate.
Each of the following U.S. patents provide useful background for the invention, and each is hereby incorporated by reference: U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,241,366, 4,812,650, 4,668,528, 4,276,780, 5,425,964, 5,200,021, 5,100,233, 4,934,313, 4,421,983, 5,393,370, 5,154,810, 5,313,044, 5,399,229, 5,157,461, 5,200,023, 5,420,518, 5,460,654.
These and other objects and advantages of the invention will in part be obvious and will in part appear hereinafter. The invention accordingly comprises the apparatus possessing the construction, combination of elements and arrangement of parts which are exemplified in the following detailed disclosure, the scope of which will be indicated in the claims.
For a fuller understanding of the nature and objects of the present invention, reference should be made to the following detailed description taken in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 is a block diagram of one system of the invention;
FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating light reflectance from the film as a function of time, as the film grows, in accord with the invention;
FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating maximum and minimum light reflectance, as well as surface roughness, of a film grown according to the invention;
FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating refractive index of film as a function of time, as the film grows, in accord with the invention;
FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating film growth rate (thickness as a function of time);
FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating surface roughness of film as a function of time;
FIG. 7A is a simplified diagram of one embodiment of an optical fiber having a replaceable or renewable tip; and
FIG. 7B is a simplified diagram of another embodiment of an optical fiber having a replaceable window at the tip.
Like elements in the FIGURES are indicated by like reference numerals.
The invention is a fiber-optic reflectometer which can determine in situ the optical properties of thin films. The method used to make this determination closely resembles ellipsometry without the need for ultra-precise optical alignment or interrogation of the growing film through a window. According to the invention, an optical fiber is inserted into the region where material is being deposited, locating the fiber so that properties of the film grown on its tip correlate reliably with those on the substrate. In essence, this invention has turned the window-coating problem on its head; instead of confounding the measurement, concurrent deposition of the film on the optical fiber provides basis for the technique.
The invention thus includes inserting one or more optical fibers into the region where material is being deposited on a substrate, and locating the fiber or fibers so that the ends of the fibers will be coated with the material during the deposition process. If radiation from a laser diode is projected down the fiber, it will reflect both from the fiber tip and from the film that forms on the tip and that thickens on the tip as deposition proceeds. The film then becomes, in essence, a Fabry-Perot interferometer of increasing thickness, and as the back-reflected intensity varies over time (i.e, a fringing rate), it provides information on film optical thickness and growth rate. Deposition of a film on the optical fiber correlates with deposition of the film on neighboring surfaces, including the substrate.
If white light from a broad-band illumination source is projected down the fiber, it will also reflect both from the fiber tip and the film. The reflected light wavelength spectrum contains an interference pattern with information on film thickness and index of refraction at a given time.
The reflectometer 10 of the invention is shown in block diagram in FIG. 1. It consists of two principal components: the first is a signal generation/detection unit 12 located outside the deposition chamber 14, which sends light down the fiber 16, receives the reflected signal, interprets it, and displays it. The second is a deposition unit 18 which is situated in the chamber and includes (a) a fiber tip (or tips in a multi-point system) terminating in a clean, deposit-free surface, and (b) hardware to mount and position the tip.
The deposition chamber 14 includes one or more input ports 20 for introduction of process reactants, typically in vapor form, and one or more output ports 22 for exhausting by-products of the deposition reaction. A silicon wafer 24 is disposed within the chamber and is maintained at a temperature which facilitates reaction of the process reactants and deposition of a film on the exposed wafer surface. A radio frequency coil 26 is mounted near the wafer to regulate the temperature of the wafer.
A light source 28 is provided and coupled to the optical fiber through coupler 30. The light is preferably a combination of monochromatic (single wavelength) light, such as from a light-emitting diode, and polychromatic (multiple wavelength) white light. The light is transmitted into the optical fiber 16 through the coupler 30 to the tip of the fiber onto which film is deposited. Light is reflected back into the fiber from the film to a detector 32, which generates a signal representative of the reflected light. The signal is analyzed by a signal processor 34, which provides information about the film, such as its growth rate, thickness, and composition, as well as its surface characteristics and optical characteristics, such as its refractive index. A real time process controller 36 interprets the signals from the signal processor 34 and provides feedback control signals to the reactant regulators 38 and to the radio frequency coil 26.
FIGS. 3-6 illustrate information which can be obtained with the fiber optic reflectometer of the invention. FIG. 2 illustrates reflectance of the light from the film on the optical fiber as a function of time, i.e., as the film is being deposited on the fiber and on the substrate. The reflectance signal oscillates between minima and maxima, as indicated more clearly in the graph of FIG. 3, and generally decreases slightly with time and increasing thickness of the film. FIG. 4 illustrates the refractive index n of the film as a function of deposition time, and therefore of film thickness, and this value also is seen to decrease with increasing film thickness. FIG. 5 illustrates the film growth rate, i.e., film thickness as a substantially linear function of deposition time. FIG. 6 illustrates surface roughness as a substantially linear function of deposition time. All of this information is provided by the light reflected from the film deposited on the exposed end of the optical fiber, as detailed more fully below.
For the fiber optic reflectometer of the invention to be useful in an industrial environment, it is preferable that a clean deposition surface be provided after every run, or after a number of runs which can be empirically determined. To obtain this surface, the fiber is cleaved at its tip, or it is fit with a replaceable or refurbishable tip. Alternative configurations for the tip are illustrated in FIGS. 7A and 7B. In FIG. 7A, the optical fiber bundle 44 is coupled to a replaceable tip 46 via a connector 48. Both ends of the tip 46 are polished, and the tip is placed in the plane of the substrate (not shown). After the deposition cycle has completed, the tip 46 is removed from the bundle, repolished, and/or replaced.
Commercially available fiber tips are simple light pipes (or rods), typically 1-inch long, with polished end facets. They connect quickly and easily to the fiber through a standard fiber-optic connector into which the rod is glued, greatly simplifying tip replacement. Manufacturing methods used to fabricate the light-pipe tips result in highly reproducible alignment with the fiber bundle.
In FIG. 7B, another configuration is shown. The tip 46 has a beveled mirrored face 50 and a replaceable, relatively inexpensive window 52 over the deposition facet. This configuration is useful in rotary stage deposition. The window instead of the tip is removeable and replaceable after one or more deposition cycles. For side deposition, which is required to locate fiber tips over rotary stages, either a bend is made in the light pipe, or the right angle facet and side window are polished directly into the end of the light pipe.
The optical fiber is preferably positioned within the chamber to permit reproducible adjustment of the fiber in three dimensions, to avoid shadowing the substrate, to avoid interference with other operations or mechanisms, to be vacuum compatible, to provide an indication when the fiber is correctly positioned, to be simple and easy to use, and to be adaptable to a variety of deposition systems.
In a high-temperature system, the difficulty of meeting these requirements is compounded by the effects of thermal expansion. Fiber tips should be precisely and reproducibly located within very tight tolerances to assure run-to-run repeatability of measurements.
For maximum rigidity, mounting hardware should be supported from a point as close to the sample as possible; variations in reactor design (vertical versus horizontal sample, stationary versus rotating, top-loaded versus bottom- or side-loaded, cold-wall versus hot-wall, etc.), make it difficult to achieve a high degree of universality in a close-mounted design. An alternative is to support a mount of stock design from an adjustable arm carried on a standard vacuum flange installed on a chamber port.
The energy source for the deposition chamber can be, for example, a Lepel 2.5 kW power supply which, through induction coils, heats a carbon susceptor to the desired temperature. Temperature measurements in induction heated reactors typically employ emissive techniques, however, in this method radiation emitted from interior walls changes its character as the wall of the reactor becomes coated. The emissivity of not only the carbon, but also of the deposited material affects the temperature reading. For this reason, a high-temperature thermocouple probe, rather than pyrometric methods, can be used. The thermocouple can be located at a point where it does not interrupt flow dynamics on the substrate, but does indicate a temperature representative of the substrate surface. Since the thermocouple itself has a very small cross section, it does not disturb the e-field significantly. To make a measurement with the thermocouple, the power supply must be turned off. During this off interval, a temperature measurement is made and used for feedback control of reactor temperature.
Silicide films are, in general, somewhat metallic. Thus, they will not be highly transparent at either visible or IR wavelengths. Nevertheless, a metallic film is transparent if sufficiently thin.
In addition to its usefulness as a thin-film growth diagnostic, the apparatus and methods of the invention can also be applied to monitor the deposition of � wave stacks of layers with alternating refractive index, used to produce mirrors for optical components. This task is performed with interferometric methods and bulk optics, if the sample is large enough; prior to the invention, however, real-time changes in the reflectivity of diode laser mirrors grown after the laser wafers have been diced cannot be monitored in this way. This limitation is overcome by inserting an optical fiber into the deposition region, as described in connection with the invention. The thin layers growing on the end of the fiber then mimic growth on the laser facets, and their properties can be deduced from interference patterns, as described herein.
It should be noted that for process monitoring and feedback control applications, it is not necessary, or even important, that the films deposited onto the fiber optic tip and onto the substrate wafer should be identical to each other. It is sufficient that the properties of both films are related to each other and to the deposition conditions in a deterministic and reproducible way. Deposition on the substrate and on the optical fiber may not necessarily proceed at the same rate as on the substrate. If it does not, the end of the fiber can be pre-coated or otherwise pretreated with an ultra-thin layer of substrate material prior to deposition so that the surface kinetics of the respective elements are similar, and film growth initiates and proceeds in identical ways on both the fiber and the substrate wafer.
A significant advantage of fiber optic reflectance measurements with incoherent light is that this technique allows straightforward time-multiplexing of various signals without regard to polarization, alignment, or wafer and optical fiber orientation. This not only simplifies measurements on rotary or planetary wafer fixtures (common in CVD reactors), but it also allows phase-locked detection for immunity from background illumination in the deposition region.
In addition, this technique permits simultaneous laser interferometry and white-light spectral reflectance measurements. The information from these two measurements is quite complementary. As described herein, pulsed laser interferometry allows measurement of a "fringing rate" which, to first order, reveals the instaneous film deposition rate. At the same time, white-light spectral reflectance measurements provide information about the overall film composition and structure. In theory, the structure of the total film is simply the time integral of all of the instantaneous film measurements. However, in practice, deposition occurs at an elevated temperature, and diffusion within the previously deposited layers occurs even as new layers are being deposited. For many optoelectronic device structures this dynamic diffusion is a critical determinant of the final device structure.
Information contained in these measurements will yield film thickness as a function of time, refractive index as a function of time (or length), and mean surface roughness, as previously described in connection with FIGS. 4-6. All of this information is obtained simply by inserting an optical fiber into the reaction chamber through an appropriate bulkhead mount. No additional optics are required, and there is no need for the extremely precise alignment demanded by ellipsometry. An additional advantage is its immunity to electrical noise generated by the plasmas and rf fields which are a feature of many deposition reactors.
There is no general closed-form solution for the reflectivity of a material with an index of refraction which varies as a function of film depth. Because of this, the procedure is computed to fit to measured data by assuming that the implanted region of the wafer is composed of a number of thin slabs and assuming that each slab has the index of refraction and absorption characteristics of the wafer at that depth. Since film thickness and index of refraction data are backed out of the measured optical data by a process of successive approximation, the quality and the performance time of this simulation depend on the number of layers used to approximate the actual profile of the wafer.
One method of calculating indices of refraction for transitional regions employs an effective media approximation (EMA) that recasts the optical transfer matrix equations to reduce the number of required parameters and change the evaluations from transcendental functions to exponentials. This simple but powerful technique for performing global fit optimization removes the requirement for accurate starting guesses and allows the program to run effectively without operator intervention.
There are several advantages to the use of an optical fiber in materials-processing diagnostics. The fiber can be easily adapted to relatively high temperatures and high-vacuum systems, and, by utilizing back-reflection from the fiber end, inconveniences associated with the alignment required for traditional bulk optical systems are avoided. Further, because of the small cross section of the fiber, spatial resolution can be quite high. By injecting pulsed light and employing digital signal processing techniques, the back-reflected light can be readily distinguished from infrared radiation present in a high temperature environment. This significantly increases the signal/noise ratio. In our optical measurement of thin-film growth, we measure the ratio of incident to back-reflected intensity. With this ratio, the method described below yields the film's optical constants from the measured positions of interference maxima and minima and the points of zero interference.
The measurement consists of several steps. First, the optical fiber is inserted into a deposition chamber near a substrate on which deposition is to be measured. As the film is deposited on the substrate and on the end of the optical fiber, which starts as a pristine, flat quartz surface, a Fabry-Perot interferometer forms at the fiber tip. Oscillations in the intensity of back-reflected light provide immediate information on the film growth vs. time curve. Used in conjunction with these measurements, a self-consistent calculation can be made to obtain film parameters. The model used is a Fabry-Perot interferometer with a moving interface, in which the refractive index of the film and the surface roughness appear as parameters. A closed system of equations developed from experimental values can be solved simultaneously for these parameters as a function of film thickness.
The method is based on the use of the Airy's reflectance formula, presented in most optics textbooks in sections on plane plate or film interference phenomena. The formula requires as inputs the values of the forward (i.e., into the film) and backward reflection coefficients (coded R and S, respectively) and also a product of the forward and backward transmission coefficients (coded T) of the transitional regions of the film. These quantities, although complex and oscillatory, can be converted into smooth monotonic functions by changing them from real and imaginary to magnitude and phase representations, respectively (in fact, only R and T require such changes). The phases have to be treated further to make sure that they are continuous, since initially they are computed in the range between −π and π, although the actual phase is usually monotonically decreasing indefinitely. Instead of eight (real) oscillating functions, this produces only six such functions which are smooth enough for quick linear interpolation.
To compute the resultant reflectance for a given wavelength, it is most convenient and computationally advantageous to repeatedly apply an optimized variant of the Airy's reflectance formula, starting with the surface region, and continuing with the rest of the "flat" layers, in the direction opposite to that of incidence. To apply the formula to the deposition region, it is required to know the R, S and T coefficients for the front transition region and the S coefficient for the back transition region. For the sharp interfaces between the "flat" regions, the code computes R, S, and T from their complex refractive indices The back surface internal reflection coefficient for later layers is precomputed by the Airy's formula.
To obtain accurate film thickness, it has heretofore been necessary to know the refractive index of the film material. For a sufficiently well-defined range of material compositions, this can be obtained by modeling the optical behavior of the deposition process, as described below. A series of iterations is performed until a self-consistent calculation giving values of film thickness, refractive index, and surface roughness which causes the model to agree with experiment is obtained. In practice, a challenge of the program will be to optimize the interaction between the diode laser and white light measurements, using shared optical constants, computed in real time.
In order to achieve these goals, both white light and monochromatic light from a laser diode are transmitted into the fiber. The growth of the film can be measured using the laser diode. It is possible to make real time measurements of reflection characteristics using a spectral detector array. This instrument takes several seconds to acquire a spectral scan so the growth will be stopped and the gas stream vented to avoid the problem of additional growth during the monochromator scan.
Stacks of varying composition can be examined by measuring the optical reflectance as a function of changing reactant flow rate. This will enable the user, through the changing refractive index, to examine the effects of compositional diffusion during the deposition process. In addition, the effects of diffusion during layer growth can be observed by maintaining a film model based on deposition rate updates from the diode laser measurements and comparing this model to the model obtained from periodic white light updates. Experimental measurements of reflectance (R)-vs.-time are readily converted to thickness (1)-vs.-time using the following procedure.
(1) the data is smoothed by averaging over 1000 samples (at a sampling rate of 4,000 Hz). From this smoothed function we obtain the first and second derivatives, R′(t) and R″(t), respectively;
(2) the locations and values of the maxima (R″(t)<0), the minima (R″(t)>0), and the inflection points where R″(t)=0 are obtained;
(3) Curves are fit through the maxima, minima, and inflection points to yield Rmax, Rmin, and RS as functions of position (or time). This procedure was used to calculate the curves for Rmax, Rmin, and RS.
Thus, at each position there are three equations (one for each of the unknowns) to be solved numerically.
Applications which will benefit from the invention include the growth of etch masks and dielectric isolation and extend beyond electronics to the production of anti-reflection and scratch-resistant coatings for optics (including eyewear), to the manufacture of photovoltaic cells, and to deposition of thermal- or wear-resistant coatings on turbine blades, tools, and bearing surfaces. In many of these applications, precise thickness control is not critical; in others, quartz crystal deposition gauges are employed to track film growth. The initial cost of a quartz crystal system is about ten thousand dollars; it is estimated that five to ten thousand such systems are now being sold annually in the United States, representing a hundred million dollar market (not including service and spares). A commercially significant number of these systems (those used to monitor coatings transparent in the visible and infrared, of which the silicon nitride is an important example) could be replaced by the easy-to-use fiber-optic reflectometers described herein and selling for a few thousand dollars each, saving industry tens of millions of dollars a year.
Thus, by examining the interferometric fringes in back-reflected light from an optical fiber placed in a CVD reactor, a simple technique for in situ measurement of film growth is provided. A model which assumes an increasing Fabry-Perot cavity and uses the experimental data as input can be used to solve numerically for the refractive index, film thickness, and surface roughness as functions of position or time. Thus, a priori knowledge of the refractive index is not necessary to obtain growth rates from the data. Since no bulk optics are needed for the measurement, the technique is easy to apply.
In these experiments, a multimode optical fiber with a 100 mm core and 140 mm cladding was used. This large core insured sufficient back-reflected signal. The fiber carried light into the reaction region, where deposition occurred on the end of the fiber, and it also transmitted back-reflected light from the deposited film. The light source was an 850 nm laser diode (other convenient diode laser wavelengths are 1300 and 1550 nm; these could be used for materials whose wavelength cut-off is below 1000 nm).
Incoherent white light was provided by an Ocean Optics LS-1 tungsten-halogen lamp, injected into a fiber and transmitted through a Canstar 2�2 fiber optic coupler to the deposition chamber. One of the fibers on the chamber side of the coupler was not needed to carry signals to-and-from the deposition chamber and was therefore immersed in an index matching fluid to quench optical noise reflected from its face. The second fiber passed through the chamber wall and was mounted near the substrate. The protective plastic sheath encasing the fiber's core and cladding was removed prior to its insertion into the chamber to eliminate the potential for outgassing. Reflected signals were transmitted back through the 2�2 coupler to an Ocean Optics SD-2000 Spectrometer. Data acquired by the spectrometer was passed to a digital computer through a D/A board supplied by the spectrometer manufacturer, and there it was analyzed by Ocean Optics' software. Before every deposition run, the fiber tip was removed from its mount and cleaved to insure a pristine surface.
Since variation in the back-reflected signal can be quite small, fluctuations in laser intensity were expected to degrade the experimental results. Several signal processing methods were used to improve the signal/noise ratio. The laser was pulsed at 270 Hz, and for each point on the curve, 1024 data points were taken at 4000 points/sec. This information was processed using a fast Fourier transform. At zero Hz, the signal increases with temperature. The inverse Fourier transform was then taken from data monitored at 270 Hz, and these data were fit with polynomials. It is the time multiplexing inherent in the use of a pulsed laser which permits the user of the fiber optic reflectometer to obtain accurate data at high temperatures.
For a fiber optic waveguide in which light propagates through the fiber by total internal reflection (Eq. 1), when light reaches the fiber tip, the difference in index of refraction between the fiber core (n=1.458) and air or vacuum (n=1) causes, according to the formula for normal Fresnel reflection, about 4% to be reflected back into the fiber at the freshly cleaved tip:
The index of the fiber is generally a function of wavelength λ, however, in the spectral region produced by a white light source (400 nm to 850 nm), dispersion resulting from this wavelength dependence can be neglected because it is quite small. As a thin film of index n1 is deposited on the fiber tip, total reflection along the fiber is modified by interference with light from the glass-film and film-vacuum interfaces. These effects are particularly pronounced when the following condition relating film thickness and light wavelength is met:
where n(λ) is the index at wavelength λ, d is film thickness, and N is a positive integer. If N is even, the coating is said to be neutral and reflection is that of the bare fiber/vacuum interface; if N is odd, reflection will be either maximized (if the film index is higher than the substrate index) or minimized (if the converse is true).
There are two ways to measure these interference effects. At a fixed wavelength, the growing film causes reflectance to pass through periodic maxima and minima, between the value corresponding to the bare substrate and a second value, either greater or smaller, depending on the indices. Alternatively, a spectral snapshot can be taken at a given thickness, and peaks and valleys in the reflectance observed for those wavelengths where condition (2) is met.
The complete expression for the reflectance of a single layer on a substrate is quite complex
where n0, n1 and n2 are the (wavelength dependent) fiber core (substrate), film and air indices respectively, and δ=2πn1d/λ. It is assumed that all layers are transparent. For this and more complex situations, it is usually preferable to have access to an optical thin-film simulation package. For the NSF/STTR program, FilmStar, by FTG Associates, was employed to model reflectance spectra.
For the alumina films, the refractive index is very close to 1.6 in the visible region of the spectrum. With an index value for the fiber core of 1.458, the following expression is obtained:
Thus, reflectance is expected to have a sinusoidal dependence on wavelength. More rapid interference cycles are observed at shorter wavelengths, where higher measurement precision is obtained. A single-wavelength source allows for a very powerful signal, but introduces noise associated problems.
Such problems arose when strong in-band light emission from the evaporator's crucible as coupled into the fiber and interfered with measurement of the reflected signal. Background amplitude was high in the visible region, a particularly important consideration given that reflection was only 4-to-8% for the fiber and coating indices involved. However, if a broad spectral source (white light) is used in conjunction with a spectrometer employing a solid-state detector array, it is possible to obtain reflectance spectra in real time. In the output from this device, positions of the maxima correspond to odd multiples of λ/4n1, and can be used to determine film thickness directly, minimizing the impact of optical noise on the monitoring process.
Because certain changes may be made in the above apparatus without departing from the scope of the invention herein disclosed, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description or shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted in an illustrative and not a limiting sense.
Patent Citations
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A Scott County family's dog who was swept away in flash flooding has found her way home nearly two weeks later.
Candy Bliss, and her husband Johnny Haga, said they were not home when the flood waters swamped their backyard in Cedar Creek.
"We were at the lake, but we got a text from our neighbor late that night saying that we had to come home as soon as we could," Bliss said.
When Bliss and Haga made it back home, Bliss said she immediately went to their back porch where they had left their six-year-old boxer Annie.
"I did really good looking at the damage and all and then I saw her [dog] bed that was on the patio," Bliss said, fighting back tears. "It wound up actually in the area where our garage used to be. I couldn't imagine how her bed could stay and she could leave."
All they could imagine was that Annie had been swept away in the flooding.
"I thought about how scared she was," Bliss said. "Thought about how much she suffered. Drowning. You think all of these horrible things, just like how if she were a child, about what her final moments were."
For 11 days, Bliss and Haga said they mourned the loss of their dog, assuming the worst had happened. But then late one night, Johnny said he thought he heard Annie pawing at the front door.
"I went down and there sat the dog at the front door," Haga said. "She was scratching at the front door and wanting in.So I got the dog and let her in the house and of course [the dog] was tickled to death and made four or five circles in the house. Then I carried it upstairs and it just bailed on top of her and she was crying and bawling and of course I did too."
Bliss and Haga said they took Annie to the vet after she got home. She was covered in ticks but other than that the family said she's okay.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Bed & Breakfast Inn Between is located on the beautiful mountainside of Fish Hoek, overlooking the pristine Indian Ocean and Fish Hoek beach.
Fish Hoek is well secured and known for safe swimming beaches and a relaxed atmosphere.
Inn Between is your ideal place to stay and explore Cape Town and its surroundings.
Within a short distance you will find the most beautiful golf courses of the Cape peninsula.
We will be happy to arrange tee-off times at the golf course of your choice.
More nearby sports activities include: hiking, surfing, diving, kite-surfing, rafting and sailing.
Start your day with stunning ocean views in our breakfast room and enjoy the privacy and comfort of our warmly styled B&B.
Our hospitality was recently awarded with a 3-STAR Grading from the South African Tourism Board!
This quality award garantees hospitality, comfort, luxury and hygiene.
Eileen, Inge & Cees
The upper panarama picture is the view from our breakfast room


text:
Apparently upset by the possibility that they were out-nerded by Mountain Dew's WoW-themed soda bottles and advertising, Jones has joined forces with Dungeons and Dragons. Most of the flavors aren't really very creative, but I have to give it up for "Bigby's Crushing Thirst Destroyer," because, man, that sounds like it really destroys your thirst.
You can find out more about this tragedy at their website. I'll try and get some and drink it.


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I agree that the start and park teams make a mockery of the 43-car field. But I would disagree that back in the old days anyone could win on any given day. I'm just not as nostalgic about the good ole days when the winner was the only car left on the lead lap. The sport was more of an endurance challenge than it is today, more of a contest about who could build an engine that wouldn't blow up before 500 miles.
Well, if Mitt Romney can misspell America, I guess I can let the occasional typo slip by me too.
Eventually Danica will win a race. On Saturday she actually moved into a tie for the most laps led by a female driver in NASCAR history. It will probably take another year or two but she'll get there.
Of course, if Johanna Long had the GoDaddy car she'd be the one scoring NASCAR's first ever win by a female driver.
I must admit it was fun watching the Delta Wing. I still wish IndyCar had adopted it.
Not strong enough for you? LOL
But now that Junior has won you're a NASCAR fan again, right?
A heartfelt thank you to those Birmingham News alum who made last night possible. The drinks were greatly appreciated, but knowing that so many cared so much meant even more. Those of us who will be leaving soon will never forget your extraordinary gesture.
Drivers know that NASCAR explicitly expects them to cooperate with the media as it covers the sport. Drivers in the top 10 in points are required by NASCAR to make themselves available each race weekend for media questions. NASCAR also brings pole winners, race winners and runners-up to the media center for news conferences. Drivers are also expected by their teams and by their sponsors to make public appearances and give interviews. Sponsors want to see their drivers on TV and in the newspaper presenting a good image of their company.
Any driver who is unable to be civil and friendly with sponsors, fans and the media won't last long in NASCAR. That doesn't mean a driver has to smile when he's asked a stupid or thoughtless question. There are appropriate ways to respond to such questions. What Busch did -- threatening physical violence -- was clearly way over the line, even more so because he was already on probation. The question that Bob asked was perfectly legitimate and should not have prompted the kind of anger it did from Busch.
There are reporters who cover NASCAR who ask questions just to antagonize people, but Bob is not one of them. He is one of the hardest working and most knowledgeable members of the NASCAR media.
They do. Typically, in a wreck like that you go to the infield care center to get checked out and if they say you're OK, you're good to go.
If it's more serious -- like Eric McClure's wreck at Talladega in which he got a concussion -- there is a more extensive procedure for getting cleared medically before they let you race again.
Darrell was born in Mobile. His family moved when he was young. He graduated from North Cabbarus High School in Concord, NC, a year ago and -- like the vast majority of folks in NASCAR -- continues to live in the Charlotte area.
Just as M&Ms can't give you numbers about whether someone bought their candy because of a TV ad or because they saw it in a store or because they are a fan of Kyle Busch, neither can the military say whether someone signed up for the Guard just because he is a Junior fan.
Often it is a combination of things. A potential recruit may see ads on TV, see logos on race cars, read info passed out at school for a while before it sinks in that maybe he should sign up. In marketing it is often about maximizing your brand's exposure. And the military is really just another brand that has to compete with other careers that young people can pursue.
And it's not just logos on cars. Successful sponsors of sports teams do something called activation. That means using the team/driver in advertising, being at the track with displays to pass out to fans, B2B contact with other companies, etc. The military has a very large presence at races with displays and recruiters. Go to Barber for the AMA Superbike race in June and you'll see a very visible Guard presence as title sponsor of the series and sponsor of Michael Jordan's race team.
Good catch. I have corrected the spelling.
The military has relied more and more over the years on private contractors for all kinds of services that it used to assign to military personnel. The military also spends quite a bit of money on TV advertising as part of its recruiting effort. I see sports sponsorships as similar to that. With an all-volunteer military, there has to be a lot of effort placed on recruiting.
If Congress decided that the sponsorships are not helping recruiting much, then it would make sense to quit spending money on that. But the military has said it is a very effective recruiting tool. If Congress cuts this spending just to send a message, that seems pretty foolish to me.
I'm not sure what you mean by private ventures. The military spends money with private companies all the time for all kinds of services. The spending on sports sponsorships is considered a marketing expense to help with recruiting.
And when you get to your 60s it won't matter because people will be passing you and yelling, "Hey Gramps, the gas pedal is the one on the right!"
They were involved in the same incident and spun out. If you read the rest of that paragraph you will see that it says Busch wasn't at fault and that Newman got clipped by someone else.
You want to return to the cars of the 60s? Seriously?
If honest-to-God stock cars are what you like to watch, you should check out the Continental Tire Series that races with Grand Am most weekends.
There's no rule against starting a sentence with a conjunction. And it is also OK to end a sentence with a preposition.
If I included every example of Kurt going ballistic my column would have filled the entire page. It all goes to show why when something happens he gets no slack -- because he brought it on himself.
Or even the Lotus Evora.
The way I look at it -- if you can afford a $135K car, you can afford to have the carpet cleaned.


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5.0 out of 5 stars Terrific finish (or is it?)
I must say Harry Turtledove has brought his Worldwar/Colonization to an exciting and stirring conclusion. His tale of a Second World War interupted by an invasion of reptiles has played out superbly over the course of seven books, and while not every moment has been a gem, the whole experience has been extremely entertaining.
Following the events of Down to Earth,...
Published on Feb. 6 2001 by Ian Fowler
3.0 out of 5 stars Good enough, but becoming old
If you have made it all the way to this seventh book you are probably aware of Turtledove's writing style. It can become tedious with constant and useless repetitions about the Earth being too cold for the Lizards, ginger being a drug the lizards like, and Jews being mad at the Nazis. After the first couple of chapters you will become sick of it...but it has been like...
Published on June 11 2004 by Miguel Gonzalez
Most Helpful First | Newest First
3.0 out of 5 stars Good enough, but becoming old,
Miguel Gonzalez (Washington, DC) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
If you have made it all the way to this seventh book you are probably aware of Turtledove's writing style. It can become tedious with constant and useless repetitions about the Earth being too cold for the Lizards, ginger being a drug the lizards like, and Jews being mad at the Nazis. After the first couple of chapters you will become sick of it...but it has been like that since the first book.
Luckily this redundance is overshadowed by an intersting plot that develops the changing human (and Lizard) societies. Thus ginger smuggling becomes an important part of the book, but it becomes rather tedious toward the end.
Since the book is very redundant, lots of lines can be skipped, making the reading faster and enjoying the actual plot and not just fluffing. It is pleasant enough and has enough intrigue to keep one reading and if you have read all the other books of the series, you should definetly give Aftershocks a try. Bewarned though that Turtledove's writing has not changed and the story is starting to become old even if it remains intersting.
1.0 out of 5 stars Please, put the series out of its misery!,
Avid Reader (Franklin, Tn) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
One would think that Turtledove (or the publishing house) would know when enough is enough but no, it just goes on and on until it teeters on its own bulk. I'm not sure where this "V"-like story came from (probably "V") but it was a good idea at the time. By now, though, the writing is past sloppy - it is sterile, totally predictable, almost as if he penned the work while in the doctor's waiting room or stopped at a red light. The idea of deep writing or a sense of wonder or a challenge to the reader (besides getting throught the thing) is laughable.
Once again, it is the utterly impossible and improbable - two distinct features of Turtledove's works - that make for such a poor "conclusion". The first problem is one present from the start: A race capable of crossing interstellar space has to choose sides in WWII in order to gain a foothold. The scientific advance of such aliens would be so dramatic as to render our technology obsolete, PARTICULARLY at WWII levels.
The second feature is one of my pet peeves - despite a complete change in circumstances the same leaders emerge with the same qualities. There is Hitler, Mao, Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt, etc...all doing the things they did in the "real" world. And that race of lizards - what gives? They have to be part of a space opera, "Dumb and Dumber". Why should any alien race feel psychologically close to one group of humans over another and why should they require any help? In the end it is just a big mess but never fear - a sequel to the sequel to the sequel will be out soon.
3.0 out of 5 stars Seven Books, No Conclusion,
Randy Stafford (St. Paul, MN USA) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Colonization: Aftershocks (Hardcover)
For a 488 page book that seems to be the last of a seven novel series, there is little sense of closure here.
In the mid-1960s, the struggle between the alien Lizards and humans that started in 1942 still goes on in space and on Earth. Nazi Germany is weakened, but not extinguished, in a nuclear exchange with the Lizards. A nuclear armed Soviet Union covertly aids human insurgents in Lizard occuppied China, and America edges closer to all out nuclear war with the Lizards.
As humans begin to adopt alien technology for everything from weaponry to toys and try to establish a permanent, armed presence in space, the hidebound, traditionalist Lizards find themselves changed as well. The addiction to ginger continues to corrode Lizard mores. A pair of them even goes so far as to enter the perversion of marriage.
As human and Lizard warily watch each other and the aliens begin to adopt Earth-style balance of power politics, the ecosystems of each begin to clash, with flora and fauna of the Race's Homeworld outcompeting the native Earth species in desert regions.
The intermingling of two worlds is best symbolized by Kassquit, a human woman raised from birth by the Lizard, and Straha, a defector from the Lizards who finds that the ways of humans -- and especially "snout counting" Americans -- have rubbed off on him. (The identity of Straha's human minder turns out to be one of those delightful unnamed historical cameos Turtledove loves to put in his alternate histories.)
The trouble is Turtledove doesn't settle the central conflict of this series -- how, if possible, human and Lizards can co-exist. He just prolongs it. At novel's end, it is hinted that the Lizards might be able to adapt legal concepts of citizenship from the Roman Empire. However, the Lizards don't seem much closer to conquering Man. To be sure, humans have gotten strong enough that the Lizards are reluctant to start a war. But neither side has decisively won.
Turtledove does wrap up some of the subplots involving ginger smuggling -- and they were getting somewhat tedious at this point in the series. But even there, while the fate of some characters is finally resolved, that of others is left sort of hanging.
The middle of the book is an amalgam of domestic concerns of romance and marriage with Cold War style nuclear brinkmanship between man and alien. The end of the novel is a disappointing repeat of _Worldwar: Striking the Balance_ not only in its ultimate irresolution, but it even involves an incident with the very same nuclear weapon of that novel.
In short, this book seems to be a disappointing conclusion to a promising series.
3.0 out of 5 stars Ginger...It's All About the Ginger,
Jessie Riggs (Caledonia, MS USA) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
I just finished reading this book and I am assuming another installment is on the way. I hope there is, because I just can't wait to see who gets into the ginger smuggling business next time - the herb, not the girl on 'Gilligan's Island'. That seems to be the common thread through the last few books and its getting tiresome. Yes, it is interesting to see its effects on the Lizards but it seems that every other chapter deals with who is smuggling it, and how the Race is going to catch them before they all die in a frenzy of ginger induced mating. Oh, and there is a small matter of the nuclear war between the evil Third Reich and the Race, but the Nazi's asked for it you know, so don't feel sorry for them... Most of the war for the reader is spent on a Lizard ship with Jonathan Yeager as he introduces Kassquit to the joy of sex - like we didn't see that coming during his first visit. I would have liked to seen Molotov (my personal fav)do the wild thing with Kassquit, since neither one of them ever show emotion. And I like the Russie family but enough is enough, 'gevalt' as they would say. The Americans are out in the asteroid belt doing all sorts of secret things that are much more interesting than how many ingrown toenails Dr.Russie treats, but they are treated like a minor side story. Turtledove reaveals the true mission of the 'Lewis and Clark' on the last page and just leaves you hanging. If you have read the other books you have to read this one, especially if you like Penny and Rance, as they have assumed importance in this novel all out of proportion of when they were introduced, and most of it is tiring. Oh, yeah - Sam Yeager is a traitor, no matter what his mealy-mouth excuses were....
1.0 out of 5 stars Sloppy, Repetitive and getting old,
M. Watkins "mwatkins88" (Nottingham, NH United States) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
Despite the fact that little is resolved in this book and it leaves the never-ending story of alien colonization very open-ended, It's time to retire this series.
While entertaining in the beginning this series has grown old, uninspired and has passed the point of retaining any hope for suspension of disbelief. It ... The numerous contradictions and glaring errors are everywhere. For example around page 310 (HB edition) Pierre Dotourd shows up at his sister's door freed of prison by the Nazi Kahn and a mere 100 pages later he is still referred to as being in jail. A gaping error and aptly representative of the quality of writing in this book.
One other reviewer made the point of comparing this series to a soap opera and it is a quite fitting comparison. The writing is poor, the plot devices paper-thin and the story line has become one ludicrous mess. The same handful of people continue to run across each other over the entire span of the globe in the most unlikely manners. The politics and technology have become ever increasingly asinine in a feeble effort to drive the plot forward. Sorry, while I greatly enjoyed the first few books in this series this will be my last.
If you have not read the worldwar series - I would recommend stopping after the fourth book. If you have read it up to this installment - do yourself a favor and move on to other books.
If you are expecting writing of the caliber of Turtledove's Guns of the South or How Few Remain then you are likely to be disappointed.
3.0 out of 5 stars An ambiguous semi-conclusion.,
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
Having enjoyed the "WorldWar" and "Colonization" books on the whole, I would say this installment - maybe the last, maybe not? - is a fairly worthy continuation. The reptilian Race with whom Mankind is sharing the Earth in an alternate 1960s continue to be fascinating characters in their own right, especially with their new ginger-induced discovery of continuous sexuality now maturing into a more human outlook; sexual and emotional awakening are, obviously, among the oldest themes in literature, but Turtledove pulls it off in an engaging fashion.
One other human trait which seems to have rubbed off on the Race, unfortunately, is gross environmental misconduct: originally, THEY cared more than US about the condition of the Earth, being reluctant to simply nuke humanity into submission for fear of rendering Earth useless for colonization. In the latter half of this series, however, they seemed to throw nuclear devices around with abandon - admittedly, after some provocation in kind from the Greater German Reich and the USA. One wonders just how much megatonnage must have been used to defeat Germany in "Down to Earth" (a war treated far too briefly, certainly compared to the alternate World War II!) As much as all the nuclear tests of the real 1960s combined? And there were the German nuclear attacks on the Race. Surely, there would subsequently be enough fallout in the atmosphere to cause thousands of deaths in its own right, especially in Russia? The author might have been better to concentrate on this particular "aftershock" than on drug-smuggling in the newly-liberated France.
The human characters continue to be interesting, for the most part: Sam Yeager, hardly ever seeing direct action, is now at the center of what could determine the fate of the world. The American astronauts in the asteroid belt embody a truly fascinating question of what humans might have achieved in space decades ago, given a big enough incentive (like the arrival of aliens as a rival power here on Earth). And in the belated but determined Chinese revolution, Liu Han - once a meek and sweet-natured peasant - shockingly evolves into a brutual Maoist inquisitor!
Some individuals, however, have clearly outlived their entertainment value. For example, Rance and Penny have become pretty dull, not achieving much beyond backstreet intrigue and routine sex; Pierre and Monique Dutourd seem intended only to represent "Frenchness" for its own sake; and (though I hope this doesn't offend anyone) the Russie family are no more than a mouthpiece for Jewish post-holocaust moralising. If what Mr. Turtledove wants to write is primarily entertainment, perhaps the constant reminders of Nazi war atrocities could be left to real history books. In this fictional timeline, I think the German Reich has been punished more than enough. Aren't millions of nuclear deaths - to say nothing of the undoubtedly countless burned, blinded and crippled Germans - a rather larger holocaust than the concentration camps? If there is another book in the series, please, Mr. Turtledove, give the Jewish issue a rest!
It would be fun to see if Mankind do eventually surpass the Race and come to dominate them on Earth; maybe the ultimate in vengefully satisfying conclusions would be a fleet of Earth starships arriving at Tau Ceti, to return the favour of invasion. At least, one more book in this timeline would be appropriate, perhaps set around 2000 AD - it could tie up the Chinese independence issue, the ecological impact of plants and animals from Home, and the recovery or submission of Germany. Perhaps the most significant outcome of alien colonization could be a self-sustaining human civilization in space. But if such a book is written, it should be without all the dead wood.
2.0 out of 5 stars New Problems, New Failings,
By A Customer
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
I agree with almost all of the fan reviewers that this series, and Turtledove's ponderous writing, have gotten old. As has been true in many of Turtledove's series, unnecessary exposition and infuriating repetition comprise the narrative's stock in trade.
Unlike many reviewers, I though the pacing was better than usual, with events logically following one another through character vignettes. This improvement is also evident in the Great War series. Having said that, in Aftershocks Turtledove also steps out in a whole new way.
A ham-handedly foreshadowed major event is resolved in this book, in the form of a choice made by one of the major characters. Significant consequences result from that choice. Turtledove presents his character's actions as unequivocally moral; there is no sympathetic dissent. In fact, what was done is highly ambiguous at best, and Turtledove seems simply lazy (see: his editing skills) in refusing to engage what could be a very interesting debate.
No one put a gun to Turtledove's head here. He picked up a hot potato and, genre fiction or not, was obligated to deal with it honestly. He didn't, and that's too bad.
1.0 out of 5 stars This has gotten old,
Rob Shimmin (Urbana, IL United States) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
There's nothing outright wrong with this novel, but as a conclusion-for-the-time-being to his most well-known franchise, I would have hoped Turtledove could do a bit better.
The book reminds me of those moments in Worldwar where Turtledove was just marking time with ultimately meaningless plot developments that would have little to no influence on the future course of the series just so that he could fill his allotted pages before exploding some nuclear weapons at the end.
Similarly, this book contains one and only plot development: the discovery of who attacked the Colonization fleet in Down to Earth and what the Lizards do about it. This occupies about 20% of the book and a similar fraction of the characters. For the rest, there's just the predictable, schmaltzy, politically correct process of kids getting married, families getting put back together after the nuclear war at the the end of the previous book, and Lizards getting bribed and blackmailed by ginger dealers. Outside of the book's one Major Development, the rest is near-meaningless wasted text.
Almost none of the other subplots in the book are even brought to some semblance of conclusions. The Chinese are still rebelling (and failing). Rance and Penny are still dealing ginger. The Americans are still putzing about in the asteroid belt doing what everyone knows they're doing but which Turtledove feels he's been sufficiently sly about to keep a secret. The general feeling is just that life goes on. Yawn.
3.0 out of 5 stars An OK book! Could be better, though.,
John Calia (Chicago Heights, IL) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) (Mass Market Paperback)
I am glad to finally finish reading the colonization series. It took me several months, because, while not as lousy or boring as some people said, it was still a bit dragging at times.
In spite of poor reviews, I still am glad I read the series. In my opinion, it is good but not wonderful. I must mention that I did get the books from a library and would recommend that potential readers do so as well. What's good and bad about the series? I hope this does not spoil it for any would-be readers, but I will try not to let on too much.
1. Good for Turtledove's efforts to develop and follow so many interesting and varied characters. It is too bad that he does not always succeed very well. Of course my view will be biased, but I really did like David Goldfarb, Mordecai Anielewicz, and the Yeagers (in spite of comments to the contrary by others). But I don't really like any of the other humans. Who cares about Auerbach and Dutourd and friends and all of Europe - it's as if the author just included them so that Europe would not feel left out. Molotov talks a lot - big deal. China is a little more exciting, but it's a bit boring, though I didn't mind Liu Han's charcter. But I still read the story to see how my favorite characters came out.
2. Good for his development of an interesting batch of aliens - fearsome looking but quite moralistic and wishy-washy (I don't mind - I find it amusing). Personally, I think Straha steals the show. And I like the way aliens like Ristin and Ulhass adapt to American culture.
3. Good for the happy endings that Turtledove gave almost all the main characters (I like positive endings). He rushed a little with Drucker, and I'm sure Ttolmass and Kassquit would disagree with me about happy endings.
4. Too bad for the minor obsession with ginger and ginger-dealing as well as sex. Too much.
5. Also, enough with the lizards ending every sentence regarding humans with "...and of course we could have beaten them..." No matter how advanced humans get in the story, they never seem able to match the lizards power. Maybe the lizards say this just to convince themselves as well, but was the balance of power that skewed? I suppose humans will nearly catch them in a future series where they visit Home.
6. Lastly, Turtledove had better have another trilogy coming. Though he did try to tie up many loose ends, he completely left the story open to a future series (you would believe that after you read the last page). I really hope he does write a series set maybe in around 1990 where humans visit Home or something like that even if we have to suffer Jonathan Yeager again. And if he does, please include better maps, too.
Don't get me wrong - I still liked the series, but I hope the next one is better and more succint.
PS - Kassquit is Chinese.
3.0 out of 5 stars Eh...,
San (San Jose, CA USA) - See all my reviews
This review is from: Colonization: Aftershocks (Hardcover)
I absolutely loved Second Contact and Down to Earth. But in comparision Aftershocks was just disappointing. Turtledove should have spent more time mapping out his storylines. Some of them are so convoluted even he can't keep track of them--for instance, one character is arrested, then released, and then a few chapters later seems to be back in jail again for no apparent reason. What's up with that? But despite the shoddy editing, Aftershocks does have its moments. Straha's return to the Race...the premature invention of the Furby...the spats between Kassquit and Ttomalss...the resolution of the whole "who attacked the colonization fleet?" plot...the surprising revelation at the very end of the book. But these things are grossly outweighed by the fact that at the end of this book a lot of the plot lines remain unresolved. What happens to Gorpett, Rance Auerback, Straha, Kassquit, Johannes Drucker, Ttomalss, and Monique Dotourd? Their stories are just left hanging without any actual conclusions. In my opinion, the last book in a series should at least make an effort to tie things up.
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Aftershocks (Colonization, Book Three) by Harry Turtledove (Mass Market Paperback - Feb. 26 2002)
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Ball Class
This is a great class if you want to take your workout to a whole new level regardless of your age or weight. It will help you get into shape, reduce stress, lose weight, increase energy, and build confidence.
|Fall '14
|Winter '15
|Spring '15
|Summer '15
|Oct. 7 - Dec. 11
|Jan. 13 - March 12
|April 7 - June 4
|June 23-Aug 12
When: Tuesday and Thursday from 5:30pm - 6:30pm.
Where: WEC Main Gym
Bring a stability ball and a water bottle.
$35.00 for Community
$30.00 for Faculty/Staff
Free for Students
Page maintained by Linnae Hays
Last update on October 6, 2014
Last update on October 6, 2014


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Not sure which fork is right for your bike? Read this starter-for-ten guide to helping you choose with confidence.
Splashing out on a new suspension fork for your bike can cause you headaches. Forks vary massively, depending on the type of bike, the amount of movement allowed, the shock damping ability and the weight.
The amount of cash you could be required to spend can run into hundreds of pounds, or even top a thousand. It's important you select the right fork for your bike, and that you know what to look for when you're buying one.
Choosing The Fork
Naturally the fork you'll need will depend on which bike you have. You're going to look pretty silly riding a road racer with MTB forks. The general rule – the faster you go, the less suspension you need. The rougher the terrain you frequent, the higher the amount of shock absorption you'll require. If you're not sure, always seek expert advice.
Your first consideration is likely to be budget. Cheap forks tend to be heavier and have simpler damping circuits, which means you have less control when it comes to high impact situations.
If you're willing to pay a little extra you're likely to receive a decent return as the overall reliability and performance of basic forks has improved in recent years. The best news is that you no longer have to spend close to £1,000 to obtain decent, high-performance forks.
Your budget also relies upon what type of rider you are. If you're likely to just slot in your new fork, perform just enough tweaking to gain a smooth-enough ride then cycle day-in, day-out with minimal service considerations, then something simple yet reliable is the right choice for you.
If you attend to the tuning in the same way a safe-cracker attends to breaking open bank vaults, then upping the ante when it comes to cost is likely well worth your while.
For mountain-bikers, one of the main considerations is balancing strength with weight. If you're just a casual climber or a cross-country rider, then light forks will do the business for you. If you use your bike to scale cliff faces with all the audacity of a mountain goat then you're going to be rewarded with heavier forks that will give you the strength you need.
The next question you'll need to answer is the amount of movement the suspension mechanism on your proposed new forks allows. This is known to bike enthusiasts as "travel". The more travel your fork has, the smoother it'll handle and the better it will absorb impacts. However, high amounts of travel come with a price, and that price is weight. Forks that are longer-legged need to be heavier in order to deal with these bigger impacts and extra leverage.
Adding an extra centimetre of travel will tip your seat angle back by about one degree, making steering slower and increasing stability. However, too long a fork can cause your frame to over-stress, so you need to check the amount of travel your bike can cope with before you take the plunge.
Some forks you can buy allow you to adjust the travel. You can tweak your bike's handling by dropping the amount of travel in gradual steps.
The greater the amount of travel you have though, the harder the control required. This makes control of your dampeners crucial. Choose adjustable rebound dampening so that the fork returns smoothly to the natural ride height, rather than stiffly bouncing back into position. If you can afford it, consider a fork with compression damping. This helps slow down the spring and makes impact absorption more efficient.
If you're prepared to push the monetary boat out, forks at the high end at the market split their compression damping into separate circuits. One is at low speed for braking and cornering, whilst the other is at high-speed for climbing and landing. Make sure you get your dampening properly tuned though.
One definite recommendation is a fork with a tapered steerer tube if your bike can handle it. These types of forks improve stiffness with little in the way of weight penalties. Make sure your current front wheel is compatible though, as it can add to the whole replacement cost if you're going to need a new front wheel as well.
Those are our considerations, but if you have any handy tips you'd like to share be sure to let us know in the comments section below.


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Perth-Andover Flood Part 1: Officials Relive March 23rd, 2012
This Saturday will be the one year anniversary of the worst flood in Perth-Andover's history. We begin our coverage of that event. News Source 8's Katie Zarrilli listened as town officials relived what happened that Friday morning when the water began to rise.
Category: News


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ICANN reveals plans for hundreds of new domain suffixes to go on sale from January 12th
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (Icann) has revealed it plans to dramatically increase the number of available internet address suffixes with almost any word able to be filed for use as a domain ending.
Marking one of the most radical changes to the running of the internet to date, Icann's proposed plans would see virtually any word in any language used as a suffix to end an internet address. With 22 generic top-level domain names (gTLDs) such as .org and .gov currently in use on top of around 250 country-level domain names, the new move would see gTLDs run into the hundreds with .technology, .google and even .coke all possibilities.
"Icann has opened the internet's addressing system to the limitless possibilities of the human imagination," said Rod Beckstrom, President and Chief Executive Officer of Icann. He added: "No one can predict where this historic decision will take us."
A timely and costly process, companies and web entrepreneurs will be able to apply for new domain suffixes from January 12th with applications to cost $185,000 (£114,000) and require applicants to show a legitimate purpose and claim for the purpose of request.
Will the open door policy for new domain suffixes help improve the web or make it a hard to navigate chore to use? Share your thoughts via the T3 Twitter and Facebook feeds.
Via: BBC


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All of South Seas
Keyword Search Results
Note: The South Seas Site Search is configured so that you can search for variant spellings of words by using "*" as a "wildcard" character. For example, searching on the term "Tatt*" should return all occurences of "Tattoo" as well as "Tattow" and Tattao".
... these kinds of cloth they work borders of different colours, in stitches, somewhat like carpeting, or rather like those used in the samplars which girls work at school. These borders are of various patterns, and wrought with a neatness, and even an elegance, which, considering they have no needle, is
... of people and there are few without such a one except the Children who go quite naked. the boys untill they are Six or Seven years of Age and the girls untill 3 or 4 at these ages they begin to cover what nature teaches them to hide. Besides the dress I have mentioned some of the better sort
... , and can always be understood, except when, for the sake of mysteriousness, they utter their speeches in a singing tone, and that even the young girls can make their songs equally unintelligible, it is also said of this chief that he is now meditating revenge on Pomarre on account of the death of his
... /Next Page Banks's Descriptions of Places Voyaging Accounts ---------- South Sea Islands (continued) Besides this they dance especialy the young girls whenever they can collect 8 or 10 together, singing most indecent words using most indecent actions and setting their mouths askew in a most extrordinary
... home, expecting the visit of the great king, but we were disappointed; we had, however, much more agreeable company, for he sent three very pretty girls to demand something in return for his present: perhaps he was unwilling to trust himself on board the ship, or perhaps he thought his messengers would
... every change. These motions they continued till they were all in a sweat; they repeated them three times alternately, and, after they had done, the girls began. In the interval, between the several parts of the drama, some men came forward, who seemed to act the part of drolls; and, by what I could
... a comb, just through the skin, and rubbing into the punctures a kind of paste made of soot and oil, which leaves an indelible stain. The boys and girls under twelve years of age, are not marked; but we observed a few of the men whose legs were marked in chequers by the same method, and they appeared
... plentifully upon all the low Islands. At sunset I came off having purchasd another hog from the King. Soon after my arrival at the tent 3 hansome girls came off in a canoe to see us, they had been at the tent in the morning with Tarroa, they chatted with us very freely and with very little perswasion
... Manners of the Natives at Otaheite (continued) roof being open. As soon as we entered the house, she made us sit down, and then calling four young girls, she assisted them to take off my shoes, draw down my stockings, and pull off my coat, and then directed them to smooth down the skin, and gently chafe
... Accounts ---------- Description of Several other Islands (continued) The people were so much gratified by the presents which were made to these girls, that when Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander returned they seemed attentive to nothing but how to oblige them; and in one of the houses they were, by order of


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Tier 1 General/HSMP
The No1 Visa, Resettlement & Immigration Firm for Individuals and Corporations...Let us help create your dream.....
The Tier one visa is no longer valid
Tier 1 (Post Study Work)
The Tier 1 (Post Study Work) was inroduced to take over the international Graduates Scheme. If an individual is successful in securing this visa, the individual is granted a 2 year stay in the UK and can look for work.
The individual can then gain work experience and eventually aply for a Tier 1 or 2 Visa.
The candidate needs to have completed a course of study at a recognised or listed UK institution of higher or further education.
Courses: A Bachelors Degree, Masters or PHD, Post Graduate Certificate or Diploma, A HND from a recognised Scottish Institution
A candidate needs to provide evidence of maintenance funds.
The advantages of this visa is that it allows the individual to stay for 3 years and establish a foundation for themselves here in the UK.


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It's no secret that the Porsche Cayenne has made some serious money for the German automaker with some reports saying that it's saved the company during the economic downturn. That trend looks set to continue with the new version of the Cayenne beginning production in Porsche's Leipzig plant in Germany. Porsche top man Michael Macht has recently indicated that orders for the new Cayenne are "clearly exceeding" expectations.
The news comes at an important time for Porsche, which reportedly saw its sales decline an alarming 40 percent in the first quarter of this year. The previous-generation Cayenne, which is Porsche's best-selling vehicle, had seen its sales figures reduced by about 25 percent during the fiscal year. But that may have been caused by potential Cayenne owners waiting for the new model.
Porsche is bringing out the new Cayman with updated styling, improved performance and reduced emissions — including the automaker's first-ever production hybrid model. The new Cayenne and Panamera sedan are seen by many as the right formula to put Porsche back into making positive sales figures.


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This recipe for Pad Thai (Fried Noodles) is a yummy dinner everyone in my house loves. It is nice to have one meal that we all like. I learned to make Pad Thai when I lived in Thailand years ago. Unfortunately, I lost the original recipe, but I am still hoping that it will turn up some day. Also, in Thailand you use a spoon and fork to eat pad thai, but the picture with the chopsticks looked nice.
I rediscovered making pad thai when I made this for the Gourmet Club with my friend, Lauren. We found the hard to find ingredients at The Bangkok Center Grocery in Chinatown. (They ship anywhere in the US in case you have a hard time finding tamarind and fish sauce.) If you want to see pad thai being prepared, you can go to THAI FOOD TONIGHT to watch them cook an authentic pad thai recipe.
Bangkok Center Grocery
104 Mosco Street (bet. Mott and Mulberry St.)
New York, NY 10013
(212) 732-8916
Easy Pad Thai Recipe
4 T. oil
2 garlic cloves, finely chopped
2 shallots
1 egg
4 oz/120 g dry flat rice noodles soaked in water for 20 minutes until soft and drained
2 T. lime juice
1&1/2 T fish sauce
2 T. tamarind sauce
1/2 t. palm sugar (or sugar)
2 T. chopped roasted peanuts
1/8 tsp dried red chili powder (or cayenne)
1/2 cup bean sprouts
2 spring onions/scallions, chopped into 1 in.
sprig of coriander leaf, coarsely chopped
1 lime cut into 4 pieces for garnish
In a wok or frying pan, heat the oil, add the garlic and fry until golden brown. Break the egg into the wok, stir quickly and cook for a couple of seconds. Add the noodles and stir well, scraping down the sides of the pan to ensure they mix with the garlic and egg. One by one, add the lemon juice, fish sauce, tamarind, sugar, half the peanuts, the chili powder, 1/4 cup of the beansprouts, and the spring onions, stirring quickly all the time. Test the noodles for tenderness. When done, turn onto a serving plate and arrange the remaining peanuts, dried shrimp and beansprouts around the dish. Garnish with the coriander and lime wedges.


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Ted Colegrove
Designer. Developer. Musician.
I am a dreamer, an innovator and I do not adhere to any certain style. Many techniques pique my interest, but I simply create whatever flows from my subconscious. My work is a reflection of my streaming thoughts and feelings. I set my own standards for what looks good.
As a developer, I love discovering interesting solutions to complex problems. Working in PHP is similar to creating a piece of art – There are thousands of ways to go about doing one thing.
Originally from the Philippines, I moved here when I was very young. I find that my heritage often weaves its way into my artwork. I am proud to embrace my legacy with my art.
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