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A high speed, high-resolution flow imaging system is modified to achieve extended depth of field imaging. An optical distortion element is introduced into the flow imaging system. Light from an object, such as a cell, is distorted by the distortion element, such that a point spread function (PSF) of the imaging system is invariant across an extended depth of field. The distorted light is spectrally dispersed, and the dispersed light is used to simultaneously generate a plurality of images. The images are detected, and image processing is used to enhance the detected images by compensating for the distortion, to achieve extended depth of field images of the object. The post image processing preferably involves de-convolution, and requires knowledge of the PSF of the imaging system, as modified by the optical distortion element.
1. A method for producing an extended depth of field image of an object, comprising the steps of:
(a) deforming an optical wave front of light from the object to produce modified light, such that a point spread function (PSF) of an imaging system used to collect the modified light is substantially invariant across the extended depth of field, wherein an optical element is used to deform the optical wave front, the optical element comprising a cuvette having different optical thicknesses at different locations, such that imaging through the different locations of the cuvette induces different degrees of wave front deformation;
(b) dispersing the modified light, producing dispersed light;
(c) focusing the dispersed light to produce at least one dispersed image, the dispersed image being formed by light simultaneously collected from a plurality of different focal planes in the extended depth of field;
(d) detecting the dispersed image of the object to generate image data; and
(e) processing the image data to reduce artifacts introduced by deforming the optical wave front, to produce the extended depth of field image of the object.
2. The method of
3. The method of
4. The method of
5. The method of
6. The method of
(a) determining the PSF of the imaging system configured to deform the optical wave front; and
(b) using the PSF function to produce the extended depth of field image of the object.
7. The method of
8. The method of
9. A method for producing an extended depth of field image of an object, while there is relative motion between the object and an imaging system used to produce the extended depth of field image of the object, comprising the steps of:
(a) using an optical element to induce an aberration in an optical wave front of light from the object to produce modified light, such that a point spread function (PSF) of an imaging system as modified by the optical element is substantially invariant across the extended depth of field, wherein the optical element comprises a cuvette having different optical thicknesses at different locations, such that imaging through the different locations of the cuvette induces different degrees of wave front deformation;
(b) focusing the modified light to produce an image of the object that includes light simultaneously collected from a plurality of different focal planes in the extended depth of field;
(c) detecting the image of the object to generate image data; and
(d) processing the image data to reduce artifacts introduced by deforming the optical wave front, to produce the extended depth of field image of the object.
10. The method of
11. The method of
(a) the step of focusing the modified light comprises the step of focusing each of the light beams to produce a respective image corresponding to that light beam, each respective image being formed from the modified light simultaneously collected from the plurality of different focal planes in the extended depth of field;
(b) the step of detecting the image comprises the step of detecting each respective image of the object to generate image data; and
(c) the step of processing the image comprises the step of processing the image data for each respective image to reduce artifacts introduced by deforming the optical wave front, to produce the extended depth of field image of the object for each respective image.
12. The method of
13. The method of
(a) determining the PSF of the imaging system as modified by the optical element configured to deform the optical wave front; and
(b) using the PSF function to de-convolve each respective image, thereby reducing spatial broadening and contrast loss induced by the PSF.
14. An imaging system adapted to perform extended depth of field imaging of an object, comprising:
(a) an optical element configured to deform an optical wave front of light from the object, such that a point spread function (PSF) of the imaging system as modified by the optical element is substantially invariant across the extended depth of field, wherein the optical element is selectively positionable, such that in a first position, the optical element deforms the optical wave front, thereby enabling extended depth of field imaging, while in a second position, the optical element does not deform the optical wave front, thereby enabling non-extended depth of field imaging;
(b) a collection lens disposed so that light traveling from the object passes through the collection lens and travels along a collection path;
(c) a light dispersing element disposed in the collection path so as to disperse the light that has passed through the collection lens, producing dispersed light;
(d) an imaging lens disposed to receive the dispersed light, producing a dispersed image from the dispersed light;
(e) a detector disposed to receive the dispersed image produced by the imaging lens, producing an output signal that is indicative of the dispersed image; and
(f) a processor configured to manipulate the output signal to reduce artifacts introduced by the optical element configured to deform the optical wave front of light from the object, to produce an extended depth of field image of the object.
15. The system of
(a) a phase plate configured to induce a phase deviation in an optical wave front;
(b) an optical element configured to induce a spherical aberration in light from the object; and
(c) a cuvette having different optical thicknesses at different locations, such that imaging through the different locations of the cuvette induces different degrees of wave front deformation.
16. The system of
17. The system of
18. An imaging system adapted to perform extended depth of field imaging of an object, while there is relative movement between the object and the imaging system, comprising:
(a) an optical element configured to deform an optical wave front of light from the object, thereby producing modified light, such that a point spread function (PSF) of the imaging system as modified by the optical element is substantially invariant across the extended depth of field, wherein the optical element is selectively positionable, such that in a first position, the optical element deforms the optical wave front, thereby enabling extended depth of field imaging, while in a second position, the optical element does not deform the optical wave front, thereby enabling non-extended depth of field imaging;
(b) a collection lens disposed so that modified light passes through the collection lens and travels along a collection path;
(c) a dispersing component disposed in the collection path so as to receive the light that has passed through the collection lens, dispersing the light into a plurality of separate light beams, each light beam being directed away from the dispersing component in a different predetermined direction;
(d) an imaging lens disposed to receive the light beams from the dispersing component, producing a plurality of images, each image corresponding to one of the light beams and being projected by the imaging lens toward a different predetermined location;
(e) a detector disposed to receive the plurality of images produced by the imaging lens, producing an output signal that is indicative of imaging at the plurality of different focal planes; and
(f) a processor configured to manipulate the output signal to reduce artifacts introduced by the optical element configured to deform the optical wave front of light from the object, to produce an extended depth of field image of the object for at least one of the plurality of images.
19. The system of
20. The system of
21. The system of
22. The system of
23. An imaging system adapted to perform extended depth of field imaging of an object, comprising:
(a) an optical element configured to deform an optical wave front of light from the object, such that a point spread function (PSF) of the imaging system as modified by the optical element is substantially invariant across the extended depth of field, wherein the optical element is a cuvette having different optical thicknesses at different locations, such that imaging through the different locations of the cuvette induces different degrees of wave front deformation;
(b) a collection lens disposed so that light traveling from the object passes through the collection lens and travels along a collection path;
(c) a light dispersing element disposed in the collection path so as to disperse the light that has passed through the collection lens, producing dispersed light;
(d) an imaging lens disposed to receive the dispersed light, producing a dispersed image from the dispersed light;
(e) a detector disposed to receive the dispersed image produced by the imaging lens, producing an output signal that is indicative of the dispersed image; and
(f) a processor configured to manipulate the output signal to reduce artifacts introduced by the optical element configured to deform the optical wave front of light from the object, to produce an extended depth of field image of the object.
This application is based on a prior provisional application, Ser. No. 60/748,888, filed on Dec. 9, 2005, the benefit of the filing date of which is hereby claimed under 35 U.S.C. §119(e).
This invention was funded at least in part with grants (No. 9 R44 CA01798-02 and 1 R43 GM58956-01) from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and a contract (NNA05CR09C) from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the U.S. government may have certain rights in this invention.
Conventional imaging systems are challenged to provide adequate low-light, high-resolution imaging. Objective components used in high-resolution imaging systems need to have very high numeric aperture (NA) values. Unfortunately, a high NA value of the objective component results in a very small depth of field in which to view target objects. A small depth of field raises significant challenges in achieving and maintaining focus of target objects to be viewed during low-light, high-resolution imaging. If focus of a target object is not achieved and maintained, the resultant defocused image of the target object at a detector is spread over an unacceptably large area of the detector, with a loss in spatial resolution and a decrease in the signal-to-noise ratio associated with the image of the target object.
Confocal microscopy provides the ability to image cross sections of a cell ("optical sectioning") for the purpose of generating a three-dimensional map of cellular structures, or to synthesize a single two-dimensional image in which all cellular structures are in focus. These capabilities are desirable for a wide range of cell analysis applications, including co-localization studies, quantifying the translocation of molecules between cellular compartments, and the enumeration of fluorescence in situ hybridization probes randomly located in a nucleus. Although confocal microscopy provides a highly detailed view of the cell, the repeated scanning required significantly reduces image acquisition rates, and can in some cases, induce photo-bleaching of fluorescent probes.
Currently confocal microscopy is limited by the length of time required to capture imagery, the types of signals that can be collected simultaneously, and the limitation that the cells be immobilized on a solid support. The relatively slow speed of confocal microscopy can be a limiting factor for many applications. Commonly-studied cellular phenomena, including signaling, internalization of surface-bound factors, chromosomal defects, and various morphological transformations, can be subject to high cell-to-cell variation, occur over a wide and continuous range of values, or occur at low frequencies within a heterogeneous mixture of cells. Therefore, the study of such phenomena can require the observation and analysis of thousands of cells, and the application of statistical analysis in order to reach robust and repeatable scientific conclusions. In such cases, it is often impractical to employ confocal microscopy, due to the low throughput of the technique, despite the wealth of information it can provide for each cell.
In the alternative, conventional fluorescence imaging is generally much faster than confocal image stacking and can provide good spatial resolution and fluorescence sensitivity, when employing high NA objectives. However, conventional fluorescence microscopy is subject to a tradeoff between NA and depth of field. As the NA is increased to improve light collection and increase spatial resolution, the depth of field is reduced by the square of the NA change. Therefore, images of weakly fluorescent signals and cellular structures located outside the ideal plane of focus can be compromised. This effect is most readily observed in experiments employing Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) probes that are typically under one micron in size and are comprised of a limited number of fluorescent molecules, which can be distributed throughout the nucleus or cytoplasm of a cell. A slight defocus may preclude the detection of dim probes, or cause multiple probes located in close proximity to blur into each other. Larger amounts of defocus can cause substantial blur, rendering a FISH spot unrecognizable in an image. These tradeoffs for increased speed over the highly focused imagery produced by confocal image stacking are generally not acceptable, given that conventional microscopy, even in automated form, is still slow compared to flow cytometry. As a result, many studies of cellular phenomena employ both flow cytometry (for the high throughput study of large cell populations) and confocal microscopy (for the detailed imaging of selected individual cells).
The ImageStream™ flow imaging system was developed in part to address the gap between the slow, but detailed information obtained by confocal microscopy and the fast, but limited cellular information gleaned by flow cytometry. The ImageStream™ system collects six simultaneous multi-mode images (brightfield, darkfield, and up to four different fluorescence colors) from cells in flow. High fluorescence sensitivity and resolution are achieved by using 0.75 NA optics and a 0.5 micron pixel size.
Several attempts have been made to extend the depth of field of such a flow imaging system. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,583,865 (the disclosure and drawings of which are hereby specifically incorporated herein by reference) describes the use of a flow imaging system having a tilted detector (or a sample flow path that is tilted relative to the detector) that effectively increases the depth of field for a more accurate enumeration of structures and probes within a cell. The technique can be used in connection with a pulsed light source to produce multiple images of a moving object at different focal planes, or it can employ a continuous light source to produce a single composite image incorporating information from the object at multiple focal planes. The pulsed light source variant is limited in fluorescence sensitivity because each image has a relatively short signal integration time. The continuous light source variant is limited in image quality because the composite image contains both in-focus and out-of-focus information at every location in the cell. Hence, there is a need for a high speed imaging system having an extended depth of field as well as both high fluorescence sensitivity and excellent image quality.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,009,651 (the disclosure and drawings of which are hereby also specifically incorporated herein by reference) describes a flow imaging system in which light from an object is split into a plurality of optical paths, and one or more of the optical paths are defocused relative to the default focal plane of the system, to similarly increase the depth of field. U.S. Pat. No. 6,211,955 (the disclosure and drawings of which are hereby also specifically incorporated herein by reference) describes the use of a stereoscopic imaging apparatus to view cells from multiple angles, for the reconstruction of a three-dimensional (3-D) map of the cell and accurate enumeration of FISH spots in images. The effectiveness of this technique is limited by the depth of field that can be achieved with the imaging system. If the depth of field of each detector is less than the depth of the cell, or at least, of the nucleus, the spatial resolution of the three-dimensional map produced by the technique will vary across the cell, and neighboring FISH spots in the image will blur into each other and be unresolved.
While the ImageStream™ flow imaging system represents a significant advance over conventional flow cytometry and standard microscopy, demanding applications, such as the quantization of FISH probed cells, require imaging capabilities closer to those achieved by confocal image stacking.
It would therefore be desirable to develop a flow imaging system suitable for high-resolution imagery (0.75 NA and 0.5 micron pixel size), which also exhibits an extended depth of field.
The concepts disclosed herein enable the depth of field of an imaging system to be increased. Such techniques are particularly well suited for enabling flow imaging systems suitable for high-resolution imagery (0.75 NA and 0.5 micron pixel size) to achieve extended depth of field cellular images similar to those obtained using confocal image stacking. Because flow imaging systems can acquire image data much more rapidly than confocal microscopy, these techniques will facilitate the analysis of large cellular populations. The concepts disclosed herein further encompass imaging systems configured to achieve such extended depth of field imaging.
If the point spread function (PSF) of an imaging system is well-characterized, the known PSF can be used to improve the spatial resolution of imagery acquired with the imaging system by mathematically de-convolving the PSF from the imagery. In the case where object being imaged lies entirely within the focal plane, only a single image of the object need be acquired. If the object being imaged is extended in the Z axis, multiple images of the object must be acquired in different focal planes order to produce the resolution enhancement, due to uncertainty about the focal plane of origin of any given feature within a single image of an extended object. However, a single image of an extended object can be combined with PSF de-convolution to enhance focus quality (rather than resolution) if the PSF is intentionally modified such that it is invariant to focal position. The techniques disclosed herein are therefore based on manipulating an imaging system such that a point spread function (PSF) of the imaging system is substantially invariant over an extended depth of field. For example, where an unmodified high-resolution imaging system might exhibit a depth of field of about 1 micron, a modified version of the same imaging system might be characterized as having a PSF that is substantially invariant across a depth of field of about 10 microns. Such a substantially invariant PSF enables the imaging system to integrate light from different focal positions in object space, making the modified imaging system relatively insensitive to defocus. This property, in turn, enables de-convolution of the PSF to remove the spatial broadening and contrast loss inherent in the unprocessed image, thereby increasing image fidelity and creating an "in-focus" projected image of the entire cell. The concepts presented herein combine the above technique for extending depth of field with a means for greatly increasing detection sensitivity. The increased sensitivity is important to the practice of extended depth of field imaging, because the PSF modification tends to blur optical signals in the unprocessed imagery, thereby decreasing the signal to noise ratio. Further, the de-convolution process itself tends to amplify noise, reducing the effective signal to noise ratio in the resultant extended depth of field imagery, so increasing the signal intensity relative to the noise is a key feature of the present invention
A key aspect of the concepts presented in the examples discussed herein is that a wave front of light from the object is deformed, such that light from different focal positions is collected. As long as the deformation process is well understood, processing of the imaging data collected from the deformed light can correct for errors introduced into the image data by the deformation process, while enabling the information corresponding to the different focal positions to be retained. Thus, after such corrective processing is applied, an image with an extended depth of field is obtained.
Thus, the following steps can be considered to be an overview of an exemplary process disclosed herein: providing an imaging system having a substantially invariant PSF (or modifying an imaging system to achieve a substantially invariant PSF), collecting image data from an object, and processing that image data to achieve an extended depth of field image. De-convolving the image (taking into account the modified PSF) enhances image contrast and reduces spatial broadening, thereby improving image quality.
The concepts disclosed herein encompass several different exemplary techniques for providing the substantially invariant PSF and the deformed wave front. As noted above, U.S. Pat. No. 6,583,865 describes a flow imaging system having a tilted image plane (either the detector being tilted or the flow path of the object relative to the detector is tilted). Several improvements to that configuration are disclosed herein, including the use of a flow cell having a tilted flow path. Significantly, such an approach does not simultaneously collect data from a plurality of different focal positions. Instead, as the object moves relative to the tilted image plane, the focal point of the imaging system moves to different focal planes in the object. A detector synchronized to the motion of the object must be employed (i.e., a time delay integration (TDI) detector), such that images of the object obtained at different positions (and at different times) are combined to achieve an extended depth of field image of the object. Rather than using such a tilted image plane, an optical element configured to deform the optical wave front of light from the image can be introduced into the imaging system between the object and the detector. One advantage to using an optical element to deform the optical wave front is that light is simultaneously collected from an EDF in the object. Thus, a synchronized detector is not required (although it may still be desirable to employ such a detector). Another advantage to using an optical element to deform the optical wave front is that the element may be conveniently inserted into or removed from the optical system. Different imaging applications may require more or less depth of field, and having a removable element allows the depth of field to be tailored to the different applications of the imaging system. A phase plate (an exemplary phase plate can be obtained from CDM Optics of Boulder Colo., marketed as a Wavefront Coded™ element) represents one type of optical element that can be used to deform the optical wave front. Yet another type of optical element will deform the wave front by introducing a spherical aberration into light from the object. A separate optical element (such as a cover slip) can be used to introduce spherical aberration, or an existing element in the flow imaging system (such as a flow cell or cuvette, or an objective lens with a correction collar) can be modified to introduce the spherical aberration. Where the optical element is a phase plate or wave front coded (WFC) element, such an optical element will be disposed in infinite space, otherwise known as aperture space (i.e., behind the objective lens). If the optical element introduces spherical aberration, such aberration is preferably induced before light is collected by the aperture of the imaging system (i.e., between the object or cell being imaged and the objective lens). Essentially, the unmodified imaging system (i.e., the imaging system without the distortion element) is configured to acquire an image of the object with a relatively narrow depth of field (for example, about 1 micron, understanding that such a value is intended to be exemplary, and not limiting). When the distortion element is introduced into the imaging system, the distortion element induces defocus in the light from the object, such that the relatively narrow depth of field is expanded (in an exemplary, but not limiting embodiment, the defocus extends about +/−7 microns beyond the original depth of field); however, such defocus "blurs" the extended depth of field (such blur generally includes both spatial broadening and a loss of contrast). Post image acquisition processing can minimize the blurring effects of the defocus induced by the distortion element, enabling an EDF image to be generated. Note that the PSF of the imaging system with the distortion element in place is used to facilitate the post image acquisition processing employed to reduce the effects of the defocus induced by the distortion element.
Another aspect of the concepts encompassed herein is directed to a flow imaging system configured to provide the above-described extended depth of field images. Such a flow imaging system will include an optical element to deform the wave front of light from the object while providing a substantially invariant PSF, a collection element to direct light from the object along an light path, an imaging lens configured to form an image from the collected light, a detector configured to detect the image and generate image data, and a processor configured to process the image data (i.e., to de-convolve the image data based on the invariant PSF) to produce an extended depth of field image of an object. In some exemplary embodiments, the imaging system includes a dispersion element that disperses the collected light before imaging, and in some exemplary embodiments, the detector is a TDI detector, configured to output image data based on a plurality of images of the object detected over time.
Referring to the ImageStream™ system noted above, the concepts encompassed herein can be applied to the ImageStream™ system, to enable extended depth of field imaging to be achieved. An ImageStream™ system modified for extended depth of field (EDF) image collection can provide for the collection of high-resolution imagery (0.75 NA and 0.5 micron pixel size) without the defocus associated with high NA optics. Such imagery will have a greatly extended depth of field (a proposed EDF ImageStream™ will achieve a depth of field of ten microns, which is approximately five times the current operating single focal plane depth of less than two microns), allowing for all image features within a 10 micron EDF to be clearly in focus. This technology will enable imaging of cellular components having fine structures that are in different focal planes (e.g., cytoplasmic proteins, such as actin, microtubules, and sub-cellular organelles (such as mitochondria), cellular micro-domains (e.g., membrane caps, lipid rafts, protein co-localization, and signal transduction), and fluorescent in-situ hybridization spot counting. Significantly, post-processing of the imagery minimizes the effects of defocus by bringing the entire cell into focus at the same time. Unlike confocal image stacking techniques, this new methodology and apparatus will operate at hundreds of cells per second, allowing tens of thousands of cell images to be collected for quantitative analysis in several minutes.
This Summary has been provided to introduce a few concepts in a simplified form that are further described in detail below in the Description. However, this Summary is not intended to identify key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter.
Various aspects and attendant advantages of one or more exemplary embodiments and modifications thereto will become more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:
Figures and Disclosed Embodiments are not Limiting
Exemplary embodiments are illustrated in referenced Figures of the drawings. It is intended that the embodiments and Figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than restrictive. No limitation on the scope of the technology and of the claims that follow is to be imputed to the examples shown in the drawings and discussed herein.
The concepts disclosed herein encompass a method of adding extended depth of field capability to a flow imaging system configured for high-resolution imagery (exemplary, but not limiting parameters include 0.75 NA and 0.5 micron pixel size). It thus should be recognized that the term "standard image" or "standard imaging" refers to use of an exemplary flow imaging system (described in detail below) that has not been modified for EDF imaging. Such a flow imaging system can combine the speed, sample handling, and cell sorting capabilities of flow cytometry with the imagery, sensitivity, and resolution of multimode imagery with an extended depth of field in order to provide a comprehensive feature set to more effectively eliminate artifacts and allow for the complex analysis of the location, distribution, and translocation of biomarkers. Standard, non-confocal methods of image collection are hindered by extended depth of field limitations. The EDF capability described herein is a result of modifying an exemplary flow imaging system with an element in aperture space to alter the wave front in a deterministic way. The combination of a modified wave front and post-processing of the imagery helps to mitigate the spatial resolution loss and blurring associated with defocus. The result is a 2-D projection of the 3-D cell for each of six multimode images (it being understood that the use of six images are exemplary, and not limiting on the technique) acquired at rates 100 to 1000 times faster than confocal image stacking techniques. With the extended depth of field enhancement disclosed herein, micron-level spatial resolution can be maintained over the entire cell so that cellular structures and probes lying outside the plane of best focus can be analyzed with greater accuracy, as demonstrated with empirical FISH probe image data discussed in detail below.
More specifically, there are at least four applications in which such EDF imagery from flow imaging systems can be beneficially employed, including: (1) Cell Activation, such as transcription factor NF-eB nuclear translocation; (2) Mechanisms of Monoclonal Antibody Drug Action, co-localization and compartmentalization; (3) Apoptosis Analysis: differential rates of apoptosis in heterogeneous cell samples; and, (4) Morphologic cell classification, the identification of cells in blood and bone marrow.
Before discussing the steps employed in one exemplary embodiment for implementing the present novel approach, it will be beneficial to review an exemplary flow imaging system 150 that can be used to execute this method.
Referring now to
Either an optical distortion element 5A is disposed between the objects being imaged and the collection lens, or an optical distortion element 5B is disposed in infinite space (that is, at the objective aperture or at a conjugate image of the aperture at a subsequent location in the optical system, but before the detector). Alternatively, optical distortion may be introduced via adjustment of a correction collar on an adjustable implementation of objective lens 102. Only one means of introducing optical distortion is required. The function of the optical distortion is to change the light from the object to achieve a PSF that is substantially invariant across an EDF, such that negative effects of the distortion produced by the element can subsequently be removed by signal processing, to yield an EDF image.
Yet another technique that can be used to introduce optical distortion into light from the object is to use a cuvette/flow cell having different optical thicknesses at different locations, such that imaging through the different locations of the cuvette induces different degrees of wave front deformation. For example, different faces of the cuvette can induce different levels of distortion, with one or more faces introducing no intentional distortion/deformation, with other faces configured to intentionally deform the optical wave front of light from the object. Moving the cuvette relative to the imaging optical enables the deformation to be selectively induced. An optional cuvette manipulator 9 for manipulating the position of the cuvette relative to the optical system is shown in
The majority of the light is passed to a spectral decomposition element 108, which employs a fan-configuration of dichroic mirrors 110 to direct different spectral bands laterally onto different regions of a TDI detector 114. Thus, the imaging system is able to decompose the image of a single object 118 into multiple sub-images 120 across detector 114, each sub-image corresponding to a different spectral component. In this view, detector 114 has been enlarged and is shown separately to highlight its elements.
Spectral decomposition greatly facilitates the location, identification, and quantification of different fluorescence-labeled biomolecules within a cell by isolating probe signals from each other, and from background auto fluorescence. Spectral decomposition also enables simultaneous multimode imaging (brightfield, darkfield, etc.) using band-limited light in channels separate from those used for fluorescence imaging.
It should be recognized that other elements (such as a prism or a filter stack) could be similarly employed to spectrally disperse the light, and the dichroic mirrors simply represent an exemplary implementation. Flow imaging system 150 can employ a prism (not shown) or a grating oriented to disperse light laterally with regard to the axis of flow prior to the final focusing optics, for spectral analysis of each object's intrinsic fluorescence. In yet another exemplary embodiment of a suitable flow imaging system that is contemplated (but not shown), a cylindrical final focusing lens can be employed to image a Fourier plane on the detector in the cross-flow axis, enabling analysis of the light scatter angle. These techniques for multi-spectral imaging, flow spectroscopy, and Fourier plane scatter angle analysis can be employed simultaneously by splitting the collected light into separate collection paths, with appropriate optics in each light path. For enhanced morphology or to analyze forward scatter light, a second imaging objective and collection train can be used to image the particles through an orthogonal facet of the flow cuvette 116, thereby viewing the objects in stereoscopic perspective with no loss of speed or sensitivity.
To analyze the collected imagery, a software based image analysis program can be employed. One example of suitable image analysis software is the IDEAS™ package (available from Amnis Corporation, Seattle, Wash.). The IDEAS™ software package evaluates over 200 quantitative features for every cell, including multiple morphologic and fluorescence intensity measurements, which can be used to define and characterize cell populations. The IDEAS™ software package enables the user to define biologically relevant cell subpopulations, and analyze subpopulations using standard cytometry analyses, such as gating and backgating. It should be understood, however, that other image analysis methods or software packages can be employed to apply the concepts disclosed herein, and the IDEAS™ image analysis software package is intended to be merely one example of a suitable software for this purpose, rather than limiting on the concepts disclosed herein.
Turning now to
One primary advantage of TDI detection over other methods is the greatly increased image integration period it provides. An exemplary flow imaging system used in connection with the present invention includes a TDI detector that has 512 rows of pixels, provides a commensurate 512× increase in signal integration time. This increase enables the detection of even faint fluorescent probes within cell images and intrinsic auto fluorescence of cells acquired at a high-throughput.
Furthermore, the use of a TDI detector increases measured signal intensities up to a thousand fold, representing over a 30 fold improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio compared to other methods disclosed in the prior art. This increased signal intensity enables individual particles to be optically addressed, providing high-resolution measurement of either scattered spectral intensity of white light or scattered angular analysis of monochromatic light of selected wavelengths.
Exemplary flow imaging system 150 can be configured for multi-spectral imaging and can operate with, for example, six spectral channels: DAPI fluorescence (400-460 nm), Darkfield (460-500 nm), FITC fluorescence (500-560 nm), PE fluorescence (560-595 nm), Brightfield (595-650 nm), and Deep Red (650-700 nm). The TDI detector can provide 10 bit digital resolution per pixel. The NA of the exemplary imaging system is typically about 0.75, with a pixel size of approximately 0.5 microns. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that this flow imaging system is neither limited to six spectral channels nor limited to either the stated NA, or pixel size and resolution.
While the elimination of focus variation in a 2-D projection of a cell will likely be beneficial in many applications, it may be limiting in others, such as co-localization assays. This possibility was a key consideration in the utilization of a phase plate for the WFC EDF methodology, because the WFC EDF method can be implemented to provide different levels of distortion, or disabled completely, by removing or substituting optical elements in the system's aperture plane.
Another exemplary flow imaging system embodiment is a stereoscopic arrangement, as illustrated in a flow imaging system 70 of
The use of two different optical legs enables the object to be imaged from two different directions, in order to distinguish features that would otherwise overlap when viewed from a single direction. While this embodiment can also be employed for objects on moving substrates, such as microscope slides, it is particularly useful for analyzing multi-component objects in solution flowing through the system, such as cells containing FISH probes. Such probes appear as point sources of light anywhere within the cell's 3-D nucleus. In some cases, two or more FISH probes may appear in an overlapping relationship along the optical axis of the imaging system. In such cases, one of the FISH probes may obscure the others, making it difficult to determine the number of probes present in the cell. This factor is important in the determination of genetic abnormalities such as trisomy 21, otherwise known as Down syndrome. Single-perspective systems may address this problem by "panning through" the object along the optical axis to acquire multiple image planes in the object. While this method may be effective, it requires a significant amount of time to collect multiple images and cannot be readily applied to a cell in flow. The stereoscopic imaging system 70 in
By positioning the optical axes of collection lenses 32 for the two TDI detectors so that they are disposed at an angle to each other, for example, about 90 degrees, it is possible to separately resolve the FISH spots imaged from two or more FISH probes on at least one of TDI detectors 114 a or 114 b. If two or more FISH probes overlap in regard to the image produced on one of the detectors, they will be separately resolved in the spectrally dispersed images produced on the other TDI detector. Further, the use of two TDI detectors in flow imaging system 70 in what might be referred to as a "stereo or three-dimensional configuration" provides flexibility in the configuration of each leg of the system, including parameters such as the relative TDI readout rates, axial orientations, inclinations, focal plane positions, and magnification. Multiple cells or other objects may be imaged onto each detector simultaneously in the vertical direction. Since the objects move in synchronicity with the signal on the TDI, no gate or shutter is required to prevent blurring of the image. A pulsed or CW light source (without the need for a trigger mechanism to time a pulse coincident with particle arrival in the field of view) is employed. If a pulsed light source is used, the extended field of view in the axis of motion associated with TDI detection enables the cell or object in motion to be illuminated by multiple light pulses during its traversal through the imaging system. In contrast to a frame-based imaging apparatus, a TDI system can produce a single un-blurred image of the object that integrates the signal from multiple light pulses. When a CW light source is used, the signal generated by the object will be collected throughout the entire traversal of the object through the field of view, rather than only a small segment in time when a shutter is open. Therefore, the amount of signal collected and imaged on the detector in this exemplary embodiment is substantially greater than that of the prior art frame-based imaging systems. Consequently, the present approach can operate at very high throughput rates with excellent signal-to-noise ratio.
Application of the optical system shown in
Beyond unambiguously locating the position of discrete sources of light from the cell, the concepts disclosed herein can also be used to reconstruct 3-D models of solid bodies and surfaces within the cell. This can be accomplished by dividing the volume of the cell into a set of voxels with a dimension is each axis equal to the pixel size in each axis on the detectors. The intensity of each voxel in the volume can be determined in stepwise fashion. On a given detector, a single pixel, in the X-Z plane for example, represents the sum of voxel intensities for all voxels at that X-Z location along the Y axis. Therefore, to determine the signal in each voxel along the Y axis (at that X-Z location), the total signal from the X-Z pixel would be apportioned into each voxel along the Y axis in accordance with relative proportion of signal present in each pixel along the corresponding row on the Y-Z detector. For example, the signal for an arbitrary set of voxels, X3Z5Y1, X3Z5Y2, X3Z5Y3, X3Z5Y . . . , X3Z5Y100, could be determined as follows. The signal for pixel X3Z5 in the third column and fifth row on detector X-Z would contain the sum of the signal for all voxels listed above. If this sum were 1000 counts and all 100 pixels on the fifth row of the Y-Z detector contained the same value, than the 1000 count signal would be distributed evenly among all voxels listed. If for example, only the 10th and 11th pixels contained signal, then all voxel signal levels would be set to zero except for voxels X3Z5Y10 and X3Z5Y11. The 1000 count signal would then be distributed into those voxels accordance with the relative signal levels in pixels 10 and 11 on the fifth row of detector Y-Z. In this manner all voxels throughout the volume of a cell could be assigned signal levels to construct a 3-D model of the cell. This model could then be viewed from any angle, and sliced along arbitrary planes, to better visualize the spatial arrangement of cellular components and molecules contained within a cell.
Also illustrated in
Epi light source 66 is also illustrated for use in producing images on TDI detector 114 a in connection with partial reflector 68. Light source 64 can be used to generate reflected light to produce images on TDI detector 114 a, while scattered light from this source is directed toward TDI detector 114 b. These and other possible locations of light sources will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, as appropriate for providing the incident light on the object needed to achieve imaging, depending upon the particular application and information about the object that is desired. Moreover, if the WFC EDF method that is described below in detail is applied to both legs of flow imaging system 70, an accurate 3-D map of the cell can be reconstructed.
While the system of
Extended Depth of Field Imaging
EDF as used herein refers to the capability of imaging more parts of an object in focus than could be imaged using an unmodified imaging system (i.e., an imaging system not modified to achieve the EDF imaging). Such EDF imaging can enable all cellular components within a ten micron or greater depth of field to be imaged in focus. EDF cellular imaging offers an alternative method to developing a confocal-like image projection with the entire cell in focus simultaneously. One of the issues raised by single-plane image capture of microscopic objects is the effect of focus variations on the quality of captured imagery. In particular, if the object to be imaged has fine structures, which are intrinsically in different focal planes, it is not possible to resolve all of the corresponding fine detail in a single planar image. The finer the details to be imaged, the more important this problem becomes, because the size of the smallest features that can be resolved varies inversely with the NA of the optical system, while the depth of focus shrinks faster, as the inverse square of the NA. Thus, EDF imaging can be accomplished at very high speed and eliminates the photo bleaching effects associated with repeated acquisitions of the cell imagery at different planes of focus. EDF imaging can be accomplished in several ways. However, the underlying principal involves the formation of a PSF that is invariant over an expected range of focal positions. For most cell imaging applications, this range is approximately 15 microns. The process of achieving a PSF invariant to focal position increases the size and changes the character of the PSF when compared to the classical best focus point spread. The increased size reduces the ability of the optical system to generate contrast and resolve image detail. However, through de-convolution, the contrast can be largely restored with the benefit of providing "best-focus-like" resolution over a greatly enhanced focal range. The end result is a high-resolution image of the cell with all features simultaneously in focus.
The concepts disclosed herein encompass at least three methods to achieve focus invariant PSFs: (1) a WFC EDF method using a phase plate, for example, a WAVE FRONT CODED™ element provided by CDM Optics, Inc. of Boulder, Colo.; (2) a Spherical Aberration EDF method; and, (3) a Tilted Object Plane Time Delay Integration (TOPTDI) EDF method. Basic principles relating to the TOPTDI EDF method are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,583,865. The present discussion briefly covers improvements to the TOPTDI method. It should be noted that the WFC EDF technique and the Spherical Aberration EDF technique can be distinguished from the TOPTDI EDF technique, in that the TOPTDI EDF technique acquires data from different focal planes at different times, and thus requires a TDI detector. The WFC EDF technique and the Spherical Aberration EDF technique acquire EDF data simultaneously, and a TDI detector is not required. Use of a TDI detector in implementing the WFC EDF technique and the Spherical Aberration EDF technique is desirable, because the TDI detector increases the amount of light (and therefore data) that can be collected from any object, thereby improving the signal-to-noise ratio of the image; however, each different image acquired by the TDI detector includes an EDF before the integrated image is provided by the detector, in contrast to the TOPTDI implementation.
In summary, all three methods result in a PSF that integrates light from different focal positions in object space, making it relatively insensitive to defocus. This property, in turn, enables de-convolution of the PSF to remove the spatial broadening and contrast loss inherent in the unprocessed image, thereby increasing image fidelity and creating an "in-focus" projected image of the entire cell. However, only the WFC EDF method allows for directed tuning of the optical wave front to optimize the PSF for EDF imaging.
Optional step 168 indicates that the next step is to determine the PSF of the imaging system that produced the deformed optical wave front. While this step is required to process the raw image data to generate the best quality EDF image, it should be recognized that such a step may not be implemented by a user in some imaging systems, since it could be implemented by a manufacturer of the imaging system, and stored as a known parameter (thus the arrow from step 168 to start). The PSF of the imaging system including the optical distortion element need only be determined once, as long as the configuration of the imaging system remains unchanged. Once a change is made to the optical configuration of the imaging system that changes the imaging system's inherent PSF, the PSF for the modified system would need to again be determined. In a step 170, the image data can be de-convolved using the PSF to reduce negative effects of the wave front distortion. Then, the extended depth of field image for the object can be produced in a step 172, and the method is complete as shown in a step 174.
Simulation of the WFC EDF Method
The WFC EDF method involves imparting a deformation in the optical wave front of the object via the addition of an optical or distortion element such as a phase plate (or preferably the WAVE FRONT CODED™ element provided by CDM Optics, Inc. of Boulder, Colo.) in the aperture plane of the optical system. The deformation causes light from different focal planes corresponding to a single lateral position in object space to be imaged on the detector plane simultaneously. A significant advantage of the WFC EDF method over the TOPTDI EDF method is the ease with which the system can be converted from standard imaging to EDF imaging. The conversion requires the insertion of the WFC element in the aperture space of the system. The exemplary flow imaging system was designed to place an external image of the aperture in an easily accessible location. For example, a six-position software controlled aperture wheel 157 is shown in
In order to simulate the WFC EDF method, a phase plate was modeled and consists of an optically clear element having a two-axis cubic waveform, where the axes cross orthogonally. A phase plate is an optical component of transparent material placed in the aperture space of an optical system. The phase plate is optically clear and has slight variations in its thickness in order to retard or advance the phase of the wave front relative to the un-deviated wave front. CDM Optics, Inc. has developed the ability to construct phase plates with arbitrary surface shapes and micron-level fabrication tolerances. These phase plates can be used to induce deformations in the optical wave front to potentially provide a more consistent PSF through an extended focal range. Thus, the slight variations in thickness across the plate's surface serve to retard or advance the phase of the wave front. From a geometric perspective, the angular changes in the surface of the element cause ray paths to deviate from their original course to image light from different points along the optic axis for a given lateral position in the image plane. For this simulation, an element was modeled with a sag of the form shown in Equation 1, where n=3.
A coefficient an=0.000122 was selected to generate approximately five waves of peak to valley wave front error over the aperture. The element shown as a 3-D rendering in
Simulation of the Spherical Aberration EDF Method
The spherical aberration EDF method involves imparting spherical aberration in the wave front by inserting a distortion element between the object and the objective lens in order to induce spherical aberration into the collected imagery. Useful distortion elements include a cover slip (or parallel plate), a custom objective with a correction collar, a custom cuvette having different optical properties in different parts of the cuvette, and switchable optical elements in the image collection path. Spherical aberration causes different regions in the aperture to focus at different points along the optical axis so that points from multiple focal planes in object space are imaged onto one detector plane.
Prior to providing a more detailed discussion of the more complete simulations of the optical system performed with the parallel plate in place, it may first be helpful to present an approximate calculation of the effect of the introduction of a parallel plate of glass on the variation of the focal positions of light entering a microscope objective. Assume that there is a passage of a ray of light R from an object 0 through a parallel plate of glass of thickness t. The ray R leaves the object 0 at an angle Θ to the optical axis. As shown in Equation 2, it is bent according to Snell's Law to an angle φ:
Upon leaving the glass, it is bent back to its original angle. While inside the glass, as shown by Equation 3, it has traveled a distance y further from the optical axis than it was at its entry point:
Tracing the exiting ray R back to where it appears to originate on the optical axis, Equation 4 shows that the focal displacement z′ due to the presence of the glass plate is:
One useful limit to consider is the case when Θ is very small. In this case it can be shown that:
The spherical aberration of the optical system is caused by the fact that z′ does not remain constant as Θ ranges from zero up to the NA of the microscope objective, which represents the largest angle ray the objective will accept. The objective used in the exemplary flow imaging system has an NA of 0.75.
Now, returning to the simulation, a desirable feature of the Spherical Aberration EDF method capability is selectability, where the spherical aberration can be introduced or not, depending upon the requirements of the particular assay that is being run. The EDF algorithm can then be applied only to imagery collected with the EDF hardware in place. A selectable EDF can be achieved in a number of ways in hardware. First, an insertable cover slip can be disposed between the objective and the cuvette. In an empirical study, the cover glass was held in place on the face of the cuvette by a drop of alcohol to form a temporary rigid optical contact. The introduction of the cover glass creates a known aberration in the optical system, known as spherical aberration. In brief, spherical aberration causes light rays departing a single source at different angles relative to the optic axis to focus at different positions along the optic axis. The immediate result is that imagery becomes more fuzzy. A more subtle effect is that the imagery is less dependent on the exact focal position of the lens relative to the source. If the imagery is enhanced digitally to reduce the fuzziness via de-convolution, while preserving the independence from focal position, an instrument with enhanced depth of field is achieved, at the cost of losing some of the signal-to-noise ratio characteristic of in-focus data from the original instrument. Issues include precision motion requirements and the need to establish and maintain precise angular alignment of the cover slip surfaces orthogonal to the optical axis in the very limited working distance (0.5 mm) between the cuvette and objective available in the exemplary imaging system.
In another Spherical Aberration EDF embodiment, a custom objective with a motorized spherical aberration correction collar can be utilized. Potential problems with such an embodiment include the need to provide a custom optical design, and development of the objective lens and the mechanical interface to drive the correction collar.
In a further Spherical Aberration EDF embodiment, a custom cuvette with different optical thicknesses may be presented to the image collection optical path. Issues with such an embodiment include tight fabrication tolerances on the cuvette wall thicknesses and face perpendicularity, precision motion control within the optical alignment requirements, as well as maintenance of the interface to the fluidic system in the flow cell/cuvette assembly.
In yet another exemplary Spherical Aberration EDF embodiment, switchable optical elements in the image collection optical path may include the final focus lens to the camera/detector, which can be designed with residual spherical aberration and disposed in place of the standard focusing lens during EDF imaging. Issues include the optical design and fabrication of the spherically aberrated lens to maintain parfocality with the standard lens and the motion control system for swapping the lenses in the optical path.
Varying degrees of spherical aberration were modeled to determine the best trade off between contrast loss and depth of field expansion. Evaluation of the PSFs at various focal positions provides a qualitative understanding of the limitations of the Spherical Aberration method. Ideally, the PSF would remain fairly consistent over the focal range of interest. To simulate the Spherical Aberration EDF method, the exemplary flow imaging system was modeled with a decreased flow cuvette thickness to add 1.8 waves of peak-to-peak spherical aberration after refocusing. This optical configuration was then used to model the PSF at the various focus locations required for subsequent analysis. The results are summarized in
Simulation of the TOPTDI EDF Method
The TOPTDI EDF method can be employed in concert with the TDI detection methods used in the exemplary flow imaging system described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,583,765, the drawings and specification of which are hereby specifically incorporated herein by reference. In this method, the object plane (or detector plane) is tilted such that during the image integration process, the cell scans through a continuous range of focus positions. In other words, the focal plane is tilted relative to the axial flow of the cells such that light from multiple focal planes in object space is integrated during image collection. Either the detector can be tilted relative to a non-tilted flow path for objects being imaged, or a cuvette with a tilted flow path and means for optically correcting for the coma and astigmatism that will be introduced by the tilted reflective surface of the cuvette wall and air interface can be used. In addition, a custom-designed cuvette that has a tilted channel can be employed, thereby eliminating the concern with respect to the astigmatism and coma by ensuring that the cuvette is orthogonal to the collected light. Only the water/glass cuvette is non-orthogonal, providing a decrease in optical aberrations. Introduction of an optical component such as an optical wedge, which effectively tilts the image plane with respect to the camera, may also be utilized. Alternatively, a convolution filter can be used in the beam path, and the known de-convolution algorithm may be utilized to correct for the astigmatism and coma effects.
The technique of modeling a tilted detector methodology to implement a real time "pan through" of focal planes for each object during the TDI integration distance showed potential; however, empirical studies indicated it requires more than a 45 degree tilt of the detector for less than 7 microns of pan through. In addition to implementation difficulties, this degree of tilt induced an anamorphic pixel aspect ratio and decreased collection efficiency. Further empirical studies were performed to investigate tilting the object plane less than the three degrees, in order to pan through 10 microns of focal positions. Unfortunately, initial modeling studies indicated that three degrees of tilt at the air glass interface of the cuvette imparted an unacceptable amount of coma and astigmatism to the wave front.
As an alternative, an improved implementation of the tilted-plane methodology has been developed to achieve the desired EDF performance, without the introduction of excessive off axis aberrations. This method utilizes optical fabrication techniques developed for precision prism manufacturing, to polish the desired tilt angle into the cuvette front surface, relative to the cuvette flow channel, which enables the air/glass interface to remain orthogonal to the objective optical axis, while the three degree tilted surface is placed at the glass/water interface, thereby substantially reducing the residual coma and astigmatism, since the index or refraction mismatch is reduced. This TOPTDI system was modeled, and PSFs were determined for the matrix of field heights and shifted object positions shown below:
Using the individual PSF from each row within a given column in the matrix above, a PSF was synthesized for a given TOPTDI integration path. These PSFs were then used to compute the through focus MTF plots for the comparison of methodologies. The results are summarized in
Processing of Raw Image Data to Produce the Extended Depth of Field Image
Within limitations, the blur associated with the wave front distortion inherent in EDF imaging can be removed through post-processing of the image using de-convolution. De-convolution is the process of enhancing the contrast of a system over some range of frequencies, usually with the objective of overcoming some degradation that has occurred in producing the image data. The difficulty with this procedure is that noise, which is often present at those frequencies, is amplified along with any real signal that may be present. Because of this difficulty, it is usually not desirable to attempt to achieve a perfect de-convolution, which would reconstruct a signal exactly as it was before the degradation. Instead, the attempt should be made to achieve some reasonable level of reconstruction that does not result in too large an amplification of the noise.
Before discussing the exemplary de-convolution methods utilized in processing an image acquired after deforming the optical wave front of light from an object to achieve an EDF, it may be useful to first discuss the spatial resolution and depth of focus in optical systems. Diffraction causes a point source of light to spread out when imaged by an optical system. The resulting intensity pattern, which is called an Airy disk, appears as a bright central spot surrounded by a series of alternating light and dark rings. The intensity pattern is a projection of the PSF of the optical system onto a flat plane. A PSF that produces an Airy disk having a smaller diameter and most of its energy concentrated within the central spot results in a higher spatial resolution. As objects move from the best plane of focus, the Airy disk diameter increases, and the energy spreads out into secondary and tertiary rings, covering a larger area, resulting in relatively poorer spatial resolution. At best focus, the radius (δ) of the central bright spot of the Airy disk is a function the numerical aperture (NA) of the optical system and the wavelength (λ) of light comprising the image, as defined by the following equation:
The classical depth of field Δ of an optical system varies inversely as the square of the numerical aperture as defined by the following equation:
For a typical moderately high-resolution objective (0.75 NA) used in the center of the visible spectrum (550 nm), the diffraction limited resolution and the depth of focus as defined by Equations 6 and 7 are 0.45 microns and +/−0.49 microns, respectively. As illustrated in
Confocal image stacking techniques avoid this problem by synthesizing an image of the cell with all features simultaneously in focus via the collection of multiple images of the cell at different focal planes. At each focal position, an image is collected by scanning a spot of illumination over the object with a conjugate pinhole located at an intermediate image plane in the collection system. The conjugate pinhole substantially eliminates light from objects outside the focal plane, providing a crisp image of the object structures in the immediate focal plane. By applying image reconstruction algorithms to the stack of imagery, a high-resolution composite image can be generated with the entire cell in focus on a single plane.
As discussed above, the convolution process inherent in imaging can be "undone" through post-processing of the image using de-convolution. This effect can be visually illustrated by reversing the process shown in
Evaluation of EDF Methods & De-Convolution Using Modulation Transfer Functions
A convenient method to theoretically evaluate the expected performance of the various EDF methods described above (WFC EDF, Spherical Aberration EDF, and TOPTDI EDF) is to compare their modulation transfer functions (MTF). The typical MTF plot provides a quantitative assessment of contrast over a range of spatial frequencies. For the comparison of the EDF methods discussed above, a single spatial frequency was chosen, and curves were generated for different focus positions. A through-focus MTF plot shows the behavior of the decreasing contrast function on either side of the best focus position. The exemplary flow imaging system utilizes a pixel size of 18 microns at the detector, corresponding to a maximum sampled spatial frequency of 27.8 line pairs/mm at the detector plane. The through-focus MTF plots were calculated at approximately half the maximum resolvable spatial frequency, or 14 line pairs/mm (500 line pairs/mm in object space), over a focal range of +/−10 microns in object space. The optimal performance for an ideal system would be a flat response (i.e., a constant MTF) with maximum contrast over the widest focal depth.
As shown in
The simulated imagery illustrates the effectiveness of both the TOPTDI EDF and WFC EDF methods in maintaining a constant PSF over an extended focal range. The results are particularly striking when comparing the de-convolved EDF imagery to the standard imagery at five microns of defocus. In
Empirical Evaluation of the WFC EDF Method Using Engineered Bead Samples
Simulation of the various EDF methodologies described above offered insights into the advantages and disadvantages of each of the alternative EDF methods. The WFC EDF method was chosen for implementation in an EDF modified version of the empirical imaging system of
To implement and empirically test the WFC method, a crossed cubic WFC element was procured (available from CDM Optics, Inc., Boulder, Colo.) The element was installed at an external aperture stop in the exemplary flow imaging system, and the PSF of the modified imaging system was measured by running a sample of 200 nanometer diameter fluorescent beads (Invitrogen, FluoSpheres™ carboxylate-modified microspheres, 0.2 μm, yellow-green, 505/515 2% solids, F-8811), which was prepared at a 10,000:1 dilution, and run on the modified flow imaging system. Such beads are sufficiently small relative to the pixel size and diffraction limited spot size of the exemplary imaging systems optics so as to be considered as point sources.
To further evaluate the exemplary flow imaging system with WFC EDF imaging, a simple test was devised using 2.5 micron diameter fluorescent beads (as manufactured by Invitrogen Inc., Linear Flow Green), 0.1% intensity. A file was collected containing imagery from nine focus positions spaced 2.0 microns apart. The exemplary flow imaging system's auto-focus control was first enabled to establish the nominal best focus for the beads. The auto-focus control was then disabled, and the stage was positioned at −8.0 microns from best focus. Approximately 200 objects were imaged in darkfield and fluorescence modes at each of the nine focus positions (−8, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 microns from best focus), resulting in a file containing 3,600 images over a pan range of 16 microns. Two test files were collected, one using standard imaging, and one using WFC EDF imaging.
In marked contrast, the WFC EDF imagery of
Referring to the dot plots of
Referring to the dot plots of
A statistical analysis of the noise contained in the imagery was performed by evaluating the standard deviation in background signal outside the bead image for each individual object. An analysis of over 2,100 objects for each focus pan indicates the median standard deviation in background signal is 0.97 and 1.30 counts, respectively, for the standard and EDF focus pans (identified by σ in each of
Exemplary Post-Processing De-Convolution of Imagery
In this empirical study, imagery captured in the WFC EDF mode was post processed using a Richardson-Lucy (R-L) iterative de-convolution algorithm to restore fidelity. Starting with a good measurement of the PSF (as modified by the WFC element), the technique seeks to maximize the likelihood of the de-convolved image by using the Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm. Specifically, it assumes an undistorted image f which is convolved with a PSF h where n denotes the noise associated with the image. Then, EDF modified image g is given by the following equation:
FISH probes offer a powerful means for detecting and/or quantifying RNA/DNA in a cell and/or cellular organelle. Current slide-based FISH protocols require fixation (e.g., with a polar organic solvent such as methanol) of intact cells. However, this fixation step is not compatible with in-suspension hybridization due to the occurrence of substantial cell loss and cell clumping. Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization-In Suspension (FISH-IS) protocols for performing chromosomal detection on whole cells maintained in fluid suspension have therefore been developed. These protocols enable the cells to be fixed and hybridized without significant loss of cells or cell clumping. FISH-IS has been successfully performed on many different cell types with a variety of probes that are of interest to the clinical and scientific research communities.
Automated chromosome enumeration via FISH or FISH-IS probing is an application for which EDF imaging may confer significant benefits. Defocus causes significant changes in the presentation of probes often blurring one into another or spreading out the signal to such a degree that it is difficult to automatically segment, or visually separate FISH probes from each other or from non-specific binding in the nucleus.
To compare the efficacy of chromosome enumeration between the standard and extended depth of field configurations, cells of the Jurkat human lymphoma line were grown in a suspension culture, then probed using a FISH-IS protocol. Cells were fixed and permeabilized with successive incubations (5 minutes at 4° C.) in 30%, then 70% Carnoy's solution (3:1 methanol:acetic acid) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). After centrifugation, cells were washed once in 2×SSC (a commonly used buffer including 3 M NaCl, 0.3 M NaCitrate, pH 7.0), then re-suspended in a hybridization buffer containing a Spectrum Green labeled chromosome 8 enumeration probe, according to the manufacturer's directions (Vysis). To hybridize the probe, cells in PCR tubes were exposed to 80° C. for 5 minutes and 42° C. for 2 hours in a DNA thermocycler. 100 ul of 2×SSC was added to the tubes, and the cells were pelleted by centrifugation. The pellets were then re-suspended in 50 ul of 1% paraformaldehyde (in PBS). The sample was then loaded into the exemplary flow imaging system, and a file of 1,000 cells was collected in the standard collection mode (i.e., without the optical deformation element in place). A second file was collected from the same sample immediately thereafter using the WFC EDF collection mode. Both files were analyzed in the same manner using IDEAS™ software to detect and enumerate chromosome 8 in each cell. Image galleries were generated of cells having one, two, or more copies of chromosome 8. The entire collection time for both files was several minutes (including the time required to switch from standard to EDF modes).
The results were automatically analyzed to enumerate copies of the Y chromosome in each cell. Simple classifiers using brightfield imagery were developed to exclude cellular debris, doublet events, and other artifacts from the analysis. A specialized segmentation routine and connected components analysis were performed on the fluorescence imagery to generate a first pass enumeration of chromosomes on single cells. A refinement of the monosomy and disomy classified cells from the first pass enumeration was performed to eliminate false positive events. After the final classification step, the resulting imagery was manually reviewed to qualitatively judge the efficacy of the final classification. This analysis was not intended to be a rigorous examination of the efficacy of the exemplary flow imaging system with EDF for chromosome enumeration. Rather, this experiment was performed to explore an application for which the exemplary flow imaging system with WFC EDF imaging may have a beneficial result.
Development of FISH Spot Enumeration Classifier and Classification Results
In order to determine the efficacy of EDF imaging on the enumeration of chromosomes, an exemplary, simple five-step classifier was developed using the IDEAS™ analysis software. The first two steps involved segmentation and the selection of appropriate objects within the data file for subsequent analysis (the data file includes each image collected from a sample of cells or objects run through the flow imaging system). Object selection was accomplished by plotting the brightfield aspect ratio vs. brightfield area, as shown in the dot plot in
The third step in classification (graphically illustrated in
The fourth step in the exemplary classification employed an IDEAS™ feature called "FISH Spots," which uses the morphology mask to perform a connected components analysis to enumerate discrete FISH spots contained within each fluorescent image. The results of this computation and the final gating of disomic cells, the fifth step in the classification, are shown in
To improve classification accuracy, each population of monosomy and disomy-classified cells was further analyzed by plotting peak intensity vs. area for the fluorescence channel. Non-specific binding generally has low peak intensity and large area, and therefore, plots of peak intensity vs. area improve discrimination of nonspecific binding events. Bi-variant plots of this analysis are shown in the middle portion of
A review of the imagery in
It is likely that future optimizations of the exemplary flow imaging system with extended depth of field will provide for further improvements in image quality and advanced capabilities. Since the exemplary flow imaging system collects imagery in a flow cuvette with image collection access to all four sides of the cell, unlike slide-based imaging systems, there exists the potential to develop a two-axis orthogonal implementation of the architecture described herein. Coupling a two-axis version of the exemplary flow imaging system architecture (i.e., a flow imaging system such as that shown in
The high-resolution EDF flow imaging techniques disclosed herein should find beneficial application in the following types of image-based analytical studies: (1) FISH-IS, which provides high throughput automated spot counting of FISH-probed cells in suspension; (2) Cell Cycle and Mitosis Analysis for quantization and visualization of DNA-stained cells; (3) Stem Cell Imaging for visualization of rare cells; (4) Phagocytosis for quantitative analysis of macrophage activity; and (5) Cell Signaling for imaging and quantization of T-cell/antigen-presenting cell conjugates. Moreover, one of the most promising applications is the high throughput genetic testing of cells using FISH-IS cell probing technique. Standard FISH is increasingly being used for such purposes as prenatal genetic testing, qualifying patients for breast cancer treatment with Herceptin™, and leukemia lymphoma testing. Current methods of FISH probing are typically performed manually on a small number of cells per test, which makes them unsuitable for identifying and classifying cancer or other target cells that may be present at less than five percent of the sample. The FISH-IS technique, in connection with the exemplary EDF flow imaging system's ability to analyze tens of thousands of cells, will allow the detection of rare target cells for clinical applications like cancer detection as well as the correlation of genetic and phenotypic traits in target validation studies.
Further improvements relate to optimizing the PSF used for image reconstruction. More specifically, a custom model PSF for each channel will be created, to take into account different focal depths and aberrations which may be present at different wavelengths. Thus, different correct PSFs will be used for post image processing (i.e., image de-convolution). Such PSFs will be tailored to work with a given depth of field, by collecting data from beads over the full depth for which the system is expected to perform.
Exemplary Computing Environment
As discussed above, a key aspect of the EDF imaging techniques disclosed herein involves post image acquisition processing to enhance the image data, to achieve an EDF image. Such image processing corrects for errors introduced by the PSF of the imaging system, and the intentional distortion of the optical wave front from the object. Preferably, such image processing is a de-convolution process based on the PSF of the imaging system (or other corrective PSFs, generally as discussed immediately above).
Also included in processing unit 254 are a random access memory (RAM) 256 and non-volatile memory 260, which can include read only memory (ROM) and may include some form of memory storage, such as a hard drive, an optical disk (and drive), etc. These memory devices are bi-directionally coupled to CPU 258. Such storage devices are well known in the art. Machine instructions and data are temporarily loaded into RAM 256 from non-volatile memory 260. Also stored in the memory are an operating system software and ancillary software. While not separately shown, it will be understood that a generally conventional power supply will be included to provide electrical power at a voltage and current level appropriate to energize the components of computing system 250.
Input device 252 can be any device or mechanism that facilitates user input into the operating environment, including, but not limited to, one or more of a mouse or other pointing device, a keyboard, a microphone, a modem, or other input device. In general, the input device will be used to initially configure computing system 250, to achieve the desired processing (e.g., to process image data to produce images as discussed above). Configuration of computing system 250 to achieve the desired processing includes the steps of loading appropriate processing software into non-volatile memory 260, and launching the processing application (e.g., loading the processing software into RAM 256 for execution by the CPU) so that the processing application is ready for use. Output device 262 generally includes any device that produces output information, but will most typically comprise a monitor or computer display designed for human visual perception of output. Use of a conventional computer keyboard for input device 252 and a computer display for output device 262 should be considered as exemplary, rather than as limiting on the scope of this system. Data link 264 is configured to enable image data collected from a flow imaging system to be introduced into computing system 250 for subsequent image processing as discussed above. Those of ordinary skill in the art will readily recognize that many types of data links can be implemented, including, but not limited to, universal serial bus (USB) ports, parallel ports, serial ports, inputs configured to couple with portable memory storage devices, FireWire (conforming to I.E.E.E. 1394 specification) ports, infrared data ports, wireless data ports such as Bluetooth™, network connections such as Ethernet ports, and Internet connections.
Although the concepts disclosed herein have been described in connection with the exemplary form of practicing them and modifications thereto, those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that many other modifications can be made thereto within the scope of the claims that follow. Accordingly, it is not intended that the scope of these concepts in any way be limited by the above description, but instead be determined entirely by reference to the claims that follow.
Patent Citations
Non-Patent Citations
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After buying out their most recent superintendent's contract, East Allen County Schools is looking for her replacement.
Tonight, the first of two public meetings was held.
"For a parent and a staff member of East Allen I didn't always believe what was coming out of the superintendent's mouth," said Eileen Carroll, an EACS parent and employee.
"I have mixed feelings about Dr green leaving but I think overall it was a good thing to do even if it came at a price financially," said Diane Gibson, an EACS parent.
The search is on, East Allen County Schools is hunting for its next superintendent after parting ways with Karyle Green. She's being paid close to $200,000 as part of her severance package.
Robert Nelson sits on the seven person school board and he stressed the importance of looking ahead rather than harping on the districts previous pitfalls.
"There needs to be a buy in by the school administration, the school staff as well as the community so we need to get input from then on what they see the positives and what we need to look for," said Nelson.
Parents voiced a number of qualities and criteria they are looking for in the next superintendent, but trust and integrity were two of the biggest.
"We need a superintendent that will listen to staff and community and students," said Green.
"From the kitchen workers to the custodians all the way to the top they did not feel valued and there was a lot of mistrust," said Gibson.

subset: commoncrawl


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Custom bumper stickers, decals, banners and more!
We specialize in custom stickers, political campaign bumper stickers, decals, banners, car magnets, static clings and custom graphic design. All of our stickers are made of durable all weather vinyl, are digitally printed, photo quality, full color, and can be made into custom shapes and sizes.


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Roslyn Heights Breast Implant Removal Doctors
Roslyn Heights Breast Implant Removal cost
Average cost in US: $4,125
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Roslyn Heights Breast Implant Removal reviews
93% of Roslyn Heights reviewers said Breast Implant Removal was worth it
"61 Year Old with an Array of..."
I have been seriously ill with fungal, viral and bacterial infections and symptoms including SOB, brain fog and burning pain in chest and other parts of my body to name a few. This progressed over the coarse of 11 years . I had been to many specialists, diagnosed with fibromyalgia, mild COPD, ground glass nodules in my lungs and other various medical problems. Before this time I had... more
"Need Support, Considering Breast..."
Hello, I am turning to this site for some support. I have 250 cc saline implants, placed over the muscle. I have started to have pain and numbness out of no where. Pain in my left breast and numbness in the left. With back/shoulder pain that is constant. When I lay down, the left breast floats up to my collar bone. I had an ultra sound because my doctor was afraid I had breast cancer symptoms... more
"35 Years Old explant and lift Time..."
At the tender age of 19 I was very insecure about my breasts my left breast was about a cup size smaller than my right. My ex boyfriend at the time made a comment about it which only added more fuel to the fire. So I just did it I got saline implants placed submuscular I believe the left breadt had more ccs put in then the right but it's been so long that honestly I'm not really sure. So this... more
"Subglandular, 425cc Saline Implants..."
I had my implant put in march of 2003 after breastfeeding 2 kids. I had another baby in 2013 and breastfed 16 months. Over the year I gained about 30 pound and my boob were a lot bigger. I definitely experienced back pain and neck pain. I am hoping it was because of the implants and now that they are out the pain will be gone. Glad to have my body back to its natural state. So far i have no... more
"42 with 3 Kids - Forest Hills, NY"
I haven't gotten my surgery just yet but after visiting the doctor there's no doubt I'm doing it with him. The staff was amazing, the wait wasn't to long and the Dr. Knew exactly what he was talking about. He took his time to explain to me the procedure and what my results would be like once I get the surgery don't. Loved it! I would recommend him to anyone. more
"27 Year Old Breast Removal with Lift..."
So my surgery date is coming up soon and I'm getting really nervous. When I was 19 years old I had no fear. Now that I'm older I feel much more afraid of things. I know I can get through it, it's just nerve wracking at first. I have saline Implants at the moment and I believe I'm a D, but others might claim DD so I don't know. I decided to take them out because they are just too big for my... more
"Seeking Help & Support in Getting my..."
Hello I am a 40 y/o female who is healthy but morbid obese. I excercise.everyday and just unhappy with my large chest. I am doing hot yoga however my breast are in the way. I do not like how they look in cloths and I am extremely unhappy with them. I had the implants put in on or around August 2002. I started out with a 34b. Once implants where put in I was a 36DD. I also.have no paper work or... more
I had my implants only for 3 months, I had "fluid" problems, don't know the name of what I had in English (I speak another language). My case happened in 2008 so now it's 5 years that I remove them. I suffered a lot, with pain, sleep depravation, depression until make my decision about take them out, I think that even without those problems I would have them removed because I never felt like I... more
"Feeling Light-hearted and Free..."
Hello Everyone, I would like to share my story so that it may help anyone else who is struggling with this decision. I would have to say, the most important factor is willingness to accept the results. That being said, there are many options out there, and hopefully one that will work for you. I chose to have my under the muscle 350 CC implants (one filled to 400 ccs to compensate... more
"Dr. Engler Sets the Standard! - New..."
Approximately 15 years ago I had a breast augmentation procedure done in Los Angeles. Much to my dismay, one of my implants recently deflated, and I began the task of finding a doctor to perform the replacement procedure in NYC, where I now live. After examining me, we spoke at length of my options - saline or silicone, replace one or both, capsulectomies. I continued to do... more
"Dr Wallach I Just Had my Implants..."
Ago CCon Rt Brst Now Im So Depressed Lks Ugly. I had a C cup before implants i wanted them to look natural and full which he did a good job but I got CC twice on rt side .So he gave me 4 options and with each one I had a big chance of getting it again which I did.So my husband said because we had already put so much money in it decided to take them out.I just removed them yesterday.I could not... more
Ok ...soo I am 30 yr old female 5'8" 135lbs active no stranger to the medical field as I am a nurse. Aprox 8 yrs ago I had a breast reduction w lift for Large 34DDD breasts although I am tall I have a small frame I was very happy but over the years I thought I may be happier in a bathing suit and that slightly larger breasts would cover my scars as I was a perky 34 B. So I went and got 410 cc... more
"I Want to Be Happy with the New Me!..."
Hi Ladies, It's been a while since I posted any new info but finally I can say I'm scheduled for removal September 6th. My ruptured implant is now completely empty and I guess I can say that I have a preview of what's to come. From what I have read most of you have gone from either removal after capsular contracture or just removal of the implant. With having a rupture it kind of gives you a... more
"Get these things OUT - Explant 7/26"
I'm not even sure where to start. I got my first set of implants back in 1994 and then had them removed during infertility treatment in 1999. I went on to nurse my twins (girls, 11 yrs old) for 10 months. I looked like I had empty bags on my chest so I had my implants put back in. Over the course of the last eight years my natural breast has started to sag over the implant and it really... more
"Going in Today 7/9/12 for my Explant..."
Ive had these weights on my chest for 8 years and I have never had the money or guts to take them out. I had money saved up when I was recently pregnant but when I miscarried I figured its now or never so I used the $ for the surgery instead. I already nursed one child (not 3) and they were enormous and painful. I started off with an A cup and when I was 24 I went for my surgery. I wish... more
"Couldnt be any happier!!! - New York, NY"
I became very ill, had a bran infection, numerous sinus lung and inflammation around the heart which has left me severly disabled. I have a history of poor skin elasticity. I had salinementors round moderate profile removed this past tuesday and mold was found on the valves. YES BLACK MOLD. The surgeon said my muscles were actually shredded. I thought i wold be left deformed, but she did what... more
"Breast Implant Removal August 2011 -..."
Before my augumentation surgery I was a 34B and after implanting with saline proxys in 2006 I was enhanced to a full 36C... Although, I did have many pros with my implants the cons definitely did a number on me. Symptons ranged from chronic back pains, to joint pain, causing depression and being self conscious about appearance, and more. I recall the moment I had the surgery I wanted them... more
"Breast Implant Removal - Syosset, NY"
I was 31 when I acquired silicone breast implants. At the age of 54 they ruptured probably due to wear and they were just old. I think I endured more pain at their removal than getting them in but I am very happy they were removed. I have no regrets about having them for 19 years. I have a different mindset today so getting them removed was a relief to me. The downside is I don't have the... more
"Not Happy with Silicone Implants"
I got my Silicone implants in 1987 and was happy in the beginning feeling like a complete woman. I did it from being in the adult industry and modeling. When I got them i felt complete, society wise, accepted and became what I thought a true woman was. The pros and cons were too much attention and feeling like men gave me attention from having implants. Also when having my children I was... more


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CREIGHTON CAREER - 2013 (Sophomore): Played in a dozen matches while making seven starts … Logged 90 minutes or more in six of those starts … Scored both of his goals in the final five matches of the season … Tallied game-winning score against Drake (10/30) … Named to BIG EAST Weekly Honor Roll (11/4), his first accolade from the conference … Posted the Jays' lone goal at Providence (11/12) in BIG EAST Championship quarterfinal match.
2012 (Freshman): Defender saw time in eight matches, logging two starts … Made first start of career at Tulsa (9/25) ... Scored first career goal as a Jay on game-winner in 2-1 victory over William & Mary (9/16) … Posted first career shot on goal in season opener vs. Northern Illinois (8/24).
CLUB/PREP CAREER: Spent summer of 2014 with IMG Academy team of the Premier Development League (PDL) in Bradenton, Fla., playing alongside fellow Jays in David Abidor, Myles Englis and Connor Sparrow … Two-time All-Eastern Kansas League First Team member at Blue Valley Northwest High School ... Named ESPN Second Team in the fall of 2011, All-Metro and All-State following senior season ... Finished prep career with 13 goals and three assists ... Played for the Sporting KC Jr. team for head coach Peter Vermes, as team captain ... Participated in U.S. Summer Cup in 2010 and 2011, taking part in the U.S. Soccer Development Academy Playoffs during those two years.
PERSONAL: Son of Jim and Denise DeJulio ... Eric was born on February 2, 1994 ... The middle of three boys: Nick and Jake ... Nick played football at the Air Force Academy … Economics major.
|Overland Park, Kan.
|High School:
|Blue Valley Northwest
|IMG Academy


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I am ordering a new MBP 17" from apple.com
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Member Since: Jul 27, 2006
Location: Berkshire, Uk
Posts: 394
Mac Specs: 15.4" MBP Sep 09, 2.66Ghz C2D, 4Gb Ram, 320Gb HDD 7200rpm, 10.6.x / iPod Touch 8Gb
Originally Posted by
I do appreciate people who go out of their way to help people. However, I would try to remember (especially the posts that aid nothing except a put-down) that you do not know the person's history who is on the other side.
Considering I sat in a bean bag all through high school and had to go back to community college to learn how to read, speak and write, I know how far I have come. I do not think people in general will post a question(s) just to **** people off.
I was in an accident close to my first day at high school and my brain was out on the road with m skull cracked. That is how it was described to me who were some of the first to reach the scene. I was in a deep coma for months, with my family debating to let me go or not.
On thee forums, I have tried on question at a time and I get; "no man, it is OK ask as many as you want, we can make things out of we want," to things like you said, to really rude comments to ones that seem to be able to peek through the LCD and know my situation.
So, what I have learned is to pass by the people who right away criticize and go to posts like yours, even know there was a lot of that too. I do try but at times (tired, ill, hungry, upset, etc.) my problems with spelling and articulating (grammar too-big time) come back. I am sure ou know how sometimes you can just not get in the right mind-set to be more patient at someone, for example.
So, anyway, if you do not care about other people's feelings, that is your choice, but from someone who deals with this kind of stuff when I can't even speak when I go in to buy a Coke, if you can try to be empathetic. I would guess that 90% of the people who are doing something the way you o not approve of are not doing it on purpose or might be even doing their bet for that time.
I usually do not even get into it in thee forums because they attract people who , for some reason, look for things to criticize. But there are a lot of good people who want to help others and those people find my post and have given me a lot of help. In the meantime I have learned to pass by the others real fast, almost without even thinking twice.
Not sure what brought this on?
View Public Profile
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Photo courtesty Tim Lauer
As parents, we want our children to grow up to be caring people, who can do good deeds for others. But when we see our children tease or get teased, and push, pull and grab, we often wonder how they will ever grow up to be caring, productive members of society.
"Growing up and becoming a caring person is dependent on the kinds of experiences we have when we are young. Children are not born with the ability to care fully formed; they develop into caring individuals by how we work with them, how we model our behavior, what we teach them, and what we do together," says Diane Levin, Ph.D. author of Remote Control Childhood and Senior Advisor to this Web guide.
Teaching children how to take responsible action is a process that develops gradually over time. From preschool to high school, it's a process of working together to solve problems directly connected to your children's immediate experience. It's important to discuss factors that may impede the development of caring such as violent media and a commercial culture that makes wanting more important than doing.
Raising children who care may be one of the most important things you can do as a parent. This guide provides strategies and ideas to help you find your way.NEXT: The Caring Continuum »


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Geisel Library Welcome Week Tours
The Geisel Library Building contains 4 of the 9 UC San Diego libraries: Arts, Mandeville Special Collections, Science & Engineering, and Social Sciences & Humanities.
- Visit the building and find all 9 tour spots
- Read about the tour location and answer the question
- Enter your answers to enter the raffle
- Win awesome prizes! Prizes include: 1 iPod shuffle, 5 $15 Amazon.com gift cards, 5 $20 Trader Joe's gift cards, and 5 $20 Target gift cards.
Pick up a tour handout at the entrance of the Geisel Library Building during Welcome Week (starting 9/20). Have questions? Contact us!