text:
Stephen Hawking
|Stephen Hawking
Hawking at NASA, 1980s
|Stephen William Hawking
8 January 1942
Oxford, England
|United Kingdom
|Alma mater
|Properties of Expanding Universes (1965[2])
|Doctoral advisor
|Dennis Sciama[3]
|Other academic advisors
|Robert Berman[citation needed]
|Doctoral students
|Known for
|Notable awards
Stephen William Hawking CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (i/ˈstiːvən ˈhɔːkɪŋ/; born 8 January 1942) is an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist, author and Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the University of Cambridge.[16][17] His scientific works include a collaboration with Roger Penrose on gravitational singularity theorems in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking radiation. Hawking was the first to set forth a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. He is a vigorous supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.[18][19]
He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009 and has achieved commercial success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; his book A Brief History of Time stayed on the British Sunday Times best-seller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.
Hawking suffers from a rare early-onset, slow-progressing form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease or Lou Gehrig's disease, that has gradually paralysed him over the decades.[20] He now communicates using a single cheek muscle attached to a speech-generating device. Hawking married twice and has three children.
- 1 Personal life
- 2 Education
- 3 Career
- 4 Views
- 5 Politics
- 6 Disability outreach
- 7 Appearances in popular media
- 8 Awards and honours
- 9 Bibliography
- 10 See also
- 11 References
- 12 External links
Personal life
Hawking was born on 8 January 1942[1] in Oxford, England, to Frank and Isobel Hawking.[21][22] His mother was Scottish.[23] Despite their families' financial constraints, both parents attended the University of Oxford, where Frank studied medicine and Isobel, Philosophy, Politics and Economics.[22] The two met shortly after the beginning of the Second World War at a medical research institute where she was working as a secretary and he as a medical researcher.[22][24] They lived in Highgate, but as London was being bombed in those years, Isobel went to Oxford to give birth in greater safety.[25] Hawking has two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward.[26]
In 1950, when his father became head of the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research, Hawking and his family moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire.[27][28] In St Albans, the family were considered highly intelligent and somewhat eccentric;[27][29] meals were often spent with each person silently reading a book.[27] They lived a frugal existence in a large, cluttered, and poorly maintained house, and travelled in a converted London taxicab.[30][31] During one of Hawking's father's frequent absences working in Africa,[32] the rest of the family spent four months in Majorca visiting his mother's friend Beryl and her husband, the poet Robert Graves.[33]
Hawking suffers from a rare early-onset slow-progressing form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neurone disease or Lou Gehrig's disease, that has gradually paralysed him over the decades.[20]
Hawking had experienced increasing clumsiness during his final year at Oxford, including a fall on some stairs and difficulties when rowing.[34][35] The problems worsened, and his speech became slightly slurred; his family noticed the changes when he returned home for Christmas and medical investigations were begun.[36][37] The diagnosis of motor neurone disease came when Hawking was 21, in 1963. At the time, doctors gave him a life expectancy of two years.[38][39]
In the late 1960s, Hawking's physical abilities declined: he began to use crutches and ceased lecturing regularly.[40] As he slowly lost the ability to write, he developed compensatory visual methods, including seeing equations in terms of geometry.[41][42] The physicist Werner Israel later compared the achievements to Mozart composing an entire symphony in his head.[43][44] Hawking was, however, fiercely independent and unwilling to accept help or make concessions for his disabilities. He preferred to be regarded as "a scientist first, popular science writer second, and, in all the ways that matter, a normal human being with the same desires, drives, dreams, and ambitions as the next person."[45] His wife Jane Hawking later noted that "Some people would call it determination, some obstinacy. I've called it both at one time or another."[46] He required much persuasion to accept the use of a wheelchair at the end of the 1960s,[47] but ultimately became notorious for the wildness of his wheelchair driving.[48] Hawking was a popular and witty colleague, but his illness, as well as his reputation for brashness and intelligence, distanced him from some.[46]
Hawking's speech deteriorated, and by the late 1970s he could only be understood by his family and closest friends. To communicate with others, someone who knew him well would translate his speech into intelligible speech.[49] Spurred by a dispute with the university over who would pay for the ramp needed for him to enter his workplace, Hawking and his wife campaigned for improved access and support for those with disabilities in Cambridge,[50][51] including adapted student housing at the university.[52] In general, however, Hawking had ambivalent feelings about his role as a disability rights champion: while wanting to help others, he sought to detach himself from his illness and its challenges.[53] His lack of engagement led to some criticism.[54]
During a visit to the European Organisation for Nuclear Research on the border of France and Switzerland in mid-1985, Hawking contracted pneumonia, which in his condition was life-threatening; he was so ill that Jane was asked if life support should be terminated. She refused but the consequence was a tracheotomy, which would require round-the-clock nursing care, and remove what remained of his speech.[55][56] The National Health Service would pay for a nursing home, but Jane was determined that he would live at home. The cost of the care was funded by an American foundation.[57][58] Nurses were hired for the three shifts required to provide the round-the-clock support he required. One of those employed was Elaine Mason, who was to become Hawking's second wife.[59]
For his communication, Hawking initially raised his eyebrows to choose letters on a spelling card.[60] But he then received a computer program called the "Equalizer" from Walt Woltosz. In a method he uses to this day, using a switch he selects phrases, words or letters from a bank of about 2,500–3,000 that are scanned.[61][62] The program was originally run on a desktop computer. However, Elaine Mason's husband, David, a computer engineer, adapted a small computer and attached it to his wheelchair.[63] Released from the need to use somebody to interpret his speech, Hawking commented that "I can communicate better now than before I lost my voice."[64] The voice he uses has an American accent and is no longer produced.[65][66] Despite the availability of other voices, Hawking has retained this original voice, saying that he prefers it and identifies with it.[67] At this point, Hawking activated a switch using his hand and could produce up to 15 words a minute.[68] Lectures were prepared in advance and were sent to the speech synthesiser in short sections to be delivered.[65]
Hawking gradually lost the use of his hand, and in 2005 he began to control his communication device with movements of his cheek muscles,[69][70][71] with a rate of about one word per minute.[70] With this decline there is a risk of him developing locked-in syndrome, so Hawking is collaborating with researchers on systems that could translate Hawking's brain patterns or facial expressions into switch activations.[71][72][73] By 2009 he could no longer drive his wheelchair independently.[74] He has increased breathing difficulties, requiring a ventilator at times and has been hospitalised several times.[72]
When Hawking was a graduate student at Cambridge, his relationship with a friend of his sister, Jane Wilde, whom he had met shortly before his diagnosis with motor neurone disease, continued to develop. The couple became engaged in October 1964[75][76] — Hawking later said that the engagement gave him "something to live for"[77] — and the two were married on 14 July 1965.[78]
During their first years of marriage, Jane lived in London during the week as she completed her degree, and they travelled to the United States several times for conferences and physics-related visits. The couple had difficulty finding housing that was within Hawking's walking distance to the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP). Jane began a PhD programme, and a son, Robert, was born in May 1967.[79][80] A daughter, Lucy, was born in 1970.[81] A third child, Timothy, was born in April 1979.[82]
Hawking rarely discussed his illness and physical challenges, even—in a precedent set during their courtship—with Jane.[83] His disabilities meant that the responsibilities of home and family rested firmly on his wife's increasingly overwhelmed shoulders, leaving him more time to think about physics.[84] When in 1974 he was appointed to a position in Pasadena, California, Jane proposed that a graduate or post-doctoral student live with them and help with his care. Hawking accepted, and Bernard Carr travelled with them as the first of many students who fulfilled this role.[85][86] The family spent a generally happy and stimulating year in Pasadena.[87]
Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a new home, a new job—as reader. Don Page, with whom Hawking had begun a close friendship at Caltech, arrived to work as the live-in graduate student assistant. With Page's help and that of a secretary, Jane's responsibilities were reduced so she could return to her thesis and her new interest in singing.[88]
By December 1977, Jane had met organist Jonathan Hellyer Jones when singing in a church choir. Hellyer Jones became close to the Hawking family, and by the mid-1980s, he and Jane had developed romantic feelings for each other.[89][90][91] According to Jane, her husband was accepting of the situation, stating "he would not object so long as I continued to love him."[89][92][93] Jane and Hellyer Jones determined not to break up the family and their relationship remained platonic for a long period.[94]
By the 1980s, Hawking's marriage had been strained for many years. Jane felt overwhelmed by the intrusion into their family life of the required nurses and assistants. The impact of his celebrity was challenging for colleagues and family members, and in one interview Jane described her role as "simply to tell him that he's not God".[95][96] Hawking's views of religion also contrasted with her strong Christian faith and resulted in tension.[97][96][98] In the late 1980s, Hawking had grown close to one of his nurses, Elaine Mason, to the dismay of some colleagues, caregivers and family members who were disturbed by her strength of personality and protectiveness.[99] Hawking told Jane that he was leaving her for Mason[100] and departed the family home in February 1990.[101] After his divorce from Jane in 1995, Hawking married Mason in September,[102][101] declaring "It's wonderful — I have married the woman I love."[103]
In 1999 Jane Hawking published a memoir, Music to Move the Stars, describing her marriage to Hawking and its breakdown. Its revelations caused a sensation in the media, but as was his usual practice regarding his personal life, Hawking made no public comment except to say that he did not read biographies about himself.[104] After his second marriage, Hawking's family felt excluded and marginalised from his life.[98][105] For a period of about five years in the early 2000s, his family and staff became increasingly worried that he was being physically abused.[105][106] Police investigations took place, but were closed as Hawking refused to make a complaint.[105][107][108]
In 2006 Hawking and Mason quietly divorced,[109][110] and Hawking resumed closer relationships with Jane, his children, and grandchildren.[110][96] Reflecting this happier period, a revised version of Jane's book called Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen appeared in 2007.[105]
Primary and secondary
Hawking began his schooling at the Byron House School; he later blamed its "progressive methods" for his failure to learn to read while at the school.[27] In St Albans, the eight-year-old Hawking attended St Albans High School for Girls for a few months; at that time, younger boys could attend one of the houses.[33][111]
He attended Radlett School for a year[111] and from September 1952, St Albans School.[1][112] The family placed a high value on education.[27] Hawking's father wanted his son to attend the well-regarded Westminster School, but the 13-year-old Hawking was ill on the day of the scholarship examination. His family could not afford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship, so Hawking remained at St Albans.[113][114] A positive consequence was that Hawking remained with a close group of friends with whom he enjoyed board games, the manufacture of fireworks, model aeroplanes and boats,[115] and long discussions about Christianity and extrasensory perception.[116] From 1958, and with the help of the mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta, they built a computer from clock parts, an old telephone switchboard and other recycled components.[117][118] Although at school he was known as "Einstein", Hawking was not initially successful academically.[119] With time, he began to show considerable aptitude for scientific subjects, and inspired by Tahta, decided to study mathematics at university.[120][121][122] Hawking's father advised him to study medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for mathematics graduates.[123] He wanted Hawking to attend University College, Oxford, his own alma mater. As it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry. Despite his headmaster's advice to wait until the next year, Hawking was awarded a scholarship after taking the examinations in March 1959.[124][125]
Hawking began his university education at University College, Oxford[1] in October 1959 at the age of 17.[126] For the first 18 months, he was bored and lonely: he was younger than many other students, and found the academic work "ridiculously easy".[127][128] His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said, "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it."[129] A change occurred during his second and third year when, according to Berman, Hawking made more effort "to be one of the boys". He developed into a popular, lively and witty college member, interested in classical music and science fiction.[126] Part of the transformation resulted from his decision to join the college Boat Club, where he coxed a rowing team.[130][131] The rowing trainer at the time noted that Hawking cultivated a daredevil image, steering his crew on risky courses that led to damaged boats.[132][130]
Hawking has estimated that he studied about a thousand hours during his three years at Oxford. These unimpressive study habits made sitting his finals a challenge, and he decided to answer only theoretical physics questions rather than those requiring factual knowledge. A first-class honours degree was a condition of acceptance for his planned graduate study in cosmology at the University of Cambridge.[133][134] Anxious, he slept poorly the night before the examinations, and the final result was on the borderline between first- and second-class honours, making a viva (oral examination) necessary.[134][135] Hawking was concerned that he was viewed as a lazy and difficult student, so when asked at the oral to describe his future plans, he said, "If you award me a First, I will go to Cambridge. If I receive a Second, I shall stay in Oxford, so I expect you will give me a First."[134][136] He was held in higher regard than he believed: as Berman commented, the examiners "were intelligent enough to realise they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of themselves".[134] After receiving a first-class BA (Hons.) degree, and following a trip to Iran with a friend, he began his graduate work at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in October 1962.[1][137][138]
Hawking's first year as a doctoral student[2] was difficult. He was initially disappointed to find that he had been assigned Dennis William Sciama, one of the founders of modern cosmology, as a supervisor rather than noted astronomer Fred Hoyle,[139][140] and he found his training in mathematics inadequate for work in general relativity and cosmology.[141] After being diagnosed with motor-neuron disease, Hawking fell into a depression; though his doctors advised that he continue with his studies, he felt there was little point.[142] However, his disease progressed more slowly than doctors had predicted. Although Hawking had difficulty walking unsupported and his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial diagnosis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. With the encouragement of Sciama, he returned to his work.[143][144] Hawking started developing a reputation for brilliance and brashness when he publicly challenged the work of Fred Hoyle and his student Jayant Narlikar at a lecture in June 1964.[145][146]
When Hawking began his graduate studies, there was much debate in the physics community about the prevailing theories of the creation of the universe: the Big Bang and the Steady State theories.[147] Inspired by Roger Penrose's theorem of a spacetime singularity in the centre of black holes, Hawking applied the same thinking to the entire universe, and during 1965 wrote his thesis on this topic.[148] There were other positive developments: Hawking received a research fellowship at Gonville and Caius College.[78] He obtained his PhD degree in cosmology in March 1966,[149] and his essay entitled "Singularities and the Geometry of Space-Time" shared top honours with one by Penrose to win that year's prestigious Adams Prize.[150][149]
In his work, and in collaboration with Penrose, Hawking extended the singularity theorem concepts first explored in his doctoral thesis. This included not only the existence of singularities but also the theory that the universe might have started as a singularity. Their joint essay was the runner-up in the 1968 Gravity Research Foundation competition.[151][152] In 1970 they published a proof that if the universe obeys the general theory of relativity and fits any of the models of physical cosmology developed by Alexander Friedmann, then it must have begun as a singularity.[153][154][155] In 1969, Hawking accepted a specially created Fellowship for Distinction in Science to remain at Caius.[156]
In 1970, Hawking postulated what became known as the second law of black hole dynamics, that the event horizon of a black hole can never get smaller.[157] With James M. Bardeen and Brandon Carter, he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy with thermodynamics.[158] To Hawking's irritation, Jacob Bekenstein, a graduate student of John Wheeler, went further—and ultimately correctly—to apply thermodynamic concepts literally.[159][160] In the early 1970s, Hawking's work with Carter, Werner Israel and David C. Robinson strongly supported Wheeler's no-hair theorem that no matter what the original material from which a black hole is created it can be completely described by the properties of mass, electrical charge and rotation.[161][162] His essay titled "Black Holes" won the Gravity Research Foundation Award in January 1971.[163] Hawking's first book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, written with George Ellis, was published in 1973.[164]
Beginning in 1973, Hawking moved into the study of quantum gravity and quantum mechanics.[165][164] His work in this area was spurred by a visit to Moscow and discussions with Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Alexei Starobinsky, whose work showed that according to the uncertainty principle rotating black holes emit particles.[166] To Hawking's annoyance, his much-checked calculations produced findings that contradicted his second law, which claimed black holes could never get smaller,[167] and supported Bekenstein's reasoning about their entropy.[168][166] His results, which Hawking presented from 1974, showed that black holes emit radiation, known today as Hawking radiation, which may continue until they exhaust their energy and evaporate.[169][170][171] Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial. However, by the late 1970s and following the publication of further research, the discovery was widely accepted as a significant breakthrough in theoretical physics.[172][173][174] Hawking was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1974, a few weeks after the announcement of Hawking radiation. At the time, he was one of the youngest scientists to become a Fellow.[175][176]
Hawking was appointed to the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1970. He worked with a friend on the faculty, Kip Thorne,[177] and engaged him in a scientific wager about whether the dark star Cygnus X-1 was a black hole. The wager was a surprising "insurance policy" against the proposition that black holes did not exist.[178] Hawking acknowledged that he had lost the bet in 1990, which was the first of several that he was to make with Thorne and others.[179] Hawking has maintained ties to Caltech, spending a month there almost every year since this first visit.[180]
Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a more advanced academic senior position —as reader. The mid- to late 1970s were a period of growing public interest in black holes and of the physicists who were studying them. Hawking was regularly interviewed for print and television.[181][182] He also received increasing academic recognition of his work.[82] In 1975, he was awarded both the Eddington Medal and the Pius XI Gold Medal, and in 1976 the Dannie Heineman Prize, the Maxwell Prize and the Hughes Medal.[183][184] Hawking was appointed a professor with a chair in gravitational physics in 1977.[89] The following year he received the Albert Einstein Medal and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford.[76][82]
In the late 1970s, Hawking was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge.[82][185] His inaugural lecture as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics was titled: "Is the end in sight for Theoretical Physics" and proposed N=8 Supergravity as the leading theory to solve many of the outstanding problems physicists were studying.[186] Hawking's promotion coincided with a health crisis which led to Hawking accepting, albeit reluctantly, some nursing services at home.[187] At the same time, he was also making a transition in his approach to physics, becoming more intuitive and speculative rather than insisting on mathematical proofs. "I would rather be right than rigorous", he told Kip Thorne.[188] In 1981, he proposed that information in a black hole is irretrievably lost when a black hole evaporates. This information paradox violates the fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics, and led to years of debate, including "the Black Hole War" with Leonard Susskind and Gerard 't Hooft.[189][190]
Cosmological inflation—a theory proposing that following the Big Bang the universe initially expanded incredibly rapidly before settling down to a slower expansion—was proposed by Alan Guth and also developed by Andrei Linde.[191] Following a conference in Moscow in October 1981, Hawking and Gary Gibbons organized a three-week Nuffield Workshop in the summer of 1982 on the Very Early Universe at Cambridge University, which focused mainly on inflation theory.[192][193][194] Hawking also began a new line of quantum theory research into the origin of the universe. In 1981 at a Vatican conference, he presented work suggesting that there might be no boundary—or beginning or ending—to the universe.[195][196] He subsequently developed the research in collaboration with Jim Hartle, and in 1983 they published a model, known as the Hartle–Hawking state. It proposed that prior to the Planck epoch, the universe had no boundary in space-time; before the Big Bang, time did not exist and the concept of the beginning of the universe is meaningless.[197] The initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models was replaced with a region akin to the North Pole. One cannot travel north of the North Pole, but there is no boundary there—it is simply the point where all north-running lines meet and end.[198][199] Initially the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe which had implications about the existence of God. As Hawking explained "If the universe has no boundaries but is self-contained... then God would not have had any freedom to choose how the universe began."[200]
Hawking did not rule out the existence of a Creator, asking in A Brief History of Time "Is the unified theory so compelling that it brings about its own existence?"[201] In his early work, Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical sense. In A Brief History of Time he wrote: "If we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason—for then we should know the mind of God."[202] In the same book he suggested the existence of God was unnecessary to explain the origin of the universe. Later discussions with Neil Turok led to the realisation that it is also compatible with an open universe.[203]
Further work by Hawking in the area of arrows of time led to the 1985 publication of a paper theorising that if the no-boundary proposition were correct, then when the universe stopped expanding and eventually collapsed, time would run backwards.[204] A paper by Don Page and independent calculations by Raymond Laflamme led Hawking to withdraw this concept.[205] Honours continued to be awarded: in 1981 he was awarded the American Franklin Medal,[206] and in 1982 made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE).[101][207] Awards do not pay the bills, however, and motivated by the need to finance the children's education and home expenses, in 1982 Hawking determined to write a popular book about the universe that would be accessible to the general public.[208][209] Instead of publishing with an academic press, he signed a contract with Bantam Books, a mass market publisher, and received a large advance for his book.[210][211] A first draft of the book, called A Brief History of Time, was completed in 1984.[212]
One of the first messages Hawking produced with his speech-generating device was a request for his assistant to help him finish writing A Brief History of Time.[68] Peter Guzzardi, his editor at Bantam, pushed him to explain his ideas clearly in non-technical language, a process that required multiple revisions from an increasingly irritated Hawking.[213] The book was published in April 1988 in the US and in June in the UK, and proved to be an extraordinary success, rising quickly to the top of bestseller lists in both countries and remaining there for months.[214][215][216] The book was translated into multiple languages,[217] and ultimately sold an estimated 9 million copies.[216] Media attention was intense,[217] and Newsweek magazine cover and a television special both described him as "Master of the Universe".[218] Success led to significant financial rewards, but also the challenges of celebrity status.[219] Hawking travelled extensively to promote his work, and enjoyed partying and dancing into the small hours.[217] He had difficulty refusing the invitations and visitors which left limited time for work and his students.[220] Some colleagues were resentful of the attention Hawking received, feeling it was due to his disability.[221][222] He received further academic recognition, including five further honorary degrees,[218] the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1985),[223] the Paul Dirac Medal (1987)[218] and, jointly with Penrose, the prestigious Wolf Prize (1988).[224] In 1989, he was appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH).[220] He reportedly declined a knighthood.[225]
Hawking pursued his work in physics: in 1993 he co-edited a book on Euclidean quantum gravity with Gary Gibbons and published a collected edition of his own articles on black holes and the Big Bang.[226] In 1994 at Cambridge's Newton Institute, Hawking and Penrose delivered a series of six lectures, which were published in 1996 as "The Nature of Space and Time".[227] In 1997 he conceded a 1991 public scientific wager made with Kip Thorne and John Preskill of Caltech. Hawking had bet that Penrose's proposal of a "cosmic censorship conjecture"—that there could be no "naked singularities" unclothed within a horizon—was correct.[228] After discovering his concession might have been premature, a new, more refined, wager was made. This specified that such singularities would occur without extra conditions.[229] The same year, Thorne, Hawking and Preskill made another bet, this time concerning the black hole information paradox.[230][231] Thorne and Hawking argued that since general relativity made it impossible for black holes to radiate and lose information, the mass-energy and information carried by Hawking radiation must be "new", and not from inside the black hole event horizon. Since this contradicted the quantum mechanics of microcausality, quantum mechanics theory would need to be rewritten. Preskill argued the opposite, that since quantum mechanics suggests that the information emitted by a black hole relates to information that fell in at an earlier time, the concept of black holes given by general relativity must be modified in some way.[232]
Hawking also maintained his public profile, including bringing science to a wider audience. A film version of A Brief History of Time, directed by Errol Morris and produced by Steven Spielberg, premiered in 1992. Hawking had wanted the film to be scientific rather than biographical, but he was persuaded otherwise. The film, while a critical success, was however not widely released.[233] A popular-level collection of essays, interviews and talk titled Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays was published in 1993[234] and six-part television series Stephen Hawking's Universe and companion book appeared in 1997. As Hawking insisted, this time the focus was entirely on science.[235][236]
Hawking continued his writings for a popular audience, publishing The Universe in a Nutshell in 2001,[237] and A Briefer History of Time which he wrote in 2005 with Leonard Mlodinow to update his earlier works to make them accessible to a wider audience, and God Created the Integers, which appeared in 2006.[238] Along with Thomas Hertog at the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) and Jim Hartle, from 2006 on Hawking developed a theory of "top-down cosmology", which says that the universe had not one unique initial state but many different ones, and therefore that it is inappropriate to formulate a theory that predicts the universe's current configuration from one particular initial state.[239] Top-down cosmology posits that the present "selects" the past from a superposition of many possible histories. In doing so, the theory suggests a possible resolution of the fine-tuning question.[72][240]
Hawking continued to travel widely, including trips to Chile, Easter Island, South Africa, Spain (to receive the Fonseca Prize in 2008),[241][242] Canada,[243] and multiple trips to the United States.[244] For practical reasons related to his disability, Hawking increasingly travelled by private jet, and by 2011 that had become his only mode of international travel.[245]
By 2003, consensus among physicists was growing that Hawking was wrong about the loss of information in a black hole.[246] In a 2004 lecture in Dublin, he conceded his 1997 bet with Preskill, but described his own, somewhat controversial solution, to the information paradox problem, involving the possibility that black holes have more than one topology.[247][232] In the 2005 paper he published on the subject, he argued that the information paradox was explained by examining all the alternative histories of universes, with the information loss in those with black holes being cancelled out by those without.[231][248] In January 2014 he called the alleged loss of information in black holes his "biggest blunder".[249]
As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawking had emphatically argued, and bet, that the Higgs boson would never be found.[250] The particle was proposed to exist as part of the Higgs field theory by Peter Higgs in 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008, with Higgs criticising Hawking's work and complaining that Hawking's "celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have."[251] The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERN following construction of the Large Hadron Collider. Hawking quickly conceded that he had lost his bet[252][253] and said that Higgs should win the Nobel Prize for Physics,[254] which he did in 2013.
In 2007 Hawking and his daughter Lucy published George's Secret Key to the Universe, a children's book designed to explain theoretical physics in an accessible fashion and featuring characters similar to those in the Hawking family.[255] The book was followed by sequels in 2009 and 2011.[256]
In 2002, following a UK-wide vote, the BBC included him in their list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Hawking was awarded the Copley Medal from the Royal Society (2006),[257] the Presidential Medal of Freedom which is America's highest civilian honour (2009),[258][259] and the Russian Special Fundamental Physics Prize (2013).[260]
Several buildings have been named after him, including the Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador, El Salvador,[261] the Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge,[262] and the Stephen Hawking Centre at Perimeter Institute in Canada.[263] Appropriately, given Hawking's association with time, he unveiled the mechanical "Chronophage" (or time-eating) Corpus Clock at Corpus Christi College Cambridge in September 2008.[264][265]
During his career Hawking has supervised 39 successful PhD students.[266]
As required by Cambridge University regulations, Hawking retired as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 2009. Despite suggestions that he might leave the United Kingdom as a protest against public funding cuts to basic scientific research,[267] Hawking has continued to work as director of research at the Cambridge University Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, and indicated in 2012 that he had no plans to retire.[268]
On 20 July 2015, Stephen Hawking helps launch a well-funded effort, called Breakthrough Initiatives, to search for extraterrestrial life and attempt to answer the question: Are we alone?[269]
Future of humanity
In 2006 Hawking posed an open question on the Internet: "In a world that is in chaos politically, socially and environmentally, how can the human race sustain another 100 years?", later clarifying: "I don't know the answer. That is why I asked the question, to get people to think about it, and to be aware of the dangers we now face."[270]
Hawking has expressed concern that life on Earth is at risk from "a sudden nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus or other dangers we have not yet thought of".[271] He views spaceflight and the colonisation of space as necessary for the future of humanity.[271][272] Hawking has stated that, given the vastness of the universe, aliens likely exist, but that contact with them should be avoided.[273][274] Hawking has argued superintelligent artificial intelligence could be pivotal in steering humanity's fate, stating that "the potential benefits are huge... Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history. It might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks."[275][276]
Hawking has argued that computer viruses should be considered a new form of life, and has stated that "maybe it says something about human nature, that the only form of life we have created so far is purely destructive. Talk about creating life in our own image."[277]
Science vs. philosophy
At Google's Zeitgeist Conference in 2011, Hawking said that "philosophy is dead". He believes that philosophers "have not kept up with modern developments in science" and that scientists "have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge". He said that philosophical problems can be answered by science, particularly new scientific theories which "lead us to a new and very different picture of the universe and our place in it".[278]
Hawking has stated that he is "not religious in the normal sense" and he believes that "the universe is governed by the laws of science. The laws may have been decreed by God, but God does not intervene to break the laws".[279] In an interview published in The Guardian, Hawking regarded the concept of Heaven as a myth, believing that there is "no heaven or afterlife" and that such a notion was a "fairy story for people afraid of the dark".[202] In 2011, when narrating the first episode of the American television series Curiosity on the Discovery Channel, Hawking declared:
- "We are each free to believe what we want and it is my view that the simplest explanation is there is no God. No one created the universe and no one directs our fate. This leads me to a profound realization. There is probably no heaven, and no afterlife either. We have this one life to appreciate the grand design of the universe, and for that, I am extremely grateful."[280][281]
In September 2014 he joined Starmus Festival as keynote speaker and declared himself an atheist.[282]
In March 1968, Hawking marched alongside Tariq Ali and Vanessa Redgrave to protest against the Vietnam War.[283] He is a longstanding Labour Party supporter.[284][285] He recorded a tribute for the 2000 Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore,[286] called the 2003 invasion of Iraq a "war crime",[285][287] boycotted a conference in Israel because of concerns about Israel's policies towards Palestinians,[288][289][290] campaigned for nuclear disarmament,[284][291][285] and has supported stem cell research,[285][292] universal health care,[293] and action to prevent climate change.[291] In August 2014, Hawking was one of 200 signatories to a letter opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.[294]
Disability outreach
Since the 1990s, Hawking has accepted the mantle of role model for disabled people, lecturing and participating in fundraising activities.[295] At the turn of the century, he and eleven other luminaries signed the Charter for the Third Millennium on Disability which called on governments to prevent disability and protect disability rights.[296][297] In 1999 Hawking was awarded the Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society.[298] Motivated by the desire to increase public interest in spaceflight and to show the potential of people with disabilities, in 2007 he participated in zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet", courtesy of Zero Gravity Corporation, during which he experienced weightlessness eight times.[271][299][300][301]
In August 2012 Hawking narrated the "Enlightenment" segment of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony.[302] In 2013, the biographical documentary film Hawking, in which Hawking himself is featured, was released.[303] In September 2013, he expressed support for the legalisation of assisted suicide for the terminally ill.[304] In August 2014, Hawking accepted the Ice Bucket Challenge to promote ALS/MND awareness and raise contributions for research. As he had pneumonia in 2013, he was advised not to have ice poured over him, but his children volunteered to accept the challenge on his behalf.[305]
Appearances in popular media
At the release party for the home video version of the A Brief History of Time, Leonard Nimoy, who had played Spock on Star Trek, learned that Hawking was interested in appearing on the show. Nimoy made the necessary contact, and Hawking played a holographic simulation of himself in an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1993.[306][307][308] The same year, his synthesiser voice was recorded for the Pink Floyd song "Keep Talking",[309][234] and in 1999 for an appearance on The Simpsons.[310] Hawking appeared in documentaries entitled The Real Stephen Hawking (2001),[297] Stephen Hawking: Profile (2002) [311] and Hawking (2013), and the documentary series Stephen Hawking, Master of the Universe (2008).[312] Hawking has also guest-starred in Futurama[72] and The Big Bang Theory.[313] Hawking allowed the use of his copyrighted voice[314][315] in the biographical 2014 film The Theory of Everything.[316]
Hawking has used his fame to advertise products, including a wheelchair,[297] National Savings,[317] British Telecom, Specsavers, Egg Banking[318] and Go Compare.[319] He has applied to trademark his name.[320]
Awards and honours
Hawking has received numerous awards and honours. Already early in the list, in 1974 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). At that time, his nomination read:
- "Hawking has made major contributions to the field of general relativity. These derive from a deep understanding of what is relevant to physics and astronomy, and especially from a mastery of wholly new mathematical techniques. Following the pioneering work of Penrose he established, partly alone and partly in collaboration with Penrose, a series of successively stronger theorems establishing the fundamental result that all realistic cosmological models must possess singularities. Using similar techniques, Hawking has proved the basic theorems on the laws governing black holes: that stationary solutions of Einstein's equations with smooth event horizons must necessarily be axisymmetric; and that in the evolution and interaction of black holes, the total surface area of the event horizons must increase. In collaboration with G. Ellis, Hawking is the author of an impressive and original treatise on "Space-time in the Large".
The citation continues:
- "Other important work by Hawking relates to the interpretation of cosmological observations and to the design of gravitational wave detectors."[15]
Selected academic works
- Hawking, S. W.; Penrose, R. (1970). "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 314 (1519): 529–548. Bibcode:1970RSPSA.314..529H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1970.0021.
- Hawking, S. (1971). "Gravitational Radiation from Colliding Black Holes". Physical Review Letters 26 (21): 1344–1346. Bibcode:1971PhRvL..26.1344H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.26.1344.
- Hawking, S.W. (1972). "Black holes in general relativity". Communications in Mathematical Physics 25 (2): 152–166. Bibcode:1972CMaPh..25..152H. doi:10.1007/BF01877517.
- Hawking, S. W. (1974). "Black hole explosions?". Nature 248 (5443): 30–31. Bibcode:1974Natur.248...30H. doi:10.1038/248030a0.
- Hawking, S.W. (1982). "The development of irregularities in a single bubble inflationary universe". Physics Letters B 115 (4): 295–297. Bibcode:1982PhLB..115..295H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(82)90373-2.
- Hartle, J.; Hawking, S. (1983). "Wave function of the Universe". Physical Review D 28 (12): 2960–2975. Bibcode:1983PhRvD..28.2960H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960.
- Hawking, S. (2005). "Information loss in black holes". Physical Review D 72 (8): 084013. arXiv:hep-th/0507171. Bibcode:2005PhRvD..72h4013H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.084013.
Popular publications
- A Brief History of Time (1988)[256]
- Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays (1993)[321]
- The Universe in a Nutshell (2001)[256]
- On The Shoulders of Giants (2002)[256]
- A Briefer History of Time (2005)[256]
- God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs That Changed History (2005)[256]
- The Grand Design (2010)[256]
- My Brief History (2013)[256]
Children's fiction
Co-written with his daughter Lucy.
- George's Secret Key to the Universe (2007)[256]
- George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt (2009)[256]
- George and the Big Bang (2011)[256]
Films and series
- A Brief History of Time (1992)[322]
- Stephen Hawking's Universe (1997)[323][92]
- Hawking – BBC television film (2004) starring Benedict Cumberbatch
- Horizon: The Hawking Paradox (2005)[324]
- Masters of Science Fiction (2007)[325]
- Stephen Hawking and the Theory of Everything (2007)
- Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe (2008)[326]
- Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking (2010)[327]
- Brave New World with Stephen Hawking (2011)[328]
- Stephen Hawking's Grand Design (2012)[329]
- The Big Bang Theory (2012)
- Stephen Hawking: A Brief History of Mine (2013)[330]
- The Theory of Everything – Feature film (2014) starring Eddie Redmayne[331]
See also
- Gibbons–Hawking ansatz
- Gibbons–Hawking effect
- Gibbons–Hawking space
- Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term
- ^ a b c d e HAWKING, Prof. Stephen William. Who's Who 2015 (online Oxford University Press ed.). A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc. (subscription required)
- ^ a b Hawking, Stephen (1966). Properties of Expanding Universes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. OCLC 62793673
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Stephen Hawking at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- ^ Allen, Bruce (1983). Vacuum energy and general relativity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Bousso, Raphael (1997). Pair creation of black holes in cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Carr, Bernard John (1976). Primordial black holes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Dowker, Helen Fay (1991). Space-time wormholes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Galfard, Christophe Georges Gunnar Sven (2006). Black hole information & branes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Gibbons, Gary William (1973). Some aspects of gravitational radiation and gravitational collapse (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Hertog, Thomas (2002). The origin of inflation (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Laflamme, Raymond (1988). Time and quantum cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Page, Don Nelson (1976). Accretion into and emission from black holes (PhD thesis). California Institute of Technology.
- ^ Perry, Malcolm John (1978). Black holes and quantum mechanics (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Wu, Zhongchao (1984). Cosmological models and the inflationary universe (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ a b "Certificate of election: Hawking, Stephen, EC/1974/12". London: The Royal Society. Archived from the original on 4 February 2014.
- ^ "Centre for Theoretical Cosmology: Outreach Stephen Hawking". Ctc.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ "About Stephen – Stephen Hawking". Hawking.org.uk. 8 January 1942. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ Gardner, Martin (September/October 2001). "Multiverses and Blackberries". "Notes of a Fringe-Watcher". Skeptical Inquirer. Volume 25, No. 5.
- ^ Price, Michael Clive (February 1995). "THE EVERETT FAQ". Department of Physics, Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
- ^ a b "How Has Stephen Hawking Lived to 70 with ALS?". Scientific American. 7 January 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
Q: How frequent are these cases of very slow-progressing forms of ALS? A: I would say probably less than a few percent.
- ^ Larsen 2005, pp. xiii, 2.
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- ^ Donaldson, Gregg J. (May 1999). "The Man Behind the Scientist". Tapping Technology. Archived from the original on 11 May 2005. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 76–77.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 124–25.
- ^ Ridpath, Ian (4 May 1978). "Black hole explorer". New Scientist. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
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- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. viii.
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- ^ Mialet 2003, pp. 450–51.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 79, 149.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 140.
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- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 138.
- ^ Greenemeier, Larry (10 August 2009). "Getting Back the Gift of Gab: Next-Gen Handheld Computers Allow the Mute to Converse". Scientific American. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking says pope told him not to study beginning of universe". USA Today. 15 June 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 137.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 224.
- ^ a b de Lange, Catherine (30 December 2011). "The man who saves Stephen Hawking's voice". New Scientist. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ a b Boyle, Alan (25 June 2012). "How researchers hacked into Stephen Hawking's brain". NBC News. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
- ^ a b c d Highfield, Roger (3 January 2012). "Stephen Hawking: driven by a cosmic force of will – Telegraph". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 7 December 2012.
- ^ "Start-up attempts to convert Prof Hawking's brainwaves into speech". BBC. 7 July 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 240.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 37–39, 77.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 78.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Stephen Hawking (1994). Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays. Random House. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-553-37411-7.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 83–88.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 89–90.
- ^ a b c Ferguson 2011, p. 91.
- ^ Larsen 2005, pp. xiv, 79.
- ^ Hawking 2007, pp. 279–80.
- ^ a b Larsen 2005, p. 79.
- ^ Hawking 2007, p. 285.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 164–65.
- ^ a b c Highfield, Roger (3 January 2012). "Stephen Hawking: driven by a cosmic force of will". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 7 December 2012.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 80–81.
- ^ a b Adams, Tim (4 April 2004). "Brief History of a first wife". The Observer (London). Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 145.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 165.
- ^ a b c Larsen 2005, pp. x–xix.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 186–87.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 187.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 187, 192.
- ^ a b c d "Welcome back to the family, Stephen". The Times. 6 May 2007. Archived from the original on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2007.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 197, 225.
- ^ Harrison, David (25 January 2004). "Police plan to ask Stephen Hawking about abuse claims". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 3 February 2013.
- ^ Adams, Tim (4 April 2004). "Tim Adams talks to Jane Hawking about her ex husband Stephen". The Observer (London).
- ^ Sapsted, David (20 October 2006). "Hawking and second wife agree to divorce". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 18 March 2007.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 225.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 24.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 8.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 4.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 26.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 25.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 27.
- ^ Hoare, Geoffrey; Love, Eric (5 January 2007). "Dick Tahta". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 5 March 2012.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 41.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 27–28.
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- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 28.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 28–29.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 46–47, 51.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 29.
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- ^ Hawking 1992, p. 44.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 50.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 53.
- ^ a b c d Ferguson 2011, p. 31.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 54.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 54–55.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 56.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 33.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 58.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 33–34.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 36.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 42.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 34.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 47.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. xix.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 101.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 61,64.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 64–65.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 115–16.
- ^ Hawking, Stephen; Penrose, Roger (1970). "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology". Proceedings of the Royal Society A 314 (1519): 529–548. Bibcode:1970RSPSA.314..529H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1970.0021.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 49.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 65–67.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 38.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 67–68.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 123–24.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 33.
- ^ R. D. Blandford (30 March 1989). "Astrophysical Black Holes". In S. W. Hawking and W. Israel. Three Hundred Years of Gravitation. Cambridge University Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 35.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 68.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 39.
- ^ a b White & Gribbin 2002, p. 146.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 70.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 41.
- ^ Hawking, Stephen W. (1974). "Black hole explosions?". Nature 248 (5443): 30–31. Bibcode:1974Natur.248...30H. doi:10.1038/248030a0.
- ^ Hawking, Stephen W. (1975). "Particle creation by black holes". Communications in Mathematical Physics 43 (3): 199–220. Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H. doi:10.1007/BF02345020.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 69–73.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 70–74.
- ^ Larsen 2005, pp. 42–43.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 150–51.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 44.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 133.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 82, 86.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 86–88.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 150,189, 219.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 95.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 90.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 132–33.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 162.
- ^ Larsen 2005, pp. xv.
- ^ "Hawking gives up academic title". BBC News. 30 September 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 96.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 96–101.
- ^ Leonard Susskind (7 July 2008). The Black Hole War: My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics. Hachette Digital, Inc. pp. 9, 18. ISBN 978-0-316-01640-7.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 108–11.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 111–14.
- ^ See Guth (1997) for a popular description of the workshop, or The Very Early Universe, ISBN 0-521-31677-4 eds Gibbons, Hawking & Siklos for a detailed report.
- ^ Hawking, S.W. (1982). "The development of irregularities in a single bubble inflationary universe". Phys.Lett. B115 (4): 295. Bibcode:1982PhLB..115..295H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(82)90373-2.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 102–103.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 180.
- ^ Hartle, J.; Hawking, S. (1983). "Wave function of the Universe". Physical Review D 28 (12): 2960. Bibcode:1983PhRvD..28.2960H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960.
- ^ Baird 2007, p. 234.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 180–83.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 129.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 130.
- ^ a b Sample, Ian (15 May 2011). "Stephen Hawking: 'There is no heaven; it's a fairy story'". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
- ^ Yulsman 2003, pp. 174–176.
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- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 274.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 114.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 134.
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- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 143.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 243–45.
- ^ a b Radford, Tim (31 July 2009). "How God propelled Stephen Hawking into the bestsellers lists". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
- ^ a b c Ferguson 2011, pp. 143–44.
- ^ a b c Ferguson 2011, pp. 146.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 145–46.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 149.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 147–48.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, pp. 230–31.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. xvi.
- ^ White & Gribbin 2002, p. 279.
- ^ "Top 10 People Who Declined Knighthood". Toptenz.net. 15 February 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 180.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 188.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 189–90.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 190.
- ^ Hawking, S.W.; Thorne, K.S.; Preskill (6 February 1997). "Black hole information bet". Pasadena, California. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ a b Hawking, S.W. (2005). "Information loss in black holes". Physical Review D 72 (8). arXiv:hep-th/0507171. Bibcode:2005PhRvD..72h4013H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.084013.
- ^ a b Preskill, John. "John Preskill's comments about Stephen Hawking's concession". Retrieved 29 February 2012.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 168–70.
- ^ a b Ferguson 2011, p. 178.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 189.
- ^ Larsen 2005, p. 97.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 199–200.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 222–23.
- ^ Highfield, Roger (26 June 2008). "Stephen Hawking's explosive new theory". The Telegraph. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
- ^ Hawking, S.W.; Hertog, T. (2006). "Populating the landscape: A top-down approach". Physical Review D 73 (12). arXiv:hep-th/0602091. Bibcode:2006PhRvD..73l3527H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.73.123527.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 233.
- ^ "Fonseca Prize 2008". University of Santiago de Compostela. Retrieved 7 August 2009.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 239.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 269.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 197,269.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 216–17.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 217–20.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 223–24.
- ^ "Particle Creation by Black Holes" (PDF). Retrieved 13 January 2014.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 95, 236.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 94–95, 236.
- ^ Wright, Robert (17 July 2012). "Why Some Physicists Bet Against the Higgs Boson". The Atlantic. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking loses Higgs boson particle bet – Video". The Guardian (London). 5 July 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ "Higgs boson breakthrough should earn physicist behind search Nobel Prize: Stephen Hawking". National Press. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 230–231.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Books". Stephen Hawking Official Website. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
- ^ "Oldest, space-travelled, science prize awarded to Hawking". The Royal Society. 24 August 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 241.
- ^ MacAskill, Ewen (13 August 2009). "Obama presents presidential medal of freedom to 16 recipients". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
- ^ "2013 Fundamental Physics Prize Awarded to Alexander Polyakov". Fundamental Physics Prize. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- ^ Komar, Oliver; Buechner, Linda (October 2000). "The Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador Central America Honours the Fortitude of a Great Living Scientist". Journal of College Science Teaching XXX (2). Archived from the original on 30 July 2009. Retrieved 28 September 2008.
- ^ "The Stephen Hawking Building". BBC News. 18 April 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ "Grand Opening of the Stephen Hawking Centre at Perimeter Institute". Perimeter Institute. Retrieved 6 June 2012.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 237–38.
- ^ "Time to unveil Corpus Clock". Cambridgenetwork.co.uk. 22 September 2008. Archived from the original on 26 September 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
- ^
- Stephen Hawking at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Allen, Bruce (1983). Vacuum energy and general relativity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Bousso, Raphael (1997). Pair creation of black holes in cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Carr, Bernard John (1976). Primordial black holes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Carr, Bernard John (1976). Primordial black holes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Dowker, Helen Fay (1991). Space-time wormholes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Galfard, Christophe Georges Gunnar Sven (2006). Black hole information & branes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Gibbons, Gary William (1973). Some aspects of gravitational radiation and gravitational collapse (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Hertog, Thomas (2002). The origin of inflation (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Laflamme, Raymond (1988). Time and quantum cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Page, Don Nelson (1976). Accretion into and emission from black holes (PhD thesis). California Institute of Technology.
- Perry, Malcolm John (1978). Black holes and quantum mechanics (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Cassdiy, Michael Joseph (1998). Quantum field theory and acausal spacetimes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Chamblin, Howard Andrew (1997). Aspects of topology in classical and quantum gravity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Davis, Paul (2007). Hidden symmetries of higher dimensional black holes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- D'Eath, Peter (1976). Perturbation problems in general relativity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Epple, Friedel Till Jalev Epple (2007). String scattering amplitudes and effective action for toroidal orientifolds (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Fawcett, Michael Stanley (1982). Quantum field theory near a black hole (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Grant, James Dodd Ellis (1994). Spacetime distortion and quantum gravity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Halliwell, Jonathan Joseph (1987). The initial state of the universe (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Hayward, Justin Derek (1996). Black holes in two dimensions (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Hunter, Christopher John (2000). The nuts and bolts of entropy (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Lapedes, Alan Scott (1978). Quantum effects in general relativity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Lohiya, Daksh (1983). Some aspects of particle creation from charged black holes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Luttrell, Stephen Piers (1983). Power law corrections to hadronic structure functions (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Mac Conamhna, Oisín Aengus Padraig (2005). G-structures in supergravity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Monteiro, Ricardo Jorge Ferreira (2010). Classical and thermodynamic stability of black holes (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Moss, Ian Gordon (1983). Phase transitions in the very early universe (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Pope, Christopher Neville (1980). Instantons in quantum gravity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Prestidge, Tim (2000). Making $ense of the information loss paradox (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Prior, Christopher Rodney (1975). Angular momentum in general relativity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Reall, Harvey Stephen (1983). Black holes, branes and cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Ross, Simon Frederick (1996). Black hole pair creation (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Shellard, Edward Paul Scott (1987). Quantum effects in the early universe (Phd thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Siklos, Stephen Theodare Chesmer (1977). Singularities, invariants and cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Sparks, James Frank (2002). M-theory on spin(7) manifolds (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Taylor-Robinson, Marika Maxine (1998). Problems in M theory (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Warner, Nicholas (1982). Non-perturbative quantum gravity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Whitt, Brian (1989). Gravity: a quantum theory? (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Wu, Zhong Chao (1984). Cosmological models and the inflationary universe (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- Yuille, Alan Loddon (1981). Topics in Quantum Gravity. (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 238–39.
- ^ "Professor Stephen Hawking to stay at Cambridge University beyond 2012". The Daily Telegraph (London). 26 March 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ Katz, Gregory (20 July 2015). "Searching for ET: Hawking to look for extraterrestrial life". AP News. Retrieved 20 July 2015.
- ^ "The great man's answer to the question of human survival: Er, I don't know". The Guardian (UK).
- ^ a b c Overbye, Dennis (1 March 2007). "Stephen Hawking Plans Prelude to the Ride of His Life". The New York Times (New York: NYTC). Retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ Highfield, Roger (16 October 2001). "Colonies in space may be only hope, says Hawking". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 5 August 2007.
- ^ Hickman, Leo (25 April 2010). "Stephen Hawking takes a hard line on aliens". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking warns over making contact with aliens". BBC News. 25 April 2010. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking: 'Transcendence looks at the implications of artificial intelligence – but are we taking AI seriously enough?'". The Independent (UK). Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind". BBC. 2 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 179.
- ^ Warman, Matt (17 May 2011). "Stephen Hawking tells Google 'philosophy is dead'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
- ^ Stewart, Phil (31 October 2008). "Pope sees physicist Hawking at evolution gathering". Reuters. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking – There is no God. There is no Fate.". Retrieved 4 July 2013.
- ^ "Curiosity: Did God Create the Universe?". Discovery Communications, LLC. 7 August 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
- ^ David Edwards (24 September 2014). "Stephen Hawking comes out: 'I'm an atheist' because science is 'more convincing' than God". Raw Story. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
- ^ "Photographs by Lewis Morley". The Guardian. 7 September 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
- ^ a b White & Gribbin 2002, p. 195.
- ^ a b c d Ferguson 2011, p. 223.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 195.
- ^ "Scientist Stephen Hawking decries Iraq war". USA Today. 3 November 2004. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Diplomacy and politics: Stephen Hawking reaffirms support of Israel boycott". Retrieved 26 October 2014.
- ^ Kershner, Isabel (8 May 2013). "Stephen Hawking Joins Boycott Against Israel". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
- ^ Harriet Sherwood and Matthew Kalman in Jerusalem (8 May 2013). "Stephen Hawking joins academic boycott of Israel". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
- ^ a b Lean, Geoffrey (21 January 2007). "Prophet of Doomsday: Stephen Hawking, eco-warrior – Climate Change – Environment". The Independent (London). Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ Andalo, Debbie (24 July 2006). "Hawking urges EU not to stop stem cell funding". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 242.
- ^ "Celebrities' open letter to Scotland – full text and list of signatories | Politics". The Guardian. 7 August 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 164, 178.
- ^ "Call for global disability campaign". London: BBC. 8 September 1999. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ a b c Ferguson 2011, p. 196.
- ^ "Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize". American Physical Society. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ "Hawking takes zero-gravity flight". BBC News. 27 April 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
- ^ "Physicist Hawking experiences zero gravity". CNN. 26 April 2007. Archived from the original on 4 May 2007. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 232–33.
- ^ "Paralympics: Games opening promises 'journey of discovery'". BBC. 29 August 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
- ^ DeWitt, David (13 September 2013). "The Brilliance of His Universe". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
- ^ Duffin, Claire (17 September 2013). "We don't let animals suffer, says Prof Stephen Hawking, as he backs assisted suicide". The Telegraph.
- ^ Natasha Culzac, Stephen Hawking, MND sufferer, does ice bucket challenge with a twist. The Independent, 29 August 2014.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, pp. 177–78.
- ^ Larsen 2005, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Okuda & Okuda 1999, p. 380.
- ^ Larsen 2005, pp. xiii, 94.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 192.
- ^ Ferguson 2011, p. 221.
- ^ Wollaston, Sam (4 March 2008). "Last night's TV: Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 10 February 2013.
- ^ "Professor Stephen Hawking films Big Bang Theory cameo". BBC News. 12 March 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
- ^ Mialet, Hélène (28 June 2012). Hawking Incorporated: Stephen Hawking and the Anthropology of the Knowing Subject. p. 211. Retrieved 2015-07-12.
- ^ Edgar, James (30 May 2014). "'Have you still got that American voice?' Queen asks Stephen Hawking". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2015-07-12.
- ^ Setoodeh, Ramin. "How Eddie Redmayne Became Stephen Hawking in 'The Theory of Everything'". Variety. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
- ^ Haurant, Sandra (3 June 2008). "Savings: Heavyweight celebrities endorse National Savings". Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ^ "Could Hawking's parody be sincerest form of flattery?". Telegraph Media Group Limited. 13 June 2000. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ Usborne, Simon (1 January 2013). "Stephen Hawking, Go Compare and a brief history of selling out". The Independent. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ Buchanan, Rose Troup (20 March 2015). "Professor Stephen Hawking to trademark name". The Independent. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
- ^ "Black Holes and Baby Universes". Kirkus Reviews. 20 March 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ "A Brief History of Time: Synopsis". Errol Morris. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking's Universe". PBS. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
- ^ "The Hawking Paradox". BBC. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
- ^ Richmond, Ray (3 August 2007). ""Masters of Science Fiction" too artistic for ABC". Reuters. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
- ^ "Master of the Universe". Channel 4. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
- ^ "Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking". Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on 25 March 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
- ^ "Brave New World with Stephen Hawking". Channel 4. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking's Grand Design". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Hawking: A Brief History Of Mine". Channel 4. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
- ^ Labrecque, Jeff (6 August 2014). "Eddie Redmayne plays Stephen Hawking in 'Theory of Everything' trailer". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
- Hawking, Stephen (2013). 0-345-53913-3 My Brief History. Bantam. ISBN 978-0-345-53528-3. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
- Baird, Eric (2007). Relativity in Curved Spacetime: Life Without Special Relativity. Chocolate Tree Books. ISBN 978-0-9557068-0-6.
- Boslough, John (1989). Stephen Hawking's universe: an introduction to the most remarkable scientist of our time. Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-70763-8. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
- Ferguson, Kitty (2011). Stephen Hawking: His Life and Work. Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-1047-6.
- Gibbons, Gary W.; Hawking, Stephen W.; Siklos, S.T.C., eds. (1983). The Very early universe: proceedings of the Nuffield workshop, Cambridge, 21 June to 9 July, 1982. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31677-4.
- Hawking, Jane (2007). Travelling to Infinity: My Life With Stephen. Alma. ISBN 978-1-84688-115-2.
- Hawking, Stephen W. (1994). Black holes and baby universes and other essays. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-37411-7.
- Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F.R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6.
- Hawking, Stephen W. (1992). Stephen Hawking's A brief history of time: a reader's companion. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-07772-8.
- Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (1989). Three Hundred Years of Gravitation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2.
- Larsen, Kristine (2005). Stephen Hawking: a biography. ISBN 978-0-313-32392-8.
- Mialet, Hélène (2003). "Is the end in sight for the Lucasian chair? Stephen Hawking as Millennium Professor". In Knox, Kevin C. & Noakes, Richard. From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge University's Lucasian Professors of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 425–460. ISBN 978-0-521-66310-6.
- Mialet, Hélène (2012). Hawking Incorporated: Stephen Hawking and the Anthropology of the Knowing Subject. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-52226-5.
- Okuda, Michael; Okuda, Denise (1999). The Star trek encyclopedia: a reference guide to the future. Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-671-53609-1.
- Pickover, Clifford A. (2008). Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533611-5. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
- White, Michael; Gribbin, John (2002). Stephen Hawking: A Life in Science (2nd ed.). National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-08410-9.
- Yulsman, Tom (2003). Origins: the quest for our cosmic roots. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-7503-0765-9.
External links
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- Official website
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- Stephen Hawking on Facebook
- Portraits of Stephen William Hawking at the National Portrait Gallery, London
- Archival material relating to Stephen Hawking listed at the UK National Archives[dead link]
- Stephen Hawking collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Stephen Hawking's publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database, a service provided by Elsevier.
- Stephen Hawking at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Works by or about Stephen Hawking in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Stephen Hawking collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Stephen Hawking at TED
- "Stephen Hawking at 70: Exclusive interview". New Scientist. 4 January 2012.
- Stephen Hawking sings => "Galaxy Song" (02:43) on YouTube - a classic song.
- Stephen Hawking
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The first flesh-and-blood black men that Holocaust survivors David Yeager of Poland and Ben Bender of Romania ever saw were the soldiers of the all black 761st Tank Battalion of General George S. Patton's Third Army who roared into Buchenwald's dreaded death camp on April 11, 1945.
"I thought they had come down from heaven," said Yeager, 67, yesterday from his home in Bayside. "I was very weak by then, I weighed 72 pounds and I thought I must be hallucinating.
"I grabbed one of the soldiers by the arm and kissed him. Are you American?" I asked him over and over. He was crying. I couldn't because by then I had no life left in me, not even enough for crying. "
The American blacks, derisively known in that segregated army as "Eleanor Roosevelt`s Niggers" -- she had fought for recognition for them -- were also the first black men Ben Bender had seen outside of movies and magazines.
"I saw them break through the gates," he said. "I was spellbound. I couldn't speak. They were crying as they saw the piles of corpses. eyes bulging, ribs sticking out, lying in piles everywhere.
" I heard one dying prisoner say to one or the soldiers. `I am dying, give me your hand.' The soldiers had walked right into the inferno."
Bender. now 64 and living in Boynton Beach, Fla., said over the telephone yesterday that it was black soldiers who liberated the death camp and not, as has sometimes been reported, Russian soldiers or the French underground."
"I was there," says Bender simply. It was his 1985 letter, revealing that black soldiers were the first to enter Buchenwald, that led to a fascinating and well-written book", "Liberators," and a 90-minute documentary to be aired Nov. 11 -- Veteran's Day -- on public television.
The exploits of this celebrated all-black tank unit of 800 men are just now attracting the belated attention of historians and television documentary makers. Film Director Stanley Kramer is reported to be working on a film that like "Glory" will spotlight black soldiers who, as the book by Lou Potter says, were involved in "Fighting on Two Fronts in World War Two."
One front was the war in Europe, of course. The other was the constant fight against discrimination in the Army that extended from the White House down to the foot soldiers.
It took 33 years for the 761st to be officially recognized. President Jimmy Carter awarded the unit a presidential citation lauding its bravery in battles including the bloody Battle of the Bulge.
Earlier this year the Anti-Defamation League honored the men of the 761st, noting they were the first to see the horrors of the Holocaust when they liberated Buchenwald and Dachau death camps.
"But the black soldiers of the U.S. Army were kept apart from whites. That exclusion extended to the black women of the Women's Army Corps, the WACS. Blacks were not allowed to mingle with white soldiers at USO dances, and reporters from Stars and Stripes, the Army's newspaper "went right by us to the white troops" after combat, says Johnnie Stevens of Carteret, N.J., a tank commander and holder of the Purple Star with Oak Cluster and the Bronze Star.
"Yeah, it was racism," said Stevens, 71, yesterday. He was one of the black soldiers of the 761st that rolled into Buchenwald, outside the city of Weimar. "it followed us from the training camps in the South all the way overseas and afterwards when we came back after the war."
Stevens retired after years of bus driving for New Jersey Public Transit. He was the first black to be given a long distance driving route. "People would come on the bus and some would say, `look here! A nigger's driving our bus," he recalls.
From his home in Queens Village yesterday, William McBurney, 68, recalled crashing through the gates of Dachau near Munich in the spring of 1945. He was driving a medium tank on a search and-destroy mission and he had no idea what awaited him.
"I thought I had come into a prisoner of-war camp," says McBurney. "It looked like the land of the living dead. They were nothing but walking skeletons. We carried food on the backs of our tanks because our food kitchens couldn't keep up with us. We gave some people food but that was the worst thing we could have done. They just weren't used to real food. Some of them got sick."
McBurney, who grew up in Hell's Kitchen and in Harlem. was blown out of his tank in the Battle of the Bulge. After the war he worked as a supervisor at a plastics plant in Brooklyn. His grandson fought in the gulf war.
"He had it 100 per cent better than we did," says McBurney. "Now the troops are integrated and you have a chance to go somewhere. We were fighting for a better country but it took a long time after that war ended."
Some of the survivors and their liberators have become close friends. Last year many of them traveled to Buchenwaid. Bender remembers taking a group, including his friend Leonard (Smitty) Smith, 67, an ex-Brooklynite and a black soldier in the 761st who now lives 40 minutes from him in Fort Lauderdale, Fla., to view a torture chamber.
"There were 48 hooks where the Nazis hung their victims," he says.
"If they didn't die on the hooks they were piled onto a hydraulic lift
and dropped into a chute that led to the ovens. "I cried that day, the
first time I had been back to the camp in almost 50 years. Smitty came
over and hugged me. I thought to myself, in all the years I spent in those
camps that was the first time I had ever been hugged by another human being."


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Lady Gaga Stripped Of 156M YouTube Views
We previously released a story about YouTube starting to crack down on record labels who have been purchasing "fake views" for their artist's music videos, and the latest artist to feel the wrath is Lady Gaga…
The pop star has been stripped of 156 million views from her official YouTube account. Youtube is looking to clean up the fraudulent views, which can actually generate revenue for the artists through advertisements.
Gaga isn't the the first and last artist to be affected by Youtube's new policy — other notable artists include Michael Jackson, Chris Brown and Beyonce!
Let us know what you think about the issue below, and be sure to check back for more updates!
Ashton Tyler | Elite.
Photo Credit: James Devaney/WireImage


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Early birds given even greater choice
Posted: January 31, 2013|
H OUSE hunters are taking advantage of getting in early at an exclusive development so they can have even more input into the exact layout, position and specification of their new home.
Developer, Elan Homes, is building just 13 four bedroom homes in a variety of styles at Waters Edge, Nantwich, near the Shropshire Union Canal, with prices starting at £289,995.
Interest in the development is already high and the builder says that buyers can purchase off-plan before the house is physically built and have a greater say in the final detailing of their dream home.
Andrew Robertson, senior sales manager for Elan Homes in the North, says: "We've amassed a strong database of people who have registered their interest in Waters Edge and we're currently guiding them through the plans to help match them with the perfect property that befits their lifestyle.
"Some have seized the chance to reserve at the earliest opportunity, while others perhaps have a property of their own to sell or want to see the show home before committing to buy.
"But with such high interest levels in this intimate development, we'd encourage people not to delay as they could miss out on their preferred property. But what people may not realise is that the homes are available to buy now, off plan. "Advantages of buying off plan in a development's early stages include greater choice in the style of home and its position. Plus those who purchase before the property is physically built will have more options to customise the interior.''
Buyers who act now will also be able to take advantage of pre-show home prices and with the offer of part exchange customers can avoid moving day delays caused by complicated chains.
With part exchange Elan will arrange for the customer's home to be valued by two local agents before making an offer on that property to help facilitate a move.
The transaction could be complete in as little as 28 days with no hidden costs or hold ups. The developer will pay for the survey and the agent's fees and customers will even be able to stay in their current property until the new one is ready.
Located in Marsh Lane, just of Welsh Row, the development is well placed with easy access to local amenities including restaurants, sports and leisure facilities and the range of individual shops in Nantwich town centre.
For more information log on to: www.elan-homes.co.uk/find-your-home/north-west-and-north-wales/waters-edge or call 0845 250 8678.


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Day 1 of the two-day DMK general council meeting here, the first since the party's drubbing in the assembly elections, did not yield any answers, but raised the most obvious question: Why should the DMK continue its alliance with the Congress?
In the four-hour-long session, speaker after speaker held the alliance partner responsible for the party's defeat. "What is the use of supporting the Congress when it is not doing anything to help the DMK? The CBI is under direct control of the prime minister but it has proved to be of no comfort," said former agriculture minister and a close associate of party chief M Karunanidhi, Veerapandi Arumuguam.
Arumuguam has to appear before the crime branch of the CID for questioning in a land grab case on Monday. He also said having a union minister of state for finance from the DMK (SS Palanimanickam) had been of no use, given the lack of progress in the income tax cases against chief minister J Jayalalithaa of the AIADMK.
The meeting was at an abandoned spinning mill in the industrial estate of Singanallur, 7 km from Coimbatore railway station. Roads leading to the venue were dotted with posters and cutouts of Karunanidhi and younger son MK Stalin.
Missing was elder son and union minister MK Alagiri, who was, however, present at the meet, speculations notwithstanding. The mood among the cadres was in keeping with the scenery. The general expectation was that former deputy chief minister Stalin would be elevated. Senior DMK leader TS Baalu, however, dismissed rivalry between Stalin and Alagiri as media "gossip". He said the party was united. Nipping allegations that his family was responsible for the electoral defeat, Karunanidhi said: "All of us have to share the blame of defeat equally." He told partymen not to see the DMK's performance as "real defeat". Sources confirmed that the issue of sending replacements for former textile minister Dayanidhi Maran and former telecom minister A Raja would be discussed on Sunday.


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Still time to enter 30th Lingfield Marathon fun run
Posted: May 03, 2012|
RUNNERS, joggers and walkers are gearing up for the Lingfield Marathon on Sunday.
People of all ages will be taking part in the six-mile fun run, six-mile fun walk and the ten-mile fun run for over-18s.
A Family Fun Day will be taking place from 10am before the races kick off from noon at Young Epilepsy in St Piers lane.
Prizes for the runners, walkers and spectators in best fancy dress will be awarded on the day and there will be 19 trophies available for individual runners and teams.
The Lingfield Marathon Fun Run has been an annual event since 1981, when the United Nations introduced The International Year of the Disabled.
The money raised was to be used for the purchase, running and upkeep of a minibus with a hydraulic lift for use by the community to pursue leisure activities whenever they wanted.
Free parking will be available on the day at Youth Epilepsy.
For more information and to obtain entry or sponsorship forms, visit the website at www.lingfield-marathon.org


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Moderators: carlson1, Charles L. Cotton, Keith B
BrassMonkey wrote:Man,
That's horrible.
You know, touching your weapon could be interpreted as deadly force, in which case, I fear you would be the one going to jail...
BrassMonkey wrote:I am almost embarrassed to admit it, but my heart rate went to about 139 while I was reading that. Up until the part where I got mad at you...
Kalrog wrote:Dang. I was about to yell at you for typing this in a public forum... but wow. Heart rate going down.
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Born out of a love of travel, design, upholstery and textile craft, Barrington Blue breathes new life into vintage and handmade textiles and furniture. Barrington Blue is a boutique design company that showcases founder Carrie Olshan's vast textile collection with unique and handmade one-of-a-kind pieces.


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continued The cost of applying Renovate had been budgeted at $85,000 but will likely reach $95,000 due to the extra costs of permitting and a series of follow-up tests required by the state Dept. of Environmental Conservation and the Adirondack Park Agency.
The lake measures 584 acres, and 15 acres in the southern basin are being treated, Monroe said. Elsewhere in the lake, milfoil is under control after an effective effort to remove it has been implemented, he said.
Hand harvesting and installing mats on the lakebottom have curbed milfoil's spread, he said, noting the goal was to reduce ongoing milfoil control expenses from nearly $60,000 annually to about $30,000.
"Milfoil in Loon Lake has now been reduced to manageable levels," Monroe said. "I'm very pleased our board has recognized the seriousness of the threat of aquatic invasives, and was willing to take aggressive action to protect our water bodies."
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Recent technical enhancements at Oak Ridge National Laboratory's High Flux Isotope Reactor are providing researchers with a more comprehensive suite of characterization tools that could help extend the lives of U.S. light-water reactors. With these new capabilities, scientists can discern microstructural stresses in vessel steels from the microscale - millionths of a meter - to the nanoscale - billionths of a meter. This work is especially significant because nuclear reactors supply about 20 percent of the nation's electricity, and recent budget constraints have made extending their lives a key component of the federal government's energy policy. [Contact: Agatha Bardoel, (865) 574-0644; firstname.lastname@example.com]
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QUINCY, MA -- Rob Gronkowski stepped away from Joe Andruzzi's charity golf event Monday to talk with reporters for a moment. The hot topics for New England's top tight end were unsurprising: his health and his contract. Of the surgically-repaired ankle, Gronkowski said only that it's feeling "great." But his new six-year, 54 million deal? That warranted, and received, something more. "I'm just happy. Both sides are really happy," he said. "I love all my fans out there. It's a great community, a great team. It's awesome going out there every single Sunday in front of that crowd. I'm happy to be here long-term, definitely. It all worked out well." Sounds like the 23-year old is growing up. Well, kind of. When asked if he's yet made any extravagant purchases, Gronkowski responded as only he could: "No. You want to buy me something?"
The NFL and NFLPA began conferring Monday, presumably to lay the foundation for a settlement before they meet with Judge Richard Berman.


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[New Music] Beyoncé Is Featured On A New Track Titled 'Dreams'
Well it looks like Christmas done came real early for Beyoncé fans!
Earlier today, mysterious singer/producer BOOTS released a single called, "Dreams" from his upcoming WinterSpringSummerFall mixtape and it features none other than the queen herself, Beyoncé!
If you're wondering, "Who is BOOTS and how the hell did he get Beyoncé on his song?!," having done work on "Drunk In Love," "Partition," and seven other records on Bey's self-titled visual album makes him one of her new favs …. and up until recently, her best kept secret.
Boots, real name Jordy Asher, signed to RocNation in 2013.
Now that you're up to speed, listen to the infectious alternative R&B track below:
BOOTS released the single on his Facebook today and revealed that the proceeds from the song will go to charity:
So this is the last song on my mixtape. My friend and I recorded it recently and while we were trying to figure out what to do with it, we had an idea.
A while back I promised myself that if I ever had the opportunity to help others, or give back in some way, I would seize it.
A friend recently told me about a non-profit organization called "Day One" here in NYC. In their words, "Day One is the only organization in New York City solely devoted to the issue of teen dating violence."
I feel that protecting women from these horrible and unthinkable acts should take precedence in our society. I feel passionate about this because if more women knew that safe places existed from the turmoil they experience, it could possibly prevent these situations from occurring or reoccurring.
Every cent made from this song will go directly to http://dayoneny.org
It's hard to put into words how thankful I am for everything and everyone who helped get this together. I've experienced a lot in my life. Good and bad. But through it all, I'm certain every one of those things had to happen to get me right where I am today. I feel very fortunate for that. Thanks for all of your love and support.
Are you feeling the new record?


text:
Women's Intercultural Center Inc
Rating: 4.73 stars 207 207 reviews 11,030
Nonprofit Issues:
Education, Human Services
PO Box 2411 303 Lincoln Street Anthony NM 88021 USA
To provide a place for women to learn and work together to develop their social, spiritual, economic and political potential.
To date over 3,400 women annually become educated, empowered and engaged. Results of our work have been published in research documents, books, videos and presented a various conferences throughout the country. For more detailed info on our progress visit our website under participants and the about us section.
Target demographics:
Women ages 17 years old and up
Direct beneficiaries per year:
over 3,400 women annually
Geographic areas served:
Southern New Mexico and West Texas
alternative education and personal development, economic self-sufficiency, civic engagement, Border Awareness Experience. In essence we provide our participants the tools and resources they need to thrive.
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Reviews for Women's Intercultural Center Inc
I attended the Feminine Fuerza Camp and they were great. I learned a lot from the different speakers that presented there.
I really enjoyed my time here! Everyone within the organization was courteous and friendly. Very motivated in what they do. I was so compelled that I even gave some merchandise for charity . Will definitely come and visit.
They give classes that are very productive and useful for an everyday living..
It has a lot of programs for women. They could improve by getting known by more people
Everything is well, they helped me with my taxes. They are great as rhey are.
Me ayudaron y la persona fue muy eficiente
They can improve by giving better gloves and have us show how much we did every thirty minutes
As a current volunteer at the Women's Intercultural Center I can honestly say that that I have enjoyed my time being here because of the friendly environment and especially the goal of this program. I have always enjoyed working/helping others but the people I have worked with in this center have true potential at what they do therefore to me it has made them some of the most welcoming and hardworking people I have ever interacted with. I am very thankful for being given the great opportunity of being of service to a program that is of great help to the people in the Anthony community.
When I volunteered at the center, I had the opportunity to meet some great people there. The women that run the center are so friendly and welcoming, they make the center feel like home. Not only that, but the classes they offer are spectacular. They have a wide range of classes and most, if not all, are in Spanish which is great for our community. They also have a thrift shop where most everything is 25 cents; this helps the center raise money and also helps community members that might not have sufficient resources to buy as $25 shirt. Overall, my experience at the center was amazing and I encourage everyone in the area to drop by sometime.
During my volunteer time here, I helped set up for a toy drive that would contribute to the local childrens hospital. It was a wonderful experience and the staff were wonderful as well. They are kind, friendly and very understanding. I most definitely recommend this organization for anyone looking to give back to the community.