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Many people might just assume that candy names are just chosen at random. In many instances, this is simply not the case. Dove Chocolate, for example, was first created accidentally by a flock of doves while they were trying to create an edible bird house. Another well-known example is M&M's, which I'm pretty sure are named after Mini Me from the Austin Powers movies. Think the term "Fun Size Candy" just refers to smaller versions of candy? Think again! These candies go through scientific studies and hours of rigorous "fun" testing in order to certify that they are fun enough to carry the "Fun Size" label. In fact, Fun Size Pop Rocks Candy tested so high on the "Fun-O-Meter" that parents were worried that their children would have so much fun eating the candy that they would forget about homework and sports. Luckily the parents tried the Pop Rocks too, and had so much fun that they forgot to worry.
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Equinox Pond in Manchester offers serene spot, scenic trailsBy Erica Houskeeper
Correspondent | August 13,2014Photos by Erica Housekeeper
After a hike around Equinox Pond, Dave Barron, fly fishes.People have asked me where I've been on vacation this summer. Cape Cod? The coast of Maine? Martha's Vineyard? It turns out that I've stayed put in Vermont with my family. The Green Mountains are just too beautiful to leave this time of year.
Recently, my husband Dave and I traveled to Manchester with our 3-year-old daughter, Phoebe, for a relaxing summer getaway. One of the highlights of our trip was hiking around Equinox Pond, one of my favorite places in Vermont.
I grew up in Manchester, so I have a particular soft spot for Equinox Pond. I introduced Dave to the pond when we started dating more than a decade ago. Shortly after we became parents in 2011, we returned to Equinox Pond with Phoebe when she was a newborn. Now we make a point to visit as much as we can, which still isn't often enough.
During our most recent trip, we walked up to Equinox Pond on a warm and breezy afternoon. Phoebe ran around the grassy edge of the pond in her bare feet, and for a moment I thought she might jump in the water and splash around in her clothes. How could I blame her? She was in her glory and seemed to love Equinox Pond as much as I do.
Equinox Pond and the trails beyond
Located near the base of Mount Equinox in Manchester, Equinox Pond and the surrounding land are part of the Equinox Preservation Trust, which was established in 1996 and includes more than 914 acres of protected land.
The pond offers a magnificent view of Mount Equinox to the west. The property also includes a waterfront historic pavilion — formerly an ice house — that is owned by the Equinox Resort & Spa and used for wedding receptions and special events.
Beyond the pond, 11 miles of trails that mostly follow old logging roads are open for hiking, snowshoeing, cross-country skiing and mountain biking.
Suggested hikes
Pond Loop is an easy, three-quarter mile walk through the woods around the pond's perimeter. Along the trail hikers will find red and sugar maples, paper birch, striped maples, hornbeams and hop-hornbeams.
For something a little more challenging, try Robin's Lookout. The half-mile hike leads to an overlook with views to the east of Equinox Pond, Hildene, the Battenkill Valley and the Green Mountains. While Robin's Lookout is steep in places, it's suitable for kids ages 8 and up.
The trail to Robin's Lookout features sugar maples, hornbeams, striped maples, beech, ash and red oaks. Like much of the property, the Robin's Lookout trail passes through habitat that attracts ovenbirds, scarlet tanagers, wood thrushes and a variety of warblers and woodpeckers.
Visitors can also stay right at the pond to see wildlife. Equinox Pond attracts great blue herons, kingfishers, snapping turtles and the occasional osprey or bald eagle.
The best part about Equinox Pond? For me, it's soaking up the view of Mount Equinox with the people who matter most, knowing there's no place in the world I would rather be on a glorious summer day.
For more information, visit equinoxpreservationtrust.org.
Erica Houskeeper is a freelance writer and PR/communications consultant living in Burlington. She publishes a blog about Vermont, www.happyvermont.com.
If you go:
Swimming, kayaking, camping, campfires and boating are not permitted at the pond, and catch-and-release fishing is reserved upon request for Equinox Resort & Spa guests. Parking for Equinox Pond is available in a designated lot off West Union Street in Manchester Village, just south of Burr and Burton Academy.MORE IN This Just InBy Kathleen Phalen Tomaselli Full StoryBennington College and Middlebury College both top a list for most entrepreneurial colleges in... Full StoryWas the response to an alleged assault at College of St. Full Story
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Soolah Hoops
Monday, August 10, 2015 - 4:00pm to 4:45pm
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Come join Soolah as she shares the joys of hula hooping. Kids will be entertained with a demonstration of hula hooping tricks with different kinds of hula hoops. Soolah will share her hoops, teaching kids how to hoop, how to do some tricks and play some games! Hoops will be provided. Please be sure your child is in comfortable clothing and has a water bottle to stay hydrated. Best for ages K-8


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USF was recently selected as one of five higher education institutions in the country—and the only West Coast university—to receive the 2010 U.S. Senator Paul Simon Award for Comprehensive Internationalization.
The award, first presented in 2003, recognizes universities that demonstrate a conscious effort to integrate international, intercultural, and global dimensions into their curriculum.
"Our international focus is seen not only in our curriculum, but also in the international students we have at USF and the global service learning programs we've cultivated," said USF President Stephen A. Privett, S.J. "It is central to our mission to offer our students, faculty, and staff opportunities to serve others while working for justice throughout the world."
In addition to having students from 75 nations studying at USF, the university also sponsors a range of programs designed to expose students to professional work outside the U.S. and to help them apply their classroom learning to global projects.
The award is given each year by NAFSA: Association of International Educators (formerly National Association of Foreign Student Advisers). It honors the career of the late U.S. Senator Paul Simon of Illinois, known as a strong voice for international education, using his positions on Senate committees to advocate for expanded exchange.


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Over the past several decades, the United States Congress and various Presidents have imposed numerous regulatory analysis requirements on administrative agencies in connection with their rulemaking activities. Some of these requirements are relatively sweeping measures designed to ensure that agencies' regulations advance legitimate goals, such as Executive Order (EO) 12,866's requirement that executive agencies analyze the...
Review of Regulatory Analysis Requirements
Project Stages:1. Gather ideas - Completed
2. Select ideas - Completed
3. Council approval - Completed
4. Picking a researcher - Completed
5. Committee consideration - Completed
6. Back to the council - Completed
7. Consideration by the full conference - Completed
8. Implementation - Current
Recommendation 2012-1, Regulatory Analysis Requirements, considers the various regulatory analysis requirements imposed upon agencies by both executive orders and statutes. It offers recommendations designed to ensure that agencies satisfy the existing requirements in the most efficient and transparent manner possible. It also provides recommendations on streamlining the existing analysis requirements.
Final Recommendation
At its 56th Plenary Session on June 14-15, 2012, the Administrative Conference adopted Recommendation 2012-1, Regulatory Analysis Requirements. This recommendation addresses the issue of agencies having to comply with numerous regulatory analysis requirements created by statute and executive orders. The recommendation is supported by an extensive report which includes an appendix charting all of the regulatory analysis requirements of the 100 major rules subject to OMB review in 2010. The goal of the recommendation is to ensure agencies fulfill the regulatory analysis requirements efficiently, and to enhance the transparency of the process. Agencies, the Congress, the President and OIRA at OMB are all encouraged to play a role in this effort.
Read the Federal Register notice announcing the adoption of Recommendation 2012-1, available at 77 Fed. Reg. 47800, 47801
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Business planning expert Tim Berry answers three common questions he gets: Why write a business plan? What 's most often misunderstood about business planning? Why do I recommend Business Plan Pro for business planning?
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How LivePlan makes your business more successful
If you're writing a business plan, you're in luck. Online business planning software makes it easier than ever before to put together a business plan for your business.
As you'll see in a moment, LivePlan is more than just business plan software, though. It's a knowledgable guide combined with a professional designer coupled with a financial wizard. It'll help you get over the three most common business hurdles with ease.
Let's take a look at those common hurdles, and see how producing a top-notch business plan sets your business up for success.Click to continue


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Friday, October 4, 2013
A group of teenagers and parent chaperones (from left) Rachel Whitbeck, Erin Hynd, Roman Shrompil, Aleks Shtompil, Elise Hynd, Alex Bourland, Grace Whitbeck, Madison Sosebee, Miles Hudgins, Sophie Wachowski and Olivia Brisson embarked on an educational trip of a lifetime to Italy from June 14-22. They visited Milan, Verona, Venice, Assisi, Florence, Rome and Pompeii. Along the way they took a gondola ride, saw The David, visited the Colosseum, Vatican City, observed glass-blowing and leather-making demonstrations and much more. They posed for a photo with the Moultrie News at the Piazza Navona in Rome, Italy. (Rachel Mullinax, Alex Breitinger and Stevie Barto also made the trip, but are not pictured.)
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The win marked the seventh straight for Chicago (36-17-0-4), which matches a season high. The club has vaulted to first place in the West Division and third overall in the American Hockey League with 76 points.
Right wing Spencer Machacek and defenseman Jamie Hunt each scored twice, while forwards Brett Sterling (G, A), Matt Anderson (G, A) and Kevin Doell (2A) and blueliner Paul Postma (G, A) all posted multiple-point nights.
"We were very sharp early and we caught them off guard," said Wolves Head Coach Don Lever.
Postma keyed the offense when he gave Chicago an early lead, banging a shot from the slot past Aeros netminder Wade Dubielewicz just 87 seconds into the game.
Machacek made the Wolves' lead 2-0, 4:15 into the game. Center Johnny Pohl carried the puck into the zone and slipped a cross-ice pass to Machacek, who deked to pull Dubielewicz out of position before flicking the puck into the net.
Hunt cranked a shot down the slot 1:14 seconds later to give the Wolves a three-goal lead 5:29 into the contest, and chase Dubielewicz in favor of back-up Barry Brust.
Dubielewicz (12-11-0), who returned to the crease at the start of the second period, posted 13 saves in 45:29 of action, while Brust made two saves in 14:31 between the pipes.
Hunt continued the offensive onslaught with his second of the game at 9:52 of the first period. Defenseman Ivan Vishnevskiy flung an initial shot at Brust, and Doell picked up the rebound and pushed it to Hunt, who tapped it past Brust.
Anderson potted a fifth goal for the Wolves at 16:11 of the first frame. Houston's Maxim Noreau fired a slapshot, which clanked off the post and rang around the boards. Anderson picked it up, drove into the zone and flipped a wrist shot past Brust, glove side.
Houston (27-24-6-1) got on the board with a power-play marker with 1:30 remaining in the first period. Noreau fired a shot from the blue line, which blew by a screened Drew MacIntyre.
MacIntyre (15-11-1) made 31 saves on 32 shots in picking up his seventh straight win.
The Wolves picked up a sixth goal with 23 seconds left to play in the opening frame. Defenseman Mike Vernace cranked a wrist shot, which bounced off the back boards. Right wing Anthony Stewart picked it up and attempted a wrap-around, which Brust thwarted, but left the rebound for Sterling to knock home.
Machacek tallied his second of the night at 7:21 of the third period to make the score 7-1. The right wing ripped a shot at the net and chased the rebound, gaining control behind the net and then wrapping around and tucking the puck between Dubielewicz and the post.
The Wolves host the San Antonio Rampage at the Allstate Arena on Sunday at 3 p.m.
Houston 1 0 0 -- 1
Chicago 6 0 1 -- 7
First Period---1, Chicago, Postma 6 (Crabb, Anderson), 1:27; 2, Chicago, Machacek 13 (Pohl, Postma), 4:15; 3, Chicago, Hunt 2 (Simpson, Galivan), 5:29; 4, Chicago, Hunt 3 (Doell, Vishnevskiy), 9:52 pp; 5, Chicago, Anderson 12 (unassisted), 16:11; 6, Houston, Noreau 15 (Smith), 18:30 pp; 7, Chicago, Serling 32 (Stewart, Vernace), 19:37. Penalties---Bench, Chicago (too many men), 2:34; Houston, Almond (hooking), 3:00; McMillan, Houston (elbowing major, game misconduct), 5:29; Welch, Chicago (boarding), 14:02; Chelios, Chicago (hooking), 17:32.
Second Period---None. Penalties---Simpson, Chicago (roughing), 3:05.
Third Period---8, Chicago, Machacek 14 (Doell, Sterling), 7:21. Penalties---Fraser, Houston (holding), 1:51; Sifers, Houston (roughing), 13:36; Sterling, Chicago (roughing), 13:36; Earl, Houston (interference), 19:12.
Shots on goal---Houston: 10-10-12--32. Chicago: 10-5-7--22. Power plays---Houston: 1-4. Chicago: 1-5. Goalies---Houston, Dubielewicz (13-17) 45:29, replaced by Barry Brust (2-5), 14:31. Chicago, MacIntyre (31-32). A---14,104. Referee---Jeff Smith. Linesmen---Judson Ritter and Bryan Pancich.


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News Posts
New Media at the Museum
by AMNH on
This Thursday, February 16, scientists, writers, and educators will gather for a panel discussion of how social media change the landscape of science communication. Beyond a Trend: Enhancing Science Communication Through Social Mediawill feature Ruth Cohen, the Museum's senior director of education strategic initiatives and director of the Center for Lifelong Learning, Carl Zimmer, science journalist and author of Science Ink: Tattoos of the Science Obsessed, Ben Lillie, co-organizer of The Story Collider, and BBC journalist Matt Danzicoas panelists. Jennifer Kingson, day assignment editor for the Science section of The New York Times, will moderate the discussion. Below, Cohen talks about a few of the Museum's recent forays into social media.
Darwin's Manuscripts, Now Online
by AMNH on
What better way to celebrate Charles Darwin's 203rd birthday than by reading the famed naturalist's scientific works in his own handwriting? You can do just that on Sunday, February, 12—also known as "Darwin Day"—and every day after on the Darwin Manuscripts Project website.
Free and available to all online, the Darwin Manuscripts Project is the most comprehensive catalogue of Darwin's scientific manuscripts ever compiled. The project is based at the American Museum of Natural History and developed in close collaboration with Cambridge University Library, whose physical collection is the foundation of the new database, and the Biodiversity Heritage Library—represented by the Natural History Museum in London. This new tool will also include holdings from all other library—based Darwin collections globally.
Behind the Scenes of Creatures of Light
by AMNH on
Curator John Sparks will be blogging weekly about the upcoming exhibition, Creatures of Light, which opens on Saturday, March 31.
In just a little over a month, on March 31, the American Museum of Natural History will open our latest exhibition, Creatures of Light: Nature's Bioluminescence,which focuses on the amazing diversity of organisms that produce light across every conceivable habitat. Every exhibition we produce is a collaboration between the Museum's research scientists and the exhibition team, which includes writers, designers, artists, and media specialists. I'm the curator for this exhibition, which means that I oversee the scientific content and bring expertise from my research—in this case, on the evolution of bioluminescent signaling systems in marine fishes.We're hard at work on the show this month, and I'll be writing weekly posts from behind the scenes to offer some glimpses of what goes into producing a major exhibition. Here's my first dispatch:
Podcast: Ray Jayawardhana: Strange New Worlds
by AMNH on
In the past 16 years, astronomers have discovered more than 700 exoplanets, or planets that orbit other stars. If scientists find signs of life on these planets, it will profoundly impact everything from religion and philosophy to art and biology. In this podcast from the fall, astronomer Ray Jayawardhana shares some of the ideas from his book, Strange New Worlds, about life beyond our solar system.
Dr. Jayawardhana's talk was recorded at the Hayden Planetarium on October 3, 2011.
Science Writer Carl Zimmer on Blogs, Books, and Tattoos
by AMNH on
When science writer Carl Zimmer noticed some scientists sporting serious tattoos, he wondered how many others enjoyed highbrow body art. After posing the question on his blog, Zimmer received a flood of responses and photos, many of which he recently compiled in his book Science Ink: Tattoos of the Science Obsessed. On Thursday, February 16, Zimmer will be one of four panelists at the Museum's Beyond a Trend: Enhancing Science Communication Through Social Media, part of Social Media Week NYC. Zimmer recently answered a few questions about how new media are shaping his writing.
What could you do with a blog about science tattoos that you couldn't do in a book, and vice versa?
Carl Zimmer: Blogs and books are different media, with different strengths and weaknesses. With a blog, you can spontaneously add things and make corrections. And people can make comments. Sometimes, people would point out that the equation in someone's tattoo had a plus sign instead of a minus, which was probably pretty embarrassing. But since the blog was happening in real time, it was more disorganized. For the book, I was able to create miniature essays for various tattoos and arrange the tattoos in a logical progression from math to physics to chemistry and so on.


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Some former KidsPeace foster care clients helped make this holiday season a little brighter for children and teenagers now in our care.
When Kelly Little, program manager for FCCP Williamsport was planning the annual holiday party and put out a call for donations, she was pleasantly surprised to receive gifts from some people she once served as a caseworker.
Brittany Weisenberger, now of Montgomery, Pa., was one of those former clients who donated gifts for a 3-year-old girl. Weisenberger entered the system in 1998, when she was 10 years old. She and her two siblings were separated, and she stayed in foster care for a few years until she started attending boarding school in Hershey. She knows how much support and love foster care children need.
"I know how it is not to have your mom and dad there," she said. "I like to always give back to where I've been a part of."
Weisenberger, now a stay-at-home mom to two children, 2 years and 8 months, is grateful to her foster parents, who she said showed their children "how to be a family" and with whom she still keeps in touch today. Her childhood experiences make her even more determined to take good care of her family.
"It makes me work harder so they don't have to be put in the system," she said. "They have a mom and a dad and a supportive home."


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Since 1999, Northwest Classic Auto Mall has offered cars from 1989 and older vehicles, both locally and worldwide. Whether you're looking for an older classic, hot rod, rat rod or a vehicle in the 80's, we invite you to browse our listings of vehicles.
1946 Mercury Convertible If you are interested in this vehicle or have any questions, please call Carolyn at 360-425-6987 New, complete frame-off restoration, Metallic Brown with Brown/Grey interior, Automatic... More


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About Kent State University at Stark
Stark County's Public University
Welcome to the largest regional campus of Kent State University. Kent State University at Stark was founded in 1946 and has been serving Stark County and the surrounding area for over 65 years. As Stark County's only public university, Kent State Stark plays a vital role in generating a more educated workforce, attracting and retaining qualified individuals to the area and contributing to the positive economic development of the region. Kent State Stark is located on 200 beautiful acres in Jackson Township, just five minutes from the Akron-Canton Airport and easily accessible from I-77.
Degrees, Majors & Minors
Kent State Stark offers 18 bachelor's, four master's, three associate degrees and several minors, as well as the opportunity to begin coursework in the more than 282 bachelor's degrees at Kent State University. Learn more about Kent State Stark's degrees, majors and minors.
Kent State Stark serves 11,000 students each year, comprised of 6,600 enrolled in academic coursework and 4,500 enrolled in professional development courses. In addition, more than 200 high school students from the Stark County area take advantage of dual enrollment and other pre-college programs.
Kent State Stark's Regional Economic Impact to Stark County
Kent State Stark promotes economic growth and contributes to the vitality of both the local and state economies with a total economic impact of $129.5 million. Other key findings specific to Stark include:
- Kent State Stark stimulates economies. The largest and most important impact of the Stark Campus is the $114.6 million that stemmed from the productivity effects of alumni who live and work in Stark County.
- Kent State Stark is a leading business enterprise. Stark County economy received approximately $14.9 million in impacts due to Stark Campus operations.
- Kent State Stark helps communities reduce social costs. As a result of educational attainment by students at Kent State at Stark, the state of Ohio benefits from improved health and reduced welfare, unemployment and crime, saving the public an average of $3.5 million per year.
- Learn more and read Kent State University's Economic Impact report
Learn more about Dr. Denise A. Seachrist, Interim Dean & Chief Administrative Officer and Dr. Bathi Kasturiarachi, Assistant Dean for Academic Affairs. Meet Kent State Stark's deans.
As of 2013, Kent State Stark has 289 faculty. The majority of full-time faculty hold a Ph.D. or a terminal degree in their field. All instructors hold at least a masters degree in their teaching field and Kent State Stark does not have graduate assistants teaching classes. The student-faculty ratio is 17-to-1; allowing dedicated professors to work closely with students, helping them achieve success inside the classroom and beyond.
Each day, thousands of students, faculty, staff and community members step on the campus of Kent State University at Stark where the care of the environment is evident from the moment they arrive. As one of the campus' seven core values to "respect and protect the campus green space and our region's ecological environment," Kent State Stark is committed to reducing the environmental impacts of campus operations and promoting environmental sustainability. Learn more about Kent State Stark's sustainability efforts.
Cultural Events
Kent State Stark offers more than 50 cultural events in the Stark County region, including the Featured Speakers Series, which brings national and international experts in civil rights, politics, education, literature, entertainment and arts to campus. Learn more about the cultural events Kent State Stark offers.
Conference Center
Each year, more than 45,000 employees - from as many as 145 companies - participate in corporate meetings and business events at the Conference Center. The center is among the few conference centers in the state to receive the stringent accreditation of the IACC - International Association of Conference Centers. Skilled multimedia specialists attend to every detail of corporate meetings and events, and expert event planning and culinary staff guarantee memorable experiences at lectures, dinners, special events and fundraisers held at the center. Learn more about the Conference Center.
The Corporate University
Located in the Conference Center, The Corporate University provides local organizations in the Stark County area with intense learning and development experiences, such as Lean/Six Sigma Training and Certification, Certificate of Supervision, Certificate of Management and Certificate of Executive Assistants. Local organizations can also benefit from services including survey and research, organizational development consulting and customized programs. The Small Business Development Center (SBDC) is also located here. Learn more about The Corporate University.
Have a question about Kent State Stark?
Contact the Office of External Affairs at 330-244-3262.


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Senate Bill 140 (Post Secondary Option)
The PSEO Program
The Post-Secondary Enrollment Option Program at Kent State Trumbull is primarily designed to provide qualified high school students with the opportunity to enhance their high school education with a true college experience. Parents and students considering PSEO course work should meet with their high school guidance office to learn about the program and to discover their school district's policies as they relate to: full-time equivalency with high school and college enrollment, repayment policies in the event of withdrawal, how Kent State University grades are accepted on the high school transcript (weighted or not weighted), scheduling for other high school classes, remaining graduation requirements and if college courses will fulfill those requirements and any other related issues.
High school students may earn both high school and college credit without paying tuition by selecting Option B. Option A allows for the student to pay tuition and earn college credit only. Kent State Trumbull welcomes applications from home-schooled students who, if accepted into the program, are required to enroll Option A.
The PSEO Program is not intended to replace course work available in high school or to provide students with a full-time college course load. The number of credit hours that a PSEO student may register for is left to the discretion of the Kent State Trumbull PSEO adviser. Distance learning and web-based courses are not available to PSEO students.
Students selected to enroll at Kent State Trumbull under either PSEO option will be considered Kent State University students and are accountable for all policies, rules, procedures and deadlines in effect for students of Kent State University. These include items related to tuition payment, textbooks, advising and registration. Students are expected to be familiar with the information in the Schedule of Classes and Undergraduate Catalog. Students enrolled in the PSEO Program are not eligible to receive financial aid or work on campus.
PSEO Program Guidelines Students applying to the PSEO Program should generally meet or exceed the following:
- 9th thru 12th graders will have at least a 3.0 cumulative high school GPA on a 4.0 scale
- Demonstrated mastery of introductory college preparatory core curriculum (COMPASS placement test) in each subject area in which the student wishes to take college courses (e.g. math, reading skills, writing skills).
- A recent ACT composite score of 23 or combined SAT score of 1590 required
- The state of Ohio requires that high school students must have a "B" average or better if they have taken a similar course prior to enrolling in a college course in the same subject area.
- If a student wishes to retake the COMPASS placement test an appeal must be presented in writing to the PSEO coordinator. The PSEO coordinator will review the reason for the appeal and consult with appropriate University authorities to determine the need for a retest. In general, appeals will be considered only when there is a significant discrepancy between the GPA and/or ACT/SAT scores and the COMPASS test scores.
Application Requirements
For planning purposes, the following items are required to apply for admission to the Kent State Trumbull PSEO Program. Detailed instructions to applicants will be found with the application.
- Complete all sections of the Kent State Trumbull PSEO Application.
- Submit a signed Parent Consent Form-Permission for Required Notification and Financial Responsibility Acknowledgment form.
- Have your high school principal or guidance counselor complete the Kent State Trumbull PSEO Principal or Counselor Recommendation Form.
- Have two (2) former or current high school teachers of your choice complete the Kent State Trumbull PSEO Teacher Recommendation Form.
- Submit a typed, five paragraph essay expressing why you would like to participate in the program.
- Submit official high school transcripts.
- Submit ACT or SAT scores.
PSEO Orientation Program
If you're admitted to the PSEO program, you and a parent/guardian will be REQUIRED to attend an Orientation Program. Attendance at this event is mandatory.


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Dan Wesson CO2 Airsoft Revolver, Gold, 2.5"
6-shot airsoft revolver, gold
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HOME NFL Green Bay Packers Gear Green Bay Packers Kids Green Bay Packers Kids Youth Green Bay Packers Kids Youth T-Shirts (60 items) Product ID: 1377825
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Manufacturer direct items are shipped directly from the manufacturer. These items are not available for international or expedited shipping.
Customized items can be personalized with options such as your name, your favorite number, and/or designs. Some options may be limited by league rules.


text:
A method and apparatus for performing block sequential processing is described. In one embodiment, the apparatus comprises a determine pass logic, selection logic, next coefficient logic and control. The determine pass logic has inputs coupled to receive significance state information for a region, a pass bit for each coefficient in a subset of the region, and a current pass indication. In response to these inputs, the determine pass logic generates pass indications to indicate a pass for each coefficient in the subset of the region. The selection logic has inputs coupled to signals output from the determine pass logic and the current pass indication and, in response to these inputs, generates output indications associated with one pass of either the significance propagation, refinement, and cleanup passes. The next coefficient logic is coupled to the selection logic and indicates the next coefficient in the current pass in response to the output indications from selection logic. The control is coupled to receive the output indicating the next coefficient in the one pass and codes coefficients in the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes. The control also codes the next coefficient in either the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes as indicated by the next coefficient logic.
1. An apparatus comprising:
a determine pass logic having inputs coupled to receive significance state information for a region, a pass bit for each coefficient in a subset of the region, and a current pass indication, the determine pass logic to generate pass indications to indicate a pass for each coefficient in the subset of the region;
selection logic having inputs coupled to signal output from the determine pass logic and the current pass indication to generate output indications associated with one pass of either the significance propagation, refinement, and cleanup passes;
next coefficient logic coupled to the selection logic to indicate the next coefficient in the current pass in response to the output indications from selection logic; and
a control coupled to receive the output indicating the next coefficient in the one pass, the control coding coefficients in the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes, including coding the next coefficient in either the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes as indicated by the next coefficient logic.
2. The apparatus defined in
3. The apparatus defined in
4. The apparatus defined in
5. The apparatus defined in
6. The apparatus defined in
7. The apparatus defined in
8. The apparatus defined in
a mask unit having an input coupled to receive the output indications from selection logic and an identification indicator of a current coefficient in the subset of the region that is being processed, the mask unit outputting a masked version of the output indications; and
a priority encoder coupled to the mask unit and having an output indicating the next coefficient in the current pass, the priority encoder locating each coefficient in the current pass.
9. The apparatus defined in
10. The apparatus defined in
11. The apparatus defined in
12. The apparatus defined in
13. The apparatus defined in
14. The apparatus defined in
15. The apparatus defined in
16. An apparatus comprising:
a determine pass logic having inputs coupled to receive significance state information for a region, a pass bit for each coefficient in a subset of the region, and a current pass indication, the determine pass logic to generate pass indications to indicate a pass for each coefficient in the subset of the region;
selection logic having inputs coupled to signal output from the determine pass logic and the current pass indication to generate output indications associated with one pass of either the significance propagation, refinement, and cleanup passes;
a mask unit having an input coupled to receive the output indications from selection logic and an identification indicator of a current coefficient in the subset of the region that is being processed, the mask unit outputting a masked version of the output indications; and
a priority encoder coupled to the mask unit and having an output indicating the next coefficient in the current pass, the priority encoder locating each coefficient in the current pass; and
a control coupled to receive the output indicating the next coefficient in the one pass, the control coding coefficients in the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes, including coding the next coefficient in either the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes as indicated by the next coefficient logic; and
next pass bit logic to set a next pass bit indication to indicate state of the next pass bit.
17. The apparatus defined in
18. The apparatus defined in
19. The apparatus defined in
20. The apparatus defined in
21. The apparatus defined in
22. The apparatus defined in
23. The apparatus defined in
24. The apparatus defined in
25. The apparatus defined in
26. The apparatus defined in
27. The apparatus defined in
28. The apparatus defined in
The present invention relates to the field of compression and decompression; more particularly, the present invention relates to processing blocks (e.g., 16�16 blocks) sequentially.
Data compression is an extremely useful tool for storing and transmitting large amounts of data. For example, the time required to transmit an image, such as a facsimile transmission of a document, is reduced drastically when compression is used to decrease the number of bits required to represent the image.
Many different data compression techniques exist in the prior art. Compression techniques can be divided into two broad categories, lossy coding and lossless coding. Lossy coding involves coding that results in the loss of information, such that there is no guarantee of perfect reconstruction of the original data. The goal of lossy compression is that changes to the original data are done in such a way that they are not objectionable or detectable. In lossless compression, all the information is retained and the data is compressed in a manner which allows for perfect reconstruction.
In lossless compression, input symbols or intensity data are converted to output codewords. The input may include image, audio, one-dimensional (e.g., data changing spatially), two-dimensional (e.g., data changing in two spatial directions), or multi-dimensional/multi-spectral data. If the compression is successful, the codewords are represented in fewer bits than the number of bits in the "normal" representation of the input symbols (or intensity data). Lossless coding methods include dictionary methods of coding (e.g., Lempel-Ziv), run length encoding, enumerative coding and entropy coding. In lossless image compression, compression is based on predictions or contexts, plus coding. The JBIG standard for facsimile compression and DPCM (differential pulse code modulation—an option in the JPEG standard) for continuous-tone images are examples of lossless compression for images. In lossy compression, input symbols or intensity data are quantized prior to conversion to output codewords. Quantization is intended to preserve relevant characteristics of the data while eliminating unimportant characteristics. Prior to quantization, lossy compression system often use a transform to provide energy compaction. JPEG is an example of a lossy coding method for image data.
Reversible transforms (wavelet, component) may be used for both lossy and lossless compression. Irreversible transforms (wavelet, component, discrete cosine) may be used only for lossy.
The new JPEG 2000 decoding standard utilizes transforms and provides a new coding scheme and codestream definition for images. Although JPEG 2000 is a decoding standard, and thus defines what a decoder must do, this definition restricts an encoder especially for lossless compression. Under the JPEG 2000 Standard, each image may be divided into rectangular tiles. If there is more than one tile, the tiling of the image creates tile-components. An image may have multiple components. For example, a color image might have red, green and blue components. Tile-components can be extracted or decoded independently of each other.
After tiling of an image, the tile-components are decomposed into one or more different decomposition levels using a wavelet transformation. These decomposition levels contain a number of subbands populated with coefficients that describe the horizontal and vertical spatial frequency characteristics of the original tile-components. The coefficients provide frequency information about a local area, rather than across the entire image. That is, a small number of coefficients completely describe a single sample. A decomposition level is related to the next decomposition level by a spatial factor of two, such that each successive decomposition level of the subbands has approximately half the horizontal resolution and half the vertical resolution of the previous decomposition level.
Although there are as many coefficients as there are samples, the information content tends to be concentrated in just a few coefficients. Through quantization, the numerical precision of a number of coefficients, may be reduced with a disproportionately low introduction of distortion (quantization noise). Additional processing by an entropy coder reduces the number of bits required to represent these quantized coefficients, sometimes significantly compared to the original image.
The individual subbands of a tile-component are further divided into code-blocks. These code-blocks can be grouped into precincts. These rectangular arrays of coefficients can be extracted independently. The individual bit-planes of the coefficients in a code-block are entropy coded with three coding passes. Each of these coding passes collects contextual information about the bit-plane compressed image data.
The bit stream compressed image data created from these coding passes is grouped in layers. Layers are arbitrary groupings of successive coding passes from code-blocks. Although there is great flexibility in layering, the premise is that each successive layer contributes to a higher quality image. Code-blocks of subband coefficients at each resolution level are partitioned into rectangular areas called precincts.
Packets are a fundamental unit of the compressed codestream. A packet contains compressed image data from one layer of a precinct of one resolution level of one tile-component. These packets are placed in a defined order in the codestream.
The codestream relating to a tile, organized in packets, are arranged in one, or more, tile-parts. A tile-part header, comprised of a series of markers and marker segments, or tags, contains information about the various mechanisms and coding styles that are needed to locate, extract, decode, and reconstruct every tile-component. At the beginning of the entire codestream is a main header, comprised of markers and marker segments, that offers similar information as well as information about the original image.
The codestream is optionally wrapped in a file format that allows applications to interpret the meaning of, and other information about, the image. The file format may contain data besides the codestream.
The decoding of a JPEG 2000 codestream is performed by reversing the order of the encoding steps.
Next, the codestream is quantized by quantization block 104, which may be quantizing based on a region of interest (ROI) as indicated by ROI block 105. After quantization, an inverse wavelet/spatial transform is applied to the coefficients via transform block 107, followed by DC level shifting and optional component transform block 108. This results in generation of a reconstructed image.
A method and apparatus for performing block sequential processing is described. In one embodiment, the apparatus comprises a determine pass logic, selection logic, next coefficient logic and control. The determine pass logic has inputs coupled to receive significance state information for a region, a pass bit for each coefficient in a subset of the region, and a current pass indication. In response to these inputs, the determine pass logic generates pass indications to indicate a pass for each coefficient in the subset of the region. The selection logic has inputs coupled to signals output from the determine pass logic and the current pass indication and, in response to these inputs, generates output indications associated with one pass of either the significance propagation, refinement, and cleanup passes. The next coefficient logic is coupled to the selection logic and indicates the next coefficient in the current pass in response to the output indications from selection logic. The control is coupled to receive the output indicating the next coefficient in the one pass and codes coefficients in the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes. The control also codes the next coefficient in either the significance propagation, refinement and cleanup passes as indicated by the next coefficient logic.
The present invention will be understood more fully from the detailed description given below and from the accompanying drawings of various embodiments of the invention, which, however, should not be taken to limit the invention to the specific embodiments, but are for explanation and understanding only.
Techniques for performing coding are described. These techniques, may be used for implementing JPEG 2000 or for manipulating or adding to the feature set. That is, the JPEG2000 standard, Information Technology—JPEG 2000 image coding system: Core Coding System, ITU-T Rec. T.800|ISO/IEC FDIS 15444-1 :2000 JPEG Image Coding System, incorporated herein by reference, leaves many choices to implementers. It is a purpose of the techniques described herein to use choices in JPEG 2000 to make high speed, low cost, low memory and/or feature rich implementations in software, hardware, and/or firmware.
In the following description, numerous details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form, rather than in detail, in order to avoid obscuring the present invention. Furthermore, any block, logic or functionality not described in detail may be implemented with well-known implementations or may be easily implemented by those skilled in the art using well-known hardware, software and/or firmware. Note that sometimes techniques and implementations are described using psuedo code. This is not meant to imply that the techniques are implemented solely in software; instead, such a description is often chosen to easily describe the functionality of terms one skilled in the art would easily understand.
Some portions of the detailed descriptions which follow are presented in terms of algorithms and symbolic representations of operations on data bits within a computer memory. These algorithmic descriptions and representations are the means used by those skilled in the data processing arts to most effectively convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. An algorithm is here, and generally, conceived to be a self-consistent sequence of steps leading to a desired result. The steps are those requiring physical manipulations of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily, these quantities take the form of electrical or magnetic signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, and otherwise manipulated. It has proven convenient at times, principally for reasons of common usage, to refer to these signals as bits, values, elements, symbols, characters, terms, numbers, or the like.
It should be borne in mind, however, that all of these and similar terms are to be associated with the appropriate physical quantities and are merely convenient labels applied to these quantities. Unless specifically stated otherwise as apparent from the following discussion, it is appreciated that throughout the description, discussions utilizing terms such as "processing" or "computing" or "calculating" or "determining" or "displaying" or the like, refer to the action and processes of a computer system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and transforms data represented as physical (electronic) quantities within the computer system's registers and memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computer system memories or registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices.
The present invention also relates to apparatus for performing the operations herein. This apparatus may be specially constructed for the required purposes, or it may comprise a general purpose computer selectively activated or reconfigured by a computer program stored in the computer. Such a computer program may be stored in a computer readable storage medium, such as, but is not limited to, any type of disk including floppy disks, optical disks, CD-ROMs, and magnetic-optical disks, read-only memories (ROMs), random access memories (RAMs), EPROMs, EEPROMs, magnetic or optical cards, or any type of media suitable for storing electronic instructions, and each coupled to a computer system bus.
The algorithms and displays presented herein are not inherently related to any particular computer or other apparatus. Various general purpose systems may be used with programs in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may prove convenient to construct more specialized apparatus to perform the required method steps. The required structure for a variety of these systems will appear from the description below. In addition, the present invention is not described with reference to any particular programming language. It will be appreciated that a variety of programming languages may be used to implement the teachings of the invention as described herein.
A machine-readable medium includes any mechanism for storing or transmitting information in a form readable by a machine (e.g., a computer). For example, a machine-readable medium includes read only memory ("ROM"); random access memory ("RAM"); magnetic disk storage media; optical storage media; flash memory devices; electrical, optical, acoustical or other form of propagated signals (e.g., carrier waves, infrared signals, digital signals, etc.); etc.
A scaler quantization/dequantization block 2905 is coupled to wavelet transform 2903 to perform scaler quantization. In one embodiment, scaler quantization is only used for the 5,3 irreversible wavelet transform. A precoder 2906 is coupled to scaler quantizer to perform precoding. In one embodiment, the precoding converts coefficients from two's complement to sign magnitude (or vice versa for decoding). The precoding also determines zero bitplanes. Work memory A and work memory B are coupled to precoder 2906 along with packet header processing 2907. The interface to work memory A and B and packet header 2907 is also coupled to bit modeling MQ-coders 2908 1-N. Each of the MQ-coders 2908 1-N is coupled to individual code memory 2911 N to store coded data (compressed data in JPEG 2000 terminology). The coded data from code memory and the packet header from packet header 2907 is output as coded data. This is a JPEG 2000 bitstream. An additional functional block (not shown) may be used to create/read the main and tile-part headers. The bitstream and the headers make a JPEG 2000 codestream.
Context Model Data Structure with Skipping for Sub-bit-planes
In JPEG 2000, for bit-planes of coefficients that are not initially all-zero bit-planes (starting with the most significant bit (MSB) down), each coefficient is coded in one of three sub-bit-plane passes: significance propagation, refinement, and cleanup.
A typical implementation might read the entire block of coefficients 3 times, once for each coding pass of a bit-plane. This technique describes a way to read the entire block of coefficients for the significance propagation pass of each bit-plane, but to read only those coefficients actually needed for the refinement and cleanup passes.
On the left side of each cell in
Data structures may be built during the significance propagation pass using a process described below. The data structures may be used by the contest model to reduce the number of accesses to the memory. Using the data structures, instead of checking each cell to determine what pass the information is in and then having to skip them, the context model need only access the memory once. Furthermore, the data structures allow access to multiple locations at the time, such as when cleanup bits are coded 4 at a time.
Tables 1 and 2 show data structures that describe the locations of coefficients in the refinement and cleanup sub-bit-plane passes (respectively). For each index, there is a run count of the number of coefficients in the sub-bit-plane pass and a skip count of the number of following coefficients that are in a different pass. These data structures allow these sub-bit-plane passes to be coded efficiently by allowing coefficients in other passes to be skipped.
The process is performed by processing logic that may comprise hardware, software, or a combination of both. In one embodiment, the processing logic that creates the data structures and uses them is located in bit modeling MQ-coders 2908 1-N of FIG. 29. During the process, to create these data structures, the datastructures are first initialized.
The "state" variable is used to distinguish between the start and the middle of a run. The "state" variable indicates the coding pass for the previous coefficient. If the current coefficient is the same, the size of a run or skip will be increased; if it is different, a new run will be started. Then each coefficient in the code-block is considered in the code block scan order in order to generate the seperate counts.
The result of applying the procedure is that all the coefficients in the significance propagation pass will be coded while the data structures for the refinement bits and clean up bits are created.
If desired, the run counts can be prevented from wrapping around lines. One embodiment of a process to prevent wrapping around lines is described below in the following psuedo-code. This may allow for handling boundaries more easily.
For software, storing run and skip values as integers (in 32-bits for 32-bit computers, etc.) is most convenient. The worst case is runs of length one, with a zero length run at the start. In JPEG 2000, code-blocks are limited to a maximum of 4096 coefficents. Also the width and height of code-blocks are limited to a maximum of 1024 coefficients. For any size code-block with 4096 total coefficients with run counts continuing across groups of lines, 4097 memory locations is the maximum number of memory locations for the memory size. For 64�64 code-blocks with run counts starting every group of four lines, (4�64+1)�(64/4)=4112 memory locations is the maximum. For 1024�4 code-blocks with run counts starting every group of four lines (4�4+1)�(1024/4)=4352 memory locations is the maximum.
In hardware to save memory, a minimal but fixed number of bits can be used for run and skip counts. If an indication of whether the first count is a run or skip is signaled (e.g., one bit signal indication), then run counts will be greater than 1 (and the ability to code 0 is not needed). For any size code-block with 4096 total coefficients with run counts continuing across groups of lines, one bit may be used to signal whether the first count is a run or skip and 4096�12 bits for counts for a total of 49,153 bits. For 64�64 code-blocks with run counts starting every group of four lines, one bit may be used to signal whether the first count is a run or skip for each group of four lines. Thus, a number of bits would be 1�64/4+4096�12=49,168 bits. For 1024�4 code-blocks with run counts starting every group of four lines, the number of bits would be 1�1024/4+4096�12=49,408 bits.
One embodiment of a variable length code can be used to represent counts. Table 3 shows an example where small counts are represented with a small number of bits (e.g., 3 bits) and large counts are represented with a larger number of bits (e.g., 13 bits). The goal of such an approach is to have most counts be either 1,2,3, or 4 so that the smaller codewords are used more frequently. Only two sizes are used to make the implementation simple. However, more than two sizes could be used with added complexity.
For this code, the worst case is when all run lengths are 1 (every codeword is 3 bits). For three cases (counts go across lines, 64�64 code blocks with groups of four lines, 1024�4 code-blocks with groups of four lines), the total number of bits are 12,289 bits; 12,304 bits; and 12,544 bits, respectively.
Reduced memory usage can be achieved with a more complicated variable length code. A good structured code is a gamma code, γ1 or γ (from Appendix A of Bell, Cleary, Whitten "Text Compression", Prenice Hall, N.J., 1990.) as shown in Table 4.
Note that γ1 and γ only differ in how the bits in the codeword are arranged. The "_" in γ1 codewords is not part of the codeword, it is just to make them easier to read by separating the prefix from the counter. The worst case is for counts of 2 which requires 3 bits. For the three cases (counts go across lines, 64�64 code-blocks with groups of 4 lines, and 1024�4 code-blocks with groups of four lines), the total number of bits are 6,145 bits; 6,160 bits; and 6,400 bits, are required, respectively.
Table 5 is one embodiment of a code for counts 1 . . . 4096 where the longest codeword is 16-bits. Counts of 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 are represented with 1, 2, 4, 5 and 5 bits respectively. Counts of 6 . . . 21 are represented with 8 bits. Counts of 22 . . . 4096 are represented with 16-bits. Counts of 3 and 6 are the worst case. For the three cases (counts go across lines, 64�64 code-blocks with groups of 4 lines, and 1024�4 code-blocks with groups of 4 lines), the total number of bits are 5,463 bits; 5,478 bits; and 5,718 bits.
If using variable length codes with hardware, accessing both a run count and a skip count during the same clock cycle may be desirable. In one embodiment, the memory is larger than the minimum size by one word (e.g., 16 bits) so that flushing is simple. For example, with 16 bit words, run counts use 163 bits. Therefore, the last word uses only 3 bits. This requires padding with 13 bits to complete a word. Skip counts use 85 bits. Therfore, the last word uses only 5 bits. This requires padding with 11 bits to complete a word. If
Note that separate skip count and run count decoders may be used to decode the information in the memory shown in FIG. 2B. Alternatively, a single decoder could be shared by both.
Hardware for Context Model
The context model may be implemented in hardware. In hardware, one goal is to generate the next context as soon as possible so the MQ coder is not idle.
Memory Organization
In one embodiment, these memories store one bit per coefficient for significance state (8 bits total per address). In an alternative embodiment, these memories store two bits per coefficient for significance state and sign (16 bits total per address). In still another embodiment, these memories store the entire coefficient (8N bits if N is the size of one coefficient). In an alternative embodiment, if the entire coefficient is not stored in these memories, an additional single memory with one address per coefficient may be used.
The following Verilog code is one embodiment of a procedure to convert two 6-bit address inputs ("x" and "y") from control logic in the context model (for the 64�64 code-blocks) into a 7-bit address output to memory ("addr") and a 2-bit "bank" select to indicate memory "A", "B", "C" or "D".
The first assign statement above sets the offset for the boundary. In other words, the offset "assign yp2=y+2" is used for proper alignment of groups of four as shown in FIG. 4. The second assign statement above sets the address to bits 5.3 of the input y plus the offset concatenated with bits 5.2 of input x as the lower poriton of the number. The third assign statement above sets the bank equal to the bit 2 of the input y plus the offset concatenated with bit 1 of input x.
Significance Propagation Pass
All of the outputs of the memories and registers in
One embodiment of address generation logic for the significance propagation pass is set forth in the following pseudo code. Note that the addressing is not dependent on the data, and zero data is provided at boundaries.
For processing 4�4 blocks, runs of bits in the same pass may be handled together. If there are N coefficients in a row in the refinement pass, the following pseudo code can be used to process them:
If there are N coefficients in a row in the cleanup pass, the following pseudo code depicts one embodiment of a process for processing coefficients:
Referring to
Referring to
In operation, if any of the significance state bits E are 0, then the output of AND gates 3208 corresponding to those bit positions, and thus, the significance propagation signals 704, are going to be 1's if the significance state is 1 for any of coefficients A-D or F-I. Similarly, if any of the significance state bits E are 0, then the output of AND gate 3207 corresponding those bit positions, and thus the cleanup signals 705, are going to be 1's if the significance state bits are all zero for coefficients A-D or F-I.
As a result of the determination, logic 702 asserts either significant propagation signals 703, refinement pass signals 704, or clean up pass signals 705. In one embodiment, each of signals 703-705 is 16 bits wide. For each corresponding bit in signals 703, 704, and 705, only one bit may be 1 and 2 must be 0. Thus, there are three possibilities at 16 locations. Each of the outputs of logic 702 is coupled to one input of selection logic (e.g., multiplexer (MUX)) 707.
Selection logic 707 generates three pass bits for the current coefficient indicating the pass for the current coefficient and sends the pass bits to control logic 709. Only one of these pass bits is asserted in response to count signal 708 output from control 709. Count signal 708 indicates which of the 16 coefficients in the 4�4 block is currently by processed. When handling refinement bit runs and cleanup bit runs, count signal 708 may be incremented by a number greater than one. Thus, of the 16 bits in each of the outputs of determine pass logic 702, the bit in each of the three outputs corresponding to that coefficient is output.
The refinement pass signals 704 and clean up pass signals 705 are input to mask 705 with feedback count signal 708. Count signal 708 is the current coefficient position in the 4�4 region, e.g., 0 . . . 15. In response to these inputs, mask 705 masks what has already been done, as indicated by count 708, including only coefficients that are not being coded yet. For example, if three coefficients have already been processed, mask 705 masks the three signal lines of each of the refinement and cleanup outputs (704 and 705).
Mask 705 also generates 2 outputs to priority encoder 706 representing signal 704 and 705 with certain signals masked to one (in one embodiment). These outputs of mask 705 are masked refinement and masked cleanup indications (e.g., signals).
In response to the two inputs, priority encoder 706 finds the next non-refinement bit (or coefficient) and the next non-cleanup bit for the significance propagation pass and inputs these to control logic 709. In one embodiment, priority encoder 706 is a zero-finding priority encoder. In so doing, priority encoder 706 converts the current position of the bit (or coefficient) in the codeblock into a count of leading zeros. In one embodiment, this is performed using a truth table such as
Mask 705, priority encoder 706, and selection logic 707 may comprise a processing unit that receives outputs from determine pass unit 702 and generates outputs indicating the next non-refinement coefficient and next non-cleanup coefficient and the pass for the current coefficient.
In response to its inputs, control logic 709 generates a refinement next index, a refinement run indication, a refinement skip indication, a cleanup next index, a cleanup run indication, a cleanup skip indication, and a significant propagation indication. The inputs to control logic are:
The following pseudo code describes the operation of the significance propagation pass logic described in FIG. 7.
Note that the significance states are updated from the MQ decoder (and MQ encoder or coefficient values when encoding) anytime a "1" coefficient is coded in the significance propagation pass.
Assuming the context model operates in one clock cycle and the MQ coder operates in one clock cycle, two clock cycles are required when there is feedback.
Significance Propagation Pass Skipping in Software
In software, parallel access from many memories is impractical. Instead, in one embodiment, the code-block is divided into 4�4 groups of coefficients. For each group, a count is maintained of the number of bits that are significant. In such a case, the maximum memory required is 256�5 bits. Blocks of coefficients that are all in the refinement pass have a count of 16. Blocks that have count 0 may be all cleanup and just need to have their neighbors checked to see if they are all cleanup.
Cleanup and Refinement Passes
For the cleanup pass, addressing is data dependent and may be generated using the following psuedo code. The address x,y of the next coefficient in the cleanup pass is input.
The addressing used for the cleanup pass may also be used for the refinement pass. However, a smaller neighborhood is sufficient for the refinement pass.
With sequential addressing for all passes, a simpler memory organization using two memories can be used.
One embodiment of the pseudo code for addressing memory for all three coding passes is as follows.
The memory contains state to indicate the correct pass for the refinement and cleanup passes. The state may be 2 bits per coefficient to distinguish between the three states (significance propagation, clean-up and refinement).
During the significance propagation pass, in parallel for all 16-coefficients, the state is set to refinement for all significant coefficients and to cleanup for all non-significant coefficients. As the processing on the 16-coefficients continues, the state of any coefficients that are in the significance propagation pass is changed from cleanup to significance propagation. The state may be 1 bit per coefficient, referred to herein as the "pass" bit. In one embodiment, the significance state and the pass bit are used to determine the correct pass. Table 6 below illustrates use of the pass bit. Since 1 bit per coefficient is used, this uses less memory than the run and skip count methods described herein.
The memories providing access to 2�4 regions can be 48 bits wide with significance state, pass and sign bits for each coefficient.
Selective logic 1207 is responsive to current pass signal 1220 to output one of the indications 1204-1206 to mask logic 1208. In one embodiment, selective logic 1207 comprises a 16�3:1 multiplexer (Mux). Mask logic 1208 generates a signal in response to count signal 1210, which indicates the coefficient currently being processed. The output of the mask 1208 is input to priority encoder 1209 which outputs the signal to control logic 1212. Mask logic 1208 and priority encoder 1209 operates in a manner similar to their named counterparts in FIG. 7. In response to the inputs, control logic 1212 generates a code or idle indication on signal line 1213 and a count signal 1210.
Next pass bit logic 1211 receives an output from priority encoder 1209 (indicating the position of the coefficient currently being processed), the current pass signals 1220, a new significant state 1221 from an MQ coder, and the refinement pass signals 1205. The refinement pass signals 1205 represent significance state information by indicating whether coefficients are previously significant. Together, current pass signal 1220 and new significance state 1221 indicate whether processing is in the cleanup pass. In response to the inputs, next pass logic 1211 generates a next pass bit, which is used as an output to distinguish between 'code "0"' and 'code "1"' cases in Table 6. The next pass bit may be stored in memory and used subsequently as the pass bit 1202.
The operation of the logic in
In the above code, "in-pass" variable is the output of a 3:1 multiplexing function. The "mask" variable represents the mask, and the "in-pass-masked" variable represents the result of applying the mask. The variable N represents the next coefficient in the pass and is the output of the priority encoder. Once this has been found, the control function in the code follows.
In the above code "code coeff N" refers to coding coefficient when the coefficient is in the current pass. The "idle for coeff N" is executed when processing a run.
Double Context Generation
Contexts often depend on the last bit coded, causing a time critical feedback loop between the MQ-coder and context model when decoding. To reduce this context model delay to the time for a simple multiplex, the context model can generate two contexts, one for when the current bit being decoded is "0" and another when it is "1". When the bit is known, selection of the context may occur.
For run-length coding for the cleanup passes, Table 7 shows the two possible next contexts for each case and follows the cleanup pass flow described in the JPEG 2000 Standard. The value of the bit coded in the run-length context is used to decide if the next context is for the next group of four coefficients or is in the uniform context for the current group of four coefficients. If this bit is "0", then the run-length coding succeeded in representing four coefficients with one decision and having the MQ-coder idle for the following cycle does not significantly hurt speed performance. After the bit coded in the second uniform context ("uniform B") is a sign bit that is always coded directly in context 9 (with XOR bit 0) in the JPEG 2000 Standard, where the XOR bit being 0 indicates that the sign is not being flipped.
For the significance propagation and cleanup coding passes, the cases without run-length coding are show in Table 8. While a magnitude bit is being coded, the contexts are generated for the magnitude of the next coefficient assuming the current coefficient is "0" or the sign bit context for the current coefficient.
For the refinement pass, the value of any previous refinement coefficient coded does not effect the context.
MQ-Decoder Dataflow with Late Context
In contrast,
Referring to
Context 1402 is provided by context model 1410. Context 1402 is used to look up probability state 1404 in memory 1403, which is then converted by logic 1405 to a probability class (Qe_value) 1406. Qe_value 1406 represents the current estimate of a less probable symbol (LPS). Qe_value 1406 is compared with A and C register values as set forth in FIG. C-15 of the JPEG 2000 Standard of the MQ-coder's internal state by logic 1407 to generate the output decision 1408, which may be a more probable symbol (MPS) or LPS. The output decision 1408 is input to context model 1410. In one embodiment, the operations on the Qe_value and the internal state require 16-bit arithmetic. Operations of these blocks implement the decoding of a decision as set forth in section C.3.2 of the JPEG 2000 Standard.
Context model 1520 generates context 1502. Context 1502 is used to look up a probability state 1506 of memory 1505. In one embodiment, memory 1505 comprises a look up table. Identification of probability state 1506 allows determining the Qe_Value. Probability state 1506 output from memory 1505 is converted by logic 1507 into probability class (index) 1508;.
Comparion logic 1511 determines if pclass 1509 is greater than the probability class index 1508 and comparison logic 1512 compares to determine whether probability class index 1508 is greater than pclass 1510. The results of both comparison logics 1511 and 1512 are input to AND gate 1513 such that if both comparisons are true, a decision is output. This decision may be an MPS or LPS. Thus, context 1502 is converted into a 5 bit probability class index 1508 (since there are 32 possible values for Qe_Value in JPEG 2000). The internal state is used to generate two 5-bit probability class indices. If the index corresponding to the context is outside the two indices generated from the state, the decision is a MPS; otherwise, it is a LPS (i.e., inside the two indices).
An important advantage of the embodiment of
Logic 1504 of
A similar method in hardware could be used to determine the MPS or LPS for each possible Qe_Value and then multiplex the result. For example,
Multiple Bit Decoding with MQ-coder
Multiple MPSs can be decoded (for consecutive uses of the same PClass) at one time as long as none of the MPSs or only the last MPS requires normalization.
In one embodiment, a reversible and irreversible 5,3 wavelet filters are used. The term 5,3 refers to the number of taps in the wavelet fitlers, i.e., the number of non-zero (consecutive) values in the basis function support for the kernal. Reversible implies that performing the forward and the inverse tranformation (using the explicity rounding rules and without performing quantization in any form) will result in the exact same number at the output as the input. Only a modest and predictable increase in precision over the input precision is required for the intermediate mathematical terms. That is, there is no systemic distortion introduced by mathematical precision. Irreversible implies that very high precision is required to ensure no mathematical distortion (exact reconstruction). In practice, however, irreversible filters are almost always combined with quatization creating distortion that overwhelms the systemic mathematical precision distortion.
Previous outputs of highpass filter 2402 are delayed by delay 2407 and 2408 such that the current output of highpass filter 2402 and the last two outputs of highpass filter 2402 are input to highpass filter 2413. The output of highpass filter 2413 is a coefficient in the HH subband and is also input to lowpass filter 2415 along previous output of the highpass 2402 two cycles earlier, (two in the past), the output from delay 2408 and the previous output of highpass filter 2413. The output of lowpass filter 2415 is coefficient from the HL subband.
The output of lowpass filter 2404 along with the outputs of delays 2405 and 2406 are input to highpass filter 2409. The output of highpass filter 2409 is the LH subband.
The output of highpass filter 2409 is also input to one of the inputs of lowpass filter 2411 along with the output of delay 2406 and the previous output of highpass filter 2409 as delayed through delay 2410. The output of lowpass filter 2411 is the LL subband. As the LL subband, the output of lowpass filter 2411 is input to a line buffer 2412 the output of which, along with the output of lowpass filter 2411, represent the inputs to the next level of wavelet transform. The next level of wavelet transform may comprise a cascaded version of the wavelet transform in FIG. 24.
Referring to
For the reversible case, the highpass filter operates according to the following:
Referring to
The use of mux 2602 allows a simple switch to be invoked to switch between reversible and irreversible, instead of requiring completely separate hardware for both functions or requiring that reversible rounding effect the irreversible output.
It should be noted that for an inverse wavelet transform to convert filter in
A similar arrangement exists with respect to the LH and HH coefficients in that filter 2805 is coupled to receive the current HH coefficient and LH coefficient along with the HH coefficient from the previous cycle output from delay 2804. The output of even filter 2805 is coupled to one input of even filter 2811, the input of delay 2806, and one input of odd filter 2807. The other inputs of odd filter 2807 comprise the HH coefficient from the previous cycle (the output of delay 2804) and the output of even filter 2805 from the previous cycle (the output of delay 2806). The output of odd filter 2807 is input to one input of even filter 2810.
Note that the outputs of even filter 2805 and odd filter 2807 are also coupled and are stored in inputs of line buffer 2808 and 2809. The size of line buffers 2808 and 2809 are equal to � the tile width. The outputs of line buffer 2808 are input to the other input of even filter 2811 and one input of odd filter 2815. The output of line buffer 2809 is coupled to one input of even filter 2810 and one input of odd filter 2814.
The output of even filter 2810 is the "C" portion fo the image data that is output, is stored in line buffer 2812, and is coupled to one input of odd filter 2814. In one embodiment, the size of line buffer 2812 is equal to � the tile width. In response to its input, odd filter 2814 generates data corresponding to the "A" portion of the image data.
The output of even filter 2811 corresponds to the "D" portion of image data is input to one input of odd filter 2815 and is stored in line buffer 2813. In one embodiment, the size of line buffer 2813 is � the tile width. The output of line buffer 2813 is coupled to one input of odd filter 2815. The output of odd filter 2815 corresponds to the "B" portion of the image data.
Other Parallelism Implementation Techniques
Assignment of Code-blocks to Coders for Parallelism
It is useful in hardware implementations to code multiple code-blocks in the same tile in parallel.
Referring to
The coder of
Note that although even numbers of MQ coders in parallel are discussed with respect to
Reduced Memory for Storing Coefficients in Hardware
Reducing memory usage for storing coefficients when not decoding losslessly can make use of zero bitplane information. If the hardware can store N bitplanes for each coefficient, decoding can terminate after N bitplanes are decoded. Any following bitplanes can be quantized (truncated).
During encoding, coefficients are stored before the number of zero bitplanes is known. Counters count the number of initial zeros for more significant bitplanes 8 . . . 15. As long as a bitplane 8 . . . 15 is all zero, the memory stores information (magnitude) for the corresponding bitplane 0 . . . 7. Once a one occurs in a bitplane 8 . . . 15, the corresponding counter stops and memory stores information for the corresponding bitplane 8 . . . 15. At the end of encoding a code-block, the counters either indicate all zeros for a bitplane 8 . . . 15 and that the corresponding bitplane 0 . . . 7 is in memory in the case that the counter stores a value at the end of the memory, or they indicate the starting address for bitplane 8 . . . 15 data in memory and that the corresponding 0 . . . 7 bitplane should be truncated (quantized). Thus, the counts act as sideband information to indicate that information stored in the memory array from the beginning of a row up to the location in the row at the position indicated by the count is no longer needed data. The results of truncation is that the least significant bitplanes are dropped.
A separate bitplane of memory can be used to store sign information or the sign information can be stored with the significance state.
In alternative embodiment, a small amount of memory may be used for variable length (VL) code information (e.g., run length code) instead of counters. This allows a bitplane with a small number of one bits to be stored in a small portion of memory for each bitplane. Once the bits have been stored in the memory, a context model accesses the memory to obtain the bits. However, since each row may potentially contain data that is to be quantized, and therefore, need not be accessed and used by the context model.
Referring to
For video where simultaneous operation of the transform and context model/MQ coder is desired, two banks of memory are needed. For still image applications, one band of memory is sufficient for sequential operation of the transform and context model/MQ-coder.
Although the reduced memory technique discussed above is described in terms of rows, any arbitrary memory area may be used, such as, for example, columns, blocks, pages, regions, etc. Also, separate memories may be used.
Packet Header Processing
To create a codestream, such as, for example, a JPEG 2000 codestream (or bitstream), packet headers are created. In one embodiment, this information may be with a tag tree structure to handle an arbitrary number of code-blocks. In certain situations, tile heades for tiles with a limited number of code-blocks are created. For example, in the case where a tile includes four 128�128 subbands that are each divided into 64�64 code-blocks, then there are four code-blocks that are coded together. The packet header indicates whether there is any data for a particular code-block, the number of zero bit planes if there is data, the length of the coded data and how many coding passes the data includes.
Table 9 illustrates one embodiment of a packet structure for packets with 2�2 code-blocks and 1 layer. Referring to Table 9, tag trees are only two
levels high. The references to "z" show where the higher level zero bitplanes tag tree information goes, and the locations designated "_" show where remaining zero bitplanes, coding passes and length information goes.
One embodiment of a procedure to write the packet headers for tile with a limited number of code-blocks and only a single layer begins with ion that includes the following:
set minimum zero bit planes, MZP, to maximum value for each subband
In one embodiment, the maximum value for MZP is 0�F for up to 15 bitplanes or 0�1F for up to 31 bitplanes. Larger values may be used for implementations that can handle more bitplanes.
Next while coding coefficients in each code-block in the packet:
Save included or not bit
Save number of zero bitplanes
If zero bitplanes less than MZP then MZP=zero bitplanes
Save number of coding passes
Save length
The Save included or not bit is set if every coefficient (after quantization) is zero, thereby indicating that the code-block is not included. Finally, after the information in the tile or subband is processed, the packet header is written as follows:
Note that the packet header is at least one byte and a JPEG 2000 compliant decoder can understand the information that is written.
When there are multiple layers, initialization of the MZP variable can be the same as for one layer. While coding each code-block, the included or not indication, the number of coding passes and the length are saved for each layer. Additionally, the following initialization is preferred.
To write the packet header for each layer, the following procedure may be used:
In JPEG 2000, packet headers are rounded up to bytes. In some cases, however, a packet header may contain only a single zero bit or a number of bits which are less than the number of bits needed to have the packet header fall on a byte boundary. Packet headers are usually rounded to bytes by padding. Also, packet header representations are not unique and although one typically desires the use of the shortest representation as possible, in one embodiment, a representation that is not the shortest possible may be used if the extra bits that are used take the place of bit locations that will have been filled by padding. This may be particularly useful in cases where the information that is encoded in the extra bits indicates something about the next packet in a tile component level partition.
For example, if there was a single subband and none of the 2�2 blocks was included, one could output a zero packet. However, in the same amount of space, one could output a zero to indicate that there is something in the packet but there is nothing included in the top level of the tag trees. Alternatively, one could indicate that there is something in the tag trees but it is 0000 (or that there is nothing individually in the four). Thus, these extra bits may be used to give more tag tree information, which is information that would have to occur in the packet header later on and has essentially been moved up. By shifting bits up into earlier packet headers, it may be possible to reduce the size of the overall codestream by a byte (or more).
Whereas many alterations and modifications of the present invention will no doubt become apparent to a person of ordinary skill in the art after having read the foregoing description, it is to be understood that any particular embodiment shown and described by way of illustration is in no way intended to be considered limiting. Therefore, references to details of various embodiments are not intended to limit the scope of the claims which in themselves recite only those features regarded as essential to the invention.
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