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Acs0102 Infection Control In Surgical Practice
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Acs0102 Infection Control In Surgical Practice
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Transcript of "Acs0102 Infection Control In Surgical Practice"
1. © 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 1 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE Vivian G. Loo, MD, MSc, FRCPC Surgical procedures, by their very nature, interfere with the understanding of host factors and have influenced other 6–11 normal protective skin barrier and expose the patient to aspects of surgical practice. Excessive use of and reliance microorganisms from both endogenous and exogenous on antibiotics have led to the emergence of multidrug- sources. Infections resulting from this exposure may not be resistant microorganisms, such as methicillin-resistant Staph- limited to the surgical site but may produce widespread ylococcus aureus (MRSA), glycopeptide-intermediate S. aureus systemic effects. Prevention of surgical site infections (SSIs) (GISA), multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and 12–15 is therefore of primary concern to surgeons and must be multidrug-resistant Enterococcus strains. Such complica- addressed in the planning of any operation. Standards of pre- tions reemphasize the need to focus on infection control as vention have been developed for every step of a surgical an essential component of preventive medicine. procedure to help reduce the impact of exposure to micro- Besides the impact of morbidity and mortality on patients, 1–3 organisms. Traditional control measures include steriliza- there is the cost of treating nosocomial infections, which is tion of surgical equipment, disinfection of the skin, use of a matter of concern for surgeons, hospital administrators, prophylactic antibiotics, and expeditious operation. insurance companies, and government planners alike. Efforts The Study on the Efficacy of Nosocomial Infection Control to reduce the occurrence of nosocomial infections are now (SENIC), conducted in US hospitals between 1976 and a part of hospital cost-control management programs. 16,17 1986, showed that surgical patients were at increased risk for The challenge to clinicians is how to reduce cost while main- all types of infections. The nosocomial, or hospital-acquired, taining control over, and preventing spread of, infection. A infection rate at that time was estimated to be 5.7 cases out review of 30 studies published between 1990 and 2003 4 of every 100 hospital admissions. These infections included reported that approximately 20% of nosocomial infections surgical site infections (SSIs), as well as bloodstream, urinary, were preventable.18 and respiratory infections. Today, the increased use of minimally invasive surgical procedures and early discharge 5 from the hospital necessitates postdischarge surveillance The Surgical Wound and Infection Control in addition to in-hospital surveillance for the tracking of nosocomial infections. With the reorganization of health care delivery programs, nosocomial infections will appear Nosocomial infections are defined as infections acquired in more frequently in the community and should therefore be the hospital. There must be no evidence that the infection considered a part of any patient care assessment plan. was present or incubating at the time of hospital admission. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Usually, an infection that manifests 48 to 72 hours after Organizations (JCAHO) strongly recommends that the admission is considered to be nosocomially acquired. An reduction of healthcare associated infections be prioritized as infection that is apparent on the day of admission is usually a national patient safety goal (http://www.jointcommission. considered to be community acquired, unless it is epidemio- org/PatientSafety/InfectionControl). Effective infection con- logically linked to a previous admission or to an operative trol and prevention require an organized, hospital-wide procedure at the time of admission. program aimed at achieving specific objectives. The program's SSIs account for 14 to 16% of all nosocomial infections. purpose should be to obtain relevant information on the They occur in 2 to 5% of patients undergoing clean proce- occurrence of nosocomial infections among both patients and dures and in as many as 20% of patients undergoing intra- employees. The data should be documented, analyzed, and abdominal operations.19 To encourage a uniform approach communicated along with a plan for corrective measures. among data collectors, the Centers for Disease Control and Such surveillance activities, combined with education, form Prevention (CDC) has suggested three categories of SSIs, the basis of an infection control program. supplying definitions for each category [see Table 1].20 The Data relating to host factors are an integral part of infection CDC defines an incisional SSI as an infection that occurs at data analysis. Documentation of host factors has made for a the incision site within 30 days after surgery or within 1 year better appreciation of the associated risks and has allowed if a prosthetic implant is in place. Infection is characterized comparative evaluation of infection rates. Development of by redness, swelling, or heat with tenderness, pain, or dehis- new surgical equipment and technological advances have cence at the incision site and by purulent drainage. Other influenced the impact of certain risk factors, such as the indicators of infection include fever, deliberate opening of the length of an operation and the duration of a hospital wound, culture-positive drainage, and a physician's diagnosis stay. Clinical investigations have helped improve the of infection with prescription of antibiotics. The category of DOI 10.2310/7800.2008.S01C02 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 2 Table 1 Surgical Site Infections (SSIs)20 Table 2 American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status Scale Superficial SSIs Skin Class Patient Description Deep incisional SSIs Fascia 1 A normally healthy individual Muscle layers 2 A patient with mild systemic disease Organ or space SSIs Body organs A patient with severe systemic disease that is 3 Body spaces not incapacitating A patient with incapacitating systemic disease 4 that is a constant threat to life organ or space SSI was included to cover any part of the A moribund patient who is not expected to 5 survive 24 hr with or without operation anatomy other than the incision (ie, organs or spaces) that might have been opened or manipulated during the operative E Added for emergency procedures procedure. This category would include, for example, arterial and venous infections, endometritis, disk space infections, 20 and mediastinitis. hair removal (and likelihood of consequent skin injury), There should be collaboration between the physician or inappropriate use of antimicrobial prophylaxis, duration of nurse and the infection control practitioner to establish the the operation, and wound classification. The influence of presence of an SSI. The practitioner should complete the hair removal methods on SSI has been examined by many surveillance with a chart review and document the incident investigators. Infection rates were reported to be lower with 6,7 in a computer database program for analysis. The data must depilatory agents and electric clippers than with razors. be systematically recorded; many commercial computer pro- Antimicrobial prophylaxis is used for all operations that grams are available for this purpose. One group reported that involve entry into a hollow viscus. Antimicrobial prophylaxis their experience with the Health Evaluation through Logical is also indicated for clean operations in which an intra- Processing system was useful for identifying patients at high articular or intravascular prosthetic device will be inserted 21 risk for nosocomial infections. and for any operation in which an SSI would have a high 22 morbidity. A comprehensive study determined that there is considerable variation in the timing of administration The risk of development of an SSI depends on host factors, of prophylactic antibiotics, but that administration within 8 perioperative wound hygiene, and the duration of the surgical 2 hours before surgery reduces the risk of SSI. procedure. Identification of host and operative risk factors Operative wounds are susceptible to varying levels of bac- can help determine the potential for infection and point terial contamination, by which they are classified as clean, toward measures that might be necessary for prevention and clean-contaminated, contaminated, or dirty.25 In most insti- control. tutions, the responsibility for classifying the incision site is assigned to the operating room circulating nurse; one assess- Host Risk Factors ment suggests that the accuracy of decisions made by this 26 Host susceptibility to infection can be estimated according group is as high as 88%. to the following variables: older age, severity of disease, physical-status classification (see below), prolonged preoper- Composite Risk Indices ative hospitalization, morbid obesity, malnutrition, immuno- The CDC established the National Nosocomial Infections suppressive therapy, smoking, preoperative colonization with Surveillance (NNIS) system in 1970 to create a national 22 S. aureus, and coexistent infection at a remote body site. database of nosocomial infections.27 The NNIS system has A scale dividing patients into five classes according to been used to develop definitions of infections and indices for their physical status was introduced by the American Society predicting the risk of nosocomial infection in a given patient. of Anesthesiologists (ASA) in 1974 and tested for precision The NNIS system has been integrated into the National 23 in 1978. The test results showed that the ASA scale is Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN).28 a workable system, though it lacks scientific definition [see Table 2]. NNIS Basic Risk Index NNIS developed a composite Significant differences in infection rates have been shown risk index composed of the following criteria: ASA score, in patients with different illnesses. In one prospective study, wound class, and duration of surgery. Reporting on data the severity of underlying disease (rated as fatal, ultimately collected from 44 US hospitals between 1987 and 1990, fatal, or nonfatal) was shown to have predictive value for NNIS demonstrated that this risk index is a significantly endemic nosocomial infections; the nosocomial infection rate better predictor for development of SSI than the traditional in patients with fatal diseases was 23.6%, compared with wound classification system alone.29,30 The NNIS risk index 24 2.1% in patients with nonfatal diseases. is a useful method of risk adjustment for a wide variety of procedures. Operative Risk Factors The NNIS risk index assigns patients scores of 0, 1, 2, Several factors related to the operative procedure may be or 3. A patient's score is determined by counting the number associated with the risk of development of an SSI [see 1:1 of risk factors present from among the following: an ASA Prevention of Postoperative Infection]. These include method of score of 3, 4, or 5; a surgical wound that is classified as 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 3 contaminated or dirty/infected; and an operation lasting the focus of improvement in a 1-year collaborative project longer than T hours (where T represents the 75th percentile that included 56 hospitals and 43 Medicare quality improve- of distribution of the duration of the operative procedure ment organizations.36 Other performance measures included being performed, rounded to the nearest whole number of maintenance of patient normothermia, use of supplemental hours). oxygenation, maintenance of euglycemia and appropriate hair removal. In this collaborative project, hospitals reported a Modified NNIS Basic Risk Index for Procedures 27% mean reduction in their SSI rates.36 Using Laparoscopes For cholecystectomy and colon The Surgical Care Improvement Project (SCIP) was surgery procedures, the use of a laparoscope lowered the risk developed in 2003 and evolved from the SIP project.35 This of SSI within each NNIS risk index category.31 Hence, for initiative is a national partnership of organizations (including these procedures, when the procedure is performed laparo- the American College of Surgeons [ACS]) that is committed scopically, the risk index should be modified by subtracting 1 to the reduction of postoperative complications in four from the basic NNIS risk index score. With this modification, areas: (1) prevention of SSIs, (2) prevention of venous throm- the risk index has values of M (or −1), 0, 1, 2, or 3. For boembolism, (3) prevention of adverse cardiac events, and appendectomy and gastric surgery, use of a laparoscope (4) prevention of respiratory complications.35 affected SSI rates only when the NNIS basic risk index was 0, thereby yielding five risk categories: 0—Yes, 0—No, 1, 2, Hand Hygiene and 3, where Yes or No refers to whether the procedure was Although hand hygiene is considered the single most performed with a laparoscope.31 important measure for preventing nosocomial infections, poor compliance is frequent.37 Role modeling is important in Operation-Specific Risk Factors It is likely that positively influencing this behavior. One study showed that operation-specific logistic regression models will increasingly a hand-washing educational program contributed to a be used to calculate risk. For example, in spinal fusion reduction in the rate of nosocomial infections.38 Good hand- surgery, Richards and colleagues identified diabetes mellitus, washing habits can be encouraged by making facilities (with ASA score greater than 3, operation duration longer than sink, soap, and paper towels) visible and easily accessible 4 hours, and posterior surgical approach as significant inde- in patient care areas [see 1:1 Prevention of Postoperative pendent predictors of SSI.32 Other logistic regression models Infection]. have been developed for craniotomy and cesarean section.33,34 Agents used for hand hygiene include plain nonantimicro- These models should permit more precise risk adjustment. bial soaps, antimicrobial soaps, and waterless alcohol-based hand antiseptics. Plain soaps have very little antimicrobial activity: they mainly remove dirt and transient flora.39 Com- In any surgical practice, policies and procedures should be pared with plain soaps, antimicrobial soaps achieve a greater in place pertaining to the making of a surgical incision and log reduction in eliminating transient flora and have the the prevention of infection. These policies and procedures additional advantage of sustained activity against resident should govern the following: (1) skin disinfection and hand- hand flora.39 Alcohol-based hand antiseptics have an excellent washing practices of the operating team, (2) preoperative spectrum of antimicrobial activity and rapid onset of action, preparation of the patient's skin (e.g., hair removal and use dry rapidly, and do not require the use of water or towels.40 of antiseptics), (3) the use of prophylactic antibiotics, (4) Therefore, they are recommended for routine decontamina- techniques for preparation of the operative site, (5) manage- tion of hands during patient care, except when hands are ment of the postoperative site if drains, dressings, or both visibly soiled. Emollients are often added to alcohol-based are in place, (6) standards of behavior and practice for the waterless hand antiseptics because of these antiseptics' operating team (e.g., the use of gown, mask, and gloves), (7) tendency to cause drying of the skin.40 special training of the operating team, and (8) sterilization Sterilization and Disinfection and disinfection of instruments. Spaulding proposed in 1972 that the level of disinfection Surgical Infection Prevention and Surgical Care Improvement and sterilization for surgical and other instruments be deter- Projects mined by classifying the instruments into three categories In 2002, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, according to the degree of infection risk involved in their use: in collaboration with the CDC, implemented the National critical, semicritical, and noncritical.41 Surgical Infection Prevention (SIP) Project.35 The goal of Critical items include objects or instruments that directly the SIP Project is to decrease the morbidity and mortality enter the vascular system or sterile areas of the body. These associated with postoperative SSI by advocating appropriate items should be sterilized by steam under pressure, dry heat, selection and timing of prophylactic antibiotics. Three per- ethylene oxide, or other approved methods. Flash steriliza- formance measures were developed: (1) the percentage of tion is the process by which surgical instruments are sterilized patients who receive parenteral antimicrobial prophylaxis for immediate use should an emergency situation arise (e.g., within 1 hour before incision (within 2 hours for vancomycin an instrument that was accidentally dropped). This is usually or fluoroquinolone), (2) the percentage of patients who are achieved by leaving instruments unwrapped in a container given a prophylactic antimicrobial regimen consistent with and using a rapid steam cycle.42 Instruments must still be published guidelines, and (3) the percentage of patients manually cleaned, decontaminated, inspected, and properly whose prophylactic antimicrobial is discontinued within 24 arranged in the container before sterilization. Implantables hours after surgery. These three performance measures were should not be flash sterilized. Flash sterilization is not intended 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 4 to replace conventional steam sterilization of surgical with MRSA have been traced to MRSA carriers among health instruments or to reduce the need for adequate instrument care workers.48 Screening of personnel to identify carriers is inventory.42 undertaken only when an outbreak of nosocomial infection Semicritical items are those that come into contact with occurs that cannot be contained despite implementation of mucous membranes or skin that is not intact (eg, broncho- effective control measures and when a health care worker is scopes and gastroscopes). Scopes have the potential to cause epidemiologically linked to cases. infection if they are improperly cleaned and disinfected. Protecting the health care team from infection is a constant Transmission of infection has been documented after endo- concern. Preventive measures, such as immunizations and scopic investigations, including infection with Salmonella typhi preemployment medical examinations, should be undertaken and Helicobacter pylori.43,44 Semicritical items generally require at an employee health care center staffed by knowledgeable high-level disinfection that kills all microorganisms except personnel.49 Preventable infectious diseases, such as chicken- bacterial spores.45 Glutaraldehyde 2% is a high-level disinfec- pox and rubella, should be tightly controlled in hospitals that tant that has been used extensively in flexible endoscopy. serve immunocompromised and obstetric patients. It is highly Before disinfection, scopes should receive a thorough manual recommended that a record be maintained of an employee's cleaning to eliminate gross debris. To achieve high-level immunizations. Knowledge of the employee's health status disinfection, the internal and external surfaces and channels on entry to the hospital helps ensure appropriate placement should come into contact with the disinfecting agent for a and good preventive care. minimum of 20 minutes.45 Glutaraldehyde has certain dis- When exposure to contagious infections is unavoidable, advantages. In particular, it requires activation before use; susceptible personnel should be located, screened, and given moreover, it is irritating to the skin, eyes, and nasal mucosa, prophylactic treatment if necessary. In collaboration with the and thus, its use requires special ventilation or a ducted fume occupational health department, infection control personnel hood.45 An alternative to glutaraldehyde is orthophthaldehyde should define the problem, establish a definition of contact, (OPA), a newer agent that is approved by the Food and Drug and take measures to help reduce panic. Administration (FDA) for high-level disinfection. OPA is Isolation Precautions odorless and nonirritating and does not require activation before use.46 CDC guidelines have been developed to prevent the trans- Noncritical items are those that come in contact with intact mission of infections.50 These isolation guidelines promote skin (e.g., blood pressure cuffs). They require only cleaning two levels of isolation precautions: standard precautions and with a detergent and warm water or disinfection with an transmission-based precautions. intermediate-level or low-level germicide for 10 minutes. The reuse of single-use medical devices has become a topic Standard Precautions The standard precautions, which of interest because of the implied cost savings. The central incorporate the main features of the older universal precau- concerns are the effectiveness of sterilization or disinfection tions and body substance isolation guidelines, were developed according to category of use, as well as maintenance of the to reduce the risk of transmission of microorganisms for essential mechanical features and the functional integrity of all patients, regardless of their diagnosis.50,51 Standard pre- the item to be reused. The FDA has issued regulations gov- cautions apply to blood, all body fluids, secretions and erning third-party and hospital reprocessors engaged in repro- excretions, and mucous membranes. cessing single-use devices for reuse. These regulations are available on the FDA's Web site (http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/ Transmission-Based Precautions Transmission-based reprocessing/index.html). precautions were developed for certain epidemiologically important pathogens or clinical presentations. These pre- Hair Removal cautions comprise three categories, based on the mode of An infection control program should have a hair-removal transmission: airborne precautions, droplet precautions, policy for preoperative skin preparation [see 1:1 Prevention of and contact precautions.50 Precautions may be combined for Postoperative Infection]. certain microorganisms or clinical presentations (e.g., both contact and airborne precautions are indicated for a patient Operating Room Environment with varicella). Environmental controls in the OR have been used to reduce Airborne precautions are designed to reduce transmission the risk of SSI [see 1:8 Preparation of the Operating Room]. The of microorganisms spread via droplets that have nuclei 5 µm OR should be maintained under a positive pressure of at least in size or smaller, remain suspended in air for prolonged 2.5 Pa in relation to corridors and adjacent areas. In addition, periods of time, and have the capability of being dispersed there should be 20 to 25 air changes per hour for ceiling widely.50 Airborne precautions include wearing an N95 respi- heights between 9 and 12 feet.47 rator, placing the patient in a single room that is under a negative pressure of 2.5 Pa in relation to adjacent areas, keep- ing the door closed, providing a minimum of 6 to 12 air The health care team has a primary role in the prevention changes per hour, and exhausting room air outside the build- of infection. Continued education and reinforcement of poli- ing and away from intake ducts or, if recirculated, through cies are essential: the team must be kept well informed and a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter.50 Airborne up to date on concepts of infection control. Inadvertently, precautions are indicated for patients with suspected or team members may also be the source of, or the vector in, confirmed infectious pulmonary or laryngeal tuberculosis; transmission of infection. Nosocomial infection outbreaks measles; varicella; disseminated herpes zoster; and Lassa, 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 5 Ebola, Marburg, and other hemorrhagic fevers with pneumo- pose a major risk. It is estimated that in the United States, nia. Varicella, disseminated herpes zoster, and hemorrhagic about 1.25 million people have chronic HBV infection, and fevers with pneumonia also call for contact precautions (see more than 4 million have chronic HCV infection. Transmis- below). sion of these infections to health care workers continues to Droplet precautions are designed to reduce the risk of occur, and each year, approximately 250 health care workers transmission of microorganisms spread via large-particle die of chronic HBV infection alone.57 Hepatitis B vaccination droplets that are greater than 5 µm in size, do not remain has proved safe and protective and is highly recommended suspended in the air for prolonged periods, and usually travel for all high-risk employees; it should be made available 1 m or less.50 No special ventilation requirements are required through the employee health care center. to prevent droplet transmission. A single room is preferable, Despite the efficacy of the vaccine, many surgeons and and the door may remain open. Examples of patients for other personnel remain unimmunized and are at high risk whom droplet precautions are indicated are those with influ- for HBV infection.57 Whereas younger surgeons have been enza, rubella, mumps, and meningitis caused by Haemophilus routinely immunized, an estimated 25 to 30% of surgeons influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis. who have been in practice for longer than 10 to 15 years Contact precautions are designed to reduce the risk of remain at substantial risk.57 HBV is far more easily transmit- transmission of microorganisms by direct or indirect contact. ted than HIV and continues to have a greater impact on the Direct contact involves skin-to-skin contact resulting in phys- morbidity and mortality of health care personnel.53 The risk ical transfer of microorganisms.50 Indirect contact involves contact with a contaminated inanimate object that acts as an of seroconversion is at least 30% after percutaneous exposure intermediary. Contact precautions are indicated for patients to blood from a hepatitis B e antigen–seropositive source.53 colonized or infected with Clostridium difficile and multidrug- Given that a patient's serostatus may be unknown, it is impor- resistant bacteria that the infection control program judges to tant that health care workers follow standard precautions for be of special clinical and epidemiologic significance.50 all patients. Exposure to Bloodborne Pathogens Hepatitis C Virus The average incidence of seroconver- The risk of transmission of HIV and hepatitis B virus sion after percutaneous exposure from an HCV-positive (HBV) from patient to surgeon or from surgeon to patient source is 1.8% (range, 0 to 7%).53,58,59 Mucous membrane has resulted in a series of recommendations governing con- exposure to blood rarely results in transmission, and no trans- tact with blood and body fluids.52–54 The risk of acquiring a mission has been documented from exposure of intact or bloodborne infection (e.g., HBV, hepatitis C virus [HCV], nonintact skin to blood.53 There is no recommended postex- or HIV) depends on three factors: type of exposure to the posure prophylaxis regimen for HCV. The use of immuno- bloodborne pathogen, prevalence of infection in the popula- globulin has not been demonstrated to be protective.53 There tion, and the rate of infection after exposure to the blood- are no antiviral medications recommended for postexposure borne pathogen.52–54 Postexposure management has been prophylaxis.53 discussed in CDC guidelines (http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/ pdf/rr/rr5011.pdf).52 Management of occupational exposures Human Immunodeficiency Virus Exposure to blood to HIV was updated in 2005 (http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/ and body substances of patients who have AIDS or who are preview/mmwrhtml/rr5409a1.htm).54 seropositive for HIV constitutes a health hazard to hospital Protection of the face and hands during the operative pro- employees. The magnitude of the risk depends on the degree cedure is important. A study of 8,502 operations found that and method of exposure [see 8:21 Acquired Immunodeficiency the rate of direct blood exposure was 12.4%, whereas the rate Syndrome].54 Because screening for HIV infection is not of parenteral exposure via puncture wounds and cuts was mandatory among patients, the CDC recommends following 2.2%. Parenteral blood contacts were twice as likely to occur the same guidelines for all patients undergoing invasive pro- among surgeons as among other OR personnel.55 These find- cedures that one would use in cases of known HIV-infected ings support the need for OR practice policies and the choice of appropriate personal protective equipment for the OR patients [see Table 3].52 staff. OR practice policy should give particular attention to There have been isolated reports of transmission of HIV, methods of using sharp instruments and to ways of reducing HBV, and HCV from healthcare workers to patients. It is the frequency of percutaneous injuries: sharp instruments imperative to prevent transmission of these bloodborne should be passed in a metal dish, cautery should be used, and pathogens from surgeons to patients. Accordingly, the CDC great care should be taken in wound closures. It is important has developed specific guidelines for health care workers that face shields and masks protect the operating team from and exposure-prone activities [see Table 3].52 Similarly, the splashes and aerosolized fluids. For optimal protection, a ACS has issued additional recommendations regarding the mask should be fluid-capture efficient and air resistant.56 surgeon's role in the prevention of hepatitis transmission and For invasive surgical procedures, double gloving has HIV [see Table 4].52,57,60 become routine. However, there are recognized differences among the gloves available. Latex allergy is an important Exposure to Tuberculosis issue; nonlatex alternatives are available for those who are In studies of health care workers, the incidence of positive allergic. results on tuberculin skin testing have ranged from 0.11 to 10%.61,62 Health care workers who are immunocompro- Hepatitis B Virus For active surgeons and other mised are at high risk for the development of disease after members of the health care team, HBV infection continues to exposure.61 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 6 Table 3 CDC Recommendations for Prevention of HIV and Table 4 ACS Recommendations for Preventing HBV Transmission during Invasive Procedures52 Transmission of Hepatitis57 Health care workers with exudative lesions or weeping dermatitis Surgeons should continue to utilize the highest standards of should cover any unprotected skin, or they should not provide infection control, involving the most effective known sterile patient care until the damaged skin has healed. barriers, universal precautions, and scientifically accepted Hands should be washed after every patient contact. measures to prevent blood exposure during every operation. Health care workers should wear gloves when contact with blood This practice should extend to all sites where surgical care is or body substances is anticipated; double gloves should be used rendered and should include safe handling practices for needles during operative procedures; hands should be washed after and sharp instruments. gloves are removed. Surgeons have the same ethical obligations to render care to Gowns, plastic aprons, or both should be worn when soiling of patients with hepatitis as they have to render care to other clothing is anticipated. patients. Mask and protective eyewear or face shield should be worn if Surgeons with natural or acquired antibodies to HBV are aerosolization or splattering of blood or body substances is protected from acquiring HBV from patients and cannot expected. transmit the disease to patients. All surgeons and other Resuscitation devices should be used to minimize the need for mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. members of the health care team should know their HBV Disposable containers should be used to dispose of needles and immune status and become immunized as early as possible in sharp instruments. their medical career. Avoid accidents and self-wounding with sharp instruments by Surgeons without evidence of immunity to HBV who perform following these measures: procedures should know their HBsAg status and, if this is • Do not recap needles. positive, should also know their HBeAg status. In both • Use needleless systems when possible. instances, expert medical advice should be obtained and all • Use cautery and stapling devices when possible. appropriate measures taken to prevent disease transmission to • Pass sharp instruments in metal tray during operative patients. Medical advice should be rendered by an expert procedures. panel composed and convened to fully protect practitioner confidentiality. The HBeAg-positive surgeon and the panel In the case of an accidental spill of blood or body substance on should discuss and agree on a strategy for protecting patients at skin or mucous membranes, do the following: risk for disease transmission. • Rinse the site immediately and thoroughly under water. On the basis of current information, surgeons infected with HCV have • Wash the site with soap and water. no reason to alter their practice but should seek expert medical advice • Document the incident (i.e., report to Occupational Safety and Health Administration or to the Infection Control Service). and appropriate treatment to prevent chronic liver disease. Blood specimens from all patients should be considered hazardous HBeAg = hepatitis B e antigen; HBsAg = hepatitis B surface antigen; HCV = hepatitis C virus at all times. Prompt attention should be given to spills of blood or body substances, which should be cleaned with an appropriate 2. Surveillance by objective, or targeted surveillance, in disinfectant. which a specific goal is set for reducing certain types of CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; HBV = hepatitis B infection. This concept is priority directed and can be virus. further subdivided into two distinct activities: a. The setting of outcome objectives, in which the The CDC recommendations for tuberculosis prevention objectives for the month or year are established and all place emphasis on a hierarchy of control measures, including efforts are applied to achieving a desired rate of infec- administrative engineering controls and personal respiratory tion. As with the hospital-wide approach, a short-term protection (http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/rr/rr5417.pdf).63 plan would be made to monitor, record, and measure The following measures should be considered: infections and to provide feedback on the results. 1. The use of risk assessments and development of a written b. The setting of process objectives, which incorporates tuberculosis control protocol. the patient care practices of doctors and nurses as 2. Early identification, treatment, and use of airborne they relate to outcome (e.g., wound infections and their precautions for persons who have tuberculosis. control). 3. Tuberculosis screening and respiratory protection 3. Periodic surveillance: intensive surveillance of infections programs for health care workers. and patient-care practices by unit or by service at different 4. Training and education. times of the year. 5. Evaluation of tuberculosis infection control programs.63 4. Prevalence survey: the counting and analysis of all active infections during a specified time period. This permits Activities of an Infection Control Program identification of nosocomial infection trends and problem areas. 5. Outbreak surveillance: the identification and control of The cornerstone of an infection control program is surveil- outbreaks of infection. Identification can be made on the lance. This process depends on the verification, classification, basis of outbreak thresholds if baseline bacterial isolate analysis, reporting, and investigation of infection occurrences, rates are available and outbreak thresholds can be with the intent of generating or correcting policies and developed. Problems are evaluated only when the number procedures. Five surveillance methods can be applied64,65: of isolates of a particular bacterial species exceeds outbreak thresholds. 1. Total, or hospital-wide, surveillance: collection of com- prehensive data on all infections in the facility, with the Surveillance techniques include the practice of direct aim of correcting problems as they arise. This is labor patient observation and indirect observation by review of intensive. microbiology reports, nursing Kardex, or the medical record 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 7 to obtain data on nosocomial infections.6,64 The sensitivity such as Foley catheters, ventilators, and intravascular lines of case finding was found to be 33 to 65% with microbiology can be illustrated as device-associated risks according to site, reports, 85% with Kardex, and 90% with total chart as follows: review.64 These methods may be used either separately or in (Number of device-associated infections of a site/ combination to obtain data on clinical outcomes. Number of device days)x1,000 The increasing practice of same-day or short-stay surgical procedures has led to the need for postdischarge surveillance. Reporting This may be done by direct observation in a follow-up clinic, One use of surveillance data is to generate information for by surveying patients through the mail or over the telephone, individual surgeons, service chiefs, and nursing personnel by reviewing medical records, or by mailing questionnaires as an indicator of their progress in keeping infections and directly to surgeons. The original CDC recommendation of diseases under control. Infection notification to surgeons has 30 days for follow-up was used by one hospital to randomly been shown to have a positive influence on clean-wound screen post–joint arthroplasty patients by telephone. This infection rates.6,7 This technique was used by Cruse and screening identified an infection rate of 7.5%, compared with Foord in 1980 to show a progressive decrease in the infection 2% for hospitalized orthopedic patients.66 Results from rates of clean surgical wounds to less than 1% over 10 years.7 another medical center suggested that 90% of cases would be In other settings, endemic rates of bloodstream, respiratory, captured in a 21-day postoperative follow-up program.5 The and urinary tract infection were corrected and reduced by use of prosthetic materials for implants requires extending the routine monitoring and reporting to medical and nursing follow-up period to 1 year. staff.24 In a medical setting, Britt and colleagues also reported a Verification and Definition of Infection reduction in endemic nosocomial infection rates for urinary The CDC provides definitions for specific nosocomial infec- tract infections, from 3.7% to 1.3%, and for respiratory tract tions (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/nnis/NosInfDefi- infections, from 4.0% to 1.6%, simply by keeping medical nitions.pdf).67 The use of standardized definitions is critical personnel aware of the rates.24 for consistency, particularly if interhospital comparisons are made. A complete assessment should include clinical Outbreak Investigation evaluation of commonly recognized sites (e.g., wound, respi- There are 10 essential components to an outbreak investi- ratory system, urinary tract, and intravenous access sites) for gation: evidence of infection, especially when no obvious infection is 1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm that an outbreak exists. seen at the surgical site. Laboratory and radiologic data This is an important step, because other factors may should complement the clinical information. Microbiologic account for an apparent increase in infections. These evaluation should aim at identification of the microorganism factors may include a reporting artifact resulting from a (which depends on an adequate specimen for Gram's staining change in surveillance methodology, a laboratory error or and culture). change in laboratory methodology, or an increase in the Use of Denominators denominator of the formula used for data analysis (if this increase is proportionate to the rise in the numerator, the The choice of denominators depends on the patients at risk infection rate has not changed). of acquiring nosocomial infections and on the ease or diffi- 2. Formulate a case definition to guide the search for culty of collecting the data for denominators. Commonly potential patients with disease. used denominators include the number of admissions, the 3. Draw an epidemic curve that plots cases of the disease number of patient-days, and the number of procedures. For against time of onset of illness. This curve compares the device-related infections, the appropriate denominator is the number of cases during the epidemic period with the number of days of device exposure; this variable takes into baseline. In addition, the epidemic curve helps to deter- account the differences in the risks experienced by the moni- mine the probable incubation period and how the disease tored patient. is being transmitted (i.e., a common source versus person Data Analysis to person). 4. Review the charts of case patients to determine demo- The original practice of presenting overall hospital-wide graphics and exposures to staff, medications, therapeutic crude rates provided little means for adjustment of variables modalities, and other variables of importance. (e.g., risk related to the patient or to the operation). The 5. Perform a line listing of case patients to determine following three formulas, however, are said to offer more whether there is any common exposure. precision than traditional methods68: 6. Calculate the infection rate. The numerator is the number (Number of nosocomial infections/Service operations) of infected patients, and the denominator is the number x100 of patients at risk. [Number of site-specific nosocomial infections/Specific 7. Formulate a tentative hypothesis to explain the reservoir and the mode of transmission. A review of the literature operations (e.g., number of inguinal hernias)]x100 on similar outbreaks may be necessary. [Number of nosocomial infections/Hospital 8. Test the hypothesis, using a case-control study, cohort admissions (patient-days)]x1,000 study, prospective intervention study, or microbiologic Data on infections of the urinary tract, respiratory system, study. A case-control study is usually used, because it and circulatory system resulting from exposure to devices is less labor intensive. For a case-control study, control 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 8 subjects should be selected from an uninfected surgical Strategies for preventing and controlling the emergence population of patients who were hospitalized at the and spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms have same time as those identified during the epidemic period been developed (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ar/ and matched for age, gender, service operation, operation mdroGuideline2006.pdf). These guidelines include opti- date, and health status (ASA score). Two or three control mizing antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgical procedures; patients are usually selected for every case patient. optimizing the choice and duration of empirical therapy; The cases and controls are then compared with respect improving antimicrobial prescribing patterns by physicians; to possible exposures that may increase the risk of dis- monitoring and providing feedback regarding antibiotic resis- ease. Patient, personnel, and environmental microbiologic tance; formulating and using practice guidelines for antibiotic isolates (if any) should be kept for fingerprinting (e.g., usage; developing a system to detect and report trends in with pulsed-field gel electropheresis or random amplified antimicrobial resistance; ensuring that caregivers respond polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction). rapidly to the detection of antimicrobial resistance in indi- 9. Institute infection control measures. This may be done at vidual patients; incorporating the importance of controlling any time during the investigation. The control measures antimicrobial resistance into the institutional mission and should be reviewed after institution to determine their climate; increasing compliance with basic infection control efficacy and the possible need for changing them. policies and procedures; and developing a plan for identify- 10. Report the incident to the infection control committee, and submit a report at the completion of the investiga- ing, transferring, discharging, and readmitting patients tion. The administrators, physicians, and nurses involved colonized or infected with specific antimicrobial-resistant should be informed and updated as events change.69 microorganisms.76 - Clostridium difficile C. difficile is recognized as the leading cause of nosocomial Staphylococci infectious diarrhea.80 The best-described C. difficile virulence Hospitals and communities worldwide are facing the factors are toxins A and B.81 The most important risk factor challenge posed by the spread of antimicrobial-resistant for C. difficile–associated infection (CDI) is previous antibio- microorganisms. Strains of MRSA are increasing in hospitals tic use.80 After exposure to C. difficile, some patients remain and are an important cause of nosocomial infections; in a asymptomatic, whereas others experience illnesses ranging sample of intensive care units in the United States in 2003, from mild diarrhea to fulminant colitis.80 The incidence of approximately 59.5% of S. aureus isolates were resistant to severe disease leading to death, colectomy, or the need for methicillin or oxacillin.28 MRSA strains not only replace intensive care is usually no more than 1 to 5%. methicillin-susceptible strains as a cause of hospital-acquired In the past few years, CDI outbreaks characterized by infections but also actually increase the total burden of increased morbidity and mortality have been reported in the nosocomial infections.70 Moreover, there are reports that United States, Canada, and Europe. These outbreaks have MRSA is becoming a community-acquired pathogen.71,72 A been attributed to the emergence of a hypervirulent strain of population-based surveillance of invasive MRSA infections in C. difficile, which is now referred to as the North American the United States performed from July 2004 to December pulsed-field type 1 (NAP1) or PCR ribotype 027.82–84 Com- 2005 determined that 85% were healthcare associated and pared with control strains, the NAP1 strain produces 16-fold 14% were community associated; 1% could not be classi- greater quantities of toxin A and 23-fold greater quantities of fied.72 A proactive approach to controlling MRSA at all levels toxin B.85 of health care can result in decreased MRSA infection For control of CDI outbreaks, a multifaceted approach is rates.73,74 required, including close attention to hand hygiene, use of Strains of GISA, an emerging pathogen first isolated in contact precautions when providing care to CDI patients, 1996 in Japan,75 exhibit reduced susceptibility to vancomycin environmental disinfection, antibiotic restriction, and rapid and teicoplanin. DNA fingerprinting suggests that these laboratory diagnosis.86 GISA strains evolved from preexisting MRSA strains that infected patients in the months before the GISA infection. Contact precautions are indicated for patients infected or Control of the microbial reservoir of the patient's immedi- colonized with GISA; infection control guidelines to prevent ate environment in the hospital is the goal of an infection the spread of GISA are available.76 control program. Environmental control begins with design Enterococci of the hospital's physical plant. The design must meet the Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) accounts for functional standards for patient care and must be integrated 38.2% of all enterococci in the ICUs participating in the into the architecture to provide traffic accessibility and con- NNIS program.28 Transmission usually occurs through trol. Since the 1960s, the practice of centralizing seriously ill contact with the contaminated hands of a health care worker. patients in intensive care, dialysis, and transplant units has The environment is an important reservoir for VRE, but it is accentuated the need for more careful analysis and planning not clear whether the environment plays a significant role of space. The primary standards for these special care units in transmission.77 Risk factors for VRE acquisition include a and ORs require planning of floor space, physical surfaces, prolonged hospital stay, liver transplantation, the presence of lighting, ventilation, water, and sanitation to facilitate easy feeding tubes, dialysis, and exposure to cephalosporins.78 cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces, sterilization of instru- Contact precautions are indicated for patients infected or ments, proper food handling, and garbage disposal. These colonized with VRE.76,79 activities should then be governed by practical policies that 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 9 are understandable to the staff. Preventive maintenance Benefits of an Infection Control Program should be a basic and integral activity of the physical plant The establishment of an infection control program can department. greatly benefit a hospital. An infection control program sup- Surveillance of the environment by routine culturing of ports patient safety and is a means for continuous quality OR floors and walls was discontinued in the late 1970s. improvement in the care that is given, in addition to being an Autoclaves and sterilization systems should, however, be accreditation requirement. In Canada and the United States, continuously monitored with quality control indicators. The the need for infection control programs is supported by results should be documented and records maintained. all governing agents, including the Canadian Council on Investigations of the physical plant should be reserved Hospital Accreditation, JCAHO, the American Hospital for specific outbreaks, depending on the organism and its Association (AHA), the Canadian Hospital Association, the potential for causing infection. This was demonstrated by Association for Practitioners in Infection Control (APIC), the an outbreak of sternal wound Legionella infections among Society of Hospital Epidemiologists of America (SHEA) Joint post–cardiovascular surgery patients after they were exposed Commission Task Force, and the Community and Hospital to tap water during bathing.87 The CDC provides guidelines Infection Control Association–Canada (CHICA-Canada). for infection control issues related to the environment.88,89 The effectiveness of infection surveillance and control pro- Hospital-acquired aspergillosis is caused by another ubiqui- grams in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals tous microorganism that is often a contaminant of ambient was assessed through the SENIC Project.91 In a representative air during construction. The patients most at risk are usually sample of US general hospitals, infection control programs immunosuppressed (i.e., neutropenic). It is recommended with a trained infection control physician or microbiologist that preventive measures be instituted for these patients when and at least one infection control nurse per 250 beds were construction is being planned.90 The provision of clean (i.e., associated with a 32% lower rate of four infections studied HEPA-filtered) air in positive pressure–ventilated rooms, (central venous catheter–associated bloodstream infections, with a minimum of 12 air exchanges per hour, is the basic ventilator-associated pneumonias, catheter-related urinary requirement for these patients.47 tract infections, and SSIs). A comprehensive review of environmental infection control Reductions in nosocomial infections have a substantial in health care facilities is available at the CDC Web site impact on morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost.92 In (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/guidelines/Enviro_ one study, for example, the extra costs associated with treat- guide 03.pdf). This review contains recommendations for ing bloodstream infections in an intensive care setting were preventing nosocomial infections associated with construc- tion, demolition, and renovation.89 estimated to be $40,000 per survivor.93 Accomplishing a high-quality infection control program requires organization and the dedicated service of all health care employees. A strategy for routine training of the health care team is necessary at every professional level. The process may Organization of an Infection Control Program vary from institution to institution, but some form of com- munication should be established for the dissemination of information about the following: The chair of the infection control committee should have 1. Endemic infection rates. an ongoing interest in the prevention and control of infec- 2. Endemic bacterial trends. tions. Members should represent administration, infectious 3. Updates on infection prevention measures (especially diseases, microbiology, nursing, the OR, central supply, during and after an outbreak). medicine, surgery, pharmacy, and housekeeping. This multi- 4. Updates on preventive policies pertaining to hand hygiene, disciplinary group becomes the advocate for the entire hospi- isolation precautions, and other areas of concern. tal. The members work with the infection control service Although members of the infection control team are the to make decisions in the following areas: (1) assessing the responsible resource persons in the hospital system, each effectiveness and pertinence of infection control policies member of the health care team also has a responsibility to and protocols in their areas and (2) raising infection help prevent infection in hospitalized patients. control–related concerns. According to existing public health acts, certain infectious Collecting surveillance data on nosocomial infections and diseases must be reported by law. Differences exist between taking actions to decrease nosocomial infections are the prin- the reporting systems of one country and those of another, cipal functions of the infection control service. This service but on the whole, diseases such as tuberculosis, sexually usually consists of a trained hospital epidemiologist, infection transmitted diseases, and meningococcal meningitis are control practitioners (ICPs), and secretarial and informatics reported for community follow-up. support. The scope of the ICPs' responsibilities has expanded Open communication with community hospitals and in keeping with the increasing complexity of health care. It is other health care facilities provides for better management currently recommended that there be 0.8 to 1.0 ICP for every of patients with infections, allowing for notification and plan- 100 occupied acute care beds.94 Training programs to assist ning for additional hospitalization or convalescence as the with the professional and organizational development of ICPs patient moves to and from the community and hospital. are available through SHEA (http://www.shea-online.org), 05/08
© 2008 BC Decker Inc ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice 1 BASIC SURGICAL AND PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 2 INFECTION CONTROL IN SURGICAL PRACTICE — 10 APIC (http://www.apic.org), and CHICA-Canada (http:// nursing units. Methods for collecting, editing, storing, and www.chica.org), and the APIC certification program sup- sharing data should be based on the CDC's NSHN system, ports continuous professional improvement. A viable and which promotes the use of high-quality indicators for useful program for surveillance requires a computer future monitoring and comparison among health care database program networked to microbiology, the OR, and institutions.28 References 1. Preparation of the operating team and 17. Haley RW. Measuring the costs of nosocomial 32. Richards C, Gaynes RP, Horan T, et al. Risk supporting personnel. In: Altemeier WA, infections: methods for estimating economic factors for surgical site infection following Burke JF, Pruitt BA, et al., editors. 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J Epidemiol 1989;5:131. a multicenter study. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:243. 74. Verhoef J, Beaujean D, Blok H, et al. A Dutch 91. Haley RW, Culver DH, White JW, et al. The approach to methicillin-resistant Staphylococ- efficacy of infection surveillance and control 56. Chen CC, Willeke K. Aerosol penetration cus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis programs in preventing nosocomial infections through surgical masks. Am J Infect Control 1999;18:461. in US hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 1985;121: 1992;20:177. 75. Hiramatsu K, Hanaki H, Ino T, et al. 182. 57. American College of Surgeons. Statement on Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus the surgeon and hepatitis. 2004. Available at: 92. Jarvis WR. Selected aspects of the socio- clinical strain with reduced vancomycin economic impact of nosocomial infections: www.facs.org/fellows_info/statements/st-22. susceptibility. J Antimicrob Chemother html. morbidity, mortality, cost and prevention. 1997;40:135. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17: 58. Lanphear BP, Linnemann CC Jr, Cannon 76. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello 552. CG, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in L, and the Healthcare Infection Control healthcare workers: risk of exposure and 93. Pittet D, Tarara D, Wenzel RP. Nosocomial Practices Advisory Committee. Management bloodstream infection in critically ill patients: infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol of multi-drug resistant organisms in healthcare 1994;15:745. excess length of stay, extra costs and attribut- settings, 2006. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ able mortality. JAMA 1994;271:1598. 59. Risk of hepatitis C seroconversion after ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ar/mdroGuideline2006.pdf. occupational exposure in health care workers. 94. O'Boyle C, Jackson M, Henly SJ. Staffing 77. Notskin GA, Stosor V, Cooper I, et al. Italian Study Group on Occupational Risk of requirements for infection control programs Recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci HIV and Other Bloodborne Infections. Am J in US health care facilities: Delphi project. on fingertips and environmental surfaces. Infect Control 1995;23:273. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995; Am J Infect Control 2002;30:321–33. 60. American College of Surgeons. Statement 16:577. on the surgeon and HIV infection. 2004. 78. Boyce JM. Vancomycin-resistant enterococ- Available at: www.facs.org/fellows_info/ cus: detection, epidemiology, and control Acknowledgment statements/st-13.html. measures. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997; 61. McKenna MT, Hutton MD, Cauthen G, 11:367. The author would like to thank A. Peter McLean, et al. The association between occupation 79. Recommendations for preventing the spread MD, FACS for his contributions to a previous and tuberculosis: a population based survey. of vancomycin resistance: recommendations iteration of this chapter on which the current Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:587. of the Hospital Infection Control Practices version is partially based. 05/08


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The travels went very smooth and good. I am planning to go back again.
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ARTBA to Obama: Despite stimulus, 13 states cut investment
American Road & Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA) President & CEO Pete Ruane last night sent a letter to President Obama.
ARTBA says that the letter outlines the serious challenges facing the transportation design and construction sector and urges action as soon as possible on a robust, multi-year highway/transit reauthorization bill.
Highlights of the letter include the following:
- Ruane urged President Obama to "make a $500 billion, six-year congressional reauthorization of the federal surface transportation program a first-tier, post-November election Administration priority. Failure to do so will increase the likelihood of a serious transportation construction market crash in 2011-2012 that will increase unemployment and negatively impact the nation's economic recovery."
- "There are, however, disturbing leading indicators that portend a potential implosion of the transportation construction market in many states in the very near future — with resulting heavy job losses — absent leadership from Washington."
- "Despite the infusion of ARRA funding to every state last year, 13 states actually invested less money in new highway and bridge work contract awards during 2009 than they did in 2008….""The picture for the first half of this year is even more disturbing…30 states and the District of Columbia have invested less in highway and bridge contract awards from January through June 2010 than they did over the same period a year ago…."
- "This reduction in value of contracts let in 2009 and 2010 means the U.S. transportation construction market in 2011 and 2012 is likely headed for a serious downturn in perhaps up to half the states."
- "Many firms report they have worked down most, if not all, of their project backlog, with little new work available for bid."
- "For more than 50 years, the federal-aid highway and transit programs have been a model of responsible, stable and dependable government financing—user funded and deficit-neutral…That dependability, so critical to planning and executing construction projects that can take several years to complete, is now threatened by the lack of political will—on the part of both parties—that is necessary to enhance the revenue stream to the Highway Trust Fund to reflect today's capital needs and market realities."
- [T]he Administration's failure to yet produce even a statement of its "principles" for the reauthorization legislation, now almost a year after the underlying law expired, is inexplicable."
- "Mr. President, simply extending the current programs again for a year or more and either cutting federal investment to the level sustainable by the current revenue stream to the Highway Trust Fund — or continuing down the dangerous path of deficit spending to prop up the highway and transit investment programs — are not acceptable alternatives."
- "…we are standing in place as China, India, Russia and the European Union continue massive, strategic transportation investments to enhance their economic competitiveness. Now is the time to make the bold decisions on transportation investment that are necessary to ensure a strong and vital America for our grandchildren!"
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Ghar Kab Aao Gay Videos
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Ghar Kab Ao Gey is Pakistani Urdu language film directed by Iqbal Kashmiri which was released across theaters in Pakistan in Eid-ul-Fittar January 9, 2000.
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The giant banner unveiled by Russian supporters in Warsaw at the heavily politicized Poland-Russia Euro 2012 football match. The banner was criticized by many Poles as emblematic of Russia's bullying, imperialist attitude towards former Communist-bloc states. More than two decades after the collapse of the Soviet Union, many of Russia's neighbors feel they are still treated as subjects, not sovereign states. The Russian Olympic Committee's decision to list former Soviet territories as still belonging to Russia in athletes' biographies has simply fueled the frustration.
Either people on the Russian Olympic Committee don't know geography or imperialist dreams die hard.
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Draft of amendments to Constitution foresees less immunity for judges
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Poroshenko, Nazarbayev agree to intensify preparations for Ukrainian president's visit to Kazakhstan
Rada Chairman invites NATO Parliamentary Assembly observers to monitor local elections
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2003 Nissan 350Z in Minneapolis, MN
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One of the best books on the market as it relates to home studio construction is Rod Gervais "Home Recording Studio: Build It Like the Pros". Read morePublished 3 days ago by Brien Holcombe
Fast shipping Great service.Would recommend all the way.Thank youPublished 1 month ago by djemel chergui
Very helpful book. It should make the process of building your home studio go much better.Published 7 months ago by Tracy C.
Very well written. Easy to understand, but still well in depth in my opinion. Inspiring! Highly recommended also for anyone interested in acoustics!Published 17 months ago by Daniel
I bought it to learn what to do to build my project studio. Doesn't matter if you don't start from scratch. Read morePublished on June 25, 2013 by Alfonso Priale
Nice book, comprehensive, good drawings.
Missed non-US, cold-climate perspective.
Recommended for semi-pros wanting to build their own sound-studio. Read more
This is a good resource for anyone who wants to learn the basics of room acoustics and what shapes, materials, and dimensions rooms should be for best recording with limited... Read morePublished on October 24, 2012 by erockcmu
When I went out to research books before building my studio, I bought 4 different ones and the only one I used, bookmarked, highlighted and referenced all the way thru my build was... Read morePublished on August 11, 2012 by Roz


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Huntsman calls for crackdown on intellectual property theft, says Washington Post
Former-Utah governor and U.S. ambassador to china John Huntsman, Jr., along with former director of national intelligence Dennis Blair, recently published an op-ed on the Washington Post highlighting the crisis American business is facing from the failure of governments and companies to protect intellectual property rights.
"We agree with Gen. Keith Alexander, the head of U.S. Cyber Command, that the ongoing theft of U.S. intellectual property is 'the greatest transfer of wealth in history.'" With intellectual property being one of America's biggest industries, the failure to properly protect is having staggering consequences on the U.S. economy, Huntsman and Blair say. "The scale is staggering. The Commission on the Theft of American Intellectual Property, which we co-chaired, estimates that the total revenue loss to U.S. companies is comparable to the total value of U.S. exports to all of Asia."
The American government needs to step up its game and stop foreign companies from stealing the work of homegrown companies. "So far, our national response to this crisis has been weak and disjointed The Obama administration has made some progress in raising this issue with foreign governments, but more needs to be done."
Huntsman and Blair list everything from companies going out of business, IT companies paying more for security that doesn't work and even the military unintentionally buying pirated parts as reasons to crack down on intellectual property theft. But one of the biggest takeaways as to why we should drastically step up our measures to stop the theft is actually job creation: "The U.S. International Trade Commission estimated in 2011 that if IP protection in China improved substantially, U.S. businesses could add 2.1 million jobs."
Freeman Stevenson is a Snow College grad and is the DeseretNews.com opinion intern. Reach me at fstevenson@deseretdigital or @freemandesnews
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Summer is well and truly over now, so there's nothing for it but to have a MUGL meeting. We've got two great speakers this time around: Justin Makeig of MarkLogic and Peter Rodgers of 1060 Research. Justin is in London from California to speak at the NoSQL Search conference. Peter will be visiting us from Bristol.
This MUGL will be at a different venue, because our usual was already booked up. But we've found an alternative pub location that looks very promising. This MUGL will be held November 21 at The Yorkshire Grey, at the corner of Gray's Inn Road and Theobalds Road, near Farringdon and Chancery Lane stations.
As usual, we'll start at 6:30 with free food and drink. We have a function room to ourselves and a private bar. Roll up, grab a pint and some nibbles and enjoy the good company.
Speaker: Justin Makeig, Director of Product Management at MarkLogic
Title: Data Governance for Regulated Industries Using Hadoop
Abstract: Securely and cost-effectively managing petabytes of data from siloed systems is both a threat and opportunity for banking, healthcare, and other organizations in highly regulated industries. Technology advancements and the changing economics of storage and compute have made it possible to leverage this data to do more far-reaching and sophisticated analysis. However, sweeping changes to privacy and transparency laws have heightened the importance of data governance.
In this session we will examine best practices around the use of Hadoop as part of a regulated data environment, including retention, provenance, privacy, and security. Drawn from production projects impacted by Dodd-Frank, FATCA, andHIPAA, we will illustrate architecture and governance policies across real-time operational and long-tail historical data.
Bio: Justin Makeig is a Director of Product Management at MarkLogic where he oversees the suite of applications, tools, and APIs built around MarkLogic's enterprise NoSQL database. He manages the company's Hadoop strategy along with front-end application development and administration tools. Justin has over 10 years of experience designing, developing, and bringing to market data-driven applications for start-ups and large organizations using web and Big Data technologies. He holds an MBA from the University of California, Berkeley.
Speaker: Peter Rodgers, Founder and CEO at 1060 Research
Title: Resource Oriented Computing: It's Resources All The Way Down
Abstract: In 1998 everyone and their dog was trying to create XML messaging standards. The problem was that the 'X' in XML stands for 'extensible'. The trouble there is that adding extensions to software makes it brittle over time, no matter how hard we try to avoid it. Eventually we throw it away and start over. So moving it forward to deal with the evolution of schemas becomes more and more difficult and expensive.
At HP Labs Peter Rodgers wanted to understand what it would take to fix the economics of XML software. His research team started with the core concepts of the Web and, especially, resolving URIs. They wound up opening a doorway to a whole new world - Resource Oriented Computing. ROC is an approach to software that lets solutions evolve, adapt to change and scale on demand. Exactly as the Web does. Nearly 15 years later, with an industry hardened platform (NetKernel), the software industry is adopting the principles of REST and is now ready to explore what lies beyond...
In this talk Peter will introduce the basics of ROC and show its application to composing software systems in general and working with XML in particular. The emphasis will be on composing scalable middleware that further leverages the capabilities of MarkLogic.
Bio: Peter Rodgers is CEO and co-founder of 1060 Research and a co-creator of NetKernel. At HP he held a number of positions including senior research scientist and senior strategist to HP's mobile computing division. In 1999 Peter founded and headed HP's XML research programme, where his work led to the development of ROC. He holds a first class BSc in Physics from St. Andrews University and a PhD in solid-state Quantum Mechanics from the University of Nottingham.
This MUGL promises to be action packed, with plenty of new ideas to think about.
See you all there.
We just grab a coffee and speak French. Some people have been coming every week for months... it creates a kind of warmth to the group.
— Rafaël, started French Conversation Group
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