text:
Colocalization of ghrelin O-acyltransferase and ghrelin in gastric mucosal cells
ABSTRACT Ghrelin is a peptide hormone with many known functions, including orexigenic, blood glucose-regulatory, and antidepressant actions, among others. Mature ghrelin is unique in that it is the only known naturally occurring peptide to be posttranslationally modified by O-acylation with octanoate. This acylation is required for many of ghrelin's actions, including its effects on promoting increases in food intake and body weight. GOAT (ghrelin O-acyltransferase), one of 16 members of the MBOAT family of membrane-bound O-acyltransferases, has recently been identified as the enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of the octanoyl group to ghrelin. Although the initial reports of GOAT have localized its encoding mRNA to tissues known to contain ghrelin, it is as yet unclear whether the octanoylation occurs within ghrelin-producing cells or in neighboring cells. Here, we have performed dual-label histochemical analysis on mouse stomach sections and quantitative PCR on mRNAs from highly enriched pools of mouse gastric ghrelin cells to demonstrate a high degree of GOAT mRNA expression within ghrelin-producing cells of the gastric oxyntic mucosa. We also demonstrate that GOAT is the only member of the MBOAT family whose expression is highly enriched within gastric ghrelin cells and whose whole body distribution mirrors that of ghrelin.
- SourceAvailable from: Henriette Kirchner
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- "Plasma acylated-ghrelin levels of mice were measured using an EIA kit according to the manufacturer's instructions (#10006307, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI) as previously described (Sakata et al., 2009). To determine acyl-ghrelin levels in ad lib or fasted mice, blood from mice with ad lib access to regular chow and from mice that had been fasted for 24 h was collected from tails into tubes containing EDTA, on ice. "
ABSTRACT: Ghrelin is an orexigenic hormone that regulates homeostatic and reward-related feeding behavior. Recent evidence indicates that acylation of ghrelin by the gut enzyme ghrelin O-acyl transferase (GOAT) is necessary to render ghrelin maximally active within its target tissues. Here we tested the hypothesis that GOAT activity modulates food motivation and food hedonics using behavioral pharmacology and mutant mice deficient for GOAT and the ghrelin receptor (GHSR). We evaluated operant responding following pharmacological administration of acyl-ghrelin and assessed the necessity of endogenous GOAT activity for operant responding in GOAT and GHSR-null mice. Hedonic-based feeding behavior also was examined in GOAT-KO and GHSR-null mice using a "Dessert Effect" protocol in which the intake of a palatable high fat diet "dessert" was assessed in calorically-sated mice. Pharmacological administration of acyl-ghrelin augmented operant responding; notably, this effect was dependent on intact GHSR signaling. GOAT-KO mice displayed attenuated operant responding and decreased hedonic feeding relative to controls. These behavioral results correlated with decreased expression of the orexin-1 receptor in reward-related brain regions in GOAT-KO mice. In summary, the ability of ghrelin to stimulate food motivation is dependent on intact GHSR signaling and modified by endogenous GOAT activity. Furthermore, GOAT activity is required for hedonic feeding behavior, an effect potentially mediated by forebrain orexin signaling. These data highlight the significance of the GOAT-ghrelin system for the mediation of food motivation and hedonic feeding.Hormones and Behavior 09/2012; 62(5). DOI:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.08.009
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- "Localization of GOAT (Ghrelin O-Acyltransferase) and ghrelin was also recently studied by using in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunohistochemistry, and a high degree of colocalization of GOAT and ghrelin was observed in mouse gastric oxyntic mucosal cells [28]. On the other hand, ghrelin-GFP transgenic mice expressing humanized Renilla reniformis green fluorescent protein (hrGFP) under control of the mouse ghrelin promoter has recently been generated and it has been confirmed that hrGFP expression was especially abundant in the gastric oxyntic mucosa, in a pattern mirroring that of ghrelin immunoreactivity and ghrelin mRNA [28] "
ABSTRACT: Ghrelin is 28-amino-acid peptide that was discovered from the rat and human stomach in 1999. Since the discovery of ghrelin, various functions of ghrelin, including growth hormone release, feeding behavior, glucose metabolism, memory, and also antidepressant effects, have been studied. It has also been reported that ghrelin in the gastrointestinal tract has an important physiological effect on gastric acid secretion and gastrointestinal motility. Ghrelin has a unique structure that is modified by O-acylation with n-octanoic acid at third serine residues, and this modification enzyme has recently been identified and named ghrelin O-acyl transferase (GOAT). Ghrelin is considered to be a gut-brain peptide and is abundantly produced from endocrine cells in the gastrointestinal mucosa. In the gastrointestinal tract, ghrelin cells are most abundant in the stomach and are localized in gastric mucosal layers. Ghrelin cells are also widely distributed throughout the gastrointestinal tract. In addition, abundance of ghrelin cells in the gastric mucosa is evolutionally conserved from mammals to lower vertebrates, indicating that gastric ghrelin plays important roles for fundamental physiological functions. Ghrelin cells in the gastrointestinal tract are a major source of circulating plasma ghrelin, and thus understanding the physiology of these cells would reveal the biological significance of ghrelin.International Journal of Peptides 03/2010; 2010(1687-9767). DOI:10.1155/2010/945056
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ABSTRACT: Ingestion of food affects the secretion of hormones from specialized endocrine cells scattered within the intestinal mucosa. Upon release, these hormones mostly decrease food intake by signaling information to the brain. Although enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine were thought to represent the predominant gut–brain regulators of food intake, recent advances also established a major role for gastric hormones in these regulatory pathways. First and foremost, the gastric endocrine X/A-like cell was in the focus of many studies due to the production of ghrelin, which is until now the only known orexigenic hormone that is peripherally produced and centrally acting. Although X/A-cells were initially thought to only release one hormone that stimulates food intake, this view has changed with the identification of additional peptide products also derived from this cell, namely desacyl ghrelin, obestatin, and nesfatin-1. Desacyl ghrelin may play a counter-regulatory role to the food intake stimulatory effect of ghrelin. The same property was suggested for obestatin; however, this hypothesis could not be confirmed in numerous subsequent studies. Moreover, the description of the stomach as the major source of the novel anorexigenic hormone nesfatin-1 derived from the NUCB2 gene further corroborated the assumption that the gastric X/A-like cell products are not only stimulant but also inhibitors of feeding, thereby acting as so far unique dual regulator of food intake located in a logistically important place where the gastrointestinal tract has initial contact with food.Current Gastroenterology Reports 12/2012; 14(6). DOI:10.1007/s11894-012-0291-3


text:
using AI techniques to analyze molecular-
biology data. One of their projects involves
using a factor graph they developed called
GenRate to discover and evaluate genes in
mouse tissues. Factor graphs let researchers
describe a system with complex variables,
\u201cWhat a factor graph is useful for,\u201d says Frey, \u201cis describing a scoring function that tells you how good each setting of the vari- ables is.\u201d
activated to read protein. In some tissues, the DNA is expressed; in others, it might not be. DNA parts that have no function are never activated.
In the factor graph, each variable is a
node. The scoring function comprises many
local scoring functions that look for a small
number of variables. For that small set of
variables, it finds a score for each configu-
ration of those variables. The local scores\u2019
sum is the total score. \u201cIt\u2019s a nice way to
decompose a very complex problem into a
whole bunch of simpler problems,\u201d Frey
says. The scientists then compare the factor
graph data to known gene patterns.
Because the factor graph provides a com-
putational framework for vetting the best
configuration of variables as well as discov-
ering them, the team came up with surpris-
ing results that led to a major revision of the
view of the mammalian genome. Although
some research claims many genes are left to
discover, Frey\u2019s team has shown that might
not be true. \u201cBeyond the genes we found,\u201d
Frey says, \u201cwe don\u2019t believe there exists
many new protein-coding genes.\u201d
on graphs. A data mining system that repre- sents data as a collection of nodes and links between the nodes, Subdue works by search- ing through graphic data using a heuristic
After researchers input a big graph into the system and run a search, Subdue finds a pattern that has several instances in the
graph. The system then replaces all of those instances by a single node, making the graph smaller. The larger the pattern, and the more instances it has, the more compression you get. \u201cThe more it compresses, the more we\u2019re interested in it,\u201d Holder says.
whether it causes cancer. The system repre- sents the chemical in terms of its atoms and the bonds between them (the atoms are
nodes in the graph, and the bonds are links).
For the system to learn, researchers input
many cancer-causing chemicals as graphs,
which the system searches to find recurring
\u201cThe interpretation would be if this sub-
molecule shows up in 90 percent of these
chemicals that cause cancer, then it may be
ical contains the subgraph, he says, \u201cyou
might predict that this chemical may cause
cancer, and you may want to go off and test
it in the laboratory.\u201d
Holder has tested the system in the Amer- ican Cancer Institute\u2019s predictive-toxicology challenge. The Institute releases information
area where humans excel over computers. But research is producing interesting
competition as scientists discover and employ new methods of automated pattern recogni-
tion. Practical applications include finding genes, detecting cancer-causing chemicals in
molecules, searching out potential terrorists, and predicting terrorist threat levels, as well
on both a set of chemicals that it has deter-
mined to be cancer causing and a set that
isn\u2019t. Participants speculate which chemi-
cals cause cancer, and the one with the
most correct guesses wins the challenge.
Holder won the competition in 2000.
Grouping, Linking, and Evaluation program created. The domain simulates the evidence available about terrorist groups and their
resources, communicating, visiting targets,
and transferring resources between actors,
groups, and targets, the domain contains
numerous concepts. The concepts include
threat and nonthreat actors and threat and
nonthreat groups.
Trained on patterns that give examples
of threat potential, Subdue searched the
simulated data to find similar types of pat-
terns. The system achieved 78 to 93 percent
accuracy discriminating threat from non-
threat groups.
learn them as grammars, and then generate
sentences of its own in that language. The
system is called ADIOS(automatic distilla-
tion of structure), and it has been tested on
both natural languages, such as English and
Chinese, and artificial grammars, such as
those in DNA and music.
\u201cYou can only recognize patterns if you
have the right primitives, the right features,\u201d
Edelman says. \u201cIt\u2019s like having the right
Language contains patterns that on its
face are invisible, and it\u2019s generally thought
to possess structure beyond just the serial
order of words, a grammar. \u201cThe true struc-
ture of the sentence is a kind of tree,\u201d Edel-
rules applied to a body of text in a language
to discover the grammar. The system can
then generate sentences in that language.
new sentence,\u201d Edelman says. \u201cIt\u2019s not such a big deal to recognize a pattern on which you\u2019ve trained your system.\u201d The team is patenting the technology, and Edelman
Research on the theoretical aspect of
pattern discovery is also generating useful
applications. At the University of Califor-
nia, Davis, Jim Crutchfield has leveraged
his interest in \u201cwhat a pattern is\u201d to apply a
pattern\u2019s abstract definition\u2014which he
calls a causal state\u2014to different kinds of
processes. He defines causal states as groups
of histories that lead to the same knowledge
about the future.
possible ways to find the causal states. The
mathematical definition of being in the
same state of predictability about the future
means that, by looking at data, you can
estimate and make predictions about the
future on the basis of different points in
time having different histories. From that
definition, Crutchfield derived an algorithm
that describes how to group histories that
provide knowledge about the future when
those histories are basically predictively
equivalent. \u201cWe just apply this in these
different domains,\u201d he says, \u201cwhether it\u2019s a
definition to examining dynamic systems,
irregular crystals, hidden Markov models,
and cellular automata. One field of applica-
tion is quantum computation.
\u201cA current proposal for implementing
molecular computers is to look at very long
chain molecules and to design the interac-
tions between the atoms in the molecular
chain so that they implement various of
these cellular-automata rules,\u201d Crutchfield
says. \u201cSo this pattern discovery system that
we have for cellular automata is making a
catalog of all the possible kinds of interac-
tions and what sorts of information storage
structures they can produce, and how those
information storage structures can be moved around and interacted, and how they interact to process information.\u201d
Crutchfield is working on developing a
library called the Encyclopedia of Cellular
Automata. \u201cIt will be a resource for people
working in nanotechnology,\u201d he says, \u201cto
look at how to design molecular systems that have only local interactions but that will pro- duce in their behavior large-scale structures that can be used for doing computations.\u201d
have always been attracted to patterns and
pattern recognition. \u201cIn a way, this is the
essence of science and most cognitive
\u201cThere would be no genome project, no speech recognition, and probably no credit card system without it. The last decade has
seen a revolution in pattern recognition
technology. Machine learning algorithms
are now faster, simpler, and more accurate
in generalization.\u201d
see the author guidelines at www.computer.org/intelligent/ author.htm or log onto IEEE Intelligent Systems\u2019 author center at Manuscript Central (www.computer.org/mc/ intelligent/author.htm). Visit www.computer.org/intelligent for editorial guidelines.
products and services reflect the author\u2019s or firm\u2019s opinion; inclusion does not necessarily constitute endorsement by the IEEE Computer Society or the IEEE.
chat with computer scientist
Rollo Carpenter, you\u2019re not quite sure if
it\u2019s him on the other end or his virtual alter
Carpenter\u2019s work is inspired by Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori\u2019s Uncanny Valley theory. In 1970, Mori asserted that, as robots become increasingly human-like in appear- ance, movement, and behavior, they will
illicit emotional responses from human beings that border on human-to-human empathy levels.
reality, Carpenter views advanced chatbots as harbingers of a new era in machine learn- ing. \u201cWe intend to get very close indeed to the Uncanny Valley,\u201d he says.
During the 2005 Loebner Prize contest
(www.loebner.net), a panel of judges found
George to be the most convincing conver-
sationalist of the four chatbot participants,
which included reigning three-time cham-
pion Alice. The contest, launched in 1990
by Hugh Gene Loebner and touted as \u201cthe
first formal instantiation of a Turing Test,\u201d
In the contest\u2019s 15 years, no contestant
has won a silver or gold medal, awarded
for convincing at least half of the judges
that a text-based program or virtual per-
sona is actually real. However, every year a
bronze medal and a cash prize have gone to
the most human-like program. This year,
Carpenter\u2019s Jabberwacky program, which
hosts George, brought home the bronze.
Now, George has caught the interest of the
computer science community as well as
thousands of visitors to the Jabberwacky
site (www.jabberwacky.com).
Many of the site\u2019s visitors find it hard to believe George isn\u2019t human after convers- ing with him. Even some of the contest\u2019s four judges were fooled\u2014at least initially.
and who is bot,\u201d according to one judge, Lila Davachi, assistant professor of psychology at New York University. \u201cHowever, I found Jabberwacky to be the most interesting bot by far because it displayed some very human qualities. It was sassy and playful.\u201d
What makes George seem so human? It
appears George is different from other
chatbots not only because of his personal-
ity but also because of how he learns. Car-
penter says machine learning is trending
toward being statistical and probabilistic,
relying on analyzing significant volumes
of data.
\u201cMost of the chatbots that exist today
work in a hard-coded, entirely predictable
fashion,\u201d he says. \u201cA series of \u2018if\u2019 (or equiv-
alent) statements created by the program-
mer evaluate the input and return known
results, either as whole sentences or as
modifications of the input.\u201d
abilistic, and data intensive, the bot pro- gram is also something else: chaotic. \u201cIt never turns probabilities into numbers,\u201d explains Carpenter. \u201cIt avoids looping
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Legalism (Chinese philosophy)
Statue of the legalist Shang Yang
|Literal meaning
|School of law
Dating back to early China, Legalism (Chinese: 法家; pinyin: fă jiā) refers to what the west would term as the long-occulted Realpolitikal aspect of Chinese Philosophy concerned almost exclusively with administration, whose reformers innovated a rule by law. It scarcely addressed moral or philosophical questions. It is often considered to be one of the main philosophical currents or "schools" of the ancient Warring States period, openly avowed by the founders of the Chinese Imperial State, the Qin state and subsequent Qin dynasty.[1] Sinologist Creel writes: "If one wishes to exaggerate, it would no doubt be possible to translate (foundational Realist) Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science', and argue that Pu-hai was the first political scientist," though Creel does "not care to go this far".[2]
Following Lord Shang's synthesizing legal reforms, Qin Legalism transformed the peripheral Qin state into a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom, developing the industriousness of the people and resources of the state, weakening the power of the feudal lords, reforming the aristocracy into an open officialdom ranked by merit, and unifying China's warring states into thirty-six administrative provinces with a standardized writing system under what is commonly thought of as the first Chinese Empire, the Qin dynasty, all based upon law.
Stressing that ministers and other officials too often abused their positions and sought favours from foreign powers, contemporary and most famous Legalist thinker Han Fei (韓非) (the most famous Legalistic scholar, contemporary of and most admired by the First Qin Emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi) urged rulers to observe that ministers' accomplishments were neither greater than nor inferior to their undertaking, handling them by a combination of favours and penalties.[3] Using his monopoly, the wise ruler could extend courtesy to those beneath him and indulge the advice of ministers without danger to himself or the state.
Basing himself upon the Qin's administrative successes and that of his own Han state, Fei synthesized in the Han Feizi the central administrative methodologies of his predecessors for practice under the aegis of the figure of a watchful sovereign autocrat, borrowing the innovation of law as a base:[4]
- Shi (Chinese: 勢; pinyin: shì; literally "legitimacy, power or charisma"): Reflecting the preceding Zhou Dynasty's stability and means, this masculine character represents force or military strength, the appearances or influence of the ruler ("virtue", or fame), and the state's situation or trend.[5] In the philosophy of Shen Dao and other realist philosophers, such establishment of order and the Sovereign's restraining hold on the state thereafter generates the stability necessary for any rule at all. The ruler exists to monopolize authority in-order to prevent its abuse by feudal magnates.[6] In the Book of Lord Shang, a strong inherited position supports even an ineffectual ruler, while a competent ruler without position effects nothing.[7] The book also explicitly associates Shi with measurement and statistics, a common theme in realist texts more generally, that being the awareness of the sovereign derived of position, of which such tools constitute a part and parcel. Chinese references to the square and compass actually go back to mythology, like that of Fuxi and Nuwa.
- Shu (Chinese: 術; pinyin: shù; literally "method, tactic or art"): Withdrawing from affairs except to survey the course of ministers, the ruler following the philosophy of Shen Buhai uses "technique", or special tactics or "secrets" to ensure that others do not gain control of the state, and obscures their motivations. Shen Buhai's technique did not use threatening or force, law, reward or penalty, all of which may be unsuitable for the exercise of one man.[8] Under the later Han Fei, obscuration of motivations translates into law enacted as the proposed policies of the ministers, then observed for outcome. By such means no can subvert the state through sycophancy toward the ruler, but may only try to advance by heeding orders and performing meritoriously. Shu is the aspect of Chinese Realpolitik most frequently related with Taoism and its famous wu-wei, or non-active action.
- Fa (Chinese: 法; pinyin: fǎ; literally "law or principle"): Fa Originally has a broader meaning of standards.[6] As far as the political tradition outside of Confucianism is concerned, and as far back as the Zhou, these would be the standards of the ruler,[9] though still considering custom. The Book of Lord Shang emphasizes the use of laws to reward those who obey them and penalize accordingly those who do not, institutionalizing the standards set by the ruler and acting as a guarantor for actions taken. The ruler is advised to generally use, if not hide behind the legal system to control the state; if the law is applied effectively, even a weak ruler will be strong, effectively regenerating the preceding principles. In the development of administrative methodology, Han Fei credits Yang with Ding Fa(定法), or fixing the standards, which were to be written clearly, made public and applied throughout the state. All persons under the jurisdiction of the ruler were equal before the law, referred to as Yi Min(一民), or treating the people as one.[10]
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Terminology
- 3 Early Background
- 4 Later Background
- 5 Shen Buhai, Tact and Ministerial Management
- 6 Shen Dao and Power
- 7 Legalist syncreticism and private morality
- 8 Legalist cosmology
- 9 Rule by Law
- 10 Shang Yang, Qin and Legalism proper
- 11 Fall
- 12 Legacy and continuity
- 13 Modern revival
- 14 References
- 15 Sources
- 16 External links
The Chinese developed a vast, complex and highly centralized bureaucratic state hundreds of years before Europe's Christian era, with a united realm in the form of the Zhou Dynasty stretching back long before that. Chinese administrative organization, and to an extent technology like metallurgy, was "far in advance of the rest of the world" until "nearly the end of the eighteenth century", influencing western administrative practices not later than the twelfth century and playing a significant role in the development of the modern state, including use of the examination.[11][12][13][14]
The Chinese state was derived from what may be termed as "Chinese administrative philosophy". Its primary aspects formed in the Warring States period, that being the moralist Confucianism, and an often masked and unspoken administrative Realism or "Legalism", which both played important roles and advocated a unified China.[15] Consisting of methodologies for the ruler, in the west Legalist philosophy has often been compared with Machiavelli[16] and termed thusly as Chinese Realist, or in China as Legalist(fa-jia) in reference to trend's later Warring States developments.
Though each period's ideologies contributed to the other, Legalism ultimatly won out as the administrative background, though not the official ideology, because the naturalism of Taoism and the benevolence and virtue of Confucianism lacked succifient active political programs for political reform, not going beyond rhetoric on the past. Ultimately, political realists offered modern, rationalized political formulas, which the late Warring States Legalists based upon law.[17] Pre-Qin Confucianism, and contemporary Mohism with it, also advocated political autonomy for their followers, something which ran counter to any attempts to actually run an administration. Though post-Qin Confucianism was somewhat more integrated, it still often ran counter to the public administration or military capability.[18]
Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality.
The term Legalist was applied by post-Qin historians looking to systematize history in reference to the later reformers of the period, classifying it as one of the four main schools of the Hundred Schools of Thought along with Confucianism, Taoism, and Mohism.[20] Like them it continued to influence Chinese politics, but the term itself is applied posthumously.[21] There was not generally any organized school of "Legalism"; when the Warring States period Qin state made the Book of Lord Shang official and distributed it to the households, Qin reformers accounted this as useless in teaching agriculture. Legalist rhetoric was intended for the ruler, not literary distribution.
As the later Allyn Ricket in Guanzi points out, the term "Legalist" has been used as descriptive of the writings and policies of earlier Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BCE) ministers even where "Realist Confucian" might make a better appellation.[21] Sinologists like Creel, tracing the base for later reform as far back as the early Zhou, prefer "Realist";[13][22] the legal aspect of administration came late to the era, making it an odd term for important foundational realists of similar style whose methods had yet to broach or even mention the establishment of any comprehensive legal system.
Early Background[edit]
Chinese Political development began long before the formalized order of the Warring States Legalists. The long-lasting, "feudalistic" Zhou dynasty, renowned for its stability, long and successfully relied on a system of less methodical interactions between the Emperor and the then-familial aristocracy, establishing the beginnings of a political methodology that could be built upon by later reformers.[13] Early Zhou dynasty documents, not generally referenced as Legalist, emphasized the use of reward and penalty characteristically associated with the Legalism of Lord Shang and Qin of the later, bureaucratizing Warring States Period.[23][24] The Shang shu credits the fifth king of Zhou, King Mu (r. 956-918 BCE), with establishing the first systematic legal code.[25]
Like others, the Chinese state claimed divine and moral authority. But this was not always the case. Discourse on virtue only emerged with the Zhou "Mandate of Heaven", and as late as the early Zhou morality had been implicit if not looser, only tightening with the tracking of patrilineal descent. In the primacy of the Zhou, blood-tied vassal relations needed not be more than informal, and "chivalry" only emerged in the conflict of the Spring and Autumn period.[26]
Following such a historical trend, later Taoists and political realists would come to define the development of morality as decay from a higher order, if not the beginning of disorder (from "Tao" emerges "Teh", or virtue, a semblance of order, and from there only disorder). Both Taoists and Legalist ideology would suggest a return to stability, or stillness. But unlike the Taoists, whose practice centres on inactivity, the Legalist's practice bases itself on active political reform to attain it's end. More simplisticly, the correct political order could be based on the measurement, or the statistical result of any program. Therefore, no dispute is necessary.
With the Zhou-innovated Mandate of Heaven some, like the Confucians, would see the decay as one pertaining to "virtue", and advocate it's practice among the disparate lords. The Mohists would advocate a universal fraternity. Looking back to a period of long, united stability, none of the major schools, the Chinese political body itself, or the Chinese more generally, viewed the political fragmentation as a positive development. Believing that a future restoration of order would result in the supremacy of their ideology, neither did any really believe in disputation.[27]
Later Background[edit]
In the Spring and Autumn period officials began reforms in order to support the authority, states, and militaries of the kings,[21] who solidified the sprawling Zhou realm into their own centralizing states. The Guanzi (text) suggests that much of early Spring and Autumn reformers were more moralistic, and did not always have much of a standardized or comprehensive code to rely upon, instead emphasizing the less systematized orders of the Sovereign (who became increasingly important), or, for instance, the importance of the "five classes" as a basis for order. [28] With the decay of the Zhou line the aristocracy no longer formed a harmonizing interest, and schismatic hostility between the Chinese states. The reforms of Guan Zhong(720-645 BC) applied levies and economic specializations at the village level instead of the aristocracy, and shifted administrative responsibility to professional bureaucrats.
During its expansionist phase(600BC), the hegemonic southern Chu dynasty appointed officials to manage the territories rather than merely create fiefdoms,[29] much to the opposition of its aristocracy. In 543 BC, like Shang Yang two hundred years later, Realist Zichan reformed the state of Zheng on a legal basis, enacting a harsh criminal code. He casted the state's code of law in bronze vessel to be displayed in public as a demonstration of permanence and incorruptibility, a first among the Zhou states. Shang Yang would make similiar such gesutes, and and like him Zhichan reformed agricultural and commercial laws and changed social norms, and discouraged superstition.[30][31]
Reform accelerated with the Warring States Period. Though earlier, successful and expansionist states like Chu had become corrupt, the monarchies concern for reform did not entertain entrenched interests, and many disenfranchised or opportunist aristocrats were increasingly attracted by the reform-oriented rulers, establishing political methodology for the management of bureaucracies. The trend of earlier Zhou decentralization was on the reverse.[22] Shang Yang of the outlying Qin state began reforms in 356 BC, importing and reforming the legal code of later Chu reformer Wu Qi, applying it more thoroughly.
In the sophisticated Warring States period Han, the already well developed officialdom presented its own problems. Shen Buhai – a minister from the Han state from 351 BC to 337 BC, sometimes called the "founder" of "Legalism" (though he did not use law), reframed for his own state the role of the old Zhou sovereign as interpersonal surveyor of the feudal realm in the direction of the officialdom.[22] The "outstandingly important" "foundational" Shen Buhai makes little to no reference to divine authority or ethics.[32] Shen did use Taoist terms like Tao (which, like Fa, Confucianism also uses) and Wu-Wei, but he uses them differently and was concerned neither with religion nor metaphysics. Shen was concerned almost exclusively with administration, and may have been one of the first to become aware of the centuries-long replacement of the feudal order by methodology for the control of what would become a bureaucracy.
Shen Buhai, Tact and Ministerial Management[edit]
If the sovereign does not compare what he sees and hears, he will never get at the real... If the ruler listens straight to one project alone, he cannot distinguish between the stupid and the intelligent. If he holds every projector responsible, ministers cannot confound their abilities.
The early kings did not rely on their strength but on their power (shi); they did not rely on their belief but on their figures. A floating seed, meeting a whirlwind, may be carried a thousand li, because it rides on the power (shi) of the wind. If in measuring an abyss you know that it is a thousand fathoms deep, it is owing to the figures you find by dropping a string. So by depending on the power (shi) of a thing, you will reach a point, however distant it may be, and by keeping the proper figures, you will find out the depth, however deep it may be. In the darkness of the night, even a Li Lou cannot see a great mountain forest, but in the clear morning light, with the brilliant sun, he can distinguish the flying birds above, and below he can see an autumn hair, for the vision of the eye is dependent on the power of the sun. When the highest condition of power (shi) is reached, things are arranged without a multitude of officials and are made fitting by expounding the system.
An opening chapter[35] of the Han Feizi states that "the territorial expansion of the feudal lords leads to the damnation of the Son of Heaven and the extraordinary wealth of ministers leads to the downfall of the ruler... The same reasons never fail to hold true." In-order to advance realpolitikal administration, the foundational reformer Shen Buhai formalized the concept of shu, or technique, which he considered to be the primary good of the ruler, for the management of the autocratic-bureaucratic model of administration.[22]
As part of his technique Shen Buhai (and the later Han Fei) advised that, inorder to ensure that all of his words be revered, a wise ruler should keep a low profile and hide their true intentions by feigning nonchalance and identify their position with the words of inferiors; theoretically, by cloaking both his desires and his will, rulers could force reliance upon their dictates and check sycophancy. If no one can fathom the ruler's motivations, no one can know what behaviour might help them manipulate the ruler and get ahead other than to heed orders and perform meritoriously. Legalism-proper included the use law as part of a program for indirect action.
Legalism ultimately reduced the importance of charisma, and thus the burden on the ruler. In Shen Buhai and Han Fei's programs, intelligent ministers were the ruler's most important aid; the minister's duty was to understand specific affairs, and the ruler was responsible for correctly judging the performance of ministers, something Han Fei recommended be legally systematized. Rather then rely too much on his own judgement, plans could be judged by their results, and rewarded or penalized systematically. The Officialdom could judged by their concurrence (or rejection) of proposed programs.
Shen Dao and Power[edit]
Around the same time as Shen Buhai, Warring States realist Shen Dao emphasized that the head of state was endowed with shi, the "mystery of authority". Chinese Realists recognized that the Emperor's very figure brought legitimacy, but it is the position of rulers that is powerful, not the rulers themselves. Shen Dao and later Han Fei wrote that the ruler alone should hold the powers of reward and penalty; if anyone freely exercised one or the other, they would usurp if not ruin the state for private benefit. Under the later Han Fei, these should not be executed except by the ruler's legal code.
In Shen Dao's context much of his doctrine still meant military despotism and relations with a feudal aristocracy, as was the case earlier, but Shi was understood in realist texts more generally as the administrative if not statistical analysis of the trends, context, and facts. The ascertaining of such facts in congruence with the use of law and technique runs a common theme in realist texts.
Shang Yang emphasizes that the ability to bestow reward and penalty depended upon the material development of the state, and that of the security apparatus. In "Interdicts and Encouragements"[36] the Book of Lord Shang states that the correct method for obtaining knowledge for reward or penalty is power and figures, the obtaining of figures being dependent upon the power of things, such as measuring tools. Reward and penalty require consistency. If no measurement is mandatory, no figure is obtained. Yang emphasized that at the height of Shi, the need for rewards is minimized, and things are made fitting by expounding upon the system, or penalty. That being done, the capital can be used for further development instead.
Legalist syncreticism and private morality[edit]
Hearing virtuous words, one takes them to be capable, and on asking their partisans, one thinks that they are indeed so. Therefore, one prizes them without waiting for them to acquire actual merit, or one punishes them without waiting for them to commit crimes. How can one manage the people of an entire country in this way?[37]
Far from being discrete, the Warring States Realists were very much syncretic, drawing on earlier reforms of the Han, Chu and Wei states, and the intellectual activity like that of the other three "schools". Qin Legalist's emphasis on the definition of ranks and offices contrasts with the earlier Chu dissipation for lackthereof, having used officials to establish its state but failing to define or otherwise establish roles for them.
The hierarchical methods of the international Mohist school and Legalism related, both being antithetical to tradition,[38] having argued the primacy of authority outside the family. Much of Mohism was concerned with political philosophy and, like Legalism proponents, emphasized the meritocratic rather than aristocratic form of government that would be more likely get them into the offices of foreign states.
Earlier Spring and Autumn reformers had often related with morality, and administration with it, and did not quarrel with Confucianism. Later Legalist Ministers Li Si and Han Fei Zi were taught by heterodox Confucian Xunzi[39] who, rejecting the innate human goodness or morality of Mencius, emphasized the importance of education and ritual, which the Legalists re-simplified into Fa (code). Like Confucianism, the later Han Fei also emphasized the importance of loyalty, though more in relation the sovereign than the family.[22]
But though there were exchanges between them, later Realists (Legalists) sometimes rejected or even vilified Confucianism's private morality (or Mohism's watchful justice of ghosts). Confucianism emphasized family alliances,[40] ritual and considers morality in a context of cultivating "virtue" quite apart from law, or otherwise tried to extract its service thereto. Being melded with the conservative order, Warring State's period Realists, especially Shang Yang Legalism, flouted traditional and Confucian moralities in-order to advance reform. Sometimes considered foolish or unacceptable to state interests, Legalist's like Shang Yang restricted patrilineal descent to render such things utilitarian to the state. The still Qin still used patrilineal descent in their reward schemata, especially in the military.
Realists flouting traditional morality related with Taoism in differing degrees as background for their arguments. The later Han Fei makes the Taoist argument against the ultimate veracity of complex moral systems, on the basis of no such complexity existing, for example, in congenial family relations.[41] As in Taoism, the Book of Lord Shang often considers private morality useless or even harmful, though for Shang because it serves to promote people for reasons other than merit, and as in Mohism for the multiplicity of moral opinion. The book instead prescribes that a legal code settle moral disputes, recommending that it be clearly written and public[42] (criticized by the Zhuangzhi as uninspiring). As in Taoism, much of Shang Yang's philosophy grants a central place to the discussion of "essentials" or "fundamentals", but with a focus on the state, and like Shen Buhai does not discuss Taoism or its metaphyiscs.
Much of the syncreticism is just a case of using the same language. Confucianism also uses some of the same language as Taoism. Besides the subtle ideological differences in his Taoistic expositions, realists like Han Fei may not have believed at all in Taoism, just using Taoistic rhetoric. Ultimately, though some realists may even be said to have grounded upon the emerging philosophy of Taoism, by and large their concerns may be called purely administrative if not areligious.[43] Taoist documents like the Zhuangzi criticize administrative methodology as not resting in "prefect natural action", and therefore not succeeding. Legalist law is also considered more in the context of fidelity to the monarch than any moral question of the Confucians; indeed, Shen Buhai does not mention virtue.[44]
Legalist cosmology[edit]
The legitimization of regimes through cosmological narrative is very old, if not universal; in the European Middle Ages, Thoma Aquinas described a "Great Chain of Being" that can be compared with the feudal order, stating that nature itself depended upon a "labyrinth of obligations."[45] Much of Han Fei's writing uses Taoist and naturalistic phraseology. In one instance Fei espouses Taoist utopia as the product of Legalism.[46]
The Chinese Realist's use of Taoism, metaphysics and utopias are generally only considered to have been supplementary to those of immediate practicality, though that is not to say that it does not lend itself to any narrative. Reformers departing from traditional morality often fell back on cosmology to buffer their arguments.[22] Both Taoism and Legalism drew upon older beliefs in the origins of the world in simplicity in the creative power of Heaven, as in the Wu Xing and Iching.[44] For Chinese philosophers in general, the Warring States period was considered one of decline caused by disunity and a decline in authority. Through application, the Legalists suggest an ultimate end to the problems targeted by laws and institutions, if not the institutions themselves.
The Book of Lord Shang explicitely relates order with simplicity and disorder with complexity, teaching that in an orderly state, "laws abolish laws" and "words abolish words".[47] Stillness being attained and the creative purpose of law being accomplished, it goes unused. Thus, together with the tradition of sage-kings, the book regards law as an intermediary tool in a cosmological narrative used by the ruler for the attainment of supremacy (restoration of the mandate) and rectification of the world, not civil progress or reform as such. Han Fei promotes an even more explicitly Taoist vision. Though on the periphery and using more rarefied methods, Qin regarded itself as a rehabilitater of Chinese civilization, referring to its coming era as the "water" phase of Wu Xing to Zhou's "fire" phase.[48]
Rule by Law[edit]
Western sinoligists often contrast the west's "rule of law", based on the restriction of ministerial power, with the early Shang Yang Legalists "rule by law", which developed out of the codification of general royal promulgations backed up by force in-order to achieve social order.[49] Being more basically oriented toward crime and fines, the later Han Fei criticized Yang's method for its lack of ministerial technique, which Fei's legal philosophy based upon the Han state's Shen Buhai. Han Fei's philosophy considers distant exercises of power outside the law, if profitable, to be rewardable innovations.
Shang Yang, Qin and Legalism proper[edit]
The ancients who completed the principal features of legalism... never burdened their mind with avarice nor did they ever burden themselves with selfishness, but they entrusted law and tact with the settlement of order and the suppression of chaos, depended upon reward and punishment for praising the right and blaming the wrong, assigned all measures of lightness and heaviness to yard and weight.[50]
Following an order inviting capable men to the court in-order to recover territory to the east and restore the heritage of Duke Mu of Qin,[51] the Qin king established Shang Yang as a reformer. Contemporary of other Warring States reformers, Yang imported and developed the innovations of other states, including the already developed legal code of Wu Qi of Chu, establishing a more draconian legal system in-order to facilitate agriculture.
Following the Book's doctrine of reward and penalty, people in Qin were granted rights according to their rank. This was reform oriented; Yang's legal code allowed the common people to gain in rank if they performed well. For example, soldiers would gain in rank according to the number of heads the soldiers collected (a practice abandoned as Qin became more successful). A soldier may even gain noble rank. A farmer could gain rank according to his grain (moreso in peacetime than wartime). Lü Buwei, originally a merchant, was able to become Chancellor of Qin, something that would never occur in the other six states which generally only gave higher posts to the well-connected.
To encourage the development uncultivated lands, Qin being underpopulated, the book written after his policies proscribes the temporary abolition of taxes on new immigrants and the determination of land qualities for taxation, stating that even the lazy, the merchants, the criminals and innkeepers would turn farmers under the right conditions. Yang is said to have instituted generally the ability to buy and sell land. Though land could be traded, this did not, at that time, interfere with the system of title grants used in the government's merit-oriented feudal officialdom. These could be sold and money or grain used to purchase ranks, and thus posts and responsibilities. But the maintenance of higher aristocratic ranks and titles required military service if none other significant enough was performed.
A basic tenet of the Book of Lord Shang being that law be made public, well-known and easy to understand, it emphasized "letting the law teach". The law was intended to run the state, make actions taken systematically predictable, and develop the resources of the state through penalty and reward. To avoid conspiracy, Legalists like Shang Yang recommended the administration and the realm generally be divided into mutually observant realms of differing interests. Yang held that if the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler will be strong. To provide this benefit to the state, the doctrine of strict legal application in the Book of Lord Shang stresses that people under the ruler be made equal under the law, if not immediately than ultimately if for no other reason than to enhance the authority of the sovereign.
Accepting Yang's emphasis on the standardization of weights and measures, Qin rulers divided families into smaller households, and adopted, in varying degrees, the practice that no individual in the state should be above the law (and ensuring harsh penalties for all cases of dissent). In theory, if penalties were heavy and the law was equally and impartially applied, neither the weak nor the powerful would be able to escape consequences, and by emphasizing performance over sophistry hoped to eliminate bureaucratic corruption and intrigues. Qin Dynasty legal codes required officials to correctly calculate the exact amount of labour expected of all artisans;[52] if the artisan was ordered to perform either too much work or too little work, the official would be held accountable. In theory, ministers and other officials were prevented from performing some other official's duties and were punished if they attempted to blind the ruler with words or failed to warn the ruler of danger.
There is no ruler of men who can give order to his people for all time, nor is there a country in the world that has not known disorder. Raising virtuous and capable men is the cause of bringing order into the world, but it is also the cause of order becoming disorder.
Whether a return to the aristocratic distribution of the Zhou would have worked or not, the first Emperor believed it to be the cause of disintegration, and opted to maintain the unitarian, bureaucratic legal application over its area. The Han Dynasty did just such a redistribution, gradually parring it away through realpolitik. Though lending itself to the development of a smaller state, incidences resultant of the rigid impersonality of the legal system mounted and resistance to it began soon after the Emperor's death. Chu openly flouted the laws. No alternative or admixture was secured before the fall of the dynasty.[53]
The later Sima Tan, though hailing "fa jia" for "honoring rulers and derogating subjects, and clearly distinguishing offices so that no one can overstep [his responsibilities]", criticized the Legalist approach as "a one-time policy that could not be constantly applied".[54]
Han Fei wrote, regarding the differing methods of his predecessors,
It is impossible to compare them. Man, not eating for ten days, would die, and, wearing no clothes in the midst of great cold, would also die. As to which is more urgently needful to man, clothing or eating, it goes without saying that neither can be dispensed with, for both are means to nourish life. Now Shên Pu-hai spoke about the need of tact and Kung-sun Yang insisted on the use of law. Tact is the means whereby to create posts according to responsibilities, hold actual services accountable according to official titles, exercise the power over life and death, and examine the officials' abilities. It is what the lord of men has in his grip. Law includes mandates and ordinances that are manifest in the official bureaus, penalties that are definite in the mind of the people, rewards that are due to the careful observers of laws, and punishments that are inflicted on the offenders against orders. It is what the subjects and ministers take as model. If the ruler is tactless, delusion will come to the superior; if the subjects and ministers are lawless, disorder will appear among the inferiors. Thus, neither can be dispensed with: both are implements of emperors and kings.[55]
The Book of Lord Shang itself did not hold the principle of law as a suitable base for a large state, describing its application as having a shrinking effect. Though a definitive reformer, Yang was ultimately an absolutist and considered law one tool among others. Never envisioning the extent to which later reformers would attempt to make it a permanent feature if not revolutionary project, the book holds that matters benefiting from an overarching presence ought already be dealt with in the course of the state's development, attaining, as Taoism would say, a natural mode. Yang's book suggested post-conquest enfeoffment (as necessary), mutual responsibility, and decentralization down to the village level referring back to legal authority.
But the Qin government's base rested on the innovation of law as overseen by central officials, and though reiterating the other methods the later Han Fei's philosophy nonetheless further magnifies the importance of law. According to the Han's Grand Historian Sima Qian (c. 145–86 BCE), the First Qin Emperor hid himself from the rest of the world (perhaps due to a desire to attain immortality) and thus maintained a low profile. But he did not follow all of the Legalists' advice on the role of the ruler, continuing this line to the point of not even interacting with his own ministers. leaving this to the Prime Minister, Li Si. Li subsequently altered the royal succession after the Emperor's death to enthrone an incompetent. In a certain sense following one of the philosophical premises for the purpose of law, this heir tried to cause the system to run itself by punishing bad news.
Legacy and continuity[edit]
In their time, Qin and the tendency toward legalism were demonized by Confucian scholars for "dangerously lacking in Confucian scholars;"[56] later, because of actions by the Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi and conflict with some probably non-Confucian scholars;[57][58][59] and later again by then-endorsed post-Qin Confucian scholars for the conflict of legal emphasis with the then-Confucian interests regarding social norms, organic classism and ritual regarded as extraneous by legalistic philosophy. Taoist texts like the Zhuangzhi had also criticized such things as the monarchist-legalist administrative settling of morality as "a mantis trying to restrain a wagon-wheel."
With the fall of Qin Legalism ceased to be an independent "school" of thought. But realist methodology had compounded into necessity, and continued to influence or determine Chinese administration thereafter, though often masked by Confucianism.[60][61][62] Both ancient and modern observers of Chinese politics have argued that Legalism still plays a major role in government. Post-Qin historians marginalized realist philosophy, giving it a superficial categorization to distinguish it from the also sometimes maligned Taoism and resigning it to the past, while Chinese politics demonized but overlooked the use of both in the benign administrative developments needed for the government of a unified China. Political Taoism made a temporary return in the Tang court alongside Buddhism.
Qin Hui memorably glossed the reality of imperial China as "Confucian on the outside, but Legalist within" (儒表法裡, p Rú biǎo, Fǎ lǐ).[63] In the decay of the Han, reformers talked of a return to more legalistic methods, with Liu Bei modernly described, like the Chinese state, as inwardly Legalist while Confucian in appearance. Confucian values, and, During the Sui and Tang dynasty, Buddhist ideas, were used to sugarcoat the external face of the Imperial system's Legalist method. The Sui dynasty's policies during its efforts to reunify China might called "legalistic" and resemble the Qin in some ways, carrying out mass-labour projects in agriculture, said tendency being a likely inspiration for latter attempts at the same by Maoism. Like the Han with the Qin, the Tang government used the government structure left behind by the Sui dynasty, albeit with much reduced punishments.
Often high ranking ministers,[64] and for example Han period texts commonly referred to as Huang-Lao, such as the Huainanzi,[65] use some of the same terms and emphasized some of the same methods, though with more Taoist rhetoric. Another early famous Han "Huang-Lao" text, the Huangdi Neijing, makes the usual realist's reference to calculations within its first few pages.
Modern revival[edit]
Those termed as Legalists are referenced explicitly even in the modern era,[66] with Legalism and Confucianism having been a subject for contrast, debate and discussion by Chinese Communists. The term is now sometimes used by modern scholars to describe policy later than that of the Qin dynasty, such as that of the Han, Wei, Shu Han, or Sui Dynasties,[67][68][69] even while they themselves may not have self-identified with the term. While it was primarily used by old Chinese historians as a categorizer for a "school" of Qin Warring States period and Spring and Autumn philosphy, the use of the term as a descriptor has significantly broadened, and is not considered so taboo.
Earlier Communist ideology criticized Confucianism, detaching Confucian ideology from the state. As Communist ideology plays a less central role in the lives of the masses in the People's Republic of China, top political leaders of the Communist Party of the People's Republic of China such as Xi Jinping articulate institutional supports and continue the rehabilitaiton of Legalist philosophy and technique into the mainstream of Chinese administration alongside Confucianism, both of which Xi sees as relevant. Scholars say the new laws provide a firmer legal framework for civil society and foreign NGOs. By comparison, contemporary India, also faced with issues regarding NGOs, simply revoked the licenses of 8975 non-governmental organizations for accounting violations as being harmful to the economy.[70] Xi vowed to "overhaul the economy, promote social equality, and build a fairer, cleaner legal system."[71][72]
|To realize these goals [of ruling in accord with the law], [we] must uphold the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, uphold the principle position of the people, uphold equality of all people before the law, uphold the combination of ruling the nation in accord with the law and ruling the nation with virtue (以德治国), upholding the [principle of] proceeding on the basis of China's realities.[73]
On February 25, China's state media began the widespread rollout of President Xi Jinping's new ideological directive, the "Four Comprehensives."
Comprehensively build a moderately prosperous society (全面建成小康社会) Comprehensively deepen reform (全面深化改革) Comprehensively govern the nation according to law (全面依法治国) Comprehensively strictly govern the Party (全面从严治党)[74]
"According to a previous report by the International Business Times, this means divesting total, overarching disciplinary power from the central government, and allowing local courts to be supervised by local officials, establishing semi-independent courts to promote judicial independence and reduce interference by local party officials."[75]
- ^ http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/legalism.htm
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- ^ http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/hanfei.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.7&toc.depth=1&toc.id=0&doc.lang=bilingual
- ^ Pines, Yuri (2012). "2013: Submerged by Absolute Power: The Ruler's Predicament in the Han Feizi". In Goldin, Paul R. Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Berlin: Springer.
- ^ http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=worddict&wdrst=0&wdqb=%E5%8B%A2
- ^ a b http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/
- ^ http://ctext.org/shang-jun-shu/interdicts-and-encouragements
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- ^ http://ctext.org/shang-jun-shu/cultivation-of-the-right-standard
- ^ http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- ^ Van der Sprenkel
- ^ a b c Origins of Statecraft in China
- ^ http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/legalism.htm
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- ^ "Han Fei-tzu (d. 233 BCE): Legalist Views on Good Government".
- ^ http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/hanfei.html
- ^ Early Chinese Empires
- ^ Han Fei Zi "Chapter V. The Tao of the Sovereign"
- ^ "Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism"
- ^ a b c Rickett, Guanzi
- ^ a b c d e f Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1
- ^ http://www.duhaime.org/LawMuseum/LawArticle-363/China--A-Legal-History.aspx
- ^ Legge - The Chinese Classics
- ^ http://www.commonwealthprotection.org/AncientChinaLaw.pdf
- ^ Origins of Statecraft in China, Creel
- ^ Mark Edward Lewis, Writing and Authority in Early China
- ^ Ricket, Guanzi
- ^ http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/china01b.htm
- ^ Walker, Robert Louis. The Multi-state System of Ancient China. 1953.
- ^ http://www.commonwealthprotection.org/AncientChinaLaw.pdf
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- ^ Han Fei Zi "Chapter XXX. Inner Congeries of Sayings, The Upper Series: Seven Tacts"
- ^ "Shang Jun Shu : Interdicts and Encouragements". Chinese Text Project. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/hanfei.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.4&toc.depth=1&toc.id=0&doc.lang=bilingual
- ^ http://ctext.org/shang-jun-shu/interdicts-and-encouragements
- ^ a b Shang Jun Shu. "慎法 - Attention to Law". Chinese Text Project. Translated by J.J.L. Duyvendak. Retrieved July 11, 2015.
- ^ http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h425/legalists2.htm
- ^ http://english.eastday.com/e/zx/userobject1ai4046204.html
- ^ http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/legalism.htm
- ^ "Chapter XX. Commentaries on Lao Tzŭ's Teachings"
- ^ "Shang Jun Shu : Cultivation of the Right Standard - Chinese Text Project". Chinese Text Project. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration
- ^ a b Creel, Shen Pu Hai, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1
- ^ Zero Marginal Cost Society, which I just happened to be reading
- ^ "Chapter XXIX. The Principal Features of Legalism"
- ^ "Shang Jun Shu : Making Orders Strict - Chinese Text Project". Chinese Text Project. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ Early Chinese Empires
- ^ http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Substance-Function.htm
- ^ "XWomen CONTENT". virginia.edu. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ Robin Yates
- ^ http://www.chinese.cn/people/en/article/2010-03/29/content_118248.htm
- ^ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/(Shiji 130: 3289–3291; for translations cf. Smith 2003: 141; Goldin 2011: 89).
- ^ Deciding Between Two Legalistic Doctrines
- ^ John Knoblock Xunzi p.29 ("Qiangguo," 16.6).
- ^ Goldin 2005 p.151
- ^ Nylan 2001 p.29-30
- ^ Kern 2010 111-112
- ^ Hooker, Richard. "Legalism".
- ^ "The Han Dynasty" (PDF). Indiana University. Indiana University.
- ^ Watkins, Thayer. "Legalism and the Legalists of Ancient China". applet-magic.com. San José State University.
- ^ Qin Hui. 《传统十论》 [Ten Expositions on Tradition]. 2004. (Chinese) Op. cit. Australian Centre on China and the World. The China Story "Qin Hui 秦晖". Accessed 26 September 2013.
- ^ Mark Edward Lewis, The Early Chinese Empires
- ^ Ulrich Theobald (2010-07-24). "Chinese Literature - Huainanzi 淮南子". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 2014-08-04.
- ^ "Mao Tse-Tung on Legalism and Lord Shang: How China's ancient past influenced its future".
- ^ "Legalism, Qin Empire and Han Dynasty".
- ^ "Decline of Legalism". cultural-china.com. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin, Rafe de Crespigny Publications, Faculty of Asian Studies, ANU". anu.edu.au. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ http://journal-neo.org/2015/06/02/india-fighting-against-foreign-ngos/
- ^ Edward Wong (May 29, 2015). "Chinese Security Laws Elevate the Party and Stifle Dissent. Mao Would Approve.". The New York Times. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
A party conference in October laid the foundation for the party's use of the law to justify and reinforce its rule. The conference called for policies promoting "the Socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics."
- ^ Chris Buckley (October 11, 2014). "Leader Taps Into Chinese Classics in Seeking to Cement Power". The New York Times. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
..."Legalist" thinkers who more than 23 centuries ago argued that people should submit to clean, uncompromising order maintained by a strong ruler...
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
http:.2F.2Fwww.scmp.com.2Fnews.2Fchina.2Farticle.2F1646575.2Fxi-jinping-faces-challenge-governing-through-two-opposing-schools-thought.3Fpage.3Dallwas invoked but never defined (see the help page).
- ^ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ryan-mitchell/decoding-xi-jinpings-four_b_6757744.html
- ^ http://www.ibtimes.com/china-unveils-xi-jinpings-four-comprehensives-governance-plan-what-it-means-chinas-1828506
- Creel, H.G. "The Totalitarianism of the Legalists." Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Tsê-tung. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1953.
- Duyvendak, J.J.L., trans. The Book of Lord Shang: A Classic of the Chinese School of Law. London: Probsthain, 1928.
- Graham, A.C., Disputers of the TAO: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court 1993). ISBN 0-8126-9087-7
- Pu-hai, Shen. "Appendix C: The Shen Pu-hai Fragments." Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C. Translated by Herrlee G. Creel. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974.
- Qian, Sima. Records of the Grand Historian, Qin Dynasty. Translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
- Schwartz, Benjamin I. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985.
- Watson, Burton, trans. Han Fei Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964.
- Xinzhong, Yao, Introduction to Confucianism (2000). ISBN 978-0-521-64312-2
- Potter, Pittman, From Leninist Discipline to Socialist Legalism : Peng Zhen on Law and Political Authority in the PRC2 (2003). ISBN 978-0-8047-4500-0
External links[edit]
- "Chinese Legalism: Documentary Materials and Ancient Totalitarianism"
- Legalist texts - Chinese Text Project (Chinese and English)


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Anjaal primed to go the extra furlong
Chris McGrath
Chris McGrath is Racing Correspondent for The Independent.
Thursday 11 July 2013
Neither trainer nor jockey has been in his service as long as others who could testify gratefully to the fidelity of their patron, but both left the sunshine and flowers of the July Course with optimism that Anjaal could yet seal their growing roles at the centre of Sheikh Hamdan's racing empire.
The winner of the first big juvenile race at this meeting, thriving in a fashion long familiar in two-year-olds trained by Richard Hannon, was produced with a terrific late surge by Paul Hanagan. Anjaal had proved too green to justify heavy support when making his debut at the Guineas meeting, over on the Rowley Mile, but broke his maiden impressively at Beverley last month and has now scaled the next rung on the ladder in trying six furlongs for the first time.
By just outstripping the acceleration of Figure Of Speech, who had seemed poised to land the Portland Place Properties July Stakes for Godolphin, Anjaal earned a quote of only 16-1 from Ladbrokes for the Qipco 2,000 Guineas. "He was very green on his first run and a lot more relaxed today," Hanagan said. "He took forever to get going, and will probably get a bit farther. He has a great temperament, and really did stick his neck out when he needed to."
Coral were happy to offer 33-1 for the Guineas, and his pedigree is equivocal on stamina, but Hannon's son, assistant and namesake felt that his finish from off the pace already demanded the extra distance of a race like the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster. "We gave him a nice break after Beverley and he's done very well for it," Hannon Jnr. said. "He looked there like he needs seven furlongs, and we'll definitely step him up. He was first off the bridle today."
Another with Doncaster in September on his agenda is Feel Like Dancing, who is 20-1 with the sponsors for the Ladbrokes St Leger after winning a sprint finish to the Bahrain Trophy under an alert ride from William Buick. But this race was spoiled by a slow early pace and his case for now depends largely on the supervision of a man who has won two of the last three Legers, John Gosden. "Every run, he has learned something new and improved," Buick said. "I don't think he is ever going to be flashy, and he's a bit babyish, a bit lazy, but he's game and sticks his head out."
The other Group race, the Princess of Wales's Boylesports Stakes, provided the front-running Universal with the perfect platform to exploit an uncontested lead. He may find yet more improvement when stepped up in trip, while his trainer, Mark Johnston, has an emerging star on his hands in Maputo, who broke the course record in a runaway handicap success.
Hannon Jr saddles the outstanding three-year-old filly, Sky Lantern, against just three rivals in the Etihad Airways Falmouth Stakes tomorrow. "If it turns into a sprint, that shouldn't worry her," he said. "She won a listed race over six furlongs and I think at least two of the others want at least a mile. I think she's also the one best suited by fast ground."
Elusive Kate could easily control things from the front but Sky Lantern (2.40) showed remarkable acceleration from a bad draw at Ascot. Ninjago (3.15) also gives the Hannon stable prospects after flattening out over an extra furlong in the Jersey Stakes, while Nardin (1.40) conversely could enjoy the step up in trip under Hanagan.
Fire Blaze (2.10) is meanwhile worth another chance against her Queen Mary conqueror, Rizeena, her very strong debut form suggesting that she can do better than she managed to show at Ascot, especially over this extra furlong.
Turf account
Chris McGrath's Nap
Morpheus (4.50 Ascot) Looks fairly treated for his handicap debut – at the scene of famous wins for his half-brother, Frankel.
Next best
Kikonga (3.40 Ascot) Gave winner a start when missing hat-trick at Pontefract last time but can do better for this stiffer test.
One to watch
Opinion (Sir Michael Stoute) Could not follow up Ascot success at Haydock on Saturday but remains a likely Ebor type after finishing well.
Where the money's going
Belgian Bill and Bertiewhittle, both previously 12-1, now share 8-1 favouritism for the 32Red Bunbury Cup at Newmarket.
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Two LivesPaperback Abacus
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- Publisher: Abacus
- Format: Paperback | 512 pages
- Dimensions: 126mm x 196mm x 36mm | 440g
- Publication date: 6 July 2006
- Publication City/Country: London
- Illustrations note: 24pp of b/w
- Sales rank: 84,893
Product description
TWO LIVES tells the remarkable story of Seth's great uncle and aunt. His great uncle Shanti left India for medical school in Berlin in the 1930s and lodged with a German Jewish family. In the household was a daughter, Henny, who urged her mother 'not to take the blackie'. But a friendship developed and each managed to leave Germany and found their way to Britain as the Nazis rose to power. Shanti joined the army and lost his right arm at the battle of Monte Cassino, while Henny (whose family were to die in the camps) made a life for herself in her adopted country. After the war they married and lived the emigre life in north London where Shanti, despite the loss of his arm, became a much-loved dentist. During his own adolescence in England, Vikram Seth lived with Shanti and Henny and came to know and love them deeply. His is the third life in this story of TWO LIVES. This is also a book about history, encompassing as it does many of the most significant themes and events in the 20th century, whose currents are reflected in the lives of Shanti, Henny and their family: from the Raj and the Indian freedom movement to the Third Reich, the Holocaust and British postwar society.
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Author information
Vikram Seth was born in India. He was educated there and in England, China and the USA. He has written great books in every genre: verse novel (THE GOLDEN GATE); travel book (FROM HEAVEN LAKE winner Thomas Cook Travel Book Award); epic masterpiece (A SUITABLE BOY).
Review quote
This is an accomplished and profoundly moving work DAILY TELEGRAPH Written as an act of love and duty it is a testament to his modesty and familial affection. SUNDAT TIMES A fascinating and honest read. TRIBUNE Seth is a thorough biographer, but his considerable narrative skill is as evident here as it is in his fiction... One of the beauties of TWO LIVES is that it transcends its subject matter, becoming a celebration of endurance, a recognition of all lives pun SUNDAY BUSINESS POST


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Appleseed Cast
Listening to Peregrine, the Appleseed Cast's forthcoming album, you'd never know that the group got its start as an emo outfit named December's Tragic Drive in Lawrence, Kansas, during the late '90s. While peers such as the Get Up Kids have taken their adolescent emoting into alt-country territory, the Appleseed Cast has chosen a much less traveled road. Although there is still a heart-on-the-sleeve sincerity to frontman Chris Crisci's songs, the stylistic and technical experimentation on Peregrine recalls groups as diverse as Death Cab for Cutie, Weezer, and My Morning Jacket. Experimenting with multiple genres and subjecting pedal-pushing live performances to chopped-and-screwed studio manipulations, the Cast has developed a unique sound quilt that is simultaneously organic and inhuman. Like a caged and enraged gorilla, new drummer Nathan Richardson (from Coalesce and the Casket Lottery) brings a restrained brute force to the proceedings, while producer John Congleton gives the quartet plenty of room to roam. Expect an engrossing show as this seasoned outfit pulls off these tricks live.
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BreakAway bolt allows the point to separate from the shaft to reduce the chances of a pull out. Solid fiberglass bolt with moon nock. Includes AMS ring system. Length: 24", Diameter: 22/64".
WC 37" control cable. Made from BCY X material. 24 strand. Translucent 3D end serving. Color – olive and buckskin.
Camo arrow with Dual Spine Weight Forward technology. Features BuffTuff finish for a quiet draw and added durability. Straightness tolerance of +-.0025" and weight tolerance of +-1.0 grain. Available in sizes 250 (.417" spine, 8.0 GPI), 350 (.337" spine, 8.9 GPI), and 450 (.298" spine, 9.7 GPI). Includes BullDog nock collars and inserts. All sizes use 19/64" points. Fletched with 2" Blazer vanes.


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Bda Electro Plating has grown with the times
Bda Electro Plating was founded in the early 1970s doing silver plating, copper and brass polishing for hotels and private homes. In the latter part of the 1970s, a small copper/nickel/chrome process was added, aimed at a completely different market. Over time it expanded in size in order to accommodate larger pieces.
Today we do a variety of ranges from silver plating and repairs, chroming antique plumbing fixtures, boat fixtures and our largest market is motorcycles from the wheels to the frame.
All items are U marked with an identification number and recorded in a log book.
You must be registered or signed-in to post comment or to vote.
Published Oct 5, 2012 at 8:00 am (Updated Oct 4, 2012 at 4:22 pm)
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The Chairman of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), Prof. Attahiru Jega, was recently quoted as saying that political parties in the country budgeted money used to bribe security agents and officials of the electoral body during elections. However, the INEC boss, who spoke at a two-day Roundtable Conference with the theme, "Party Politics in Nigeria and Lobbying, the Lobbyist and the Legislature" in Abuja recently failed to mention one instance or the other of the alleged practice and those involved in the electoral infraction. That notwithstanding, what Jega has said is not new.
The public is aware that something akin to what Jega has disclosed obtains in our polity. We do not need a Jega or an oracle to tell us what we already know. But we had expected that Jega would come up with specific details about the alleged perfidy that has enveloped our electoral system. By not giving details of the odious practice, Jega has scratched the matter on the surface. His intervention would have been helpful if he had provided insight into what government is doing to curtail electoral malpractices and make our elections more credible and acceptable.
We hope that Jega is not seeking for an alibi to hang his future predictable failure. He should not only bemoan the situation, he should be able to proffer solution to the problem. By the way, what has INEC done to curb electoral malpractices in the country or bring to book the perpetrators of various electoral offences? In the past general polls, many electoral offenders were apprehended for some electoral offences, but up till now, nothing has really come out of it. INEC even vowed to prosecute them and advocated for the setting up of special courts for electoral offenders to enable it carry out a diligent trial.
Section 124 (1) paragraphs a-e of the Electoral Act 2010 and Independent National Electoral Commission's Law are very explicit on what constitutes bribery and conspiracy regarded as electoral offences. Paragraph (d) sees as an electoral offender any person who "advances or pays or causes to be paid any money to or for the use of any other person, with the intent that such money or any part thereof shall be expended in bribery at any election or who knowingly pays or causes to be paid any money to any person in discharge or repayment of any money wholly or in part expended in bribery at any election."
Also, Section 123 (4) states that "any person who commits the offence of bribery is liable on conviction to a maximum fine of N500,000 or imprisonment for 12 months or both." The Electoral Act 2010 is replete with offences and penalties, yet no person has been prosecuted and punished for committing electoral offence or offences. The right thing to be done now is to ensure that those who flout electoral laws are apprehended and prosecuted. It is by so doing that others may be deterred from committing such electoral infractions.
All concerned government agencies should henceforth ensure that all electoral offenders are prosecuted and those found guilty are punished in accordance with the provisions of the Electoral Act 2010. We believe that the Nigeria Police should play an important role in the apprehension and trial of electoral offenders. INEC should stop lamenting and do something to make our electoral system clean and acceptable.
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Town and Country Motel
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Art Deco
... where you can even play shuffleboard. Our stay here is in the Oxford Hotel, the oldest hotel in town, built in the 1850's at which time it was a flophouse with an illicit speakeasy. It also had the first vertical shaft (lift !). Amusingly (and very useful for us travellers) the staff change the mat in the lift each day, this has the day of the week on it ! The room has a tassel that you hang on the door to show you are in residence and do not want to be disturbed.... nicer than ...
Rocky Mountains Majesty
... people living there with a median income of $45K, so I guess whatever it is, it was hiding from view.
We drove through an old town called Hot Springs, and this one was stuck in the 60's, though I can see on the internet that it is still selling vacation packages to people interested in bathing in sulfur water.
Granby was a very interesting town. The downtown area is basically a one-story town. But they have ...
Another Incredible Museum
... register and stocking mail. My favorite was the Dust Bowl exhibit that was a life-like recreation of the storm blowing toward the house. We were in an enclosed "house" and the window outside reflected the storm approaching/aftermath. It was several floors chocked full of history in a way that really made it come alive. Our only complaint is we wish we had more ...
The Fifth Day (Denver)
... it looks kind of like the tubes you float in when your in a pool except it is covered at the bottom) and give it to a guy that hooks it into this thing that pulls you up a the hill, kind of like a ski lift. When you get to the top you have to quickly unload and choose which hill you want to slide down. It slides down really fast and it was so fun, you could go down by yourself or there were double tubes where two people could go ...
Home Today and Cherry Danish Tonight
... but, oh for just one Danish. You know, that kind with the exposed cherries in the center that are saturated with sweet cherry filling, and the whole thing is covered with a drizzle of white icing. Nowhere to be found. I'll find one when we get home or I will not sleep.
Of the 21 days we spent here I figured that we walked an average of 8 to 10 miles a day, except for a couple of days of long train travel ...
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Ramada Denver MidtownDowntown, Denver | 2 star motelfrom $98
Motel 6 Denver CentralDenver Central, Denver | 1 star motelfrom $62
Super 8 Denver / I25 & 58th Ave.Denver Central, Denver | 1 star motelfrom $65
Microtel Inn By Wyndham DenverDenver Airport, Denver | 2 star motelfrom $71
Star MotelDenver East, Denver | 1 star motelfrom $37
Rockies InnDowntown, Denver | Motelfrom $45
Motel 6 Denver - AirportDenver East, Denver | 1 star motelfrom $61
Belcaro MotelCherry Creek, Denver | Motelfrom $73
Royal Palace MotelDowntown, Denver | Motelfrom $28
Western Motor InnDenver Central, Denver | Motel$56 average
Cameron MotelDowntown, Denver | Motelfrom $52
La Rue Motel8828 E. Colfax Ave., Denver | Motelfrom $340
Colonial Manor Motel2615 E 46th Ave., Denver | Motelfrom $88