text:
VIEWS: 35 PAGES: 171 CATEGORY: Business POSTED ON: 11/16/2010 Public Domain
What Are Tthe Components of Cost Volume Profit Analysis document sample
Packet 3: Real Options, Acquisition Valuation and Value Enhancement Valuation B40.3331.20 Aswath Damodaran Spring 2009 Aswath Damodaran 1 Real Options: Fact and Fantasy Aswath Damodaran Aswath Damodaran 2 Underlying Theme: Searching for an Elusive Premium Traditional discounted cashflow models under estimate the value of investments, where there are options embedded in the investments to • Delay or defer making the investment (delay) • Adjust or alter production schedules as price changes (flexibility) • Expand into new markets or products at later stages in the process, based upon observing favorable outcomes at the early stages (expansion) • Stop production or abandon investments if the outcomes are unfavorable at early stages (abandonment) Put another way, real option advocates believe that you should be paying a premium on discounted cashflow value estimates. Aswath Damodaran 3 A bad investment… +100 Success 1/2 Today 1/2 Failure -120 Aswath Damodaran 4 Becomes a good one… +80 2/3 +20 1/3 1/3 Now -100 2/3 -20 STOP Aswath Damodaran 5 Three Basic Questions When is there a real option embedded in a decision or an asset? When does that real option have significant economic value? Can that value be estimated using an option pricing model? Aswath Damodaran 6 When is there an option embedded in an action? An option provides the holder with the right to buy or sell a specified quantity of an underlying asset at a fixed price (called a strike price or an exercise price) at or before the expiration date of the option. There has to be a clearly defined underlying asset whose value changes over time in unpredictable ways. The payoffs on this asset (real option) have to be contingent on an specified event occurring within a finite period. Aswath Damodaran 7 Payoff Diagram on a Call Net Payoff on Call Strike Price Price of underlying asset Aswath Damodaran 8 Payoff Diagram on Put Option Net Payoff On Put Strike Price Price of underlying asset Aswath Damodaran 9 When does the option have significant economic value? For an option to have significant economic value, there has to be a restriction on competition in the event of the contingency. In a perfectly competitive product market, no contingency, no matter how positive, will generate positive net present value. At the limit, real options are most valuable when you have exclusivity - you and only you can take advantage of the contingency. They become less valuable as the barriers to competition become less steep. Aswath Damodaran 10 Determinants of option value Variables Relating to Underlying Asset • Value of Underlying Asset; as this value increases, the right to buy at a fixed price (calls) will become more valuable and the right to sell at a fixed price (puts) will become less valuable. • Variance in that value; as the variance increases, both calls and puts will become more valuable because all options have limited downside and depend upon price volatility for upside. • Expected dividends on the asset, which are likely to reduce the price appreciation component of the asset, reducing the value of calls and increasing the value of puts. Variables Relating to Option • Strike Price of Options; the right to buy (sell) at a fixed price becomes more (less) valuable at a lower price. • Life of the Option; both calls and puts benefit from a longer life. Level of Interest Rates; as rates increase, the right to buy (sell) at a fixed price in the future becomes more (less) valuable. Aswath Damodaran 11 When can you use option pricing models to value real options? The notion of a replicating portfolio that drives option pricing models makes them most suited for valuing real options where • The underlying asset is traded - this yield not only observable prices and volatility as inputs to option pricing models but allows for the possibility of creating replicating portfolios • An active marketplace exists for the option itself. • The cost of exercising the option is known with some degree of certainty. When option pricing models are used to value real assets, we have to accept the fact that • The value estimates that emerge will be far more imprecise. • The value can deviate much more dramatically from market price because of the difficulty of arbitrage. Aswath Damodaran 12 Creating a replicating portfolio The objective in creating a replicating portfolio is to use a combination of riskfree borrowing/lending and the underlying asset to create the same cashflows as the option being valued. • Call = Borrowing + Buying D of the Underlying Stock • Put = Selling Short D on Underlying Asset + Lending • The number of shares bought or sold is called the option delta. The principles of arbitrage then apply, and the value of the option has to be equal to the value of the replicating portfolio. Aswath Damodaran 13 The Binomial Option Pricing Model Stock Price Call 100 D - 1.11 B = 60 100 60 Option Details 50 D - 1.11 B = 10 D = 1, B = 36.04 K = $ 40 Call = 1 * 70 - 36.04 = 33.96 t=2 r = 11% 70 D - 1.11 B = 33.96 Call = 33.96 35 D - 1.11 B = 4.99 70 D = 0.8278, B = 21.61 Call = 0.8278 * 50 - 21.61 = 19.42 50 50 10 Call = 19.42 35 Call = 4.99 50 D - 1.11 B = 10 25 D - 1.11 B = 0 D = 0.4, B = 9.01 Call = 0.4 * 35 - 9.01 = 4.99 25 0 Aswath Damodaran 14 The Limiting Distributions…. As the time interval is shortened, the limiting distribution, as t -> 0, can take one of two forms. • If as t -> 0, price changes become smaller, the limiting distribution is the normal distribution and the price process is a continuous one. • If as t->0, price changes remain large, the limiting distribution is the poisson distribution, i.e., a distribution that allows for price jumps. The Black-Scholes model applies when the limiting distribution is the normal distribution , and explicitly assumes that the price process is continuous and that there are no jumps in asset prices. Aswath Damodaran 15 Black and Scholes… The version of the model presented by Black and Scholes was designed to value European options, which were dividend-protected. The value of a call option in the Black-Scholes model can be written as a function of the following variables: S = Current value of the underlying asset K = Strike price of the option t = Life to expiration of the option r = Riskless interest rate corresponding to the life of the option 2 = Variance in the ln(value) of the underlying asset Aswath Damodaran 16 The Black Scholes Model Value of call = S N (d1) - K e-rt N(d2) where, 2 S ln + (r + )t K 2 d1 = t • d2 = d1 - √t The replicating portfolio is embedded in the Black-Scholes model. To replicate this call, you would need to • Buy N(d1) shares of stock; N(d1) is called the option delta • Borrow K e-rt N(d2) Aswath Damodaran 17 The Normal Distribution d N(d) d N(d) d N(d) -3 .0 0 0.00 13 -1 .0 0 0.15 87 1.05 0.85 31 -2 .9 5 0.00 16 -0 .9 5 0.17 11 1.10 0.86 43 -2 .9 0 0.00 19 -0 .9 0 0.18 41 1.15 0.87 49 -2 .8 5 0.00 22 -0 .8 5 0.19 77 1.20 0.88 49 -2 .8 0 0.00 26 -0 .8 0 0.21 19 1.25 0.89 44 -2 .7 5 0.00 30 -0 .7 5 0.22 66 1.30 0.90 32 -2 .7 0 0.00 35 -0 .7 0 0.24 20 1.35 0.91 15 -2 .6 5 0.00 40 -0 .6 5 0.25 78 1.40 0.91 92 -2 .6 0 0.00 47 -0 .6 0 0.27 43 1.45 0.92 65 N(d1) -2 .5 5 -2 .5 0 0.00 54 0.00 62 -0 .5 5 -0 .5 0 0.29 12 0.30 85 1.50 1.55 0.93 32 0.93 94 -2 .4 5 0.00 71 -0 .4 5 0.32 64 1.60 0.94 52 -2 .4 0 0.00 82 -0 .4 0 0.34 46 1.65 0.95 05 -2 .3 5 0.00 94 -0 .3 5 0.36 32 1.70 0.95 54 -2 .3 0 0.01 07 -0 .3 0 0.38 21 1.75 0.95 99 -2 .2 5 0.01 22 -0 .2 5 0.40 13 1.80 0.96 41 -2 .2 0 0.01 39 -0 .2 0 0.42 07 1.85 0.96 78 -2 .1 5 0.01 58 -0 .1 5 0.44 04 1.90 0.97 13 -2 .1 0 0.01 79 -0 .1 0 0.46 02 1.95 0.97 44 -2 .0 5 0.02 02 -0 .0 5 0.48 01 2.00 0.97 72 -2 .0 0 0.02 28 0.00 0.50 00 2.05 0.97 98 -1 .9 5 0.02 56 0.05 0.51 99 2.10 0.98 21 -1 .9 0 0.02 87 0.10 0.53 98 2.15 0.98 42 -1 .8 5 0.03 22 0.15 0.55 96 2.20 0.98 61 -1 .8 0 0.03 59 0.20 0.57 93 2.25 0.98 78 -1 .7 5 0.04 01 0.25 0.59 87 2.30 0.98 93 -1 .7 0 0.04 46 0.30 0.61 79 2.35 0.99 06 d1 -1 .6 5 0.04 95 0.35 0.63 68 2.40 0.99 18 -1 .6 0 0.05 48 0.40 0.65 54 2.45 0.99 29 -1 .5 5 0.06 06 0.45 0.67 36 2.50 0.99 38 -1 .5 0 0.06 68 0.50 0.69 15 2.55 0.99 46 -1 .4 5 0.07 35 0.55 0.70 88 2.60 0.99 53 -1 .4 0 0.08 08 0.60 0.72 57 2.65 0.99 60 -1 .3 5 0.08 85 0.65 0.74 22 2.70 0.99 65 -1 .3 0 0.09 68 0.70 0.75 80 2.75 0.99 70 -1 .2 5 0.10 56 0.75 0.77 34 2.80 0.99 74 -1 .2 0 0.11 51 0.80 0.78 81 2.85 0.99 78 -1 .1 5 0.12 51 0.85 0.80 23 2.90 0.99 81 -1 .1 0 0.13 57 0.90 0.81 59 2.95 0.99 84 -1 .0 5 0.14 69 0.95 0.82 89 3.00 0.99 87 -1 .0 0 0.15 87 1.00 0.84 13 Aswath Damodaran 18 Adjusting for Dividends If the dividend yield (y = dividends/ Current value of the asset) of the underlying asset is expected to remain unchanged during the life of the option, the Black-Scholes model can be modified to take dividends into account. C = S e-yt N(d1) - K e-rt N(d2) where, S 2 ln + (r - y + )t K 2 d1 = t d2 = d1 - √t The value of a put can also be derived: P = K e-rt (1-N(d2)) - S e-yt (1-N(d1)) Aswath Damodaran 19 Choice of Option Pricing Models Most practitioners who use option pricing models to value real options argue for the binomial model over the Black-Scholes and justify this choice by noting that • Early exercise is the rule rather than the exception with real options • Underlying asset values are generally discontinous. If you can develop a binomial tree with outcomes at each node, it looks a great deal like a decision tree from capital budgeting. The question then becomes when and why the two approaches yield different estimates of value. Aswath Damodaran 20 The Decision Tree Alternative Traditional decision tree analysis tends to use • One cost of capital to discount cashflows in each branch to the present • Probabilities to compute an expected value • These values will generally be different from option pricing model values If you modified decision tree analysis to • Use different discount rates at each node to reflect where you are in the decision tree (This is the Copeland solution) (or) • Use the riskfree rate to discount cashflows in each branch, estimate the probabilities to estimate an expected value and adjust the expected value for the market risk in the investment Decision Trees could yield the same values as option pricing models Aswath Damodaran 21 Key Tests for Real Options Is there an option embedded in this asset/ decision? • Can you identify the underlying asset? • Can you specify the contigency under which you will get payoff? Is there exclusivity? • If yes, there is option value. • If no, there is none. • If in between, you have to scale value. Can you use an option pricing model to value the real option? • Is the underlying asset traded? • Can the option be bought and sold? • Is the cost of exercising the option known and clear? Aswath Damodaran 22 Option Pricing Applications in Investment/Strategic Analysis Aswath Damodaran 23 Options in Projects/Investments/Acquisitions One of the limitations of traditional investment analysis is that it is static and does not do a good job of capturing the options embedded in investment. • The first of these options is the option to delay taking a investment, when a firm has exclusive rights to it, until a later date. • The second of these options is taking one investment may allow us to take advantage of other opportunities (investments) in the future • The last option that is embedded in projects is the option to abandon a investment, if the cash flows do not measure up. These options all add value to projects and may make a "bad" investment (from traditional analysis) into a good one. Aswath Damodaran 24 The Option to Delay When a firm has exclusive rights to a project or product for a specific period, it can delay taking this project or product until a later date. A traditional investment analysis just answers the question of whether the project is a "good" one if taken today. Thus, the fact that a project does not pass muster today (because its NPV is negative, or its IRR is less than its hurdle rate) does not mean that the rights to this project are not valuable. Aswath Damodaran 25 Valuing the Option to Delay a Project PV of Cash Flows from Project Initial Investment in Project Present Value of Expected Cash Flows on Product Project's NPV turns Project has negative positive in this section NPV in this section Aswath Damodaran 26 Example 1: Valuing product patents as options A product patent provides the firm with the right to develop the product and market it. It will do so only if the present value of the expected cash flows from the product sales exceed the cost of development. If this does not occur, the firm can shelve the patent and not incur any further costs. If I is the present value of the costs of developing the product, and V is the present value of the expected cashflows from development, the payoffs from owning a product patent can be written as: Payoff from owning a product patent =V-I if V> I =0 if V ≤ I Aswath Damodaran 27 Payoff on Product Option Net Payoff to introduction Cost of product introduction Present Value of cashflows on product Aswath Damodaran 28 Obtaining Inputs for Patent Valuation Input Estimation Process 1. Value of the Underlying Asset Present Value of Cash Inflows from taking project now This will be noisy, but that adds value. 2. Variance in value of underlying asset Variance in cash flows of similar assets or firms Variance in present value from capital budgeting simulation. 3. Exercise Price on Option Option is exercised when investment is made. Cost of making investment on the project ; assumed to be constant in present value dollars. 4. Expiration of the Option Life of the patent 5. Dividend Yield Cost of delay Each year of delay translates into one less year of value-creating cashflows 1 Annual cost of delay = n Aswath Damodaran 29 Valuing a Product Patent: Avonex Biogen, a bio-technology firm, has a patent on Avonex, a drug to treat multiple sclerosis, for the next 17 years, and it plans to produce and sell the drug by itself. The key inputs on the drug are as follows: PV of Cash Flows from Introducing the Drug Now = S = $ 3.422 billion PV of Cost of Developing Drug for Commercial Use = K = $ 2.875 billion Patent Life = t = 17 years Riskless Rate = r = 6.7% (17-year T.Bond rate) Variance in Expected Present Values =2 = 0.224 (Industry average firm variance for bio-tech firms) Expected Cost of Delay = y = 1/17 = 5.89% d1 = 1.1362 N(d1) = 0.8720 d2 = -0.8512 N(d2) = 0.2076 Call Value= 3,422 exp(-0.0589)(17) (0.8720) - 2,875 (exp(-0.067)(17) (0.2076)= $ 907 million Aswath Damodaran 30 The Optimal Time to Exercise Patent value versus Net Present value 1000 900 800 Exercise the option here: Convert patent to commercial product 700 600 Value 500 400 300 200 100 0 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Number of years left on patent Value of patent as option Net present value of patent Aswath Damodaran 31 Valuing a firm with patents The value of a firm with a substantial number of patents can be derived using the option pricing model. Value of Firm = Value of commercial products (using DCF value + Value of existing patents (using option pricing) + (Value of New patents that will be obtained in the future – Cost of obtaining these patents) The last input measures the efficiency of the firm in converting its R&D into commercial products. If we assume that a firm earns its cost of capital from research, this term will become zero. If we use this approach, we should be careful not to double count and allow for a high growth rate in cash flows (in the DCF valuation). Aswath Damodaran 32 Value of Biogen's existing products Biogen had two commercial products (a drug to treat Hepatitis B and Intron) at the time of this valuation that it had licensed to other pharmaceutical firms. The license fees on these products were expected to generate $ 50 million in after-tax cash flows each year for the next 12 years. To value these cash flows, which were guaranteed contractually, the pre- tax cost of debt of the guarantors was used: Present Value of License Fees = $ 50 million (1 – (1.07)-12)/.07 = $ 397.13 million Aswath Damodaran 33 Value of Biogen's Future R&D Biogen continued to fund research into new products, spending about $ 100 million on R&D in the most recent year. These R&D expenses were expected to grow 20% a year for the next 10 years, and 5% thereafter. It was assumed that every dollar invested in research would create $ 1.25 in value in patents (valued using the option pricing model described above) for the next 10 years, and break even after that (i.e., generate $ 1 in patent value for every $ 1 invested in R&D). There was a significant amount of risk associated with this component and the cost of capital was estimated to be 15%. Aswath Damodaran 34 Value of Future R&D Yr Value of R&D Cost Excess Value Present Value Patents (at 15%) 1 $ 150.00 $ 120.00 $ 30.00 $ 26.09 2 $ 180.00 $ 144.00 $ 36.00 $ 27.22 3 $ 216.00 $ 172.80 $ 43.20 $ 28.40 4 $ 259.20 $ 207.36 $ 51.84 $ 29.64 5 $ 311.04 $ 248.83 $ 62.21 $ 30.93 6 $ 373.25 $ 298.60 $ 74.65 $ 32.27 7 $ 447.90 $ 358.32 $ 89.58 $ 33.68 8 $ 537.48 $ 429.98 $ 107.50 $ 35.14 9 $ 644.97 $ 515.98 $ 128.99 $ 36.67 10 $ 773.97 $ 619.17 $ 154.79 $ 38.26 $ 318.30 Aswath Damodaran 35 Value of Biogen The value of Biogen as a firm is the sum of all three components – the present value of cash flows from existing products, the value of Avonex (as an option) and the value created by new research: Value = Existing products + Existing Patents + Value: Future R&D = $ 397.13 million + $ 907 million + $ 318.30 million = $1622.43 million Since Biogen had no debt outstanding, this value was divided by the number of shares outstanding (35.50 million) to arrive at a value per share: Value per share = $ 1,622.43 million / 35.5 = $ 45.70 Aswath Damodaran 36 The Real Options Test: Patents and Technology The Option Test: • Underlying Asset: Product that would be generated by the patent • Contingency: If PV of CFs from development > Cost of development: PV - Cost If PV of CFs from development < Cost of development: 0 The Exclusivity Test: • Patents restrict competitors from developing similar products • Patents do not restrict competitors from developing other products to treat the same disease. The Pricing Test • Underlying Asset: Patents are not traded. Not only do you therefore have to estimate the present values and volatilities yourself, you cannot construct replicating positions or do arbitrage. • Option: Patents are bought and sold, though not as frequently as oil reserves or mines. • Cost of Exercising the Option: This is the cost of converting the patent for commercial production. Here, experience does help and drug firms can make fairly precise estimates of the cost. Conclusion: You can estimate the value of the real option but the quality of your estimate will be a direct function of the quality of your capital budgeting. It works best if you are valuing a publicly traded firm that generates most of its value from one or a few patents - you can use the market value of the firm and the variance in that value then in your option pricing model. Aswath Damodaran 37 Example 2: Valuing Natural Resource Options In a natural resource investment, the underlying asset is the resource and the value of the asset is based upon two variables - the quantity of the resource that is available in the investment and the price of the resource. In most such investments, there is a cost associated with developing the resource, and the difference between the value of the asset extracted and the cost of the development is the profit to the owner of the resource. Defining the cost of development as X, and the estimated value of the resource as V, the potential payoffs on a natural resource option can be written as follows: Payoff on natural resource investment = V - X if V > X =0 if V≤ X Aswath Damodaran 38 Payoff Diagram on Natural Resource Firms Net Payoff on Extraction Cost of Developing Reserve Value of estimated reserve of natural resource Aswath Damodaran 39 Estimating Inputs for Natural Resource Options Input Estimation Process 1. Value of Available Reserves of the Resource Expert estimates (Geologists for oil..); The present value of the after-tax cash flows from the resource are then estimated. 2. Cost of Developing Reserve (Strike Price) Past costs and the specifics of the investment 3. Time to Expiration Relinqushment Period: if asset has to be relinquished at a point in time. Time to exhaust inventory - based upon inventory and capacity output. 4. Variance in value of underlying asset based upon variability of the price of the resources and variability of available reserves. 5. Net Production Revenue (Dividend Yield) Net production revenue every year as percent of market value. 6. Development Lag Calculate present value of reserve based upon the lag. Aswath Damodaran 40 Valuing an Oil Reserve Consider an offshore oil property with an estimated oil reserve of 50 million barrels of oil, where the present value of the development cost is $12 per barrel and the development lag is two years. The firm has the rights to exploit this reserve for the next twenty years and the marginal value per barrel of oil is $12 per barrel currently (Price per barrel - marginal cost per barrel). Once developed, the net production revenue each year will be 5% of the value of the reserves. The riskless rate is 8% and the variance in ln(oil prices) is 0.03. Aswath Damodaran 41 Inputs to Option Pricing Model Current Value of the asset = S = Value of the developed reserve discounted back the length of the development lag at the dividend yield = $12 * 50 /(1.05)2 = $ 544.22 (If development is started today, the oil will not be available for sale until two years from now. The estimated opportunity cost of this delay is the lost production revenue over the delay period. Hence, the discounting of the reserve back at the dividend yield) Exercise Price = Present Value of development cost = $12 * 50 = $600 million Time to expiration on the option = 20 years Variance in the value of the underlying asset = 0.03 Riskless rate =8% Dividend Yield = Net production revenue / Value of reserve = 5% Aswath Damodaran 42 Valuing the Option Based upon these inputs, the Black-Scholes model provides the following value for the call: d1 = 1.0359 N(d1) = 0.8498 d2 = 0.2613 N(d2) = 0.6030 Call Value= 544 .22 exp(-0.05)(20) (0.8498) -600 (exp(-0.08)(20) (0.6030)= $ 97.08 million This oil reserve, though not viable at current prices, still is a valuable property because of its potential to create value if oil prices go up. Aswath Damodaran 43 Extending the option pricing approach to value natural resource firms Since the assets owned by a natural resource firm can be viewed primarily as options, the firm itself can be valued using option pricing models. The preferred approach would be to consider each option separately, value it and cumulate the values of the options to get the firm value. Since this information is likely to be difficult to obtain for large natural resource firms, such as oil companies, which own hundreds of such assets, a variant is to value the entire firm as one option. A purist would probably disagree, arguing that valuing an option on a portfolio of assets (as in this approach) will provide a lower value than valuing a portfolio of options (which is what the natural resource firm really own). Nevertheless, the value obtained from the model still provides an interesting perspective on the determinants of the value of natural resource firms. Aswath Damodaran 44 Valuing Gulf Oil Gulf Oil was the target of a takeover in early 1984 at $70 per share (It had 165.30 million shares outstanding, and total debt of $9.9 billion). • It had estimated reserves of 3038 million barrels of oil and the average cost of developing these reserves was estimated to be $10 a barrel in present value dollars (The development lag is approximately two years). • The average relinquishment life of the reserves is 12 years. • The price of oil was $22.38 per barrel, and the production cost, taxes and royalties were estimated at $7 per barrel. • The bond rate at the time of the analysis was 9.00%. • Gulf was expected to have net production revenues each year of approximately 5% of the value of the developed reserves. The variance in oil prices is 0.03. Aswath Damodaran 45 Valuing Undeveloped Reserves Inputs for valuing undeveloped reserves • Value of underlying asset = Value of estimated reserves discounted back for period of development lag= 3038 * ($ 22.38 - $7) / 1.052 = $42,380.44 • Exercise price = Estimated development cost of reserves = 3038 * $10 = $30,380 million • Time to expiration = Average length of relinquishment option = 12 years • Variance in value of asset = Variance in oil prices = 0.03 • Riskless interest rate = 9% • Dividend yield = Net production revenue/ Value of developed reserves = 5% Based upon these inputs, the Black-Scholes model provides the following value for the call: d1 = 1.6548 N(d1) = 0.9510 d2 = 1.0548 N(d2) = 0.8542 Call Value= 42,380.44 exp(-0.05)(12) (0.9510) -30,380 (exp(-0.09)(12) (0.8542) = $ 13,306 million Aswath Damodaran 46 Valuing Gulf Oil In addition, Gulf Oil had free cashflows to the firm from its oil and gas production of $915 million from already developed reserves and these cashflows are likely to continue for ten years (the remaining lifetime of developed reserves). The present value of these developed reserves, discounted at the weighted average cost of capital of 12.5%, yields: • Value of already developed reserves = 915 (1 - 1.125-10)/.125 = $5065.83 Adding the value of the developed and undeveloped reserves Value of undeveloped reserves = $ 13,306 million Value of production in place = $ 5,066 million Total value of firm = $ 18,372 million Less Outstanding Debt = $ 9,900 million Value of Equity = $ 8,472 million Value per share = $ 8,472/165.3 = $51.25 Aswath Damodaran 47 Putting Natural Resource Options to the Test The Option Test: • Underlying Asset: Oil or gold in reserve • Contingency: If value > Cost of development: Value - Dev Cost If value < Cost of development: 0 The Exclusivity Test: • Natural resource reserves are limited (at least for the short term) • It takes time and resources to develop new reserves The Option Pricing Test • Underlying Asset: While the reserve or mine may not be traded, the commodity is. If we assume that we know the quantity with a fair degree of certainty, you can trade the underlying asset • Option: Oil companies buy and sell reserves from each other regularly. • Cost of Exercising the Option: This is the cost of developing a reserve. Given the experience that commodity companies have with this, they can estimate this cost with a fair degree of precision. Real option pricing models work well with natural resource options. Aswath Damodaran 48 The Option to Expand/Take Other Projects Taking a project today may allow a firm to consider and take other valuable projects in the future. Thus, even though a project may have a negative NPV, it may be a project worth taking if the option it provides the firm (to take other projects in the future) provides a more-than-compensating value. These are the options that firms often call "strategic options" and use as a rationale for taking on "negative NPV" or even "negative return" projects. Aswath Damodaran 49 The Option to Expand PV of Cash Flows from Expansion Additional Investment to Expand Present Value of Expected Cash Flows on Expansion Expansion becomes Firm will not expand in attractive in this section this section Aswath Damodaran 50 An Example of an Expansion Option Ambev is considering introducing a soft drink to the U.S. market. The drink will initially be introduced only in the metropolitan areas of the U.S. and the cost of this "limited introduction" is $ 500 million. A financial analysis of the cash flows from this investment suggests that the present value of the cash flows from this investment to Ambev will be only $ 400 million. Thus, by itself, the new investment has a negative NPV of $ 100 million. If the initial introduction works out well, Ambev could go ahead with a full-scale introduction to the entire market with an additional investment of $ 1 billion any time over the next 5 years. While the current expectation is that the cash flows from having this investment is only $ 750 million, there is considerable uncertainty about both the potential for the drink, leading to significant variance in this estimate. Aswath Damodaran 51 Valuing the Expansion Option Value of the Underlying Asset (S) = PV of Cash Flows from Expansion to entire U.S. market, if done now =$ 750 Million Strike Price (K) = Cost of Expansion into entire U.S market = $ 1000 Million We estimate the standard deviation in the estimate of the project value by using the annualized standard deviation in firm value of publicly traded firms in the beverage markets, which is approximately 34.25%. • Standard Deviation in Underlying Asset"s Value = 34.25% Time to expiration = Period for which expansion option applies = 5 years Call Value= $ 234 Million Aswath Damodaran 52 Considering the Project with Expansion Option NPV of Limited Introduction = $ 400 Million - $ 500 Million = - $ 100 Million Value of Option to Expand to full market= $ 234 Million NPV of Project with option to expand = - $ 100 million + $ 234 million = $ 134 million Invest in the project Aswath Damodaran 53 Opportunities are not Options… Aswath Damodaran 54 The Real Options Test for Expansion Options The Options Test • Underlying Asset: Expansion Project • Contingency If PV of CF from expansion > Expansion Cost: PV - Expansion Cost If PV of CF from expansion < Expansion Cost: 0 The Exclusivity Test • Barriers may range from strong (exclusive licenses granted by the government) to weaker (brand name, knowledge of the market) to weakest (first mover). The Pricing Test • Underlying Asset: As with patents, there is no trading in the underlying asset and you have to estimate value and volatility. • Option: Licenses are sometimes bought and sold, but more diffuse expansion options are not. • Cost of Exercising the Option: Not known with any precision and may itself evolve over time as the market evolves. Using option pricing models to value expansion options will not only yield extremely noisy estimates, but may attach inappropriate premiums to discounted cashflow estimates. Aswath Damodaran 55 Internet Firms as Options Some analysts have justified the valuation of internet firms on the basis that you are buying the option to expand into a very large market. What do you think of this argument? • Is there an option to expand embedded in these firms? • Is it a valuable option? Aswath Damodaran 56 The Option to Abandon A firm may sometimes have the option to abandon a project, if the cash flows do not measure up to expectations. If abandoning the project allows the firm to save itself from further losses, this option can make a project more valuable. PV of Cash Flows from Project Cost of Abandonment Present Value of Expected Cash Flows on Project Aswath Damodaran 57 Valuing the Option to Abandon Airbus is considering a joint venture with Lear Aircraft to produce a small commercial airplane (capable of carrying 40-50 passengers on short haul flights) • Airbus will have to invest $ 500 million for a 50% share of the venture • Its share of the present value of expected cash flows is 480 million. Lear Aircraft, which is eager to enter into the deal, offers to buy Airbus"s 50% share of the investment anytime over the next five years for $ 400 million, if Airbus decides to get out of the venture. A simulation of the cash flows on this time share investment yields a variance in the present value of the cash flows from being in the partnership is 0.16. The project has a life of 30 years. Aswath Damodaran 58 Project with Option to Abandon Value of the Underlying Asset (S) = PV of Cash Flows from Project = $ 480 million Strike Price (K) = Salvage Value from Abandonment = $ 400 million Variance in Underlying Asset"s Value = 0.16 Time to expiration = Life of the Project =5 years Dividend Yield = 1/Life of the Project = 1/30 = 0.033 (We are assuming that the project"s present value will drop by roughly 1/n each year into the project) Assume that the five-year riskless rate is 6%. The value of the put option can be estimated as follows: Aswath Damodaran 59 Should Airbus enter into the joint venture? Value of Put =Ke-rt (1-N(d2))- Se-yt (1-N(d1)) =400 (exp(-0.06)(5) (1-0.4624) - 480 exp(-0.033)(5) (1-0.7882) = $ 73.23 million The value of this abandonment option has to be added on to the net present value of the project of -$ 20 million, yielding a total net present value with the abandonment option of $ 53.23 million. Aswath Damodaran 60 Implications for Investment Analysis/ Valuation Having a option to abandon a project can make otherwise unacceptable projects acceptable. Other things remaining equal, you would attach more value to companies with • More cost flexibility, that is, making more of the costs of the projects into variable costs as opposed to fixed costs. • Fewer long-term contracts/obligations with employees and customers, since these add to the cost of abandoning a project. These actions will undoubtedly cost the firm some value, but this has to be weighed off against the increase in the value of the abandonment option. Aswath Damodaran 61 Option Pricing Applications in the Capital Structure Decision Aswath Damodaran 62 Options in Capital Structure The most direct applications of option pricing in capital structure decisions is in the design of securities. In fact, most complex financial instruments can be broken down into some combination of a simple bond/common stock and a variety of options. • If these securities are to be issued to the public, and traded, the options have to be priced. • If these are non-traded instruments (bank loans, for instance), they still have to be priced into the interest rate on the instrument. The other application of option pricing is in valuing flexibility. Often, firms preserve debt capacity or hold back on issuing debt because they want to maintain flexibility. Aswath Damodaran 63 The Value of Flexibility Firms maintain excess debt capacity or larger cash balances than are warranted by current needs, to meet unexpected future requirements. While maintaining this financing flexibility has value to firms, it also has a cost; the excess debt capacity implies that the firm is giving up some value and has a higher cost of capital. The value of flexibility can be analyzed using the option pricing framework; a firm maintains large cash balances and excess debt capacity in order to have the option to take projects that might arise in the future. Aswath Damodaran 64 Value of Flexibility as an Option Consider a firm that has expected reinvestment needs of X each year, with a standard deviation in that value of X. These external reinvestments include both internal projects and acquisitions. Assume that the firm is limited in its capacity to raise capital, for internal or external reasons and that it can raise L from internal cash flows and its normal access to capital markets. Excess debt capacity becomes useful if external reinvestment needs exceed the firm"s internal funds. If X > L: Excess debt capacity can be used to cover the difference and invest in projects If X<L: Excess debt capacity remains unused (with an associated cost) Aswath Damodaran 65 What happens when you make the investment? If the investment earns excess returns, the firm"s value will increase by the present value of these excess returns over time. If we assume that the excess return each year is constant and perpetual, the present value of the excess returns that would be earned can be written as: Value of investment = (ROC - Cost of capital)/ Cost of capital The value of the investments that you can take because you have excess debt capacity becomes the payoff to maintaining excess debt capacity. If X > L: [(ROC - Cost of capital)/ Cost of capital] New investments If X<L: 0 Aswath Damodaran 66 The Value of Flexibility Aswath Damodaran 67 Disney's Optimal Debt Ratio Debt Ratio Cost of Equity Cost of Debt Cost of Capital 0.00% 13.00% 4.61% 13.00% 10.00% 13.43% 4.61% 12.55% Current:18%13.85% 4.80% 12.22% 20.00% 13.96% 4.99% 12.17% 30.00% 14.65% 5.28% 11.84% 40.00% 15.56% 5.76% 11.64% 50.00% 16.85% 6.56% 11.70% 60.00% 18.77% 7.68% 12.11% 70.00% 21.97% 7.68% 11.97% 80.00% 28.95% 7.97% 12.17% 90.00% 52.14% 9.42% 13.69% Aswath Damodaran 68 Inputs to Option Valuation Model- Disney Model Estimated as In general… For Disney input S Expected annual Measures Average of reinvestment needs (as magnitude of Reinvestment/ % of firm value) reinvestment Value over last needs 5 years = 5.3% 2 Variance in annual Measures how Variance over reinvestment needs much volatility last 5 years in there is in ln(Reinvestmen investment t/Value) =0.375 needs. K (Internal + Normal Measures the Average over access to external capital last 5 years = funds)/ Value constraint 4.8% T 1 year Measures an T =1 annual value for flexibility Aswath Damodaran 69 Valuing Flexibility at Disney The value of an option with these characteristics is 1.6092%. You can consider this the value of the option to take a project, but the overall value of flexibility will still depend upon the quality of the projects taken. In other words, the value of the option to take a project is zero if the project has zero net present value. Disney earns 18.69% on its projects has a cost of capital of 12.22%. The excess return (annually) is 6.47%. Assuming that they can continue to generate these excess returns in perpetuity: Value of Flexibility (annual)= 1.6092%(.0647/.1222) = 0.85 % of value Disney"s cost of capital at its optimal debt ratio is 11.64%. The cost it incurs to maintain flexibility is therefore 0.58% annually (12.22%- 11.64%). It therefore pays to maintain flexibility. Aswath Damodaran 70 Determinants of the Value of Flexibility Capital Constraints (External and Internal): The greater the capacity to raise funds, either internally or externally, the less the value of flexibility. • 1.1: Firms with significant internal operating cash flows should value flexibility less than firms with small or negative operating cash flows. • 1.2: Firms with easy access to financial markets should have a lower value for flexibility than firms without that access. Unpredictability of reinvestment needs: The more unpredictable the reinvestment needs of a firm, the greater the value of flexibility. Capacity to earn excess returns: The greater the capacity to earn excess returns, the greater the value of flexibility. • 1.3: Firms that do not have the capacity to earn or sustain excess returns get no value from flexibility. Aswath Damodaran 71 Option Pricing Applications in Valuation Equity Value in Deeply Troubled Firms Value of Undeveloped Reserves for Natural Resource Firm Value of Patent/License Aswath Damodaran 72 Option Pricing Applications in Equity Valuation Equity in a troubled firm (i.e. a firm with high leverage, negative earnings and a significant chance of bankruptcy) can be viewed as a call option, which is the option to liquidate the firm. Natural resource companies, where the undeveloped reserves can be viewed as options on the natural resource. Start-up firms or high growth firms which derive the bulk of their value from the rights to a product or a service (eg. a patent) Aswath Damodaran 73 Valuing Equity as an option The equity in a firm is a residual claim, i.e., equity holders lay claim to all cashflows left over after other financial claim-holders (debt, preferred stock etc.) have been satisfied. If a firm is liquidated, the same principle applies, with equity investors receiving whatever is left over in the firm after all outstanding debts and other financial claims are paid off. The principle of limited liability, however, protects equity investors in publicly traded firms if the value of the firm is less than the value of the outstanding debt, and they cannot lose more than their investment in the firm. Aswath Damodaran 74 Equity as a call option The payoff to equity investors, on liquidation, can therefore be written as: Payoff to equity on liquidation = V - D if V > D =0 if V ≤ D where, V = Value of the firm D = Face Value of the outstanding debt and other external claims A call option, with a strike price of K, on an asset with a current value of S, has the following payoffs: Payoff on exercise =S-K if S > K =0 if S ≤ K Aswath Damodaran 75 Payoff Diagram for Liquidation Option Net Payoff on Equity Face Value of Debt Value of firm Aswath Damodaran 76 Application to valuation: A simple example Assume that you have a firm whose assets are currently valued at $100 million and that the standard deviation in this asset value is 40%. Further, assume that the face value of debt is $80 million (It is zero coupon debt with 10 years left to maturity). If the ten-year treasury bond rate is 10%, • how much is the equity worth? • What should the interest rate on debt be? Aswath Damodaran 77 Model Parameters Value of the underlying asset = S = Value of the firm = $ 100 million Exercise price = K = Face Value of outstanding debt = $ 80 million Life of the option = t = Life of zero-coupon debt = 10 years Variance in the value of the underlying asset = 2 = Variance in firm value = 0.16 Riskless rate = r = Treasury bond rate corresponding to option life = 10% Aswath Damodaran 78 Valuing Equity as a Call Option Based upon these inputs, the Black-Scholes model provides the following value for the call: • d1 = 1.5994 N(d1) = 0.9451 • d2 = 0.3345 N(d2) = 0.6310 Value of the call = 100 (0.9451) - 80 exp(-0.10)(10) (0.6310) = $75.94 million Value of the outstanding debt = $100 - $75.94 = $24.06 million Interest rate on debt = ($ 80 / $24.06)1/10 -1 = 12.77% Aswath Damodaran 79 I. The Effect of Catastrophic Drops in Value Assume now that a catastrophe wipes out half the value of this firm (the value drops to $ 50 million), while the face value of the debt remains at $ 80 million. What will happen to the equity value of this firm? It will drop in value to $ 25.94 million [ $ 50 million - market value of debt from previous page] It will be worth nothing since debt outstanding > Firm Value It will be worth more than $ 25.94 million Aswath Damodaran 80 Valuing Equity in the Troubled Firm Value of the underlying asset = S = Value of the firm = $ 50 million Exercise price = K = Face Value of outstanding debt = $ 80 million Life of the option = t = Life of zero-coupon debt = 10 years Variance in the value of the underlying asset = 2 = Variance in firm value = 0.16 Riskless rate = r = Treasury bond rate corresponding to option life = 10% Aswath Damodaran 81 The Value of Equity as an Option Based upon these inputs, the Black-Scholes model provides the following value for the call: • d1 = 1.0515 N(d1) = 0.8534 • d2 = -0.2135 N(d2) = 0.4155 Value of the call = 50 (0.8534) - 80 exp(-0.10)(10) (0.4155) = $30.44 million Value of the bond= $50 - $30.44 = $19.56 million The equity in this firm drops by, because of the option characteristics of equity. This might explain why stock in firms, which are in Chapter 11 and essentially bankrupt, still has value. Aswath Damodaran 82 Equity value persists .. Value of Equity as Firm Value Changes 80 70 60 50 Value of Equity 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Value of Firm ($ 80 Face Value of Debt) Aswath Damodaran 83 II. The conflict between stockholders and bondholders Consider again the firm described in the earlier example , with a value of assets of $100 million, a face value of zero-coupon ten-year debt of $80 million, a standard deviation in the value of the firm of 40%. The equity and debt in this firm were valued as follows: • Value of Equity = $75.94 million • Value of Debt = $24.06 million • Value of Firm == $100 million Now assume that the stockholders have the opportunity to take a project with a negative net present value of -$2 million, but assume that this project is a very risky project that will push up the standard deviation in firm value to 50%. Would you invest in this project? a) Yes b) No Aswath Damodaran 84 Valuing Equity after the Project Value of the underlying asset = S = Value of the firm = $ 100 million - $2 million = $ 98 million (The value of the firm is lowered because of the negative net present value project) Exercise price = K = Face Value of outstanding debt = $ 80 million Life of the option = t = Life of zero-coupon debt = 10 years Variance in the value of the underlying asset = 2 = Variance in firm value = 0.25 Riskless rate = r = Treasury bond rate corresponding to option life = 10% Aswath Damodaran 85 Option Valuation Option Pricing Results for Equity and Debt Value • Value of Equity = $77.71 • Value of Debt = $20.29 • Value of Firm = $98.00 The value of equity rises from $75.94 million to $ 77.71 million , even though the firm value declines by $2 million. The increase in equity value comes at the expense of bondholders, who find their wealth decline from $24.06 million to $20.19 million. Aswath Damodaran 86 Effects of an Acquisition Assume that you are the manager of a firm and that you buy another firm, with a fair market value of $ 150 million, for exactly $ 150 million. In an efficient market, the stock price of your firm will Increase Decrease Remain Unchanged Aswath Damodaran 87 Effects on equity of a conglomerate merger You are provided information on two firms, which operate in unrelated businesses and hope to merge. Firm A Firm B Value of the firm $100 million $ 150 million Face Value of Debt (10 yr zeros) $ 80 million $ 50 million Maturity of debt 10 years 10 years Std. Dev. in value 40 % 50 % Correlation between cashflows 0.4 The ten-year bond rate is 10%. The variance in the value of the firm after the acquisition can be calculated as follows: Variance in combined firm value = w12 12 + w22 22 + 2 w1 w2 r1212 = (0.4)2 (0.16) + (0.6)2 (0.25) + 2 (0.4) (0.6) (0.4) (0.4) (0.5) = 0.154 Aswath Damodaran 88 Valuing the Combined Firm The values of equity and debt in the individual firms and the combined firm can then be estimated using the option pricing model: Firm A Firm B Combined firm Value of equity in the firm $75.94 $134.47 $ 207.43 Value of debt in the firm $24.06 $ 15.53 $ 42.57 Value of the firm $100.00 $150.00 $ 250.00 The combined value of the equity prior to the merger is $ 210.41 million and it declines to $207.43 million after. The wealth of the bondholders increases by an equal amount. There is a transfer of wealth from stockholders to bondholders, as a consequence of the merger. Thus, conglomerate mergers that are not followed by increases in leverage are likely to see this redistribution of wealth occur across claim holders in the firm. Aswath Damodaran 89 Obtaining option pricing inputs - Some real world problems The examples that have been used to illustrate the use of option pricing theory to value equity have made some simplifying assumptions. Among them are the following: (1) There were only two claim holders in the firm - debt and equity. (2) There is only one issue of debt outstanding and it can be retired at face value. (3) The debt has a zero coupon and no special features (convertibility, put clauses etc.) (4) The value of the firm and the variance in that value can be estimated. Aswath Damodaran 90 Real World Approaches to Valuing Equity in Troubled Firms: Getting Inputs Input Estimation Process Value of the Firm Cumulate market values of equity and debt (or) Value the assets in place using FCFF and WACC (or) Use cumulated market value of assets, if traded. Variance in Firm Value If stocks and bonds are traded, 2firm = w e2 e2 + w d2 d2 + 2 w e wd red e d where e2 = variance in the stock price we = MV weight of Equity d2 = the variance in the bond price w d = MV weight of debt If not traded, use variances of similarly rated bonds. Use average firm value variance from the industry in which company operates. Value of the Debt If the debt is short term, you can use only the face or book value of the debt. If the debt is long term and coupon bearing, add the cumulated nominal value of these coupons to the face value of the debt. Maturity of the Debt Face value weighted duration of bonds outstanding (or) If not available, use weighted maturity Aswath Damodaran 91 Valuing Equity as an option - Eurotunnel in early 1998 Eurotunnel has been a financial disaster since its opening • In 1997, Eurotunnel had earnings before interest and taxes of -£56 million and net income of -£685 million • At the end of 1997, its book value of equity was -£117 million It had £8,865 million in face value of debt outstanding • The weighted average duration of this debt was 10.93 years Debt Type Face Value Duration Short term 935 0.50 10 year 2435 6.7 20 year 3555 12.6 Longer 1940 18.2 Total £8,865 mil 10.93 years Aswath Damodaran 92 The Basic DCF Valuation The value of the firm estimated using projected cashflows to the firm, discounted at the weighted average cost of capital was £2,312 million. This was based upon the following assumptions – • Revenues will grow 5% a year in perpetuity. • The COGS which is currently 85% of revenues will drop to 65% of revenues in yr 5 and stay at that level. • Capital spending and depreciation will grow 5% a year in perpetuity. • There are no working capital requirements. • The debt ratio, which is currently 95.35%, will drop to 70% after year 5. The cost of debt is 10% in high growth period and 8% after that. • The beta for the stock will be 1.10 for the next five years, and drop to 0.8 after the next 5 years. • The long term bond rate is 6%. Aswath Damodaran 93 Other Inputs The stock has been traded on the London Exchange, and the annualized std deviation based upon ln (prices) is 41%. There are Eurotunnel bonds, that have been traded; the annualized std deviation in ln(price) for the bonds is 17%. • The correlation between stock price and bond price changes has been 0.5. The proportion of debt in the capital structure during the period (1992- 1996) was 85%. • Annualized variance in firm value = (0.15)2 (0.41)2 + (0.85)2 (0.17)2 + 2 (0.15) (0.85)(0.5)(0.41)(0.17)= 0.0335 The 15-year bond rate is 6%. (I used a bond with a duration of roughly 11 years to match the life of my option) Aswath Damodaran 94 Valuing Eurotunnel Equity and Debt Inputs to Model • Value of the underlying asset = S = Value of the firm = £2,312 million • Exercise price = K = Face Value of outstanding debt = £8,865 million • Life of the option = t = Weighted average duration of debt = 10.93 years • Variance in the value of the underlying asset = 2 = Variance in firm value = 0.0335 • Riskless rate = r = Treasury bond rate corresponding to option life = 6% Based upon these inputs, the Black-Scholes model provides the following value for the call: d1 = -0.8337 N(d1) = 0.2023 d2 = -1.4392 N(d2) = 0.0751 Value of the call = 2312 (0.2023) - 8,865 exp(-0.06)(10.93) (0.0751) = £122 million Appropriate interest rate on debt = (8865/2190)(1/10.93)-1= 13.65% Aswath Damodaran 95 In Closing… There are real options everywhere. Most of them have no significant economic value because there is no exclusivity associated with using them. When options have significant economic value, the inputs needed to value them in a binomial model can be used in more traditional approaches (decision trees) to yield equivalent value. The real value from real options lies in • Recognizing that building in flexibility and escape hatches into large decisions has value • Insights we get on understanding how and why companies behave the way they do in investment analysis and capital structure choices. Aswath Damodaran 96 Industry Name Std Dev(Equity) Std Dev(Firm) Industry Name Std Dev(Equity) Std Dev(Firm) Advertising 35.48% 27.11% Household P roducts 29.40% 24.91% Aerospace/Defense 37.40% 33.13% Industrial Services 43.95% 39.62% Air Transport 44.52% 33.80% Insurance (Diversified) 28.46% 26.99% Aluminum 29.20% 22.05% Insurance (Life) 30.61% 29.15% Apparel 45.25% 37.34% Insurance (Prop/Casualty) 26.98% 25.68% Auto & Truck 31.01% 23.90% Investment Co. (Domestic) 23.40% 22.28% Auto Parts (OEM) 31.21% 26.63% Investment Co. (Foreign) 28.01% 27.91% Auto Parts (Replacement) 33.28% 25.71% Investment Co. (Income) 10.95% 10.95% Bank 24.44% 22.44% Machinery 35.25% 30.94% Bank (Canadian) 21.18% 19.12% Manuf. Housing/Rec Veh 41.09% 36.00% Bank (Foreign) 23.12% 22.39% Maritime 33.85% 24.38% Bank (Midwest) 20.13% 19.15% Medical Services 63.58% 55.77% Beverage (Alcoholic) 22.21% 20.24% Medical Supplies 54.33% 50.44% Beverage (Soft Drink) 37.59% 32.50% Metal Fabricating 35.61% 32.85% Building Materials 35.68% 31.08% Metals & Mining (Div.) 55.48% 50.20% Cable TV 41.41% 21.67% Natural Gas (Distrib.) 19.35% 15.23% Canadian Energy 25.24% 21.41% Natural Gas (Diversified) 33.69% 28.21% Cement & Aggregates 32.83% 29.86% Newspaper 23.54% 19.99% Chemical (Basic) 29.43% 25.16% Office Equip & Supplies 34.40% 29.32% Chemical (Diversified) 30.87% 27.01% Oilfield Services/Equip. 43.25% 39.70% Chemical (Specialty) 33.74% 29.34% Packaging & Container 37.44% 30.32% Coal/Alternate Energy 40.48% 34.85% Paper & Forest Products 28.41% 17.50% Computer & Peripherals 64.64% 59.54% Petroleum (Integrated) 25.66% 20.98% Computer Software & Svcs 52.88% 50.35% Petroleum (P roducing) 49.32% 42.47% Copper 30.41% 12.62% Precision Instrument 47.36% 44.21% Diversified Co. 42.82% 35.20% Publishing 35.89% 30.75% Drug 59.77% 58.50% R.E.I.T. 25.06% 24.52% Drugstore 47.64% 36.63% Railroad 23.73% 19.37% Electric Util. (Central) 14.93% 11.38% Recreation 50.25% 39.58% Electric Utility (East) 16.56% 11.67% Restaurant 40.12% 35.55% Electric Utility (West) 18.18% 13.80% Retail (Special Lines) 51.20% 39.98% Electrical Equipment 43.70% 39.49% Retail Building Supply 40.55% 33.95% Electronics 53.39% 48.39% Retail Store 40.14% 29.46% Entertainment 36.01% 28.95% Securities Brokerage 33.42% 22.74% Environmental 53.98% 43.74% Semiconductor 54.64% 52.72% Financial Services 36.16% 27.68% Semiconductor Cap Equip 53.41% 52.50% Food Processing 33.13% 26.83% Shoe 44.63% 40.08% Food Wholesalers 27.60% 22.11% Steel (General) 33.73% 28.96% Foreign Diversified 91.01% 44.08% Steel (Integrated) 40.34% 27.69% Foreign Electron/Entertn 34.03% 29.17% Telecom. Equipment 61.61% 56.72% Foreign Telecom. 36.18% 32.99% Telecom. Services 42.29% 35.05% Furn./Home Furnishings 34.62% 30.90% Textile 31.60% 24.12% Gold/Silver Mining 49.57% 46.46% Thrift 28.94% 26.42% Grocery 31.64% 21.84% Tire & Rubber 26.39% 23.60% Healthcare Info Systems 57.80% 54.69% Tobacco 33.85% 25.31% Home Appliance 34.82% 29.48% Toiletries/Cosmetics 42.97% 36.82% Homebuilding 43.66% 27.13% Trucking/Transp. Leasing 38.09% 29.21% Hotel/Gaming 45.01% 29.76% Utility (Foreign) 23.17% 18.34% Water Utility 18.53% 14.16% Aswath Damodaran 97 Acquirers Anonymous: Seven Steps back to Sobriety… Aswath Damodaran Stern School of Business, New York University www.damodaran.com Aswath Damodaran 98 Acquisitions are great for target companies but not always for acquiring company stockholders… Aswath Damodaran 99 And the long-term follow up is not positive either.. o Managers often argue that the market is unable to see the long term benefits of mergers that they can see at the time of the deal. If they are right, mergers should create long term benefits to acquiring firms. o The evidence does not support this hypothesis: o McKinsey and Co. has examined acquisition programs at companies on o Did the return on capital invested in acquisitions exceed the cost of capital? o Did the acquisitions help the parent companies outperform the competition? Half of all programs failed one test, and a quarter failed both. o Synergy is elusive. KPMG in a more recent study of global acquisitions concludes that most mergers (>80%) fail - the merged companies do worse than their peer group. o A large number of acquisitions that are reversed within fairly short time periods. About 20% of the acquisitions made between 1982 and 1986 were divested by 1988. In studies that have tracked acquisitions for longer time periods (ten years or more) the divestiture rate of acquisitions rises to almost 50%. Aswath Damodaran 100 A scary thought… The disease is spreading… Indian firms acquiring US targets – 1999 - 2005 Indian Acquirers: Returns around acquisition announcements Aswath Damodaran 101 Growing through acquisitions seems to be a "loser's game" Firms that grow through acquisitions have generally had far more trouble creating value than firms that grow through internal investments. In general, acquiring firms tend to • Pay too much for target firms • Over estimate the value of "synergy" and "control" • Have a difficult time delivering the promised benefits Worse still, there seems to be very little learning built into the process. The same mistakes are made over and over again, often by the same firms with the same advisors. Conclusion: There is something structurally wrong with the process for acquisitions which is feeding into the mistakes. Aswath Damodaran 102 The seven sins in acquisitions… 1. Risk Transference: Attributing acquiring company risk characteristics to the target firm. 2. Debt subsidies: Subsiding target firm stockholders for the strengths of the acquiring firm. 3. Auto-pilot Control: The "20% control premium" and other myth… 4. Elusive Synergy: Misidentifying and mis-valuing synergy. 5. Its all relative: Transaction multiples, exit multiples… 6. Verdict first, trial afterwards: Price first, valuation to follow 7. It"s not my fault: Holding no one responsible for delivering results. Aswath Damodaran 103 Testing sheet Test Passed/Failed Rationalization Risk transference Debt subsidies Control premium The value of synergy Comparables and Exit Multiples Bias A successful acquisition strategy Aswath Damodaran 104 Lets start with a target firm The target firm has the following income statement: Revenues 100 - Operating Expenses 80 = Operating Income 20 - Taxes 8 = After-tax OI 12 Assume that this firm will generate this operating income forever (with no growth) and that the cost of equity for this firm is 20%. The firm has no debt outstanding. What is the value of this firm? Aswath Damodaran 105 Test 1: Risk Transference… Assume that as an acquiring firm, you are in a much safer business and have a cost of equity of 10%. What is the value of the target firm to you? Aswath Damodaran 106 Lesson 1: Don't transfer your risk characteristics to the target firm The cost of equity used for an investment should reflect the risk of the investment and not the risk characteristics of the investor who raised the funds. Risky businesses cannot become safe just because the buyer of these businesses is in a safe business. Aswath Damodaran 107 Test 2: Cheap debt? Assume as an acquirer that you have access to cheap debt (at 4%) and that you plan to fund half the acquisition with debt. How much would you be willing to pay for the target firm? Aswath Damodaran 108 Lesson 2: Render unto the target firm that which is the target firm's but not a penny more.. As an acquiring firm, it is entirely possible that you can borrow much more than the target firm can on its own and at a much lower rate. If you build these characteristics into the valuation of the target firm, you are essentially transferring wealth from your firm"s stockholder to the target firm"s stockholders. When valuing a target firm, use a cost of capital that reflects the debt capacity and the cost of debt that would apply to the firm. Aswath Damodaran 109 Test 3: Control Premiums Assume that you are now told that it is conventional to pay a 20% premium for control in acquisitions (backed up by Mergerstat). How much would you be willing to pay for the target firm? Would your answer change if I told you that you can run the target firm better and that if you do, you will be able to generate a 30% pre- tax operating margin (rather than the 20% margin that is currently being earned). What if the target firm were perfectly run? Aswath Damodaran 110 Lesson 3: Beware of rules of thumb… Valuation is cluttered with rules of thumb. After painstakingly valuing a target firm, using your best estimates, you will be often be told that • It is common practice to add arbitrary premiums for brand name, quality of management, control etc… • These premiums will be often be backed up by data, studies and services. What they will not reveal is the enormous sampling bias in the studies and the standard errors in the estimates. • If you have done your valuation right, those premiums should already be incorporated in your estimated value. Paying a premium will be double counting. Aswath Damodaran 111 Test 4: Synergy…. Assume that you are told that the combined firm will be less risky than the two individual firms and that it should have a lower cost of capital (and a higher value). Is this likely? Assume now that you are told that there are potential growth and cost savings synergies in the acquisition. Would that increase the value of the target firm? Should you pay this as a premium? Aswath Damodaran 112 The Value of Synergy Synergy is created when two firms are combined and can be either financial or operating Operating Synergy accrues to the combined firm as Financial Synergy Added Debt Strategic Advantages Economies of Scale Tax Benefits Capacity Diversification? Higher returns on More new More sustainable Cost Savings in Lower taxes on Higher debt May reduce new investments Investments excess returns current operations earnings due to raito and lower cost of equity - higher cost of capital for private or depreciaiton closely held - operating loss firm Higher ROC Higher Reinvestment carryforwards Longer Growth Higher Margin Higher Growth Higher Growth Rate Period Rate Higher Base- year EBIT Aswath Damodaran 113 Valuing Synergy (1) the firms involved in the merger are valued independently, by discounting expected cash flows to each firm at the weighted average cost of capital for that firm. (2) the value of the combined firm, with no synergy, is obtained by adding the values obtained for each firm in the first step. (3) The effects of synergy are built into expected growth rates and cashflows, and the combined firm is re-valued with synergy. Value of Synergy = Value of the combined firm, with synergy - Value of the combined firm, without synergy Aswath Damodaran 114 Synergy: Example 1 The illusion of "lower risk" When we estimate the cost of equity for a publicly traded firm, we focus only on the risk that cannot be diversified away in that firm (which is the rationale for using beta or betas to estimate the cost of equity). When two firms merge, it is true that the combined firm may be less risky than the two firms individually, but the risk that is reduced is "firm specified risk". By definition, market risk is risk that cannot be diversified away and the beta of the combined firm will always be a weighted average of the betas of the two firms in the merger. When does it make sense to "merge" to reduce total risk? Aswath Damodaran 115 Synergy - Example 2 Higher growth and cost savings P&G Gillette Piglet: No Synergy Piglet: Synergy Free Cashflow to Equity $5,864.74 $1,547.50 $7,412.24 $7,569.73 Annual operating expenses reduced by $250 million Growth rate for first 5 years 12% 10% 11.58% 12.50% Slighly higher growth rate Growth rate after five years 4% 4% 4.00% 4.00% Beta 0.90 0.80 0.88 0.88 Cost of Equity 7.90% 7.50% 7.81% 7.81% Value of synergy Value of Equity $221,292 $59,878 $281,170 $298,355 $17,185 Aswath Damodaran 116 Synergy: Example 3 Tax Benefits? Assume that you are Best Buys, the electronics retailer, and that you would like to enter the hardware component of the market. You have been approached by investment bankers for Zenith, which while still a recognized brand name, is on its last legs financially. The firm has net operating losses of $ 2 billion. If your tax rate is 36%, estimate the tax benefits from this acquisition. If Best Buys had only $500 million in taxable income, how would you compute the tax benefits? If the market value of Zenith is $800 million, would you pay this tax benefit as a premium on the market value? Aswath Damodaran 117 Synergy: Example 4 Asset Write-up One of the earliest leveraged buyouts was done on Congoleum Inc., a diversified firm in ship building, flooring and automotive accessories, in 1979 by the firm's own management. • After the takeover, estimated to cost $400 million, the firm would be allowed to write up its assets to reflect their new market values, and claim depreciation on the new values. • The estimated change in depreciation and the present value effect of this depreciation, discounted at the firm's cost of capital of 14.5% is shown below: Aswath Damodaran 118 Congoleum's Tax Benefits Year Deprec'n Deprec'n Change in Tax Savings PV before after Deprec'n 1980 $8.00 $35.51 $27.51 $13.20 $11.53 1981 $8.80 $36.26 $27.46 $13.18 $10.05 1982 $9.68 $37.07 $27.39 $13.15 $8.76 1983 $10.65 $37.95 $27.30 $13.10 $7.62 1984 $11.71 $21.23 $9.52 $4.57 $2.32 1985 $12.65 $17.50 $4.85 $2.33 $1.03 1986 $13.66 $16.00 $2.34 $1.12 $0.43 1987 $14.75 $14.75 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 1988 $15.94 $15.94 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 1989 $17.21 $17.21 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 1980-89 $123.05 $249.42 $126.37 $60.66 $41.76 Aswath Damodaran 119 Lesson 4: Don't pay for buzz words Through time, acquirers have always found ways of justifying paying for premiums over estimated value by using buzz words - synergy in the 1980s, strategic considerations in the 1990s and real options in this decade. While all of these can have value, the onus should be on those pushing for the acquisitions to show that they do and not on those pushing against them to show that they do not. Aswath Damodaran 120 Test 5: Comparables and Exit Multiples Now assume that you are told that an analysis of other acquisitions reveals that acquirers have been willing to pay 5 times EBIT.. Given that your target firm has EBIT of $ 20 million, would you be willing to pay $ 100 million for the acquisition? What if I estimate the terminal value using an exit multiple of 5 times EBIT? As an additional input, your investment banker tells you that the acquisition is accretive. (Your PE ratio is 20 whereas the PE ratio of the target is only 10… Therefore, you will get a jump in earnings per share after the acquisition…) Aswath Damodaran 121 Biased samples = Poor results Biased samples yield biased results. Basing what you pay on what other acquirers have paid is a recipe for disaster. After all, we know that acquirer, on average, pay too much for acquisitions. By matching their prices, we risk replicating their mistakes. Even when we use the pricing metrics of other firms in the sector, we may be basing the prices we pay on firms that are not truly comparable. When we use exit multiples, we are assuming that what the market is paying for comparable companies today is what it will continue to pay in the future. Aswath Damodaran 122 Lesson 5: Don't be a lemming… All too often, acquisitions are justified by using one of the following two arguments: • Every one else in your sector is doing acquisitions. You have to do the same to survive. • The value of a target firm is based upon what others have paid on acquisitions, which may be much higher than what your estimate of value for the firm is. With the right set of comparable firms (selected to back up your story), you can justify almost any price. And EPS accretion is a meaningless measure. After all, buying an company with a PE lower than yours will lead mathematically to EPS accretion. Aswath Damodaran 123 Test 6: The CEO really wants to do this… Now assume that you know that the CEO of the acquiring firm really, really wants to do this acquisition and that the investment bankers on both sides have produced fairness opinions that indicate that the firm is worth $ 100 million. Would you be willing to go along? Aswath Damodaran 124 Lesson 6: Don't let egos or investment bankers get the better of common sense… If you define your objective in a bidding war as winning the auction at any cost, you will win. But beware the winner"s curse! The premiums paid on acquisitions often have nothing to do with synergy, control or strategic considerations (though they may be provided as the reasons). They may just reflect the egos of the CEOs of the acquiring firms. Aswath Damodaran 125 Test 7: Is it hopeless? The odds seem to be clearly weighted against success in acquisitions. If you were to create a strategy to grow, based upon acquisitions, which of the following offers your best chance of success? This Or this Public target Private target Pay with cash Pay with stock Small target Large target Cost synergies Growth synergies Aswath Damodaran 126 You are better off buying small rather than large targets… with cash rather than stock Aswath Damodaran 127 And focusing on private firms and subsidiaries, rather than public firms… Aswath Damodaran 128 Synergy: Odds of success Studies that have focused on synergies have concluded that you are far more likely to deliver cost synergies than growth synergies. Synergies that are concrete and planned for at the time of the merger are more likely to be delivered than fuzzy synergies. Synergy is much more likely to show up when someone is held responsible for delivering the synergy. You are more likely to get a share of the synergy gains in an acquisition when you are a single bidder than if you are one of multiple bidders. Aswath Damodaran 129 Lesson 7: For acquisitions to create value, you have to stay disciplined.. If you have a successful acquisition strategy, stay focused on that strategy. Don"t let size or hubris drive you to "expand" the strategy. Realistic plans for delivering synergy and control have to be put in place before the merger is completed. By realistic, we have to mean that the magnitude of the benefits have to be reachable and not pipe dreams and that the time frame should reflect the reality that it takes a while for two organizations to work as one. The best thing to do in a bidding war is to drop out. Someone (preferably the person pushing hardest for the merger) should be held to account for delivering the benefits. The compensation for investment bankers and others involved in the deal should be tied to how well the deal works rather than for getting the deal done. Aswath Damodaran 130 Value Enhancement and the Expected Value of Control: Back to Basics Aswath Damodaran 131 Price Enhancement versus Value Enhancement Aswath Damodaran 132 The Paths to Value Creation Using the DCF framework, there are four basic ways in which the value of a firm can be enhanced: • The cash flows from existing assets to the firm can be increased, by either – increasing after-tax earnings from assets in place or – reducing reinvestment needs (net capital expenditures or working capital) • The expected growth rate in these cash flows can be increased by either – Increasing the rate of reinvestment in the firm – Improving the return on capital on those reinvestments • The length of the high growth period can be extended to allow for more years of high growth. • The cost of capital can be reduced by – Reducing the operating risk in investments/assets – Changing the financial mix – Changing the financing composition Aswath Damodaran 133 Value Creation 1: Increase Cash Flows from Assets in Place More efficient operations and Revenues cost cuttting: Higher Margins * Operating Margin = EBIT Divest assets that have negative EBIT - Tax Rate * EBIT = EBIT (1-t) Live off past over- Reduce tax rate investment - moving income to lower tax locales + Depreciation - transfer pricing - Capital Expenditures - risk management - Chg in Working Capital Better inventory = FCFF management and tighter credit policies Aswath Damodaran 134 Value Creation 2: Increase Expected Growth Reinvest more in Do acquisitions projects Reinvestment Rate Increase operating * Return on Capital Increase capital turnover ratio margins = Expected Growth Rate Price Leader versus Volume Leader Strategies Return on Capital = Operating Margin * Capital Turnover Ratio Aswath Damodaran 135 Value Creating Growth… Evaluating the Alternatives.. Aswath Damodaran 136 III. Building Competitive Advantages: Increase length of the growth period Increase l ength of growth period Build on existing Find new competitive competitive advantages advantages Brand Legal Switching Cost name Protection Costs advantages Aswath Damodaran 137 Value Creation 4: Reduce Cost of Capital Outsourcing Flexible wage contracts & cost structure Reduce operating Change financing mix leverage Cost of Equity (E/(D+E) + Pre-tax Cost of Debt (D./(D+E)) = Cost of Capital Make product or service Match debt to less discretionary to assets, reducing customers default risk Changing More Swaps Derivatives Hybrids product effective characteristics advertising Aswath Damodaran 138 Avg Reinvestment SAP: Status Quo rate = 36.94% Return on Capital Reinvestment Rate 19.93% Curre nt Cashflow to Firm 57.42% EBIT(1-t) : 1414 Expected Growth - Nt CpX 831 in EBIT (1-t) Stable Growth - Chg WC - 19 .5742*.1993=.1144 g = 3.41%; Beta = 1.00; 11.44 % Debt Ratio= 20% = FCFF 602 Cost of capital = 6.62% Reinvestment Rate = 812/1414 ROC= 6.62%; Tax rate=35% =57.42% Reinvestment Rate=51.54% Growth decreases Terminal Value = 1717/(.0662-.0341) = 53546 10 First 5 years gradually to 3.41% Op. Assets 31,615 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Term Yr + Cash: 3,018 EBIT 2,483 2,767 3,083 3,436 3,829 4,206 4,552 4,854 5,097 5,271 5451 - Debt 558 EBIT(1-t) 1,576 1,756 1,957 2,181 2,430 2,669 2,889 3,080 3,235 3,345 3543 - Pension Lian 305 - Reinvestm 905 1,008 1,124 1,252 1,395 1,501 1,591 1,660 1,705 1,724 1826 - Minor. Int. 55 = FCFF 671 748 833 929 1,035 1,168 1,298 1,420 1,530 1,621 1717 =Equity 34,656 -Options 180 Value/Share106.12 Cost of Capital (WACC) = 8.77% (0.986) + 2.39% (0.014) = 8.68% Debt ratio increases to 20% Beta decreases to 1.00 On May 5, 2005, SAP was trading at Cost of Equity Cost of Debt 122 Euros/share 8.77% (3.41%+..35%)(1-.3654) We ights = 2.39% E = 98.6% D = 1.4% Riskfree Rate: Risk Pre mium Euro riskfree rate = 3.41% Beta 4.25% + 1.26 X Unlevered Beta for Mature risk Country Sectors: 1.25 premium Equity Prem 4% 0.25% Aswath Damodaran 139 SAP : Optimal Capital Structure Debt Ratio Beta Cost of Equity Bond Rating Interest rate on debt Tax Rate Cost of Debt (after-tax) WACC Firm Value (G) 0% 1.25 8.72% AAA 3.76% 36.54% 2.39% 8.72% $39,088 10% 1.34 9.09% AAA 3.76% 36.54% 2.39% 8.42% $41,480 20% 1.45 9.56% A 4.26% 36.54% 2.70% 8.19% $43,567 30% 1.59 10.16% A- 4.41% 36.54% 2.80% 7.95% $45,900 40% 1.78 10.96% CCC 11.41% 36.54% 7.24% 9.47% $34,043 50% 2.22 12.85% C 15.41% 22.08% 12.01% 12.43% $22,444 60% 2.78 15.21% C 15.41% 18.40% 12.58% 13.63% $19,650 70% 3.70 19.15% C 15.41% 15.77% 12.98% 14.83% $17,444 80% 5.55 27.01% C 15.41% 13.80% 13.28% 16.03% $15,658 90% 11.11 50.62% C 15.41% 12.26% 13.52% 17.23% $14,181 Aswath Damodaran 140 Avg Reinvestment SAP: Restructured rate = 36.94% Reinvest more in Return on Capital Reinvestment Rate emerging markets 19.93% Curre nt Cashflow to Firm 70% EBIT(1-t) : 1414 Expected Growth - Nt CpX 831 in EBIT (1-t) Stable Growth - Chg WC - 19 .70*.1993=.1144 g = 3.41%; Beta = 1.00; 13.99 % Debt Ratio= 30% = FCFF 602 Cost of capital = 6.27% Reinvestment Rate = 812/1414 ROC= 6.27%; Tax rate=35% =57.42% Reinvestment Rate=54.38% Growth decreases Terminal Value = 1898/(.0627-.0341) = 66367 10 First 5 years gradually to 3.41% Op. Assets 38045 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Term Yr + Cash: 3,018 EBIT 2,543 2,898 3,304 3,766 4,293 4,802 5,271 5,673 5,987 6,191 6402 - Debt 558 EBIT(1-t) 1,614 1,839 2,097 2,390 2,724 3,047 3,345 3,600 3,799 3,929 4161 - Pension Lian 305 - Reinvest 1,130 1,288 1,468 1,673 1,907 2,011 2,074 2,089 2,052 1,965 2263 - Minor. Int. 55 = FCFF 484 552 629 717 817 1,036 1,271 1,512 1,747 1,963 1898 =Equity 40157 -Options 180 Value/Share 126.51 Cost of Capital (WACC) = 10.57% (0.70) + 2.80% (0.30) = 8.24% On May 5, 2005, SAP was trading at Cost of Equity Cost of Debt 122 Euros/share 10.57% (3.41%+1.00%)(1-.3654) We ights = 2.80% E = 70% D = 30% Use more debt financing. Riskfree Rate: Risk Pre mium Euro riskfree rate = 3.41% Beta 4.50% + 1.59 X Unlevered Beta for Mature risk Country Sectors: 1.25 premium Equity Prem 4% 0.5% Aswath Damodaran 141 Blockbuster: Status Quo Return on Capital Reinvestment Rate 4.06% Curre nt Cashflow to Firm 26.46% EBIT(1-t) : 163 Expected Growth - Nt CpX 39 in EBIT (1-t) Stable Growth - Chg WC 4 .2645*.0406=.0107 g = 3%; Beta = 1.00; 1.07 % Cost of capital = 6.76% = FCFF 120 ROC= 6.76%; Tax rate=35% Reinvestment Rate = 43/163 Reinvestment Rate=44.37% =26.46% Terminal Value = 104/(.0676-.03) = 2714 5 Op. Assets 2,472 + Cash: 330 1 2 3 4 5 Term Yr - Debt 1847 EBIT (1-t) $165 $167 $169 $173 $178 184 =Equity 955 - Reinvestment $44 $44 $51 $64 $79 82 -Options 0 FCFF $121 $123 $118 $109 $99 102 Value/Share $ 5.13 Discount atCost of Capital (WACC) = 8.50% (.486) + 3.97% (0.514) = 6.17% Cost of Equity Cost of Debt 8.50 % (4.10%+2%)(1-.35) We ights = 3.97% E = 48.6% D = 51.4% Riskfree Rate: Risk Pre mium Riskfree rate = 4.10% Beta 4% + 1.10 X Unlevered Beta for Firm's D/E Mature risk Country Sectors: 0.80 Ratio: 21.35% premium Equity Prem 4% 0% Aswath Damodaran 142 Blockbuster: Restructured Return on Capital Reinvestment Rate 6.20% Curre nt Cashflow to Firm 17.32% EBIT(1-t) : 249 Expected Growth - Nt CpX 39 in EBIT (1-t) Stable Growth - Chg WC 4 .1732*.0620=.0107 g = 3%; Beta = 1.00; 1.07 % Cost of capital = 6.76% = FCFF 206 ROC= 6.76%; Tax rate=35% Reinvestment Rate = 43/249 Reinvestment Rate=44.37% =17.32% Terminal Value = 156/(.0676-.03) = 4145 5 Op. Assets 3,840 + Cash: 330 1 2 3 4 5 Term Yr - Debt 1847 EBIT (1-t) $252 $255 $258 $264 $272 280 =Equity 2323 - Reinvestment $44 $44 $59 $89 $121 124 -Options 0 FCFF $208 $211 $200 $176 $151 156 Value/Share $ 12.47 Discount atCost of Capital (WACC) = 8.50% (.486) + 3.97% (0.514) = 6.17% Cost of Equity Cost of Debt 8.50 % (4.10%+2%)(1-.35) We ights = 3.97% E = 48.6% D = 51.4% Riskfree Rate: Risk Pre mium Riskfree rate = 4.10% Beta 4% + 1.10 X Unlevered Beta for Firm's D/E Mature risk Country Sectors: 0.80 Ratio: 21.35% premium Equity Prem 4% 0% Aswath Damodaran 143 The Expected Value of Control The Value of Control Probability that you can change the Change in firm value from changing management of the firm X management Value of the Value of the Takeover Restrictions Voting Rules & Rights Access to Funds Size of company firm run optimally - firm run status quo Aswath Damodaran 144 The Probability of Changing Control – Factors to consider Institutional Factors • Capital restrictions: In markets where it is difficult to raise funding for hostile acquisitions, management change will be less likely. • State Restrictions: Some markets restrict hostile acquisitions for parochial, political, social (loss of jobs) and economic reasons (prevent monopolies). • Inertia and Conflicts of Interest: Institutions may tilt to incumbents. • Presence of activist investors, who are willing to challenge incumbents.. Firm-specific factors • Anti-takeover amendments: They more difficult for a hostile acquirer to acquire the company or dissident stockholders to change management. • Voting Rights: Shares with disproportionate voting rights held by insiders. • Corporate Holding Structures: Cross holdings and Pyramid structures allow insiders with small holdings to control large numbers of firms. • Large Stockholders as managers: A large stockholder (usually the founder) is also the incumbent manager of the firm. Aswath Damodaran 145 Why the probability of management changing shifts over time…. Corporate governance rules can change over time, as new laws are passed. If the change gives stockholders more power, the likelihood of management changing will increase. Activist investing ebbs and flows with market movements (activist investors are more visible in down markets) and often in response to scandals. Events such as hostile acquisitions can make investors reassess the likelihood of change by reminding them of the power that they do possess. Aswath Damodaran 146 Estimating the Probability of Change You can estimate the probability of management changes by using historical data (on companies where change has occurred) and statistical techniques such as probits or logits. Empirically, the following seem to be related to the probability of management change: • Stock price and earnings performance, with forced turnover more likely in firms that have performed poorly relative to their peer group and to expectations. • Structure of the board, with forced CEO changes more likely to occur when the board is small, is composed of outsiders and when the CEO is not also the chairman of the board of directors. • Ownership structure; forced CEO changes are more common in companies with high institutional and low insider holdings. They also seem to occur more frequently in firms that are more dependent upon equity markets for new capital. • Industry structure, with CEOs more likely to be replaced in competitive industries. Aswath Damodaran 147 Manifestations of the Value of Control Hostile acquisitions: In hostile acquisitions which are motivated by control, the control premium should reflect the change in value that will come from changing management. Valuing publicly traded firms: The market price for every publicly traded firm should incorporate an expected value of control, as a function of the value of control and the probability of control changing. Market value = Status quo value + (Optimal value – Status quo value)* Probability of management changing Voting and non-voting shares: The premium (if any) that you would pay for a voting share should increase with the expected value of control. Minority Discounts in private companies: The minority discount (attached to buying less than a controlling stake) in a private business should be increase with the expected value of control. Aswath Damodaran 148 1. Hostile Acquisition: Example In a hostile acquisition, you can ensure management change after you take over the firm. Consequently, you would be willing to pay up to the optimal value. As an example, Blockbuster was trading at $9.50 per share in July 2005. The optimal value per share that we estimated as $ 12.47 per share. Assuming that this is a reasonable estimate, you would be willing to pay up to $2.97 as a premium in acquiring the shares. Issues to ponder: • Would you automatically pay $2.97 as a premium per share? Why or why not? • What would your premium per share be if change will take three years to implement? Aswath Damodaran 149 2. Market prices of Publicly Traded Companies: An example The market price per share at the time of the valuation (May 2005) was roughly $9.50. Expected value per share = Status Quo Value + Probability of control changing * (Optimal Value – Status Quo Value) $ 9.50 = $ 5.13 + Probability of control changing ($12.47 - $5.13) The market is attaching a probability of 59.5% that management policies can be changed. This was after Icahn"s successful challenge of management. Prior to his arriving, the market price per share was $8.20, yielding a probability of only 41.8% of management changing. Value of Equity Value per s h a r e Status Quo $ 955 million $ 5.13 per share Optimally mana ged $2,3 2 3 million $12. 4 7 per share Aswath Damodaran 150 Value of stock in a publicly traded firm When a firm is badly managed, the market still assesses the probability that it will be run better in the future and attaches a value of control to the stock price today: Status Quo Value + Probability of control change (Optimal - Status Quo Value) Value per share = Number of shares outstanding With voting shares and non-voting shares, a disproportionate share of the value of control will go to the voting shares. In the extreme scenario where non-voting shares are completely unprotected: Status Quo Value Value per non - voting share = # Voting Shares + # Non - voting shares Probability of control change (Optimal - Status Quo Value) Value per voting share = Value of non - voting share + # Voting Shares Aswath Damodaran 151 3. Voting and Non-voting Shares: An Example To value voting and non-voting shares, we will consider Embraer, the Brazilian aerospace company. As is typical of most Brazilian companies, the company has common (voting) shares and preferred (non-voting shares). • Status Quo Value = 12.5 billion $R for the equity; • Optimal Value = 14.7 billion $R, assuming that the firm would be more aggressive both in its use of debt and in its reinvestment policy. There are 242.5 million voting shares and 476.7 non-voting shares in the company and the probability of management change is relatively low. Assuming a probability of 20% that management will change, we estimated the value per non-voting and voting share: • Value per non-voting share = Status Quo Value/ (# voting shares + # non-voting shares) = 12,500/(242.5+476.7) = 17.38 $R/ share • Value per voting share = Status Quo value/sh + Probability of management change * (Optimal value – Status Quo Value) = 17.38 + 0.2* (14,700-12,500)/242.5 = 19.19 $R/share With our assumptions, the voting shares should trade at a premium of 10.4% over the non-voting shares. Aswath Damodaran 152 4. Minority Discount: An example Assume that you are valuing Kristin Kandy, a privately owned candy business for sale in a private transaction. You have estimated a value of $ 1.6 million for the equity in this firm, assuming that the existing management of the firm continues into the future and a value of $ 2 million for the equity with new and more creative management in place. • Value of 51% of the firm = 51% of optimal value = 0.51* $ 2 million = $1.02 million • Value of 49% of the firm = 49% of status quo value = 0.49 * $1.6 million = $784,000 Note that a 2% difference in ownership translates into a large difference in value because one stake ensures control and the other does not. Aswath Damodaran 153 To conclude… The value of control in a firm should lie in being able to run that firm differently and better. Consequently, the value of control should be greater in poorly performing firms, where the primary reason for the poor performance is the management. The market value of every firm reflects the expected value of control, which is the product of the probability of management changing and the effect on value of that change. This has far ranging implications. In acquisitions, the premiums paid should reflect how much the price already reflects the expected value of control; in a market that already reflects a high value for expected control, the premiums should be smaller. With companies with voting and non-voting shares, the premium on voting shares should reflect the expected value of control. If the probability of control changing is small and/or the value of changing management is small (because the company is well run), the expected value of control should be small and so should the voting stock premium. In private company valuation, the discount applied to minority blocks should be a reflection of the value of control. Aswath Damodaran 154 Minority and Majority interests When you get a controlling interest in a private firm (generally >51%, but could be less…), you would be willing to pay the appropriate proportion of the optimal value of the firm. When you buy a minority interest in a firm, you will be willing to pay the appropriate fraction of the status quo value of the firm. For badly managed firms, there can be a significant difference in value between 51% of a firm and 49% of the same firm. This is the minority discount. If you own a private firm and you are trying to get a private equity or venture capital investor to invest in your firm, it may be in your best interests to offer them a share of control in the firm even though they may have well below 51%. Aswath Damodaran 155 Alternative Approaches to Value Enhancement Maximize a variable that is correlated with the value of the firm. There are several choices for such a variable. It could be an accounting variable, such as earnings or return on investment a marketing variable, such as market share a cash flow variable, such as cash flow return on investment (CFROI) a risk-adjusted cash flow variable, such as Economic Value Added (EVA) The advantages of using these variables are that they Are often simpler and easier to use than DCF value. The disadvantage is that the Simplicity comes at a cost; these variables are not perfectly correlated with DCF value. Aswath Damodaran 156 Economic Value Added (EVA) and CFROI The Economic Value Added (EVA) is a measure of surplus value created on an investment. • Define the return on capital (ROC) to be the "true" cash flow return on capital earned on an investment. • Define the cost of capital as the weighted average of the costs of the different financing instruments used to finance the investment. EVA = (Return on Capital - Cost of Capital) (Capital Invested in Project) The CFROI is a measure of the cash flow return made on capital CFROI = (Adjusted EBIT (1-t) + Depreciation & Other Non-cash Charges) / Capital Invested Aswath Damodaran 157 The bottom line… The value of a firm is not going to change just because you use a different metric for value. All approaches that are discounted cash flow approaches should yield the same value for a business, if they make consistent assumptions. If there are differences in value from using different approaches, they must be attributable to differences in assumptions, either explicit or implicit, behind the valuation. Aswath Damodaran 158 A Simple Illustration Assume that you have a firm with a book value value of capital of $ 100 million, on which it expects to generate a return on capital of 15% in perpetuity with a cost of capital of 10%. This firm is expected to make additional investments of $ 10 million at the beginning of each year for the next 5 years. These investments are also expected to generate 15% as return on capital in perpetuity, with a cost of capital of 10%. After year 5, assume that • The earnings will grow 5% a year in perpetuity. • The firm will keep reinvesting back into the business but the return on capital on these new investments will be equal to the cost of capital (10%). Aswath Damodaran 159 Firm Value using EVA Approach Capital Invested in Assets in Place = $ 100 EVA from Assets in Place = (.15 – .10) (100)/.10 = $ 50 + PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 1 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10] =$ 5 + PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 2 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.1 = $ 4.55 + PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 3 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.12 = $ 4.13 + PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 4 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.13 = $ 3.76 + PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 5 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.14 = $ 3.42 Value of Firm =$ 170.85 Aswath Damodaran 160 Firm Value using DCF Valuation: Estimating FCFF Base 1 2 3 4 5 Term. Y ear Y ear EBIT (1-t) : Assets in Place $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 EBIT(1-t) :Investments- Yr 1 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 EBIT(1-t) :Investments- Yr 2 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 EBIT(1-t): Investments -Yr 3 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 EBIT(1-t): Investments -Yr 4 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 EBIT(1-t): Investments- Yr 5 $ 1.50 Total EBIT(1-t) $ 16.50 $ 18.00 $ 19.50 $ 21.00 $ 22.50 $ 23.63 - Net Capital Expenditures $10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 11.25 $ 11.81 FCFF $ 6.50 $ 8.00 $ 9.50 $ 11.00 $ 11.25 $ 11.81 After year 5, the reinvestment rate is 50% = g/ ROC Aswath Damodaran 161 Firm Value: Present Value of FCFF Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 Term Year FCFF $ 6.50 $ 8.00 $ 9.50 $ 11.00 $ 11.25 $ 11.81 PV of FCFF ($10) $ 5.91 $ 6.61 $ 7.14 $ 7.51 $ 6.99 Terminal Value $ 236.25 PV of Terminal Value $ 146.69 Value of Firm $170.85 Aswath Damodaran 162 Implications Growth, by itself, does not create value. It is growth, with investment in excess return projects, that creates value. • The growth of 5% a year after year 5 creates no additional value. The "market value added" (MVA), which is defined to be the excess of market value over capital invested is a function of tthe excess value created. • In the example above, the market value of $ 170.85 million exceeds the book value of $ 100 million, because the return on capital is 5% higher than the cost of capital. Aswath Damodaran 163 Year-by-year EVA Changes Firms are often evaluated based upon year-to-year changes in EVA rather than the present value of EVA over time. The advantage of this comparison is that it is simple and does not require the making of forecasts about future earnings potential. Another advantage is that it can be broken down by any unit - person, division etc., as long as one is willing to assign capital and allocate earnings across these same units. While it is simpler than DCF valuation, using year-by-year EVA changes comes at a cost. In particular, it is entirely possible that a firm which focuses on increasing EVA on a year-to-year basis may end up being less valuable. Aswath Damodaran 164 Gaming the system: Delivering high current EVA while destroying value… The Growth trade off game: Managers may give up valuable growth opportunities in the future to deliver higher EVA in the current year. The Risk game: Managers may be able to deliver a higher dollar EVA but in riskier businesses. The value of the business is the present value of EVA over time and the risk effect may dominate the increased EVA. The capital invested game: The key to delivering positive EVA is to make investments that do not show up as part of capital invested. That way, your operating income will increase while capital invested will decrease. Aswath Damodaran 165 Delivering a high EVA may not translate into higher stock prices… The relationship between EVA and Market Value Changes is more complicated than the one between EVA and Firm Value. The market value of a firm reflects not only the Expected EVA of Assets in Place but also the Expected EVA from Future Projects To the extent that the actual economic value added is smaller than the expected EVA the market value can decrease even though the EVA is higher. Aswath Damodaran 166 High EVA companies do not earn excess returns Aswath Damodaran 167 Increases in EVA do not create excess returns Aswath Damodaran 168 Implications of Findings This does not imply that increasing EVA is bad from a corporate finance standpoint. In fact, given a choice between delivering a "below-expectation" EVA and no EVA at all, the firm should deliver the "below-expectation" EVA. It does suggest that the correlation between increasing year-to-year EVA and market value will be weaker for firms with high anticipated growth (and excess returns) than for firms with low or no anticipated growth. It does suggest also that "investment strategies"based upon EVA have to be carefully constructed, especially for firms where there is an expectation built into prices of "high" surplus returns. Aswath Damodaran 169 When focusing on year-to-year EVA changes has least side effects 1. Most or all of the assets of the firm are already in place; i.e, very little or none of the value of the firm is expected to come from future growth. • [This minimizes the risk that increases in current EVA come at the expense of future EVA] 2. The leverage is stable and the cost of capital cannot be altered easily by the investment decisions made by the firm. • [This minimizes the risk that the higher EVA is accompanied by an increase in the cost of capital] 3. The firm is in a sector where investors anticipate little or not surplus returns; i.e., firms in this sector are expected to earn their cost of capital. • [This minimizes the risk that the increase in EVA is less than what the market expected it to be, leading to a drop in the market price.] Aswath Damodaran 170 When focusing on year-to-year EVA changes can be dangerous 1. High growth firms, where the bulk of the value can be attributed to future growth. 2. Firms where neither the leverage not the risk profile of the firm is stable, and can be changed by actions taken by the firm. 3. Firms where the current market value has imputed in it expectations of significant surplus value or excess return projects in the future. Note that all of these problems can be avoided if we restate the objective as maximizing the present value of EVA over time. If we do so, however, some of the perceived advantages of EVA - its simplicity and observability - disappear. Aswath Damodaran 171
Pages to are hidden for
"What Are Tthe Components of Cost Volume Profit Analysis"Please download to view full document


text:
Have you recently applied or want to learn more about volunteering for Wish Bone?
Join us at our New Volunteer Orientation:
Tuesday, August 4th at 5:30
at Wish Bone Canine Rescue
The No Kill Advocacy Center was founded in 2004 by Nathan Winograd. Nathan had created the nation's first—and at the time, only—full-service No Kill community
We can make that happen in Bloomington-Normal
Learn More about No-Kill Shelters
5k-9 10/24/15 (click image to register)
8/28 & 8/29/15 (click image to learn more!)
If attending the Masters Tournament is on your bucket list, now is your chance !
Tickets on Sale June 10 - August 28
Foxtrot is a sweet two year old male Sheltie/ Chihuahua mix. Click on his photo to learn more!
Adoption Events:
Tail and Paws Cruise In. Sat, Aug 8th 4-8pm
Dooley Park, Downs IL
Mclean County 6.6k Race. Sat, Aug 15 9-1
McLean Town Square
Petco Adoption Event. Sun, Aug 23rd 12-3 pm
Petco in Normal, IL
Want to Adopt at an Event? Apply and get pre-approved now!
We have many opportunities available for volunteers, whether it involves contact with the dogs, doing office work, volunteering at events or data entry from your home.
Dogs who may otherwise be destroyed at an overcrowded shelter are temporarily placed with you, their foster family, until a forever family is found.
Our Most Recent Adoptions
Proud Member
Our mission is based on Nathan Winograd's No Kill Philosophy, which states that all healthy and treatable homeless animals have the right to live.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Play Video
First Real Life Anime Girl!
Posted by love-buzz on Jul. 10, 2012
Break proves that nature is one badass mother f**ker!
2015 is already halfway over!! We assembled a panel of critics to pick the ...
Become a Breaker! ?? http-//bit.ly/BreakSubscribe Kevin's Shia Lebeouf Moti...
Posted by love-buzz on Jul. 10, 2012


text:
MacPorts Portfiles
The MacPorts Project currently distributes 24749 ports, organized across 82 different categories and available below for viewing. This form allows you to search the MacPorts software index, last updated on 2015-08-01 at 02:00:42 America/Los_Angeles.
Or view the complete ports list (24749 ports).
Query Results
1 Portfile Selected
- rb19-treetop 1.4.9
- A Ruby-based text parsing and interpretation DSL
Licenses: MIT
Maintained by: nomaintainer
Categories: ruby textproc
Platforms: darwin
Dependencies: rb19-polyglot ruby19