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Brief Summary
WhyReef - Lifestyle
Comprehensive Description
| Common names: porcupinefish (English), pez erizo (Espanol)
Diodon hystrix Linnaeus, 1758
Spot-fin porcupinefish
Body robust, inflatable; head wide and blunt; no barbells on chin; eyes large; nasal organ a tentacle with 2 openings; teeth fused into a strong, parrot-like beak that lacks a front groove, large, opens widely at front; gill opening a vertical slit before pectoral base; pectorals large; fins without spines; no pelvic fins; dorsal 14-17; anal rays 14-16; pectoral rays 21-25; body and head covered with numerous long (> eye), erectible, 2-rooted, slender, round spines; 16-20 erectile spines in an approximate row from top of snout to dorsal fin; spines anteriorly at front of head shorter than longest spines posterior to pectoral fins; one or more small spines dorsally on tail base.
Light grey brown dorsally shading to white ventrally; upper body and dorsal, anal and tail fins with small black spots.
Maximum length: 91 cm.
Adults inhabits coral or rocky reefs, juveniles occur in estuaries in our region.
Depth: 1-135 m.
Circumtropical distribution; southern California to the lower Gulf of California to Chile and all the oceanic islands.
WhyReef - Fun Facts
Whereas most creatures drink water because they are thirsty, the porcupinefish gulps it down to protect itself from predators! When it feels threatened, it will take big swigs of water, which makes its body puff out like a balloon. After it has doubled or even tripled in size, with its spiky spines pointing outwards, most predators think twice about eating it.
As if that weren't enough, the porcupinefish is also poisonous. Its skin and organs have a toxic chemical in them, made by bacteria that it eats. It will make other fish and people very sick if they eat it.
Global Endemism: All species, TEP non-endemic, Circumtropical ( Indian + Pacific + Atlantic Oceans), "Transpacific" (East + Central &/or West Pacific), All Pacific (West + Central + East), East Pacific + Atlantic (East +/or West), Transisthmian (East Pacific + Atlantic of Central America), East Pacific + all Atlantic (East+West)
Regional Endemism: All species, Eastern Pacific non-endemic, Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP) non-endemic, Continent + Island (s), Continent, Island (s)
Residency: Resident
Climate Zone: North Temperate (Californian Province &/or Northern Gulf of California), Northern Subtropical (Cortez Province + Sinaloan Gap), Northern Tropical (Mexican Province to Nicaragua + Revillagigedos), Equatorial (Costa Rica to Ecuador + Galapagos, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo), South Temperate (Peruvian Province )
Spot-fin porcupinefish are found in the Pacific Ocean from San Diego, California to Chile, including the Hawaiian and Galapagos Islands, and the western Atlantic Ocean from Massachusetts to the northern Gulf of Mexico, as well as Bermuda, the Caribbean, and Brazil. They are also found around the Azorean and Seychelles Islands, as well as in the western Indian Ocean, off the coast of Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia and South Africa. Additionally, these fish can be found in the Mediterranean and Red Seas and off the coast of New Zealand.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); ethiopian (Native ); australian (Native ); oceanic islands (Native ); indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native ); mediterranean sea (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: cosmopolitan
National Distribution
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
Global Range: Worldwide in warm waters; north to Massachusetts and Bermuda in western Atlantic (Robins and Ray 1986).
Physical Description
Spot-fin porcupinefish have round, expandable, slender bodies with small fins. These fish lack pelvic fins, and the rounded dorsal and anal fins are positioned near the caudal fin. They have 22-25 pectoral fin rays, 14-17 dorsal fin rays, and 14-16 anal fin rays. They are covered in long spines, which lie flat along their bodies when they are not inflated, including a longitudinal row of spines (14-20) between their snouts and dorsal fins, as well as small spines covering their caudal peduncle area. Body color varies, but they are generally uniformly dull brown to green with the body covered in small dark spots and markings, with a pale belly that is surrounded by a dusky ring. Their fins do not have spots. These fish have large eyes and wide, flattened mouths. Their teeth are fused together and they have very strong jaws. Spot-fin porcupinefish can grow up to 91 cm, with an average of 40 cm, and have a maximum recorded weight of 2.8 kg. There are slight differences in body shape and color between males and females.
Range mass: 2.8 (high) kg.
Range length: 40 to 91 mm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; poisonous
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes colored or patterned differently
Max. size
Diagnostic Description
Type Information
Catalog Number: USNM 50854
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Fishes
Preparation: Illustration
Locality: No Data. Indo-Pacific
Inshore/Offshore: Inshore, Inshore Only
Water Column Position: Bottom, Bottom only
Habitat: Reef (rock &/or coral), Rocks, Corals, Reef and soft bottom, Reef associated (reef + edges-water column & soft bottom), Soft bottom (mud, sand,gravel, beach, estuary & mangrove), Mud, Sand & gravel, Estuary
FishBase Habitat: Reef Associated
Adults are generally found in holes and crevices in inshore areas including lagoons, caves, shipwrecks, reefs, and ledges, and are also found in seamount areas. They are found at depths up to 50 meters, most commonly between 3 and 20 meters. Juveniles are pelagic until reaching 20 cm in length, becoming benthic thereafter.
Range depth: 1 to 50 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; benthic ; reef ; coastal
Habitat Type: Marine
Comments: Coastal waters.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 21 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): 0 - 710
Temperature range (°C): 6.257 - 29.336
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.099 - 39.739
Salinity (PPS): 34.131 - 36.315
Oxygen (ml/l): 0.540 - 4.889
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.092 - 2.927
Silicate (umol/l): 0.921 - 46.771
Graphical representation
Depth range (m): 0 - 710
Temperature range (°C): 6.257 - 29.336
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.099 - 39.739
Salinity (PPS): 34.131 - 36.315
Oxygen (ml/l): 0.540 - 4.889
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.092 - 2.927
Silicate (umol/l): 0.921 - 46.771
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
From 2 to 50 meters.
Habitat: reef-associated. Occurs in lagoon and seaward reefs to at least 50 m. Juveniles pelagic to about 20 cm. A solitary and nocturnal fish that feeds on hard shelled invertebrates like sea urchin, gastropods, and hermit crabs (Ref. 9680). Generally common (Ref. 9710).
Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Trophic Strategy
Diet: mobile benthic crustacea (shrimps/crabs), mobile benthic gastropods/bivalves, sea-stars/cucumbers/urchins, sessile crustacea, sessile worms, sessile molluscs
Spot-fin porcupinefish are durophagous and carnivorous, having strong jaws and teeth that are fused together, specializations for eating hard-shelled creatures. Their beaked mouths can catch and crush sea urchins, crabs, snails, and clams while their large, rubbery lips protect them from being injured by spines and broken shells. These fish commonly scavenge and search for prey in sandy areas, crevices, and caves.
Animal Foods: mollusks; aquatic or marine worms; aquatic crustaceans; echinoderms; other marine invertebrates
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore , Eats other marine invertebrates)
Spot-fin porcupinefish are an intermediate link in the reef food chain, serving both as nonspecific predators of benthic invertebrates and as prey for higher order predators. Like other fish, this species is host to numerous endo and ectoparasites.
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
- Tetrochetus coryphaenae (Family Accacoeliidae, Class Trematoda)
- Heterolebes maculosus (Family Opistholebetidae, Class Trematoda)
- Chonchoderma virgatum (Order Pedunculata, Subphylum Crustacea)
- Hatschekia elliptica (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Hatschekia iridescens (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Naobranchia wilsoni (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Peniculisa wilsoni (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Taeniacanthus balistae (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Tucca impressus (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
Spot-fin porcupinefish are well-known for their defensive ability to inflate their bodies by swallowing water, causing their spines to extend outwards and preventing most predators from swallowing them. They also secrete dermal toxins that are poisonous to many species. They do have some known predators, however, mainly large-bodied fishes.
Known Predators:
- Wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri)
- Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus)
- Tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier)
- White marlin (Tetrapturus albidus)
- Bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis)
WhyReef - Menu
Diseases and Parasites
Life History and Behavior
As in other bony fishes, Spot-fin porcupinefish use their eyes to see, nares to sense dissolved chemicals, and a lateral line to detect vibrations and movement via changes in water pressure.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; vibrations ; chemical
Life Cycle
Spot-fin porcupinefish eggs are buoyant, pelagic, spherical, and 1.9-2.1 mm in diameter. About five days after fertilization, eggs hatch and larvae, which average 2.6 mm in length, float in the open ocean near the surface. Hatchlings have large amounts of yolk still attached to them. Within two days after hatching, larvae have formed fully functional mouths and their eyes have become fully pigmented. Body coloration is mainly orange and they are more highly pigmented dorsally. Larvae maintain a thin shell until they have reached about 5 mm in length (at about 10 days old). At this time they metamorphose into spiny juveniles. Within 3 weeks, fins, fin rays, and teeth have formed. Juvenile spot-fin porcupinefish become olive to brown in color with dark spots on their ventral sides, camouflaging them in the mats of seaweed where they hide until moving inshore, usually when they reach at least 20 cm in length.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
Life Expectancy
Porcupine fish are known to survive at least 10 years in captivity. Lifespan in the wild is unknown.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 10 (high) years.
This species is a broadcast spawner; males and females mate promiscuously during spawning events. Although mating behavior has not been observed for this species, in captivity or in the wild, it has been observed for captive Diodon holocanthus, a closely related species. Breeding begins when water temperatures reach approximately 25°C, likely from May through August. Multiple males approach a female at a time, bringing her up to the surface of the water where, if she has ripe eggs, she will release them. All of the males (usually 4-5) contribute sperm.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Spot-fin porcupinefish breed when water temperature reaches approximately 25°C, typically from May-August. It is unknown how many offspring are produced by these fish at a time or what their age at sexual maturity is. Eggs usually hatch within 2 days of fertilization.
Breeding interval: Spot-fin porcupinefish breed once a year.
Breeding season: Breeding season for this species is assumed to be May-August.
Average gestation period: 2 days.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); broadcast (group) spawning; oviparous
As this species is a broadcast spawner, there is no parental investment. Planktonic larvae develop independently in the water column.
Parental Investment: no parental involvement
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Diodon hystrix
The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.
There are 4 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.
Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.
See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Diodon hystrix
Public Records: 5
Specimens with Barcodes: 23
Species With Barcodes: 1
Conservation Status
CITES: Not listed
Spot-fin porcupine fish are not considered endangered or vulnerable to extinction, according to the World Conservation Union. However, information is lacking about their natural history in their oceanic environment.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
National NatureServe Conservation Status
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
WhyReef - Threats
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Except for occasional cases of fugu poisoning in Japan, there are no known adverse effects of these fish on humans.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (poisonous )
This species is sold in the home aquarium trade. While the internal organs of this species are extremely toxic, it is customary in Japanese culture to eat the flesh of these fish as a type of sushi, called fugu. Spot-fin porcupinefish bodies are also made into souvenirs for tourists in tropical areas: after a porcupinefish is killed, it is inflated. It is then made into a lamp or wall display. Traditionally, the hardened bodies were also used as war helmets, by the Gilbertese people on the Gilbert Islands.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; body parts are source of valuable material; research and education
Spot-fin porcupinefish
The spot-fin porcupinefish (Diodon hystrix), also known as spotted porcupinefish, black-spotted porcupinefish or simply porcupinefish, is a member of the family Diodontidae.
The spot-fin porcupinefish is a medium sized fish which grows up to 91 cm, but the average size mostly observed is 40 cm.[1] Its body is elongated with a spherical head with big round protruding eyes, a large mouth rarely closed. The pectoral fins are large, the pelvic fins are absent, the anal and dorsal fins are close to the caudal peduncle. The latter move simultaneously during swimming. The skin is smooth and firm, the scales are modified into spines. The body coloration is beige to sandy-yellow marbled with dark blotches and dotted with numerous small black spots.
In case of danger, the porcupinefish can inflate itself by swallowing water to deter the potential predator with its larger volume and it can raise its spines.
The porcupinefish concentrates a poison, called tetrodotoxin, in certain parts of its body such as the liver, skin, gonads and the viscera. Tetrodotoxin is a powerful neurotoxin. This defensive system constitutes an additional device to dissuade the potential predators.[2]
Distribution & habitat[edit]
The porcupinefish is found in all the tropical and subtropical waters of the world, including the Mediterranean Sea.[3]
Juveniles are pelagic up to the time that they are about 20 cm in length. Adults favour lagoons, top reefs and seaward coral or rocky reefs from one to 50 m depth, sheltering under ledges or in caves during the day.[4]
The porcupinefish's diet is based on Sea urchins, gastropods and crustaceans.[5]
This fish is solitary, except during mating periods, it has a nocturnal activity with a maximal activity at sunset and sunrise.
As most fish, the porcupinefish is infected by a variety of parasites. Spectacular parasites are the cysts of the larvae of the trypanorhynch cestode Molicola horridus, often found in great numbers in the liver.[6] These parasites are not appetizing, but represent no danger to humans.
- ^ http://www.fishbase.org/summary/1022
- ^ Grignard JC, Mitel C, in : DORIS, 2/9/2012: Diodon hystrix Linnaeus, 1758, http://doris.ffessm.fr/fiche2.asp?fiche_numero=2379
- ^ http://www.fishbase.org/summary/1022
- ^ http://www.fishbase.org/summary/1022
- ^ Leis, J.M., 2001. Diodontidae. Porcupine fishes (burrfishes). p. 3958-3965. In K.E. Carpenter and V. Niem (eds.) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of the Western Central Pacific. Vol. 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae), estuarine crocodiles. FAO, Rome.
- ^ Beveridge, I., Bray, R. A., Cribb, T. H. & Justine, J.-L. 2014: Diversity of trypanorhynch metacestodes in teleost fishes from coral reefs off eastern Australia and New Caledonia. Parasite, 21, 60. doi:10.1051/parasite/2014060 PubMed
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