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Transcript of "Fundamental of electrical and electronics principals"
1. Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
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Fundamental Electricaland ElectronicPrinciplesThird EditionChristopher R Robertson AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier
Newnes is an imprint of ElsevierLinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USAFirst published 1993 as Electrical and Electronic Principles 1 by Edward ArnoldSecond edition 2001Third edition 2008Copyright © C. R. Robertson 1993, 2001Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reservedThe right of Christopher R. Robertson to be identified as the author of this work hasbeen asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisherPermissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Science & TechnologyRights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (ϩ44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (ϩ44) (0)1865 853333; email: email@example.com. Alternatively you can submityour request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier materialNoticeNo responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage topersons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or fromany use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in thematerial herein.British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of CongressISBN: 978-0-7506-8737-9 For information on all Newnes publications visit our web site at http://books.elsevier.comTypeset by Charon Tec Ltd., A Macmillan Company.(www.macmillansolutions.com)Printed and bound in Slovenia08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ContentsPreface........................................................................................................................................................ixIntroduction............................................................................................................................................xi 1 Fundamentals...........................................................................11.1 Units .................................................................................................................................................11.2 Standard Form Notation......................................................................................................21.3 'Scientific' Notation ..................................................................................................................21.4 Conversion of Areas and Volumes.................................................................................41.5 Graphs.............................................................................................................................................51.6 Basic Electrical Concepts .....................................................................................................71.7 Communication.....................................................................................................................26 Summary of Equations ......................................................................................................29 Assignment Questions ......................................................................................................30 2 D.C. Circuits ............................................................................................. 312.1 Resistors in Series ..................................................................................................................312.2 Resistors in Parallel ...............................................................................................................352.3 Potential Divider ....................................................................................................................402.4 Current Divider .......................................................................................................................412.5 Series/Parallel Combinations .........................................................................................432.6 Kirchhoff 's Current Law .....................................................................................................482.7 Kirchhoff 's Voltage Law .....................................................................................................492.8 The Wheatstone Bridge Network ................................................................................552.9 The Wheatstone Bridge Instrument ..........................................................................632.10 The Slidewire Potentiometer .........................................................................................65 Summary of Equations ......................................................................................................68 Assignment Questions ......................................................................................................69 Suggested Practical Assignments ..............................................................................72 3 Electric Fields and Capacitors .................................................... 753.1 Coulomb's Law .......................................................................................................................753.2 Electric Fields ...........................................................................................................................763.3 Electric Field Strength (E) .................................................................................................783.4 Electric Flux ( ) and Flux Density (D) .......................................................................793.5 The Charging Process and Potential Gradient ....................................................803.6 Capacitance (C) ......................................................................................................................833.7 Capacitors ..................................................................................................................................843.8 Permittivity of Free Space (ε0) .......................................................................................843.9 Relative Permittivity (εr).....................................................................................................843.10 Absolute Permittivity (ε) ...................................................................................................85 v
vi Contents 3.11 Calculating Capacitor Values..........................................................................................85 3.12 Capacitors in Parallel ...........................................................................................................87 3.13 Capacitors in Series ..............................................................................................................89 3.14 Series/Parallel Combinations .........................................................................................92 3.15 Multiplate Capacitors .........................................................................................................95 3.16 Energy Stored ..........................................................................................................................97 3.17 Dielectric Strength and Working Voltage ...........................................................101 3.18 Capacitor Types ...................................................................................................................102 Summary of Equations ...................................................................................................105 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................107 Suggested Practical Assignment .............................................................................110 4 Magnetic Fields and Circuits.....................................................111 4.1 Magnetic Materials............................................................................................................111 4.2 Magnetic Fields ...................................................................................................................111 4.3 The Magnetic Circuit ........................................................................................................114 4.4 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density................................................................................115 4.5 Magnetomotive Force (mmf ) ....................................................................................116 4.6 Magnetic Field Strength ................................................................................................117 4.7 Permeability of Free Space ( 0) .................................................................................118 4.8 Relative Permeability ( r)...............................................................................................119 4.9 Absolute Permeability ( ) .............................................................................................119 4.10 Magnetisation (B/H) Curve ...........................................................................................122 4.11 Composite Series Magnetic Circuits ......................................................................126 4.12 Reluctance (S) .......................................................................................................................128 4.13 Comparison of Electrical, Magnetic and Electrostatic Quantities ........131 4.14 Magnetic Hysteresis .........................................................................................................132 4.15 Parallel Magnetic Circuits ..............................................................................................134 Summary of Equations ...................................................................................................135 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................136 Suggested Practical Assignments ...........................................................................138 5 Electromagnetism .......................................................................... 141 5.1 Faraday 's Law of Electromagnetic Induction....................................................141 5.2 Lenz 's Law...............................................................................................................................144 5.3 Fleming's Righthand Rule .............................................................................................144 5.4 EMF Induced in a Single Straight Conductor ...................................................147 5.5 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor..............................................................151 5.6 The Motor Principle ..........................................................................................................153 5.7 Force between Parallel Conductors .......................................................................156 5.8 The Moving Coil Meter ...................................................................................................158 5.9 Shunts and Multipliers ....................................................................................................162 5.10 Shunts .......................................................................................................................................162 5.11 Multipliers ...............................................................................................................................163
Contents vii5.12 Figure of Merit and Loading Effect .........................................................................1665.13 The Ohmmeter ....................................................................................................................1705.14 Wattmeter ...............................................................................................................................1715.15 Eddy Currents .......................................................................................................................1725.16 Self and Mutual Inductance ........................................................................................1745.17 Self-Inductance ...................................................................................................................1755.18 Self-Inductance and Flux Linkages .........................................................................1765.19 Factors Affecting Inductance .....................................................................................1795.20 Mutual Inductance............................................................................................................1805.21 Relationship between Self- and Mutual-Inductance...................................1825.22 Energy Stored .......................................................................................................................1845.23 The Transformer Principle .............................................................................................1865.24 Transformer Voltage and Current Ratios ..............................................................188 Summary of Equations ...................................................................................................191 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................192 Suggested Practical Assignments ...........................................................................195 6 Alternating Quantities ................................................................ 1976.1 Production of an Alternating Waveform .............................................................1976.2 Angular Velocity and Frequency ..............................................................................2006.3 Standard Expression for an Alternating Quantity ..........................................2006.4 Average Value.......................................................................................................................2036.5 r.m.s. Value ..............................................................................................................................2056.6 Peak Factor .............................................................................................................................2066.7 Form Factor............................................................................................................................2076.8 Rectifiers ..................................................................................................................................2086.9 Half-wave Rectifier ............................................................................................................2096.10 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier .............................................................................................2106.11 Rectifier Moving Coil Meter .........................................................................................2126.12 Phase and Phase Angle ..................................................................................................2136.13 Phasor Representation....................................................................................................2166.14 Addition of Alternating Quantities..........................................................................2196.15 The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope ..................................................................................2246.16 Operation of the Oscilloscope ...................................................................................2266.17 Dual Beam Oscilloscopes ..............................................................................................228 Summary of Equations ...................................................................................................229 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................230 Suggested Practical Assignments ...........................................................................232 7 D.C. Machines .................................................................................... 2337.1 Motor/Generator Duality ..............................................................................................2337.2 The Generation of d.c. Voltage...................................................................................2357.3 Construction of d.c. Machines ................................................................................... 2387.4 Classification of Generators .........................................................................................238
viii Contents 7.5 Separately Excited Generator .....................................................................................239 7.6 Shunt Generator .................................................................................................................240 7.7 Series Generator .................................................................................................................242 7.8 D. C. Motors ...........................................................................................................................244 7.9 Shunt Motor ..........................................................................................................................244 7.10 Series Motor ..........................................................................................................................245 Summary of Equations ...................................................................................................247 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................248 8 D.C. Transients ................................................................................... 249 8.1 Capacitor-Resistor Series Circuit (Charging) ......................................................249 8.2 Capacitor-Resistor Series Circuit (Discharging) ...............................................253 8.3 Inductor-Resistor Series Circuit (Connection to Supply) ...........................256 8.4 Inductor-Resistor Series Circuit (Disconnection)............................................259 Summary of Equations ...................................................................................................260 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................261 Suggested Practical Assignments ...........................................................................262 9 Semiconductor Theory and Devices ................................... 263 9.1 Atomic Structure ................................................................................................................263 9.2 Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors................................................................................264 9.3 Electron-Hole Pair Generation and Recombination .....................................266 9.4 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors ............................................................267 9.5 Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors ........................................................................268 9.6 n-type Semiconductor ...................................................................................................268 9.7 p-type Semiconductor ...................................................................................................270 9.8 The p-n Junction ................................................................................................................271 9.9 The p-n Junction Diode .................................................................................................272 9.10 Forward-biased Diode ....................................................................................................273 9.11 Reverse-biased Diode .....................................................................................................273 9.12 Diode Characteristics.......................................................................................................274 9.13 The Zener Diode .................................................................................................................276 Assignment Questions ...................................................................................................281 Suggested Practical Assignments ...........................................................................282 Appendix A: SI Units and Quantities ..................................................................................283 Answers to Assignment Questions .....................................................................................285 Index.......................................................................................................................................................289
PrefaceThis Textbook supersedes the second edition of FundamentalElectrical and Electronic Principles. In response to commentsfrom colleges requesting that the contents more closely match theobjectives of the BTEC unit Electrical and Electronic Principles,some chapters have been removed and some exchanged with thecompanion book Further Electrical and Electronic Principles, ISBN9780750687478. Also, in order to encourage students to use otherreference sources, those chapters that have been totally removedmay be accessed on the website address http://books.elsevier.com/companions/9780750687379. The previous edition includedSupplementary Worked Examples at the end of each chapter. Themajority of these have now been included within each chapter asWorked Examples, and those that have been removed may be accessedon the above website.This book continues with the philosophy of the previous editionsin that it may be used as a complete set of course notes for studentsundertaking the study of Electrical and Electronic Principles in thefirst year of a BTEC National Diploma/Certificate course. It alsoprovides coverage for some other courses, including foundation/bridging courses which require the study of Electrical and ElectronicEngineering.Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles contains 349illustrations, 112 worked examples, 26 suggested practical assignmentsand 234 assignment questions. The answers to the latter are to be foundtowards the end of the book.The order of the chapters does not necessarily follow the orderset out in any syllabus, but rather follows a logical step-by-stepsequence through the subject matter. Some topic areas may extendbeyond current syllabus requirements, but do so both for the sake ofcompleteness and to encourage those students wishing to extend theirknowledge.Coverage of the second year BTEC National Diploma/Certificateunit, Further Electrical Principles, is found in the third edition of thecompanion book Further Electrical and Electronic Principles. C. Robertson Tonbridge March 2008 ix
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IntroductionThe chapters follow a sequence that I consider to be a logicalprogression through the subject matter, and in the main, followthe order of objectives stated in the BTEC unit of Electrical andElectronic Principles. The major exception to this is that the topics ofinstrumentation and measurements do not appear in a specific chapterof that title. Instead, the various instruments and measurement methodsare integrated within those chapters where the relevant theory iscovered.Occasionally a word or phrase will appear in bold blue type, and closeby will be a box with a blue background. These emphasised words orphrases may be ones that are not familiar to students, and within thebox will be an explanation of the words used in the text.Throughout the book, Worked Examples appear as Q questionsin bold type, followed by A answers. In all chapters, AssignmentQuestions are provided for students to solve.The first chapter deals with the basic concepts of electricity; the use ofstandard form and its adaptation to scientific notation; SI and derivedunits; and the plotting of graphs. This chapter is intended to providea means of ensuring that all students on a given course start with thesame background knowledge. Also included in this chapter are notesregarding communication. In particular, emphasis is placed on logicaland thorough presentation of information, etc. in the solution ofAssignment Questions and Practical Assignment reports. xi
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Chapter 1 Fundamentals1.1 Units Wherever measurements are performed there is a need for a coherent and practical system of units. In science and engineering the International System of units (SI units) form the basis of all units used. There are seven 'base' units from which all the other units are derived, called derived units. Table 1.1 The SI base units Quantity Unit Unit symbol Mass kilogram kg Length metre m Time second s Electric current ampere A Temperature kelvin K Luminous intensity candela cd Amount of substance mole mol A few examples of derived units are shown in Table 1.2, and it is worth noting that different symbols are used to represent the quantity and its associated unit in each case. Table 1.2 Some SI derived units Quantity Unit Name Symbol Name Symbol Force F Newton N Power P Watt W Energy W Joule J Resistance R Ohm For a more comprehensive list of SI units see Appendix A at the back of the book. 1
2 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles 1.2 Standard Form Notation Standard form is a method of writing large and small numbers in a form that is more convenient than writing a large number of trailing or leading zeroes. For example the speed of light is approximately 300 000 000 m/s. When written in standard form this figure would appears as 3.0 ϫ 108 m/s, where 108 represents 100 000 000 Similarly, if the wavelength of 'red' light is approximately 0.000 000 767 m, it is more convenient to write it in standard form as 7. 67 ϫ 10Ϫ7 m, where 10Ϫ7 ϭ 1 / 10 000 000 It should be noted that whenever a 'multiplying' factor is required, the base 10 is raised to a positive power. When a 'dividing' factor is required, a negative power is used. This is illustrated below: 10 ϭ 101 1 / 10 ϭ 0. 1 ϭ 10Ϫ1 100 ϭ 102 1 / 100 ϭ 0.01 ϭ 10Ϫ2 1000 ϭ 103 1 / 1000 ϭ 0.001 ϭ 10Ϫ3 0 etc. etc. One restriction that is applied when using standard form is that only the first non-zero digit must appear before the decimal point. Thus, 46 500 is written as 4.65 ϫ 10 4 and not as 46 .5 ϫ 103 Similarly, 0.002 69 is written as 2. 69 ϫ 10Ϫ3 and not as 26. 9 ϫ 10Ϫ4 or 269 ϫ 10Ϫ5 1.3 'Scientific' Notation This notation has the advantage of using the base 10 raised to a power but it is not restricted to the placement of the decimal point. It has the added advantage that the base 10 raised to certain powers have unique symbols assigned. For example if a body has a mass m ϭ 500 000 g. In standard form this would be written as m ϭ 5.0 ϫ 105 g. Using scientific notation it would appear as m ϭ 500 kg (500 kilogram)
Fundamentals 3 where the 'k' in front of the g for gram represents 103. Not only is the latter notation much neater but it gives a better 'feel' to the meaning and relevance of the quantity. See Table 1.3 for the symbols (prefixes) used to represent the various powers of 10. It should be noted that these prefixes are arranged in multiples of 103. It is also a general rule that the positive powers of 10 are represented by capital letters, with the negative powers being represented by lower case (small) letters. The exception to this rule is the 'k' used for kilo. Table 1.3 Unit prefixes used in 'scientific' notation Multiplying factor Prefix name Symbol 12 10 tera T 9 10 giga G 6 10 mega M 3 10 kilo k 10Ϫ3 milli m Ϫ6 10 micro Ϫ9 10 nano n Ϫ12 10 pico pWorked Example 1.1Q Write the following quantities in a concise form using (a) standard form, and (b) scientific notation (i) 0.000 018 A (ii) 15 000 V (iii) 250 000 000 W A (a) (i) 0.000 018 A ϭ 1.8 ϫ 10Ϫ5 A (ii) 15 000 V ϭ 1.5 ϫ 104 V (iii) 250 000 000 W ϭ 2.5 ϫ 108 W (b) (i) 0.000 018 A ϭ 18 A (ii) 15 000 V ϭ 15 kV (iii) 250 000 000 W ϭ 250 MW Ans The above example illustrates the neatness and convenience of the scientific or engineering notation.Worked Example 1.2Q Write the following quantities in scientific (engineering) notation. (a) 25 ؋ 10؊5 A, (b) 3 ؋ 104 W, (c) 850 000 J, (d) 0.0016 V. A (a) 25 ϫ 10Ϫ5 ϭ 25 ϫ 10 ϫ 10Ϫ6 ϭ 250 ϫ 10Ϫ6 Ϫ6 and since 10 is represented by (micro)
4 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles then 25 ϫ 10Ϫ5 A ϭ 250 A Ans Alternatively, 25 ϫ 10Ϫ5 ϭ 25 ϫ 10Ϫ2 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ϭ 0.25 ϫ 10Ϫ3 so 25 ϫ 10Ϫ5 A ϭ 0.25 mA Ans (b) 3 ϫ 10Ϫ4 ϭ 3 ϫ 10Ϫ1 ϫ 10Ϫ3 or 300 ϫ 10Ϫ6 so 3 ϫ 10Ϫ4 W ϭ 0.3 mW or 300 W Ans (c) 850 000 ϭ 850 ϫ 103 or 0.85 ϫ 106 so 850 000 J ϭ 850 kJ or 0.85 MJ Ans (d) 0.0016 ϭ 1.6 ϫ 10Ϫ3 so 0.0016 V ϭ 1.6 mV Ans 1.4 Conversion of Areas and Volumes Consider a square having sides of 1 m as shown in Fig. 1.1. In this case each side can also be said to be 100 cm or 1000 mm. Hence the area A enclosed could be stated as: A ϭ 1 ϫ 1 ϭ 1 m2 or A ϭ 100 ϫ 100 ϭ 102 ϫ 102 ϭ 10 4 cm 2 or A ϭ 1000 ϫ 1000 ϭ 103 ϫ 103 ϭ 106 mm 2 . 1m 1m Fig. 1.1 From the above it may be seen that 1 m 2 ϭ 10 4 cm 2 and that 1 m 2 ϭ 106 mm 2 . Similarly, if the square had sides of 1 cm the area would be A ϭ 1 cm 2 ϭ 10Ϫ2 ϫ 10Ϫ2 ϭ 10Ϫ4 m 2 . Again if the sides were of length 1 mm the area would be A ϭ 1 mm 2 ϭ 10Ϫ3 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ϭ 10Ϫ6 m 2 . Thus 1 cm2 ϭ 10Ϫ4 m2 and 1 mm2 ϭ 10Ϫ6 m2.
Fundamentals 5 Since the basic unit for area is m2, then areas quoted in other units should firstly be converted into square metres before calculations proceed. This procedure applies to all the derived units, and it is good practice to convert all quantities into their 'basic' units before proceeding with calculations. It is left to the reader to confirm that the following conversions for volumes are correct: 1 mm 3 ϭ 10Ϫ9 m 3 1 cm 3 ϭ 10Ϫ6 m 3 .Worked Example 1.3Q A mass m of 750 g is acted upon by a force F of 2 N. Calculate the resulting acceleration given that the three quantities are related by the equation F ؍ma newton A m ϭ 750 g ϭ 0.75 kg; F ϭ 2 N Since F ϭ ma newton, then F a ϭ metre/second2 m 2 ϭ 0.75 so a ϭ 2.667 m/s2 Ans 1.5 Graphs A graph is simply a pictorial representation of how one quantity or variable relates to another. One of these is known as the dependent variable and the other as the independent variable. It is general practice to plot the dependent variable along the vertical axis and the independent variable along the horizontal axis of the graph. To illustrate the difference between these two types of variable consider the case of a vehicle that is travelling between two points. If a graph of the distance travelled versus the time elapsed is plotted, then the distance travelled would be the dependent variable. This is because the distance travelled depends on the time that has elapsed. But the time is independent of the distance travelled, since the time will continue to increase regardless of whether the vehicle is moving or not. Such a graph is shown in Fig. 1.2, from which it can be seen that over the first three hours the distance travelled was 30 km. Over the next two hours a further 10 km was travelled, and subsequently no further distance was travelled. Since distance travelled divided by the time
6 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles s (km) 40 δ s2 30 δ t2 20 δ s1 10 0 t (h) 1 2 3 4 5 δ t1 Fig. 1.2 taken is velocity, then the graph may be used to determine the speed of the vehicle at any time. Another point to note about this graph is that it consists of straight lines. This tells us that the vehicle was travelling at different but constant velocities at different times. It should be apparent that the steepest part of the graph occurs when the vehicle was travelling fastest. To be more precise, we refer to the slope or gradient of the graph. In order to calculate the velocity over the first three hours, the slope can be determined as follows: Change in time, t1 ϭ 3 Ϫ 0 ϭ 3 h change in distance s1 ϭ 30 Ϫ 0 ϭ 30 km s1 30 slope or gradient velocity v ϭ ϭ ϭ 10 km/h t1 3 Similarly, for the second section of the graph: s2 (40 Ϫ 30) vϭ ϭ ϭ 5 km/h t2 (5 Ϫ 3) Considering the final section of the graph, it can be seen that there is no change in distance (the vehicle is stationary). This is confirmed, since if s is zero then the velocity must be zero. In some ways this last example is a special case, since it involved a straight line graph. In this case we can say that the distance is directly proportional to time. In many cases a non-linear graph is produced, but the technique for determining the slope at any given point is similar. Such a graph is shown in Fig. 1.3, which represents the displacement of a mass when subjected to simple harmonic motion. The resulting graph is a sinewave. To determine the slope at any given instant in time we would have to determine the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point on the graph. If this is done then the figure obtained in each case would be the velocity of the mass at that instant. Notice that the slope is steepest at the instants that the curve passes through the zero displacement axis (maximum velocity). It is zero at the 'peaks' of the graph (zero velocity). Also note that if the graph is sloping upwards
Fundamentals 7 ϩ positive slope S (mm) negative slope 0 t (s) Ϫ zero slope Fig. 1.3 as you trace its path from left to right it is called a positive slope. If it slopes downwards it is called a negative slope.1.6 Basic Electrical Concepts All matter is made up of atoms, and there are a number of 'models' used to explain physical effects that have been both predicted and subsequently observed. One of the oldest and simplest of these is the Bohr model. This describes the atom as consisting of a central nucleus containing minute particles called protons and neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus are a number of electrons in various orbits. This model is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The possible presence of neutrons in the nucleus has been ignored, since these particles play no part in the electrical concepts to be described. It should be noted that this atomic model is greatly over-simplified. It is this very simplicity that makes it ideal for the beginner to achieve an understanding of what electricity is and how many electrical devices operate. The model shown in Fig. 1.4 is not drawn to scale since a proton is approximately 2000 times more massive than an electron. Due to this relatively large mass the proton does not play an active part in electrical current flow. It is the behaviour of the electrons that is more important. However, protons and electrons do share one thing in Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ Ϫ Ϫ Fig. 1.4
8 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles common; they both possess a property known as electric charge. The unit of charge is called the coulomb (C ). Since charge is considered as the quantity of electricity it is given the symbol Q. An electron and proton have exactly the same amount of charge. The electron has a negative charge, whereas the proton has a positive charge. Any atom in its 'normal' state is electrically neutral (has no net charge). So, in this state the atom must possess as many orbiting electrons as there are protons in its nucleus. If one or more of the orbiting electrons can somehow be persuaded to leave the parent atom then this charge balance is upset. In this case the atom acquires a net positive charge, and is then known as a positive ion. On the other hand, if 'extra' electrons can be made to orbit the nucleus then the atom acquires a net negative charge. It then becomes a negative ion. An analogy is a technique where the behaviour of one system is compared to the behaviour of another system. The system chosen for this comparison will be one that is more familiar and so more easily understood. HOWEVER, it must be borne in mind that an analogy should not be extended too far. Since the two systems are usually very different physically there will come a point where comparisons are no longer valid You may now be wondering why the electrons remain in orbit around the nucleus anyway. This can best be explained by considering an analogy. Thus, an electron orbiting the nucleus may be compared to a satellite orbiting the Earth. The satellite remains in orbit due to a balance of forces. The gravitational force of attraction towards the Earth is balanced by the centrifugal force on the satellite due to its high velocity. This high velocity means that the satellite has high kinetic energy. If the satellite is required to move into a higher orbit, then its motor must be fired to speed it up. This will increase its energy. Indeed, if its velocity is increased sufficiently, it can be made to leave Earth orbit and travel out into space. In the case of the electron there is also a balance of forces involved. Since both electrons and protons have mass, there will be a gravitational force of attraction between them. However the masses involved are so minute that the gravitational force is negligible. So, what force of attraction does apply here? Remember that electrons and protons are oppositely charged particles, and oppositely charged bodies experience a force of attraction. Compare this to two simple magnets, whereby opposite polarities attract and like (the same) polarities repel each other. The same rule applies to charged bodies. Thus it is the balance between this force of electrostatic attraction and the kinetic energy of the electron that maintains the orbit. It may now occur to you to wonder why the nucleus remains intact, since the protons within it are all positively charged particles! It is beyond the scope of this book (and of the course of study on which you are now embarked) to give a comprehensive answer. Suffice to say that there is a force within the nucleus far stronger than the electrostatic repulsion between the protons that binds the nucleus together.
Fundamentals 9 All materials may be classified into one of three major groups— conductors, insulators and semiconductors. In simple terms, the group into which a material falls depends on how many 'free' electrons it has. The term 'free' refers to those electrons that have acquired sufficient energy to leave their orbits around their parent atoms. In general we can say that conductors have many free electrons which will be drifting in a random manner within the material. Insulators have very few free electrons (ideally none), and semiconductors fall somewhere between these two extremes. Electric current This is the rate at which free electrons can be made to drift through a material in a particular direction. In other words, it is the rate at which charge is moved around a circuit. Since charge is measured in coulombs and time in seconds then logically the unit for electric current would be the coulomb/second. In fact, the amount of current flowing through a circuit may be calculated by dividing the amount of charge passing a given point by the time taken. The unit however is given a special name, the ampere (often abbreviated to amp). This is fairly common practice with SI units, whereby the names chosen are those of famous scientists whose pioneering work is thus commemorated. The relationship between current, charge and time can be expressed as a mathematical equation as follows: Q Iϭ amp, or Q ϭ It coulomb (1.1) tWorked Example 1.4Q A charge of 35 mC is transferred between two points in a circuit in a time of 20 ms. Calculate the value of current flowing. A Q ϭ 35 ϫ 10Ϫ3 C; t ϭ 20 ϫ 10Ϫ3 s Q Iϭ amp t 35 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ϭ 20 ϫ 10Ϫ3 I ϭ 1.75 A AnsWorked Example 1.5Q If a current of 120 μA flows for a time of 15 s, determine the amount of charge transferred. A I ϭ 120 ϫ 10Ϫ6A; t ϭ 15 s Q ϭ I t coulomb ϭ 120 ϫ 10Ϫ6 ϫ 15 Q ϭ 1.8 mC Ans
10 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles Worked Example 1.6 Q 80 coulombs of charge was transferred by a current of 0.5 A. Calculate the time for which the current flowed. A Q ϭ 80 C; I ϭ 0.5 A Q tϭ seconds I 80 ϭ 0.5 t ϭ 160 s Ans Electromotive Force (emf) The random movement of electrons within a material does not constitute an electrical current. This is because it does not result in a drift in one particular direction. In order to cause the 'free' electrons to drift in a given direction an electromotive force must be applied. Thus the emf is the 'driving' force in an electrical circuit. The symbol for emf is E and the unit of measurement is the volt (V). Typical sources of emf are cells, batteries and generators. The amount of current that will flow through a circuit is directly proportional to the size of the emf applied to it. The circuit diagram symbols for a cell and a battery are shown in Figs. 1.5(a) and (b) respectively. Note that the positively charged plate (the long line) usually does not have a plus sign written alongside it. Neither does the negative plate normally have a minus sign written by it. These signs have been included here merely to indicate (for the first time) the symbol used for each plate. ϩ Ϫ ϩ ϩ Ϫ (a) (b) Fig. 1.5 Resistance (R) Although the amount of electrical current that will flow through a circuit is directly proportional to the applied emf, the other property of the circuit (or material) that determines the resulting current is the opposition offered to the flow. This opposition is known as the electrical resistance, which is measured in ohms ( ). Thus conductors, which have many 'free' electrons available for current carrying, have a low value of resistance. On the other hand, since insulators have very few 'free' charge carriers then insulators have a very high resistance. Pure semiconductors tend to behave more like insulators in this respect. However, in practice, semiconductors tend to be used in an impure form, where the added impurities improve the conductivity of the material. An electrical device that is designed to have a specified value of resistance is called a resistor. The circuit diagram symbol for a resistor is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Fundamentals 11 Fig. 1.6Potential Difference (p.d.) Whenever current flows through a resistorthere will be a p.d. developed across it. The p.d. is measured in volts,and is quite literally the difference in voltage levels between two pointsin a circuit. Although both p.d. and emf are measured in volts they arenot the same quantity. Essentially, emf (being the driving force) causescurrent to flow; whilst a p.d. is the result of current flowing through aresistor. Thus emf is a cause and p.d. is an effect. It is a general rulethat the symbol for a quantity is different to the symbol used for theunit in which it is measured. One of the few exceptions to this ruleis that the quantity symbol for p.d. happens to be the same as its unitsymbol, namely V. In order to explain the difference between emf andp.d. we shall consider another analogy.Figure 1.7 represents a simple hydraulic system consisting of apump, the connecting pipework and two restrictors in the pipe.The latter will have the effect of limiting the rate at which the waterflows around the circuit. Also included is a tap that can be used tointerrupt the flow completely. Figure 1.8 shows the equivalentelectrical circuit, comprising a battery, the connecting conductors(cables or leads) and two resistors. The latter will limit theamount of current flow. Also included is a switch that can beused to 'break' the circuit and so prevent any current flow. As faras each of the two systems is concerned we are going to make someassumptions. p1 p2 restrictors water flow tap pump P Fig. 1.7For the water system we will assume that the connecting pipework hasno slowing down effect on the flow, and so will not cause any pressure
12 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles V1 V2 R1 R2 SW I E Fig. 1.8 drop. Provided that the pipework is relatively short then this is a reasonable assumption. The similar assumption in the electrical circuit is that the connecting wires have such a low resistance that they will cause no p.d. If anything, this is probably a more legitimate assumption to make. Considering the water system, the pump will provide the total system pressure (P) that circulates the water through it. Using some form of pressure measuring device it would be possible to measure this pressure together with the pressure drops (pl and p2) that would occur across the two restrictors. Having noted these pressure readings it would be found that the total system pressure is equal to the sum of the two pressure drops. Using a similar technique for the electrical circuit, it would be found that the sum of the two p.d.s (V1 and V2) is equal to the total applied emf E volts. These relationships may be expressed in mathematical form as: P ϭ p1 ϩ p2 pascal and E ϭ V1 ϩ V2 volt (1.2) When the potential at some point in a circuit is quoted as having a particular value (say 10 V) then this implies that it is 10 V above some reference level or datum. Compare this with altitudes. If a mountain is said to be 5000 m high it does not necessarily mean that it rises 5000 m from its base to its peak. The figure of 5000 m refers to the height of its peak above mean sea level. Thus, mean sea level is the reference point or datum from which altitudes are measured. In the case of electrical potentials the datum is taken to be the potential of the Earth which is 0 V. Similarly, Ϫ10 V means 10 V below or less than 0 V. Conventional current and electron flow You will notice in Fig. 1.8 that the arrows used to show the direction of current flow indicate that this is from the positive plate of the battery, through the circuit, returning to the negative battery plate. This is called conventional current flow. However, since electrons are negatively charged particles, then these must be moving in the opposite direction. The latter is called electron
Fundamentals 13 flow. Now, this poses the problem of which one to use. It so happens that before science was sufficiently advanced to have knowledge of the electron, it was assumed that the positive plate represented the 'high' potential and the negative the 'low' potential. So the convention was adopted that the current flowed around the circuit from the high potential to the low potential. This compares with water which can naturally only flow from a high level to a lower level. Thus the concept of conventional current flow was adopted. All the subsequent 'rules' and conventions were based on this direction of current flow. On the discovery of the nature of the electron, it was decided to retain the concept of conventional current flow. Had this not been the case then all the other rules and conventions would have needed to be changed! Hence, true electron flow is used only when it is necessary to explain certain effects (as in semiconductor devices such as diodes and transistors). Whenever we are considering basic electrical circuits and devices we shall use conventional current flow i.e. current flowing around the circuit from the positive terminal of the source of emf to the negative terminal. Ohm's Law This states that the p.d. developed between the two ends of a resistor is directly proportional to the value of current flowing through it, provided that all other factors (e.g. temperature) remain constant. Writing this in mathematical form we have: V I However, this expression is of limited use since we need an equation. This can only be achieved by introducing a constant of proportionality; in this case the resistance value of the resistor. Thus V ϭ IR volt (1.3) V (1.4) or I ϭ amp R V and R ϭ ohm (1.5) IWorked Example 1.7Q A current of 5.5 mA flows through a 33 k resistor. Calculate the p.d. thus developed across it. A I ϭ 5.5 ϫ 10Ϫ3 A; R ϭ 33 ϫ 103 V ϭ I R volt ϭ 5.5 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ϫ 33 ϫ 103 V ϭ 181.5 V Ans
14 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles Worked Example 1.8 Q If a p.d. of 24 V exists across a 15 resistor then what must be the current flowing through it? A V ϭ 24 V; R ϭ 15 V Iϭ amp R 24 ϭ 15 I ϭ 1.6 A Ans Internal Resistance (r) So far we have considered that the emf E volts of a source is available at its terminals when supplying current to a circuit. If this were so then we would have an ideal source of emf. Unfortunately this is not the case in practice. This is due to the internal resistance of the source. As an example consider a typical 12 V car battery. This consists of a number of oppositely charged plates, appropriately interconnected to the terminals, immersed in an electrolyte. The plates themselves, the internal connections and the electrolyte all combine to produce a small but finite resistance, and it is this that forms the battery internal resistance. An electrolyte is the chemical 'cocktail' in which the plates are immersed. In the case of a car battery, this is an acid/water mixture. In this context, finite simply means measurable. Figure 1.9 shows such a battery with its terminals on open circuit (no external circuit connected). Since the circuit is incomplete no current can flow. Thus there will be no p.d. developed across the battery's internal resistance r. Since the term p.d. quite literally means a difference in potential between the two ends of r, then the terminal A must be at a potential of 12 V, and terminal B must be at a potential of 0 V. Hence, under these conditions, the full emf 12 V is available at the battery terminals. Figure 1.10 shows an external circuit, in the form of a 2 resistor, connected across the terminals. Since we now have a complete circuit A r 0.1 Ω E 12 V B Fig. 1.9
Fundamentals 15then current I will flow as shown. The value of this current will be5.71 A (the method of calculating this current will be dealt withearly in the next chapter). This current will cause a p.d. across r andalso a p.d. across R. These calculations and the consequences for thecomplete circuit now follow: p.d. across r ϭ Ir volt (Ohm's law applied) ϭ 5.71 ϫ 0.1 ϭ 0.571 V p. d. across R ϭ IR volt ϭ 5.71 ϫ 2 ϭ 11. 42 VNote: 0.571ϩ11.42 ϭ 11.991 V but this figure should be 12 V. Thevery small difference is simply due to 'rounding' the figures obtainedfrom the calculator. I A r 0.1 Ω V R 2Ω E 12 V B Fig. 1.10The p.d. across R is the battery terminal p.d. V. Thus it may be seenthat when a source is supplying current, the terminal p.d. will alwaysbe less than its emf. To emphasise this point let us assume that theexternal resistor is changed to one of 1.5 resistance. The current nowdrawn from the battery will be 7.5 A. Hence: p.d. across r ϭ 7.5 ϫ 0 .1 ϭ 0.75 V and p.d. across R ϭ 7.5 ϫ 1.5 ϭ 11 .25 VNote that 11.25 ϩ 0.75 ϭ 12 V (rounding error not involved). Hence,the battery terminal p.d. has fallen still further as the current drawn hasincreased. This example brings out the following points.1 Assuming that the battery's charge is maintained, then its emf remains constant. But its terminal p.d. varies as the current drawn is varied, such that V ϭ E Ϫ Ir volt (1.6)2 Rather than having to write the words 'p.d. across R' it is more convenient to write this as VAB, which translated, means the potential difference between points A and B.
16 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles 3 In future, if no mention is made of the internal resistance of a source, then for calculation purposes you may assume that it is zero, i.e. an ideal source. Worked Example 1.9 Q A battery of emf 6 V has an internal resistance of 0.15 . Calculate its terminal p.d. when delivering a current of (a) 0.5 A, (b) 2 A, and (c) 10 A. A E ϭ 6 V; r ϭ 0.15 (a) V ϭ E Ϫ Ir volt ϭ 6 Ϫ (0.5 ϫ 0.15) ϭ 6 Ϫ 0.075 so, V ϭ 5.925 V Ans (b) V ϭ 6 Ϫ (2 ϫ 0.15) ϭ 6 Ϫ 0.3 so, V ϭ 5.7 V Ans (c) V ϭ 6 Ϫ (10 ϫ 0.15) ϭ 6 Ϫ 1.5 so, V ϭ 4.5 V Ans Note: This example verifies that the terminal p.d. of a source of emf decreases as the load on it (the current drawn from it) is increased. Worked Example 1.10 Q A battery of emf 12 V supplies a circuit with a current of 5 A. If, under these conditions, the terminal p.d. is 11.5 V, determine (a) the battery internal resistance, (b) the resistance of the external circuit. A E ϭ 12 V; I ϭ 5 A; V ϭ 11.5 V As with the vast majority of electrical problems, a simple sketch of the circuit diagram will help you to visualise the problem. For the above problem the circuit diagram would be as shown in Fig. 1.11. (a) E ϭ V ϩ I r volt E Ϫ V ϭ I r volt E ϪV so, r ϭ ohm I 12 Ϫ 11.5 ϭ 5 hence, r ϭ 0.1 Ans I r 5A V 11.5 V R (External) E 12 V Fig. 1.11
Fundamentals 17 V (b) Rϭ ohm I 11.5 ϭ 5 so, R ϭ 2.3 Ans Energy (W) This is the property of a system that enables it to do work. Whenever work is done energy is transferred from that system to another one. The most common form into which energy is transformed is heat. Thus one of the effects of an electric current is to produce heat (e.g. an electric kettle). J. P. Joule carried out an investigation into this effect. He reached the conclusion that the amount of heat so produced was proportional to the value of the square of the current flowing and the time for which it flowed. Once more a constant of proportionality is required, and again it is the resistance of the circuit that is used. Thus the heat produced (or energy dissipated) is given by the equation W ϭ I 2 Rt joule (1.7) and applying Ohm's law as shown in equations (1.3) to (1.5) V 2t Wϭ joule (1.8) R or W ϭ VIt joule (1.9)Worked Example 1.11Q A current of 200 mA flows through a resistance of 750 for a time of 5 minutes. Calculate (a) the p.d. developed, and (b) the energy dissipated. A I ϭ 200 mA ϭ 0.2A; t ϭ 5 ϫ 60 ϭ 300 s; R ϭ 750 (a) V ϭ I R volt ϭ 0.2 ϫ 750 V ϭ 150 V Ans (b) W ϭ I 2Rt joule ϭ 0.2 ϫ 750 ϫ 300 W ϭ 9000 J or 9 kJ Ans
18 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles Note: It would have been possible to use either equation (1.8) or (1.9) to calculate W. However, this would have involved using the calculated value for V. If this value had been miscalculated, then the answers to both parts of the question would have been incorrect. So, whenever possible, make use of data that are given in the question in preference to values that you have calculated. Please also note that the time has been converted to its basic unit, the second. Power (P) This is the rate at which work is done, or at which energy is dissipated. The unit in which power is measured is the watt (W). Warning: Do not confuse this unit symbol with the quantity symbol for energy. In general terms we can say that power is energy divided by time. W i.e. P ϭ watt t Thus, by dividing each of equations (1.7), (1.8) and (1.9), in turn, by t, the following equations for power result: P ϭ I 2 R watt (1.10) V2 Pϭ watt (1.11) R or P ϭ VI watt (1.12) Worked Example 1.12 Q A resistor of 680 , when connected in a circuit, dissipates a power of 85 mW. Calculate (a) the p.d. developed across it, and (b) the current flowing through it. A R ϭ 680 ; P ϭ 85 ϫ 10Ϫ3 W V2 (a) Pϭ watt R so, V 2 ϭ PR and V ϭ PR volt ϭ 85 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ϫ 680 ϭ 57.8 so, V ϭ 7.6 V Ans (b) P ϭ I 2R watt P so, I 2 ϭ R P and I ϭ amp R 85 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ϭ ϭ 1.25 ϫ 10Ϫ4 680 so, I ϭ 11.18 mA Ans
Fundamentals 19 Note: Since P ϭ VI watt, the calculations may be checked as follows P ϭ 7.6 ϫ 11.18 ϫ 10Ϫ3 so, P ϭ 84.97 mW, which when rounded up to one decimal place gives 85.0 mW — the value given in the question.Worked Example 1.13Q A current of 1.4 A when flowing through a circuit for 15 minutes dissipates 200 KJ of energy. Calculate (a) the p.d., (b) power dissipated, and (c) the resistance of the circuit. A I ϭ 1.4 A; t ϭ 15 ϫ 60 s; W ϭ 2 ϫ 105 J (a) W ϭ V I t joule W so V ϭ volt It 2 ϫ 1 05 ϭ 1.4 ϫ 15 ϫ 60 V ϭ 158.7 V Ans (b) P ϭ V I watt ϭ 158.7 ϫ 1.4 P ϭ 222.2 W Ans V (c) Rϭ ohm I 158.7 ϭ 1.4 R ϭ 113.4 Ans The Commercial Unit of Energy (kWh) Although the joule is the SI unit of energy, it is too small a unit for some practical uses, e.g. where large amounts of power are used over long periods of time. The electricity meter in your home actually measures the energy con- sumption. So, if a 3 kW heater was in use for 12 hours the amount of energy used would be 129.6 MJ. In order to record this the meter would require at least ten dials to indicate this very large number. In addition to which, many of them would have to rotate at an impossible rate. Hence the commercial unit of energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh). Kilowatt- hours are the 'units' that appear on electricity bills. The number of units consumed can be calculated by multiplying the power (in kW) by the time interval (in hours). So, for the heater mentioned above, the number of 'units' consumed would be written as 36 kWh. It should be apparent from this that to record this particular figure, fewer dials are required, and their speed of rotation is perfectly acceptable.
20 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles Worked Example 1.14 Q Calculate the cost of operating a 12.5 kW machine continuously for a period of 8.5 h if the cost per unit is 7.902 p. A W ϭ 12.5 ϫ 8.5 kWh so W ϭ 106.25 kWh and cost ϭ 106.25 ϫ 7.902 ϭ £8.40 Ans s Note: When calculating energy in kWh the power must be expressed in kW, and the time in hours respectively, rather than in their basic units of watts and seconds respectively. Worked Example 1.15 Q An electricity bill totalled £78.75, which included a standing charge of £15.00. The number of units charged for was 750. Calculate (a) the charge per unit, and (b) the total bill if the charge/unit had been 9p, and the standing charge remained unchanged. A Total bill ϭ £78.75; standing charge ϭ £15.00; units used ϭ 750 ϭ 750 kWh (a) Cost of the energy (units) used ϭ total Ϫ standing charge ϭ £78.75 Ϫ £15.00 ϭ £63.75 . £63.75 Cost/unit ϭ ϭ £0.085 750 so, cost/unit ϭ 8.5 p Ans (b) If the cost/unit is raised to 9p, then cost of energy used ϭ £0.09 ϫ 750 ϭ £67.50 total bill ϭ cost of units used ϩ standing charge ϭ £67.50 ϩ £15.00 so, total bill ϭ £82.50 Ans Alternating and Direct Quantities The sources of emf and resulting current flow so far considered are called d.c. quantities. This is because a battery or cell once connected to a circuit is capable of driving current around the circuit in one direction only. If it is required to reverse the current it is necessary to reverse the battery connections. The term d.c., strictly speaking, means 'direct current'. However, it is also used to describe unidirectional voltages. Thus a d.c. voltage refers to a unidirectional voltage that may only be reversed as stated above. However, the other commonly used form of electrical supply is that obtained from the electrical mains. This is the supply that is generated
Fundamentals 21and distributed by the power companies. This is an alternating or a.c.supply in which the current flows alternately in opposite directionsaround a circuit. Again, the term strictly means 'alternating current',but the emfs and p.d.s associated with this system are referred to as a.c.voltages. Thus, an a.c. generator (or alternator) produces an alternatingvoltage. Most a.c. supplies provide a sinusoidal waveform (a sinewaveshape). Both d.c. and a.c. waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 1.12. Thetreatment of a.c. quantities and circuits is dealt with in Chapters 6, andneed not concern you any further at this stage. ϩ steady d.c. I(A) a.c. 0 t(s) Ϫ varying d.c. Fig. 1.12Factors affecting Resistance The resistance of a sample of materialdepends upon four factors (i) its length (ii) its cross-sectional area (csa)(iii) the actual material used(iv) its temperatureSimple experiments can show that the resistance is directlyproportional to the length and inversely proportional to the csa.Combining these two statements we can write: ᐉ R where ᐉ ϭ length (in metres) and A ϭ csa (in square metres) AThe constant of proportionality in this case concerns the third factorlisted above, and is known as the resistivity of the material. This isdefined as the resistance that exists between the opposite faces of a 1 mcube of that material, measured at a defined temperature. The symbolfor resistivity is . The unit of measurement is the ohm-metre ( m).Thus the equation for resistance using the above factor is ᐉ Rϭ ohm (1.13) A


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i'm looking for some anime to get into. i'm a pretty big into old school dungeons and dragons type games.
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i'm looking for some anime to get into. i'm a pretty big into old school dungeons and dragons type games.
Try out any of these: Rurouni Kenshin, Soul Eater, History's Strongest Disciple Kenichi, Gun and Sword, Samurai Champloo and Samurai 7.
Last edited by Apachai Hopachai; 03-28-2010 at 01:27 AM.
Current Videogames: Bayonetta, FFXIII, League of Legends, World of Warcraft.
Current Animes: FLCL, Planning on Rewatching Trigun soon.
Current Manga: Prince of Tennis, Hikaru No Go.
It's History's Strongest Disciple Kenichi. If you're into D&D, you'll like Fushigi Yuugi, Fantastic Children and .Hack//SIGN. This is counting on the fact you're more into stories then just the action.
Current Videogames: Bayonetta, FFXIII, League of Legends, World of Warcraft.
Current Animes: FLCL, Planning on Rewatching Trigun soon.
Current Manga: Prince of Tennis, Hikaru No Go.
Naruto, Bleach, Yu Yu Hakusho, Gunsword, Gungrave, Full Metal Alchemist: Brotherhood, and ichiban Ushiro no Daimao.
you can always try Gintama!!(it has more calcium than the others)And ofc Inuyasha and Naruto are awesome too^^
Last edited by Orenjia; 05-03-2010 at 11:49 AM.
I don't know about Kenshin. I found the story to be kind of long and not too exciting. I suppose the Shishio part is kind of good, but I wouldn't recommend it to someone new to anime. Not sure what you mean by D&D. That's a game. If you mean humans with swords vs. monsters, then try Berserk and Claymore.
Try "Sword Of The Stranger"...
@Dark Indigo: Although, I didn't start this thread. Similarly to the original poster, William, I was also looking for an anime to get into, and I also like the realm of fantasy. I like themes that deal with journeys and lore, especially if they are set in a historical, or fantasy setting with mages, warriors, kings and etc. The suggestion of Sword of the stranger was right up my alley. I thoroughly enjoyed this movie, and I have not seen the likes of this movie ever before. Thank you for this wonderful selection. I will have to add the DVD to my collection. Cheers!
Sword of the stranger is just masterpiece...
I hope you like it...
I agree with Antre Istakis, Record of Lodoss War is a fine title to watch along with Claymore. If I recall,,, there might actually be two versions with the same title. Both are excellent if I recall,,,, but has been awhile. Myself, I haven't watched much of the fantasy/D&D-ish type stuff in awhile. Been watchin more of the drama type lately.
Old school dungeons and dragons? I'm guessing you're referring to anime that go a bit back in time to the times where they fight with swords and stuff?
- Claymore
- Tenkuu Senki Shurato
- Fist of the North Star (although not in the past, it's definitely a watcher)
- Berserk
Not everything is black and white like that.
pretty much any .hack//
beserk....gah. Trying to remember a really good one. It involves the prince being the host of the water spirit said to cause droughts.
Sengoku Basara....
Hmm...Can't suggest Persona trinity soul or TTGL.
Tears to Tiara I guess.
and princess monoke.
~The King has come! To save us from the dark, who could have ever doubt? We have faith~
set done by Daken
For my shame of forgetting it, and Crazy's remembering it. I shall have to rep him.
And the .hacks are good, I like them anyways, it does help to watch them in order since they do kinda run in a certaint order. I've gone as far as watchin the anime, play the game, then the next anime, then the next game. I'm big on order, lol.
Thank you rebel! For reminding me I shall rep you.
It was a really amazing anime based in a feudal era. Well balanced, and not too huge on the whole spirits part of it, and by that I mean everyone gets some kind of spirit power. And when there was fighting scenes, the fighting scenes were so wonderfully done and moved with such fluidity that I thought it was by-far one of the best examples of animation.
~The King has come! To save us from the dark, who could have ever doubt? We have faith~
set done by Daken
Stick with the classics man, Dragon Ball Z and Rurouni Kenshin. Plenty of action to keep you entertained. If you're into comedy, check out GTO. Cowboy Bebop is cool too. Since you're into the Dungeons and Dragons stuff, Yugi-Oh! and Digi-mon might interest you also.
Try Death note. It's awesome (imo).
You can also try: Soul eater, Naruto, Bleach or Elfen lied.
All enjoyable.
The most obvious choice [what i think] would be ... wait for it.........
sorry if my picture doesn't work . . .
This Is The Maze That Has Been Slowly And Harshly Carved Into My Heart,
The Maze That No One But The One True Love Can Find Their Way Into It,
But No One Else Can Understand,
And I Am Always Alone,
Until My Love Comes To Find Me,
I Will Be Waiting Like A Ninja,
Unseen, Silent, And DEADLY
Story Of My Life .~MazeinMe
How about Hellsing, Bleach, Naruto, Samerai 7
I Love Being Visual Kei No Matter The Mood, Place or Time I Rock The Style Any day
I'd suggest cowboy bebop as well, made by some of the same hands as samurai champloo. Evangelion is still popular in Japan after sooo many years too.
If you want a D&D like fantasy setting then go with Escaflowne, Tsubasa Chronicles, Berserk or Bleach . There are many others but these were the first to come to mind.
Last edited by Marius2000; 09-04-2010 at 10:19 PM.
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Celtic Sea Salt, Mini Salt Grinder, with Light Grey Celtic, 1.8 oz (51 g)
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Convenient, practical and great taste
3 people found the following review helpful
Posted by PurplePegasus on Apr 02, 2014
I sent this to a friend and she loved it. Myself, I prefer Celtic sea salt to the others in both taste and health benefits. I think the pink Himalaya one is often touted as best but, for me, truly does not compare to this one. Everyone is different; I believe nature put the main nutrients needed by a particular people in their native foods found in their native lands of origin. I'm not a fan of exotic cuisines and they do say to eat locally grown foods for a reason. As a native European, this is the best salt for me. You might find that once you try this one, you never want to switch back.
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Very good!
2 people found the following review helpful
Posted by Reviewer-Ioana on Sep 11, 2013
Very good salt and very good grinder - reutilisable!
Very good salt, reusable grinder
1 person found the following review helpful
Posted by Penelope11 on Jan 12, 2014
A very good sea salt: a little is enough and its grinder is easily refillable and small enough to keep at the office. You can even clean the grinder with water. I only wish its cap would be attached to the rest of the grinder so you don't risk dropping it.
Posted by Reviewer1861424 on Jul 12, 2012
This is my first experience with using sea salt. I'm impressed. seems to take so little.
Love the taste
Posted by Reviewer2660572 on Jul 24, 2012
This is the best salt I have ever tried so far, most important its all natural and unrefined. Will buy more, thanks


text: these folks know how to do breakfast. the coffee was wonderful and everything that kept coming out of the kitchen looked delicious. I had the standard eggs, bacon and hashbrowns which probably was my mistake. My husband had the eggs with nachos and cheese-- and his dish was delicous. My eggs were a... read more


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