text: Environmental & Earth Sciences http://www.mdpi.com/journal/environment Latest open access articles published in Environmental & Earth Sciences at http://www.mdpi.com/journal/environment http://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/4/3/1265 Using Satellite Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, this paper analyzes the land use and land cover change dynamics in the Bosomtwe District of Ghana, for 1986, 2010 thematic mapper and enhanced thematic Mapper+ (TM/ETM+) images, and 2014 Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI/TIS) image. The three images were geo-referenced and processed for classification, using the maximum likelihood classifier algorithm. A Jeffries-Matusita's separability check was used in confirming the degree of spectral separation acceptability of the bands used for each of the land use and land cover classes. The best Kappa hat statistic of classification accuracy was 83%. Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) transition analysis in Environmental Systems Research Institute ESRI's ArcMap was performed. The results of the classification over the three periods showed that built up, bare land and concrete surfaces increased from 1201 in 1986 to 5454 ha in 2010. Dense forest decreased by 2253 ha over the same period and increased by 873 ha by the 2014. Low forest also decreased by 1043 ha in 2010; however, it increased by 13% in 2014. Our findings showed some of the important changes in the land use and land cover patterns in the District. After the urbanization process, coupled with farmland abandonment, between 1986 and 2010, substantial increments in urban land and clear increments in farmland coverage between 1986 and 2014were found to be the reason for vegetation cover decreases. This suggests that major changes in the socio-ecological driving forces affecting landscape dynamics have occurred in the last few decades. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 2015-07-28 4 3 Article 10.3390/ijgi4031265 1265 1289 2220-9964 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/ijgi4031265 Divine Appiah Dietrich Schröder Eric Forkuo John Bugri http://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/5/3/577 Although alfalfa is moderately tolerant of salinity, the effects of salinity on nutrient composition and forage parameters are poorly understood. In addition, there are no data on the effect of salinity on the antioxidant capacity of alfalfa. We evaluated four non-dormant, salinity-tolerant commercial cultivars, irrigated with saline water with electrical conductivities of 3.1, 7.2, 12.7, 18.4, 24.0, and 30.0 dS·m−1, designed to simulate drainage waters from the California Central Valley. Alfalfa shoots were evaluated for nutrient composition, forage parameters, and antioxidant capacity. Salinity significantly increased shoot N, P, Mg, and S, but decreased Ca and K. Alfalfa micronutrients were also affected by salinity, but to a lesser extent. Na and Cl increased significantly with increasing salinity. Salinity slightly improved forage parameters by significantly increasing crude protein, the net energy of lactation, and the relative feed value. All cultivars maintained their antioxidant capacity regardless of salinity level. The results indicate that alfalfa can tolerate moderate to high salinity while maintaining nutrient composition, antioxidant capacity, and slightly improved forage parameters, thus meeting the standards required for dairy cattle feed. Agriculture 2015-07-28 5 3 Article 10.3390/agriculture5030577 577 597 2077-0472 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/agriculture5030577 Jorge Ferreira Monica Cornacchione Xuan Liu Donald Suarez http://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/6/8/2560 The mycelia of some symbiotic ectomycorrhizal fungi form extensive networks—the so called "wood-wide web"—that have key roles in biogeochemical cycling. By interacting with myriad soil organisms such as collembola, the fungi directly affect the functioning of above- and below-ground multitrophic interactions in ecosystems. Here we tested whether the grazing activities of collembola affected the growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi in single or mixed species axenic cultures, and their impact on ectomycorrhizal diversity in litterbags in the field. We also used 14CO2 pulse-labelling to test the effects of collembola on respiratory losses of recent plant assimilate from external mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi in symbiosis with Scots pine or birch. We found that the effects of collembola varied across species, and caused a significant reduction in the amount of 14CO2 released from external mycorrhizal mycelium from three of the eight species combinations but increased it in one. Selective grazing also significantly affected the community structure of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Our findings demonstrate the importance of collembola in regulating ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity and activity and below-ground pathways of carbon flow. Forests 2015-07-28 6 8 Article 10.3390/f6082560 2560 2570 1999-4907 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/f6082560 Clarisse Kanters Ian Anderson David Johnson http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7703 This paper presents a novel grouping method for lithium iron phosphate batteries. In this method, a simplified electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) model is utilized to describe the battery characteristics. Dynamic stress test (DST) and fractional joint Kalman filter (FJKF) are used to extract battery model parameters. In order to realize equal-number grouping of batteries, a new modified K-means clustering algorithm is proposed. Two rules are designed to equalize the numbers of elements in each group and exchange samples among groups. In this paper, the principles of battery model selection, physical meaning and identification method of model parameters, data preprocessing and equal-number clustering method for battery grouping are comprehensively described. Additionally, experiments for battery grouping and method validation are designed. This method is meaningful to application involving the grouping of fresh batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and screening of aged batteries for recycling. Energies 2015-07-28 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087703 7703 7728 1996-1073 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/en8087703 Xiaoyu Li Kai Song Guo Wei Rengui Lu Chunbo Zhu http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/6/3/704 Whiteflies of the Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) cryptic species complex are among the most important agricultural insect pests in the world. These phloem-feeding insects can colonize over 1000 species of plants worldwide and inflict severe economic losses to crops, mainly through the transmission of pathogenic viruses. Surprisingly, there is very little genomic information about whiteflies. As a starting point to genome sequencing, we report a new estimation of the genome size of the B. tabaci B biotype or Middle East-Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) population. Using an isogenic whitefly colony with over 6500 haploid male individuals for genomic DNA, three paired-end genomic libraries with insert sizes of ~300 bp, 500 bp and 1 Kb were constructed and sequenced on an Illumina HiSeq 2500 system. A total of ~50 billion base pairs of sequences were obtained from each library. K-mer analysis using these sequences revealed that the genome size of the whitefly was ~682.3 Mb. In addition, the flow cytometric analysis estimated the haploid genome size of the whitefly to be ~690 Mb. Considering the congruency between both estimation methods, we predict the haploid genome size of B. tabaci MEAM1 to be ~680–690 Mb. Our data provide a baseline for ongoing efforts to assemble and annotate the B. tabaci genome. Insects 2015-07-28 6 3 Article 10.3390/insects6030704 704 715 2075-4450 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/insects6030704 Wenbo Chen Daniel Hasegawa Kathiravetpillai Arumuganathan Alvin Simmons William Wintermantel Zhangjun Fei Kai-Shu Ling http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/3/3/745 The reliability of the narrative of the Biblical Exodus has been subject of heated debate for decades. Recent archaeological studies seem to provide new insight of the exodus path, and although with a still controversial chronology, the effects of the Minoan Santorini eruption have been proposed as a likely explanation of the biblical plagues. Particularly, it has been suggested that flooding by the associated tsunamis could explain the first plague and the sea parting. Recent modelling studies have shown that Santorini's tsunami effects were negligible in the eastern Nile Delta, but the released tectonic stress could have triggered local tsunamigenic sources in sequence. This paper is aimed to a quantitative assessment of the potential role of tsunamis in the biblical parting of the sea. Several "best case" scenarios are tested through the application of a numerical model for tsunami propagation that has been previously validated. The former paleogeographic conditions of the eastern Nile Delta have been implemented based upon recent geological studies; and several feasible local sources for tsunamis are proposed. Tsunamis triggered by submarine landslides of 10–30 km3 could have severely impacted the northern Sinai and southern Levantine coasts but with weak effects in the eastern Nile Delta coastline. The lack of noticeable flooding in this area under the most favorable conditions for tsunamis, along with the time sequence of water elevations, make difficult to accept them as a plausible and literally explanation of the first plague and of the drowning of the Egyptian army in the surroundings of the former Shi-Hor Lagoon. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2015-07-28 3 3 Article 10.3390/jmse3030745 745 771 2077-1312 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/jmse3030745 José Abril Raúl Periáñez http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8828 The growing global production of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) suggests a realistic increase in the environmental exposure to such a nanomaterial, making the knowledge of its biological reactivity and its safe-by-design synthesis mandatory. In this study, the embryotoxicity of ZnONPs (1–100 mg/L) specifically synthesized for industrial purposes with different sizes, shapes (round, rod) and surface coatings (PEG, PVP) was tested using the frog embryo teratogenesis assay-Xenopus (FETAX) to identify potential target tissues and the most sensitive developmental stages. The ZnONPs did not cause embryolethality, but induced a high incidence of malformations, in particular misfolded gut and abdominal edema. Smaller, round NPs were more effective than the bigger, rod ones, and PEGylation determined a reduction in embryotoxicity. Ingestion appeared to be the most relevant exposure route. Only the embryos exposed from the stomodeum opening showed anatomical and histological lesions to the intestine, mainly referable to a swelling of paracellular spaces among enterocytes. In conclusion, ZnONPs differing in shape and surface coating displayed similar toxicity in X. laevis embryos and shared the same target organ. Nevertheless, we cannot exclude that the physico-chemical characteristics may influence the severity of such effects. Further research efforts are mandatory to ensure the synthesis of safer nano-ZnO-containing products. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-28 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808828 8828 8848 1660-4601 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808828 Patrizia Bonfanti Elisa Moschini Melissa Saibene Renato Bacchetta Leonardo Rettighieri Lorenzo Calabri Anita Colombo Paride Mantecca http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4144 There are many models that have been used to simulate the rainfall-runoff relationship. The artificial neural network (ANN) model was selected to investigate an approach of improving daily runoff forecasting accuracy in terms of data preprocessing. Singular spectrum analysis (SSA) as one data preprocessing technique was adopted to deal with the model inputs and the SSA-ANN model was developed. The proposed model was compared with the original ANN model without data preprocessing and a nonlinear perturbation model (NLPM) based on ANN, i.e., the NLPM-ANN model. Eight watersheds were selected for calibrating and testing these models. Comparative study shows that the learning and training ability of ANN models can be improved by SSA and NLPM techniques significantly, and the performance of the SSA-ANN model is much better than the NLPM-ANN model, with high foresting accuracy. The SSA-ANN1 model, which only considers rainfall as model input, was compared with the SSA-ANN2 model, which considers both rainfall and previous runoff as model inputs. It is shown that the Nash-Sutcliffe criterion of the SSA-ANN2 model is much higher than that of the SSA-ANN1 model, which means that the proper selection of previous runoff data as rainfall-runoff model inputs can significantly improve model performance since they usually are highly auto-correlated. Water 2015-07-28 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084144 4144 4160 2073-4441 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/w7084144 Yun Wang Shenglian Guo Lihua Xiong Pan Liu Dedi Liu http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4129 Drainage networks are essential compartments in an urban infrastructure system for the efficient collection and prompt drainage of flood water. In addition to the advances in numerical techniques on urban flood simulation, the topological characteristics of urban drainage networks and their impacts on flooding have not been investigated thoroughly despite their importance. This study evaluated the urban drainage networks in Seoul, South Korea, in terms of the network configuration and its implication for peak flows and flood mitigation. Gibbs' model was used to analyze the network configuration of 31 urban catchments with various slope ranges. The results showed that urban drainage networks can be less efficient than river in nature in terms of the drainage time, which is counter-intuitive. On the other hand, the analysis showed that efficient networks have risks of flood concentration and, hence, increase potential flood risks. This study showed that efficient networks tend to have higher peak flows at the outlet and vice versa. Therefore, an alternative drainage network layout, which is less efficient and more sinuous, was introduced and it resulted in reduced peak flows and flooding. This result shows managing a proper drainage network layout can contribute to flood mitigation in urban catchments. Water 2015-07-28 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084129 4129 4143 2073-4441 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/w7084129 Yongwon Seo Junshik Hwang Seong Noh http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/8/9587 Accurate estimates of forest aboveground biomass (AGB) after anthropogenic disturbance could reduce uncertainties in the carbon budget of terrestrial ecosystems and provide critical information to policy makers. Yet, the loss of carbon due to forest disturbance and the gain from post-disturbance recovery have not been sufficiently assessed. In this study, a sensitivity analysis was first conducted to investigate: (1) the influence of incidence angle and soil moisture on Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) backscatter; (2) the feasibility of cross-image normalization between multi-temporal and multi-sensor SAR data; and (3) the possibility of applying normalized backscatter data to detect forest biomass changes. An empirical model was used to reduce incidence angle effects, followed by cross-image normalization procedure to lessen soil moisture effect. Changes in forest biomass at medium spatial resolution (100 m) were mapped using both spaceborne and airborne SAR data. Results indicate that (1) the effect of incidence angle on SAR backscatter could be reduced to less than 1 dB by the correction model for airborne SAR data; (2) over 50% of the changes in SAR backscatter due to soil moisture could be eliminated by the cross-image normalization procedure; and (3) forest biomass changes greater than 100 Mg·ha−1 or above 50% of 150 Mg·ha−1 are detectable using cross-normalized SAR data. Remote Sensing 2015-07-28 7 8 Article 10.3390/rs70809587 9587 9609 2072-4292 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/rs70809587 Wenli Huang Guoqing Sun Wenjian Ni Zhiyu Zhang Ralph Dubayah http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/8/9563 This study pursues the mapping of the distribution of topsoils and surface substrates of the Lake Manyara area of northern Tanzania. The nine soil and lithological target classes were selected through fieldwork and laboratory analysis of soil samples. High-resolution WorldView-2 data, TerraSAR-X intensity data, medium-resolution ASTER spectral bands and indices, as well as ENVISAT ASAR intensity and SRTM-X-derived topographic parameters served as input features. Objects were derived from image segmentation. The classification of the image objects was conducted applying a nonlinear support vector machine approach. With the recursive feature elimination approach, the most input-relevant features for separating the target classes were selected. Despite multiple target classes, an overall accuracy of 71.9% was achieved. Inaccuracies occurred between classes with high CaCO3 content and between classes of silica-rich substrates. The incorporation of different input feature datasets improved the classification accuracy. An in-depth interpretation of the classification result was conducted with three soil profile transects. Remote Sensing 2015-07-28 7 8 Article 10.3390/rs70809563 9563 9586 2072-4292 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/rs70809563 Felix Bachofer Geraldine Quénéhervé Volker Hochschild Michael Maerker http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10098 Carbon footprints have been widely employed as an indicator for total carbon dioxide released by human activities. In this paper, we implemented a multi-regional input-output framework to evaluate the carbon footprints and embodied carbon flows for the eight regions of China from consumption-based perspective. It is found that the construction, electricity/stream supply, and machine manufacturing rank as the top sectors with the largest total carbon emissions. The construction sector alone accounts for 20%–50% of the national emissions. Besides the sectoral carbon footprints, regional footprints and their differences in carbon emissions were also observed. The middle region had the largest total carbon footprints, 1188 million ton, while the capital region ranked the first for its per capita carbon footprint, 7.77 ton/person. In regard to the embodied carbon flows within China, the study detected that the embodied carbon flows take up about 41% of the total carbon footprints of the nation. The northwest region and the eastern coast region are found to be the largest net embodied carbon exporter and importer, respectively. Further investigation revealed significant differences between production-based and consumption-based carbon emissions, both at sectoral and total amounts. Results of this paper can provide specific information to policies on sectoral and regional carbon emission reduction. Sustainability 2015-07-28 7 8 Article 10.3390/su70810098 10098 10114 2071-1050 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/su70810098 Xi Xie Wenjia Cai Yongkai Jiang Weihua Zeng http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8811 This study was carried out to assess the extent of heavy metals and metalloid accumulation from agricultural soils to foodstuffs (viz, M. esculenta (cassava) and Musa paradisiaca (plantain)) around thirteen neighboring communities within Tarkwa, Ghana; and to estimate the human health risk associated with consumption of these foodstuffs. Concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn were measured with an inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometer and mercury analysis was done using a mercury analyzer. From the results, 30% of cassava samples collected, contained higher concentrations of Pb when compared to Codex Alimentarius Commission standard values. Bioconcentration factor indicated that Ni had higher capacity of absorption into food crops from soil than the other heavy metals. For both children and adults, the target hazard quotient (THQ) of Pb in cassava in communities such as Techiman, Wangarakrom, Samahu, and Tebe (only children) were greater than 1, which is defined as an acceptable risk value. This indicated that residents could be exposed to significant health risks associated with cassava consumption. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-28 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808811 8811 8827 1660-4601 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808811 Nesta Bortey-Sam Shouta Nakayama Osei Akoto Yoshinori Ikenaka Julius Fobil Elvis Baidoo Hazuki Mizukawa Mayumi Ishizuka http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8790 The reasons for higher rates of smoking among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people than among heterosexual people are not well known. Research on internal migration and neighborhood selection suggests that LGB people are more likely to live in neighborhoods where the tobacco industry has historically targeted their marketing efforts (lower income, more racial/ethnic diversity). We used multi-level models to assess the relationship between the rate of same-sex couples per 1000 coupled households and 2012 marketing characteristics of tobacco retailers (n = 2231) in 1696 census tracts in 97 U.S. counties. We found no evidence of tobacco marketing at retailers differing by same-sex couple rates in census tracts with the exception of three findings in the opposite direction of our hypotheses: a small, significant positive relationship for the rate of same-sex male couples and the price of Newport Green (mentholated) cigarettes. For male and female same-sex couples, we also found a small negative relationship between tobacco advertisements and same-sex household rate. Tobacco retailers' tobacco marketing characteristics do not differ substantially by the rate of same-sex couples in their neighborhood in ways that would promote LGB health disparities. Further work is needed to determine if these patterns are similar for non-partnered LGB people. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-28 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808790 8790 8810 1660-4601 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808790 Joseph Lee Adam Goldstein William Pan Kurt Ribisl http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7690 Oil/paper insulation degradation in transformers involves chemical and physical changes in the materials. Some of the chemical reactions involve very reactive intermediates called free radicals. Free radicals play a major role in a wide variety of ageing processes. The detection of these reactive species in oil may, in principle, provide useful information for monitoring oil degradation. This manuscript details a laboratory technique, which determines the relative content of free radicals in insulating oils of petroleum origin by a spectrophotometric method. Free radicals may be formed in oils under operating or test conditions. The procedure enables the determination of the relative concentration of free radicals, which can act as the precursors of decay products such as charge carriers, oxidized molecules, as well as polymerization products. The technique involves using a reactive free radical reagent, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), added to oil to assess free radical concentration. This method is applicable to new, reclaimed, or used oils as well as naturally or artificially oxidized oil (the cause of aging can be chemical, physical, or electrical). In this contribution, free radicals were assessed following electrical discharge application in oil. Energies 2015-07-28 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087690 7690 7702 1996-1073 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/en8087690 Issouf Fofana John Sabau Amidou Betie http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7677 In this paper, we present the design and evaluation of a software-based wireless power transfer platform that enables the development of a prototype involving various open- and closed-loop power control functions. Our platform is based on a loosely coupled planar wireless power transfer circuit that uses a class-E power amplifier. In conjunction with this circuit, we implement flexible control functions using a National Instruments Data Acquisition (NI DAQ) board and algorithms in the MATLAB/Simulink. To verify the effectiveness of our platform, we conduct two types of power-control experiments: a no-load or metal detection using open-loop power control, and an output voltage regulation for different receiver positions using closed-loop power control. The use of the MATLAB/Simulink software as a part of the planar wireless power transfer platform for power control experiments is shown to serve as a useful and inexpensive alternative to conventional hardware-based platforms. Energies 2015-07-28 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087677 7677 7689 1996-1073 2015-07-28 doi: 10.3390/en8087677 Sun-Han Hwang Chung Kang Yong-Ho Son Byung-Jun Jang http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7654 Lignin is an aromatic biopolymer involved in providing structural support to plant cell walls. Compared to the other cell wall polymers, i.e., cellulose and hemicelluloses, lignin has been considered a hindrance in cellulosic bioethanol production due to the complexity involved in its separation from other polymers of various biomass feedstocks. Nevertheless, lignin is a potential source of valuable aromatic chemical compounds and upgradable building blocks. Though the biosynthetic pathway of lignin has been elucidated in great detail, the random nature of the polymerization (free radical coupling) process poses challenges for its depolymerization into valuable bioproducts. The absence of specific methodologies for lignin degradation represents an important opportunity for research and development. This review highlights research development in lignin biosynthesis, lignin genetic engineering and different biological and chemical means of depolymerization used to convert lignin into biofuels and bioproducts. Energies 2015-07-27 8 8 Review 10.3390/en8087654 7654 7676 1996-1073 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/en8087654 Cassie Welker Vimal Balasubramanian Carloalberto Petti Krishan Rai Seth DeBolt Venugopal Mendu http://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/4/3/1246 Web 2.0 enables a two-way interaction between servers and clients. GPS receivers become available to more citizens and are commonly found in vehicles and smart phones, enabling individuals to record and share their trajectory data on the Internet and edit them online. OpenStreetMap (OSM) makes it possible for citizens to contribute to the acquisition of geographic information. This paper studies the use of OSM data to find newly mapped or built roads that do not exist in a reference road map and create its updated version. For this purpose, we propose a progressive buffering method for determining an optimal buffer radius to detect the new roads in the OSM data. In the next step, the detected new roads are merged into the reference road maps geometrically, topologically, and semantically. Experiments with OSM data and reference road maps over an area of 8494 km2 in the city of Wuhan, China and five of its 5 km × 5 km areas are conducted to demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the method. It is shown that the OSM data can add 11.96% or a total of 2008.6 km of new roads to the reference road maps with an average precision of 96.49% and an average recall of 97.63%. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 2015-07-27 4 3 Article 10.3390/ijgi4031246 1246 1264 2220-9964 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/ijgi4031246 Changyong Liu Lian Xiong Xiangyun Hu Jie Shan http://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/4/3/627 Increasing temperatures and wildfire incidence and decreasing precipitation and river runoff in southern Africa are predicted to have a variety of impacts on the ecology, structure, and function of semi-arid savannas, which provide innumerable livelihood resources for millions of people. This paper builds on previous research that documents change in inundation and fire regimes in the Chobe River Basin (CRB) in Namibia and Botswana and proposes to demonstrate a methodology that can be applied to disentangle the effect of environmental variability from land management decisions on changing and ecologically sensitive savanna ecosystems in transboundary contexts. We characterized the temporal dynamics (1985–2010) of vegetation productivity for the CRB using proxies of vegetation productivity and examine the relative importance of shifts in flooding and fire patterns to vegetation dynamics and effects of the association of phases of the El Niño—Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on vegetation greenness. Our results indicate that vegetation in these semi-arid environments is highly responsive to climatic fluctuations and the long-term trend is one of increased but heterogeneous vegetation cover. The increased cover and heterogeneity during the growing season is especially noted in communally-managed areas of Botswana where long-term fire suppression has been instituted, in contrast to communal areas in Namibia where heterogeneity in vegetation cover is mostly increasing primarily outside of the growing season and may correspond to mosaic early dry season burns. Observed patterns of increased vegetation productivity and heterogeneity may relate to more frequent and intense burning and higher spatial variability in surface water availability from both precipitation and regional inundation patterns, with implications for global environmental change and adaptation in subsistence-based communities. Land 2015-07-27 4 3 Article 10.3390/land4030627 627 655 2073-445X 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/land4030627 Narcisa Pricope Andrea Gaughan John All Michael Binford Lucas Rutina http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8773 The Yangtze River Delta (YRD) has experienced rapid urbanization and dramatic economic development since 1978 and the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration (YRDUA) has been one of the three largest urban agglomerations in China. We present evidence of a significant urban heat island (UHI) effect on climate warming based on an analysis of the impacts of the urbanization rate, urban population, and land use changes on the warming rate of the daily average, minimal (nighttime) and maximal (daytime) air temperature in the YRDUA using 41 meteorological stations observation data. The effect of the UHI on climate warming shows a large spatial variability. The average warming rates of average air temperature of huge cities, megalopolises, large cities, medium-sized cities, and small cities are 0.483, 0.314 ± 0.030, 0.282 ± 0.042, 0.225 ± 0.044 and 0.179 ± 0.046 °C/decade during the period of 1957–2013, respectively. The average warming rates of huge cities and megalopolises are significantly higher than those of medium-sized cities and small cities, indicating that the UHI has a significant effect on climate warming (t-test, p < 0.05). Significantly positive correlations are found between the urbanization rate, population, built-up area and warming rate of average air temperature (p < 0.001). The average warming rate of average air temperature attributable to urbanization is 0.124 ± 0.074 °C/decade in the YRDUA. Urbanization has a measurable effect on the observed climate warming in the YRD aggravating the global climate warming. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-27 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808773 8773 8789 1660-4601 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808773 Qunfang Huang Yuqi Lu http://www.mdpi.com/2305-6304/3/3/294 The boronic acid dipeptide bortezomib, able to induce tumor cell death by degradation of key proteins, is the first proteasome inhibitor drug to enter clinical practice. It is employed as first-line treatment in relapsed or resistant multiple myeloma (MM) patients. However, bortezomib often induces a dose-limiting toxicity in the form of painful sensory neuropathy, which can mainly be reduced by subcutaneous administration or dose modification. In this review we focus on the current understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of bortezomib-induced neuropathy to allow further studies in animal models and humans, including analysis of clinical and pharmacogenetic aspects, to optimize the treatment regimens. Toxics 2015-07-27 3 3 Review 10.3390/toxics3030294 294 303 2305-6304 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/toxics3030294 Cristina Meregalli http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/8/9542 This paper presents a novel method for extracting the land vertical displacement rates (VDRs) in Shanghai (China) using the multi-platform SAR images collected between 2009 and 2010, i.e., the ascending/descending COSMO-SkyMed (CSK) X-band images and the descending TerraSAR (TSX) X-band images. Different from the conventional approach the proposed method estimates the VDRs by multi-temporal interferometric SAR processing (i.e., temporarily coherent point InSAR, TCPInSAR) and the localized least square (LS) solution, through which the horizontal displacement rates (HDRs) can be also derived as the by-product. The three types of displacement rates in the radar line of sight (LOS) are first estimated by TCPInSAR with use of the ascending/descending CSK and descending TSX data. Both the VDRs and HDRs are then estimated by a localized LS method on the basis of the three types of LOS displacement rates derived by TCPInSAR. For comparison purposes, the VDRs for the single-platform SAR data are also obtained through dividing the LOS displacement rates by the cosine of the radar incidence angle. The analysis with the aid of GPS data shows the horizontal motion due to the geological settings in Shanghai cannot be ignored, and the VDRs derived from the single-platform data are not accurate and reliable without taking into account the horizontal motion. The experimental results indicate the TCPInSAR-LS method can be used to efficiently improve the accuracy in the VDRs by integrating the multi-platform SAR data and considering both horizontal and vertical motion, thus overcoming the disadvantages in the conventional approach. The improved VDRs in Shanghai range between −22.8 and 9.6 mm/year, while the relative east-west motion rates range between −7.2 and 6.2 mm/year, and the relative north–south motion is subtle and can be ignored. Analysis of the improved VDRs shows that a slightly uplifting area of about 70 km2 appears in the west downtown of Shanghai, and a subsiding bowl appears in the Hongkou District of Shanghai. The validation indicates that the uplifting trend can be ascribed to the measures conducted by the Shanghai municipal government, i.e., decreasing the groundwater pumping volume and increasing the groundwater recharge volume. Remote Sensing 2015-07-27 7 8 Article 10.3390/rs70809542 9542 9562 2072-4292 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/rs70809542 Keren Dai Guoxiang Liu Zhenhong Li Tao Li Bing Yu Xiaowen Wang Andrew Singleton http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/8/9529 A method was developed to estimate the consumption of CH4 and the release of CO2 by gas flaring using VIIRS nighttime data. The results agreed with the field data collected at six stations in Bakken field, North Dakota, USA, within ±50%, as measured by mean relative errors and with a correlation coefficient of 0.75. This improved over the NOAA NightFire estimates, likely due to: (1) more stringent data selection using only the middle portion of cloud-free VIIRS nighttime imagery; (2) the use of a lower heating rate, which is more suitable for the field condition; and (3) more accurate efficiency factors in calculating completeness in combustion and conversion of total reaction energy into radiant energy that can be sensed by a satellite sensor. While using atmospherically-corrected data can further improve the estimate of CH4 consumption by ~10%, the major uncertainty remains as being the form factor of the flares, particularly the ratio of total surface area of a flare to the cross-section area that was seen by a satellite sensor. Remote Sensing 2015-07-27 7 8 Article 10.3390/rs70809529 9529 9541 2072-4292 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/rs70809529 Xiaodong Zhang Beau Scheving Bahareh Shoghli Chris Zygarlicke Chad Wocken http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4108 Structure and composition of coastal forested wetlands are mainly controlled by local topography and soil salinity. Hydrology plays a major role in relation with tides, seaward, and freshwater inputs, landward. We report here the results of a two-year study undertaken in a coastal plain of the Guadeloupe archipelago (FWI). As elsewhere in the Caribbean islands, the study area is characterized by a micro-tidal regime and a highly seasonal climate. This work aimed at understanding groundwater dynamics and origin (seawater/freshwater) both at ecosystems and stand levels. These hydrological processes were assessed through 18O/16O and 2H/1H isotopic analyses, and from monthly monitoring of water level and soil salinity at five study sites located in mangrove (3) and swamp forest (2). Our results highlight the importance of freshwater budget imbalance during low rainfall periods. Sustained and/or delayed dry seasons cause soil salinity to rise at the mangrove/swamp forest ecotone. As current models on climate change project decreasing rainfall amounts over the inner Caribbean region, one may expect for this area an inland progression of the mangrove forest to the expense of the nearby swamp forest. Water 2015-07-27 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084108 4108 4128 2073-4441 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/w7084108 Luc Lambs Félix Bompy Daniel Imbert Dov Corenblit Maguy Dulormne http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4088 Species distribution models (SDMs) are extensively used to project habitat suitability of species in stream ecological studies. Owing to complex sources of uncertainty, such models may yield projections with varying degrees of uncertainty. To better understand projected spatial distributions and the variability between habitat suitability projections, this study uses five SDMs that are based on the outputs of a two-dimensional hydraulic model to project the suitability of habitats and to evaluate the degree of variability originating from both differing model types and the split-sample procedure. The habitat suitability index (HSI) of each species is based on two stream flow variables, including current velocity (V), water depth (D), as well as the heterogeneity of these flow conditions as quantified by the information entropy of V and D. The six SDM approaches used to project fish abundance, as represented by HSI, included two stochastic models: the generalized linear model (GLM) and the generalized additive model (GAM); as well as three machine learning models: the support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF) and the artificial neural network (ANN), and an ensemble model (where the latter is the average of the preceding five models). The target species Sicyopterus japonicas was found to prefer habitats with high current velocities. The relationship between mesohabitat diversity and fish abundance was indicated by the trends in information entropy and weighted usable area (WUA) over the study area. This study proposes a method for quantifying habitat suitability, and for assessing the uncertainties in HSI and WUA that are introduced by the various SDMs and samples. This study also demonstrated both the merits of the ensemble modeling approach and the necessity of addressing model uncertainty. Water 2015-07-27 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084088 4088 4107 2073-4441 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/w7084088 Yu-Pin Lin Wei-Chih Lin Wei-Yao Wu http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4063 The structure, function, and services of urban ecosystems evolve over time scales from seconds to centuries as Earth's population grows, infrastructure ages, and sociopolitical values alter them. In order to systematically study changes over time, the concept of "urban evolution" was proposed. It allows urban planning, management, and restoration to move beyond reactive management to predictive management based on past observations of consistent patterns. Here, we define and review a glossary of core concepts for studying urban evolution, which includes the mechanisms of urban selective pressure and urban adaptation. Urban selective pressure is an environmental or societal driver contributing to urban adaptation. Urban adaptation is the sequential process by which an urban structure, function, or services becomes more fitted to its changing environment or human choices. The role of water is vital to driving urban evolution as demonstrated by historical changes in drainage, sewage flows, hydrologic pulses, and long-term chemistry. In the current paper, we show how hydrologic traits evolve across successive generations of urban ecosystems via shifts in selective pressures and adaptations over time. We explore multiple empirical examples including evolving: (1) urban drainage from stream burial to stormwater management; (2) sewage flows and water quality in response to wastewater treatment; (3) amplification of hydrologic pulses due to the interaction between urbanization and climate variability; and (4) salinization and alkalinization of fresh water due to human inputs and accelerated weathering. Finally, we propose a new conceptual model for the evolution of urban waters from the Industrial Revolution to the present day based on empirical trends and historical information. Ultimately, we propose that water itself is a critical driver of urban evolution that forces urban adaptation, which transforms the structure, function, and services of urban landscapes, waterways, and civilizations over time. Water 2015-07-27 7 8 Review 10.3390/w7084063 4063 4087 2073-4441 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/w7084063 Sujay Kaushal William McDowell Wilfred Wollheim Tamara Johnson Paul Mayer Kenneth Belt Michael Pennino http://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/6/8/2545 The main objective of this study was to explore the accuracy of Weise's rule of thumb applied to an estimation of the quadratic mean diameter of a forest stand. Virtual stands of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) across a range of structure types were stochastically generated and random sampling was simulated. We compared the bias and accuracy of stand quadratic mean diameter estimates, employing different ranks of measured stems from a set of the 10 trees nearest to the sampling point. We proposed several modifications of the original Weise's rule based on the measurement and averaging of two different ranks centered to a target rank. In accordance with the original formulation of the empirical rule, we recommend the application of the measurement of the 6th stem in rank corresponding to the 55% sample percentile of diameter distribution, irrespective of mean diameter size and degree of diameter dispersion. The study also revealed that the application of appropriate two-measurement modifications of Weise's method, the 4th and 8th ranks or 3rd and 9th ranks averaged to the 6th central rank, should be preferred over the classic one-measurement estimation. The modified versions are characterised by an improved accuracy (about 25%) without statistically significant bias and measurement costs comparable to the classic Weise method. Forests 2015-07-27 6 8 Article 10.3390/f6082545 2545 2559 1999-4907 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/f6082545 Róbert Sedmák Ľubomír Scheer Róbert Marušák Michal Bošeľa Denisa Sedmáková Marek Fabrika http://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/6/8/2530 Native fruiting plants are widely cultivated in the Amazon, but little information on their water use characteristics can be found in the literature. To explore the potential impacts of plantations on local to regional water balance, we studied plant water use characteristics of two native fruit plants commonly occurring in the Amazon region. The study was conducted in a mixed fruit plantation containing a dicot tree species (Cupuaçu, Theobroma grandiflorum) and a monocot palm species (Açai, Euterpe oleracea) close to the city of Manaus, in the Central Amazon. Scaling from sap flux measurements, palms had a 3.5-fold higher water consumption compared to trees with a similar diameter. Despite the high transpiration rates of the palms, our plantation had only one third of the potential water recycling capacity of natural forests in the area. Converting natural forest into such plantations will thus result in significantly higher runoff rates. Forests 2015-07-27 6 8 Article 10.3390/f6082530 2530 2544 1999-4907 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/f6082530 Norbert Kunert Luiza Aparecido Priscila Barros Niro Higuchi http://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/6/8/2505 Different functional and structural strategies to cope with water shortage exist both within and across plant communities. The current trend towards increasing drought in many regions could drive some species to their physiological limits of drought tolerance, potentially leading to mortality episodes and vegetation shifts. In this paper, we study the drought responses of Quercus ilex and Pinus sylvestris in a montane Mediterranean forest where the former species is replacing the latter in association with recent episodes of drought-induced mortality. Our aim was to compare the physiological responses to variations in soil water content (SWC) and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of the two species when living together in a mixed stand or separately in pure stands, where the canopies of both species are completely exposed to high radiation and VPD. P. sylvestris showed typical isohydric behavior, with greater losses of stomatal conductance with declining SWC and greater reductions of stored non-structural carbohydrates during drought, consistent with carbon starvation being an important factor in the mortality of this species. On the other hand, Q. ilex trees showed a more anisohydric behavior, experiencing more negative water potentials and higher levels of xylem embolism under extreme drought, presumably putting them at higher risk of hydraulic failure. In addition, our results show relatively small changes in the physiological responses of Q. ilex in mixed vs. pure stands, suggesting that the current replacement of P. sylvestris by Q. ilex will continue. Forests 2015-07-27 6 8 Article 10.3390/f6082505 2505 2529 1999-4907 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/f6082505 David Aguadé Rafael Poyatos Teresa Rosas Jordi Martínez-Vilalta http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7638 This paper presents a new multi-function conversion technique for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications. The proposed bi-directional charger can achieve three functions, including EV battery charging, grid-connection and reactive compensation, which are keys for energy management of the grid. With the proposed multi-function technology, the bi-directional charger will benefit both the grid and electricity customers. A hybrid regulation of energy bi-directional transfer for V2G systems is proposed in this paper, which consists of the battery-side controller and the grid-side controller. This proposed multi-function conversion technique improves the whole system performance with proportional-resonant (PR) control and achieves reactive power compensation with instantaneous reactive theory and a deadbeat control scheme. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate the validity of this new multi-function technique in a V2G system. Energies 2015-07-27 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087638 7638 7653 1996-1073 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/en8087638 Ying Fan Weixia Zhu Zhongbing Xue Li Zhang Zhixiang Zou http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7618 Policies to reduce household energy use usually target the individual customer. This is probably one explanation to the limited effect of many information policies, because two concepts with different meanings are confused: individual and household. In most contexts, an individual stands for what s/he does, but in the policy context, an individual is taken to represent the entire household. This is not problematic for a single-person household, but, in a multi-person household, activities performed by different household members influence the whole household's energy use. This paper illuminates problems arising from confusing the concepts of household and individual when developing policies to reduce household energy use. Examples relate to indoor space heating and energy-intensive home-based activities. The results indicate that it is analytically simple to consider individuals at home, as well as their activities using electrical appliances contributing to heating, but much more complicated to take the whole household into consideration. Our model provides a basis for better-targeted information actions to reduce energy use. Also, empirically based models capturing variations between households with different activity patterns are important for developing policies resulting in reduced energy use for space heating in multi-person households. Energies 2015-07-27 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087618 7618 7637 1996-1073 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/en8087618 Kajsa Ellegård Jenny Palm http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7593 To enable the geometrical freedom envisioned for wireless power transfer (WPT), fast dynamic adaptation to unpredictable changes in receiver position is needed. In this paper, we propose an adaptive impedance-searching system that achieves good impedance matching quickly. For fast and robust operation, the proposed method consists of three steps: system calibration, coarse search, and fine search. The proposed WPT system is characterized using distance variation and lateral and angular misalignment between coils. The measured results indicate that the proposed method significantly reduces searching time from a few minutes to approximately one second. Furthermore, the proposed system achieves impedance matching with good accuracy. The robust impedance-searching capability of the proposed system significantly improves power transfer efficiency. At 6.78 MHz, we achieve a maximum efficiency of 89.7% and a high efficiency of >80% up to a distance of 50 cm. When the center-to-center misalignment is 35 cm, the efficiency is improved from 48.4% to 74.1% with the proposed method. At a distance of 40 cm, the efficiency is higher than 74% for up to 60° of angular rotation. These results agree well with the simulated results obtained using a lumped-element circuit model. Energies 2015-07-27 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087593 7593 7617 1996-1073 2015-07-27 doi: 10.3390/en8087593 Thuc Duong Jong-Wook Lee http://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/5/3/561 Agricultural producers are interested in using biomass available on farms to substitute fossil fuels for heat production. However, energy crops like reed canary grass contain high nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), potassium (K) and other ash-forming elements which lead to increased emissions of gases and particulate matter (PM) and ash-related operational problems (e.g., melting) during combustion. To address these problematic behaviors, reed canary grass was blended with wood (50 wt%) and fuel additives (3 wt%) such as aluminum silicates (sewage sludge), calcium (limestone) and sulfur (lignosulfonate) based additives. When burned in a top-feed pellet boiler (29 kW), the four blends resulted in a 17%–29% decrease of PM concentrations compared to pure reed canary grass probably because of a reduction of K release to flue gas. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions varied according to fuel N and S contents. This explains the lower NOx and SO2 levels obtained with wood based products and the higher SO2 generation with the grass/lignosulfonate blend. The proportion of clinkers found in combustion ash was greatly lessened (27%–98%) with the use of additives, except for lignosulfonate. The positive effects of some additives may allow agricultural fuels to become viable alternatives. Agriculture 2015-07-24 5 3 Article 10.3390/agriculture5030561 561 576 2077-0472 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/agriculture5030561 Sébastien Fournel Joahnn Palacios Stéphane Godbout Michèle Heitz http://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/4/3/607 Soil loss is not limited to change from forest or woodland to other land uses/covers. It may occur when there is agricultural land-use/cover modification or conversion. Soil loss may influence loss of carbon from the soil, hence implication on greenhouse gas emission. Changing land use could be considered actually or potentially successful in adapting to climate change, or may be considered maladaptation if it creates environmental degradation. In semi-arid northern Ghana, changing agricultural practices have been identified amongst other climate variability and climate change adaptation measures. Similarly, some of the policies aimed at improving farm household resilience toward climate change impact might necessitate land use change. The heterogeneity of farm household (agents) cannot be ignored when addressing land use/cover change issues, especially when livelihood is dependent on land. This paper therefore presents an approach for simulating soil loss from an agro-ecosystem using multi-agent simulation (MAS). We adapted a universal soil loss equation as a soil loss sub-model in the Vea-LUDAS model (a MAS model). Furthermore, for a 20-year simulation period, we presented the impact of agricultural land-use adaptation strategy (maize cultivation credit i.e., maize credit scenario) on soil loss and compared it with the baseline scenario i.e., business-as-usual. Adoption of maize as influenced by maize cultivation credit significantly influenced agricultural land-use change in the study area. Although there was no significant difference in the soil loss under the tested scenarios, the incorporation of human decision-making in a temporal manner allowed us to view patterns that cannot be seen in single step modeling. The study shows that opening up cropland on soil with a high erosion risk has implications for soil loss. Hence, effective measures should be put in place to prevent the opening up of lands that have high erosion risk. Land 2015-07-24 4 3 Article 10.3390/land4030607 607 626 2073-445X 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/land4030607 Biola Badmos Sampson Agodzo Grace Villamor Samuel Odai http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/8/9507 At the end of the SPOT4 mission, a four-month experiment was conducted in 2013 to acquire high spatial (20 m) and high temporal (5 days) resolution satellite data. In addition to the SPOT4 (Take5) dataset, we used several Landsat5, 7, 8 images to document the variations in suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentration in the turbid Gironde and Loire estuaries (France). Satellite-derived SPM concentration was validated using automated in situ turbidity measurements from two monitoring networks. The combination of a multi-temporal atmospheric correction method with a near-infrared to visible reflectance band ratio made it possible to quantify SPM surface concentration in moderately to extremely turbid waters (38–4320 g·m−3), at an accuracy sufficient to detect the maximum turbidity zone (MTZ) in both estuaries. Such a multi-sensor approach can be applied to high spatial resolution satellite archives and to the new ESA Sentinel-2 mission. It offers a promising framework to study the response of estuarine ecosystems to global changes at unprecedented spatio-temporal resolution. Remote Sensing 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/rs70809507 9507 9528 2072-4292 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/rs70809507 Pierre Gernez Virginie Lafon Astrid Lerouxel Cécile Curti Bertrand Lubac Sylvain Cerisier Laurent Barillé http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/8/9492 In a greening Arctic, Iceland stands out as an area with very high increases in the AVHRR Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI, 1982–2010). We investigated the possible sources of this anomalous greening in Iceland's dynamic landscape, analyzing changes due to volcanism and warming temperatures, and the effects of agricultural and industrial land use changes. The analysis showed the increases were likely due to reductions in grazing in erosion-prone rangelands, extensive reclamation and afforestation efforts, as well as a response to warming climate, including glacial retreat. Like Scandinavia and much of the rest of the Arctic, Iceland has shown a recent reduction in NDVI since 2002, but still above pre-2000 levels. Theil-Sen robust regression analysis of MODIS NDVI trends from 2002 to 2013 showed Iceland had a slightly negative NDVI trend of 0.003 NDVI units/year (p < 0.05), with significant decreases in an area three times greater (29,809 km2) than that with increases (9419 km2). Specific areas with large decreases in NDVI during the last decade were due to the formation of a large reservoir as a part of a hydroelectric power project (Kárahnjúkar, 2002–2009), and due to ashfall from two volcanic eruptions (Eyjafjallajökull, 2010; Grímsvötn, 2011). Increases in NDVI in the last decade were found in erosion control areas, around retreating glaciers, and in other areas of plant colonization following natural disturbance. Our analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of MODIS NDVI for identifying the causes of changes in land cover, and confirms the reduction in NDVI in the last decade using both the AVHRR and MODIS satellite data. Remote Sensing 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/rs70809492 9492 9506 2072-4292 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/rs70809492 Martha Raynolds Borgþór Magnússon Sigmar Metúsalemsson Sigurður Magnússon http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8762 In order to assess the effectiveness of the Chinese government's expanded access program, a cohort study on all adult HIV patients in Shenzhen was conducted from December 2003 to February 2014 to estimate the effects of antiretroviral therapy (ART) on mortality, tuberculosis and CD4 cell counts. Marginal structural regression models adjusted for baseline and time-varying covariates. Of the 6897 patients enrolled and followed up for a maximum of 178 months, 44.92% received ART. Among patients who commenced receiving ART during the study, there were 98 deaths and 59 new tuberculosis diagnoses, while there were 410 deaths and 201 new tuberculosis diagnoses among those without ART. ART was associated with both lower mortality (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.18; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.11–0.27) and the presence of tuberculosis (HR = 0.27; 95% CI = 0.19–0.37). Each month of ART was associated with an average increase in CD4 cell count of 6.52 cells/µL (95% CI = 6.08–7.12 cells/µL). In conclusions, the effectiveness of ART provided by China government health services is the same as that in higher-income countries. Accounting to higher mortality rates from the delay of starting ART, faster expansion and timely imitation of ART are urgent. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-24 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808762 8762 8772 1660-4601 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808762 Peng Huang Jingguang Tan Wenzhe Ma Hui Zheng Yan Lu Ning Wang Zhihang Peng Rongbin Yu http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8744 Occupational injury is one of many health concerns related to small-scale gold mining (ASGM), but few data exist on the subject, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2011 and 2013, we examined accidents, injuries, and potential risk factors in a Ghanaian ASGM community. In 2011, 173 participants were surveyed on occupational history and health, and 22 of these were surveyed again in 2013. Injury rates were estimated at 45.5 and 38.5 injuries per 100 person-years in 2011 and in 2013, respectively; these rates far surpass those of industrialized mines in the U.S. and South Africa. Demographic and job characteristics generally were not predictive of injury risk, though there was a significant positive association with injury risk for males and smokers. Legs and knees were the most common body parts injured, and falling was the most common cause of injury. The most common type of injuries were cuts or lacerations, burns and scalds, and contusions and abrasions. Only two miners had ever received any occupational safety training, and PPE use was low. Our results suggest that injuries should be a priority area for occupational health research in ASGM. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-24 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808744 8744 8761 1660-4601 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808744 Rachel Long Kan Sun Richard Neitzel http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8717 Consumer products containing engineered nanoparticles (ENP) are already entering the marketplace. This leads, inter alia, to questions about the potential for release of ENP into the environment from commercial products. We have inventoried the prevalence of ENP-containing consumer products in the Singapore market by carrying out onsite assessments of products sold in all major chains of retail and cosmetic stores. We have assessed their usage patterns and estimated release factors and emission quantities to obtain a better understanding of the quantities of ENP that are released into which compartments of the aquatic environment in Singapore. Products investigated were assessed for their likelihood to contain ENP based on the declaration of ENP by producers, feature descriptions, and the information on particle size from the literature. Among the 1,432 products investigated, 138 were "confirmed" and 293 were "likely" to contain ENP. Product categories included sunscreens, cosmetics, health and fitness, automotive, food, home and garden, clothing and footwear, and eyeglass/lens coatings. Among the 27 different types of nanomaterials identified, SiO2 was predominant, followed by TiO2 and ZnO, Carbon Black, Ag, and Au. The amounts of ENP released into the aquatic system, which was estimated on the basis of typical product use, ENP concentration in the product, daily use quantity, release factor, and market share, were in the range of several hundred tons per year. As these quantities are likely to increase, it will be important to further study the fate of ENP that reach the aquatic environment in Singapore. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-24 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808717 8717 8743 1660-4601 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808717 Yuanyuan Zhang Yu-Rui Leu Robert Aitken Michael Riediker http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8705 Families with lower socioeconomic status are less likely to adopt household smoking bans (HSB). The aim of this study was to determine whether socioeconomic disparities in HSB prevalence in Italy decreased 7–9 years after the introduction of the Italian ban on smoking in public places. A longitudinal, 12-year, two-wave study was conducted on a sample of 3091 youths aged 6–14 years in 2002; 1763 (57%) were re-interviewed in 2012–2014. A Poisson regression with a robust error variance was used to assess the association between socioeconomic disparities and HSB prevalence. The adoption of HSBs significantly increased from 60% in 2002 to 75% in 2012–2014, with the increase recorded in youths with ≥1 smoking parent only (from 22% at baseline to 46% at follow-up). The presence of HSBs at baseline was more likely in families with ≥1 graduate parent compared to those with no graduate parents (prevalence ratio (PR) = 1.34, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.15–1.57), either in families with ≥1 smoking parent (PR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.17–1.58) or in families with non-smoking parents (PR = 1.61, 95% CI = 1.01–2.56). Conversely, at follow-up socioeconomic disparities dropped since families with no graduate parents were 1.5-fold more likely to introduce a HSB between the two waves. The Italian ban on smoking in public places may have increased the adoption of smoke-free homes in families with smoking and non-graduate parents, causing the drop of the socioeconomic gap in smoke-free homes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-24 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808705 8705 8716 1660-4601 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808705 Giuseppe Gorini Giulia Carreras Barbara Cortini Simona Verdi Maria Petronio Piersante Sestini Elisabetta Chellini http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/3/3/720 An understanding of sediment transport processes and resultant concentration dynamics in estuaries is of great importance to engineering design awareness and the management of these environments. Predictive modelling approaches provide an opportunity to investigate and address potential system responses to nominated events, changes, or conditions of interest, often on high temporal and spatial resolution scales. In this study, a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model and wave model were validated and applied to generate forcing conditions for input into a sediment transport model for the period 7 May 2010–30 October 2010 within a macro tidal estuary, Port Curtis estuary (Australia). The hydrodynamic model was verified against surface and near-bottom current measurements. The model accurately reproduced the variations of surface and near-bottom currents at both a mid-estuary and upper-estuary location. Sediment transport model predictions were performed under varying meteorological conditions and tidal forcing over a 180-day period and were validated against turbidity data collected at six stations within Port Curtis estuary. The sediment transport model was able to predict both the magnitudes of the turbidity levels and the modulation induced by the neap and spring tides and wind-wave variations. The model-predicted (converted) turbidity levels compared favourably with the measured surface water turbidity levels at all six stations. The study results have useful practical application for Port Curtis estuary, including providing predictive capabilities to support the selection of locations for monitoring/compliance sites. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2015-07-24 3 3 Article 10.3390/jmse3030720 720 744 2077-1312 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/jmse3030720 Ryan Dunn Sasha Zigic Murray Burling Hsin-Hui Lin http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/3/3/699 The diversity of diazotrophs was studied in the sediment of mangrove forests (Twin Cays, Belize) subjected to a long-term fertilization with nitrogen and phosphorus. Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (TRFLP) and cloning of PCR-amplified nifH genes were combined via in silico analysis to assign clones to TRFLP-nifH phylotypes, as well as to characterize the occurrence of phylotypes in response to environmental conditions. Results indicated that mangrove sediments from Belize harbor a unique diazotrophic community with a low metabolic diversity dominated by sulfate reducers. The variability of potential nitrogen-fixing sulfate reducers was explained by several environmental parameters, primarily by the abundance of dead roots in the sediments, and the concentration of H2S in the pore-waters. This study describes the complexity of microbial communities within the mangrove sediments with specific functional groups varying along environmental gradients. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2015-07-24 3 3 Article 10.3390/jmse3030699 699 719 2077-1312 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/jmse3030699 Isabel Romero Myrna Jacobson-Meyers Jed Fuhrman Douglas Capone http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/3/3/674 Monitoring of dune erosion and accretion on the high-energy macrotidal Vougot beach in North Brittany (France) over the past decade (2004–2014) has revealed significant morphological changes. Dune toe erosion/accretion records have been compared with extreme water level measurements, defined as the sum of (i) astronomic tide; (ii) storm surge; and (iii) vertical wave runup. Runup parameterization was conducted using swash limits, beach profiles, and hydrodynamic (Hm0, Tm0,–1, and high tide water level—HTWL) data sets obtained from high frequency field surveys. The aim was to quantify in-situ environmental conditions and dimensional swash parameters for the best calibration of Battjes [1] runup formula. In addition, an empirical equation based on observed tidal water level and offshore wave height was produced to estimate extreme water levels over the whole period of dune morphological change monitoring. A good correlation between this empirical equation (1.01Hmoξo) and field runup measurements (Rmax) was obtained (R2 85%). The goodness of fit given by the RMSE was about 0.29 m. A good relationship was noticed between dune erosion and high water levels when the water levels exceeded the dune foot elevation. In contrast, when extreme water levels were below the height of the toe of the dune sediment budget increased, inducing foredune recovery. These erosion and accretion phases may be related to the North Atlantic Oscillation Index. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2015-07-24 3 3 Article 10.3390/jmse3030674 674 698 2077-1312 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/jmse3030674 Serge Suanez Romain Cancouët France Floc'h Emmanuel Blaise Fabrice Ardhuin Jean-François Filipot Jean-Marie Cariolet Christophe Delacourt http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7582 Single-shaft gas turbine and its cycles are sensitive to frequency drops and, therefore, sudden change loads or large frequency dips might affect their stability. This phenomenon is related to the reduction of the air mass flow passing through the machine during the frequency dips, which might lead to an interaction between governor and temperature control loop. In this paper, the performance of the combined cycle and steam-injected gas turbine are studied during frequency dips and transient maneuvers. For this purpose, two similar units are developed based on these cycles and their performances are studied in different scenarios. The simulation results show that the steam injected gas turbine has a better performance during frequency drops and it can handle relatively larger change loads. Energies 2015-07-24 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087582 7582 7592 1996-1073 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/en8087582 Saeed Bahrami Ali Ghaffari Magnus Genrup Marcus Thern http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7563 The identification of values of solar cell parameters is of great interest for evaluating solar cell performances. The algorithm of an artificial bee colony was used to extract model parameters of solar cells from current-voltage characteristics. Firstly, the best-so-for mechanism was introduced to the original artificial bee colony. Then, a method was proposed to identify parameters for a single diode model and double diode model using this improved artificial bee colony. Experimental results clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method and its superior performance compared to other competing methods. Energies 2015-07-24 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087563 7563 7581 1996-1073 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/en8087563 Rongjie Wang Yiju Zhan Haifeng Zhou http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7542 Inverter voltage control is an important task in the operation of a DC/AC microgrid system. To improve the inverter voltage control dynamics, traditional approaches attempt to measure and feedforward the load current, which, however, needs remote measurement with communications in a microgrid system with distributed loads. In this paper, a load current observer (LCO) based control strategy, which does not need remote measurement, is proposed for sinusoidal signals tracking control of a three-phase inverter of the microgrid. With LCO, the load current is estimated precisely, acting as the feedforward of the dual-loop control, which can effectively enlarge the stability margin of the control system and improve the dynamic response to load disturbance. Furthermore, multiple PR regulators are applied in this strategy conducted in a stationary frame to suppress the transient fluctuations and the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the output voltage and achieve faster transient performance compared with traditional dual-loop control in a rotating dq0 frame under instantaneous change of various types of load (i.e., balanced load, unbalanced load, and nonlinear load). The parameters of multiple PR regulators are analyzed and selected through the root locus method and the stability of the whole control system is evaluated and analyzed. Finally, the validity of the proposed approach is verified through simulations and a three-phase prototype test system with a TMS320F28335 DSP. Energies 2015-07-24 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087542 7542 7562 1996-1073 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/en8087542 Xiaobo Dou Kang Yang Xiangjun Quan Qinran Hu Zaijun Wu Bo Zhao Peng Li Shizhan Zhang Yang Jiao http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10078 Landsat images from 1979, 1988, 1999, 2008, and 2013 were used to analyze the landscape area change of salt pans lying on the coast of Tianjin. While initially (1979–1988), the area of Tianjin's salt pan increased, later (1988–2013) it declined dramatically. In the first phase (1979–1988) of the studied period the primary roll-in landscape of the salt pan wasbarren land with an area of 60.0 km2. By 1988, the area of Tianjin's salt pan rose to 457.8 km2. The main roll-out landscape of the salt pan during 1988–2013 was urban, barren land, village/town, harbor, and road whose area amounted to 69.8, 35.9, 27.3, 25.5 and 18.4 km2 respectively. The roll-out barren land will be transformed to construction land ultimately. By 2013, the total loss reached 167.3 km2, which was 36.5% of the salt pan area of Tianjin in 1988. With the development of coastal economy, the salterns with a lower economic value were transformed to and replaced by land use types with a higher economic value. This trend would influence the production of sea salt and the development of sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate industries. Seawater desalination provides an opportunity for the restoration and compensation of salt production capacity. Based on the theory of circular economy and industrial symbiosis, in this article an industrial symbiosis model for sea salt production and sea water desalination is explored: "mariculture–power plant cooling–seawater desalination–Artemia culture–bromide extraction–sea salt production–salt chemical industry". Through the application of this process sustainable development of the sea salt production in Tianjin could be achieved. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su70810078 10078 10097 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su70810078 Hui Wang Xuegong Xu Gaoru Zhu http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10052 Recently, the manifestation of global warming-induced climate change has been observed through super typhoons, heavy snowfalls, torrential rains, and extended heat waves. These climate changes have been occurring all over the world and natural disasters have caused severe damage and deterioration of concrete structures and infrastructure. In an effort to deal with these problems due to extreme and abnormal climate changes, studies have been conducted to develop construction technologies and design guidelines. Nevertheless, study results applicable to construction sites continue to be ineffective and insufficient. Therefore, this study proposes ways to cope with climate change by considering the effect of concrete curing condition variations on concrete material performance. More specifically, the 3-, 7- and 28-day compressive and split tensile strength properties of concrete mix cured under various climatic factors including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and sunlight exposure time were evaluated to determine whether the concrete meets the current design requirements. Thereafter, a performance based evaluation (PBE) was performed using satisfaction probabilities based on the test values to understand the problems associated with the current mix proportion design practice and to identify countermeasures to deal with climate change-induced curing conditions. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su70810052 10052 10077 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su70810052 Tae-Kyun Kim Seung-Jai Choi Jang-Ho Kim Byung-Yun Kim http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10036 The evolution of Eco Industrial Parks (EIPs) in Italy is a development opportunity for many territories and companies. Starting from the initial experiences in the 1980s, the Eco Industrial Parks model has spread throughout many of the central and northern regions of the country. The key element of Italian Eco Industrial Parks is the management body, an entity provided by national legislation to manage and coordinate companies and to develop more environmentally sustainable production practices. The survey results describe the role and activities of the management bodies concerning the actions implemented, the interaction with the main stakeholders and the resources and investments. The following research introduces an important environmental management experience implemented in Italy. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su70810036 10036 10051 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su70810036 Sara Tessitore Tiberio Daddi Fabio Iraldo http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10021 Framed field experiments are widely applied to study behavior in common pool resource dilemmas. Anecdotal evidence suggests that participation in such experiments improves cooperation in actual field settings. Yet, formal tests of such relationships are absent from the literature. We present results from a field experiment, investigating how participation in a two person prisoner's dilemma game affects contributions to a global public good, as measured by donations to an environmental foundation. We find that subjects who participate in the prisoner's dilemma game donate slightly more than subjects who do not participate in the game. Participants who are paired with a cooperative player in the prisoner's dilemma also donate more. We further find that donations substantially increase with income and decrease with concern for environmental issues. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su70810021 10021 10035 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su70810021 Jens Rommel Sergio Villamayor-Tomas Malte Müller Christine Werthmann http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10007 The latest developments in natural soft drinks in the Romanian market signal significant changes in consumers' perceptions of the sustainability concept. While the necessity of preserving natural resources and ensuring a decent level of healthiness seem to be steadily embraced by the Romanian society, the lack of long enough time series to acknowledge this shift render impossible a traditional econometric validation of these recent trends in economic thinking. The large number of European-funded projects for upgrading technology in the Romanian sector of natural soft drinks raises the question whether the learning by doing effect dispersed into the Romanian managers' investment decision making from the perspective of both economic and food sustainability. This paper presents the construction and the evaluation of an Analytical Network Process (ANP) market share model, which emerged from extended in-depth interviews with 10 managers of the main Romanian natural soft drinks producers. This model differs from traditional market share ANP ones since concepts like either food of economic sustainability were considered as significant driving factors. The coincidence between the estimated market share and the actual one, expressed by Saaty's compatibility index, validate this model and offer comparative numerical weights' of importance for food or economic sustainability. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su70810007 10007 10020 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su70810007 Răzvan Dobrea Gabriela Molănescu Cristian Buṣu http://www.mdpi.com/2079-9276/4/3/577 Aquifers within the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) provide a critical water supply throughout much of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Increased pumping has resulted in water level declines in this region. Recharge into this aquifer system is generally not well understood. Recent suggestions of probable decades-long droughts in the 21st century add to this problem. We show that geophysical methods can provide useful parameters for improved modeling of aquifers in a primary CRBG aquifer located on the eastern edge of the Columbia Plateau. Groundwater models depend in part on the area, thickness, porosity, storativity, and nature of confinement of this aquifer, most of which are poorly constrained by existing well information and previous stress tests. We have made use of surface gravity measurements, borehole gravity measurements, barometric efficiency estimates, earth tidal response, and earthquake seismology observations to constrain these parameters. We show that the aquifer, despite its persistent drawdown, receives a great deal of recharge annually. Much of the recharge to the aquifer is due to leakage from overlying flows, ultimately tied to precipitation, an important result for future aquifer management in times of sustained drought. Resources 2015-07-24 4 3 Article 10.3390/resources4030577 577 596 2079-9276 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/resources4030577 Mark Piersol Kenneth Sprenke http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/10000 Since the start of the 21st century, humanity has been a predominantly urban species. This Special Issue is about the future of cities and how urbanization will develop when based on principles of sustainability. It explores the underlying dimensions of the transformation of existing cities and the design of low carbon green precincts and their urban systems. The view of the papers presented in this Special Issue is holistic and takes questions of social sustainability into account. This editorial highlights the contents and methodologies of 13 selected papers, while presenting diverse issues in strategies, concepts and policies for sustainable urban development. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Editorial 10.3390/su70810000 10000 10006 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su70810000 Steffen Lehmann http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9989 The present study aims to explore economic and socio-demographic factors that influence a household's probability to switch from firewood to cleaner fuels (kerosene and LPG) in northern Cameroon. The paper employs an ordered probit model to construct cooking patterns and fuel choices. Three main cooking sources are considered: firewood, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas. Utilized data are derived from a national survey conducted in 2004 by the Cameroonian National Institute of Statistics. The study analyzes the data related to the Sudano-Sahelian agro-ecological zone, which is one of the most affected by land degradation and decertification. While results indicate that there is a potential for a transition from traditional to cleaner fuels in the studied region, this transition is still in its earlier stage. The research demonstrates that firewood and kerosene prices, age of household heads, educational level of household heads and willingness to have a gas cylinder, as well as type of dwelling have a statistically significant impact on fuel-switching decisions. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089989 9989 9999 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su7089989 Jean Nlom Aziz Karimov http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4054 This research was conducted with the goal of clarifying the required conditions of water-saving showerheads. In order to this, the research analyzes the mutual relationship between water usage flow, the level of satisfaction and the physical properties of spray of showerheads. The physical properties of spray were measured using physical properties test apparatus of standard or scheme for water-saving showerheads issued in several water-saving countries, and satisfaction evaluation data was acquired through bathing experiments. The evaluated showerheads were separated into three groups according to usage water flow and the level of satisfaction. The relationships between usage water flow, the level of satisfaction and physical properties were compared. The results identified that Spray Force and Spray Force-per-Hole were physical properties that influence usage water flow. Spray force-per-hole, water volume ratio in Spray Patterns within φ 100 and φ 150, Temperature Drop and Spray Angle were identified as physical properties that influenced the level of satisfaction. The level of satisfaction and usage water flow has a spurious correlation through the physical properties of Spray Force-per-Hole and Temperature Drop. It is possible to improve the level of satisfaction independent of amount of water usage through designs that set an appropriate value for water volume ratio and Spray Angle for Spray Patterns within φ 100 and φ 150. Water 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084054 4054 4062 2073-4441 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/w7084054 Minami Okamoto Minoru Sato Yoshihiko Shodai Masayoshi Kamijo http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9973 Tianjin is the largest coastal city in northern China with rapid economic development and urbanization. Energy-related CO2 emissions from Tianjin's production and household sectors during 1995–2012 were calculated according to the default carbon-emission coefficients provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. We decomposed the changes in CO2 emissions resulting from 12 causal factors based on the method of Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index. The examined factors were divided into four types of effects: energy intensity effect, structure effect, activity intensity effect, scale effect and the various influencing factors imposed differential impacts on CO2 emissions. The decomposition outcomes indicate that per capita GDP and population scale are the dominant positive driving factors behind the growth in CO2 emissions for all sectors, while the energy intensity of the production sector is the main contributor to dampen the CO2 emissions increment, and the contributions from industry structure and energy structure need further enhancement. The analysis results reveal the reasons for CO2 emission changes in Tianjin and provide a solid basis upon which policy makers may propose emission reduction measures and approaches for the implementation of sustainable development strategies. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089973 9973 9988 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su7089973 Zhe Wang Lin Zhao Guozhu Mao Ben Wu http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9960 Global economic, social and environmental changes are inspiring companies to behave responsibly towards the environment, not only in the interest of others, but also in that of the future of their companies. It is crucial that companies are able to recognize any lack in their ability to grow values in a timely manner, because issues at companies require immediate intervention. A key factor in maintaining operations is the time interval required for companies to adjust to challenges. Are Annual Reports capable of indicating problems or possibly to inform decision-makers that a company is entering a period of decline? Such information can be gathered from the notes to the financial statement. Are annually prepared statements capable of indicating problems? Definitely, yes. Do yearly once due statements provide enough information? The answer must be no, as we are not living in a static economic environment. The more dynamic our economic environment is, the greater the role played by the question of time. Thanks to improvements in accounting and technology, we are able to create up-to-date analyses, based on accounting statements. However, in order to be effective, teamwork inside the company is essential and controllers should play a key role. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089960 9960 9972 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su7089960 Elvira Böcskei Veronika Fenyves Emese Zsidó Zoltán Bács http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9943 A question fundamental to sustainable economic growth is whether a poor region tends to grow faster than a rich one, such that the poor region catches up with the rich region in terms of the level of per capita income. In this article, we apply the spatial panel data approach to the analysis of regional income convergence across 177 economic areas in the contiguous US states over the period from 1969 to 2009. Using data on per capita incomes in the functionally defined economic areas, we find that the absolute value of the estimated coefficient of the initial per capita income decreases in the spatial and time-period fixed effects spatial lag model and increases in the spatial and time-period fixed effects spatial error model. This result implies that the growth rate in a specific economic area will be not only directly affected by an exogenous shock introduced into that economic area but also be impacted more by both the indirect effects of the first-order neighboring economic areas and the induced effects of the higher-order neighboring economic areas. This gives helpful hints on the issue of spatial interaction and regional policy coordination to start a virtuous circle of sustainable economic growth. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089943 9943 9959 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su7089943 Up Lim Donghyun Kim http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9924 Urban ecological vulnerability is measured on the basis of ecological sensitivity and resilience based on the concept analysis of vulnerability. GIS-based multicriteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) methods are used, supported by the spatial analysis tools of GIS, to define different levels of vulnerability for areas of the urban ecology. These areas are further classified into different types of regulatory zones. Taking the city of Hefei in China as the empirical research site, this study uses GIS-MCDA, including the index system, index weights and overlay rules, to measure the degree of its ecological vulnerability on the GIS platform. There are eight indices in the system. Raking and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) methods are used to calculate index weights according to the characteristics of the index system. The integrated overlay rule, including selection of the maximum value, and weighted linear combination (WLC) are applied as the overlay rules. In this way, five types of vulnerability areas have been classified as follows: very low vulnerability, low vulnerability, medium vulnerability, high vulnerability and very high vulnerability. They can be further grouped into three types of regulatory zone of ecological green line, ecological grey line and ecological red line. The study demonstrates that ecological green line areas are the largest (53.61% of the total study area) and can be intensively developed; ecological grey line areas (19.59% of the total area) can serve as the ecological buffer zone, and ecological red line areas (26.80%) cannot be developed and must be protected. The results indicate that ecological green line areas may provide sufficient room for future urban development in Hefei city. Finally, the respective regulatory countermeasures are put forward. This research provides a scientific basis for decision-making around urban ecological protection, construction and sustainable development. It also provides theoretical method references for future research into urban ecological vulnerability, including the introduction of GIS-MCDA methods into the field of urban ecological vulnerability, which expands the application for these techniques. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089924 9924 9942 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su7089924 Xiaorui Zhang Zhenbo Wang Jing Lin http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9907 Forest products, wood and non-wood, remain vital among smallholder households in Zambia with charcoal being the most sought after product. This has led to increased exploitation of forest trees to meet the needs for fuel wood, among others. However, Jatropha curcas plant has been identified as a potential fuel source. In the early 2000s, profit-making organizations encouraged smallholder households to grow Jatropha for use as an alternative fuel source. This paper reports on a study conducted in Solwezi between 2011 and 2014 to evaluate the impact of Jatropha cultivation for biofuel production. A sample of 100 small-scale farmers involved in Jatropha cultivation and key informants were interviewed to evaluate the impact of growing Jatropha at the small-scale level. Results show that farmers lost out on time; income from sale of edible non-wood forest products; and experienced reduction in maize (Zea mays) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production, worsening household economic conditions. Farmers attributed this loss to unclear policy alignment on biofuel production by government. We therefore recommend that project implementation should involve interactions of all legislative bodies and any other concerned stakeholders. There is also a need to promote the value chain, from production to marketing, which focuses on minimizing detrimental effects on the livelihood of small-scale farmers. Sustainability 2015-07-24 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089907 9907 9923 2071-1050 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/su7089907 Chester Kalinda Ziyaye Moses Chama Lackson Lwali Chisala Zulu Donald Phiri Darius Chisha-Kasumu Exildah http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/6/8/1032 Sensible heat flux (H) plays an important role in characterizations of land surface water and heat balance. There are various types of H measurement methods that depend on observation scale, from local-area-scale eddy covariance (EC) to regional-scale large aperture scintillometer (LAS) and remote sensing (RS) products. However, methods of converting one H scale to another to validate RS products are still open for question. A previous area-to-area regression kriging-based scaling method performed well in converting EC-scale H to LAS-scale H. However, the method does not consider the path-weighting function in the EC- to LAS-scale kriging with the regression residue, which inevitably brought about a bias estimation. In this study, a weighted area-to-area regression kriging (WATA RK) model is proposed to convert EC-scale H to LAS-scale H. It involves path-weighting functions of EC and LAS source areas in both regression and area kriging stages. Results show that WATA RK outperforms traditional methods in most cases, improving estimation accuracy. The method is considered to provide an efficient validation of RS H flux products. Atmosphere 2015-07-24 6 8 Letter 10.3390/atmos6081032 1032 1044 2073-4433 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/atmos6081032 Maogui Hu Jianghao Wang Yong Ge Mengxiao Liu Shaomin Liu Ziwei Xu Tongren Xu http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/6/8/1006 The residents of Mexico City face serious problems of air pollution. Identifying the most representative scenarios for the transport and dispersion of air pollutants requires the knowledge of the main wind circulation patterns. In this paper, a simple method to recognize and characterize the wind circulation patterns in a given region is proposed and applied to the Mexico City winds (2001–2006). This method uses a lattice wind approach to model the local wind events at the meso-β scale, and hierarchical cluster analysis to recognize their agglomerations in their phase space. Data of the meteorological network of Mexico City was used as input for the lattice wind model. The Ward's clustering algorithm with Euclidean distance was applied to organize the model wind events in seasonal clusters for each year of the period. Comparison of the hourly population trends of these clusters permitted the recognition and detailed description of seven circulation patterns. These patterns resemble the qualitative descriptions of the Mexico City wind circulation modes reported by other authors. Our method, however, permitted also their quantitative characterization in terms of the wind attributes of velocity, divergence and vorticity, and an estimation of their seasonal and annual occurrence probabilities, which never before were quantified. Atmosphere 2015-07-24 6 8 Article 10.3390/atmos6081006 1006 1031 2073-4433 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/atmos6081006 Susana Carreón-Sierra Alejandro Salcido Telma Castro Ana-Teresa Celada-Murillo http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/6/8/983 Topography is a significant factor influencing the spatial distribution of precipitation. This study developed a new methodology to evaluate and calibrate the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) products by merging geographic and topographic information. In the proposed method, firstly, the consistency rule was introduced to evaluate the fitness of satellite rainfall with measurements on the grids with and without ground gauges. Secondly, in order to improve the consistency rate of satellite rainfall, genetic programming was introduced to mine the relationship between the gauge rainfall and location, elevation and TMPA rainfall. The proof experiment and analysis for the mean annual satellite precipitation from 2001–2012, 3B43 (V7) of TMPA rainfall product, was carried out in eight mountainous areas of China. The result shows that the proposed method is significant and efficient both for the assessment and improvement of satellite precipitation. It is found that the satellite rainfall consistency rates in the gauged and ungauged grids are different in the study area. In addition, the mined correlation of location-elevation-TMPA rainfall can noticeably improve the satellite precipitation, both in the context of the new criterion of the consistency rate and the existing criteria such as Bias and RMSD. The proposed method is also efficient for correcting the monthly and mean monthly rainfall of 3B43 and 3B42RT. Atmosphere 2015-07-24 6 8 Article 10.3390/atmos6080983 983 1005 2073-4433 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/atmos6080983 Ting Xia Zhong-Jing Wang Hang Zheng http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/6/8/960 Due the rapid expansion of frac sand production, local residents, community leaders, and state regulatory authorities have expressed concerns regarding the lack of ambient respirable crystalline silica concentration data for areas near to these facilities. Long-term average data are needed to compare the fence line concentrations against chronic reference exposure guidelines such as the one adopted by the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). This paper provides comprehensive sets of 24 h respirable crystalline silica concentration measurements compiled during multi-year sampling programs at the fence lines of four Wisconsin facilities—three frac sand mines and one frac sand processing plant. The authors adapted Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reference method PM2.5 filter-based samplers to provide respirable (PM4) filter samples. Crystalline silica content of the PM4 particulate matter samples was measured using National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Method 7500 X-ray diffraction. The respirable crystalline silica limit of quantification was 0.31 µg/m3. The geometric mean (GM) respirable crystalline silica concentrations at the fence lines of the frac sand-producing facilities were less than 10% of the 3.0 µg/m3 California OEHHA chronic exposure level and were consistent with background concentrations throughout the upper Midwest of the U.S. Atmosphere 2015-07-24 6 8 Article 10.3390/atmos6080960 960 982 2073-4433 2015-07-24 doi: 10.3390/atmos6080960 John Richards Todd Brozell http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/8/7522 Pyrolysis is the thermo-chemical conversion of carbonaceous feedstock in the absence of oxygen to produce bio-fuel (bio-oil, bio-char and syn-gas). Bio-fuel production from municipal green waste (MGW) through the pyrolysis process has attracted considerable attention recently in the renewable energy sector because it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to energy security. This study analyses properties of MGW feedstock available in Rockhampton city of Central Queensland, Australia, and presents an experimental investigation of producing bio-fuel from that MGW through the pyrolysis process using a short sealed rotary furnace. It was found from the experiment that about 19.97% bio-oil, 40.83% bio-char and 29.77% syn-gas can be produced from the MGW. Then, a four-stage steady state simulation model is developed for pyrolysis process performance simulation using Aspen Plus software. In the first stage, the moisture content of the MGW feed is reduced. In the second stage, the MGW is decomposed according to its elemental constituents. In the third stage, condensate material is separated and, finally, the pyrolysis reactions are modelled using the Gibbs free energy minimisation approach. The MGW's ultimate and proximate analysis data were used in the Aspen Plus simulation as input parameters. The model is validated with experimentally measured data. A good agreement between simulation and experimental results was found. More specifically, the variation of modelling and experimental elemental compositions of the MGW was found to be 7.3% for carbon, 15.82% for hydrogen, 7.04% for nitrogen and 5.56% for sulphur. The validated model is used to optimise the biofuel production from the MGW as a function of operating variables such as temperature, moisture content, particle size and process heat air–fuel ratio. The modelling and optimisation results are presented, analysed and discussed. Energies 2015-07-23 8 8 Article 10.3390/en8087522 7522 7541 1996-1073 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/en8087522 Mohammed Kabir Ashfaque Chowdhury Mohammad Rasul http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4041 This paper develops a new routing algorithm for improving simulation capacity of physically-based hydrological models applied to sparsely-gauged river basins. The study area is the Lhasa River basin, a large plateau basin with an area of 26,225 km2 in southwest China. In the basin, observations from three hydrological stations are available, and the observed hourly rainfall and summer stream flow data (12 June to 30 September) for the period of 1998–2000 obtained from the three stations were used. TOPMODEL, with its original routing algorithm, which is a distance-related delay function, was applied to the Lhasa River basin. To improve the routing algorithm using a unit hydrograph function and a linear reservoir method, this study proposed a new algorithm; the results revealed that the new algorithm improved the simulation of the variation of hourly stream flow. In addition, to evaluate the influence of rainfall spatial variation on runoff generation, observed rainfall series from the three gauges were used to simulate runoff individually, and it was found that there are significant differences among the three simulated hourly stream flow series. Water 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084041 4041 4053 2073-4441 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/w7084041 Dingzhi Peng Ji Chen Jing Fang http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4026 To effectively manage water resources in agricultural production, it is necessary to understand the spatiotemporal variation of the water footprint (WF) and the influences of agricultural inputs. Employing spatial autocorrelation analysis and a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model, we explored the spatial variations of the WF and their relationships with agricultural inputs from 1998 to 2012 in Northeast China. The results indicated that: (1) the spatial distribution of WFs for the 36 major maize production prefectures was heterogeneous in Northeast China; (2) a cluster of high WFs was found in southeast Liaoning Province, while a cluster of low WFs was found in central Jilin Province, and (3) spatial and temporal differentiation in the correlations between the WF of maize production and agricultural inputs existed according to the GWR model. These correlations increased over time. Our results suggested that localized strategies for reducing the WF should be formulated based on specific relationships between the WF and agricultural inputs. Water 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/w7084026 4026 4040 2073-4441 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/w7084026 Peili Duan Lijie Qin Yeqiao Wang Hongshi He http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8691 Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) has been a substantial burden throughout the Asia-Pacific countries over the past decades. For the purposes of disease prevention and climate change health impact assessment, it is important to understand the temperature–disease association for HFMD in different geographical locations. This study aims to assess the impact of temperature on HFMD incidence in an inland city and a coastal city and investigate the heterogeneity of temperature–disease associations. Daily morbidity data and meteorological variables of the study areas were collected for the period from 2007 to 2012. A total of 108,377 HFMD cases were included in this study. A distributed lag non-linear model (DLNM) with Poisson distribution was used to examine the nonlinear lagged effects of daily mean temperature on HFMD incidence. After controlling potential confounders, temperature showed significant association with HFMD incidence and the two cities demonstrated different impact modes ( I2= 96.1%; p < 0.01). The results highlight the effect of temperature on HFMD incidence and the impact pattern may be modified by geographical localities. Our findings can be a practical reference for the early warning and intervention strategies of HFMD. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-23 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808691 8691 8704 1660-4601 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808691 Lin Zhu Zhongshang Yuan Xianjun Wang Jie Li Lu Wang Yunxia Liu Fuzhong Xue Yanxun Liu http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8678 Most current disinfection strategies for fresh-cut industry are focused on the use of different chemical agents; however, very little has been reported on the effectiveness of the hurdle technology. The effect of combined decontamination methods based on the use of different sanitizers (peroxyacetic acid and chlorine dioxide) and the application of pressure (vacuum/positive pressure) on the inactivation of the foodborne pathogen E. coli O157:H7 on fresh-cut lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and carrots (Daucus carota) was studied. Fresh produce, inoculated with E. coli O157:H7, was immersed (4 °C, 2 min) in tap water (W), chlorine water (CW), chlorine dioxide (ClO2: 2 mg/L) and peroxyacetic acid (PAA: 100 mg/L) in combination with: (a) vacuum (V: 10 mbar) or (b) positive pressure application (P: 3 bar). The product quality and antimicrobial effects of the treatment on bacterial counts were determined both in process washing water and on fresh-cut produce. Evidence obtained in this study, suggests that the use of combined methods (P/V + sanitizers) results in a reduction on the microorganism population on produce similar to that found at atmospheric pressure. Moreover, the application of physical methods led to a significant detrimental effect on the visual quality of lettuce regardless of the solution used. Concerning the process water, PAA proved to be an effective alternative to chlorine for the avoidance of cross-contamination. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-23 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808678 8678 8690 1660-4601 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808678 Eva Petri Mariola Rodríguez Silvia García http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9890 Sustainability of nonprofit organizations is a key concern for today's nonprofit scholars and practitioners. Building upon the nonprofit economics literature, the present paper introduces the distinction between the demand-side and supply-side determinants of nonprofit sustainability and makes the case for the discrepancy between them. This discrepancy presents not only a generic conceptual explanation of the nonprofit sustainability problems but is also applicable to the context of the European rural nonprofit sector. Three arguments are advanced. First, the notorious implementation problems of LEADER partnerships can be explained as a manifestation of the above discrepancy. Second, and related, the rural context implies the tendency of the supply-side determinants of nonprofit sustainability to undermine the demand-side ones. Third, recent empirical findings from the Czech Republic show that this tendency does not necessarily imply the possibility of a clear classification of the demand-side and supply-side sustainability determinants. Rather, those features of rural areas and communities that significantly affect the size of the local nonprofit sector exhibit a controversial entanglement of demand-side and supply-side identities. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Discussion 10.3390/su7089890 9890 9906 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089890 Vladislav Valentinov Gabriela Vaceková http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9864 In 1972 the Limits to Growth report was published. It used the World3 model to better understand the dynamics of global systems and their relationship to finite resource availability, land use, and persistent pollution accumulation. The trends of resource depletion and degradation of physical systems which were identified by Limits to Growth have continued. Although World3 forecast scenarios are based on key measures and assumptions that cannot be easily assessed using available data (i.e., non-renewable resources, persistent pollution), the dynamics of growth components of the model can be compared with publicly available global data trends. Based on Scenario 2 of the Limits to Growth study, we present a calibration of the updated World3-03 model using historical data from 1995 to 2012 to better understand the dynamics of today's economic and resource system. Given that accurate data on physical limits does not currently exist, the dynamics of overshoot to global limits are not assessed. In this paper we offer a new interpretation of the parametrisation of World3-03 using these data to explore how its assumptions on global dynamics, environmental footprints and responses have changed over the past 40 years. The results show that human society has invested more to abate persistent pollution, to increase food productivity and have a more productive service sector. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089864 9864 9889 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089864 Roberto Pasqualino Aled Jones Irene Monasterolo Alexander Phillips http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9846 Irrigation water management is crucial for agricultural production and livelihood security in many regions and countries throughout the world. In this study, a two-stage stochastic fractional programming (TSFP) method is developed for planning an agricultural water resources management system under uncertainty. TSFP can provide an effective linkage between conflicting economic benefits and the associated penalties; it can also balance conflicting objectives and maximize the system marginal benefit with per unit of input under uncertainty. The developed TSFP method is applied to a real case of agricultural water resources management of the Zhangweinan River Basin China, which is one of the main food and cotton producing regions in north China and faces serious water shortage. The results demonstrate that the TSFP model is advantageous in balancing conflicting objectives and reflecting complicated relationships among multiple system factors. Results also indicate that, under the optimized irrigation target, the optimized water allocation rate of Minyou Channel and Zhangnan Channel are 57.3% and 42.7%, respectively, which adapts the changes in the actual agricultural water resources management problem. Compared with the inexact two-stage water management (ITSP) method, TSFP could more effectively address the sustainable water management problem, provide more information regarding tradeoffs between multiple input factors and system benefits, and help the water managers maintain sustainable water resources development of the Zhangweinan River Basin. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089846 9846 9863 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089846 Liang Cui Yongping Li Guohe Huang http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9823 The valuation of multiple ecosystem services requires the design of valuation processes able to integrate different dimensions of value and to cope with complexity. Following the "value-articulating institution" framework, we note that three core problems arise: the cognitive, normative and composition problems. Combining valuation methods, such as contingent valuation and multicriteria analysis, with participatory and deliberative techniques is increasingly promoted as a means to address those fundamental problems. However, the quality and legitimacy of the valuation process then becomes dependent on how participation is framed. We note that numerous issues need to be taken into account, such as the roles assumed by participants, the differences in contribution among participants, the level of participatory impact and the level of democratization of the decision-making process. This paper proposes a detailed qualitative analysis of four case studies, each of them having implemented a specific valuation method in a participatory process. We analyze how those cases were handled in each of the dimensions considered and offer our conclusions about the added values and remaining challenges related to participatory environmental valuation. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Review 10.3390/su7089823 9823 9845 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089823 Leslie Carnoye Rita Lopes http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9809 While planning a double-hole road tunnel with a length higher than one km, it is important to pay attention to the safety factor if an accident occurs. If there is a power outage, in order to avoid critical situations that could jeopardize the safety of the people present (facilitating the stream coming out from the tunnel and the arrival of the emergency personnel), it is really important to guarantee uninterrupted lighting of roadways, mandatory emergency lay-bys, and ways of escape. Uninterrupted service of the lighting systems supply must be guaranteed, in accordance with the current regulations, through the exertion of UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and power units. During tunnel construction, such devices represent a cost that must be amortized. In this case study, which takes into consideration a section of a road tunnel characterized by emergency lay-bys and ways of escape, emergency and security lighting were planned and installation and management costs were evaluated. The goal of this research was the creation of a cash flow thanks to the energy generated by photovoltaic panels, in a way that the service life of the system (25 years) coincided with the amortization of the costs of the backup electrical equipment installation (complying with the regulations). The possibility of over-dimensioning the UPS and providing it with a proper photovoltaic panel surface (235 kWp) to generate and exchange electric energy with the grid was taken into consideration. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089809 9809 9822 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089809 Ferdinando Salata Iacopo Golasi Emiliano Bombelli Emanuele de Lieto Vollaro Fabio Nardecchia Francesca Pagliaro Franco Gugliermetti Andrea de Lieto Vollaro http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9787 On 2 August 2014 the city of Toledo, in Ohio USA issued a "do not drink" water advisory and declared a state of emergency. This was as a result of elevated levels of the toxin microcystin in the final treated water, a dangerous toxin produced by the algae cyanobacteria. The Toledo water crisis is a key focusing event that can advance dialogue on eutrophication governance in the context of public health. This paper examines the Toledo water ban with the aim of determining whether this crisis could have been averted. Further, we explore how this event can be used to stimulate action on eutrophication governance, to motivate action to protect water at its source. We use the World Health Organization's Water Safety Planning Methodology to show that the crisis could have been averted with some simple risk management actions. We also show that a water safety planning approach could lead to well developed operational and maintenance planning resulting in a higher probability of safe drinking water. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089787 9787 9808 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089787 Savitri Jetoo Velma Grover Gail Krantzberg http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9773 The integration of renewable energy in the electrical grid is challenging due to the intermittent and non-programmable generated electric power and to the transmission of peak power levels. Several energy storage technologies have been studied to find a solution to these issues. In particular, compressed air energy storage (CAES) plants work by pumping and storing air into a vessel or in an underground cavern; then when energy is needed, the pressurized air is expanded in an expansion turbine. Several CAES configurations have been proposed: diabatic, adiabatic and isothermal. The isothermal process seems to be the most promising to improve the overall efficiency. It differs from conventional CAES approaches as it employs near-isothermal compression and expansion. Currently, there are no commercial isothermal CAES implementations worldwide, but several methods are under investigation. In this paper, the use of phase change materials (PCM) for isothermal air expansion is discussed. Air expansion tests in presence of PCM were carried out in a high-pressure vessel in order to analyze the effect of PCM on the process. Results show that in presence of PCM near isothermal expansion conditions occur and therefore they affect positively the value of the obtainable expansion work. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089773 9773 9786 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089773 Beatrice Castellani Andrea Presciutti Mirko Filipponi Andrea Nicolini Federico Rossi http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/9753 Water resources have uneven distributions over time, space, and source; thus, potential impacts related to water use should be evaluated by determining the differences in water resources rather than by simply summing water use. We propose a model for weighting renewable water resources and present a case study assessing water scarcity footprints as indicators of the potential impacts of water use based on a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). We assumed that the potential impact of a unit amount of water used is proportional to the land area or time required to obtain a unit of water from each water source. The water unavailability factor (fwua) was defined using a global hydrological modeling system with a global resolution of 0.5 × 0.5 degrees. This model can address the differences in water sources using an adjustable reference volume and temporal and spatial resolutions based on the flexible demands of users. The global virtual water flows were characterized using the fwua for each water source. Although nonrenewable and nonlocal blue water constituted only 3.8% of the total flow of the water footprint inventory, this increased to 29.7% of the total flow of the water scarcity footprint. We can estimate the potential impacts of water use that can be instinctively understood using fwua. Sustainability 2015-07-23 7 8 Article 10.3390/su7089753 9753 9772 2071-1050 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/su7089753 Shinjiro Yano Naota Hanasaki Norihiro Itsubo Taikan Oki http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/6/3/696 We studied the usefulness of wood- and cellulose-based diets for L. africanus Lesne. Three diets were prepared which differed on the base ingredients; wood particles (Diet 1), cellulose powder (Diet 2), and alpha-cellulose (Diet 3). The diets were provided to adult L. africanus and the number of larvae, as well as the number of adults that emerged sex ratio, and body weight of the progeny was determined. Findings indicated similar results for the number of larvae, sex ratio and body weight of the emerged L. africanus fed on each diet. However, the number of adult produced by L. africanus on Diet 3 was significantly lower. The results indicate that the amount of vital nutrients is not the only important factor in selecting a suitable diet for L. africanus because the filler used in artificial diets influences the beetles overall population growth. For the population upon which the diets were tested, Diet 1 and Diet 2 could be utilized to rear beetles in the laboratory. Insects 2015-07-23 6 3 Article 10.3390/insects6030696 696 703 2075-4450 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/insects6030696 Titik Kartika Tsuyoshi Yoshimura http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/6/3/686 Nylanderia fulva (Mayr), the tawny crazy ant, is an invasive pest established in Florida and several other Gulf Coast states. In their invasive ranges in the Southeastern USA, large N. fulva populations have reduced species abundance, even displacing another invasive ant, Solenopsis invicta (Buren). In North Florida, N. fulva populations survive winter temperatures that reach below freezing for extended periods. However, the shallow littoral debris used by N. fulva for nest construction offers little insulation to brood and reproductives when exposed to freezing temperatures. Field populations of N. fulva in North Florida were observed tunneling below ground, a previously undescribed behavior. Other invasive ants exhibit similar subterranean tunneling behavior as a means of thermoregulation. To test the hypothesis that N. fulva has the capacity to construct subterranean tunnels across a range of ecologically relevant temperatures, tunneling performance for N. fulva and S. invicta, another invasive ant that tunnels extensively, were compared at four temperatures (15.0, 18.0, 20.0, and 22.0 °C). Overall, N. fulva tunneled significantly less than S. invicta. Nylanderia fulva tunneled furthest at warmer temperatures whereas S. invicta tunneled furthest at cooler temperatures. However, N. fulva constructed subterranean tunnels at all temperatures evaluated. These data support the hypothesis that N. fulva is capable of tunneling in temperatures as low as 15.0 °C, confirming that this ant can also perform a behavior that is used by other ants for cold avoidance. Insects 2015-07-23 6 3 Article 10.3390/insects6030686 686 695 2075-4450 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/insects6030686 Michael Bentley Faith Oi Salvador Gezan Daniel Hahn http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/6/3/658 Mutations in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel gene (Vssc) have been identified in Aedes aegypti and some have been associated with pyrethroid insecticide resistance. Whether these mutations cause resistance, alone or in combination with other alleles, remains unclear, but must be understood if mutations are to become markers for resistance monitoring. We describe High Resolution Melt (HRM) genotyping assays for assessing mutations found in Ae. aegypti in Indonesia (F1565C, V1023G, S996P) and use them to test for associations with pyrethroid resistance in mosquitoes from Yogyakarta, a city where insecticide use is widespread. Such knowledge is important because Yogyakarta is a target area for releases of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes with virus-blocking traits for dengue suppression. We identify three alleles across Yogyakarta putatively linked to resistance in previous research. By comparing resistant and susceptible mosquitoes from bioassays, we show that the 1023G allele is associated with resistance to type I and type II pyrethroids. In contrast, F1565C homozygotes were rare and there was only a weak association between individuals heterozygous for the mutation and resistance to a type I pyrethroid. As the heterozygote is expected to be incompletely recessive, it is likely that this association was due to a different resistance mechanism being present. A resistance advantage conferred to V1023G homozygotes through addition of the S996P allele in the homozygous form was suggested for the Type II pyrethroid, deltamethrin. Screening of V1023G and S996P should assist resistance monitoring in Ae. aegypti from Yogyakarta, and these mutations should be maintained in Wolbachia strains destined for release in this city to ensure that these virus-blocking strains of mosquitoes are not disadvantaged, relative to resident populations. Insects 2015-07-23 6 3 Article 10.3390/insects6030658 658 685 2075-4450 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/insects6030658 Juli Wuliandari Siu Lee Vanessa White Warsito Tantowijoyo Ary Hoffmann Nancy Endersby-Harshman http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8658 The potential cross-contamination of pathogens between clean and contaminated produce in the washing tank is highly dependent on the water quality. Process wash water disinfectants are applied to maintain the water quality during processing. The review examines the efficacy of process wash water disinfectants during produce processing with the aim to prevent cross-contamination of pathogens. Process wash water disinfection requires short contact times so microorganisms are rapidly inactivated. Free chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and peracetic acid were considered suitable disinfectants. A disinfectant's reactivity with the organic matter will determine the disinfectant residual, which is of paramount importance for microbial inactivation and should be monitored in situ. Furthermore, the chemical and worker safety, and the legislative framework will determine the suitability of a disinfection technique. Current research often focuses on produce decontamination and to a lesser extent on preventing cross-contamination. Further research on a sanitizer's efficacy in the washing water is recommended at the laboratory scale, in particular with experimental designs reflecting industrial conditions. Validation on the industrial scale is warranted to better understand the overall effects of a sanitizer. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-23 12 8 Review 10.3390/ijerph120808658 8658 8677 1660-4601 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808658 Jennifer Banach Imca Sampers Sam Van Haute H.J. van der Fels-Klerx http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8644 This qualitative study explored the role of sensory characteristics embedded in the built environment and whether they support or hinder people with visual impairment in their use of public spaces. An online survey link was e-mailed to the presidents and committee members of each state's chapters and associations of the National Federation of the Blind in the United States, resulting in 451 direct invitations to participate. Written responses of the survey questions from 48 respondents with visual impairment were analyzed. Three main themes: Barriers, Supporters, and Context-Dependence emerged from the respondents' experience of multisensory characteristics within the built environment. The four subthemes subsumed in Barriers were: (1) Population specific design, (2) Extreme sensory backgrounds, (3) Uneven ground surfaces and objects, and (4) Inconsistent lighting. For Supporters, respondents provided specific examples of various sensory characteristics in built environments, including audible cues and echoes, smells, tactile quality of the ground surface, and temperature. Context-Dependence referred to the effects of sensory characteristics embedded in public spaces depending on one's vision condition, the proximity to the sensory cues and the purpose of the activities one was performing at that moment. Findings provide occupational therapy practitioners an in-depth understanding of the transactional relationship between embedded sensory characteristics in the built environment, occupations, and people with visual impairment in order to make appropriate modifications or removal of barriers that affect occupational performance and engagement. Suggestions for occupational therapists as well as architects, designers, planners, policy makers/legislators related to functional sensory cues in the design of built environments were provided to increase accessibility in the use of public spaces by people with visual impairment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-23 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808644 8644 8657 1660-4601 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808644 Gavin Jenkins Hon Yuen Laura Vogtle http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8631 The influence of temperature on bacterial virulence has been studied worldwide from the viewpoint of climate change and global warming. The bacterium enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAEC) is the causative agent of watery diarrhea and shows an increasing incidence worldwide. Its pathogenicity is associated with the virulence factors aggregative adherence fimbria type I and II (AAFI and AAFII), encoded by aggA and aafA in EAEC strains 17-2 and 042, respectively. This study focused on the effect of temperature increases from 29 °C to 40 °C on fimbrial gene expression using real-time PCR, and on its virulence using an aggregative adherence assay and biofilm formation assay. Incubation at 32 °C caused an up-regulation in both EAEC strains 17-2 and strain 042 virulence gene expression. EAEC strain 042 cultured at temperature above 32 °C showed down-regulation of aafA expression except at 38 °C. Interestingly, EAEC cultured at a high temperature showed a reduced adherence to cells and an uneven biofilm formation. These results provide evidence that increases in temperature potentially affect the virulence of pathogenic EAEC, although the response varies in each strain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-23 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808631 8631 8643 1660-4601 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808631 Woranich Hinthong Nitaya Indrawattana Pannamthip Pitaksajjakul Chonlatip Pipattanaboon Thida Kongngoen Prapin Tharnpoophasiam Suwalee Worakhunpiset http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/12/8/8619 Groundwater is generally considered a "safe source" of drinking water because it is abstracted with low microbial load with little need for treatment before drinking. However, groundwater resources are commonly vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade their quality. An assessment of microbial and physicochemical qualities of borehole water in the rural environs of Mahikeng town, South Africa, was carried out. The study aimed at determining levels of physicochemical (temperature, pH, turbidity and nitrate) and bacteriological (both faecal and total coliform bacteria) contaminants in drinking water using standard microbiology methods. Furthermore, identities of isolates were determined using the API 20E assay. Results were compared with World Health Organisation (WHO) and Department of Water Affairs (DWAF-SA) water quality drinking standards. All analyses for physicochemical parameters were within acceptable limits except for turbidity while microbial loads during spring were higher than the WHO and DWAF thresholds. The detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Klebsiella species in borehole water that was intended for human consumption suggests that water from these sources may pose severe health risks to consumers and is unsuitable for direct human consumption without treatment. The study recommends mobilisation of onsite treatment interventions to protect the households from further possible consequences of using the water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2015-07-23 12 8 Article 10.3390/ijerph120808619 8619 8630 1660-4601 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/ijerph120808619 Lobina Palamuleni Mercy Akoth http://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/5/3/538 It is known that plant height is a suitable parameter for estimating crop biomass. The aim of this study was to confirm the validity of spatial plant height data, which is derived from terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), as a non-destructive estimator for biomass of paddy rice on the field scale. Beyond that, the spatial and temporal transferability of established biomass regression models were investigated to prove the robustness of the method and evaluate the suitability of linear and exponential functions. In each growing season of two years, three campaigns were carried out on a field experiment and on a farmer's conventionally managed field. Crop surface models (CSMs) were generated from the TLS-derived point clouds for calculating plant height with a very high spatial resolution of 1 cm. High coefficients of determination between CSM-derived and manually measured plant heights (R2: 0.72 to 0.91) confirm the applicability of the approach. Yearly averaged differences between the measurements were ~7% and ~9%. Biomass regression models were established from the field experiment data sets, based on strong coefficients of determination between plant height and dry biomass (R2: 0.66 to 0.86 and 0.65 to 0.84 for linear and exponential models, respectively). The spatial and temporal transferability of the models to the farmer's conventionally managed fields is supported by strong coefficients of determination between estimated and measured values (R2: 0.60 to 0.90 and 0.56 to 0.85 for linear and exponential models, respectively). Hence, the suitability of TLS-derived spatial plant height as a non-destructive estimator for biomass of paddy rice on the field scale was verified and the transferability demonstrated. Agriculture 2015-07-23 5 3 Article 10.3390/agriculture5030538 538 560 2077-0472 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/agriculture5030538 Nora Tilly Dirk Hoffmeister Qiang Cao Victoria Lenz-Wiedemann Yuxin Miao Georg Bareth http://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/5/3/492 Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, toxic to humans, animals and plants. Among the hundreds of known mycotoxins, aflatoxins, citrinin, patulin, penicillic acid, tenuazonic acid, ochratoxin A, cytochalasins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, fusarin C, fusaric acid, and zearalenone are considered the types that most contaminate cereal grain. The majority of the mycotoxins in these groups are produced by three fungal genera: Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. These metabolites primarily affect the seed quality, germination, viability, seedling vigour, growth of root and cleoptile. Additionally, since the fungi responsible for the production of these mycotoxins are often endophytes that infect and colonize living plant tissues, accumulation of mycotoxins in the plant tissues may at times be associated with development of plant disease symptoms. The presence of mycotoxins, even in the absence of disease symptoms, may still have subtle biological effects on the physiology of plants. Several studies highlight the toxic effects of mycotoxins on animals and cell lines but little is known about the mode of action of most of these metabolites on plant cells. The most important mycotoxins with phytotoxic effects and their producers in addition to their discovery are briefly outlined below and will be addressed in this article. Agriculture 2015-07-23 5 3 Review 10.3390/agriculture5030492 492 537 2077-0472 2015-07-23 doi: 10.3390/agriculture5030492 Ahmed Ismaiel Jutta Papenbrock http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/7/9473 The increasing availability of very high-resolution remote sensing imagery (i.e., from satellites, airborne laser scanning, or aerial photography) represents both a blessing and a curse for researchers. The manual classification of these images, or other similar geo-sensor data, is time-consuming and leads to subjective and non-deterministic results. Due to this fact, (semi-) automated classification approaches are in high demand in affected research areas. Ontologies provide a proper way of automated classification for various kinds of sensor data, including remotely sensed data. However, the processing of data entities—so-called individuals—is one of the most cost-intensive computational operations within ontology reasoning. Therefore, an approach based on graph databases is proposed to overcome the issue of a high time consumption regarding the classification task. The introduced approach shifts the classification task from the classical Protégé environment and its common reasoners to the proposed graph-based approaches. For the validation, the authors tested the approach on a simulation scenario based on a real-world example. The results demonstrate a quite promising improvement of classification speed—up to 80,000 times faster than the Protégé-based approach. Remote Sensing 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/rs70709473 9473 9491 2072-4292 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/rs70709473 Thomas Lampoltshammer Stefanie Wiegand http://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/4/3/306 Children are very vulnerable to bacterial infections and they are sometimes subject to antimicrobials for healing. The presence of resistance genes may counteract effects of antimicrobials. This work has thereby compared the amount of tetracycline resistance genes, tet(A) and tet(B), between conventional and organic meat-based or vegetable-based baby foods and used the quantification of these genes to assess the presence of tetracycline residues in these samples. Counts of bacteria harboring the tet(A) gene were higher than those containing tet(B), and there was no difference between the organic and the conventional samples. Samples with detectable amounts of tetracycline residues were also positive for the presence of tet genes, and when the presence of the genes was not detected, the samples were also negative for the presence of residues. The percentages of tetracycline residues were higher in organic samples than in conventional ones. It cannot be concluded that organic formulas are safer than conventional ones for the studied parameters. Foods 2015-07-22 4 3 Article 10.3390/foods4030306 306 317 2304-8158 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/foods4030306 Mónica Guarddon José Miranda Beatriz Vázquez Alberto Cepeda Carlos Franco http://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/4/3/1225 Road infrastructure in countries like India is expanding at a rapid pace and is becoming increasingly difficult for authorities to identify and fix the bad roads in time. Current Geographical Information Systems (GIS) lack information about on-road features like road surface type, speed breakers and dynamic attribute data like the road quality. Hence there is a need to build road monitoring systems capable of collecting such information periodically. Limitations of satellite imagery with respect to the resolution and availability, makes road monitoring primarily an on-field activity. Monitoring is currently performed using special vehicles that are fitted with expensive laser scanners and need skilled resource besides providing only very low coverage. Hence such systems are not suitable for continuous road monitoring. Cheaper alternative systems using sensors like accelerometer and GPS (Global Positioning System) exists but they are not equipped to achieve higher information levels. This paper presents a prototype system MAARGHA (MAARGHA in Sanskrit language means an eternal path to solution), which demonstrates that it can overcome the disadvantages of the existing systems by fusing multi-sensory data like camera image, accelerometer data and GPS trajectory at an information level, apart from providing additional road information like road surface type. MAARGHA has been tested across different road conditions and sensor data characteristics to assess its potential applications in real world scenarios. The developed system achieves higher information levels when compared to state of the art road condition estimation systems like Roadroid. The system performance in road surface type classification is dependent on the local environmental conditions at the time of imaging. In our study, the road surface type classification accuracy reached 100% for datasets with near ideal environmental conditions and dropped down to 60% for datasets with shadows and obstacles. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 2015-07-22 4 3 Article 10.3390/ijgi4031225 1225 1245 2220-9964 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/ijgi4031225 Deepak Rajamohan Bhavana Gannu Krishnan Rajan http://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/5/3/488 Evidencing ancient interspecific associations in the fossil record may be challenging, particularly when bacterial organisms have most likely been degraded during diagenesis. Yet, documenting ancient interspecific associations may provide valuable insights into paleoenvironmental conditions and paleocommunities. Here, we report the multiscale characterization of contemporary and fossilized calcifying bacterial colonies found on contemporary shrimps from Mexico (La Paz Bay) and on 160-Ma old fossilized decapods (shrimps) from the Lagerstätte of La Voulte-sur-Rhône (France), respectively. We document the fine scale morphology, the inorganic composition and the organic signatures of both the contemporary and fossilized structures formed by these bacterial colonies using a combination of electron microscopies and synchrotron-based scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. In addition to discussing the mechanisms of carbonate precipitation by such bacterial colonies, the present study illustrates the degradation of bacterial remains occurring during diagenesis. Minerals 2015-07-22 5 3 Article 10.3390/min5030488 488 506 2075-163X 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/min5030488 Ninon Robin Sylvain Bernard Jennyfer Miot Marie-Madeleine Blanc-Valleron Sylvain Charbonnier Gilles Petit http://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/5/3/473 Steelmaking relies on iron ore and metallurgical coal as main ingredients, the trade of which is hypothesized to theoretically change in tandem. However, strong correlation is not evident in historical trade prices of steelmaking inputs. To determine causes to this occurrence, the market factors that influence the Australian iron ore and metallurgical coal industries were studied. Data was collected over the past decade for worldwide resource production and trade quantities of crude steel, iron ore, and metallurgical coal. The data was analysed to reveal trends, allowing examination of the macroeconomic trade of metallurgical coal and iron ore with relation to worldwide and country specific steel production. It was determined that the influential growth of China's steel production has spurred the growth of worldwide iron ore demand, which was met with increased production and supply, from Australia. The increased metallurgical coal demand has been met with increased production within China locally. Measures of supply elasticity were created for worldwide iron ore and metallurgical coal trade, where comparisons between Australia's industries to the relevant greatest competitor were examined. The results, along with respective resource production data, highlighted the elevated competitive position that Australian iron ore producers enjoy compared to metallurgical coal producers. Trade characteristics revealed the different market structures that iron ore and metallurgical coal industries operate in, prompting a discussion of the effects these markets have on the two Australian industries. Minerals 2015-07-22 5 3 Article 10.3390/min5030473 473 487 2075-163X 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/min5030473 Kurt Lawrence Micah Nehring http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/7/9450 Freeze-thaw (FT) and moisture dynamics within the soil active layer are critical elements of boreal, arctic and alpine ecosystems, and environmental change assessments. We evaluated the potential for detecting dielectric changes within different soil layers using combined L- and P-band radar remote sensing as a prerequisite for detecting FT and moisture profile changes within the soil active layer. A two-layer scattering model was developed and validated for simulating radar responses from vertically inhomogeneous soil. The model simulations indicated that inhomogeneity in the soil dielectric profile contributes to both L- and P-band backscatter, but with greater P-band sensitivity at depth. The difference in L- and P-band responses to soil dielectric profile inhomogeneity appears suitable for detecting associated changes in soil active layer conditions. Additional evaluation using collocated airborne radar (AIRSAR) observations and in situ soil moisture measurements over alpine tundra indicates that combined L- and P-band SAR observations are sensitive to soil dielectric profile heterogeneity associated with variations in soil moisture and FT conditions. Remote Sensing 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/rs70709450 9450 9472 2072-4292 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/rs70709450 Jinyang Du John Kimball Mahta Moghaddam http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/7/9431 Sentinel-1A (S1A) is an Earth observation satellite carrying a state-of-the-art Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging instrument. It was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) on 3 April 2014. With the end of the in-orbit commissioning phase having been completed at the end of September 2014, S1A data products are already consistently providing highly accurate geolocation. StripMap (SM) mode products were acquired regularly and tested for geolocation accuracy and consistency during dedicated corner reflector (CR) campaigns. At the completion of this phase, small geometric inconsistencies had been understood and mitigated, with the high quality of the final product geolocation estimates reflecting the mission's success thus far. This paper describes the measurement campaign, the methods used during geolocation estimation, and presents best estimates of the product Absolute Location Error (ALE) available at the beginning of S1A's operational phase. Remote Sensing 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/rs70709431 9431 9449 2072-4292 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/rs70709431 Adrian Schubert David Small Nuno Miranda Dirk Geudtner Erich Meier http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/7/9734 Frequent fire accidents pose a serious threat to human life and property. The spatio-temporal features of China's urban fires, and their drivers should be investigated. Based on the Spatio-temporal Dynamic panel data Model (SDM), and using fire data gathered from 337 Chinese cities in 2000 to 2009, the influence of spatio-temporal factors on the frequency of urban fires was analyzed. The results show that (1) the overall fire incidence of China increased annually before 2002 and reduced significantly after 2003, and then high fire incidence increased in western China; (2) Spatio-temporal factors play a significant role in the frequency of Chinese urban fires; specifically, the fire assimilation effect, fire inertia effect and fire caution effect. The ratio of fire incidence of China has reduced significantly, and the focus of fire incidence moved towards the western region of China. GDP and humidity have a significant effect on urban fire situation change in China, and these effects may be referred to as "fire assimilation effects", "fire inertia effects" and "fire caution effects". Sustainability 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/su7079734 9734 9752 2071-1050 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/su7079734 Zhenbo Wang Xiaorui Zhang Bo Xu http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/7/9711 This article highlights how "place-based education" can be used to raise awareness about sustainability and potentially influence design process decisions that have environmental and cultural implications. "Place-based education" is a term used to describe an educational worldview based on development of curriculum centered on the local, social, economic, and ecological resources of a community. The study shows results of Masters Students' research on situating a housing complex in the context of the agrarian landscape of Vojvodina, Serbia, considering it as a resource for a new sustainable urban lifestyle. During the first year of Masters Studies at the Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade University, an architectural design studio with 15 students had the task of exploring the potential of expanding the city of Belgrade across the agrarian landscape, as to affirm the role of place in contemporary everyday life. Students were expected to explore the possibilities and limitations of the relationship between man and agrarian landscape via architecture, re-thinking how various architectural design approaches could balance and harmonize the impact of the built environment on the agrarian landscape. The paper shows that "place-based education" possesses elements necessary for the inclusion of a wider spatial-cultural context in the process of architectural design and prioritization of environmental literacy and responsibility, as one of the main components of sustainable development. Sustainability 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/su7079711 9711 9733 2071-1050 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/su7079711 Ana Nikezić Dragan Marković http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/7/9410 The Arctic and sub-Arctic environments have seen a rapid growth of shrub vegetation at the expense of the Arctic tundra in recent decades. In order to develop better tools to assess and understand this phenomenon, the sensitivity of multi-polarized SAR backscattering at C and X band to shrub density and height is studied under various conditions. RADARSAT-2 and TerraSAR-X images were acquired from November 2011 to March 2012 over the Umiujaq community in northern Quebec (56.55°N, 76.55°W) and compared to in situ measurements of shrub vegetation density and height collected during the summer of 2009. The results show that σ0 is sensitive to changes in shrub coverage up to 20% and is sensitive to changes in shrub height up to around 1 m. The cross-polarized backscattering (σ0 HV ) displays the best sensitivity to both shrub height and density, and RADARSAT-2 is more sensitive to shrub height, as TerraSAR-X tends to saturate more rapidly with increasing volume scattering from the shrub branches. These results demonstrate that SAR data could provide essential information, not only on Remote Sens. 2015, 7 9411 the spatial expansion of shrub vegetation, but also on its vertical growth, especially at early stages of colonization. Remote Sensing 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/rs70709410 9410 9430 2072-4292 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/rs70709410 Yannick Duguay Monique Bernier Esther Lévesque Benoit Tremblay http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/7/9390 Land surface phenology (LSP), the study of the timing of recurring cycles of changes in the land surface using time-series of satellite sensor-derived vegetation indices, is a valuable tool for monitoring vegetation at global and continental scales. Characterisation of LSP and its spatial variation is required to reveal and predict ongoing changes in Earth system dynamics. This study presents and analyses the LSP of the pan-European continent for the last decade, considering three phenological metrics: onset of greenness (OG), end of senescence (EOS), and length of season (LS). The whole time-series of Multi-temporal Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) Terrestrial Chlorophyll Index (MTCI) data at 1 km spatial resolution was used to estimate the phenological metrics. Results show a progressive pattern in phenophases from low to high latitudes. OG dates are distributed widely from the end of December to the end of May. EOS dates range from the end of May to the end of January and the spatial distribution is generally the inverse of that of the OG. Shorter growing seasons (approximately three months) are associated with rainfed croplands in Western Europe, and forests in boreal and mountainous areas. Maximum LS values appear in the Atlantic basin associated with grasslands. The LSP maps presented in this study are supported by the findings of a previous study where OG and EOS estimates were compared to those of the pan-European phenological network at certain locations corresponding to numerous observations of deciduous tree plant species. Moreover, the spatio-temporal pattern of the OG and EOS produced close agreement with the dates of deciduous tree leaf unfolding and autumnal colouring, respectively (pseudo R-squared equal to 0.70 and 0.71 and root mean square error of six days (over 365 days)). Remote Sensing 2015-07-22 7 7 Article 10.3390/rs70709390 9390 9409 2072-4292 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/rs70709390 Victor Rodriguez-Galiano Jadunandan Dash Peter Atkinson http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/5/3/624 Each year millions of nonhuman animals suffer in biomedical experiments for human health benefits. Clinical ethics demand that nonhuman animals are used in the development of pharmaceuticals and vaccines. Nonhuman animals are also used for fundamental biomedical research. Biomedical research that uses nonhuman animals is big business but the financial gains are generally occluded. This paper explores how such research generates profits and gains for those associated with the industry. Research establishments, scientists, laboratories, companies that sell nonhuman animal subjects, that supply equipment for the research, and corporations that market the resulting products are among those that benefit financially. Given the complex articulation of ethical codes, enormous corporate profits that are secured and personal returns that are made, the accepted moral legitimacy of such experiments is compromised. In order to address this, within the confines of the moral orthodoxy, more could to be done to ensure transparency and to extricate the vested financial interests from the human health benefits. But such a determination would not address the fundamental issues that should be at the heart of human actions in respect of the nonhuman animals who are used in experiments. The paper concludes with such an address by calling for an end to the denigration of nonhuman animals as experimental subjects who can be used as commodities for profit-maximisation and as tools in experiments for human health benefits, and the implementation of a more inclusive ethic that is informed by universal concern about the suffering of and compassion for all oppressed beings. Animals 2015-07-22 5 3 Article 10.3390/ani5030376 624 2076-2615 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/ani5030376 Kay Peggs http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/5/3/610 The objectives of this study were to (i) investigate the impact of feeding oat on the population of bifidobacteria and (ii) evaluate their probiotic potential. In this study, we investigated the effects of supplementing sows' gestation and lactation feed with 15% oat (prebiotic source) on the levels of probiotic population in milk. We found that dietary inclusion of oat during lactation and gestation resulted in increased levels of bifidobacteria compared to lactobacilli in sow milk. Furthermore bifidobacteria within the sow milk samples were further evaluated for probiotic potential based on aggregating properties, and acid- and bile-tolerance after exposure to hydrochloric acid (pH 2.5) and bile salts (0%, 0.25%, 0.50%, 1.0% and 2.0%). All isolates survived under the condition of low pH and bile 2.0%. Autoaggregation ability ranged from 17.5% to 73%. These isolates also showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli O157:H7. Together our results suggest that inclusion of oat in feeding system may lead to increases bifidobacteria in sow milk and these isolates may have good probiotic potential for their young. Animals 2015-07-22 5 3 Article 10.3390/ani5030375 610 2076-2615 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/ani5030375 Rabin Gyawali Radiah Minor Barry Donovan Salam Ibrahim http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/5/3/592 Horse riding and horse-related interactions are inherently dangerous. When they occur on public roads, the risk profile of equestrian activities is complicated by interactions with other road users. Research has identified speed, proximity, visibility, conspicuity and mutual misunderstanding as factors contributing to accidents and near misses. However, little is known about their significance or incidence in Australia. To explore road safety issues amongst Australian equestrians, we conducted an online survey. More than half of all riders (52%) reported having experienced at least one accident or near miss in the 12 months prior to the survey. Whilst our findings confirm the factors identified overseas, we also identified issues around rider misunderstanding of road rules and driver misunderstanding of rider hand signals. Of particular concern, we also found reports of potentially dangerous rider-directed road rage. We identify several areas for potential safety intervention including (1) identifying equestrians as vulnerable road users and horses as sentient decision-making vehicles (2) harmonising laws regarding passing horses, (3) mandating personal protective equipment, (4) improving road signage, (5) comprehensive data collection, (6) developing mutual understanding amongst road-users, (7) safer road design and alternative riding spaces; and (8) increasing investment in horse-related safety initiatives. Animals 2015-07-22 5 3 Article 10.3390/ani5030374 592 2076-2615 2015-07-22 doi: 10.3390/ani5030374 Kirrilly Thompson Chelsea Matthews