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Transcript of "10.1.1.70.1834"
1. Shoehorning Security into the EPC Standard Daniel V. Bailey and Ari Juels RSA Laboratories Bedford, MA 01730, USA e-mail: {dbailey,firstname.lastname@example.com 23 January 2006 Abstract. The EPCglobal Class-1 Generation-2 UHF tag standard is certain to become the de facto worldwide specification for inexpensive RFID tags. Because of its sharp focus on simple "license plate" tags, it supports only the most rudimentary of security and privacy features, and essentially none of the cryptographic techniques that underpin authentication and privacy-protection in higher-powered com- putational devices. To support more-sophisticated applications, the drafters of this standard envisioned the re-use of the basic air interface and command set in higher-class standards. We propose ways to incorporate mainstream cryptographic functionality into the Class-1 Gen-2 stan- dard. Our techniques circumvene the intended modes of operation of the standard, but adhere closely enough to preserve formal compliance. For this reason, we use the term shoehorning to describe our layering of new security functionality on the standard.Key words: authentication, cloning, counterfeiting, EPC, PIN compromise, RFID1 IntroductionRadio Frequency IDentification (RFID) tags promise in the near future to become the most numer-ous computational devices in the world. Their impending pervasiveness owes much to the powerand flexibility that they achieve through starkly minimalist design. In their most basic form, RFIDtags are little more than wireless barcodes that facilitate the tracking of objects in supply chains –at present, generally bulk containers like crates. Many industries are embracing a recently ratified standard for RFID tags called the EPCglobalClass-1 Generation-2 UHF tag standard [12]. EPC tags, as the tags compliant with this standardare called, seem certain to become the de facto standard for low-cost RFID. It is projected thatClass-1 Gen-2 EPC tags will soon cost in the neighborhood of five cents apiece, and will numberin the billions. Their basic purpose is to improve supply-chain visibility, meaning that they willfurnish highly accurate real-time data on the whereabouts of objects. In contrast to barcodes, whichare difficult to scan without precise object positioning and thus human intermediation, RFID tagstransmit data automatically and wirelessly. It seems natural to appeal to RFID to improve infrastructural security. Indeed, the United StatesFood and Drug Administration is promoting the use of EPC tags to facilitate the compilation ofitem pedigrees in the pharmaceutical supply chain in an effort to combat counterfeit and gray-market products. It is to be expected that other industries will likewise explicitly or implicitlydraw on EPC tags as a security tool. EPC tags per se, however, are poorly endowed as security devices. Apart from some rudimentaryprotocols that reduce over-the-air information leakage, they have only two basic security features:
1. The "kill" command: The EPC standard envisions that tags will eventually track individual consumer items in the supply chain. In order to protect consumer privacy, the standard provides for tags to be disabled at the point of sale in retail environments. When a reader transmits a special "kill" command to an EPC tag, along with a tag-specific, 32-bit PIN, the tag self- destructs; that is, it never again responds to reader interrogation. (Dead tags, of course, offer nearly impeccable RFID privacy.)2. Read/write access: An optional feature in the EPC standard provides for access-controlled memory in EPC tags. In order to read and write to certain memory locations, an EPC reader must furnish a tag-specific PIN. These two forms of PIN-based access control reduce the risk of certain types of attack, likemalicious killing of tags, and unauthorized access to the contents of tag memory. EPC tags, however,are vulnerable to a range of other, elementary attacks. EPC tags emit static, unique identifiers,as well as data like that traditionally found in a printed barcode, namely a manufacturer nameand product type. Thanks to their identifiers, EPC tags are subject to clandestine tracking; witha network of readers, an entity can correlate sightings of an individual tag – and thus potentiallytrack its bearer. The product information on tags creates a risk of surreptitious inventorying; areader can in principle determine what items a person is carrying with her. Such risks have been aflashpoint of concern for civil libertarians.1 The vulnerability of RFID tags to cloning has received somewhat less attention. EPC tags, inparticular, release their identifiers and product information – known as EPC codes – in a promis-cuous manner. Any reader may scan any EPC tag; no access control exists on EPC codes. Conse-quently, having scanned a target EPC tag once, a reader can harvest all of the information neededto duplicate that tag in its essentials. It is unclear whether field-programmable, i.e., blank EPCtags, will be a regular commercial offering, although it is not inconceivable. An attacker could eas-ily imprint such a tag to create a counterfeit, i.e., duplicate EPC tag.2 Even without blank tags,however, it is an elementary matter to create wireless devices that may not have the same physicalappearance as EPC tags, but perfectly simulate their output. The drafters of the EPC standard were aware of these privacy and security concerns. Theyrejected potential countermeasures, like cryptographic functionality, in favor of low cost. Ratherthan incorporate security technologies into Class-1 tags, EPCglobal instead imagined a hierarchyof tags [12], each successive level adding functionality while incorporating all the features of lower-class tags. In this way, higher-class tags could build on the existing infrastructure without theneed to develop a new air interface for each. By way of analogy, consider the long sequence ofstandards under the IEEE 802.11 banner. A common command set has been extended multiple timesand adapted to different air interfaces, all while leveraging past investment and (when possible)maintaining backward compatibility and coexistence.1. Class-1: Identity Tags Passive-backscatter tags offering only basic features like a fixed EPC identifier, a tag identifier, kill function, and optional password-protected access control2. Class-2: Higher-Functionality Tags Passive tags with all of Class-1's features and extended tag identifier and user memory, as well as authenticated access control1 As noted above, EPC tags are unlikely to see widespread use on consumer products for some years. Consumers regularly carry other types of RFID tags on their persons, however, such as payment devices and proximity cards, i.e., RFID devices that unlock doors.2 It is even possible that the pre-programmed data in an EPC tag could be directly modified.
3. Class-3: Semi-Passive Tags with all of Class-2's features as well as sensors and on-tag power sources like batteries4. Class-4: Active Tags with all of Class-3's features as well as tag-to-tag communications and ad-hoc networking In contrast to established HF RFID standards like ISO 14443 and ISO 15693, where securityprotocols have already been deployed, the Class-1 Gen-2 UHF air interface is designed to offerlonger range, better handling of dense tag and reader environments, and lower cost. These factorswill draw security applications to this standard just as they have driven its success in supply chains– as well as the tremendous expected economies of scale.Our work In this paper, we consider various ways in which it is possible to create RFID tagsthat perform cryptographic functionality while remaining compliant with both the Class-1 Gen-2standard and conformance specification [13] and while extending the command set. Our techniquescould serve as an alternative to the creation of a Class-2 EPC standard – or as the basis for sucha standard. Our key idea is to take an expansive view of EPC tag memory. Rather than treating this memorymerely as a form of storage, we consider its use as an input/output medium capable of interfacingwith a cryptographic module within the tag. Read and write commands to the tag, therefore, maybe commandeered to carry cryptographic values, such as messages in a challenge-response protocol.We focus on protocols for tag authentication, rather than privacy-enhancing protocols.3OrganizationIn section 2, we briefly review related work on RFID security. We outline desirable security-serviceenhancements to the EPC standard in section 3. We explore the scope of the Class-1 Gen-2 EPCstandard in section 4, and in section 5, propose an example cryptographic command set that maybe fit into the standard. We conclude in section 6 with a brief summary.2 Related workPrivacy has been perhaps the major security focus in the RFID literature and in press coverage aswell. A number of approaches have been proposed, including simple RF shielding (e.g., aluminumfoil), distance detection [8], interference with RFID singulation [22] (i.e., the standard process bywhich readers establish one-to-one communication with tags), rotating pseudonyms [17], physicaldisablement [25], proxying [30, 23], trusted computing [26], and cryptographic protocols, e.g., [2,10, 27, 28]. Cryptographic approaches to user privacy based on symmetric-key primitives tend tobe unsatisfactory from a practical standpoint. They rely on readers performing intensive searchesover databases of tag keys, or else sharing of secrets across tags that can weakens their securityguarantees. Public-key-based protocols are expensive. (See [20] for an overview.) For these reasons,we focus here instead on the more technically tractable problem of authentication. Several researchers have proposed new, lightweight cryptographic primitives aiming at RFIDauthentication [18, 24, 33]. A European project [6] aims to identify new stream ciphers; some of theseare potentially lightweight enough for inclusion in low-cost devices. It is as yet unclear whether any3 As an example of a privacy-enhancing protocol consonant with the principles we enunciate here, see [17], which proposes a system of cryptographically changing EPC codes.
of these recently proposed primitives are both strong enough and agile enough for use in low-costRFID tags, but they represent an important continuing area of inquiry. Feldhofer et al. [7] havedescribed an AES implementation designed specifically for RFID devices. This implementationrequires security resources exceeding those presently possible in EPC tags, but perhaps suitable forsome of the enhancements we describe here. Some RFID tags do employ cryptographic primitives for authentication. These tags tend tobe more expensive than EPC tags, but demonstrate the need for strong authentication in nicheapplications. They also demonstrate that design of good cryptographic protocols for RFID requirescareful attention [3, 21]. The Auto-ID Lab, the research arm of EPCglobal, operates a special interest group devotedto use of RFID to combat counterfeiting. Researchers there have proposed uses of EPC to combatcounterfeiting of consumer items [31]. They suggest that track-and-trace technologies, i.e., supply-chain monitoring based on current EPC tags, can yield good improvements over existing security.They also discuss the benefits of challenge-response protocols for tag authentication, and reviewextensions to existing EPC architecture for this purpose. They do not investigate incorporation ofcryptography into Class-1 Gen-2 EPC tags, however. They instead propose support in future EPCstandards, such as the Class-2 EPC standard. Juels proposes ways to leverage the PIN-controls for killing and read/write access to achieve adhoc authentication in Class-1 Gen-2 EPC tags [19]. The resulting protocols are cryptographicallyweak, e.g., they are vulnerable to eavesdropping attacks, but they permit authentication of EPCtags that would otherwise not be possible. In spirit, that work is similar to our proposals here inthat it aims to leverage the existing EPC standard to achieve stronger security functionality. Of course, it is common practice to repurpose or coopt communication-protocol standards aswe propose here. As seen in the past, the broad deployment of a communications standard yieldsmany uses beyond the imagination of its original designers. Perhaps the most notable example inrecent times is the TCP/IP suite of networking protocols. Originally designed for communicationamong mainframe and minicomputers housed in government labs, it is now supporting transmissionof video clips to cell phones and replacing the traditional public switched telephone and cable-television networks. What is unusual about our work here is the very constrained nature of the protocol set that wepropose to coopt. The EPC standard specifies an artifact, i.e., a device with a fixed command setspecified down to the bit level, and virtually no margin for extensions and no underlying intentionto support them. Yet our goal is to achieve general, extensible security services within the EPCstandard. We require a large shoehorn indeed – but thankfully one of essentially simple design.3 Security ServicesThere are of course many desirable security services for RFID authentication. Roughly speaking,they fall into three categories: device authentication, device-binding authentication, and data-originauthentication. In the appendix, we briefly describe these different types of authentication andexplain how they introduce needs for flexible cryptographic authentication services.4 ShoehorningThe huge economies of scale will drive down the cost of tags, readers, and their components. Thelow cost of components will lead to their inclusion in many devices beyond the simple "license
plate" item-identification application. The extension of the Class-1 Gen-2 standard to meet theseneeds, including anti-counterfeiting, requires a slightly different view of the specification. Insteadof implying the characteristics of an artifact that implements the protocol, we can view it simplyas a communication protocol. With this approach, Class-1 Gen-2 offers a logical and physical layerprotocol which can be used to carry bulk data, including that of higher-layer protocols. To implement the security services needed especially in pharmaceutical applications, we coulddevelop new customized extensions to the logical layer, similar to the 802.11i [11] effort. But asexperience has shown, this is not a trivial task. Simply taking an otherwise secure cipher and usingit to encrypt data can lead to an insecure protocol [1]. Moreover, doing so presents a difficult choice:either select a single set of algorithms all implementors must use, or provide a negotiation scheme.Fortunately, several standard interfaces have been devised for secure communications with simpledevices. Given their broad deployment, they have been thoroughly implemented and analyzed, andcan be applied to our task at hand.4.1 A Simple Protocol for Entity AuthenticationThe Class-1 Gen-2 protocol already has a limited protocol for entity authentication: in order toaccess protected memory or privileged commands like kill, the reader must present a static password.In principle, to authenticate itself to the reader, the tag could do the same: we could imagine anew command that would request a password from a tag. But we observe that having the tagpresent static data like a password provides no additional security services than providing theEPC. Presumably, an attacker who is able to clone an EPC could just clone the password as well. With this observation in hand, we provide a motivating example of the flexibility of our ap-proach. Challenge-response protocols prevent an eavesdropping attacker from obtaining a staticpassword and simply reusing it. In such a protocol depicted below, the tag computes a 32- or 64-bitresponse RT = H(KT S , CR) where H() is a cryptographic function like a block cipher, KT S is somesecret key known to the tag and the reader (or server), and CR , is a unique challenge. Of course,RT could be chosen to have a length longer than 64 bits if conditions warrant. In an applicationwhere an attacker could feasibly try such a large number of interactive queries with the reader, alonger RT value would be a good choice, but 64 bits is appropriate for many applications giventhe relatively short range of Class-1 Gen-2. To address off-line attacks, one can choose KT S to bemuch longer – such as 128 bits – without increasing the number of bits sent over the air. We haveseen several implementation reports of block ciphers like AES adapted to the severe constraints ofpassive RFID [7] which could serve as our function H(). An extraordinary number of challenge-response protocols have been developed to suit variousneeds and resist various attackers. This one is presented as an example because of simplicity and aparticular quirk of the Class-1 Gen-2 standard: tags do not have a method to obtain the identityof a reader. For its part, the Electronic Product Code carried by the tag is denoted IDT .1. Reader → T ag : CR2. T ag → Reader : IDT , RT There are several types of challenge-response protocols classified by how the value CR is chosen.Perhaps the most familiar method is for the value CR to be chosen by the reader and explicitlysent to the tag, which we'll explore in much more detail below. In a special case called a time-synchronous one-time password, however, if the tag has a real-time clock, then it can use the time
of day as an implicit challenge. This approach eliminates the need for a special message from thereader carrying CR . To ensure a password is not being replayed, one can choose a time intervalfor CR short enough to preclude replay attacks and the reader can store the last correct passwordvalue received from the tag. Given this capability, our two-message protocol above can be collapsed into a single message:when asked for its EPC in Read, ACK, or any other command, the tag responds with its EPCconcatenated with its one-time password.1. T ag → Reader : IDT , RT Since according to Section 18.104.22.168.2.4, the transmitted EPC data field may be up to 512 bits,using 32 or 64 of these for a one-time password still leaves a tremendous number of availableidentifiers. No modifications to the spec are required, save perhaps a general agreement on theplacement of the one-time password RT within a transmitted EPC field. In this way, the tagprovides additional evidence of its identity which the reader may check or not. For high throughputapplications, the reader can simply ignore the one-time password value, only checking the passwordwhen it wants to gain assurance that the tag has not been cloned. If our application requires more robust reader authentication, we could additionally require thereader to respond to a challenge. The Class-1 Gen-2 standard already provides data fields for thereader to transmit 16-bit passwords. Nothing prevents us from using a one-time password instead,verifying the provided value on the tag. In practice, the tag needs either a real-time clock or away to deliver a challenge to the reader. In addition, given the fact that different applications needdifferent security services and/or algorithms, we need a way for the tag and reader to negotiate acommon set of features as in an SSL cipher suite [5]. Fixing a single algorithm for all applicationsfor all time seems short-sighted since we know algorithms - even those trusted by governments andlarge financial institutions - get broken from time to time. We can of course define frame formatsfor all these things, but we quickly find that we are creating a complete customized security layer,when there are robust tools already in existence that can help.4.2 Protocol ConvergenceIn contrast to typical communication protocols, Class-1 Gen-2 lacks a command to simply sendbulk data over the air. In fact, most data payload fields in the protocol are limited to sixteen bitsin length. This design choice is guided by the challenging environment faced by tags applied tofast-moving consumer goods. Many use cases involve hundreds or thousands of tags arranged onpallets and speeding toward a dock door. The uncertainties of antenna orientation together withthe sheer number of tags make the short data frames a wise choice for this application. But in othersettings, such as checking the authenticity of high-value goods like pharmaceuticals, we can havethe luxury of communicating with fewer tags at a time, for longer durations. This fact means wecan appeal to the commands in Class-1 Gen-2 with variable-length data payload. To implement asecurity protocol, we will have to reuse commands designed for another purpose, or define customor new commands. This task of defining the use of one protocol to carry the protocol data units of another is oftencalled protocol convergence. To refer to data units consumed by a protocol entity not contained inthe Class-1 Gen-2 spec, we will use the phrase application protocol data units, or APDUs.
Section 184.108.40.206 of the standard specifies four banks of memory which may be read or written bya reader: reserved, EPC, TID, and User. The User bank offers the most flexibility, allowing user-defined organization of arbitrary amounts of memory arranged in 16-bit words. Subject to someconditions possibly involving the presentation of a fixed password, the tag is obliged to obey Reador BlockWrite commands. But the contents of memory need not be fixed: neither the standard northe conformance document [13] prohibit the manipulation of memory by logic in the tag. In fact,we could view the situation as interprocess communication implemented by shared memory. Thereader writes data to a particular memory location in the tag. Logic in the tag reads from thislocation, processes the data frame, and writes its response to that (or a different but commonlyagreed-upon) memory location. The reader obtains its result by reading from this memory location. As a concrete example, consider a tag that has been singulated by a reader by successfullyresponding to a sequence of Query, ACK, and Req RN commands to arrive in the Access state [12].Now the reader and tag can participate in a security protocol. We use a special block of sharedmemory in the User memory bank, starting with word zero to transfer the security protocol'sAPDUs between the reader and logic in the tag. Since the Class-1 Gen-2 protocol follows a reader-talks-first paradigm, the exchange begins with a BlockWrite command which writes the contents ofthe APDU to the shared memory, as shown in Table 9, found in the appendix along with all otherframe formats referenced in this paper. The tag's Class-1 Gen-2 interface writes the data to the appropriate location, and then trans-mits its normal reply to indicate success. We observe at this point that because protocol APDUsare meant for immediate consumption, rather than long-term storage, the contents of the sharedmemory can be stored in RAM instead of EEPROM. This allows the tag to use the time and powerordinarily used for writing nonvolatile storage for interpretation of, and response to, the APDU. Asusual following command transmission, the reader broadcasts a continuous wave (CW) for up to 20msec to power the tag and allow it to complete its operation. Additional logic in the tag uses thispower and time to interpret the APDU, compute a response if necessary, and write its response tothe same - or another previously agreed-upon - memory location. Once this is done, the tag sendsits usual reply frame, which in this case indicates the tag has interpreted the APDU and a responseis available. If processing a command takes longer than 20 msec, the response APDU prepared bythe tag can indicate that processing has not yet completed. The reader can now obtain its response by issuing a Read command. As before, we will assumethat the special block of shared memory is located in the User memory bank and starts at wordzero. This command frame is illustrated in Table 10. Using this message sequence in principle allows us to implement virtually any protocol. Ratherthan overloading the Read and BlockWrite commands, we could define new commands with thesame intent: a WriteGenericAPDU and ReadGenericAPDU could be assigned their own commandidentifiers without changing the basic approach. Of course, since the underlying logical layer followsa reader-talks-first paradigm, some protocols will work better than others. In order to handleAPDUs originated by the tag, one could have the reader periodically use a read command to checkif the contents of shared memory have changed. But this polling-based approach is unwieldy, so weinstead look for existing protocols that fit nicely with the tools at hand.5 A Natural Command Set: ISO 7816-4This problem of authenticating a severely constrained device is not unique to supply chain ap-plications: smart cards have long been used for authentication. Given the protocol convergence
ideas articulated above, our enhanced tag looks more like a contactless smartcard and less like atraditional "license plate" RFID tag. So we aim to draw on the collective design and widespreadimplementation experience available in the smartcard arena to address our need for authentica-tion and security feature negotiation. An ideal protocol would allow for extreme optimization ofthe most commonly used security features while also allowing other security operations possiblyinvolving long APDUs fragmented into several data frames, and feature negotiation among cardsand readers from different vendors. We find such a protocol in part of ISO 7816 [16], a series of international standards that formsthe basis for millions of smart cards worldwide including pay-TV and GSM SIM cards. As withmany standards for communicating systems, the several documents in the ISO 7816 series areeach devoted to a particular layer in a stack of protocols. This layered approach allows particularstandards in the series to be applied to different environments. For instance, the ISO 14443 [15]series of standards for contactless proximity cards explicitly allows for the use of ISO 7816-4 APDUsto be carried over its logical and physical layers. From the perspective of a lower layer protocol, anISO 7816-4 APDU would simply be seen as a data payload. ISO 7816-4 offers a set of APDUs arranged in command-response pairs to authenticate andsecurely access data stored on a card. The specification declines to specify algorithms, physicalinterface technology, or the internal implementation within the card. Fortunately, most of its fea-tures are designed for systems where the reader talks first, nicely complementing the logical layerfeatures in Class-1 Gen-2. ISO 7816-4 defines general command and response frames, depicted in Table 1 and Table 2,respectively. It further specifies instantiations of these to perform tasks like entity authenticationof tag, reader, or both as well as transfer of encrypted or integrity-protected data. To make thingsconcrete, we'll focus on one command called Internal Authenticate, while our techniques extend toother commands as well. Field Description Number of bytes Command header Class byte denoted CLA 1 Command header Instruction byte denoted INS 1 Command header Parameter bytes denoted P1-P2 2 Command data-length Lc Absent if Nc = 0, otherwise equal to Nc 0, 1, or 3 Command data Absent if Nc = 0, otherwise a string of Nc bytes Nc Maximum response length Absent if Ne = 0, otherwise equal to Ne 0, 1, or 3 Table 1. ISO 7816-4 Command Field Description Number of bytes Response data Absent if Nr = 0, otherwise a string of Nr bytes Nr Response trailer Status bytes SW1 and SW2 2 Table 2. ISO 7816-4 Response
With this set of headers, data lengths, and trailers, the reader can unambiguously specifyprecisely which command is desired along with details on algorithms, protocols, parameters, keyidentifiers, and of course, command data. The tag can reply with status bytes indicating success,reasons for failure, or the fact that processing has not yet completed.5.1 Features of ISO 7816-4As noted above, we envision the Class-1 Gen-2 standard coming to serve as a radio interface formany applications beyond simple tagging. Fortunately, the ISO 7816-4 standard is highly developedwith regard to interfacing with almost any security-capable device. But this capability goes beyondsimple authentication to include important topics like supporting multiple algorithms, multiplekeys, and multiple file structures. Of course, we cannot exhaustively describe all of these features ina paper such as this. Instead, in the appendix we enumerate some of the most important capabilities. Given this rich feature set, one can address a great number of applications. But we observe thatin this environment, tags may specialize on one or two security services such as authentication of atag to a reader to prevent counterfeiting. In the rest of this paper, we focus on heavily optimizinga tag's most-used feature while still allowing the richness of the 7816-4 command set. From the tables one can see there is some overhead associated with this command set: a typicalcommand would see six bytes overhead, while a response would see two. Since communicationbandwidth is precious in this environment, we must explore some examples to determine if the costis acceptable and consider ways to reduce this cost.5.2 Tag AuthenticationIn Section 4.1, we outlined a simple tag authentication protocol using challenge-response and one-time passwords. Using the techniques outlined in Section 4.2, we can go beyond this approach tosupport virtually any entity authentication protocol from simple passwords to robust cryptography.Let us consider the use of the ISO 7816 command set to achieve entity authentication of the tag. Of course, we must choose some algorithm to achieve this goal. When it comes to cryptographicfunctions, we face an embarrassment of riches. Such a broad set of protocols, algorithms, andassociated modes of operation has been devised that it seems shortsighted to attempt to fix onechoice for all secure applications. Like the various options offered in the Class-1 Gen-2 physical layer,each of these cryptographic primitives conducts a careful trade off among attributes. In this case,the attributes are computational complexity, communication complexity, security services offered,and resistance to various types of attackers. We are forced then to choose one algorithm or devisesome sort of negotiation scheme for a tag and reader to agree on a protocol, algorithms, and modes. This service is precisely what ISO 7816 provides: security protocol messages tagged to referencean algorithm and any associated reference data such as a key identifier. By way of example, inTable 3, let us consider the Internal Authenticate command to implement our protocol. The valueCR will be provided by the reader in the protocol. Values in the table postfixed by "h" indicatehexadecimal notation. Table 3 shows the reader providing an eight-byte challenge value to the tag. Note that the classand command parameter bytes are set to zero. Tables 2 and 3 in [16] define the semantics of theclass byte. A reader can indicate if this command frame is a fragment of a longer command andif any encryption or integrity protection has been applied. In our case, neither of these conditionsis true and therefore these bytes are set to zero. The command parameter identifies the algorithm,
Field Description Number of bytes Command Class Byte 0h 1 Command Instruction Byte 88h 1 Command Parameters 0h 2 Command data-length 8h 1 Command data CR 8 Maximum response length 8h 1 Table 3. Internal Authenticate Command from Reader Field Description Number of bytes Response data RT 8 Status bytes 6100h 2 Table 4. ISO 7816-4 Responseprotocol, and modes, but ISO 7816 allows these bytes to be set to zero if their values are implicitlyknown. For reasons of cost and efficiency, many tags may support only one set of these values. When these APDUs are carried by Read or BlockWrite commands, we can calculate the totalnumber of bytes sent over the air before our compression techniques in Section 5.3. By way ofcomparison, we also consider the case when the challenge, CR , is implicitly known by the tag suchas in time-synchronous onetime passwords. Frame Type Bytes Bits BlockWrite Carrying Internal Authenticate with Challenge 22 169 BlockWrite Carrying Internal Authenticate with Implicit Challenge 13 97 Read Carrying Response 18 137 Table 5. Frame sizes for shoehorned Internal Authenticate5.3 Compressing ISO 7816-4Clearly, these commands are larger than we would like. Our goal is to optimize the most commonusage while allowing flexibility. Our working assumption is that most tags will support a smallnumber of security methods and generally their usage will be implicit. This means in general thatthe class and parameter bytes - and sometimes the instruction byte - will be redundant. So we caneliminate these, but we need some way to signal to the tag which fields are present in a receiveddata frame. As above, we have two options: we can carry on using the Read and BlockWrite commands andspecify a wrapper with a bit field to indicate which ISO 7816 fields are present. In essence, thiswrapper becomes our security sublayer and allows the tag unambiguously reconstruct the originalISO 7816 APDU, if desired. As an alternative to Read and BlockWrite,we can define customcommands for this purpose. Both new and custom commands are considered below.
Security Sublayer Continuing our use of the Read and BlockWrite commands, we can prependall ISO 7816-4 APDUs with a header to indicate which fields are present as shown in Table 6. Command Class Byte Command Instruction Byte Command Parameters Number of bits 1 1 1 Table 6. Security Sublayer Header Then a complete BlockWrite data frame to send an ISO 7816-4 APDU for an entity authen-tication protocol as above to compute the 64-bit value RT given the 64-bit value CR provided bythe reader appears in Table 11, showing a savings of 29 bits compared with Table 5. As notedabove, these parameters are provided as an example and many other combinations are possible,including an implied CR value and a 32-bit password returned as in Table 12. Observe that ISO7816-4 already allows the DataLen and Data fields to be omitted entirely if their values are implied,relieving us of the need to explicitly signal their presence. This result leaves us with a data frameof only 68 bits, 32 of which are the handle and CRC. Response frames are unchanged and remainas above. A summary of over-the-air complexity is in Table 7. But further reductions are possibleif we turn to specialized commands. Frame Type Bytes Bits Compressed BlockWrite Carrying Internal Authenticate with Challenge 18 140 Compressed BlockWrite Carrying Internal Authenticate with Implicit Challenge 9 68 Read Carrying Response 18 137 Table 7. Frame sizes for Compressed Internal Authenticate using BlockWriteNew Commands To save even more bits over the air, we can turn to new commands. Thestandard defines command identifiers using up to 8 bits each for base commands, and 16 bits eachfor custom or proprietary commands. We observe that in our use of the Read and BlockWritecommands, quite a few bits are devoted to specifying a memory location and data length. A newor custom command's identifier would directly imply the memory location, saving some bits. Inaddition, the ISO 7816 APDU either specifies its own length explicitly in the DataLen field, or –like other parameters – it is previously known by both parties, allowing us to optionally dispensewith the WordCount field. By defining a new command we can save a total of 17 bits by using anunreserved 8-bit identifier, of which there are 22 currently available. Of course, we could define acustom command instead, but then we would only save 9 bits since an additional 8 bits are requiredto specify a custom command. The command and response versions are illustrated in Tables 13-16. Using this approach, we can compare the size of the data frames in each of these scenarios whenused with our example cryptographic protocol in Table 8.Authentication of a Group of Tags So far, we have focused on commands that require a tag tobe fully singulated before a cryptographic protocol can take place. Recalling our example security
Frame Type Bytes Bits New EPC-layer Command for ISO 7816 APDU Command with Challenge 15 123 New EPC-layer Command for ISO 7816 APDU Command with Implicit Challenge 6 51 Custom EPC-layer Command for ISO 7816 APDU Command with Challenge 16 131 Custom EPC-layer Command for ISO 7816 APDU Command with Implicit Challenge 8 59 EPC-layer Tag Reply to Response APDU 15 113 Table 8. Sizes of New or Custom Commandsfunction RT = H(KT S , CR), we observe that if each tag has a unique key KT S , then the valueCR need not be unique to each tag. In fact, this is common practice in the application of one-time passwords for user login as CR will often be either the time of day or a counter. Performingentity authentication of a group of tags can be greatly optimized by delivering CR to all tags andallowing them to respond individually. Toward this end, we propose QuerySecure and ACKSecurecommands which perform these functions using the protocol convergence ideas outlined above.Essentially, QuerySecure extends Query by appending the Header, DataLen, Data, RespLen, and7816 APDU fields and replacing the CRC-5 with a CRC-16. The resulting data frame weighs in at101 bits, but in contrast to the commands listed above, it only needs to be sent once to a populationof tags. The ACKSecure command likewise simply appends the Response Data and Status Bytesfields to the existing ACK command which then scrolls back its EPC followed by the RT value itcomputed.6 ConclusionThe optimizations we have presented here are driven by the desire to optimize one commonly usedcryptographic operation for each tag, while allowing the flexibility of a fully extensible, broadlysupported, and internationally recognized protocol to handle issues of feature negotiation. This is the motivation behind our fusing the EPC standard with ISO 7816-4. In the case oftag authentication using a block cipher, the resulting optimized data frames are shorter than manyElectronic Product Codes. An implementor is not restricted to our example cryptographic protocol,or even to the ISO 7816-4 Internal Authenticate command. By either inspecting or knowing thetag's TID, the reader can use whichever 7816-4 command and associated parameters for whichthe tag is optimized. To access other commands, the reader can explicitly specify the desiredcommand and parameters. We have shown three different ways to add this functionality to theClass-1 Gen-2 standard while maintaining backward compatibility: by using the BlockWrite andRead commands, by defining custom commands, and by defining new commands. An implementorcould choose whichever of these methods is most suited to a particular deployment. In summary, our proposed techniques permit the creation of RFID tags that are compliantwith the Class-1 Gen-2 EPC standard, but offer the broad and widely supported cryptographicfunctionality of standards like ISO 7816-4. We hope that the simplicity and ready extensibilityof our techniques will pave the way for the penetration of EPC into a broader array of securityapplications. EPCglobal has expressed the intention to create a Class-2 standard that specifieshigher-functionality, higher-security, next generation EPC tags. Our approach could make this amuch easier job, and allow also a broad spectrum of new devices to benefit from the infrastructureof today's EPC standard.
References 1. William A. Arbaugh, Narendar Shankar, and Y.C. Justin Wan. Your 802.11 wireless network has no clothes. Referenced 2005 at http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/arbaugh01your.html. 2. G. Avoine, E. Dysli, and P. Oechslin. Reducing time complexity in RFID systems. In B. Preneel and S. Tavares, editors, Selected Areas in Cryptography – SAC 2005, Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer-Verlag, 2005. To appear. 3. S. Bono, M. Green, A. Stubblefield, A. Juels, A. Rubin, and M. Szydlo. Security analysis of a cryptographically- enabled RFID device. In P. McDaniel, editor, 14th USENIX Security Symposium, pages 1–16. USENIX, 2005. Dedicated Web site at www.rfidanalysis.org. 4. J. Collins. Ge uses RFID to secure cargo. RFID Journal, 12 January 2005. Referenced 2006 at http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1317/1/1/. 5. T. Dierks and C. Allen. The tls protocol version 1.0. Referenced 2005 at http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2246.txt. 6. ECRYPT (European network for excellence in cryptology), stream cipher project Web page, 2005. Referenced 2005 at http://www.ecrypt.eu.org/stream/. 7. M. Feldhofer, S. Dominikus, and J. Wolkerstorfer. Strong authentication for RFID systems using the AES algorithm. In M. Joye and J.-J. Quisquater, editors, Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems CHES 04, volume 3156 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 357–370. Springer-Verlag, 2004. 8. K. P. Fishkin, S. Roy, and B. Jiang. Some methods for privacy in RFID communication. In 1st European Workshop on Security in Ad-Hoc and Sensor Networks (ESAS 2004), 2004. 9. United States Food and Drug Administration. Combatting counterfeit drugs: A re- port of the Food and Drug Administration, 18 February 2004. Referenced 2005 at http://www.fda.gov/oc/initiatives/counterfeit/report02 04.html.10. P. Golle, M. Jakobsson, A. Juels, and P. Syverson. Universal re-encryption for mixnets. In T. Okamoto, editor, RSA Conference - Cryptographers' Track (CT-RSA), volume 2964 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 163–178, 2004.11. IEEE. Ieee 802.11i-2004 amendment to ieee std 802.11, 1999 edition (reaff 2003). ieee standard for in- formation technology–telecommunications and information exchange between system–local and metropolitan area networks specific requirements–part 11: Wireless lan medium access control (mac) and physical layer (phy) specifications–amendment 6: Medium access control (mac) security enhancements. Referenced 2005 at http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/download/802.11i-2004.pdf.12. EPCglobal Inc. Class 1 generation 2 UHF air interface protocol standard version 1.0.9. Ref- erenced 2005 at http://www.epcglobalinc.com/standards technology/EPCglobalClass-1Generation- 2UHFRFIDProtocolV109.pdf.13. EPCglobal Inc. Class 1 generation 2 UHF rfid conformance requirements version 1.0.2. Ref- erenced 2005 at http://www.epcglobalinc.com/standards technology/EPCglobalClass-1Generation- 2UHFRFIDConformanceV102.pdf.14. Texas Instruments and VeriSign, Inc. Securing the pharmaceutical supply chain with RFID and public-key infras- tructure technologies. Whitepaper. Referenced 2005 at http://www.ti.com/rfid/docs/customer/eped-form.shtml.15. ISO. Identification cards – contactless integrated circuit(s) cards – proximity cards – part 4: Transmission protocol. http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=31425.16. ISO. Identification cards – integrated circuit cards – part 4: Organization, security and commands for interchange. Referenced 2005 at http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36134.17. A. Juels. Minimalist cryptography for low-cost RFID tags. In C. Blundo and S. Cimato, editors, The Fourth International Conference on Security in Communication Networks – SCN 2004, volume 3352 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 149–164. Springer-Verlag, 2004.18. A. Juels. 'Yoking-proofs' for RFID tags. In R. Sandhu and R. Thomas, editors, Workshop on Pervasive Computing and Communications Security – PerSec 2004, pages 138–143. IEEE Computer Society, 2004.19. A. Juels. Strengthing EPC tags against cloning. In ACM Workshop on Wireless Security (WiSe). ACM Press, 2005. To appear.20. A. Juels. RFID security and privacy: A research survey. J-SAC, 2006. To appear. Online version referenced 2005 at http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2937.21. A. Juels, D. Molnar, and D. Wagner. Security and privacy issues in e-passports. In D. Gollman, G. Li, and G. Tsudik, editors, IEEE/CreateNet SecureComm. IEEE, 2005. To appear. Referenced 2005 at http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/ dmolnar/papers/papers.html.
22. A. Juels, R.L. Rivest, and M. Szydlo. The blocker tag: Selective blocking of RFID tags for consumer privacy. In V. Atluri, editor, 8th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, pages 103–111. ACM Press, 2003.23. A. Juels, P. Syverson, and D. Bailey. High-power proxies for enhancing RFID privacy and utility. In G. Danezis and D. Martin, editors, Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PET), 2005. To appear.24. A. Juels and S. Weis. Authenticating pervasive devices with human protocols. In Advances in Cryptology – CRYPTO 2005, pages 293–308. Springer-Verlag, 2005. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 3621.25. G. Karjoth and P. Moskowitz. Disabling RFID tags with visible confirmation: Clipped tags are silenced (short paper). In S. De Capitani di Vimercati and R. Dingledine, editors, Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPES), 2005. To appear.26. D. Molnar, A. Soppera, and D. Wagner. Privacy for RFID through trusted computing (short paper). In S. De Cap- itani di Vimercati and R. Dingledine, editors, Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPES), 2005. To appear.27. D. Molnar and D. Wagner. Privacy and security in library RFID : Issues, practices, and architectures. In B. Pfitzmann and P. McDaniel, editors, ACM Conference on Communications and Computer Security, pages 210 – 219. ACM Press, 2004.28. M. Ohkubo, K. Suzuki, and S. Kinoshita. Efficient hash-chain based RFID privacy protection scheme. In International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing – Ubicomp, Workshop Privacy: Current Status and Future Directions, 2004.29. R. Pappu, B. Recht, J. Taylor, and N. Gershenfeld. Physical one-way functions. Science, 297:2026–2030, 20 Sept. 2002.30. M. Rieback, B. Crispo, and A. Tanenbaum. RFID Guardian: A battery-powered mobile device for RFID privacy management. In Colin Boyd and Juan Manuel Gonz´lez Nieto, editors, Australasian Conference on Information a Security and Privacy – ACISP 2005, volume 3574 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 184–194. Springer- Verlag, 2005.31. T. Staake, F. Thiesse, and E. Fleisch. Extending the EPC network – the potential of RFID in anti-counterfeiting. In ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, pages 1607–1612. ACM Press, 2005.32. P. Tuyls and L. Batina. Rfid-tags for anti-counterfeiting. In CT-RSA 06. Springer-Verlag, 2006. To appear.33. I. Vajda and L. Butty´n. Lightweight authentication protocols for low-cost RFID tags. In Second Workshop on a Security in Ubiquitous Computing – Ubicomp 2003, 2003.A Security ServicesA.1 Device authenticationEPC tags and other low-cost RFID devices are often referred to as "license plates:" They carryand broadcast fixed identifiers. In consequence, such devices are easy to clone. An attacker canread an identifier and write it to a new, programmable RFID tag or simulate it in a different typeof RF device. Mitigating the risk of tag cloning is an essential security goal in an RFID system.Cryptographic authentication can help achieve this goal. Tags that possess secret keys and executewell-designed cryptographic protocols to authenticate themselves to readers can resist cloning inthe face of over-the-air attack. Conversely, it may also be desirable for tags to be able to authenticate readers. Such authenti-cation can help restrict the availability of sensitive tag data to unauthorized readers. Of course, cryptographic protocols are effective only in logical-layer defense. Keys are alsosubject to physical compromise. An attacker that physically probes an RFID tag and extracts itssecret keys can readily clone it. While the cryptographic services that we propose here cannotdirectly forestall such attacks, they can support tamper-resistance mechanisms, like PUFs andPOWFs [32, 29], that rely on a blend of logical and physical countermeasures.
A.2 Device-binding authenticationRFID tags serve to identify the objects or people that bear them. Thus, even if a tag is valid,i.e., has not been cloned, it may still furnish erroneous information if inappropriately placed. It isimportant, therefore, to establish the correctness of the physical context for an RFID tag. Towardthis end, a range of physical mechanisms has been proposed. For example, shipping containers havebeen designed that contain internal RFID devices whose state changes in response to the openingof the container [4]. PUFs [32] and POWFs [29] are physical objects – silicon and glass-and-plasticrespectively – whose state changes in response to physical stresses, and can help in the detection ofRFID-tag removal. (Of course, good adhesives can also help.) Various chemical fingerprinting andwatermarking techniques already help combat counterfeiting, and can work in harmony with RFIDdevices.A.3 Data-origin authenticationAn RFID tag can, of course, serve not just as an identifier, but also as a carrier of ancillarydata, e.g., information about goods in a pallet to which it is attached. For this reason, data-originauthentication also plays a role in RFID security. Indeed, data-origin authentication can supportthe physical integrity of the tag itself, as when an RFID tag stores information about the state ofphysical tamper-detection objects like PUFs or POWFs or chemical markers. As a cryptographic service, data-origin authentication binds the production of a block of datato a particular entity by means a digital signature (or message-authentication code (MAC)). Inaddition, this service attests that the data have not been modified since their original encoding. AnRFID tag can carry data digitally signed by an external entity. In this case, the tag serves merely asa data carrier, and need not itself perform the cryptographic operation of signing. A high-poweredRFID tag can alternatively compute a digital signature on data it produces dynamically.A.4 Example: Pharmaceutical taggingTo illustrate the roles that various types of authentication play in RFID security, let us consider theuse of RFID in the pharmaceutical supply chain. The United States Food and Drug Administrationhas advocated such use of RFID as an anti-counterfeiting tool [9]. Its deployment over the nextcouple of years seems all but certain, and EPC tags, given their cheapness and ubiquity, are likelyto be the RFID device of choice. Texas Instruments (TI) and VeriSign [14] have proposed an architecture for pharmaceuticalapplications in which tags serve as carriers of digitally signed "event" data, timestamped recordswhose contents are unspecified (but "do not contain any product or location information"). In otherwords, the system provides data-origin authentication. In principle, the system provides assurancethat the information a reader obtains from a tag has been created by authorized readers within thesystem and not fabricated by an attacker. The system (as specified in [14]) does not provide full device authentication. In particular, itoffers only weak assurance against the cloning of a tag. (Tags contain "locked" but static identifiers.)Consider, for example, a system in which pallets of medications of type A or type B are shippedfrom either site X or site Y to site Z. A pallet might bear a tag containing a statement S digitallysigned by site Y that, "This is pallet #12345, carrying a medication of type A shipped from site Yto site Z." If the tag has been displaced or cloned, however, a reader cannot be assured that the tag
in question is attached to the correct pallet. The pallet might in fact contain medication of type Bshipped from site X, and the tag might have been cloned from a different pallet! Device authentication, and authentication of RFID tags, can help mitigate this problem. If tagsin the system do not merely bear digitally signed data, but perform cryptographic authentication,then a reader can achieve assurance that the tag with which it is communicating not been cloned.For example, the RFID tag on pallet #12345 might use a challenge-response protocol to prove thecorrectness of its digital identifier, say, "ID67890123". Such authentication is still not sufficient, however, to ensure the correctness of data received bythe reader. How, for instance, does the reader know that the statement S carried by tag ID67890123was written to the tag by an authorized reader, and not simply copied from some other tag? (TheTI/VeriSign architecture specifies that S carry the tag ID, in order to establish such a binding.) Aproblem still remains, however. How can a reader achieve assurance that a tag has not simply beenpeeled off one pallet and attached to another one? To address this problem, device-binding authentication is required. Suppose that pallet #12345bears the number "12345" in a form that is difficult to duplicate or alter, such as a hologram.Then the digital signature S, which contains both the pallet number and transaction data, helpsensure a correct association between the transaction data and the pallet with which the data areassociated. (The TI/Verisign paper refers to a forthcoming paper that will describe device-bindingauthentication.) At first glance, device-binding authentication and data-origin authentication alone might seemto obviate the need for device authentication. This is not necessarily the case. For example, device-binding authentication as we have described it might require optical scanning of a pallet. If apallet must be optically scanned, then the benefits of RFID, namely readability without line-of-sight contact, are eliminated. An RFID tag that performs cryptographic authentication offersa heightened degree of system integrity – if not full integrity – without burdensome scanningprocedures. Similarly, it may be that the information contained in S is sensitive, and should only beaccessible to authorized readers. To achieve strong access control on S, a tag would need to performcryptographic authentication of interrogating readers. Finally, the problem of key managementmust be taken into account. If tags do not authenticate themselves, then the system relies for dataintegrity on reader keys alone. This situation necessitates the presence of multiple signing keys (withthe associated management and storage overhead), or a single, monolithic signing key representinga single point of compromise. The interplay among cryptographic (and other) authentication services is complex. We do notpurport to offer a comprehensive solution here to the problem of counterfeiting. Our example heresimply illustrates the need for a flexible range of cryptographic services for pharmaceutical supplychains, as for the many other emerging applications of EPC tags.B Features of ISO 7816-4B.1 File-Oriented CommandsISO 7816 offers a rich set of commands to handle various filesystems beyond the bitmapped flat-file system offered in the Class-1 Gen-2 standard. In particular, a tag can support multiple filesarranged in linear or cyclic structure as a mechanism to support multiple applications in the supplychain. For instance, the various entities handling an article in a supply chain could have their owndata file to use as they see fit. This approach can enable granular access control. In principle, each
file could be encrypted using a key known only to one or a small subset of supply chain participants.Or an item's entire pedigree could be stored on the tag in a series of files each digitally signed bythe supply chain participant responsible for that file.B.2 Multiple ApplicationsThis ability to support multiple applications extends not only to the filesystem but also to thecommunicating entity. Imagine a tag affixed to military materiel offering multilevel security. In thisscenario, one may want a restricted tag application which makes some logistics information andauthentication capability available while a tag is in transit. By necessity, this feature may haveto use unclassified algorithms and symmetric keys which are widely shared among supply chainparticipants. The tag's full functionality including its pedigree could be available to a full-featuredtag application only available to authenticated readers using classified algorithms and keys closelyheld in hardware security modules.B.3 Multiple Keys and CiphersuitesShould a reader authenticate a tag? Should a tag authenticate a reader? Should they both au-thenticate each other? Which algorithm(s) should they use? It all depends on the application withsome uses more concerned about anti-counterfeiting and others confidentiality. In ISO 7816, eachapplication includes "one or more cryptographic mechanism identifier templates" to unambiguouslyspecify the algorithm a reader should use for that application. This level of algorithm agility allowsdifferent entities to choose their own keys and security methods as suggested above in the multilevelsecurity tag.B.4 Authenticated Access ControlBeyond authentication, ISO 7816 includes features to restrict access to particular commands suchas "Read Binary," "Delete File," and "Create File" For instance, reader authentication can berequired before a command. In addition, an access control rule can specify that these commandsand their responses must be encrypted and/or authenticated.B.5 Security-Descriptive Data ExchangeHow does a reader know it is receiving encrypted information? How does the reader know whichalgorithm, mode, and key were used? ISO 7816 includes tags to describe cryptograms.B.6 Command FragmentationIf the length of an ISO 7816-4 APDU stretches beyond the limits of the underlying data transport,it includes a facility to allow the APDU to be sent in pieces and reconstructed unambiguously.B.7 Broad Existing InfrastructurePerhaps most important, ISO 7816 is already implemented in millions of smart cards and readersincluding GSM phones. This wide availability of devices implies existing software tools which canbe applied to this area.C Frame Formats
Command MemBank WordPtr WordCount Data Handle CRC-16 Number of bits 8 2 EBV 8 Variable 16 16 Description 11000111 11 0000000 Number of APDU handle words to write Table 9. Using BlockWrite command to carry an APDU Command MemBank WordPtr WordCount Handle CRC-16 Number of bits 8 2 EBV 8 16 16 Description 11000010 11 0000000 Number of handle words to read Table 10. Using Read command to carry an APDU EPC Layer Cmd Bank Ptr Count Data Handle CRCSecurity Layer Header DataLen Data RespLenNumber of bits 8 2 EBV 8 3 8 64 8 16 16 Description 11000111 11 0000000 00000110 000 00001000 CR 00001000 handle Table 11. Using BlockWrite command with explicit challenge value EPC Layer Cmd Bank Ptr Count Data Handle CRCSecurity Layer Header DataLen Data RespLenNumber of bits 8 2 EBV 8 3 0 0 8 16 16 Description 11000111 11 0000000 00000110 000 00000100 handle Table 12. Using BlockWrite command with implicit challenge value Command Header Compressed 7816 APDU Handle CRC-16 Number of bits 8 3 Variable 16 16 Description 11001001 CR handle Table 13. New EPC-layer Command for ISO 7816 Command APDU Header Handle CRC-16 Number of bits 1 16 16 Description 0 handle Table 14. EPC-layer Tag Reply to ISO 7816 Command APDU Command Handle CRC-16 Number of bits 8 16 16 Description 11001010 handle Table 15. New EPC-layer Command for ISO 7816 Response APDU
Header Response Data Status Bytes Handle CRC-16Number of bits 1 Variable 16 16 16 Description 0 RT Table 16. EPC-layer Tag Reply for ISO 7816 Response APDU


text:
- CUB helps residents find best deal
- What the Scott Walker fundraising controversy means for 2016
- Corn prices fade as supplies stay in surplus
- Cubs make history in an unfortunate way
- Pension battle headed for SCOTUS?
- Closed for Progress: downtown's steady revival
- TRRT Online Edition | July 29-August 4
- State employees get another win in pay dispute
- Judge tosses Chicago pension deal
- AFSCME, Rauner administration still at odds
Literary Hook: The winter that did not want to leave
By Christine Swanberg
Author and Poet
Here is a reflective poem that grew out of our long winter.
Sonnet for a Long Winter
The long winter procrastinates this year
like a difficult decision. To stay
or leave? The voice is not so crystal clear.
Is it a groove or rut we must obey
when all our senses stick like ice dams clogged
with winter inertia within our veins?
O, if only our minds could be de-fogged.
O, if only we could release the chains
that bind us to a life lived under par.
See how the crocus finally fights through soil
hard and cold? Such icy courage goes far
and yet comes so naturally without toil.
Perhaps the answer lies in staying still,
flowing with the force, let come what will.
Christine Swanberg is a local author and poet. She received the Lawrence E. Gloyd Community Impact Award at the 2012 Rockford Area Arts Council State of the Arts Awards.
From the June 5-11, 2013, issue

subset: commoncrawl


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Retired and loving it. If I'd have known about retirement befor I started my 40 year career with the government of Manitoba I'd have retired first. :)
By: plapman , 2:28 PM GMT on July 13, 2010
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Tonight will eremain cloudy with a 60% chance of showers or thunderstorms this evening with risk of a severe thunderstorm. Clearing before morning. The overnight low will be 14C(57F).
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Meir Panim Gives the Gift of Camp to Hundreds of Impoverished Children.
The security cabinet authorised Thursday the emergency call-up of 10,000 IDF reservists. Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon said Israel would continue to pursue Hamas leaders anywhere and at any time, and added that the current campaign would "take time."
Ya'alon called on the Israeli public to display patience and strength while the army deals with the current crisis.
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Netanyahu called Pollard's wife over news of his impending release from prison.
A tent city is raised in solidarity with Beit El residents, where two half-finished apartment buildings are threatened with demolition.
"Sure, a lot of people like Bernie Sanders, but can he win?"
Former Israeli agent Jonathan Pollard will be freed in November after spending 30 years in a U.S. prison.
Arab children are taught to be "martyrs" at the Al Aqsa Mosque summer camp in Jerusalem.
Temple Mount activist Yehuda Glick praises Israel's government but says "more" needs to be done about disparity at the site.
The scenes from last night and today in Beit El are eerily reminiscent of the scenes from Gush Katif 10 years ago, the above photo in particular.
Military officials called this a most serious incident, but stressed that the soldiers fled the outpost while the battalion and their fellow fighters were not on operational duty.
Gaddafi wasn't in the court, as he is currently being held captive by one of the former rebel groups in Zintan.
Britain issues alert for its citizens against travel to Turkey due to "high" threat of terror attacks by ISIS.
The marijuana valued at $50 million, and seized in an operation over the past few months.
Nuttall told an undercover policeman that his wife believed she should send Jewish children to paradise, since "grown-up Jews" go to "eternal hell."
Local Israel Police have arrested seven Jerusalem Arabs in connection with recent attacks on Jews.
Half of all Israeli Arab MKs ascended the Temple Mount to protest "police brutality," expelling Jews along the way.
The Temple Mount movement strongly condemns Tuesday's visit by Israeli Arab MKs to the ancient site.
The police acted out of "zero tolerance." Arabs screaming "slaughter Jews" were not arrested.
Gaddafi wasn't in the court, as he is currently being held captive by one of the former rebel groups in Zintan.
"Why does the law work only in favor of the Arabs?"
A 5.1 magnitude earthquake struck south central Alaska Monday, 93 miles northwest of Anchorage at a depth of 77 miles. Alaskans felt the tremors, but no damage was reported. The epicenter of the tremor was on Yunaska Island, the largest island in the chain of volcanic Aleutian Islands that stretch across the northern Pacific from […]
…in the process of violently resisting arrest, the soldier knocked the terrorist unconscious.
Two Israeli policemen that were injured by Islamic terrorists on the Temple Mount on Sunday.
This is what happens to a Jew if he dares pray "Shema Yisrael", one of the Jewish People's oldest and most central prayers, if he is on the Temple Mount…
The following is a live feed / compilation of video feeds from Jewish visitors on the Temple Mount today, on Tisha b'Av. In the video you can see how the Jews get "greeted" by the Arabs on the Temple Mount, and the treatment they also get by the police, who are not happy that Jews […]
Arabs disrupted Jewish prayers in Hebron on the night of Tisha B'Av
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If you haven't noticed, our health care system in the U.S. is imploding. I mean - things are bad. I'm a doctor, and yet, because I was diagnosed with high blood pressure in my twenties, and because my…33 comments
One of the trickiest minefields in the life of a person with chronic illness involves employment. If your symptoms aren't obvious and don't affect your ability to do your job, should you inform you…25 comments
My shih-tzu developed kidney stones and recently had to have surgery to remove them. Ouch. For her a…
Thanks for sharing.
Good to be aware of and good advice to eat a wide variety of food. But in a pinch, choose the food …
Noted... but I think it depends on the couple not the age range!


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A project of People For the American Way dedicated to monitoring and exposing the activities of the right-wing movement. Learn More >
FRC Finds Majority Side With Hobby Lobby If You Lie To Them
In his email to members last night, Family Research Council President Tony Perkins continued to crow about the Supreme Court's Hobby Lobby decision, claiming that "an FRC-commissioned poll [found] that 53% of voters (including 50% of women!) disapproved of the idea that employers' should have to pay for workers' sexual decisions."
"So if there is a war, it's on the facts," he concluded.
As it turns out, the FRC poll that Perkins cites, which was taken in December of last year, got its results by simply lying to respondents about the content of the contraception insurance mandate.
The pollsters asked respondents whether they supported or opposed the "mandate which requires that all private healthcare plans, including both employer based health plans and individual market health plans, cover preventative care services for women, which includes all FDA approved contraceptives, including drugs that can destroy a human embryo, and sterilization services without a direct cost to the patient."
In reality, none of the contraceptives covered under the HHS mandate "destroy a human embryo" — even if Hobby Lobby's "sincerely held religious beliefs" hold otherwise.
As the Public Religion Research Institute found, when you poll people about the contraception coverage mandate without lying to them, a comfortable majority support it.
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Join The Conversation
Jan 21 Posted 1 year ago
Thanks for the insights into how nonprofits are doing with getting their message across with content marketing. With the importance of social media today at expanding the reach of smaller nonprofits, it's sad to see that most groups aren't spending much time and effort on it, nor are they tracking their results.
Hopefully, this will be an eyeopener for some groups about measuring what social media channels are bringing results, plus where and how they can improve.
Kimberly Reynolds
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Badal announced ex-gratia grant of Rs. 2 lakh for the next of kin of the deceased and free treatment for the injured in the mishap and asked the Jalandhar deputy commissioner to provide the best possible treatment to the injured. He also asked the divisional commissioner, Jalandhar, to conduct an inquiry into the incident to ascertain the possible causes of the mishap and suggest remedial measures to prevent such accidents in future.
The CM directed principal secretary SK Sandhu to visit the site and to review and coordinate rescue operations. Sandhu, who reached the site on Monday morning, said all efforts were being made to rescue trapped workers.
Badal will visit the site of the mishap on Tuesday and personally monitor ongoing rescue operations, the spokesperson said. Badal has urged the Centre to send more teams of the National Disaster Response Force to carry out rescue operations.


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Read the comments (or add your own)
I wish I could!
Aawww, crap! Is it raining where you are?
Yep!! I wish it would stop!
Well, I'm not sure you live far enough north that you get snow in the winter months but if you do just look at it this way…it's not snow..and you don't have to shovel rain!
Actually, we get a couple feet of snow! And I definitely prefer rain over snow!
still cold up there in Moose Face, Elaine?
Moose Face?!! Funny…(I know it's Moose Jaw) Not to feel too alone, E Gill; we have a nearby town called Frog Jump and another called Finger! Tennessee is full of "quaintness"!!! Oh, just forgot all about BullFrog Corner!!!
Moose Face…that's funny! lol No, it's actually quite nice here in Moose Jaw; still kind of brown-looking because we haven't gotten much rain to wash things off.
I'm still laughing out loud about Moose Face…Shannon, you're from Tennessee! That's cool! In our weird province of Saskatchewan, we have places called Climax, Zealandia, Old Wives Lake, Antler and Forget. I grew up in a little village called Crestwynd and went to the one-room school house called…you'll never guess…
Wyndcrest School! How bizarre!!
good, good!
– glad you took no offense to my Moose Face comment. please never take offense – I get into goofy little moods.
Trees were hardly popping around here at all (Philly) – till 3 warm days finally this past weekend.l Now everything's finally popping open! I'm sure yours aren't too far behind.
Hey Smoky Chick, no offense taken at all; that was hilarious!! We are kinda used to funny comments but nothing ever as funny as that!
All we need is one really good, heavy rain and things will turn green; I just don't care for going through the mucky, muddy stages again; not with our two big dogs that track everything through the house!
I'm going to have to add to my chick list where everyone lives; I find all of that very interesting!
Crestwynd sounds great – like something out of a brooding mystery novel!!! I love little villages and towns with unusual names – there's always a great story behind those names – Except for Finger; just think that one's goofy (they never specify WHICH finger???)…
Just got back, Shannon, and read your last comment…funny! Maybe it's better off if we don't know which finger! lol
belly chick,
you have my sympathies, despite being up in Canada. the lovely pacific northwest gets lots of rain, and many folks have that "seasonal affective disorder" during winter due to lack of enough sunshine! I always tell friends "well, it's NOT surprising that Starbucks' and those espresso drinks started up here, not in Hawaii where I'm from! Crestwynd eh? what a picturesqe name, kinda sounds like a gothic romance novel …
by the way, love the mix of "cool" and "warm" beads you have here, including the rainbow blue quartz and dreamy aquamarine, makes me long for warm oceans!
I long for warm anything right now! Rainy and dreary all day. I do not like it when the kids have indoor recess. They need to run around.
Beautiful pick, Elaine – Make me think there are blue skies out there somewhere.
Thanks so much, Smart Chick and Gem Chick! I have to chuckle a little bit, Smart Chick, when you say that Crestwynd sounds like something out a novel because all I can remember is the old barnyard with big turkeys that chased me, dusty old tractors around and a big manure pile out back! Hehehe!
We could use rain!!!! Could you send over yours that you don't want???!
Pretty pick btw!
I'm with Kity Chicky Cat on this one. Out here in the hot, dry part of Tx, we just keep missing out on the rain. Feels kind of wistful when we see it all going right past us, to where other folks already have too much rain! Maybe I should get out all my beads in these colors just to cheer me up. Great choices, esp. w/ the blue lace agate.
belly chick,
sure appreciate your descriptions of what Crestwynd was like, with the turkeys that chased you,the big barn w/ tractor… not very "romantic" just life in a farm community!
okay kitty chicky cat and happy in Texas,
those of us with too much rain will be glad to send some your way!!! I do try to tell myself that the amount of rain we get up here in the northwest is why this area is so green and the yards are so beautiful in our neighborhoods!!!
Congrats on being chosen! What a lovely pick — the colors are so cool and soothing, just like the rain. Another fave!
Thanks Lynn.
Good morning, Elaine, Belly Chich – and Congrats on your lovely Pick of the Day.
Is this your first? ahhhhh I remember my first – you just silently smile every time you up there and see it, don'tcha? Well, if not – why not? Enjoy!
This is a great pick and I have added about $75 in beads to my cart! LOL!
I enjoyed reading the convo this morning. Very funny. Now can someone send rain to Antioch, CA? We are dry as a bone!-Angie
I have none to send right now, Dog Chick, but gimme a couple days, I'll see what I can do. Where in CA is Antioch? ballpark.
hey! you've got your meeting with the new med director this am, Angie – you all ready and feelin' fiesty?
Happy in Texas, where do you live? I may have asked before. We're expecting about 5-6 inches today. I'd like to send you some!
Debra, we are out here in the Permian Basin. It is where an ancient sea bed left behind lots of caliche rock, neat fossils, and oil and gas deposits.
I heard a story this weekend from a relative who said that as a young and naive 17 yr. old bride, many years ago, her husband brought her out here where he had a job opportunity. They arrived at night, and she heard the trains coming in. She asked him what the noise was, and he told her it was the sound of the boats coming in. He promised to take her to see the docks the next day.
She said it was quite a shock when she saw the trains and realized where they would really be living. It is hot and dry here, and pretty flat, and they had left behind the rolling green hills of Southeastern Oklahoma.
Like me, she also found that the people here make up for a lot. They are friendly, giving and caring.
Congratulations Elaine! I knew this was a great pick, and LB agreed.
Thanks ladies! Happy in TX, I didn't know that LB picks the featured ones, I just thought it was a random thing!
Good morning, Smoky Rose Chick, one other of my picks had been chosen for pick of the day and, yes, I did smile, because I hadn't been here that long. It was the 'Indian Corn' pick. It's very flattering to be chosen!
that's right, that's right! so sorry – now I remember. hey, not half bad for a newcomer, Miss Elaine! Good for you! – enjoy 'your' day!
Actually, I don't know how they choose the picks, but I am glad they have this one for us on sale beads. Really nice!
Nice job & a very pretty pick! Congrats on the pick of the day!
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Hills tribute to retired Cochrane
Wednesday 01 November 2000
The trainer Barry Hills yesterday led the tributes to Ray Cochrane, who has announced his retirement from race-riding. Cochrane has been forced to quit the saddle as a result of a series of injuries which have left him with a weakened back. Doctors have warned him another fall could leave him disabled. Hills said: "He was an excellent jockey. He started with me and was with me for five years."
The trainer Barry Hills yesterday led the tributes to Ray Cochrane, who has announced his retirement from race-riding. Cochrane has been forced to quit the saddle as a result of a series of injuries which have left him with a weakened back. Doctors have warned him another fall could leave him disabled. Hills said: "He was an excellent jockey. He started with me and was with me for five years."
Cochrane, 43, suffered a neck injury in a light aircraft crash in Newmarket in June - he was nominated for a bravery award for his actions in saving fellow passenger Frankie Dettori and attempting to rescue pilot Patrick Mackey, who died.
Cochrane enjoyed many highlights in a career dating back to his first success on Roman Way at Windsor in August, 1974. His first major Flat victories came in the 1984 July Cup and Sussex Stakes on Chief Singer. His first Classic winner came in the 1,000 Guineas on Midway Lady two years later. He followed up in the Oaks on the same filly. Offered a retainer by Luca Cumani in 1987, Cochrane won the Derby on Kahyasi for the Italian in 1988. He joined Guy Harwood as stable jockey in 1990 and won the July Cup on Polish Patriot for the Pulborough trainer. His most recent big-race wins include the 1998 Caulfield Cup in Australia on Taufan's Melody and last season's French 1,000 Guineas on Valentine Waltz.
Cochrane was arrested in January, 1999 in connection with an investigation into doping and race-fixing but was cleared of any involvement in the case two months later.
In the aftermath of Monday's storms several fixtures remain in doubt. Inspections are planned for tomorrow's meetings at Towcester (7.30am today) and Windsor (9.00am today) as well as for Hexham (8.00am tomorrow) on Friday and Sandown (noon tomorrow) on Saturday. Today's meeting at Newton Abbot was called off yesterday morning.
Bellator won the Haldon Gold Cup Chase under Norman Williamson at Exeter yesterday. Venetia Williams' charge was backed from 3-1 to 7-4 and responded in the gamest fashion to Williamson's urgings to jump ahead of long-time leader Upgrade three out and score by a length and a half. Williams said: "He's in the Thomas Pink Gold Cup at Cheltenham a week on Saturday but that's over two miles and five furlongs and it could come a bit quickly. The other option we have is the First National Bank Chase at Ascot a week later."
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text:
A Puyallup-based shipping line will move its major Puget Sound port of call back to the Port of Tacoma in late July after a 31-year absence.
Westwood Shipping Lines will shift its maritime operations from the Port of Seattle's Terminal 5, where it has called since 1983 when it left Tacoma.
The news came in an unusual joint announcement from the ports of Tacoma and Seattle. The two in recent decades have been fierce rivals in winning business from shipping lines.
The joint announcement comes after a new effort to work cooperatively to win more new business for Puget Sound in the face of strong competition from Canada, Mexico and East Coast ports.
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Westwood's return to Tacoma was necessary because of the Port of Seattle's decision to shut down its Terminal 5 for an update. That left Westwood and other shipping lines looking for new Puget Sound terminals to handle cargo. Most of the major lines moved to other Port of Seattle terminals.
Westwood, considered a niche player in the trans-Pacific transportation business because of its method of operation and its relatively small fleet of modestly sized ships, needed a large area of covered storage to handle break-bulk cargo — goods that must be loaded individually. The Port of Tacoma's Husky Terminal fit the bill.
"We are pleased Westwood Shipping, when faced with the need to find a new terminal, has opted to remain in the Puget Sound gateway," said Port of Tacoma Commission President Clare Petrich. "The ongoing conversations between commissioners at the ports of Tacoma and Seattle, under a Federal Maritime Administration Discussion Agreement, are focused on this exact situation — ensuring valued shipping lines remain in Puget Sound and that we work together to attract new services."
Port of Seattle Commission Co-President Stephanie Bowman said, "Competition between private terminal operators to offer the best service to shipping lines is the natural course of business in this industry. The opportunity the two ports are exploring under the FMC (Federal Maritime Commission) Discussion Agreement is how to best ensure these common moves of shipping lines between ports in the same region occur within a larger unified strategy to increase our overall container market share in the Puget Sound gateway, to leverage infrastructure investments and to produce statewide economic benefits. I am optimistic we will reach this shared vision."
Westwood Shipping Lines was owned by Federal Way-based Weyerhaeuser until it was sold in 2011 to a group of Japanese terminal operators.
Westwood ships are unusual in that they carry multiple cargoes on the same ship, oversized containerized goods, break-bulk machinery and parts, and lumber and forest products. Most major lines carry hundreds of shipping containers but not other cargoes on the same vessel.
The first Westwood ship will call at Tacoma's Husky terminal on the west side of the Blair Waterway on July 30. Westwood operates about seven sailings monthly between the Pacific Northwest and Japan, South Korea and China.
Port of Tacoma officials are not yet estimating how many jobs the new line will bring.
The shipping line also calls at Vancouver, B.C. and on ports like Longview on the Columbia River, where it handles forest products. Westwood ships also call from time to time in Everett, bringing major aircraft assemblies from Asia to Boeing's assembly plant.
The Port of Seattle, hit with the loss of major shipping line Grand Alliance to Tacoma three years ago, is remodeling Terminal 5 to handle the ever-larger container ships entering service. It could shut down such a major terminal because its other terminals were operating below capacity and could absorb the traffic handled at Terminal 5.


text:
Two dead, 5 injured after Texas gunman shoots at vehicles, apparently at random
The Texas Department of Public Safety said the gunman was among the dead. His identity was not released, but authorities said he was a 23-year-old.
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EDEN, TEXAS—Two people are dead and five injured after a gunman in Texas shot at several vehicles, apparently at random, authorities said Monday.
The Texas Department of Public Safety said the gunman was among the dead. His identity was not released, but authorities said he was a 23-year-old.
DPS said the shootings began early Sunday when the gunman shot a motorist. Over the next 90 minutes, he was suspected of shooting two people who were sitting in a car at a convenience store and then another motorist. Then a 41-year-old woman, Alicia Torres, was found dead in her car.
The suspect fired on the vehicle of Concho County Sheriff Richard Doane when the sheriff came upon him, according to DPS. Doane was wounded and hospitalized.
A state trooper and game warden then found and exchanged gunfire with the suspect, who was killed.
An assault rifle, handgun and hundreds of rounds of ammunition were recovered, DPS said.
Concho County authorities deferred comment Monday to the DPS office in Austin. Phone messages left there were not immediately returned.
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