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1. University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrapA Thesis Submitted for the Degree of EdD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/3743This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright.Please scroll down to view the document itself.Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you tocite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page.
To my beloved parents whose patience and dedicationinspired me throughout this journey
An Investigation into the Benefits of Collaborative Writingfor the Development of EFL Children's Communication Skills: A Reflective Report of a Teacher Researcher By Young Ok JONG A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick June, 2009
DECLARATIONI hereby declare that this thesis is my own original work, conducted under thesupervision of Dr Annamaria Pinter and Dr Keith Richards. It is submitted for thedegree of Doctor of Education in Applied Linguistics and English LanguageTeaching at the Centre for Applied Linguistics at the University of Warwick. Ifurther declare that no part of the thesis has been submitted in this form for anacademic degree at any other institution of higher education.Signed:Date: i
PUBLICATIONSPAPERS▪ Jong, Y. O with Jung, C. K. (2008) 'New horizons in linguistics: E-research for multidisciplinary collaboration in the virtual environment'. EUROCALL Review, 13, March 2009. ISSN: 1695-2618.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2007) 'A comparison of primary and secondary teachers' perspectives on the teaching on English writing'. Proceeding of the 2006 KATE International Conference, Gyeongin National University of Education, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. 6th-7th July 2007. 143-149.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2007) 'Chat, share and be inspired in the sea of ELT'. KATE Forum, 31/2, 21-23.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2006) 'EFL writing in South Korea: Comparing teachers' and students' perspectives'. Proceeding of the 2006 KOTESOL International Conference, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea. 28th–29th October 2006. 170-176.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2006) 'IATEFL 2006: Special conference report'. KATE Forum, 30/2, 13-14CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS▪ Jong, Y. O. (2009) 'Learning through collaborative writing: A case of Korean EFL young learners'. 2009 BAAL International Conference, Newcastle, United Kingdom. 3rd-5th September 2009.▪ Jong, Y.O. (2009) 'The pedagogical value of collaborative writing'. 2009 Lancaster University Postgraduate Conference, University of Lancaster, United Kingdom. 2nd July 2009.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2009) 'Writing together, learning together'. 2009 Warwick Postgraduate Conference, University of Warwick, United Kingdom. 17th June 2009. ii
▪ Jong, Y. O. (2008) 'Collaborative writing for peer learning: A case of Korean EFL young learners'. 2008 Warwick Postgraduate Conference, University of Warwick, United Kingdom. 18th June 2008.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2008) 'Improving EFL young learners' writing skills through task- based approaches'. 2008 IATEFL Annual Conference and Exhibition, Exeter, United Kingdom. 7th-11th April 2008.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2007) 'A comparison of primary and secondary teachers' perspectives on the teaching of English writing'. 2007 KATE International Conference, Gyeongin National University of Education, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. 6th-7th July 2007.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2007) 'Does it matter what we teach English writing to primary students in South Korea?' 2007 Warwick Postgraduate Conference, University of Warwick, United Kingdom. 13th June 2007.▪ Jong, Y.O. (2007) 'Korean primary students' and teachers' different perceptions of English writing'. 2007 IATEFL Annual Conference and Exhibition, Aberdeen, United Kingdom. 18th-22nd April 2007.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2006) 'EFL writing in South Korea: Comparing teachers' and students' perspectives'. 2006 KOTESOL International Conference, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, South Korea. 28th–29th October 2006.▪ Jong, Y. O. (2006) 'Effective approaches to teaching English writing in South Korea'. 2006 KATE International Conference, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea. 23rd-24th June 2006. iii
ACKNOWLEDGMETNSThere are many people to whom I wish to express my sincere appreciation for thepart they played in the successful completion of this study.First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr Annamaria Pinter forher dedicated supervision and generous support. Her positive attitudes andconstructive critical comments gave me a sense of purpose and direction which gotme through the hard times during my EdD study. My deepest thanks have to go toDr Keith Richards for his confidence in my ability to complete the thesis, hisintelligent guidance and most importantly his continuous encouragement throughoutthe years.I would also like to express my gratitude to Shelagh Rixon, who offered me anopportunity to volunteer at Grange Farm Primary School in the United Kingdom.The weekly school visit was a great time to talk about a variety of topics. Specialthanks have to go to Jasminder Sahota and Margaret Parker, who allowed me towork as an assistant teacher in a reception class at the primary school for over threeyears. The volunteer opportunity with these very young children was one of mymost enjoyable and rewarding experiences over the years.I would like to thank all my fellow EdD and PhD research students, who haveshared their frustrations, achievements and friendship with me over the years. Iwould also like to thank June McCready for her interest in and help with thedevelopment of my English both spoken and written since my MA study.I would like to extend a warm thank-you to all participants in my research for theirtime, energy and the effort they put into making this research possible. I am deeplyindebted to many teachers who helped me obtain additional data. Special thankshave to go to Sang-Young Jee and Mi-Jin Jeong for their permission and supportwith regard to data collection. This thesis is indebted to them. iv
Last but not least, love and respect for their enduring support and patience duringthe entirety of my academic years in the UK have to go to my parents, Kyoung-HoJeong and Soo-Ja Hwang. It was only possible to complete this thesis because I hadalready learned the value of hard work and honesty from the examples of theirlives. And my great thanks have to go to Chae-Kwan Jung and Hey-Jean Lee. Thisthesis would not have been possible without their patience and support over theyears. v
ABSTRACTThe purpose of the present study is to investigate effective ways of designing task-based collaborative writing lessons in the EFL classroom in South Korea. In thisresearch, a group of 11/12 year-old children were involved in repeating threedifferent writing tasks three times. In order to examine the effects of task type andtask repetition on task performance and outcomes, written texts were measured interms of fluency, accuracy, and lexical complexity with seven sub-measures andpair dialogues were quantified by the focus on a particular aspect of the languageand then categorised into form-focus, lexical-focus, and mechanical-focuslanguage-related episodes. Follow-up interviews were undertaken with the childrento examine their perspectives on collaborative writing from their first experience ofpaired writing. On the basis of self-reflection on my prior learning and teachingexperience in the EFL context, a classroom action research project was designedand conducted to promote my personal and professional growth. Classroomobservation was undertaken to monitor the children's performance and engagementwhen working together. The results of quantitative and qualitative data analysisshowed strong effects of task type and task repetition on the products and processesof Korean children's writing and the pedagogical benefits of collaborative writing.In addition, this teacher research gave me a valuable opportunity to explore ways ofbecoming a reflective teacher. The research findings may help classroom teacherswho want to develop task-based collaborative writing lessons in the classroom andteacher researchers who want to initiate classroom action research to improve theirteaching practice. vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSWithin this thesis a term will be spelled out upon its first appearance; thereafter, theacronym will be used. C Clauses CLT Communicative Language Teaching CSAT College Scholastic Ability Test EFC Error-free Clauses EFC/C Error-free Clauses to Total Clauses EFL English as a Foreign Language ELT English Language Teaching ESL English as a Second Language F-LRE Form-focus Language-related Episode LV Lexical Variety LD Lexical Density L1 English as a First Language L2 English as a Foreign or Second language LRE Language-related Episode L-LRE Lexical-focus Language-related Episodes M-LRE Mechanical-focus Language-related Episodes MOE Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology SLA Second Language Acquisition TBLT Task-based Language Teaching W Words W/C Words to Total Clauses vii
LIST OF TABLESChapter 1Table 1.1 The Korean National Curriculum for English …………..……... 3Table 1.2 English Textbooks for Primary School Students……………….. 9Chapter 2Table 2.1 The Types of Tasks ……………...…………..…………..…..…. 28Chapter 3Table 3.1 Key Features of Three Research Paradigms ………...……….… 67Table 3.2 Research Questions and Research Methods ………..……..…… 67Table 3.3 Nine Lesson Plans ……..……………….…………..…...….….. 79Table 3.4 The Process of Data Collection …………………….......……… 80Table 3.5 Measures of Written Output ………………………..………..…. 89Table 3.6 Considerations in Interviewing Children ….………..……..…... 97Table 3.7 Interview Data and Duration ………….….…………........……. 102Chapter 5Table 5.1 Written Language Output per Task ………………..…………... 168Table 5.2 Written Language Output per Cycle ………………..……..…… 179Table 5.3 Written Language Output of Task 2 …………………………… 179Table 5.4 Two Types of Interpersonal Skills ………………...…………... 186 viii
LIST OF FIGURESChapter 1Figure 1.1 Features of Quantitative and Qualitative Research …….… 12Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Six Components of a Communicative Task …….....…...… 26Figure 2.2 Balance between Input, Interaction, and Output …………. 42Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The Process of Educational Research ……………...…….. 63Figure 3.2 Classroom Action Research ……………………...………. 70Figure 3.3 A Three-cycle Procedure and the Writing Process ………. 78Figure 3.4 A Field Note Recording Form …………………………… 110Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Task Types and Words ………………………….....……... 116Figure 4.2 Task Types and Clauses ………………………………….. 116Figure 4.3 Task Types and Words to Total Clauses…..………...……. 117Figure 4.4 Task Types and Error-free Clauses ……………....………. 119Figure 4.5 Task Types and Error-free Clauses to Total Clauses……... 119Figure 4.6 Task Types and Lexical Variety ……………...…….……. 121Figure 4.7 Task Types and Lexical Density ……………...…….……. 121Figure 4.8 Task Repetition and Words ……………………..……..…. 123Figure 4.9 Task Repetition and Clauses …………………..………..... 124Figure 4.10 Task Repetition and Words to Total Clauses …...………... 125Figure 4.11 Task Repetition and Error-free Clauses ……….…..……... 126Figure 4.12 Task Repetition and Error-free Clauses to Total Clauses ... 127Figure 4.13 Task Repetition and Lexical Variety …………….….…… 128Figure 4.14 Task Repetition and Lexical Density …………………..… 128Figure 4.15 Task Types and F-LREs ……………………………..…… 132Figure 4.16 Task Types and L-LREs ……………………….………… 133 ix
ContinuedFigure 4.17 Task Types and M-LREs ………………………..…………... 135Figure 4.18 Task Repetition and F-LREs …………………………...…… 138Figure 4.19 Task Repetition and L-LREs ………………...………...……. 139Figure 4.20 Task Repetition and M-LREs ……………...…………..….… 141Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Four Types of Word Knowledge …………..………………... 176Figure 5.2 Recursive Stages of the Writing Process ……………….…… 182Figure 5.3 Writing Strategy Lessons …………………………..……….. 191Figure 5.4 A Paired Writing Flowchart ……………….……………....... 194Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Key Components of the Study …………….....….....………... 220 x
LIST OF APPENDICESAppendix 1 School System of South Korea …………………..………. 267Appendix 2 The Results of a Questionnaire Survey ……………….…. 268Appendix 3 Summary of Pilot Studies ……………………………..…. 269Appendix 4 Task 1: A Picture-describing Task ……………………..... 270Appendix 5 Task 2: A Story-creating Task …………………….……... 271Appendix 6 Task 3: An Opinion-expressing Task ………..…….…..… 272Appendix 7 The Criteria for Word Count …….……….………..…….. 273Appendix 8 The Criteria for Clause Count …………….….…..……… 274Appendix 9 The Criteria for Error Count …………..……..…..……… 275Appendix 10 Sample Interview Questions………………..…..………… 276Appendix 11 Sample Interview Transcripts ………….…………...……. 277Appendix 12 Sample Field Notes….…………………………....………. 278Appendix 13 Task Type and Language Output ……………..….……… 279Appendix 14 Task Repetition and Language Output …………………... 280Appendix 15 Task Type and LREs …….…………………..…..………. 281Appendix 16 Task Repetition and LREs ……………………….………. 282 xi
Table of ContentDECLARATION …………………………………..…………..…............... iPUBLICATIONS ……………………………………………..……….…… iiACKNOLWEDGEMENTS ………………………….……...…………….. ivABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………... viLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………...…… viiLIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………….……… viiiLIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………...…… ixLIST OF APPENDICES …………………………………………...……… xiCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION……………….………………………….. 11.0 Introduction ………………………………………………….…….... 11.1 Research Motivation ………………………………………….…..… 11.2 An Overview of Primary English Education in South Korea ......... 3 1.2.1 Educational System …………………………………..……..... 3 1.2.2 Issues in Primary English Education …………...………….…. 4 188.8.131.52 English Classes and Starting Age ……….....…….…. 4 220.127.116.11 English as a Foreign Language …………………....... 5 184.108.40.206 Spoken English Primacy ………………………......... 6 126.96.36.199 National English Proficiency Test ……………..…… 7 18.104.22.168 English Textbooks ………………………………….. 81.3 Theoretical Background …………………………...……………….. 9 1.3.1 Communicative and Task-based Language Teaching ……....... 9 xii
1.3.2 Collaborative Written Language Output ……………………... 101.4 Methodological Background ………………………………….…..... 12 1.4.1 A Mixed-method Approach to Educational Research ….…...... 12 1.4.2 Classroom Action Research ………………………….…......... 131.5 Research Aims, Objectives, and Questions ………………….…..… 141.6 The Structure of the Thesis ……………………………………..….. 15CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………...... 182.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………..... 182.1 Communicative and Task-based Approaches to Language Teaching ………….............................................................................. 18 2.1.1 A Paradigm Shift in English Language Teaching ………......... 19 184.108.40.206 Communicative Approaches to Teaching English ..... 19 184.108.40.206 Interpretation and Implementation of CLT……......… 20 2.1.2 Task-based Approach to Teaching English ……………..….... 22 184.108.40.206 The Role of Tasks ………………………………....... 22 188.8.131.52 Defining a Task …………………………..……..….. 23 220.127.116.11 The Principles of TBLT ……………………..……... 24 22.214.171.124 Task Design Variables …………….………..……..... 27 188.8.131.52.1 Task Type ………………………..…..…. 27 22.214.171.124.2 Task Repetition …………………...…...... 292.2 Collaborative Writing in the Classroom …………………...……… 32 2.2.1 Collaborative Written Output ………………………..…….…. 32 2.2.2 Collaborative Learning in the Classroom ………….……..….. 34 220.127.116.11 The Nature of Collaborative Learning ……………… 34 126.96.36.199 The Conditions for Collaborative Learning ….…..…. 36 184.108.40.206 Peer Interaction and Peer Learning …………..…..… 38 2.2.3 Collaborative Language Output ………………..………….…. 40 220.127.116.11 The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis …………… 40 126.96.36.199 Collaborative Dialogue ...………………………...…. 43 188.8.131.52 Three Functions of Language Output …………….… 44 xiii
126.96.36.199.1 The Noticing Function ………….………. 44 184.108.40.206.2 The Hypothesis-testing Function ..…..….. 45 220.127.116.11.3 The Metalinguistic Function ….……...…. 46 2.2.4 An Overview of L2 Writing in the Collaborative Classroom ... 49 22.214.171.124 Three Approaches to the Teaching of Writing …..…. 49 184.108.40.206.1 The Product-based Approach to Writing .. 49 18.104.22.168.2 The Process-based Approach to Writing .. 50 220.127.116.11.3 The Genre-based Approach to Writing …. 51 188.8.131.52 Two Issues in L2 Writing Research ………..……….. 52 184.108.40.206.1 The Theoretical and Methodological Tools in L2 Writing ……………………... 53 188.8.131.52.2 Attention to EFL Writing and Young EFL Writers ………………………………….. 53 184.108.40.206 The Need for Teaching L2 Writing ………...…….… 55 188.8.131.52.1 Productive Language Skills ……………... 55 220.127.116.11.2 Written Communication through Text Production ………………………………. 57 126.96.36.199.3 A Learning Tool ………………………... 58 18.104.22.168.4 Collaboration in Writing …………….…. 602.3 Conclusion …………………………………………………………… 61CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ….……... 623.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 623.1 Classroom Action Research in Educational Research ……………. 62 3.1.1 The Purposes of Educational Research ………………………. 63 3.1.2 Three Research Approaches to Educational Research ……...... 64 126.96.36.199 Quantitative Research …………………………..…... 64 184.108.40.206 Qualitative Research ……………………………..…. 65 126.96.36.199 Mixed-method Research ……………………………. 65 3.1.3 Classroom Action Research ……………………………......… 68 184.108.40.206 The Need for Teacher-initiated Research …….…….. 68 xiv
22.214.171.124 Action Research in the Classroom ………………….. 69 22.214.171.124 The Characteristics of Classroom Action Research ... 71 22.214.171.124.1 A Self-reflective Process …….………...... 71 188.8.131.52.2 Voices from the Inside ……………….…. 72 18.104.22.168 A Description of Classroom Action Research …..….. 75 126.96.36.199.1 The Teacher …….……………………...... 75 188.8.131.52.2 The Learners ………………………….…. 76 188.8.131.52.3 Three Writing Tasks …….……..……....... 77 22.214.171.124.4 Research Procedures …….……..……...... 783.2 Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis …………..……...…….. 80 3.2.1 Written Texts ………………….…………………......……...... 81 18.104.22.168 Measures of Fluency …………………..………..…... 82 18.104.22.168.1 Words ………………………...….……… 83 22.214.171.124.2 Clauses ………………………….…...….. 84 126.96.36.199.3 Words to Total Clauses ….……...…....…. 84 22.214.171.124 Measures of Accuracy ………………………...……. 85 126.96.36.199.1 Error-free Clauses ……………...….…..... 86 22.214.171.124.2 Error-free Clauses to Total Clauses …..… 86 22.214.171.124 Measures of Lexical Complexity …………..….….… 87 220.127.116.11.1 Lexical Variety …………………...……... 87 22.214.171.124.2 Lexical Density …………………...….…. 88 3.2.2 Pair Dialogue ………………….…………………..…......…… 90 18.104.22.168 Collaborative Pair Dialogue ……………..….....…… 90 126.96.36.199 Language-related Episode ………………………….. 91 126.96.36.199.1 Form-focus LRE ……….……….....……. 92 184.108.40.206.2 Lexical-focus LRE …………….…….….. 93 18.104.22.168.3 Mechanical-focus LRE ………….…..….. 943.3 Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis ………………….……… 95 3.3.1 Qualitative Interview ……………………………………..…... 95 188.8.131.52 Self-report Data ………………...…………………... 95 126.96.36.199 A Purposeful Interactional Event …………………… 98 126.96.36.199 The Structure of Interview ………………………….. 99 xv
18.104.22.168 Pair Interview ……………………………………….. 100 184.108.40.206 A Description of the Interview Process ……….……. 101 3.3.2 Qualitative Observation ……………………………………..... 104 188.8.131.52 Direct Observation in the Field ……………………... 105 184.108.40.206 Types of Observation Research …………………...... 106 18.104.22.168 Observational Field Notes …………………..…….... 107 188.8.131.52 Descriptions and Reflections ……………………….. 108 18.104.22.168 A Description of the Observation Process ………...... 1093.4 Conclusion …………………………………………………………… 112CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH FINDIGNS ……… 1144.0 Introduction …………………………………………………..…….. 1144.1 Quantitative Analysis ….……………………………………..…….. 114 4.1.1 Analysis of Written Texts …………………………….……… 115 188.8.131.52 Task Type and Language Output ………….……….. 115 220.127.116.11.1 Task Type and Fluency ………..……….. 115 188.8.131.52.2 Task Type and Accuracy ………………... 118 220.127.116.11.3 Task Type and Lexical Complexity …….. 120 126.96.36.199 Task Repetition and Language Output …………….. 123 18.104.22.168.1 Task Repetition and Fluency …………..... 123 184.108.40.206.2 Task Repetition and Accuracy ………..… 125 126.96.36.199.3 Task Repetition and Lexical Complexity... 127 4.1.2 Analysis of Pair Dialogues ………………………………........ 129 126.96.36.199 Task Type and Language-related Episodes.......…….. 130 18.104.22.168.1 Task Type and F-LREs …………...…..… 130 126.96.36.199.2 Task Type and L-LREs ……………….… 132 220.127.116.11.3 Task Type and M-LREs ……………….... 134 18.104.22.168 Task Repetition and Language-related Episodes..….. 136 22.214.171.124.1 Task Repetition and F-LREs ……………. 136 184.108.40.206.2 Task Repetition and L-LREs …………..... 138 220.127.116.11.3 Task Repetition and M-LREs ………..…. 140 xvi
4.2 Qualitative Analysis ………………………………………...………. 143 4.2.1 Analysis of Reflective Interviews ………………………….… 143 22.214.171.124 Learning through Writing ………………….……..… 143 126.96.36.199 Paired Writing ………………………………………. 145 18.104.22.168 Teachers as Collaborators ………………………....... 146 126.96.36.199 Different Challenges to Different Tasks …………..... 147 22.214.171.124 Boredom or Familiarity …………..…………….…. 151 4.2.2 Analysis of Classroom Observation ………………………….. 153 126.96.36.199 Learning from Classroom Experience …………..…. 153 18.104.22.168 The Nature of Writing Tasks ……………..…..……. 155 22.214.171.124 Learning from Prior Experience ………………..….. 159 188.8.131.52 The Challenges of Collaborative Writing ……..…… 1614.3 Conclusion ……………………………………………………...…… 164CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION ………………………..………………..……. 1665.0 Introduction …………………………………………………...…….. 1665.1 Designing a Task-based Collaborative Learning Classroom …….. 166 5.1.1 The Effect of Different Tasks on Written Output…………...... 167 220.127.116.11 The Trade-off Effects in L2 Writing …………...…... 167 188.8.131.52 The Use of Language Chunks for the Development of Fluency ………………………………………..… 169 188.8.131.52 Formal Instruction for the Attainment of Accuracy .. 170 220.127.116.11 Developing Writing Tasks ………………………...... 173 5.1.2 Recycling for Classroom Language Learning ………………... 175 18.104.22.168 The Increase of Productive Knowledge …………….. 175 126.96.36.199 Task Familiarity and Self-confidence ………………. 178 22.214.171.124 Accumulated Experience in the Writing Process …... 181 5.1.3 Collaborative Writing for Learning …………………………... 184 188.8.131.52 Collaborative Interpersonal and Social Skills …….... 184 188.8.131.52 Empowering Learners ……………………………..... 187 126.96.36.199 A Framework for Independent Writers ……….......... 189 xvii
5.2 Considerations in Conducting Classroom Action Research …….. 195 5.2.1 Challenges in Data Collection and Data Analysis …………… 195 188.8.131.52 Active Interpreters ……………………………......… 195 220.127.116.11 Interviewing Children ………………………..……... 198 5.2.2 A Reflective Teacher …………………………………….…… 202 22.214.171.124 Initiating Individual Action Research ………………. 202 184.108.40.206 Empowering Individual Teachers ………………...… 204 188.8.131.52 Critical Friends as Research Mentors……………….. 206 184.108.40.206 Sharing and Communicating Research Results …….. 2095.3 Conclusion …………………………………………………………… 211CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION ………………………………………….….. 2136.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 2136.1 Summary of the Thesis …………………………………………...… 2136.2 Research Findings …………………………………………...……… 215 6.2.1 Research Question 1 ………………………………………….. 216 6.2.2 Research Question 2 ………………………………...………... 216 6.2.3 Research Question 3 ……………………………...…………... 217 6.2.4 Research Question 4 ………………………………………….. 2176.3 Research Contributions …………………………..………………... 2186.4 Research Limitations ……………………………………..………... 2216.5 Suggestions for Future Study …...………..………………..………. 223REFERENCES ……………………………………………………..……… 226APPENDICES …………………..………………………………..………... 267 xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1.0 IntroductionThe purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to the thesis. This chapter consistsof six sections. To begin with, my motivation for this research is introduced in Section 1.1.This is followed in Section 1.2 by a brief overview of primary English education in SouthKorea to facilitate an understanding of the research. The theoretical and methodologicalbackground of the research is presented in Sections 1.3 and 1.4. The aims and objectives ofthe research including research questions are addressed in Section 1.5. This chapter endswith an outline of the thesis in Section 22.214.171.124 Research MotivationSince the paradigm shift towards communicative language teaching (CLT), there has been agrowing interest in the role of language output as a way of developing learners'communicative competence in the target language (Swain, 1985; Swain & Lapkin, 1998).Along with the significance of language output in language learning, writing has gained inimportance in teaching a foreign or second language (L2), because writing provides L2learners with the opportunity to exploit their existing linguistic resources and generate newlanguage knowledge (Matsuda & Silva, 2005). In addition, there has been a dramaticincrease in the number of young learners in the field of English language teaching (ELT),because early exposure to English has become a global phenomenon in an era of English asa world language (Kachru & Nelson, 2009). In the field of task-based language teaching 1
(TBLT), however, relatively little research has been conducted into the written output ofchildren learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in comparison with the number ofempirical studies on that of adults learning English as a second language (ESL). Moreimportantly, despite the fact that there has been increasing attention paid to collaborativewriting, this exploration has been confined to the performance of children whose mothertongue is English (L1) or ESL adult learners. It is hypothesised that a quite differentteaching approach would be needed for EFL children as compared with ESL adult learnersas well as L1 children. Therefore, it would seem to be significant to investigate the processesand products of EFL children's collaborative writing as a way of developing their writtencommunication skills. For this reason, I designed classroom action research specifically toexplore the most effective ways to implement task-based collaborative writing lessons in theKorean EFL classroom by reflecting on my own experience of learning and teaching Englishand writing. A group of Korean EFL children was involved in this small-scale classroomresearch. It is hoped that the findings of the present study will be useful for classroomteachers who want to develop task-based collaborative writing lessons and for those who aregoing to initiate small-scale research projects in their own classrooms.Before introducing the theoretical and methodological background of the study, it will behelpful to overview primary English education in South Korea in order to provide basicinformation underlying the present study. 2
1.2 An Overview of Primary English Education in South Korea1.2.1 Educational SystemThe formal school system in South Korea follows a 6-3-3-4 ladder pattern which includessix years of primary school, three years of secondary school, three years of high school, andfour years of university education (see Appendix 1: School System of South Korea). Allschools and educational institutions at any level have been administered by the Ministry ofEducation, Science and Technology (MOE). When English started to be taught as a basiccommon subject from the third grade of primary school to the first grade of high school asshown in Table 1.1, teaching English to Korean children has become the subject ofconsiderable debate, namely 'English fever' (Park, 2009).Table 1.1 The Korean National Curriculum for English School Primary Secondary High Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Age 6/7 7/8 8/9 9/10 10/11 11/12 12/13 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 Classes per ∙ ∙ 34 34 68 68 102 102 136 136 136 136 Year Curriculum National Common Basic Curriculum Elective- based CurriculumRegarding the current situations related to primary English education, the following keyissues are briefly addressed to facilitate an understanding of the present study. 3
1.2.2 Issues in Primary English Education18.104.22.168 English Classes and Starting AgeAs a global phenomenon in the field of ELT, the Korean MOE decided to introducecompulsory English classes from the third grade in primary schools in 1997. The MOE(2007) states the aims of English language education at primary level as follows: To become interested in learning English language; To become competent in using basic everyday English; To prepare students for communicating in English in daily life; and To understand the culture of other countries.As a result, one forty-minute English class per week has been officially implemented forthird and fourth graders and two classes for fifth and sixth graders under the current nationalcurriculum. Since the early introduction of English as a compulsory school subject, thepossibility of expanding the number of English classes and lowering the starting age forlearning English from the first grade has been constantly discussed. For example, there is agroup of people in favour of the expansion of English classes with the widespread belief that'younger is better'. On the other hand, there is another group of people who are concernedabout low levels of interest and motivation, intense competition, the impact on Koreanlanguage teaching and an increase in private education expenses resulting from theexpansion of English classes and the early start (Jung & Norton, 2002). Finally, the MOEannounced a plan intended to gradually expand the number of English classes from 2010rather than to teach English from the first grade. This educational decision is supported by anumber of recent comparative studies on the effectiveness of early English educationpublished over the last ten years. In a national level survey, for example, Kwon (2005) 4
reported that the tenth graders of 2004 who learned English from the third year of primaryschool outscored at the national level test the tenth graders of 2003 who did not learnEnglish at primary school. A number of studies including the nationwide survey provideevidence for the positive long-term effect of primary English education in Korea. Theimportant point, however, is that the MOE should consider ways of recruiting or retainingthe necessary number of qualified teachers who can deal with the increasing number ofteaching hours.184.108.40.206 English as a Foreign LanguageSince its introduction in Korea, English has been taught as a major foreign language (Seth,2002) in contrast to the ESL context where English is the language of the mass media and ofofficial institutions. Tomlinson (2005: 137) provided a succinct description of an EFLlearning context. Most learners of EFL learn it in school together with a large class of peers of similar age and proficiency. They typically have a course book, they are preparing for an examination, and they are taught by a teacher who is not a native speaker of English.The Korean EFL situations may not differ so much from those of other EFL countries asdescribed above, that is, English is not the normal medium of communication andinstruction but one of a number of school subjects for the university entrance examination(Honna, 2009; Shin, 2007). In the EFL learning environment, as Nunan (2003) indicated,Korean EFL learners may encounter several inevitable difficulties resulting from exposuretime, teaching materials, learning objectives, and so on. In particular, young Korean EFLlearners may be either unable or unwilling to make the required effort to learn English for a 5
variety of reasons. In terms of age and learning a foreign language, there have been manyconventional assumptions about differences between young learners and adult learners.According to Ur (1999: 286-288), ● Young children learn language better. ● Foreign language learning in school should start early. ● Children and adults learn language in the same way. ● Adults have a longer concentration span. ● It is easier to motivate children.Regardless of whether these assumptions are correct or not, what is important to consider isthat young learners should not be expected to be able to learn English in the same way asadult learners (Rixon, 1999). In this respect, Korean EFL teachers working with childrenneed to develop a variety of language learning activities and teaching strategies, because itcan be much more unrealistic to expect that their young students' attitude to and motivationfor learning English is similar to those of adult learners (Cameron, 2003, 2005).184.108.40.206 Spoken English PrimacyIn the current national curriculum, Korean EFL teachers have been encouraged to implementthe notion of CLT in their classrooms. According to Li (1998, 2001), however, Koreansecondary school teachers of English had considerable difficulties in implementingcommunicative teaching methods in their classrooms. To some extent, the situations ofprimary English classrooms may not differ so much from those of secondary classrooms(Butler, 2004). In addition, there has been a constant demand for Korean EFL teachers toteach English through English since the mid-1990s. This is because of the frustrating resultsobservable in a great number of Korean EFL learners with low levels of English proficiency 6
even after 10 years' learning experience. For this reason, the MOE announced an urgent plan.According to the plan, English teachers have to conduct classes in English by 2015 afterintensive training. This urge stems from the belief that Korean students' English proficiencycan be enhanced by the implementation of the 'English-only' policy (Shin, 2007), because"'English-only' is the most important expression that comes to mind for Koreans whenlearning English" (Park, 2009: 55). In a comparative study of primary school teachers inKorea, Taiwan and Japan, however, Butler (2004, 2005) reported that Korean primaryschool teachers of English were more concerned about achieving an appropriate balanceacross all four language skills rather than focusing on a particular skill. In spite of intensivetraining, teaching English through English is a challenge for many practising teachers wholack confidence in their ability to teach in English or are all too aware of their owninsufficient proficiency in English (Jeong, 2006). Most of all, the English-only approachmay lead Korean EFL children to misunderstand that communicative learning activitiesmerely pay attention to spoken English over written English even with the significance ofdeveloping written communication skills.188.8.131.52 National English Proficiency TestIn the era of globalization when the world has become more interconnected, it has becomevital for Korean EFL learners with limited English proficiency to overcome languagebarriers as well as improve their ability to communicate effectively with English speakers.Along with practical purposes (e.g., school admission, university entrance, employment,promotion), a large number of Korean EFL learners have taken international Englishproficiency tests in order to measure their English proficiency. Regarding the huge amountof money spent on the international tests, there has been a growing need for cost-effective, 7
qualified domestic English proficiency tests. For this reason, the MOE decided to develop anew state-certified English aptitude test including all four language skills. This state-certified test will be introduced in 2012 and the English section of the College ScholasticAbility Test (CSAT) may be replaced with the test after its official debut. Concerning thesignificance of both learning English and entering a prestigious university, this new test islikely to have a tremendous impact on the teachers who help their students prepare for theCSAT and the parents who are very concerned about their children's English education. Inaddition, the test is viewed as an innovative plan because the productive language skills ofspeaking and writing have never been tested in the CSAT's history and these skills havenever played a dominant role in the Korean EFL classrooms. For this reason, it is necessaryfor teachers to have sufficiently detailed guidelines for speaking and writing instruction inorder to cope with such a radical educational change and bridge the gap between the MOE'sintention and its application.18.104.22.168 English TextbooksAs mentioned above, the Korean educational system is administered by the MOE. Under thecentralized educational system, the current national unified English textbooks for primarychildren were developed by the MOE in compliance with the seventh national curriculumrevision. For example, the number of new words per grade, the number of words persentence, and the sequence for introducing the four language skills are administered asshown in Table 1.2. According to Jung and Norton (2002), there has been an evident shifttoward a more oral communication-based English program in primary English educationsince 1997 and the notion of the primacy of spoken English has had a powerful influence onthe content and functions of primary English textbooks. 8
Table 1.2 English Textbooks for Primary School Students Grade 3rd 4th 5th 6th No. new words 110 120 130 140 No. words per sentence less than 7 less than 9 Language skills Listening Listening Listening Listening Speaking Speaking Speaking Speaking Reading Reading Reading Writing WritingRegarding the importance of a smooth transition from primary to secondary school,however, this has served only to widen any gap resulting from an emphasis on spokenEnglish at the primary level and written English at the secondary level. Therefore, KoreanEFL teachers working with children need to design a range of writing activities and provideopportunity to write in English in order to develop their young students' basic writing skills.This may require additional time and effort to be devoted by the teachers who are concernedabout the huge gap between primary and secondary English education.This section has addressed key issues in relation to primary English education in Korea. Thefollowing section provides a brief introduction to the theoretical background to this study.1.3 Theoretical Background1.3.1 Communicative and Task-Based Language TeachingAs a major paradigm shift in ELT, the notion of communicative language teaching (CLT)has been implemented in many Asian-Pacific countries including Korea in many differentways (Littlewood, 2007; Nunan, 2006). In addition, task-based language teaching (TBLT) 9
has recently moved into a more central role in L2 research and pedagogy as a way ofdeveloping learner's communication skills (Bygate et al., 2001). Despite the absence of anysingle universal definition, Nunan (2004: 4) defined a task as "a piece of classroom workthat involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the targetlanguage." Therefore, classroom tasks are understood as language learning activities and L2learners are involved in these activities to produce the target language and develop theirlinguistic and communicative competence in the target language. As one major goal of ELTin Korea, the national curriculum has also paid a great deal of attention to cultivating thecommunicative competence of Korean EFL learners through a variety of classroom tasks(MOE, 2007). Regarding a variety of task variables which may affect the processes andproducts of writing, the roles of 'task type' and 'task repetition' have not been fully exploredin the field of TBLT. For this reason, the present study aims to investigate the effects of tasktype and task repetition on task performance and outcomes of Korean EFL children,specifically, during collaborative writing.1.3.2 Collaborative Written Language OutputIt has been said that learners can learn best through active participation in a more learner-centred collaborative learning classroom, that is, a collaborative learning context canmaximize learners' engagement and involvement in language learning activities compared toindividualistic and competitive learning contexts (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). In addition, acollaborative learning context can encourage learners to construct and co-constructknowledge through peer interaction. For this reason, the concept of 'peer learning' has beenrecognized as an effective way to learn from and with each other (Boud, 2001). Althoughmuch of the literature conflates the two terms, 'collaborative' and 'cooperative' learning, 10
"Cooperative learning and collaborative learning are two versions of the same thing"(Bruffee, 1995: 12) and therefore, the two terms are used interchangeably in this thesis.What is important to recognize is that L2 learners take responsibility for their own learning,particularly, when they are actually engaged in collaborative language output activities. Insecond language acquisition (SLA), however, a great deal of attention has been paid to therole of 'input' and 'interaction' (Gass, 1997, 2003). For example, Krashen (1981) claimed inthe Comprehensible Input Hypothesis that comprehensible input is sufficient for SLA. Long(1983) claimed in the Interactive Hypothesis that L2 learning occurs through interactionbetween learners, not because of input alone. In the Comprehensible Output Hypothesis,however, Swain (1985) argued that output is also an essential factor in SLA, because a seriesof observations in French immersion classrooms in Canada revealed the fact that thechildren did not show significantly native-like output even in such an 'input-rich'environment (Swain, 1985, 1995, 2005). Although it has been claimed that L2 learners learnfrom their own language output when they are pushed to use the target language, the role ofoutput in L2 learning has not been fully explored and therefore, there is a significant need toinvestigate the potential benefits of language output in L2 learning. In particular, L2 writingcan become a way of producing the target language and developing L2 learners' writtencommunication skills when they are given ample opportunity to use and understand thetarget language in a collaborative learning environment. Although L2 writing has not beenconsidered as an important component of L2 teaching and learning until fairly recently (Leki,2000), there is also a significant need to investigate the potential pedagogical value ofcollaborative writing to promote L2 learning through social interaction in the classroom.This section has presented briefly the theoretical background of this study with regard tocommunicative approaches to language teaching and language output in the context of 11
collaborative writing. The next section provides a brief introduction to the methodologicalbackground to the present study.1.4 Methodological Background1.4.1 A Mixed-method Approach to Educational Research methodIt has been said that educational research is a systematic process for discovering newknowledge about the teaching and learning process. In other words, educational research is away of understanding the process of teaching and learning. There are three ma approaches majorto educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method research. According to : mixed-methodDenzin and Lincoln (2005), there were battle lines drawn between the quantitative andqualitative camps, the so so-called 'paradigm war,' which resulted in the conventionaldistinction between quantitative and qualitative research as summarized by the author below. Quantitative Research inductive, objective, nu Qualitative Research merical, measurable, hy pothesis-testing pothesis deductive, subjective, na rrative, interpretive, hypo thesis-generating Figure 1.1 Features of Quantitative and Qualitative ResearchIn spite of the distinctive features quantitative and qualitative approaches and methods features,should not be mutually exclusive, but rather contribute alternatives with their strengths and 12
weaknesses (Patton, 2002). For this reason, educational researchers are encouraged to mixthe two research methods in a study in order for them to complement each other (Tashakkoriand Teddlie, 1998). With regard to multiple data sources, the current study employs amixed-method approach when conducting classroom action research.1.4.2 Classroom Action ResearchAlthough action research originated in social science research (Lewin, 1948), it has becomea widely accepted in educational research in the form of practitioner research (McNiff et al.,2003). In particular, Stenhouse (1975: 143) strongly encouraged classroom teachers toconduct action research in their own classroom as follows: The uniqueness of each classroom setting implies that any proposal – even at school level – needs to be tested and verified and adapted by each teacher in his own classroom … It is not enough that teachers' work should be studied: they need to study it themselves.In this view, action research is about classroom teachers identifying their problems, possiblyresolving the problems, reflecting on the problem-solving process, planning actions andbringing about continual change or improvement in their own teaching practice. Therefore,teachers themselves need to look into what is actually going on in their own classrooms witha view to their making judgements about how to improve their own teaching practice(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2003). On the practical level, however, teachers are required todevelop research knowledge and skills to initiate their own research projects in theclassroom, which may make them unwilling to initiate their own research projects (S.Mckay, 2006). As a teacher and a researcher, it was challenging to carry out a small-scale 13
action research project in my classroom, but the experience enabled me to identify practicalissues, find possible solutions, and think of them in order to improve my teaching practice.This section has presented the methodological background of the present study. Thefollowing section introduces the research aims, objectives and questions of the research.1.5 Research Aims, Objectives, and QuestionsAs has been addressed throughout this chapter, there is a significant need to study EFLchildren's language output during collaborative writing. There are three broad aims to thisstudy. From a pedagogical perspective, the research aims to investigate effective ways ofdesigning task-based collaborative writing sessions in the Korean EFL classroom. From asociocultural perspective, this research aims to give Korean children the opportunity to writetogether, take responsibility for their own learning and explore the value of collaborativewriting in a collaborative learning context. From a methodological perspective, this researchaims at learning about conducting classroom action research, developing researchknowledge and skills, and improving classroom practice in terms of ongoing personal andprofessional growth. The primary objectives are to examine the effects of task type and taskrepetition on Korean EFL children's task performance and outcomes, the potential benefitsof collaborative writing in L2 learning, and the challenges of becoming a teacher researcher.Based on the primary research objectives, four specific questions are formulated as follows: 1. Regarding the relationship between task type and L2 writing, whether and to what extent does task type affect the task performance and outcomes of Korean EFL children' writing? 14
2. Regarding the relationship between task repetition and L2 writing, whether and to what extent does task repetition affect the task performance and outcomes of Korean EFL children's writing? 3. How do the Korean EFL children feel about collaborative writing in the classroom when repeating the same writing tasks? 4. What are the benefits and challenges in conducting classroom action research in order to investigate effective ways of designing task-based collaborative writing sessions in the classroom?The order of the four research questions is related to the presentation of Chapters 4 and 5.The last section of this chapter provides the outline of this thesis, which addresses the mainconcerns of each chapter of the thesis.1.6 The Structure of the ThesisThis thesis is a reflective report of small-scale action research in a Korean EFL classroomundertaken in order to investigate the pedagogical benefits of collaborative writing and thepractical challenges of teacher research. This thesis is organised into six chapters.Chapter 1: IntroductionThis chapter provides a brief overview of the thesis as a whole. Section 1.1 introduces mymotivation to research and then Section 1.2 describes major issues in primary Englisheducation in Korea. This is followed in Sections 1.3 and 1.4 by a brief introduction to thetheoretical and methodological background to the present study. Section 1.5 introduces 15
research aims, objectives and specific questions of the research. This chapter concludes withan outline of the thesis in Section 1.6.Chapter 2: Literature ReviewThis chapter provides an overview of the theoretical background to the study. In two majorsections, Section 2.1 deals with the educational attention to communicative and task-basedlanguage teaching in East Asian countries including Korea. In terms of collaborative writtenlanguage output, Section 2.2 reviews the need for collaborative learning, the rationale ofSwain's Comprehensible Output Hypothesis with its three functions of language output, andthe research on L2 writing in the field of ELT.Chapter 3: Research Design and MethodologyThis chapter provides an overview of the methodological background to the research. Inthree major sections, Section 3.1 discusses the rationale for classroom action researchincluding a brief review of educational research, the main features of quantitative,qualitative, and mixed-method approaches to educational research, and a description ofconducting small-scale classroom action research. Regarding a mixed-method approach,Section 3.2 presents the collection and analysis of quantitative data and Section 3.3describes the collection and analysis of qualitative data. 16
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Research FindingsThis chapter presents the results of quantitative and qualitative data analysis. According tothe order of the four research questions of this study, Section 4.1 reports the results of thetext and dialogue analyses in order to answer the first and second research questions. Section4.2 presents the responses from the interviews to answer the third research question andsome reflections on the entire research process through classroom observation to answer thefourth research question.Chapter 5: DiscussionThis chapter draws together research findings and the theoretical and methodologicalconsiderations. Section 5.1 discusses the pedagogical implications of designing task-basedcollaborative writing sessions in the EFL classroom with regard to task type, task repetitionand collaborative writing. This is followed in Section 5.2 by critical reflections on theprocess of classroom action research as a way of becoming a reflective teacher.Chapter 6: ConclusionThis chapter summarizes the main conclusions of this study. Section 6.1 provides a chapter-by-chapter summary of the thesis and Section 6.2 restates the major findings of the research.This is followed subsequently by the contributions and limitations of the research inSections 6.3 and 6.4. This chapter concludes with some suggestions for future research inSection 6.5. 17
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.0 IntroductionThe aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the theoretical background to the study.Concerning the development of L2 learners' written communication skills, this chaptercontains two major sections. Section 2.1 discusses communicative and task-based languageteaching in Asian-Pacific countries including Korea with a brief review of the interpretationand implementation of CLT in Asian EFL classrooms and the use of tasks as languagelearning activities in the classroom. Section 2.2 is concerned with the potential value ofcollaborative writing. After a brief introduction of the concept of collaborative writtenoutput, this section discusses the role of collaboration as the essence of language learning,Swain's Comprehensible Output Hypothesis with its three functions of language output, andthe need for teaching L2 writing and collaborative written output as a process ofcollaborative learning.2.1 Communicative and Task-based Approaches to Teaching EnglishThe first section of this chapter consists of two parts. The first part deals with the paradigmshift towards communicative approaches to teaching English in Asian-Pacific countries andthe gap between interpretations and implementations of the notion of CLT in the classroom.The second part overviews the use of tasks in L2 teaching, the definitions and componentsof a task, the principles of TBLT and two task variables which may affect task performanceand outcomes. 18
2.1.1 A Paradigm Shift in English Language Teaching184.108.40.206 Communicative Approaches to Teaching EnglishAs shown in the exploration of effective approaches and methods in language teaching(Celce-Murcia, 2001; Larsen-Freeman, 2000; Richards & Rodgers, 2001), the last fewdecades have seen the development of a significant body of work which embraces the notionof CLT to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as 'communicative competence' (seeBrumfit & Johnson, 1979, for examples of early studies on this topic). The essential natureof CLT is considered as "the engagement of learners in communication to allow them todevelop their communicative competence" (Savignon, 2005: 635), and a set of theoreticalprinciples of the notion is presented by Li (2001: 150) as follows: 1. A focus on communicative functions; 2. A focus on meaningful tasks rather than on language per se (e.g., grammar or vocabulary study); 3. Efforts to make tasks and language relevant to a target group of learners through an analysis of genuine, realistic situations; 4. The use of authentic, from-life materials; 5. The use of group activities; and 6. The attempt to create a secure, non-threatening atmosphere.As described above, it seems clear that decontextualized drills or exercises are of little valueto L2 learners whose goal is the actual use the target language. In reality, however, it seemsdifficult to bridge the gap between theoretical principles and practical applications of CLT inthe classroom. Moreover, the notion has been interpreted and implemented in many differentcontexts in many different ways (see Spada, 2007, for a review of the current status andfuture prospects). For this reason, it will be useful to overview how CLT has beeninterpreted and implemented in Asian EFL classrooms. 19
126.96.36.199 Interpretation and Implementation of CLTThe concept of CLT is regarded as "a core set of theories and beliefs about the nature oflanguage, of language learning, and a derived set of principles for teaching a language"(Richards & Rogers, 2001: 245). However, CLT has been understood in a variety of ways asshown in the following teachers' beliefs as a way to facilitate communicative competence(Macaro, 1997: 42): 1. An emphasis on speaking and listening rather on reading and writing. 2. An emphasis on communicating new information rather than 'already known' information. 3. An emphasis on active involvement rather than passive learning. 4. An emphasis on meaningful bits of language rather than well formed sentences, individual words or bits of words.Although each belief can play a significant role in achieving the goals of CLT, these may beonly partially accomplished without sufficient consideration of the particular classroomcontexts. In particular, there is a need to reconsider how CLT should be administered inAsian EFL classroom contexts, because "We need to look deeply at times into the specificneeds of learners in Asia and the Pacific region" (Nunan, 2005a: 5). Firstly, in the context ofthe EFL classroom, most Asian EFL teachers have relied heavily on audio tapes or writtenmaterials in classes resulting in many challenges when much emphasis is placed on speakingskills (Nishino & Watanabe, 2008). In addition, Asian EFL students have been described aspassive learners, although this does not mean that they always want to sit in class passivelyin order to receive knowledge (Littlewood, 2000). In an extensive survey of Hong Kongsecondary school teachers' perspectives on the communicative approach, for example,Carless (2007) reported that the teachers had difficulties in getting their students to speak inEnglish, and this was not only because the students had linguistic problems but also because 20
there were cultural factors existing between Asian and Western societies regarding thenature of learning (Liu & Littlewood, 1997). Secondly, it seems that the dominant grammar-translation method in this area results in limited fluency in contrast to the lesser degree offocus on accuracy in CLT, due to the belief that "In its purest form, CLT focuses onmeaning, with no explicit attention to grammatical form" (Cowan, 2008: 33). However, ithas been argued that this is the most pervasive misconception within CLT (Littlewood, 2004;Spada & Lightbown, 2008) and therefore, L2 teachers and researchers are required toreconsider the validity of teaching grammar within the framework of CLT. According toHinkel (2005), 'focus on form' has been variously discussed as a result of thereconsideration of explicit grammar instruction in L2 teaching (Bygate et al, 1994; Doughty& Williams, 1998; Fotos & Nassaji, 2007; Hinkel & Fotos, 2002). It is therefore essentialfor Asian EFL teachers to make an effort to find the most suitable ways to implement CLTin their specific local contexts.In a comprehensive review of the implementation of CLT in primary and secondary schoolsof the Asia-Pacific region, Littlewood (2007) noted that national policies and syllabuses forEnglish education have moved increasingly towards a variety of versions of CLT in this area.Robertson and Nunn (2007) also addressed that CLT has become the central pillar ofgovernment rhetoric in this region. In a comparative study, for example, Kim and Jeon(2005) concluded that developing learners' communication skills is a major goal of nationalEnglish curricula among Korea, China, and Japan (Cummins & Davison, 2007). As Nunan(2003) pointed out, however, it is not always feasible for Asian EFL teachers to implementthe principles of CLT in their classrooms, For example, Korean secondary school teachersexperienced practical difficulties in applying the notion of CLT in their classrooms, becauseof their misconceptions about CLT, inadequate teacher training programmes and the 21
constraints of time for developing materials (Li, 1998, 2001). Similar findings were reportedby Carless (2003) namely that Hong Kong primary school teachers found it difficult toimplement CLT in their classrooms. In this respect, Asian EFL teachers have theresponsibility to introduce the notion of CLT into their culturally specific classrooms in avariety of effective ways in order to take advantage of CLT for the development of learners'communication skills.This part has briefly overviewed the paradigm shift towards communicative approaches tolanguage teaching in Asian EFL countries including Korea. Despite the gap betweentheoretical interpretation and practical implementation of CLT, it seems clear that the notionof CLT has taken root in Asian EFL classrooms. The next part is concerned with therationale for TBLT as an offspring of CLT.2.1.2 Task-based Approach to Teaching English220.127.116.11 The Role of TasksAlong with the focus on learners' communicative competence in CLT, there has been asignificant increase in the use of tasks in ELT (Edwards & Willis, 2005; Samuda & Bygate,2008; Willis & Willis, 2007), because the core constructs of CLT offer productive startingpoints for the principles of TBLT and the two approaches share several fundamental featuresas shown in all communicative approaches (VanPatten, 2002: 106): 22
1. Meaning should always be the focus. 2. Learners should be at the centre of the curriculum. 3. Communication is not only oral but written and gestural as well. 4. Samples of authentic language used among native speakers should be available from the beginning of instruction. 5. Communicative events in class should be purposeful.In this sense, tasks have been considered as "the keys to language acquisition" and "the coreof the language curriculum" (Celce-Murcia, 1991: 224). In other words, tasks can play asignificant role in promoting communication and learning in the L2 classroom. Moreover, astasks can be used as "the pivot point for stimulation of input-output practice" (Richards &Rodgers, 2001: 229), teachers need to take a task as a bridge between the comprehension ofrich input and the production of output (Van Avermaet et al., 2006). It is therefore firstnecessary to understand the definitions of a task and the key principles underpinning TBLTin order to develop language learning tasks and design task-based lessons in the classroom.184.108.40.206 Defining a TaskA number of definitions of a task have been proposed since the growing interest in the use oftasks in L2 research and pedagogy (Bygate et al., 2001; Ellis, 2003; Markee, 1997; Van denBranden et al., 2006). For instance, a task is defined as "hundreds of things people do ineveryday life, at work, at play, and in between" (Long, 1985: 89) or "any structuredlanguage learning endeavour" including a very wide range of activities (Breen, 1987: 23). Incontrast to these overly broad definitions, a task is defined as "an activity which requiredlearners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought,and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process" (Prabhu, 1987: 24). Thisdefinition supports the idea that effective learning occurs when learners are fully engaged in 23
classroom activities and when the teacher guides their performance explicitly. Nunan (1989)also considered a task as a classroom activity which requires L2 learners to comprehend,manipulate, produce, or interact in the target language. In a similar vein, a task is regarded asan activity "where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose(goal) in order to achieve an outcome" (Willis, 1996: 23). This definition is particularlyconcerned with the output of the activity as a result of using the target language in theclassroom. However, what is important to consider is that not all the activities can bequalified as classroom tasks, although a number of activities take place in the classroom. Forexample, certain activities do not stimulate learners' active participation, because "learnerparticipation is the pivot around which classroom tasks are to be examined" (Cameron, 2005:31). In this regard, classroom tasks can be understood as language learning activities in theclassroom, which encourage L2 learners to stretch beyond their limited linguistic resourcesthrough active involvement in classroom activities.18.104.22.168 The Principles of TBLTRegardless of there being no single universal definition of a task and critical reviews ofTBLT which state that it is not a theory of SLA but an embryonic theory of languageteaching (see Klapper, 2003, for a critical review of TBLT), a great deal of attention hasbeen paid to the use of tasks in L2 research and pedagogy. What is important to considerhere is that TBLT is still evolving in a variety of local contexts as shown in the developmentof CLT. The pedagogical principles underpinning TBLT are offered by Nunan (2005a: 5): 24
1. A replacement to or a supportive infusion of more student centred learning to certain single approach based syllabi. 2. Utilizing more authentic experience and materials as well as principles of constructivism compared to top down teaching. 3. More of a sense of personal and active accomplishment including developing a greater sense of language ownership. 4. Increased student participation when task teaching is well planned and implemented sensitive to learners' learning styles, learning and communicative strategies, personalities, multiple intelligences and the overall local contexts, for example. 5. Making specific lesson goals more evident through movement towards and/or success of task completion. 6. Important and ongoing assessment and "washback" to both teacher and learner.In contrast to the traditional teacher-oriented teaching approach, TBLT puts an emphasis on'learner centeredness' and 'learner participation' as part of the fundamental principles andpractices of CLT as well as the pivot around which classroom tasks are defined. In particular,these two concepts are based on the belief that learners should take an active role in theirlanguage learning with regard to an emphasis on 'learner empowerment'. In a learner-centred classroom, for example, L2 learners play a more active role in their learning process,rather than the passive one of waiting to be filled with knowledge. Teachers are regarded notas mere transmitters of knowledge, but as designers of tasks to meet the needs of learners.Therefore, if teachers select or design classroom tasks for communicative language use,learners can develop their capacity to communicate effectively when they participate inthese language learning activities in the classroom. Nunan (1989) provided six corecomponents of a communicative task for task-based lessons as presented in Figure 2.1 andemphasised that these elements necessarily affect one another in an interactive way. Forexample, the four components (i.e. input, goals, activities, setting) may influence teachers inselecting, adapting, modifying, and creating tasks for a task-based lesson and learners willplay different roles depending on the goal to be achieved or the input to be provided. In 25
particular, it has been argued that the roles of learner and teacher in TBLT should bedifferent from those in the traditional classroom (Breen 1987). Input Teacher s Goals role A Communicative Task Learners Activities role Setting Figure 2.1 Six Components of a Communicative Task (Nunan, 1989)As compared with a number of studies on adult learners, however, there has recently been agrowing body of research on children (Carless, 2002, 2003; S. Lee, 2005; Duran & Ramaut, Carless,2006; Oliver, 1998, 2009; Pinter, 1999, 2005). This is a result of an increasing concern 09;among L2 teachers and researchers about implementing TBLT with young learners since theBangalore project (Prabhu, 1987), and a number of studies have reported that TBLT isadoptable for children. For example, Pinter (1999) investigated task related strategy use with ildren. task-related10-year-old Hungarian children and S. Lee (2005) explored the advantages and olddisadvantages of TBLT with 11/12 11/12-year-old Korean children. As Willis and Willis (2001)indicated, however, TBLT has not yet been explored extensively in the classroom settingdue to a number of variables such as the teaching cycle, the teacher's intention and thelearners' interpretation of the task, the learners' previous experience of the task ty type, timelimitation, group size, and so on In this regard, there is a significant need for L2 teachers , on. ,and researchers to explore the implementation of TBLT with young learners in the 26
classroom. Among the task variables, task type and task repetition were explored in thepresent study in order to examine the relationship between these two task variables and theprocesses and products of Korean EFL children's writing.22.214.171.124 Task Design Variables18.104.22.168.1 Task TypeAs has been addressed, the advent of the use of tasks in L2 teaching has been recognised asa way of encouraging L2 learners to produce the target language in conjunction with theheightened interest in developing their communication skills. As a means of facilitating L2learning, it is therefore important for teachers to select or develop a particular type of taskfor their students in a specific classroom setting, because there is a range of degrees ofdiscrepancy between what the teacher intends in implementing certain tasks and what thelearners actually do when they work with the tasks (Kumaravadivelu, 1991). As C. Lee(2005) noted, early studies in TBLT have investigated the relationship between task type andlanguage production. In a study comparing the proportion of turns taken by non-nativespeakers engaged in a describe-and-draw task and a jigsaw listening task, for example, Gassand Varonis (1985a, 1985b) indicated that there were fewer breakdowns in communicationin the describe-and-draw task, but could not find any significant differences in the amount ofnegotiation between the two task types. In a study investigating the effect of task type oninteraction, Duff (1986) found that a problem-solving task resulted in more turns per taskthan a debate task, whereas the debate task produced more utterances than the problem-solving task. In addition, Ellis (1987) reported that learners produced more accurate use of 27
past tense morphemes in a planned narrative task than in a non-planned task. Long andCrookes (1989) distinguished between pedagogic tasks for classroom activities and targettasks for real-life situations. The major aim of all these early studies was to explore theeffects of task type on task performance and outcomes with specific conditions assummarised by the author below. Table 2.1 The Types of Tasks Gass and Varonis (1985a,b) One-or two-way task Duff (1986) Convergent or divergent task Ellis (1987) Planning or non-planning task Long and Crookes (1989) Pedagogic or target taskMore specifically, Foster and Skehan (1996) and Skehan and Foster (1997) reported thatthree different tasks (i.e., personal, narrative, and decision-making) were influenced by threedifferent planning conditions (i.e., non-planning, undetailed, and detailed) in terms offluency, accuracy, and complexity. For example, Foster and Skehan (1996) reported thatnon-planners were less accurate than undetailed and detailed planners on a personal task,produced more errors than the other groups on a decision-making task, but showed no effecton a narrative task. Skehan and Foster (1997) reported that undetailed planners achievedgreater accuracy on personal and narrative tasks but not on a decision-making task (seeSkehan, 1998, for a comparison of the two studies). In a study of eighth-grade Frenchimmersion students working with a dictogloss task in pairs, Kowal and Swain (1994)reported that the dictogloss task resulted in greater accuracy, because the students noticedlinguistic problems in their own output. In a study comparing the use of the first language(English) by eighth-grade French immersion students engaged in a dictogloss task and apicture-sequencing task, Swain and Lapkin (2000) reported that the students engaged in thedictogloss task devoted fewer L1 turns, whereas the students engaged in the picture-sequencing task used more L1 turns to search for L2 vocabulary items. This is because the 28
dictogloss task provided them with the necessary lexical items, whereas the picture-sequencing task required them to recall appropriate L2 vocabulary items. In a studyanalysing the use of lexical innovation strategies (e.g., code switching) by Spanish L2learners of English involved in three task types (i.e. picture description, story-telling, andinterview), Alvarez (2007) found that task type had an effect on the selection and frequencyof different strategy use and further research would be required to determine the influence oftask features on lexical creativity. After implementing a text reconstruction task in whichlearners were given the opportunity to reconstruct a text together, Kuiken and Vedder (2002)and Storch (1998) concluded that this joint product was a way of improving grammaticalaccuracy and as a result, these collaborative tasks would create new knowledge andconsolidate existing knowledge by sharing linguistic resources with group members. Theempirical research all indicates that a particular type of task plays a significant role in taskperformance and thus, it can affect learners' task outcomes. In this respect, a criticalquestion emerges as a response to the empirical research, "What kinds of tasks are needed topromote L2 acquisition?" (Ellis, 2003: 101). It is therefore important to investigate therelationship between different task types and performance outcomes. More importantly,there is certainly a need to explore the role of collaborative writing tasks in L2 teaching andtheir potential for encouraging young learners to understand and use the target language. Inaddition, there is a need to examine the role of task repetition in L2 teaching as another taskvariable examined in the present study.220.127.116.11.2 Task RepetitionAlthough it seems that task repetition has been relatively underexplored in TBLT, there hasbeen a growing literature on the pedagogical benefits of repetition in L2 learning and 29
teaching (Bygate, 1996, 2001a; Gass et al., 1999; Lynch & Maclean, 2000, 2001; Pinter,2001, 2005, 2007). In an early study, for example, Gass and Varonis (1985a, 1985b) askedparticipants to repeat a describe-and-draw task in pairs and then reversed the roles on thesecond occasion. The results showed the participants' increasing understanding of the task inthe second performance. In a comparison study of a student's retelling of a Tom and Jerrycartoon twice three days apart, Bygate (1996) reported that, far from there being a boredomeffect, there was clear improvement in terms of complexity of the output (e.g., lexical verbs,regular past tense, cohesive devices). In a larger study investigating the effects of specifictask types (narrative and interview) on task performance, Bygate (2001a) found that therewas a strong effect of task repetition on the complex and precise language production on thesecond occasion resulting from competing demands of fluency, accuracy, and complexity. Inparticular, the practical benefits of task repetition were emphasised in which "the firstoccasion is kept in the learners' memory store and can be reused on the second occasion,thereby freeing up some of the learners' capacity to pay attention to other aspects of the task"(Bygate, 2001a: 29). In other words, L2 learners may focus on meaning construction duringthe first performance, whereas they can focus more on the forms during the secondperformance. In a similar format in which a group of English-speaking students of Spanishwere asked to retell a film strip, Gass et al. (1999) found some changes in morphosyntacticaccuracy and lexical sophistication over time. Lynch and Maclean (2000, 2001) also found arepetition effect when medical students were involved in a poster carousel task and had toexplain their posters to six visitors for three minutes respectively. In this study, the studentsdeveloped their language through the different repetitions and as a result, there was animprovement in accuracy and fluency although different students benefited in different waysbecause of their different levels of proficiency. 30
It is important to recognize that there are beneficial effects on learner performance due to theadditional opportunities to repeat the same task. In contrast to the empirical research onadult learners, however, there have been a relatively small number of studies conducted withyoung learners. For example, Van den Branden (1997) investigated the performance of10/11-year-old Belgian children learning Dutch. When involved in an information-gap task,one of the two groups was asked to repeat the task twice. From the significantly higher rangeof vocabulary in the second performance, the children seemed to recycle the new wordswhich were offered by their interlocutor during the first performance. In a study exploring10-year-old Hungarian EFL children's peer-peer interaction, Pinter (2005) claimed thatsystematic repetition was beneficial for both 'language learning' and 'self-confidence' whenthe children were given the opportunity to repeat the same tasks. In particular, task repetitionis viewed as "regular opportunities and a vehicle for the children to display their growingability to interact with each other and control a specific type of task without any interventionfrom the teacher" (Pinter, 2007: 202). In other words, repeating the same tasks enabled theHungarian EFL children to become more independent in language learning. In a replicationof the study by Lynch (2001) where adult learners participated in a role play activity in pairs,produced a transcript and then revised it until they were satisfied with their products, Swainand Lapkin (2008) asked French immersion children to complete a series of activities inpairs for five days. As Lynch (2001) stated the revision process drew the participants'attention to language form and use in a relatively natural way, Swain and Lapkin (2008) alsoconcluded that task repetition created opportunities to learn new lexical items andconsolidate their knowledge of known ones in a natural manner. In this respect, it can besaid that all these empirical studies concur in showing the need for investigating thepedagogical benefits of task repetition in L2 teaching and learning in the classroom. 31
This section has overviewed the growing interest in the use of tasks in L2 research andpedagogy, the principles of TBLT and two task variables which may affect learner's taskperformance and outcomes. The next section discusses the rationale for collaborativelearning, the role of language output and the need for teaching L2 writing as a way offacilitating collaborative written language output.2.2 Collaborative Writing in the ClassroomThis section is concerned with collaborative writing in relation to the process ofcollaborative learning and language output in the classroom. The first part of this sectionprovides a brief description of the concept of collaborative written output from the socioconstructivist view. In the second part, the role of collaboration in L2 learning is presentedwith the conditions for fostering collaborative learning and peer interaction. Regarding thesignificance of learner output in L2 learning, the third part deals with Swain'sComprehensible Output Hypothesis and its three functions of language output. This isfollowed in the fourth part by a brief overview of research on L2 writing and the need forteaching L2 writing in the EFL classroom context.2.2.1 Collaborative Written OutputIn the traditional writing classroom, the writer tends to be perceived as an isolated individualand the act of writing as a silent, private and solitary activity regardless of L1 and L2contexts. However, a number of researchers and teachers have become interested in thesocial aspects of writing in and outside the classroom and this has been shown in a 32


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subset: commoncrawl


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Ghana's mixed fortune as a dumping ground for e-waste
Return to Kuwait: The class of 1990
27 Mar 2011 12:41 GMT | Sport, Russia
Red Bull's Sebastian Vettel made a perfect start to his Formula One world title defence with a pole-to-flag victory at the season-opening Australian Grand Prix.
Renault's Vitaly Petrov claimed his and Russia's first ever podium in third place as the top three all ran two-stop strategies, despite the new Pirelli tyres which are supposed to degrade more quickly.
Mexican rookie Sergio Perez was an impressive seventh for Sauber on his Formula One debut but his dream start was later chalked off when he and teammate Kamui Kobayashi were disqualified for technical infringements.
The drivers were excluded for Sauber's breach of technical regulations relating to having slots on the beam wing and the rear wing of the car, International Automobile Federation (FIA) stewards said in a statement.
Sauber said it would appeal the decision.
The 21-year-old would have become the first Mexican in 30 years to score championship points after riding his luck on a single change of tyres to finish seventh, while more seasoned drivers made two or three stops to change their Pirellis.
Japan's Kobayashi had also impressed, finishing eighth for the Swiss-based team on a day principal Peter Sauber had described as a "dream start to the season".
1 S Vettel (GER) RedBull2 L Hamilton (GBR) McLaren3 V Petrov (RUS) Renault 4 F Alonso (ESP) Ferrari 5 M Webber (AUS) RedBull6 J Button (GBR) McLaren 7 F Massa (BRA) Ferrari 8 S Buemi (SUI) Toro Rosso 9 A Sutil (GER) Force India10 P Di Resta (GBR) Force India 11 J Alguersuari (ESP) Toro Rosso 12 N Heidfeld (GER) Renault13 J Trulli (ITA) Lotus 14 J d'Ambrosio (BEL)Disqualified pending appeal:7 S Perez (MEX) Sauber 8 K Kobayashi (JPN) Sauber
The exclusions mean Ferrari's Felipe Massa is promoted from ninth to seventh and Toro Rosso's Sebastien Buemi from 10th to eighth.
Force India's Adrian Sutil and Paul di Resta move up to ninth and 10th respectively.
Blast off
Vettel, 23, blasted off the grid and never looked troubled as the German notched up his 11th career victory by 22.2 seconds from McLaren's Lewis Hamilton. Ferrari's double world champion Fernando Alonso was fourth ahead of local hope Mark Webber in the other Red Bull.
Starting from pole position, Vettel maintained his lead after the first turn and had already opened a gap of more than two seconds over Hamilton after the first lap and the German was never seriously threatened.
Vettel made his first pit to change to softer rubber in the 14th lap, emerging still in 3rd ahead of McLaren's Jenson Button.
He regained the lead two laps later when Hamilton took a tire change.
"Very cool," he radioed to his team after taking the chequered flag. "Excellent car. Excellent stops."
Button was sixth, falling short in his bid to win the race for a third straight year.
He had to do a drivethrough penalty after using a slip road to pass Ferrari's Massa in the early part of the race, and that cost him a shot at third.
Perez remarkably only pitted once as he finished ahead of teammate Kobayashi, while Massa was ninth and Toro Rosso's Buemi took the last point.
It was a bad day for Mercedes, with both Michael Schumacher and Nico Rosberg forced to retire.
"I had a good start, made up quite a few positions, then had a good run into turn three, but as I turned in someone (Jaime Alguersuari) knocked on to my right rear," Schumacher said.
"The consequence was I had a puncture which destroyed the right tire, and driving back to the pits basically destroyed the right floor. In the end the team decided for safety it wasn't worth staying out."
Hamilton also damaged the floor of his car when he went wide on turn one of his 32nd lap. He continued on, even though the team warned him late to nurse the car into second rather than try to mount a challenge for the lead.
Rosberg was forced to retire shortly after colliding with Rubens Barrichelo in the 24th lap. Barichello was handed a drivethrough penalty for causing the crash.
Source: Agencies
Season-opening Grand Prix in doubt at Sakhir after two feeder series races called off due to protester deaths in Manama.
Sport, Bahrain
Red Bull driver becomes youngest ever world champion as Alonso finishes a distant seventh.
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Middle East, Politics, Qatar, Iran, John Kerry
At least 46 dead and more than 200,000 affected after monsoon rains trigger flash floods and landslides.
Humanitarian crises, Asia Pacific, Myanmar, Floods, Weather
101 East explores how Japan's funeral industry is getting creative as the ageing nation runs out of space for the dead.
Arts & Culture, Asia Pacific, Japan
The story behind Nigeria's domestic movie industry, the second biggest producer of films in the world.
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Politics, Russia, Vladimir Putin


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16 killed in stampede for government jobs
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Postcard from... Madrid
Tuesday 18 February 2014
For some strange reason, wedging a car into an unnervingingly small underground carpark space has always seemed to be as integral to the average Spanish travel experience as drinking sangria or eating a tortilla de patatas omelette . But now the mystery has been solved.
Postcard from... Bordeaux
Friday 14 February 2014
The other day I observed the formal induction of the new intake of students at a prestigious college in Bordeaux. Of the 268 students in the hall, 195 of them – more than 72 per cent – were young women, who were about to begin a rigorous 30-month training programme to become judges in the École Nationale de Magistrature.
Postcard from... Barcelona
Thursday 13 February 2014
It is World Cup year, and that can mean only two things: crushing disappointment for England fans (our own fault for believing the impossible) and taxi drivers everywhere displaying faux patriotism by attaching plastic St George's crosses to their cabs.
Postcard from... Beijing
Wednesday 12 February 2014
A state TV exposé on prostitution in China's "sex capital" and an ensuing police crackdown have drawn criticism from the public, who expressed sympathy for the sex workers.
Postcard from... Paris
Tuesday 11 February 2014
What on earth are they smoking in northern France? Hydrangeas, apparently. Police in the Pas de Calais are on the trail of a "hydrangea gang", which is presumably a direct descendant of the Lavender Hill Mob. Residents of several villages have filed complaints that their prized hydrangeas have been systematically stripped of buds or growing tips. Carefully placed in soil or compost, these buds can develop into new plants.
Postcard from... Mitrovica
Thursday 06 February 2014
They've been roughing each other for a century, but now Serbs and Albanians in this ethnically divided city in Kosovo are learning to work together through a sport all about gaining territory: rugby.
Postcard from... Kolkata
Tuesday 04 February 2014
There are surely grander places to eat in Kolkata, but there are few where the food is so delicious. Or where the simple pleasure of eating benefits such a worthy cause.
Young woman hit by 25,000-volt shock after climbing on a freight train in east London
Friday 31 January 2014
The 22-year-old is being treated in hospital after the incident on Wednesday night
The War Behind the Wire by John Lewis-Stempel; book review
Friday 31 January 2014
Colditz; the Great Escape; Bridge on the River Kwai and, recently, the Railway Man. Parodies of them by everyone from Beyond the Fringe to Russ Abbott. All second world war. Memoir after memoir. And yet with the single, powerful exception of the French classic La Grande Illusion, the prisoners of the Great War have gone largely unchronicled.
Postcard from... Berlin
Thursday 30 January 2014
In the Germany the "British Bobby" is still regarded as a model of gentlemanly policing, so Boris Johnson's proposals to equip the London Met with German-manufactured water cannons has come as a shock.
Postcard from... Madrid
Monday 27 January 2014
The News Matrix: Monday 27 January 2014
Monday 27 January 2014
Pregnant woman is taken off life support
Channel Tunnel workers suffer carbon monoxide poisoning while changing tracks
Sunday 26 January 2014
60 people were working in the tunnel overnight when the incident happened, one is in a serious condition
The Grill Room at the Grand, restaurant review: First-class dining in a fantastic heritage setting
Saturday 25 January 2014
For all the cuddly Thomas the Tank Engine nostalgia that surrounds Britain's railway history, it should never be forgotten that this was the story of capitalism in the raw. In the 19th century, fortunes were made but more typically lost and the winners were only too keen to signal their grand ambitions to the world.
Travel special 2014: Soak in the scenery on a train journey from Newcastle to Carlisle
Saturday 25 January 2014
The train between Newcastle and Carlisle runs parallel to Hadrian's Wall and offers a window on some of the most spectacular scenery in England. But the 60-mile Tyne Valley Line is itself a part of history, built in the 1830s during the first era of nationwide railway expansion. Following the path of the Tyne inland from Newcastle, the line passes over two listed viaducts and through five listed stations, including Hexham, which dates to 1835, making it one of the world's oldest purpose-built railway stations.
Yvette Cooper: Our choice is years of Tory rule under Jeremy Corbyn – or a return to a Labour government
Labour leadership contender Jeremy Corbyn says 'we can learn a great deal from Karl Marx'
Is Britain really full up? Are migrants taking our jobs? Leading academic answers the most common anti-immigration claims
Calais Migrant Crisis: Deputy Mayor of Calais labels Cameron's use of 'swarm' as 'racist' and 'ignorant'
Public anger after French sunbather beaten up by gang for wearing a bikini in Reims park
Labour leadership: New poll shows party is now even 'less electable' than under Ed Miliband
- 1 National Orgasm Day: Six reasons (plus one bogus one) why they're good for us
- 2 The 'world's most beautiful vagina' has been debunked by science
- 3 John Green schools morning show hosts after awkward interview with Cara Delevingne
- 4 Doctor Who: Christopher Eccleston says why he left the BBC series after just one series
- 5 'Rowdy' Roddy Piper dies: Wrestling legend dies aged 61, according to reports