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Nelson: The New LettersPaperback
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- Publisher: The Boydell Press
- Format: Paperback | 600 pages
- Dimensions: 148mm x 226mm x 46mm | 880g
- Publication date: 21 September 2007
- Publication City/Country: Woodbridge
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Nelson was a letter writer of great flair and somehow, between his naval service and recovering from various illnesses and wounds and, of course, despite his famously tangled love-life, he managed to write an extraordinary number of them, on all subjects and addressed to all manner of recipients.This widely-praised volume collects together over 500 of those letters, dating from 1777 to just days before the Battle of Trafalgar that would seal both his fate and his fame. They range from detailed battle orders to passionate love letters, from the business of securing - or giving - patronage to diplomatic reports for kings, queens, politicians and dignitaries. All aspects of Nelson's life are covered here, particularly his seldom-glimpsed family life, so that the reader cannot fail to see him in a new light. Nor can any reader fail to marvel at the combination of traits that made the man great: his brilliant leadership and organisation, his daring and ruthless military mind and, not least, his very real compassion, even for his enemies.Dr Colin White is Director of the Royal Naval Museum in Portsmouth, UK. One of Britain's leading naval historians, he is recognised worldwide as an authority on Nelson. In 2005, he was the mastermind behind the hugely successful 'Trafalgar Festival', for which he was awarded the Longman-History Today Trustees Prize. Published in association with the National Maritime Museum and the Royal Naval Museum.
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Winner of the 2006 Distinguished Book Award for Biography/Memoir, from the Society for Military History (US): "an outstanding contribution to military history". Outstandingly good. THE GUARDIANRiveting. The admiral that emerges is open, engaged, alive; he writes as one imagines he spoke. THE ECONOMISTColin White...successfully reminds us why the memory of Nelson and his achievements has endured. THE NEW YORK REVIEW OF BOOKSImpressively wide-ranging... A Nelson fan's delight. DAILY EXPRESSIn so far as Admiral Nelson has a representative on earth it is Colin White. SUNDAY TELEGRAPH(An) important addition to the printed Nelson sources (by) perhaps the best-known "Nelsonian" of our day. TLSThese letters reveal the reality of genius in action. Andrew Lambert, ARCHIVES


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1. 29V.R. Preedy (ed.), Handbook of Anthropometry: Physical Measuresof Human Form in Health and Disease, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1788-1_2,© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012Abstract Percentiles and Z-scores are often used to assess anthropometric measures to help evaluatechildren's growth and nutritional status. In this chapter, we first compare the concepts and applicationsof percentiles and Z-scores and their strengths and limitations. Compared to percentiles, Z-scores havea number of advantages: first, they are calculated based on the distribution of the reference population(mean and standard deviation), and thus reflect the reference distribution; second, as standardizedquantities, they are comparable across ages, sexes, and anthropometric measures; third, Z-scores canbe analyzed as a continuous variable in studies. In addition, they can quantify extreme growth statusat both ends of the distribution. However, Z-scores are not straightforward to explain to the public andare hard to use in clinical settings. In recent years, there has been growing support to the use of per-centiles in some growth and obesity references. We also discuss the issues related to cut point selec-tions and outline the fitting/smoothing techniques for developing reference curves. Finally, severalimportant growth references and standards including the previous and new WHO growth reference/standards and the US 2000 CDC Growth Charts, are presented and compared. They have been devel-oped based on different principles and data sets and have provided different cut points for the sameanthropometric measures; they could, thus, provide different results. This chapter will guide readersto understand and use percentiles and Z-scores based on recent growth references and standards.AbbreviationsBMI Body mass indexCDC Centers for Disease Control and PreventionIOTF International Obesity Task ForceHAZ Height- or length-for-age Z-scoreMGRS Multicentre Growth Reference StudyNCHS National Center for Health StatisticsNHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination SurveySD Standard deviationWHO World Health OrganizationWHZ Weight-for-age Z-scoreChapter 2Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryYoufa Wang and Hsin-Jen ChenY. Wang( )Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health,Center for Human Nutrition, 615 N Wolfe St. E2546, Baltimore, MD 21205, USAe-mail: email@example.com
30 Y. Wang and H.-J. Chen2.1 IntroductionAnthropometric assessment for children and adolescents involves the use of growth standards and/orgrowth references for assessing their growth, nutritional status and well being (Wang et al. 2006;WHO 1995). A growth standard reflects optimal growth, suggesting that all children have the poten-tial to achieve that level, while a growth reference is simply the distribution used for comparison(WHO MGRSG 2006a).Percentiles and Z-scores in anthropometric measures have been widely used to help assess youngpeople's nutritional status and growth, such as undernutrition (e.g., underweight, stunting and wast-ing) and overnutrition (i.e., overweight and obesity), see Tables 2.1 and 2.2. Often, percentiles (suchas the 5th, 85th, 95th, 97th, 99th percentiles) and Z-scores (e.g., -2 and +2) are used to classify varioushealth conditions, and sex-age-specific anthropometric measures cut-points (based on Z-scores orpercentiles) are provided in tables and as smoothed curves on growth charts (see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).For the past four decades, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the use ofgrowth reference (or "growth chart"), mainly based on Z-scores of anthropometric measures, toassess children's nutritional status and growth. These growth charts were developed based on dataTable 2.1 Comparison of percentiles and Z-scores in anthropometryPercentiles Z-scores1. Definition The percentage of observations(or population) falls below the valueof a variableThe number of standard deviation (SD) awayfrom the mean, when the distribution isnormal2. Scale Rank scale Continuous scale (from – ∞ to ∞)3. Strengths (a) Intuitively more understandable (a) Allowing comparisons across ages and sexes(b) Indicating the expected prevalence (b) Able to quantify the extreme values(c) Good for assessing the longitudinal changesin growth status4. Limitations (a) Not comparable across differentanthropometriesDifficult to perceive than percentiles, especiallyfor the public(b) Extreme values are lumped to the highest/lowest percentile(c) Not suitable for assessing longitudinalgrowth status5. Under normal distribution, a percentile must correspond to a fixed Z-score.Following is a list of usually used percentile-Z-score conversion values.0.2nd –32.3rd –22.5th –1.965th –1.6415th –1.0416th –150th (median) 084th +185th +1.0495th +1.6497.5th +1.9697.7th +299.8th +3This table lists the key definitions and scales of percentiles and Z-scores, and compares their strengths and limitations.In practical setting, users would often face the task to convert Z-scores to percentiles or vice versa. Thus, this table alsoshows the corresponding values between percentiles and Z-scores
312 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryTable 2.2 The 1995 WHO growth reference: use of percentiles and Z-scoresOutcomes Anthropometric measures and cut points Indication of growth/nutrition problemsInfants and children (<10 years)Stunting HAZ < –2 Z score, or <3rd percentile Chronic malnutritionWasting/thinness WHZ < –2 Z score, or <3rd percentile Acute malnutrition, current malnutritionOverweight WHZ > 2 Z score OverweightAdolescents (> =10 years)Stunting HAZ <–2, or <3rd percentile Chronic malnutritionThinness BMI-for-age < 5th percentile UnderweightAt risk of overweight BMI-for-age > =85th percentile OverweightObese BMI-for-age > =85th percentile andtriceps and subscapularObesityskinfold thickness-for-age > =90thpercentilesThis table summarizes the cut-points of percentiles and Z-scores to define problematic growth status in children andadolescents when using anthropometric measures. These cut-points based on statistical distribution are often adoptedby other growth references/standards including the recent new WHO growth standards and referencesHAZ: Height- or length-for-age Z-score; WHZ: Weight-for-age Z-score; BMI: Body mass index (WHO 1995)Fig. 2.1 The 2006 WHO growth standards: BMI-for-age percentiles for boys under 2-year-old. The curves for the 3rd,15th, 50th, 85th, and 97th percentiles of 0–2 year-old boys' BMI-for-age are presented in this growth chart (Preprintedfrom WHO Growth Standards website, with permission)collected in the United States (Wang et al. 2006). In 1995, WHO recommended the use of thesex-age-specific percentiles of some anthropometric measures for adolescents (WHO 1995).Historically, the WHO international growth references focused more on undernutrition problems,including wasting, stunting and underweight, even as the need to address a growing obesity problemin many countries has risen over the past two decades. The earlier versions of WHO growth
32 Y. Wang and H.-J. Chenreferences were based on US data, whereas the new 2006 WHO Growth Standards for preschool agechildren have been developed based on data collected from several countries (see below).Pediatric growth charts have been widely used globally by researchers, pediatricians, nurses andparents to assess the growth and nutritional status of children, but often users might not be aware oftheir limitations (Wang et al. 2006). For example, growth charts were not designated as a sole diag-nostic instrument. Instead, they contribute to forming an overall clinical impression of the childbeing measured (CDC 2000). In addition, many users are not aware of the differences between"growth standard" and "growth reference" as these two terms are often used interchangeably.In this chapter, we first describe the concepts and application of percentiles and Z-scores inanthropometry and compare their limitations and strengths. Next, we address two important issues:the selection of anthropometric measure cut points and the statistical methods and techniques forgrowth curve fitting and smoothing. Finally, we describe several international growth referencesincluding the 2006 WHO Growth Standards, growth references based on the US population, and aninternational reference for childhood obesity. In some of these references, anthropometric valuescorresponding to certain Z-scores and percentiles are provided.2.2 The Use of Z-ScoresThe use of Z-scores is recommended for several reasons (Table 2.1). First, Z-scores are calculatedbased on the distribution of the reference population (both the mean and the standard deviation [SD]);thus, they reflect the reference distribution. Second, as standardized measures, Z-scores are comparableFig. 2.2 The 2006 WHO growth standards: BMI Z-scores growth chart for preschool girls (0–5 years). This growthchart juxtaposes 0–2 year-old and 2–5 year-old girls' BMI-for-age Z-score curves. This chart provides curves forZ-scores of 0, ±1, ±2, and ±3. The disjunction at 2 years old addresses the issue of differential measurements betweenrecumbent length and standing height. The length-for-age curves are averagely 0.7 cm larger than height-for agecurves at 2-year-old (Reprinted from WHO Growth Standards website, with permission)
332 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in Anthropometryacross age, sex and measure (as a measure of "dimensionless quantity"). Third, a group of Z-scores canbe subject to summary statistics such as mean and SD and can be studied as a continuous variable. Inaddition, Z-score values can quantify the growth status of children outside of the percentile ranges(WHO 1995). However, the major limitation of Z-scores is that they are not straightforward to explainto the public and may be of limited use in clinical settings. The WHO and US Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention (CDC) have ever developed a statistical software to help researchers to calcu-late Z-scores based on the 1978 WHO/NCHS (National Center for Health Statistics) references.In statistical terms, Z-scores are a special application of transformation rules. The Z-score for ameasure (e.g., height or BMI), indicates how far and in what direction (positive vs. negative) a mea-sured value deviates from the population mean, expressed in units of the population SD. It is adimensionless quantity derived from dividing the difference between individual value (x) and thepopulation mean (µ) by the population SD (σ). The transformed Z-scores' distribution will have amean of zero and a SD of one (i.e., mean = 0, SD = 1). This conversion process is called standard-izing or normalizing.ms−=xZZ-scores are sometimes called "standard scores". The Z-score transformation is especially usefulwhen seeking to compare the relative standings of different measures (e.g., height vs. BMI, or themeasures of boys' vs. girls') from distributions with different means and/or different SDs. Z-scoresare especially informative when the distribution to which they refer is normal. In every normal dis-tribution, the area under the curve between the mean and a given Z-score value corresponds to a fixedproportion of the total area (Fig. 2.3). Based on this characteristic, statisticians have created tablesindicating the value of these proportions for various Z-scores.2.3 The Use of PercentilesA percentile is the value of a variable below which a certain percentage of observations (or popula-tion) falls, i.e., the percentile refers to the position of an individual on a given reference distribution.Percentiles are easier to understand and use in practice, both by health professionals and the public.0.3413−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3Z score=x–mzsFig. 2.3 Z-score and the corresponding cumulative probability and percentile (proportion). For normal distribution,the Z-score of 0 divides the total area into two equal halves. Thus, the Z-score of 1 corresponds to the 84th percentile(=0.5 + 0.34), i.e., 84% of the population are measured lower than z-score of 1. A Z-score is calculated as dividing thedifference between measured value (x) and the mean (µ) by standard deviation (σ)
34 Y. Wang and H.-J. ChenIn addition, a percentile dictates the expected percentage of a population should be above (or below)it (see Table 2.1). Often age-sex-specific percentiles are recommended to assess children's growthand nutritional status based on anthropometric measures as well as other health conditions such asblood pressure. During recent years, there is a growing consensus on using sex- and age-specificBMI percentiles as cut-offs instead of weight-for-height Z-scores (WHZ) for assessing overweightand obesity as well as thinness/underweight in children over 2 years old (Kuczmarski et al. 2002;Wang et al. 2006; WHO 2006). The widely used percentiles include the 3rd, 5th, 50th (median),85th, 95th, 97th, 99th.In statistics, the term percentile and the related term percentile rank are often used in descriptivestatistics as well as in the reporting of scores from norm-referenced tests. Percentiles are often rep-resented graphically, using a normal curve (Fig. 2.3). A normal curve is always represented withsome key features. The peak or the center of the bell-shaped curve stands the point of the mean ofthe distribution. The mean (z = 0) halves the normal distribution into two equal and symmetric areas.On both the right and left sides each, the graph can be shown as divided into three parts, accordingto Z-scores of 1, 2, and 3 SD to the right and -1, -2, -3 SD to the left, respectively. At each point ofthese SDs, the corresponding percentile (or cumulative probability) is fixed. In other words, as longas the distribution is normal, every SD unit on the x-axis has a specific percentile which is alwayspaired with them. Therefore, on a normal curve, 34.13% of the data lies between 0 and -1 (or +1),13.59% between -1 and -2 (or between +1 and +2), and 2.14% between -2 and -3 (or between +2 and+3). The remaining 0.14% of the data lies below -3 (or above +3).A limitation of using percentiles is that the same interval of percentile values corresponds todifferent ranges in absolute values for different measurements. For instance, increments from 85th to90th percentile correspond to different ranges in subscapular and in triceps skinfold thickness. Evenwithin the distribution of one measurement, same increments at different percentile levels could cor-respond to different changes in both Z-scores and absolute measures. In addition, it does not allowfor quantifying the change in percentile values near the extremes of the reference distribution(e.g., people in the uppermost 1st percentile can have very different absolute values). For these rea-sons, we suggest that percentiles should not be used to assess change in status over time, whilechange in Z-scores is a better measure. Z-scores are more useful in research while percentiles areeasier for use in clinical settings and by the public.Z-scores and percentiles can be converted to each other, but the commonly used cut points of eachare not at exactly comparable levels. For example, Z-scores of 2 and -2 correspond to the 97.7th and2.3rd percentiles, while the 85th and 5th percentiles correspond to Z-scores of 1.04 and -1.65,respectively.2.4 Selection of Anthropometric Measure Cut PointsIn growth references and standards based on international data or those from individual countries,Z-scores of +2 and -2, and/or certain percentiles (e.g., 5th, 85th, and 95th), have often been chosenas cut points to classify problematic growth/nutritional status such as malnutrition or obesity. Thesecriteria are based on statistical distribution rather than on the risks of health outcomes (see Table2.2). Ideally, the criteria should be established based on their associations with higher health risks,and cut points should be chosen for the particular purpose. The classification of "higher risk" indi-viduals and population groups should be based on the evidence of increased risk for morbidity,mortality, or/and impaired function performance (WHO 1995).
352 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryHowever, to assess the relationship between different indicators and health outcomes is oftenmore difficult in children than in adults. It is even harder to choose cut points for "higher risk". Inchildren, two types of health outcomes need to be considered for studying the association withanthropometric measurement/indicators: (a) the short- and intermediate-term health outcomes dur-ing childhood and adolescence, and (b) long-term health outcomes in adulthood. Before well-designed long-term longitudinal studies provided sufficient information for these purposes, theInternational Obesity Task Force (IOTF) recommended sex-age-specific cut points for overweightand obese children and adolescents. These cut points are distinct from other statistical criteria basedon growth reference/standards: they correspond to the overweight and obesity status in adulthood.(Cole et al. 2000, see below) Even with these unprecedented features, more solid evidence regardingthe association between growth status and health outcomes are necessary.In addition to connecting the deviations in anthropometric indicators and health/functional con-sequences, Pelletier suggested two more considerations for selecting cut points to assess growth andnutritional status: (1) Variation in age, maturation, gender, ethnicity, and other "technical" factorsthat affect anthropometry "independently" or in conjunction with health or social causes or conse-quences; and (2) The intended or potential applications of the anthropometric cut points, such asclinical diagnosis, policy formulation, social utility as well as advocacy for particular problems andsolutions. (Pelletier 2006) He further argued that different indicators and cut points are needed fordifferent application purposes. However, this notion may not be agreed upon by various user com-munities, including international expert groups, because universal cut points of simple indicators areconsidered easier to use and better for international comparisons.Nevertheless, given the increasing understanding of the complexity of assessing children's growthand the new reality of a growing global obesity epidemic, as well as that many developing countriesare facing a double burden of under- and over-nutrition problems, the international community andthe public might take a new position if appropriate single cut points for simple indicators cannot bedeveloped (Wang et al. 2006). For example, although the WHO has been recommending to use theBMI cut points of 25 and 30 for adults to classify overweight and obesity since the mid 1990s (WHO1995), later research suggested that different BMI cut points may be more appropriate for specificpopulations and for different purposes, for example, lower BMI cut points of 23 and 25 for someAsian Pacific populations (Inoue et al. 2000; WHO Expert Consultation 2004).2.5 Statistical Methods/Techniques Used for Curve-Fitting or SmoothingGrowth references/standards are used to compare an individual's measurements with that of thepopulation. To develop sex-age-specific growth curves of critical percentile or Z-score cut points isimportant. Several different curve-fitting and smoothing techniques have been used in the develop-ment of existing growth references. When the 1978 WHO/NCHS growth curves were developed, aleast-squares-cubic-spline technique was used (Hamill et al. 1979). The BMI and skinfold thicknesspercentiles being recommended by the WHO for international use were developed based on datacollected in the US using the LOWESS method (LOcally WEighted regression Scatter-plotSmoothing) (Must et al. 1991). Several recent growth and obesity references, such as the 2000 CDCGrowth Charts, the 2006 WHO Growth Standards, and the 2007 WHO Growth references (seebelow) used the LMS (lambda, mu, and sigma) estimation procedure or its modified approach toaccommodate the distributions of different anthropometric measurements. The LMS method wasintroduced in the 1980s (Cole et al. 1992). For example, the CDC Growth Charts were carried out in
36 Y. Wang and H.-J. Chentwostages:curvesmoothingandtransformation.TheLMSmethodwasmodifiedforthetransformationstage (Kuczmarski et al. 2002). In general, methods which summarize the centiles as an underlyingdistribution, such as the LMS method, "borrow strength" from neighboring ages and centiles andthus make better use of the data than the separate percentile-fitting methods used in the 1978 WHO/NCHS reference (Wang et al. 2006).Based on the smoothed percentile curves over ages, the normalized distribution can be recon-structed and the Z-scores can be estimated. Theoretically, under normal distribution, each percentileshould correspond to a Z-score (see below). Thus, the transformation procedure of the data is thencarried out. For example, to develop the US 2000 CDC Growth Charts, Box-Cox transformationprocedure and/or LMS (lambda, mu, and sigma) method were conducted for correcting the skewnessof distribution at each age month, and then converting the percentile into Z-score. Given the LMSequation for specific indicator and the estimated parameters λ (L, the power in the Box-Cox transfor-mation for "correcting" the skewness), µ (M, median), and σ (S, a coefficient of variation) for eachage of month, child's anthropometric measurements can be converted to Z-scores and percentiles(see below).These different methods may affect the final curves and cut points. For example, the BMI percen-tiles developed by Must et al. and Hammer et al. based on the First National Health and NutritionExamination Survey (NHANES) data are not identical (Hammer et al. 1991; Must et al. 1991). Takethe 5th percentile for 18-year-old white adolescents as an example, Must et al.'s figure vs. Hammeret al.'s was 17.5 vs. 18.3 for males and 16.9 vs. 17.2 for females, respectively. For the 95th percentile,the figures were 29.9 vs. 29.7 for males and 29.2 vs. 31.0 for females, respectively. Hence, differentcurve-fitting and smoothing techniques could lead to different results.2.6 Practical Methods and Techniques: How to Use GrowthReferences/StandardsTo use a growth reference or standard to help assess individual or groups of children's growth andnutritional status, one will need to compare the subject(s)'s measure against the cut points pro-vided in such growth references or standards, provided either in tables or growth charts (calledgrowth curves). To use the growth charts, the users plot the observations on them. Since the growthcharts were designated applicable to different sexes and age ranges, users need to choose theappropriate one.Figure 2.4 is an example showing how to use the 2000 CDC Growth Charts to monitor a girl'sgrowth in weight. This is a weight-for-age chart, and the girl's body weight measurements at 11months after birth were plotted on the chart. The chart shows reference curves for the 5th, 10th, 25th,50th, 75th, 90th and 95th percentiles from birth to 36 months old. These curves can be used to evalu-ate the position of a child's anthropometric measurement relative to the reference population. Thegirl's weight-for-age was first generally between the 50th and 75th percentile curves after birth, butfaltered to below the 10th percentile after 15 months old. This indicated failure of growth and theneed of more careful examination and care such as better nutrition and/or appropriate treatment tothe underlying causes. Similarly, one can use the growth charts for different anthropometric indica-tors provided by other growth references and standards.Another way to use the recent growth references and standards, in particular, for research, is tocalculate exact percentile and Z-score values for the subjects' measured values, compared to theselected reference or standard. The WHO 2006 and 2007 growth standards and reference and the 2000CDC Growth Charts utilized similar techniques of smoothing and transformation (the LMS method).
372 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryThey all provide the sex-age-specific LMS parameters that allow users to calculate the Z-scorecorresponding to each individual child's measured value. The formula for calculating Z-score is:( ) ( )−= ≠ = =1 lnwhen 0; when 0;Ly yM Mz L z LSL Swhere y is the individual observation, while the LMS parameters for the individual's age and sex needto be applied. For example, to calculate the WHZ for a 60-month-old (or 5 year-old) boy with a bodyweight of 15 kg based on the 2000 CDC Growth Reference, the reference table of weight-for-ageFig. 2.4 An example from CDC of how to use growth chart to monitor individual child's growth (Adapted from http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/case_mary.htm). This figure uses a case to show how to apply a growth chart to assess achild's growth trajectory and health status. It shows a girl who had experienced growth faltering after age of 6 months.More details were provided in text (Reprinted from CDC website: http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/case_mary.htm)
38 Y. Wang and H.-J. Chenchildren of 2–20 years of age should be used. The estimated LMS parameters for boys aged 60.0–60.9 months old are listed on the reference table as -1.000453886 for L, 18.48592413 for M, and0.129879257 for S. Thus, the boy's WHZ is -1.79 according to the formula.As for percentile, it can be calculated after the Z-score is obtained, because the distributions ofanthropometric measurements are close to normal under the Box-Cox transformation. In the abovecase, where the WHZ is -1.79, the corresponding percentile is the 3.7th. Namely, within the normaldistribution with a mean of 0 and SD of 1, the cumulative probability below -1.79 SD from mean is0.037. This can be calculated using a statistical software or by looking up the Z-table. This boy'sbody weight was below the lowest 5% compared to 60-month-old boys in the 2000 CDC reference.If the CDC's weight-for-age chart for children aged 2–20 was used, this boy's body weight would beplotted between the 3rd and 5th percentile curves.Additional attention should be paid to including the 2006 WHO Growth Standard's formulas toadjust distorted extreme values and the 2000 CDC Growth Reference's formula for special occasionswhen L parameter equals to 0 (CDC 2000; WHO MGRSG 2006a). Furthermore, the formula forZ-scores of different anthropometric indicators may vary in the 2006 WHO Growth Standards (WHOMGRSG 2006a). Users should read the manuals carefully before applying these formulae.Furthermore, even though the recent growth charts from the CDC and the WHO since 2000 aredeveloped using similar statistical techniques, the reference populations and data used to developthem are quite different (see below).2.7 The WHO Growth References and StandardsSince the 1970s the WHO has published several versions of growth references, recommended forinternational use to help assess children's growth and nutritional status. Thus far, there are threewidely known and used versions: the 1978 WHO/NCHS Growth References (for children up to age10), the WHO Growth References (for children and adolescents up to age 19), and the 2006 WHOGrowth Standards (for preschool children, under 6 years of age).Most of the earlier versions are based on growth references developed and used in the US. TheUS CDC NCHS developed growth references based on national survey data collected in the 1960sand 1970s. These NCHS Growth Charts included anthropometric measurements such as weight-for-height, weight-for-age, height-for-age, and head circumference-for-age. They were developed basedon several national surveys (namely NHES II, NHES III, and NHANES I) and a local study forinfants (the Fels Longitudinal Study). More details about the history of the WHO growth referencesare provided elsewhere (WHO 1995; Wang et al. 2006; WHO MGRSG 2006a).2.7.1 The 1978 WHO/NCHS Growth ReferencesIn 1978, the WHO/CDC produced a normalized version of the US CDC/NCHS growth curves,showing Z-scores instead of absolute anthropometric values. It was called the 1978 WHO/NCHSGrowth References, and has been widely used all over the world since then. However, it has a num-ber of limitations (Wang et al. 2006). For example, one of its main limitations is about representa-tiveness, because the growth reference for infants was developed based on data collected from theFels Longitudinal Study, which followed mainly formula-fed children in an area in Ohio State inmid-west of the USA. Moreover, these children were followed with large time intervals, which
392 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in Anthropometryprovided insufficient data to describe the rapid and changing rate of growth in early infancy(Kuczmarski et al. 2002). Recent studies have shown that the growth pattern of breast-fed infantsdiffered from that of formula-fed infants (Victora et al. 1998; de Onis and Onyango 2003). To over-come these limitations, new growth references and standards have been developed in the US in 2000and by the WHO in 2006, respectively (see below).2.7.2 The 1995 WHO Growth ReferencesIn 1995, a WHO Expert Committee reviewed existing growth references and research findings, andthen re-endorsed the use of the 1978 WHO/NCHS Growth Charts. In addition, for adolescents, thecommittee recommended use of the sex- and age-specific BMI ³ the 85th percentile and both tricepsand subscapular skinfold thickness ³ the 90th percentile for classifying "at risk of overweight" and"overweight" (WHO 1995). These percentiles were developed based on the US data. Previously theWHO had not made specific recommendation for adolescents. The committee acknowledged theweaknesses of the NCHS infant growth charts, and some potential problems when using these USadolescent BMI percentiles in other populations. For example, their predictability to future healthrisk and generalizability for children from developing countries was unknown. The committee rec-ommended the use of these references on a provisional basis, until better reference data becameavailable (WHO 1995).2.7.3 The 2006 WHO Growth Standards for Preschool ChildrenOn April 27, 2006, the WHO released new growth standards for children from birth to the age of 60months (5 years old, see Tables 2.3 and 2.4). In order to establish growth standards for differentraces/ethnicities, the Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) recruited affluent, breast-fed,and healthy infants/children whose mothers did not smoke during or after delivery from six cities inTable 2.3 Key anthropometric measures and indicators provided in recent WHO and US CDC growth references/standards2000 CDC growthreference2006 WHO growthstandards2007 WHO growthreferenceApplicable age range (years) 0–3 2–20 0–2 2–5 5–19Length/height/stature-for-age v v v v vWeight-for-age v v v – vWeight-for-length v – v – –Weight-for-height/stature – v – v –BMI-for-age – v v v vHead circumference-for-age v – v – –Arm circumference-for-age – – vav –Subscapular skinfold-for-age – – vav –Triceps skinfold-for-age – – vav –This table lays out the anthropometric measures included in the three sets of recent growth references/standards.The first two are widely used by people in different countries"v" indicates available measuresaFrom 3 months to 5 years (CDC 2000; de Onis et al. 2007; WHO 2006)
412 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryBrazil, Ghana, India, Norway, Oman, and the USA. This study included a longitudinal samplefollowed from birth to 24-month-old and a cross-sectional sample recruiting 18- to 71-month-oldchildren. The MGRS data showed great similarities in growth across all study centers, with onlyabout 3% of the total variation in growth was contributed by race/country. Hence, the multicenterdata were pooled for a more powerful sample (WHO MGRSG 2006a). The data demonstrate thatpreschool children in different regions of the world have the same growth potential to achieve similarlevels of heights and weights when their nutrition and health care needs are met. However, this con-clusion was based on children from birth to 6 years (72 months) of age. Genetic influence on inter-individual variation in the ultimate height in adulthood cannot be ruled out.The WHO recommends these new standards in replace of the old versions for international useamong preschool children, although some countries still use their own growth references/stan-dards. The 2006 WHO Growth Standards include anthropometric indicators such as length/height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-length/height, BMI-for-age, head circumference-for-age, armcircumference-for-age, subscapular skinfold-for-age, and triceps skinfold-for-age. Recumbentlength-for-age was used for indicator of stature from birth to age of 24 months, while standingheight-for-age from 2 to 5 years old. Due to the differential measurements of body length and bodyheight, a 0.7 cm taller in length at 24-month-old was observed. Thus, to address this issue, weight-for-length for 0–2 year-old children and weight-for-height for 2–5 year-old children were presentedon separate charts. Meanwhile, growth charts for all other indicators that involve length/heightshow a disjunction between the curves for 0–24 months-old and those for 24–60 month-old, likethe BMI-for-age chart in Fig. 2.2. The WHO provides growth charts and tables of percentiles andZ-scores, separately for girls and boys. On the Z-score growth charts, the curves for 0, ±2, and ±3SD from the age specific median of certain indicator were plotted. As for the percentile charts, fivecurves for the 3rd, 15th, 50th, 85th, and 97th percentiles were shown for each indicator. In thetables, the values of indicator at 0, ±1, ±2, and ±3 SD, and for percentiles of 1st, 3rd, 5th, 15th,25th, 50th, 75th, 85th, 97th and 99th were provided for each age of month.The 2006 WHO Growth Standards differ from the existing growth charts in many ways. They sug-gest "how children should grow", which is developed using a prescriptive approach, not just a descrip-tive one. They show that all children can attain similar levels of healthy height and weight as long asthey have adequate feeding and health care. A key characteristic of the new standards is that it pre-sumed breastfeeding as a biological norm. Furthermore, the pooled sample from the six participatingcountries creates better international standards, in contrast to the previous growth reference based onchildren from a single country. The standards can serve as tools for detecting both under-nutrition andobesity. The standards go beyond the previous references and include indicators like BMI and skin-folds. These charts are particularly useful in monitoring childhood obesity, which is relevant to publichealth in both developed and developing countries (WHO MGRSG 2006a; WHO 2006).2.7.4 The 2007 WHO Growth Reference for School-AgeChildren and AdolescentBased on recommendations made in 2006 by a group of international experts including the leadauthor, in particular, regarding the limitation of the previous growth references and the needs of betterones for assessing both overweight and undernutrition (Wang et al. 2006), the WHO released anotherset of growth reference for children and adolescents aged 5–19 years in 2007 (de Onis et al. 2007).To our knowledge, this reference has not been widely used yet. The references were derived based onthe same US dataset as for the 1978 WHO/NCHS growth references but used different growth curve
42 Y. Wang and H.-J. Chensmoothing techniques. The references include three indicators: BMI-for-age, weight-for-age, andheight-for-age (Tables 2.3 and 2.4). For each indicator, charts and tables for percentiles and Z-scoreswere provided. The percentiles charts draw the 3rd, 15th, 50th, 85th, and 97th percentile curves,while the tables provided the values of anthropometric measures for more percentiles (1st, 3rd, 5th,15th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 85th, 95th, 97th, and 99th). Regarding Z-scores of these three indicators, thecurves for 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 Z-scores from median were shown on charts, and the values for these cutpoints were provided in tables.The WHO recommended the cut points for overweight and obesity based on the BMI-for-ageZ-scores. With the smoothing methods, it showed that the BMI-for-age Z-score = 1 at 19 year-old was25.4 for boys and 25.0 for girls, which equals or is close to the WHO BMI cut point of 25 used inadults. Thus, the reference curve of Z-score = 1 was recommended to classify "overweight", while thatof Z-score > 2 for classifying "obesity" based on the same idea. BMI-for-age Z-score < -2 and < -3were set as the cut-points for thinness and severe thinness, respectively (WHO MGRSG 2006b).2.8 The 2000 International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) Referencefor Classification of Childhood ObesityTo define "overweight" and "obesity" among children aged 2–18 years, the IOTF endorsed a seriesof sex-age-specific BMI cut points. Based on data from multinational surveys, the cut points weredeveloped from sex-specific BMI-age curves that pass through a BMI of 25 for overweight and 30for obesity at age of 18 years old, respectively (Cole et al. 2000). Thus, these classifications of over-weight and obesity in young people would be more biologically or pathologically meaningful com-pared to those references just based on distribution (i.e. percentiles or Z-scores). Given the concernfor the differences among races/ethnicities, the reference was developed based on nationally repre-sentative data from six countries/regions: Brazil, Great Britain, Hong Kong, the Netherlands,Singapore, and the USA. The LMS methods with Box-Cox transformation was used to constructpercentile curves. At age of 18 years, the BMI Z-score corresponding to 25kg/m2ranged from 0.91to 1.68 across the six countries/regions, while the pooled data of the WHO MGRS data showed thatthis BMI for 19 year-old was about at the Z-score of 1 for boys and girls (Table 2.4). This IOTF refer-ence used pooled data to calculate sex-age-specific BMI cut points for overweight and obesity.The cut points were reported for children from 2 to 18 years old in every half year in age for clinicaluse. For epidemiological studies, Cole et al. recommended that the mid-year cut points could be usedfor the year group to obtain unbiased prevalence estimate (e.g., using the cut point at 7.5 years for theage group 7.0–7.9). However, these BMI cut points for obesity may be less precise than those foroverweight because of the larger variations in the percentile curves for obesity among the 6 datasets.The IOTF reference has been recommended for international use due to its unique strengths: First,it is based on large data sets from six countries or regions and covers different races/ethnicities.Second, the BMI cutoffs are linked to adult cutoffs for overweight and obesity, which are goodindicators of risks for adverse health outcomes. On the other hand, there are also concerns about thisreference (Wang 2004). There is great variation in the prevalence of overweight and obesity acrossthe six countries/regions that the IOTF reference population was based on Cole et al. (2000).Moreover, recently the same procedure was applied using the same data for generating the cutpoint curve for thinness in children and adolescents, using the WHO-recommended cut point foradults of BMI < 17 for grade 2 thinness (Cole et al. 2007). They intentionally used the term "thinness"rather than "underweight". Because these cut-points were only based on BMI-for-age, they want tomake this distinct from wasting and stunting. The 2007 WHO Growth Reference also used the termthinness rather than underweight for BMI-Z < 2.
432 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in Anthropometry2.9 The US 2000 CDC Growth ChartsAs mentioned above, the US CDC/NCHS has developed several versions of growth charts since the1970s, and some of them had been recommended by the WHO for international use. In order toaddress the limitations of the previous growth charts, the CDC/NCHS released new growth charts in2000, which were developed based on data of infants and children from birth to 5 years old in theThird National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) to replace the FelsLongitudinal Study, and on the other data from earlier national surveys.The growth charts consist of a series of percentile curves of selected anthropometric measures,including weight-for-age, length-for-age, weight-for-length, and head circumference-for-age frombirth to 36 months of age. For children above 2 years old, there are weight-for-age, stature-for-age,BMI-for-age, and weight-for-stature charts for children taller than 77cm (Table 2.3) (CDC 2000;Kuczmarski et al. 2002). The charts are presented separately for 0–2 year-old and for 2–20 year-oldchildren, thus, the issue of disjunction between length and height measurements at the age of 2 yearsis not observable on the charts.Growth curves for these anthropometric measurements were laid out as two sets of charts,"Individual Growth Charts" and "Clinical Growth Charts." Each chart is printed on one page, namely"Individual Growth Charts." As for "Clinical Growth Charts", length/stature-for-age and weight-for-age were graphed on a same page, and so were the head circumference-for-age and weight-for-lengthcharts displayed together. The growth charts and tables present the 3rd, 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th,90th, 95th and 97th percentile curves. The 85th percentile curve is in addition provided, on the BMI-for-age and weight-for-stature growth charts for 2–20 year-old children because this is a recom-mended cut point for childhood overweight. Regarding the Z-score for the indicators, only tablesprovide the detailed corresponding values indicator-for-age at 0, ±0.5, ±1, ±1.5, and ±2.2.10 Comparisons of Using Different Internationaland Local Growth References/StandardsAs many previous studies have used the earlier growth references and various recent and new growthreferences/standards will continue to be used in the future, it is important to know how comparablethe results are if these references and standards are applied on the same study population. A numberof studies have attempted to address this issue. Following highlighted some of the related findings(see Table 2.5 for a summary). Overall, they showed that the estimated unhealthy growth status canvary when different growth reference/standards are applied.One recent study showed that the Bangladeshi, Dominican Republic, and North American/European children aged 0–12 months had higher prevalence of overweight and stunting but lowerprevalence of underweight, when the 2006 WHO Growth Standards was used compared to the 2000CDC Growth Charts. In addition, according to the 2000 CDC Growth Charts, these children's WHZdecreased as age increased but were relatively stable based on the 2006 WHO Growth standards(de Onis et al. 2006). The US children showed a higher prevalence in stunting but lower prevalencein wasting when using the WHO 2006 Growth Standards versus the 2000 CDC Growth Charts, butthey used the percentiles as cut points (5th for undernutrition and 95th for overweight) (Mei et al.2008). Schwarz et al., compared the prevalence of undernutrition among Gabonese children basedon three growth references/standards, namely the 1978 WHO/NCHS, the 2000 CDC and the 2006WHO ones. They found that the prevalence of wasting and stunting was significantly higher whenapplying the 2006 WHO Growth Standards among 3-month-old children, while for 15-month-old
44 Y. Wang and H.-J. ChenTable 2.5 Comparisons of prevalence (%) of growth/nutritional status problems assessed based on The 1978 WHO/NCHS reference, The 2000 CDC Growth Charts and The 2006 WHO Growth StandardsCountry/settings, datacollection year, sampleWHO/NCHS(1978) CDC (2000) WHO (2006) ReferencesBangladesh, 1996–19974,787 children aged 0–60monthsN/A Stunting: 54.4% Stunting: 60.1% de Onis et al. (2006)Wasting: 56.5% Wasting: 52.9%Gabon, 2002 (baseline)289 children aged 3 months289 children aged 15months (at follow-up)Stunting: 10–15% Stunting: 10–15% Stunting: 23.5% Schwarz et al. (2008)Wasting: 1.0% Wasting: 4.0%Wasting: 0.7%Stunting: ~30% Stunting: ~15% Stunting: ~30%Wasting: ~15% Wasting: ~20% Wasting: ~5%Madagascar, 2004969 children aged 6–59monthsStunting: 35.8% Stunting: 30.0% N/A Roberfroid et al.(2006)Wasting: 3.2% Wasting: 12.2%US, 1999–2004 (NHANES)3,920 children aged 0–59monthsN/A Stunting: 3.7% Stunting: 7.0% Mei et al. (2008)Wasting: 5.0% Wasting: 2.8%Overweight: 9.2% Overweight: 12.9%Dominican Republic, 2004 N/A Overweight: 6.4% Overweight: 8.6% de Onis et al. (2006)10,381 children aged 0–60monthsThis table shows selected studies that compared the results based on different growth references/standards, and theyhave revealed considerable differences. Except for the US study, stunting is defined as length/height-for-age z scores< –2, wasting as weight-for-age z-scores (WHZ) < –2, and overweight as weight-for-length/height z-scores >2.Findings in the US study were based on the 5th or 95th percentiles for weight-for-age, length-for-age, and weight-for-height, respectivelychildren, the prevalence of stunting was lowest based on the 2000 CDC reference (Schwarz et al.2008). Comparing the 1978 WHO/NCHS Growth References and the 2000 CDC Growth Charts,Roberfroid et al. (2006) demonstrated that for children aged 6–59 months in Madagascar, the esti-mated prevalence of stunting and underweight were different. The prevalence of stunting was higherusing the 1978 reference, while the prevalence of underweight was more salient when applying the2000 CDC references.These findings suggest that, when the CDC 2000 Growth Charts replaced the Fels LongitudinalStudy with the NHANES III data, the reference was representative of a heavier preschool subpopula-tion. Thus, the prevalence of wasting became higher. It is important to consider the reference popula-tion and methods used for developing the references/standards when choosing a growth reference/standard for assessing problematic growth outcomes.Table 2.6 summarizes the main references and classifications having been used to define over-weight and obesity in children and adolescents. Table 2.7 shows that according to one of our recentstudies, the obesity prevalence estimated for Chinese children aged 6–18 years old in Beijing couldvary between 5.8% and 9.8%, but in relative term, by 69% (Shan et al. 2010). Prevalence of over-weight in Dominican and the US children was lower when using the 2000 CDC Growth Charts thanusing the 2006 WHO Growth Standards, regardless of the cut points (de Onis et al. 2006; Mei et al.2008; Table 2.5). These findings indicate considerable differences in the prevalence of overweight/obesity based on different references, and the need of more research in these areas to help understandand guide appropriate applications of such references in different populations and for variouspurposes (Wang 2004; Wang et al. 2006).
452 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryTable 2.7 Prevalence (%) of overweight and obesity among Chinese children and adolescents aged 2–18 years old inBeijing based on four local and international BMI references (Shan et al. 2010)Age group(years)Overweight (not obese) ObesityIOTF WHO CDC WGOCaIOTF WHO CDC WGOCa2–5 7.6 3.7 8.0 No ref. 3.5 2.3 6.8 No ref.6–9 11.2 12.1 10.1 9.5 6.3 10.0 10.4 11.410–12 16.7 17.9 13.8 13.2 7.2 11.9 12.0 11.913–15 13.7 13.5 11.5 11.7 5.3 7.4 8.1 8.716–18 11.8 11.6 9.2 12.8 3.6 4.2 4.9 5.96–18 13.6 14.0 11.4 11.9 5.8 8.7 9.2 9.8All, 2–18 13.1 13.2 11.1 No ref. 5.6 8.2 9.0 No ref.Data source: Shan et al. (2010)This table demonstrates the different results in prevalence of childhood obesity when different growth references/standards were used. IOTF, the 2000 International Obesity Task Force reference; WHO, The 2006 and 2007 WHOstandards/references; CDC, the 2000 CDC Growth Charts; WGOC, the local reference developed by the WorkingGroup on Obesity in China, which corresponded to the BMI cut points of 24 and 28 at age 18, respectively. BMI cutpoints of 24 and 28 are used in China to define overweight and obesity in adults, respectivelyaWGOC' BMI reference: BMI cut points were only provided for children at age of 7–18 yearsTable 2.6 Different classifications/references for child and adolescent overweight and obesityStandards/references Overweight ObesityData and referencepopulation References2006 WHO GrowthStandards forpreschool childrenaBMI-for-age orweight-for-length/height Z-score > 2BMI-for-age orweight-for-length/height Z-score>3Multicenter GrowthReference StudyWHO TrainingCourse (2006)2007 WHO GrowthReference forschool age childrenBMI-for-age Z-score > 1BMI-for-age Z-score > 2Same data as theCDC growthchartsde Onis et al. (2007)2000 IOTF Reference ³BMI-for-age cutoffsderived fromBMI-age curvespassed BMI of 25at age 18³BMI-for-age cutoffsderived fromBMI-age curvespassed BMI of 30at age 18Data from the US,Brazil, Britain,Hong Kong, theNetherlands, andSingaporeCole et al. (2000)US 2000 CDC GrowthChart³BMI 85th percentile ³BMI 95th percentile US NHANES data(1971–1994)Kuczmarski et al.(2002)Europe-French BMIreference³BMI 90th percentiles ³BMI 97th percentiles Data collected forthe FrenchpopulationPoskitt (1995);Rolland-Cacheraet al. (1991)This table compares the evolving definition for childhood problematic growth status in different growth references/standards. See Table 2.1 for the corresponding values between percentiles and Z-scores, e.g., a Z-score of 2 corre-sponds to the 97.7th percentile, and Z-score of 1, the 84th percentileaThe 2006 WHO Growth Standards for preschool children recommends using BMI-for-age or weight-for-length/height Z scores of 1–2 to classify "at risk of overweight"In summary, key issues for consideration before one chooses and uses a growth reference/standard include: (a) Whether it is a reference population or optimal growth pattern that one wantsto compare to? (b) Whether the plotting on the charts or calculating the exact percentiles/z-scores forindividual children is more feasible and/or useful? (c) Whether percentile or z-score can serve thepurpose of application? (d) What age-sex- and anthropometric indicator- specific references areprovided? These issues also suggest the directions for future research, including validating thegeneralizability of existing reference/standards to different countries, and deciding the cut points forunhealthy growth status which associated with future health risk.
46 Y. Wang and H.-J. Chen2.11 Applications to Other Areas of Health and DiseasesPeople can use the percentiles and Z-scores of anthropometric measures in various growth standardsor references to assess children's growth and nutritional status problems including malnutrition (e.g.,stunting, wasting, underweight) and overnutrition (e.g., overweight and obesity). In addition, percen-tiles of other health measures such as blood pressure has been used to help classify elevated bloodpressure (or called "hypertension") in young people (National High Blood Pressure EducationProgram 1996). This means that blood pressure readings are ranked according to where they fallagainst the percentage of the reference population of all children, while taking into account varia-tions in gender, height, age, and other developmental parameters. For example, in the USA, theupdated blood pressure tables were developed based on the NHANES 1999–2000 data, and includedthe 50th, 90th, 95th, and 99th percentiles (NHLBI 2004). The 50th percentile indicates the midpointof normal blood pressure range, and is additionally compared to earlier guidelines. "Prehypertension"is defined as average systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP) ³ 90th and < 95th percen-tiles (previously defined as "high normal"). Hypertension is defined based on the 95th percentile, andthe 99th percentile allows more precise staging of hypertension.Summary PointsPercentile and• Z-score of anthropometry are statistical tools to help assess child growth andnutritional status, relative to a reference or standard population.Percentile and• Z-score can be converted to each other when the distribution is normal.Percentile indicates the percentage of observations that fall below a certain value. It is easier to•use and for the public to understand, but may not be a good quantitative tool.• Z-score is the distance and direction of an observation away from the population mean. Althoughit is not very intuitively perceivable, this dimensionless quantity can be used for comparison acrossindicators and populations. Individual children's measurments can be transformed to Z-scoresbased on growth reference, and Z-scores can be used as a continuous variable in research.Usually a growth reference is developed based on data collected from a representative sample of•a population and shows the growth pattern of the reference population, which may not be an opti-mal growth pattern.A growth standard derived from a healthy and affluent child population can be regarded as an•optimal distribution of growth.Various statistical methods and techniques have been used for curve-fitting and smoothing to help•derive the related cut points for anthropometric measures in existing growth references and stan-dards. These methods/techniques can affect the derived cut points.The• 2006 WHO Growth Standards for preschool children differ from the other existing refer-ences, and show "how children should grow." It is developed based on a prescriptive approach forevaluating children's growth rather than a descriptive one.The• 2006 WHO Growth Standards provide a tool for detecting both under nutrition and obesity,and thus address the double burden of under- and over-nutrition problems. They are relevant toboth developed and developing countries.The US• 2000 CDC Growth Charts have a number of improvements when compared to earlierversions of CDC growth references, but may not be appropriate for use in other populations, inparticular, developing countries.
472 Use of Percentiles and Z-Scores in AnthropometryPrevalence of problematic growth or nutrition status patterns can be different when estimated•based on different growth references/standards.More research is needed to assess and guide the appropriate application of international growth•references and standards in different populations, in particular, in developing countries.Acknowledgments This work was supported in part by research grants from the NIH/NIDDK (R01DK81335-01A1,1R03HD058077-01A1, R03HD058077-01A1S1) and the Nestle Foundation. We also thank Irwin Shorr for hiscomments on an earlier draft of this chapter.ReferencesCenters For Disease Control and Prevention. CDC growth charts [Online]. 2000. http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/Default.htm. Accessed 31 Jan 2010.Cole TJ, Green PJ. Smoothing Reference Centile Curves - the LMS Method and Penalized Likelihood. Stat Med.1992;11:1305–19.Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesityworldwide: international survey. BMJ. 2000;320:1240–3.Cole TJ, Flegal KM, Nicholls D, Jackson AA. Body mass index cut offs to define thinness in children and adolescents:international survey. BMJ. 2007;335:194–7.de Onis M, Onyango AW. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000 growth charts and the growth ofbreastfed infants. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92:413–9.de Onis M, Onyango AW, Borghi E, Garza C, Yang H; WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. Comparisonof the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards and the National Center for Health Statistics/WHO international growth reference: implications for child health programmes. Public Health Nutr.2006;9:942–7.de Onis M, Onyango AW, Borghi E, Siyam A, Nishida C, Siekmann J. Development of a WHO growth reference forschool-aged children and adolescents. Bull World Health Organ. 2007;85:660–7.Hamill PV, Drizd TA, Johnson CL, Reed RB, Roche AF, Moore WM. Physical growth: National Center for HealthStatistics percentiles. Am J Clin Nutr. 1979;32:607–29.Hammer LD, Kraemer HC, Wilson DM, Ritter PL, Dornbusch SM. Standardized percentile curves of body-massindex for children and adolescents. Am J Dis Child. 1991;145:259–63.Inoue S, Zimmet P, Caterson I, Chen C, Ikeda Y, Khalid AK, Kim YS, Bassett J. The Asia-Pacific perspective: redefin-ing obesity and its treatment. 2000. http://iotf.org/.Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Guo SS, Grummer-Strawn LM, Flegal KM, Mei Z, Wei R, Curtin LR, Roche AF, JohnsonCL. 2000 CDC Growth Charts for the United States: methods and development. Vital Health Stat. 2002;11:1–190.Mei Z, Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Grummer-Strawn LM. Comparison of the prevalence of shortness, underweight, andoverweight among US children aged 0 to 59 months by using the CDC 2000 and the WHO 2006 growth charts.J Pediatr. 2008;153:622–8.Must A, Dallal GE, Dietz WH. Reference data for obesity: 85th and 95th percentiles of body mass index (wt/ht2) andtriceps skinfold thickness. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;53:839–46.National High Blood Pressure Education Program. Update on the 1987 Task Force Report on High Blood Pressure inChildren and Adolescents: A working group report from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program.National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on Hypertension Control in Children andAdolescents. Pediatrics. 1996;98:649–58.NHLBI. Blood pressure tables for children and adolescents. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/hypertension/child_tbl.htm. Accessed 10 Jan 2009.Pelletier D. Theoretical considerations related to cutoff points. Food Nutr Bull. 2006;27:S224–36.Poskitt EME. Defining Childhood Obesity - the Relative Body-Mass Index (BMI). Acta Paediatr. 1995;84:961–3.Roberfroid D, Lerude MP, Pérez-Cueto A, Kolsteren P. Is the 2000 CDC growth reference appropriate for developingcountries? Public Health Nutr. 2006;9:266–8.Rolland-Cachera MF, Cole TJ, Sempé M, Tichet J, Rossignol C, Charraud A. Body-Mass Index Variations - Centilesfrom Birth to 87 Years. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1991;45:13–21.
48 Y. Wang and H.-J. ChenSchwarz NG, Grobusch MP, Decker ML, Goesch J, Poetschke M, Oyakhirome S, Kombila D, Fortin J, Lell B, IssifouS, Kremsner PG, Klipstein-Grobusch K. WHO 2006 child growth standards: implications for the prevalence ofstunting and underweight-for-age in a birth cohort of Gabonese children in comparison to the Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention 2000 growth charts and the National Center for Health Statistics 1978 growth references.Public Health Nutr. 2008;11:714–9.Shan X, Xi B, Chen H, Hou D, Wang Y, Mi J. Prevalence and behavioral risk factors of overweight and obesity amongchildren aged 2–18 in Beijing, China. Int J Ped Obe. 2010;5:383–9.Victora CG, Morris SS, Barros FC, de Onis M, Yip R. The NCHS reference and the growth of breastand bottle-fedinfants. J Nutr. 1998;128:1134–8.Wang Y. Epidemiology of childhood obesity - methodological aspects and guidelines: what is new? Int J Obes.2004;28:S21–8.Wang Y, Moreno LA, Caballero B, Cole TJ. Limitations of the current world health organization growth referencesfor children and adolescents. Food Nutr Bull. 2006;27:S175–88.WHO. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. WorldHealth Organ Tech Rep Ser. Geneva; 1995.WHO. The WHO child growth standards website [Online]. 2006. http://www.who.int/childgrowth/en/. Accessed 31Jan 2010.WHO Expert Consultation. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy andintervention strategies. Lancet. 2004;363:157–63.WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. WHO child growth standards: length/height-for-age, weight-forage, weight-for-length, weight-for-height and body mass index-for-age: Methods and development. Geneva:World Health Organization; 2006a.WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. Assessment of differences in linear growth among populations inthe WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 2006b;450:56–65.WHO Training Course. Training course on child growth assessment: investigating causes of undernutrition and ofoverweight. November 2006. Geneva: WHO. http://www.who.int/childgrowth/training/jobaid_investigating_causes.pdf. Accessed 30 Jan 2010.


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Holiday Christmas Sangria. Cranberry, pomegranate, orange, apple and a good white wine.
Winter Sangria, White Wines, Holiday Sangria, Cranberries Pomegranates, Winter Holidays, Juice Cup, Christmas Sangria, Holidays Sangria, Pomegranates Winter
Holiday Sangria - Cranberry, Pomegranate, Orange, Apple, & of course a Good Red or White Wine. Perfect as a Thanksgiving and Christmas Sangria.
Holiday Sangria. The best of what is available during the fall and winter holidays - cranberry, pomegranate, orange, apple, and of course a good white wine. Cranberry Pomegranate Winter Sangria
7. #Cranberry Pomegranate #Sangria - 10 Fruity Alcoholic #Drink Recipes to Try ... → #Food [ more at http://food.allwomenstalk.com ] #Fruity #Recipes #Raspberry #Juice #Cup
Christmas Mimosas - 12 Servings--- We had these on Christmas morning as we were opening gifts and everyone wanted a second one (and a third!) Big hit! 4 cups cranberry juice, chilled 4 cups orange juice 2 (750 ml.) bottles Champagne, chilled 12 slices fresh orange, for garnish (optional) Fill twelve 12-ounce glasses with ice; pour 1/3 cup cranberry juice into each glass. Top each serving with 1/3 cup orange juice and about 1/2 cup Champagne. Garnish with orange slices, if desired.
Christmas Day Brunch recipes starting with a Cranberry Mimosa!
Cups Cranberries, Mimosas Recipes, Cranberries Juice, Christmas Mimosas, Christmas Mornings, Cranberries Mimosas, Christmas Brunch, Orange Juice, Christmas Cranberries
Christmas Mimosas - Christmas Brunch -12 Servings 4 cups cranberry juice, chilled 4 cups orange juice 2 (750 ml.) bottles Champagne, chilled 12 slices fresh orange, for garnish (optional) Fill twelve 12-ounce glasses with ice..
Cranberry Mimosas Recipe- 4 cups cranberry juice, chilled 4 cups orange juice 2 (750 ml.) bottles Champagne, chilled
Christmas Cranberry Mimosas! Yield: 12 servings Prep Time: 15 min Great holiday morning drink! We had these on Christmas morning as we were opening gifts and everyone wanted a second one (and a third!) Big hit! Ingredients: 4 cups cranberry juice chilled, 4 cups orange juice, 2 (750 ml.) bottles Champagne chilled, 12 slices fresh orange, for garnish (optional). Directions: Fill twelve 12-ounce glasses with ice; pour 1/3 cup cranberry juice into each glass. Top each serving with 1/3 cup orange juice and about 1/2 cup Champagne. Garnish with orange slices, if desired
Rudolph's Tipsy Spritzer. This website has 20 holiday cocktails!
Holidays Cocktails, Cherries Juice, Lemon Slices, Tipsy Spritzer, Soft Drinks, Orange Juice, Rudolph Tipsy, Lemon Juice, Maraschino Cherries
Rudolph's Tipsy Spritzer. This website has 20 holiday cocktails Ingredients: 5 cups orange juice 2 cups chilled lemon-lime soft drink 1 1/2 cups vodka 1/2 cup maraschino cherry juice 1/4 cup fresh lemon juice Garnishes: lemon slices, fresh rosemary sprigs Preparation 1. Stir together all ingredients; serve over ice. Garnish, if desired
Candy Cane Swirl Cocktail Recipe via Cost Plus World Market >> #WorldMarket Holiday Entertaining
Canes Swirls, Holidays Cocktails, Cocktail Recipes, Canes Sprinkles, Marketing Worldmarket, Swirls Cocktails, Candy Canes, Worldmarket Holidays, Cocktails Recipes
Candy Cane Swirl Martini {Holiday Cocktail Recipes | World Market}
4 Holiday Cocktail Recipes | World Market Combine 2 oz. Godiva White Chocolate Liqueur, 1 oz. vodka and 1 oz.Torani Peppermint Syrup in a shaker with ice. Shake well. Crush Crunchy Peppermint Candy Cane Sprinkles and rim glass. Serve with a candy cane garnish.
Candy Cane Swirl Cocktail Recipe via Cost Plus World Market #WorldMarket Holiday Entertaining
Holiday Mojito Cocktail Recipes via Cost Plus World Market >> #WorldMarket Holiday Entertaining
Cranberries Mojito, Mojito Recipes, Holidays Cocktails, Cocktails Glasses, Christmas Mojito, Holidays Mojito, Mojito Cocktails, Cranberries Holidays, Cocktails Recipes
Christmas mojito.
HOLIDAY MOJITO -- Holiday Cocktail Recipes | World Market
Cranberry Mojito Recipe... Found my holiday cocktail!
Cranberry Holiday mojitos from World Market. (No etched glass required.)
Holiday Mojito Cocktail Recipes via Cost Plus World Market
reindeer cocktail glasses
Spicy Chocolate Reindeer Cocktail Recipe via Cost Plus World Market >> #WorldMarket Holiday Entertaining
Recipes Ideas, Holidays Cocktails, Spicy Chocolates, Cocktail Recipes, Chocolates Holidays, International Recipes, Reindeer Cocktails, Chocolates Reindeer, Cocktails Recipes
SPICY CHOCOLATE REINDEER -- Holiday Cocktail Recipes | World Market
Spicy Chocolate Holiday cocktail
Happy Elf Eggnog Cocktail Recipe via Cost Plus World Market >> #WorldMarket Holiday Entertaining


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The Korean ship builder and global consultant will work together to create a connected ship that leverages the "Internet of Things" to improve operational efficiency.
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New appointment at the Berkman Center
Posted by reyjunco on August 31, 2012 in Commentary | ∞
I am thrilled to announce that I will be a Faculty Associate at the Harvard Berkman Center for Internet and Society for the academic year. I will continue my work with the Youth and Media Team and look forward to working with other faculty, fellows, and associates. I am especially thankful to Urs Gasser and Sandra Cortesi for their […]
Tags: academic, Berkman Center, digital media, education, media, Research, social media, youth
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mason jar candle. So easy to make! Got twine from the dollar store,wrapped it around the top, filled with epsom salts spiked witha generous dose of Lavendar oil, and put in a candle! So easy and so cute! I didn't add any vintage key or other decor but I will hit up the antique and thrift stores and I can always add it on! So happy with this!
Most of the time I just use Epsom salt as filler in mine. It looks like a candle sitting in snow in the winter, and a candle in the sand in the summer
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Use Epsom salt as filler. It looks like a candle sitting in snow in the winter. Magical and economical ;) *Another great mason jar craft! Tealights are the perfect candle for this, and antique or thrift stores always have lots of old keys pretty cheap!
Super Cute Mason jar candles!! Wrap twine around lid markings & add a personal vintage touch (key, charm, locket) Place Epsom salt as filler in the jar and a tealight atop the salt. It will look like a candle sitting in snow . . . #DIY #light #recycle #home_decor #Holidays
Mason Jar Ideas. Epsom salt and battery operated tea light. Looks like snow on a winter night.
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Whole Wheat Blueberry Buttermilk Pancakes
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Lukas just gobbles these up. He LOVES blueberries so it's nice to find healthy breakfast recipes for him. Make a bunch and freeze them and he is ready to go with something yummy every morning.
Whole Wheat Buttermilk Blueberry Pancakes
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peacock shoes...love