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Exposure patterns are formed in photosensitive material by multiple beam laser interferometry by a method which involves exposing said photosensitive material simultaneously to at least three coherent beams of exposing radiation wherein the sources of said beams are arranged substantially symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of said photosensitive material. Preferably, surface relief patterns are formed by developing said exposed material. Apparatus for providing such multiple coherent beams is also disclosed.
1. An apparatus for simultaneously exposing a photosensitive material to at least three coherent beams of exposing radiation which comprises
a laser;
means for dividing the wavefront of said beam emanating from said laser into equal parts; at least three mirrors reflecting said divided beams, the number of said mirrors corresponding to the number of parts of said beam, and wherein
said mirrors are located symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface of said photosensitive material.
2. The apparatus of claim 1 where each of said sources are substantially equidistant from said photosensitive material.
3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the intensity of each of said sources is substantially the same.
4. The apparatus of claim 1 which includes three coherent beams.
5. The apparatus of claim 1 which includes four coherent beams.
6. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said photosensitive material is a positive photoresist.
7. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said photosensitive material is a negative photoresist.
8. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said photosensitive material is carried on a light transmitting base and said exposure is made through said base.
9. An apparatus for simultaneously exposing a photosensitive material to at least three coherent beams of exposing radiation which comprises
a laser;
means for dividing the amplitude of the beam emanating from said laser into at least three equal parts;
separately expanding each of said divided beams by expansion lenses to impinge upon said photosensitive material; whereby said expansion lenses are arranged symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface of said photosensitive material.
10. The apparatus of claim 9 where each of said sources are substantially equidistant from said photosensitive material.
11. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the intensity of each of said sources is substantially the same.
12. The apparatus of claim 9 which includes three coherent beams.
13. The apparatus of claim 9 which includes four coherent beams.
14. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein said photosensitive material is a positive photoresist.
15. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein said photosensitive material is a negative photoresist.
16. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein said photosensitive material is carried on a light transmitting base and said exposure is made through said base.
The preparation of surface relief structures in photosensitive materials is well known. Over the years, the art has learned how to reduce the dimensions of the relief lines or holes (viewed normal to the surface) to the point where they are measured in terms of micrometers and fractions of micrometers.
Extensive studies have been made, in particular, of periodic one dimensional structures prepared in positive type photosensitive materials or photoresists. (It will be appreciated that the terms "one dimensional" and "two dimensional" are terms of the art describing the relief structure from a view normal to the surface). One type of photoresist contains a photosensitive polymer which then exposed to light becomes soluble in an appropriate water base developer. After exposure and development, the initially flat surface of the photoresist becomes a surface relief structure whose depth varies depending upon the photoresist that has been etched away by the developer in proportion to the exposure light intensity. When exposed to an intensity variation that is periodic, such as a light interference pattern, a periodic surface profile will be formed which is everywhere proportional to the initial interference intensity pattern. Precise relief structures of this type can be made easily over relatively large areas using laser interference techniques.
It is known in the art to form relief diffraction gratings employing laser interference techniques. In general, such gratings are formed by exposing a photosensitive material such as a photoresist to two coherent interfering laser beams (recording beams) whose wavefronts are substantially plane and parallel. When such beams interfere, there is produced a stationary periodic fringe pattern consisting of maxima and minima of beam intensity. The spacing between adjacent maxima (or minima) is determined by the angle between the beams and by the wavelength of the exposing light. Depending upon the optical system used, substantially any spacing can be obtained down to about half the wavelength of the exposing light. The photosensitive material will thus be exposed to a periodic variation in intensity across its surface.
The above description applies to the formation of straight line gratings (one-dimensional gratings); that is, the maxima or minima of the developed image appear as straight parallel lines when viewed normal to the surface. A crossed grating (two-dimensional grating) can be obtained by rotating the photosensitive material 90� about an axis perpendicular to the center of the surface subsequent to the first exposure and exposing a second time. In this case, the surface is subjected to two periodic intensity variations at right angles to each other. Upon development, the resulting relief structure will consist of a rectangular array of peaks and valleys; in the case of a positive photoresist, the peaks correspond to the areas where the combined intensity of the two exposures was the least, or where there was no exposure, and the valleys to the areas where the exposure was the greatest.
Variations in the symmetry of the above described array are also possible. For example, by changing the angle between the two beams after the first exposure, one obtains a different grating spacing for each of the two perpendicular orientations. This can lead to points of intersection which are oblong instead of round. Alternatively, if the exposure plate is rotated to form an angle other than 90� between the two exposure positions, one would obtain a diamond-shaped rather than a square point of intersection array.
Copending application of James J. Cowan, Arthur M. Gerber and Warren D. Slafer, Ser. No. 234,959, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,402,571 filed Feb. 17, 1981 (common assignee), is directed to a method of producing accurate relief patterns in a photoresist in which individual features of the relief patterns can be of submicron size and in which the size and shape of the relief patterns are controlled, to a great extent, by manipulation of the exposure and development parameters of the photoresist as distinguished from the pattern or image to be projected onto the photoresist. The method involves exposing the photosensitive material at a first position to a laser interference pattern, rotating said material around an axis perpendicular to its surface to a second position and exposing said material at said second position for a laser interference pattern, wherein at least one and preferably both of said exposures is individually below the effective threshold for linear response of said material, the points of intersection of the two fringe patterns being exposed above said threshold as a result of the combined exposures, and developing said material.
A disadvantage to making patterns employing crossed grating methods arises from the sequential nature of the exposures. At the cross-over points of the maxima of each pattern, the exposure is maximum, and the subsequent etching is deepest; at the minima, the exposure is zero and there is substantially no etching at these points. But at the intermediate points the exposure is half of the maximum and subsequent etching of the exposed photosensitive material may lead to the formation of saddle points. Thus instead of obtaining an array of very deep holes in an otherwise flat surface, often an array of not very deep holes on a highly undulating surface is formed, which may be an undesirable condition for many applications. Furthermore, the array of holes is not close packed; in most cases the holes occupy only about half of the total surface area.
The present invention is directed to the formation of exposure patterns by multiple beam laser interferometry by exposing a photosensitive material simultaneously to at least three coherent beams of exposing radiation wherein the sources of said beams are arranged substantially symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of said photosensitive material. In a preferred embodiment, surface relief patterns are formed by developing said exposed material. The present invention is also directed to apparatus for providing such multiple coherent beams.
FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a typical laser diffraction imaging system;
FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the interference fringes generated by the system of FIG. 1 with respect to the recording plane;
FIG. 3 is a plot of intensity distribution obtained from the imaging system of FIG. 1 employing two sequential exposures at 90� to one another;
FIG. 4 is a computer representation of the relief pattern obtained from the intensity distribution plot of FIG. 3;
FIG. 5 is a schematic view of one exposure system of the present invention;
FIG. 6 is an end view of the system of FIG. 5 looking from the recording surface toward the light sources;
FIG. 7 is a top view showing the arrangement of the light sources of the system of FIG. 5;
FIG. 8 is a side view showing the arrangement of the light sources of the system of FIG. 5;
FIG. 9 is a plot of intensity distribution obtained from the imaging system of FIG. 5;
FIG. 10 is a computer representation of the relief pattern obtained from the intensity distribution plot of FIG. 9;
FIG. 11 is another computer representation of a relief pattern obtained from the imaging system of FIG. 5;
FIG. 12 is a side view of the relief pattern of FIG. 11;
FIG. 13 is a schematic arrangement of an imaging system of the present invention;
FIG. 14 is a schematic representtion of another embodiment of a three beam imaging system of the present invention;
FIG. 15 is a schematic representation of the mirrors of the system of FIG. 14 viewing the mirrors from the plane of the recording surface;
FIG. 16 is a schematic view of still another imaging system within the scope of the present invention;
FIG. 17 is an end view of the light sources of the system of FIG. 16 looking from the plane of the recording surface;
FIG. 18 is a top view of the light sources of the system of FIG. 16;
FIG. 19 is a plot of energy distribution obtained from the imaging system of FIG. 16;
FIG. 20 is a computer representation of a relief pattern obtained from the energy distribution plot of FIG. 19;
FIG. 21 is a scanning electron micrograph at 10,000� magnification of the relief pattern of Example 1;
FIG. 22 is a stereo pair transmission electron micrograph at 50,000� magnification of cellulose acetate butyrate replica of the relief pattern of Example 2;
FIG. 23 is a scanning electron micrograph at 20,000� magnification of the relief pattern produced in Example 3; and
FIGS. 24A to E are scanning electron micrographs of two magnifications showing a series of relief patterns with a range of exposures as produced in Example 4.
The present invention is directed to a method for forming an exposure pattern in a photosensitive material by multiple beam laser interferometry. The present invention comprises exposing a photosensitive material to at least three coherent beams of exposing radiation wherein the sources of said beams are arranged substantially symmetrically around an exis perpendicular to the plane of said photosensitive material. Developing the thus-exposed material provides the relief pattern. In a preferred embodiment, the relief pattern obtained are close packed depressions or holes with dimension as small as the submicrometer range.
As stated above, in a preferred embodiment, the novel method of the present invention can provide close packed hexagonal or square and rectangular depressions. As will be seen circular depressions and configurations intermedite circular and hexagonal or square and rectangular can be obtained depending upon exposure level and development. Thus, the method and apparatus of the present invention can provide a wide variety of depression configurations, as desired. The discussion of tne invention is primarily in terms of the preferred embodiments, however.
To obtain the hexagonal and square or rectangular deep depressions of the described beams, as well as being arranged substantially symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the photosensitive material, each source should also be located substantially equidistant from the photosensitive material. It should be understood that locating the source array equidistant is a preferred embodiment, and that if a distortion in the relief pattern is desired or acceptable such a requirement is not necessary. Further, another source of distortion in the relief pattern configuration is a difference in intensity of exposure from each of said sources. Therefore, in a preferred embodiment, the intensity from each source is substatially equal. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the relief pattern obtained comprises close packed hexagonal and square or rectangular holes.
Contrary to prior art methods, the present invention involves simultaneous multiple beam exposure whereas the prior art methods for forming relief patterns by exposure of photosensitive material, while adjustable to forming a variety of relief patterns, requires two separate exposure steps, with all the problems attendant with said steps, and are also unable to provide optional close packing of the depressions.
There are two basic optical configurations by which the present invention can be practiced: (1) division of wavefront, whereby a single expanded light wave from a laser is reflected back to the recording plane by an array of mirrors, preferably 3 or 4 mirrors, and (2) division of amplitude, whereby the initial laser beam is split into three or four equal parts and each is separately expanded to impinge on the recording plane. To form a hexagonal pattern, the tilt angles of the three mirrors are preferably equal. If, for example, one of the tilt angles were diferent from the other two, a distorted or "flattened" hexagonal pattern would result.
In the general configuration for the division of wavefront configuration, the narrow beam from the laser passes through an expansion lens and spatial filter combination and the resulting spherical wave impinges on an array of mirrors arranged substantially symmetrically about the center of the beam: three mirrors for a hexagonal array and four for a square or rectangular array. The tilt angle of the mirrors is adjusted so that the reflected light from each one falls on the same area of the recording surface. Each mirror surface acts as a separate source, as the angle of incidence is the tilt angle that each mirror makes with respect to a normal to the recording plane. This configuration generates spherical instead of plane waves. With a three-beam mirror array there may be a slight distortion of the ideal hexagonal shape with the amount of distortion depending on the degree of curvature of the wave. This effect can be minimized by using a low power (e.g., 5� or 10�) expansion lens and placing it far from the mirror array. With a four-beam mirror array the difficulty is more serious because a moire pattern cannot be eliminated with an off-axis configuration. The curvature problem can be solved by allowing the spherical wave to first impinge on a collimating mirror, which could be an off-axis paraboloid, then having the parallel light beam be incident on the four-mirror array.
Care must be taken with the division of wavefront configuration to assure a uniform intensity across the surface of each array mirror, and to maintain fringe stability for long exposure times. The first problem arises because of the Gaussian nature of the initial expanded beam. Each array mirror intercepts a portion of this beam that is intense at the center of the array and drops off exponentially to the edge. This problem can be minimized by using a high power expansion lens, or a long distance from the expansion lens to the mirror array, or both; and also by flattening the initial Gaussian distribution with an apodizing filter placed before the spatial filter.
The fringe stability is generally good for this configuration for short exposure times, since all the beams travel along essentially the same path and the only potentially moving parts are the mirror array and target. However, for long times, the fringe movement should be kept stable. This can be achieved by monitoring the phase at the recording surface (for example, by observing the interference pattern for any two sets of beams for the three-beam system, or three sets for the four-beam system) and feeding the signal back electronically to a controller which moves the corresponding mirrors toward or away from the target.
The second optical configuration is division of amplitude, achieved by using several beam splitters that produce, from the initial beam, three or four other beams of equal intensity that are separately expanded to impinge on the target. For example, with the three-beam array, the initial beam goes to a variable beam splitter which is adjusted to send 1/3 of the light to an expansion lens and spatial filter combination mounted above two other similar lenses, which are in a plane parallel to the surface of the optical table. The 2/3 remaining light is split with a 50-50 beam splitter betweem the bottom two lenses, so that each lens receives 1/3 of the original light intensity. The three expansion lenses, as viewed from the front, form apexes of an equilateral triangle for a symmetrical pattern. For a less symmetrical pattern, the lenses would form apexes of an isosceles or scalar triangle. The normal to the center of the recording surface passes through the center of the array. This configuration has the advantage over the division of wavefront systems in that there is a Gaussian distribution for each lens, so that making the intensities equal at the recording surface is not difficult. Also, electronic fringe stability control can easily be utilized by inserting a small phase-shifting element into into each beam before it passes into the expansion lens. Two phase-shifting elements are required for the three-beam system, and three for the four-beam system.
The optical arrangement for the four-beam system is similar to the three-beam system, except that the variable beam splitter sends half the initial light to an upper array of two lenses, located in a plane above a similar array of two lenses located below them. There is also an additional beam splitter in the upper plane to divide the light between the upper two lenses. For a square pattern, this array, viewed from the front, resembles a square. For a rectangular pattern, the array resembles a rectangle.
The light reaching the recording surface with this configuration consists of spherical waves, which are satisfactory for many applications. Also, because of the symmetrical arrangement, the moire fringes arising with the four-beam pattern can be essentially eliminated. If collimated light is desired, each expanded beam can impinge on a collimating mirror and direct the parallel light to an off-axis target.
In utilizing either the three or four beam configurations, care must be taken to equalize path lengths from the points where the beam (or the wavefront) is split to the target, if a laser with a limited coherence length is used. With the mirror array, the distance from each mirror to the target must be equal. With the array using the beam splitters, the light path distances from each beam splitter to the target must be equal. For example, with the three-beam array, the distance from the variable beam splitter to the upper expansion lens to the target must be equal to the path taken by either of the lower beams through its respective expansion lens to the target. The path lengths from the 50-50 beam splitter to each of the lower expansion lenses to the target must also be equal. Similar considerations apply for the four-beam array.
The interference patterns of two beams of coherent light can be described by the standard equation for interferometry. A typical laser diffraction imaging system for providing the interference patterns is shown in FIG. 1. It is assumed there are two plane waves, whose electric fields, E1, and E2 are given by the equations ##EQU1## where A1 and A2 are the respective amplitudes, k1 and k2 the wave vectors, r1 and r2 the directions of propagation, ω the frequency, t the time, and j a unit vector expressing the transverse nature of the fields. The intensity, I, is given as the vector sum of the absolute square of these waves: ##EQU2## where the asterisk refers to the complex conjugate. If the expressions for E1 and E2 are substituted into equation (2) and simplified the following equation is obtained:
I=A1 2 +A2 2 +2A1 A2 cos θ(3)
The first term, A1 2, is the intensity that would result if only the first wave were present; the second term, A2 2, is the intensity if only the second wave were present; and the third term, 2A1 A2 cos θ, is the interference intensity between the two waves. If the two waves were neither coherent nor simultaneous, the third term would vanish.
The angle θ is given by
θ=2π/d(x cos φ+z sin φ) (4)
where d is the fringe spacing, defined by d=λ/2 sin ψ, being the illuminating wavelength and ψ the half-angle between the propagation direction of the two beams. ψ is the angle that the normal to the fringes makes with the x-axis, as illustrated in FIG. 2, wherein x-z is the plane of the recording material. For the case considered here, where the two beams define the x=ψ plane, the angle ψ is zero. This means that the intensity varies sinusoidally in the x-direction but is constant in the z-direction.
In holographic grating applications, the most desirable fringe contrast is obtained by setting the amplitudes of the two waves equal, i.e., A1 =A2. A further simplification results if the amplitudes are normalized, i.e., if A1 =A2 =1. Thus the interference equation takes the simple form ##EQU3## Since the cosine varies between +1 and -1, the intensity varies from 0 to 4. If the beams were neither coherent nor simultaneous, the intensity would be constant at I=2.
If a recording surface is exposed to a two-beam interference pattern as described above and developed, assuming conditions of linearity, a one-dimensional grating with a sinusoidal profile is obtained whose shape is proportional to the intensity given in equation (5). To form a square cross pattern, after the recording surface is rotated 90�, a second exposure is made with the same two beams, according to procedure described and claimed in copending application Ser. No. 234,959, supra. The resultant intensity distribution would now be the sum of the two separate exposures, I1 and I2, given by ##EQU4## where ##EQU5## and ##EQU6##
For the second exposure, a value of φ=90� expresses the fact that the second set of fringes is oriented at 90� with respect to the first. For these fringes the intensity is constant along x but varies sinusoidally along z.
FIG. 3 shows a plot of the intensity distribution in the x-z plane calculated from equation (6). The solid lines show the intensity values at the maxima, where the cosine equals +1, and the dotted lines, the minima, where the cosine equals -1. The largest intensity is where both cos and cos β cycle to their maximum values of +1, to give I=8. The smallest intensity is where they cycle to their minimum values of -1, giving I=0. Halfway between these extremes both cos α and cos β equal zero, and I=4 is obtained. Thus, with this recording scheme in a positive-wording photoresist, there is deep etching at the center cross-overs and no etching at the minimum points, but the intermediate positions may give rise to saddle points. Even utilizing the nonlinear response of a photoresist, where low exposures etch proportionally less than high exposures, there is a limitation on the center etch depth, in order to minimize the saddle point etching. An approximation of the relative etch depths is obtained by considering the ratio of intensities; for example, from maximum to minimum the ratio is Imax /Imin =8/0=∞, which is highly favorable, but the ratio between the center and the saddle points is Imax /Iint =8/4=2, which is not so favorable.
FIG. 4 is a computer representation of equation (6), showing equi-intensity contours. The appearance of almost perfect circles at the maxima cross-over regions 10MX and at the minima cross-over regions 10MN explains why an array of round holes on the surface of a sheet of photoresist after exposure and development would be expected, assuming the threshold exposure is not exceeded for etching at the saddle points 12.
If a rectangular instead of a square array was desired using the prior art two-beam sequential technique, the half-angle ψ would be changed to a new value ψ' for the second exposure, so that a new fringe spacing d' would be obtained for the second set of fringes perpendicular to the first set that had spacing d.
Unlike the prior art sequential exposure technique, the present invention contemplates the simultaneous exposure by at least three beams of coherent light arranged substantially symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the recording surface, e.g., photoresist. By the method of the present invention, advantageous and novel relief patterns are obtained.
Referring to the drawings, FIG. 5 is a schematic view of an apparatus of the present invention wherein sources of coherent light 21, 22 and 23, are located symmetrically and equidistant around an axis perpendicular to the plane x-z of the recording surface 25. Beams 21A, 22A and 23A are contained in imaginary planes 24, 26 and 27 respectively.
FIG. 6 is an end view looking from the x-z plane of the recording surface 25 of the photosensitive material toward sources 21, 22 and 23 showing their symmetrical and equidistant arrangement around axis 29, which is an axis perpendicular to the plane of recording surface 25. FIGS. 7 and 8 are top and side views, respectively, showing the arrangement of the sources of exposing coherent radiation with respect to the recording surface 25.
If the recording plane is illuminated simultaneously with three coherent beams arranged symmetrically about an axis perpendicular to the recording surface, the form of these fields is the same as given in equation (1), and the intensity is the absolute square of their vector sum, as follows: ##EQU7## After substituting and simplifying, what is obtained is: ##EQU8## If we set the amplitudes equal and normalize, we have:
and equation (7) simplifies to
I=3+2 cos α+2 cos β+2 cos γ (8)
In this case ##EQU9## The expressions for α, β, and γ signify that each set of interference fringes is rotated 60� from each of the other sets. In this case, d is the fringe spacing for any two pairs of beams, and is defined as before
d=λ/2 sin ψ
but now ψ is the solid half-angle between the planes containing the two beams that are each parallel along the vertical axis to a plane perpendicular to the recording plane, as shown in FIG. 5. The fringe spacing d, is the same for any two pairs of beams because the sources are arranged symmetrically about an axis equidistant from the sources. If the sources are not arranged symmetrically, the half angle ψ as defined above, and thus the fringe spacing d, would be different for each pair of beams.
The intensity distribution obtained from equation 8 is plotted in FIG. 9, where the solid lines are the maxima of the fringe pattern for each pair of beams, with the cosine=+1, and the dotted lines, for the cosine=-1, as before. With a symmetrical array of sources, the fringe spacing d, is the same for each pair of beams. The 60� angle between each interference fringe set is also apparent. The resulting pattern is an array of large hexagons surrounded by smaller triangles. The maximum value (for cos α=cos β=cos γ=+1) is I=9 and is obtained at the intersection of the maxima for all three waves at the center of the hexagons. The minimum value is obtained where all three cosine values equal-1/2 giving I=0, and these are found at the centers of the small triangles. Around the periphery of the hexagons the intensity is constant at I=1 (two cosine values=+1 and the third=-1). The area of the hexagons out to the I=1 intensity line is 75% of the total surface area. The maximum to minimum intensity ratio is highly favorable, i.e., Imax /Imin =9/0=β. The ratio of intensities from the maximum to the edge is Imax /Iedge =9/1. In this case the edges represent saddle points between the zero exposure points at the small triangles, so this ratio can be compared with that of the previous sequential case, which was 2/1. Thus, with the hexagonal array there are high exposures at the centers, and thus deep etching is obtained without the threshold for development around the periphery of the hexagons being exceeded with concommitant etching. Furthermore, deep etching can be achieved while still having a close-packed array of holes occupying about 75% or more of the surface area rather than the about 50 % value obtained with the prior art two-beam exposure system.
If the presence of the saddle points (i.e., slightly undulating surface) can be tolerated, then the development threshold can be exceeded at the I=1 periphery, and a truly close-packed hexagonal array with no remaining flat surface will be obtained except for the zero exposure points of the small triangles. This configuration is apparent from the computer plot shown in FIG. 10, discussed below.
A further benefit of the three beam simultaneous recording scheme is that the correct phase relationship is maintained between the three beams. This can be seen from the way the interference pattern is constructed. Once the fringe pattern has been made for any two pairs of beams (i.e., A1 and A2 ; and A1 and A3,), then the phase of the third pair (A2 and A3) is fixed relative to the first two, with the maximum intensity for all three beams always coinciding at the same point within each hexagon. Shifting any one of the phases with respect to the other two changes the location of this maximum point in the x-z plane, but does not alter the relative phase relations.
If the hexagonal array were made by three separate two beam exposures, this phase relationship would be difficult to maintain and the intensity ratios would not be as desirable. For example, the intensity by this technique would be expressed by
I=6+2 cos α+2 cos β+2 cos γ (9)
which is the sum of three separate two-beam exposures, the angles being defined the same as in equation (8). In this case Imax =12, Iedge =4, and the intensity ratio is Imax /Iedge =12/4=3/1 (instead of 9/1 for the simultaneous exposure).
FIG. 10 is the computer plot of the intensity distribution obtained from equation 8 for the hexagonal array, where equi-intensity contours are shown. The almost perfect circular intensity pattern within the hexagons is evident. FIG. 11 is a plot of the intensity probability of equation 8. It illustrates an array where etching was allowed to continue beyond the I=1 saddle points. A close-packed hexagonal array, with the lowest exposure areas indicated in white around the hexagons, is observed. In this over-etched condition, these zero-exposure points (the white areas) are the centers of the small triangles shown in FIG. 10. These points, when connected, define a close-packed array of larger hexagons. FIG. 12 shows the intensity profile cutting through the center of a hexagon along line A-B of FIG. 10 (I=9), and including the zero exposure points (I=0) and the saddle points (I=1). Assuming that etching is directly proportional to exposure intensity, a side view of the etched depth would be represented by FIG. 12.
The three coherent beams arranged symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the photosensitive material may be provided by a division of amplitude of a laser beam or by a division of wavefront of a laser beam.
A suitable arrangement for providing exposure of photosensitive material by division of amplitude technique would employ a laser emitting a beam of coherent light which would be divided into thirds by beam splitters. For an ideal symmetric pattern, each of the resulting three beams would be directed through an appropriate lens and spatial filter positioned symmetrically and equidistant around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the photosensitive material.
Referring to FIG. 13, a representative arrangement is schematically set forth for providing a three-beam simultaneous exposure for obtaining a hexagonal array of holes. A coherent beam of light is emitted from laser 30, impinges on variable beam splitter 36 which directs one-third of the beam to mirrors 35, 35A and 37 lens and then to lens and spatial filter 38. The two-thirds of the beam passing through beam splitter 36 is incident on mirrors 36a and then 37a (to equalize the beam path length) to 50/50 beam splitter 31 directing one-half of the beam to mirror 32 and one-half of the beam to mirror 40. The beam of coherent light from mirror 32 is directed through phase shifter 33 to lens and spatial filter 34. The beam of coherent light from mirror 40 passes through phase shifter 41 to lens and spatial filter 42. Lens and spatial filters 34, 38 and 42 are located symmetrically and equidistant around an axis perpendicular to the surface of the plane of the photosensitive material as indicated by the arrangement shown FIG. 6. The three sources of the coherent light form an equilateral triangle around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface of the photosensitive material.
In an alternative embodiment, the three-beam exposure is accomplished by a division of wavefront system. In this system a beam of coherent light from a laser passes through a lens and spatial filter and is incident on three mirrors arranged symmetrically and equidistant around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface of the photosensitive material. Three beams are reflected from the mirror, illuminating the photosensitive material with a fringe pattern.
Referring to FIG. 14 a schematic representation of an exposure system to provide division of wavefront fringe generation is shown. A coherent beam of light from laser 50 passes through apodizing filter 51 and lens and spatial filter 52 and is incident on mirrors 53, 54 and 55. The arrangement of the mirrors is also shown in FIG. 15, located symmetrically and equidistant around axis 56 which is perpendicular to the plane of the surface of the photosensitive recording material 58. Three beams of coherent light are reflected from the mirrors forming an interference pattern on photosensitive material 58.
In an alternative embodiment the beam of light from the laser is reflected from a collimating mirror to mirrors 53, 54 and 55 to provide a parallel wavefront for the interference pattern.
In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, the photosensitive material is illuminated simultaneously by four coherent beams arranged symmetrically around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface of the recording surface. Referring to FIG. 16, a schematic representation of a four-beam exposure system for a square pattern formation is shown. Coherent beam sources 61, 62, 63 and 64 are located symmetrically and equidistant around an axis perpendicular to the plane x-z, of the surface of the recording material 65.
FIG. 17 is an end view looking from the x-z plane of the recording surface looking toward sources 61, 62, 63 and 64 showing the symmetrical and equidistant arrangement of the sources around axis 69 which is perpendicular to said x-z plane. FIG. 18 is a top view of the coherent beam source wherein sources 62 and 63 and 61 and 64 lie upon each other and are equidistant and symmetrically arranged around axis 69.
If the recording plane is illuminated simultaneously with four coherent beams arranged symmetrically about an axis perpendicular to the recording surface the intensity would be the absolute square of the vector sum of all four waves, as follows: ##EQU10## After substitution of the fields E1, E2, E3, E4 into Equation (10) the following expression is obtained. ##EQU11## and after normalizing (A1 =A2 =A3 =A4 =1), it simplifies to ##EQU12##
The interference intensity diagram for the four-beam exposure system is shown in FIG. 19. This configuration differs from the three-beam exposure system in that there are two pairs of interference fringes that coincide. Thus, the fringes from sources 61 and 62 coincide with sources 63 and 64 and are shown as vertical lines in FIG. 19. The fringes from sources 61 and 64 coincide with sources 62 and 63 and these are shown as horizontal lines in FIG. 19. All of these fringes have the same fringe spacing. The fringes from the diagonal sources, i.e., sources 61 and 63 and 62 and 64, are shown as diagonal lines in FIG. 19. The spacing from the diagonal fringes is different from that of the vertical fringes.
Therefore the angles can be defined in the following way: ##EQU13## In this case d2 =d1 /2 because of the fact that the sources are on the diagonal of a square array of sources. Substituting, the following system is obtained ##EQU14##
I=4+4 cos α+4 cos γ+2 cos ξ+2 cos ζ (13) due to the fact that α=β and γ=δ
Referring now to FIG. 19, the solid lines are for the maximum value of +1 for the cosine, and the dotted lines, the minimum value of -1 for the cosine. Where all values intersect at the center, (with cos α=cos β cos γ=cos δ=cos Ξ=cos δ=+1) an intensity of I=16 is obtained. At every peripheral point around the edge of each hole, the value of I=0 is obtained. This can be proved by referring to FIG. 19 where it will be seen that the x-axis has been constructed to lie along the edge of a hole. The dotted horizontal lines are minimum values for source pairs 62 and 63 and source pairs 61 and 64 (cos γ=cos δ=-1). Thus, the 4 cos γ term in equation (13) equals -4 and cancels the first constant term, which is equal to +4, in that equation. The vertical solid lines that lie along the z-axis are maximum values for source pairs 61 and 62 and source pairs 63 and 64 (cos α=cos β=+1) that cycle along the x-axis from maximum to minimum, etc. But the projections of the fringe intensities from the diagonal sources (source pairs 61 and 63 and source pairs 62 and 64) onto the x-axis have the same values as the vertical fringes but the opposite phase. Thus the intensities are everywhere cancelled along the x-axis, resulting in a net intensity of zero. Because of symmetry the same argument holds along the z-axis. Thus, with the four-beam configuration an intensity ratio is obtained from the maximum to the edge of Imax /Iedge =16/0, which makes it especially useful for the formation of deep holes.
Preferably, in the four-beam recording scheme the fourth source is aligned relative to the other three so that the fringe spacing is equal. A slight difference in fringe spacing will result in moire fringes across the recording surface. The moire fringe problem does not exist with the three-beam array.
If a rectangular rather than a square array were desired, the four sources as viewed from the front would resemble apexes of a rectangle rather than a square. The fringe spacing, d1, would apply to angles α and β as before, but a different fringe spacing, d'1 would apply to angles γ and δ. The diagonal fringe spacing, d2, would then be defined in terms of d1 and d2 by d2 2 d1 d1 '/υ(d1)2 +(d1 ')2. The previous results for intensity values at the center and edge of each hole would also apply, except that the hole would be rectangular instead of square.
All previous equations assume that the light emitted from the laser is s-polarized; i.e., the electric vector is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the optical table. For any pairs of interfering beams whose plane of incidence is parallel to the plane of the optical table, no correction for polarization is necessary. For other pairs of beams whose plane of incidence is not parallel to the plane of the table, the intensity expressions must be modified, the extreme case being for beams perpendicular to this plane (for example, source pairs 61 and 64, or source pairs 62 and 63 of the four-beam array). In this case the interference terms, i.e., those terms containing angles, in the equations for intensity must be multiplied by cos ψ, where ψ is the angle between the two beams. For example, for an array where the fringe spacing is 1 micrometer, and a recording wavelength of 442 nm, the angle between two beams, would be ψ=25.5�. Thus, cos ψ=0.902, which is a correction of less than 10%. For arrays having spacings of 2 micrometers or more (for d=2 micrometers, cos ψ=0.975), the correction would amount to less than 3%. Thus polarization corrections are negligible and are omitted herein.
FIG. 20 shows the equi-intensity contour computer plot of equation (13). The high density of contour lines at the centers reflects the high exposure values obtained there, while the area outside represents the eventual square pattern with vanishing edges that would result with excessive exposure and development. This array has the advantage that no consideration has to be given to a threshold exposure at the saddle points, since there are no saddle points. Almost vertical but vanishingly thin walls could be achieved with a planar top surface.
The photosensitive material exposed by the above-described techniques is preferably a photoresist and can be developed by techniques known to the art.
If the photosensitive material is a positive photoresist, then upon application of a developer those areas receiving the largest exposure will be preferentially etched away relative to those areas receiving the least exposure. A positive photoresist is rendered soluble by impinging light and thereby susceptible to etching by the developer. Alternatively, a photoresist could be chosen which would harden upon photoexposure (negative photoresist) whereupon the unexposed areas would be dissolved by appropriate treatment.
As examples of positive-acting photoresists mention may be made of initially hydrophobic, low molecular weight resins containing sensitizer, which, upon absorbing radiation change the solubility of the coating from aqueous alkali insoluble to aqueous alkali soluble. Suitable resins include phenol formaldehyde novolaks, novolaks in combination with styrene, methyl styrene and styrene-maleic anhydride copolymers and melamines.
As examples of representative negative-acting photoresists, mention may be made of polyvinyl cinnamate derivatives, vinyl ester containing cinnamylidene and alkyl ester prepolymers.
Additional details regarding positive and negative photoresist may be found, for example in W. S. DeForest, Photoresist Materials and Processes, McGraw-Hill, N.Y. 1975.
The photoresist is applied to any suitable substrate such as glass, silicon, plastic film or the like, through conventional procedures. Positive photoresists are preferred and they are usually applied in liquid form at room temperature to an appropriately cleaned substrate by spin coating in thicknesses which range from a fraction of one micrometer to a few micrometers depending on the spin rate and the photoresist. Dip coating and other coating techniques can also be utilized. In order to drive off any remaining solvents, the photoresist layer and substrate are usually exposed to an elevated temperature for a short period of time, a procedure known as "pre-baking", typically 90� C. for 20 minutes. Sensitivity of the photoresist is usually greatest without any pre-baking and a long pre-bake at lower temperature, e.g., 1 hour at 70� C., leaves the photoresist more sensitive than a short pre-bake at elevated temperature, e.g., 20 minutes at 90� C.
The photoresist is exposed to light to which it is sensitive in a predetermined pattern and then developed. Typical lasers and their associated wavelengths include the argon ion laser (458 nm) and the He-Cd laser (442 nm) with coherence lengths of about 5 cm and 12 cm, respectively.
The following non-limiting examples illustrate the novel method of the present invention.
Employing the exposure configuration set forth in FIG. 14, an array of hexagonal depressions was formed. The beam from a He-Cd laser at 442 nm was passed through a 10� expansion lens and a 15 micrometer spatial filter impinging on three mirrors 5 cm in diameter, spaced 78.7 cm from the expansion lens and filter and arranged in the same plane with the center of each mirror 10.2 cm from the other two mirrors. The tilt angles of the mirrors were adjusted so that the half angle ψ, between two pairs of beams was ψ=4.22; yielding a fringe spacing, d, for each pair, of 3 micrometers. The half angle for the third pair of beams was ψ=5.07�, yielding a fringe spacing d=2.5 micrometers. The three interfering beams from the mirrors impinged on a target 48 cm from the mirrors. The exposure time was 10 min. The target was about 10 micrometers thickness of Shipley photoresist AZ-1350J on 7 mil Mylar. The total intensity of the three beams was 31 mJ/cm2. Development was carried out for 1 min in Shipley Developer AZ-351 diluted 3 to 1 with water. FIG. 21 is a 10,000� magnification scanning electron micrograph, top view, of the photoresist after development showing a flattened hexagonal shape, with the distance between two pairs of walls equal to 3 micrometers and the third pair of walls equal to 2.5 micrometers.
In order to obtain a larger area of exposure, the beam from a He-Cd laser at 442 nm was reflected from a mirror located behind the plane of the target, through a 20� expansion lens and a 15 micrometer spatial filter located 18 cm in front of the plane of the target. The three-mirror array was 42 cm from the expansion lens and filter. Each mirror was 5 cm in diameter, arranged in a triangular array with the center of each mirror 10.2 cm from the other two mirrors. The light from the three-mirror array was reflected a distance of 54 cm to the target. The 15 by 30 cm target was mounted on a vacuum platen and comprised about a 10 micrometers thickness of Shipley photoresist AZ-1350J on 7 mil Mylar and exposure from 50 min for a 3-beam intensity of 47 mJ/cm2. The photoresist was developed for 1 min. with Shipley developer AZ-351 diluted 3 to 1 with water. Silver was vacuum deposited on the relief image in an amount sufficient to make the surface of the relief image electrically conductive. Employing a nickel sulfamate-nickel chloride electroform solution, 10 mils of nickel was plated over the silver relief pattern. The nickel electroform, which now constituted a negative image of the relief pattern, was removed and employed to emboss a layer of 5 mil cellulose acetate butyrate on a polyester support wherein the cellulose acetate butyrate was softened by a mixture of 80 parts toluene, 20 parts acetone and 6 parts with FLUORAD FC-170-C a fluorinated alkyl polyoxyethylene ethanol sold by 3M Corp., St. Paul, Minn. The embossing was carried out by superimposing the nickel electroform over the cellulose acetate butyrate layer and passing the thus-formed sandwich through motor driven rubber rollers at 60 psi. FIG. 22 is a stereo pair of scanning electron micrographs at 10,000� magnification of the cellulose acetate butyrate replica of the original exposed and developed photoresist relief pattern.
A square array of substantially square deep holes was prepared employing the laser and target arrangement and procedure described in Example 1 except that a four-mirror array was employed with the mirrors arranged in a square configuration with 10 cm center-to-center spacing. The spatial filter employed a 20� lens, 15 micron pinhole and was located 111 cm from the mirror array. The mirror array was located 184 cm from the target. The target was the same as that used in Example 1. The total intensity of the exposure for the four beams was 187 mJ/cm2. Development was carried out for 3 min in Shipley Developer AZ-1350J diluted 2 to 1 with water. FIG. 23 is a 2,000� magnification scanning electron micrograph of the photoresist after development.
Employing the exposure configuration set forth in FIG. 13, an array of hexagonal depressions was formed utilizing the division of amplitude procedure. The beam from a He-Cd laser 30 at 442 nm impinged on a variable beam splitter 36 which directed 1/3 of the beam to a first and second mirror 35 and 35a and then to a third mirror 37 from which the beam was directed to one of three sets of 10� expansion lens 38 and 15 micrometer spatial filter located 115 cm from the target. The distance from the variable beam splitter 36 to mirror 35 was 18 cm; from mirror 35 to mirror 35a was 27 cm; from mirror 35a to mirror 37 was 28 cm and from mirror 37 to spatial filter 38 was 66 cm.
The remaining 2/3 of the beam which passed through the 1/3 beam splitter 36 impinged on mirror 36a located 7 cm from beam splitter 36 and thence to mirror 36b and beam splitter 31. The distance between mirrors 36a and 36b was 44 cm and from 36b to beam splitter 31 was 44 cm. One half of the beam was reflected to a mirror 32 15 cm from the beam splitter 31 which in turn reflected the beam 31 cm to the second set of said expansion lens and spatial filter 34. The remaining beam from 50-50 beam splitter 31 was reflected from mirror 40 13 cm from the beam splitter 31 31 cm to the third set of expansion lens and spatial filter 42. Sets of parallel glass plates 41 and 33 are employed as phase shifters to electronically stabilize the beams. The target 45 was about a 10 micrometer coating of Shipley photoresist AZ-1350J on 7 mil Mylar held in place by a vacuum platen. A range of exposures was employed; i.e. 21 mJ/cm2 ; 31 mJ/cm2 and 42 mJ/cm2. Development was carried out for 3 min with Shipley Developer AZ-351 diluted 4 to 1 with water. FIGS. 24A to 24F are top view scanning electron micrographs of the developed photoresists. FIGS. 24A and 24B are electron micrographs at 2,000� and 10,000� magnification, respectively, of the underetched relief pattern wherein the total exposure intensity was 21 mJ/cm2. FIGS. 24C and 24D are electron micrographs at 2,000� and 10,000� magnification, respectively, of the relief pattern wherein the total exposure intensity was 31 mJ/cm2. FIGS. 24E and 24F are electron micrographs at 2,000� and 10,000� magnification, respectively of the relief pattern where the total intensity exposure was 42 mJ/cm2. It will be noted that with the underetched array (FIGS. 24A and 24B) there are flat areas between holes with no saddle points, while with the overetched array (FIGS. 24E and 24F), there are no flat areas but small saddle points between the zero exposure points. Thus, when underetched, the array appears as circular holes. It is still a close packed hexagonal array.
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MTV2's GUY CODE Returns with Record Ratings
MTV2's season three premiere of "Guy Code" shattered network records last night with a .5 rating among P12-34, becoming the highest rated and most watched original season premiere in network history; as well as becoming the most watched original series telecast with 323,000 P12-34 viewers. Among MTV2's core M12-34 demo, the debut also marks the highest rated original series telecast ever for the channel with a .8 rating and claimed the #2 spot in its time slot for original cable series premieres.
The "Guy Code" franchise has continued to build momentum with double digit growth, posting a +22% increase over the season two premiere and a +47% increase over the season one premiere. Last night, Guy Code season three brought in over half a million total viewers between its debut and first repeat airing at 12:30 a.m. ET/PT.
In addition, MTV2 announced its new six-part special series, "Mac Miller and the Most Dope Family," will premiere on Tuesday, February 26 at 11:30 p.m. ET/PT following "Guy Code" on MTV2. The series will chronicle the adventures of young music superstar Mac Miller while he records his next album Watching Movies with the Sound Off and lives the L.A. life with his four closest friends from back home in Pittsburgh: the business mastermind Quentin, the artistically gifted Jimmy, the fashion entrepreneur Peanut, and former NFL player turned bodyguard Big Dave.
In an all new episode of "Guy Code," airing Tuesday, January 22 at 11:00 p.m. ET/PT on MTV2, the cast will tackle the dos and don'ts of virginity, being gay, playing sick and celebrating your birthday, as well as comedic sketches on the much-dreaded #FriendZoneFace.
MTV2 targets young men with smart, funny and relevant content, including comedic, music and action-oriented original programming such as "Guy Code," "Mac Miller and The Most Dope Family," "Nitro Circus Live," "The DUB Magazine Project," 'Hip Hop Squares," the weekly hip hop show "The Week in Jams," and the return of "Nick Cannon Presents Wild 'N Out" in 2013.
Available in approximately 80 million homes MTV2 is man's best friend. Since its launch in 1996, the network has reflected the subversive interests and behaviors of young men with a compelling and diverse programming line-up inspired by ordinary guys who do extraordinary things. MTV2 is a unit of Viacom Inc. (NASDAQ: VIA, VIAB), one of the world's leading creators of programming and content across all media platforms.
Source: (Nielsen, Live +SD data).
About Author
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subset: commoncrawl


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I've been reading some commentary about Rep. Paul Ryan's federal budget proposals. I don't know all the particulars and, at this point, I can't remember all the details from the commentary I've read. So I'm going to be speaking from memory here, which may not be accurate and certainl isn't based on thorough understanding of the budget or the criticisms against it. Now, let me be upfront and say that I'm don't care for Ryan's views and his slick approach. At the same time, I appreciate the fact that he offfers ideas that can be debated and discussed.
In this thread, I want to look at his budget and paint a picture of America that Ryan envisions based on the principles and ideas we can extrapolate from the budget. I also welcome any corrections to errors I may make regarding Ryan's views. Indeed, I would love participation from supporters of Ryan's plan—as long as they're civil and thoughtful.
Here are a few key points of Ryan's budget that stand out for me:
1. No increased taxes and taxes on wealthy kept low.
2. Most of the budget will cover entitlements, military, interest on debt and one other thing which I can't remember right now—while discretionary spending will be dramatically cut—things like transportation, education, homeland security, weather service, etc.
The budget seems close to a libertarian vision of the federal government. The President has described the plan as "thinly veiled social Darwinism," and I must admit I get the same impression. I suspect that Ryan would argue that this budget allows the country to have a more healthy and more thriving economy, while the President's budget will doom the country to a very stagnant one and maybe even bankrupting the government. We can dispute the accuracy of these claims, but I think government doing too much can lead to a stagnant economy—as doing so can sap a lot of resources as well as stifle the productivity of citizens. (I'm not saying this will happen under the President's budget, but I'm saying that a large federal government can have this effect.)
Having said that, making the cuts advocated by Ryan could not only hinder the effectiveness of the federal government for things like homeland security/border patrol, environmental protection, air traffic control and handling disasters, but it could severely hurt lower income citizens (e.g., cuts to head start, pell grants, etc.) So far I really haven't heard a strong rebuttal against this claim, and personally I would strongly oppose draconian cuts to these type of services.
Probably the best rebuttal I've heard (briefly from Ryan) is the idea that the states should or could pick up the slack. So one might argue that the huge cuts to the federal government doesn't indicate an opposition to many of the programs—instead, the cuts occur out of the belief that the state and local governments—and/or civic institutions should be providing these types of services. I think this is a legitimate claim, at least on the surface. The question, for me, then becomes, can states and municipal governments, as well as community organizations, pick up the slack? That seems fairly dubious given the way states have severe budget problems of their own. (Does Ryan favor increasing state and local taxes as a partial way to cover these costs?)
Can we make a legitimate case for pushing the burden to state and local governments and local community organizations, while drastically cutting government services, or is this just an excuse to cut out these services?
" the states should or could pick up the slack."
Only two states have a budget surplus. No, they cannot pick up the slack. Here is a study of how much federal funding is received versus how much federal taxes are paid by state. If you look at it, you'll notice that more typically 'red' states receive more than they pay. 'Blue' states are paying the federal taxes that keep 'red' states lights on. Red states are hypocrites, and would suffer the most from federal cuts.
Here is an article about how much federal support citizens receive versus their impression of what they receive. You will see that many people find themselves independent, government-free lifestyles that only use Medicare, Medicaid, food stamps, student loans, and 529s.
A user on this site, I believe it was Jerry Johnson but I may be wrong so sorry Jerry if I'm misattributing you to something you didn't say, pointed out once that if the federal government wants to balance the budget with cuts and not increased spending, it should cut healthcare and defense in half and remove pensions. I did the math thinking to disprove this argument and discovered that it was actually true, and you didn't even have to cut pensions. Now, how to cut defense and healthcare in half (a substantial amount) is a different, more difficult issue. But the fact is that they are the two most unlikely to get cut because they are the pet projects of the Republicans and Democrats respectively. I know there are things we can look into and could probably easily do, such as ban non-bid contracts and enforce due dates on the defense sector to lower costs and cut off companies that never provide products, and tort reform and police insurance fraud in healthcare. These I feel are first steps and reasonable solutions.
Also, raising taxes is actually an exceptionally simple method of increasing government revenue, and all we could do to start is, um, letting those so-called 'temporary tax cuts' expire like they are supposed to.
Don't get too hopeful about reduced costs from the rollback of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars, because at this point it's probably better to just expect that the US will go to war against Iran in the near future, whatever our personal opinions of whether or not we should. Maybe I'm wrong and that would be neat, but it's feeling pretty likely.
Of the non 'etc.' things listed in number two, the thing I agree with the most is that we could cut funding to homeland security. First of all, the DHS is an additional 'intelligence' agency we didn't properly need and one of the significant costs that increased our deficit during the Bush years. Secondly, all those pretty gewgaws and gadgets we walk through at airports and the like could easily be replaced by the Israeli model . The problem with that model is that it'll get civil rights activists' panties in a bundle because it includes profiling. But the general idea is that passengers are asked a series of questions designed to look at their psychological profile, see if they develop nervous tics or traits of anxiety. From there, they are screened further. There are no body scans. And for the huge target Israel is, there have been no attacks through that airport since 1972. We're spending too much on products that don't matter.
Those are my ideas. Obviously I have precisely zero political clout to enable them. I think there are relatively easy things to start out with to substantially help our economy and efficiency without pissing off very many people, and I think the focus on taxes fogs up that debate and, you know, turns our discourse into a circus. Speaking of the circus, have you heard about the $835000 of taxpayer money the GSA spent on clowns? I love the part where the GSA is in charge of monitoring and moderating government spending. Good times.
Edit: Oh, and the thing about social darwinism is that it's a sociological theory and so things more or less can fit or not fit into that framework depending on your angle of approach.
Also, is it okay Jazz if I request of participants in this discussion to offer their ideas of where spending could be cut and how, with links if possible? Nothing too professional analyst style required, I've just found that finding out little ways here and there to make big changes in spending is actually sort of fun and helps lighten the discussion about budget. Of course there will always be problems with spending cuts and raising taxes. But this is something like the second or third time I've written out ideas of what I think could be done, and I keep supplementing my ideas with new 'fixes' as I find them.
(As I expected, I guess I have to play Devil's Advocate…)
Only two states have a budget surplus. No, they cannot pick up the slack.
I know states and local government (not to mention non-profits) aren't doing so well now, so "picking up the slack" seems untenable. But, for the sake of argument, in better economic times, could states pick up the slack—or better yet, should they pick up the slack. By the latter, I'm asking if people feel like more localized control of gov't services like education, transportation, etc. is preferrable. Why or why not?
Imo, a fundamental issue we need to address is not only which services should government provide, but what level of government should provide them. Decentralized approach appeals to me in general, but I think you have to decide on a case-by-case basis.
…if the federal government wants to balance the budget with cuts and not increased spending, it should cut healthcare and defense in half and remove pensions. I did the math thinking to disprove this argument and discovered that it was actually true, and you didn't even have to cut pensions. Now, how to cut defense and healthcare in half (a substantial amount) is a different, more difficult issue.
Difficult to the point of being impractical, I would say. We should remember that budgeting in a sustainable way (i.e., budgeting in a way to keep debt at a manageable level) doesn't only have to involve cutting government services. If people believe in creating sustainable budgets via cuts only, they should demonstrate why this is preferable to other approaches—like a mixture of cuts and increasing revenues or revenues with no cuts.
I know there are things we can look into and could probably easily do, such as ban non-bid contracts and enforce due dates on the defense sector to lower costs and cut off companies that never provide products, and tort reform and police insurance fraud in healthcare. These I feel are first steps and reasonable solutions.
They may be reasonable, but that doesn't mean they're feasible. Basically, what you seem to be talking about is cutting "waste, fraud and abuse" as a way to addressing budget problems. My sense is that this is not only extremely difficult to accomplish, but the victories you do achieve won't seriously address budget problems. (That doesn't mean we shouldn't try to cut waste, fraud and abuse, but this isn't a serious solution, imo.)
Also, raising taxes is actually an exceptionally simple method of increasing government revenue, and all we could do to start is, um, letting those so-called 'temporary tax cuts' expire like they are supposed to.
Simple procedurally, perhaps, but not politically. I'm not saying we shouldn't let the Bush tax cuts expire (right now, I lean towards letting them expire), but it's not a slam-dunk; and I'm not one who believes that raising taxes will solve all of these problems.
Edit: Oh, and the thing about social darwinism is that it's a sociological theory and so things more or less can fit or not fit into that framework depending on your angle of approach.
By social darwinism, I mean an America where besides some level of health care and social security for elderly and the poor, everyone else is on their own. So citizens that are not wealthy will have to largely depend on themselves or charitable organizations. I don't know to what extent this fits Ryan's vision, but my sense it pulls heavily in that direction.
Also, is it okay Jazz if I request of participants in this discussion to offer their ideas of where spending could be cut and how, with links if possible?
I don't mind—only I would prefer if we talk more in general terms. For example, should the federal government be involved in education and to what extent, if so? Or at least mention cuts that would significantly address short and long term budget challenges.
_"I know states and local government (not to mention non-profits) aren't doing so well now, so "picking up the slack" seems untenable. But, for the sake of argument, in better economic times, could states pick up the slack—or better yet, should they pick up the slack. By the latter, I'm asking if people feel like more localized control of gov't services like education, transportation, etc. is preferrable. Why or why not?
Imo, a fundamental issue we need to address is not only which services should government provide, but what level of government should provide them. Decentralized approach appeals to me in general, but I think you have to decide on a case-by-case basis."_
I agree and I think that's largely the point I'm trying to make. Here's the thing: states can pick up the slack in a sense by sponsoring currently federal-level benefits for themselves, and it may be more efficient since they apply directly to state citizens and nowhere else, but the two issues with that I can immediately think of are
1) Robbing from Peter to pay Paul: Okay, federal taxes are reduced. State taxes are increased. Overall 'taxes' citizens pay personally? Probably the same, or insignificantly more or less. I could see it substantially reducing red states' taxes because their local governments would cut public benefits, and then I could see the red states suffering majorly for it within a few years and going back to Daddy Fed for some handouts. I mean, that's actually exactly what they're doing now — re: that link to federal monies paid versus received study in my response.
2) Students. Military. People whose jobs require them to be mobile and move from state to state. How do they pay for or receive benefits? My sister still votes in this state but has been living in North Carolina for almost a decade.
Nevertheless in theory I approve of the American value of state-level government versus federal-level government. We're just too big for any centralized government to control efficiently, and a lot of states I feel can take care of themselves. I am just aware that some states cannot.
By the by, one of the reasons N. Dakota gets so much press about these state-level financial issues is that not only are they one of the two states that have a surplus, but a large part of that comes from the success of its state-level banking system which acts as sort of a "mini-Federal Reserve" or a credit union shared between a state financial system and its citizens.
"a mixture of cuts and increasing revenues or revenues with no cuts."
This is my belief. Raising taxes isn't just an option, but something we just simply fucking need to do, and the people who are trying literally every other approach, especially those assholes who say, "Government should be run like a business" need to remember that businesses make profits by raising revenue as well as cutting overhead. There's only so much overhead you can cut before you're closed down. I saw this in real-time when I worked at Hastings and they cut overhead so much, one single employee (cough me) was running the entire sales floor — which means that most customers were leaving in anger because I couldn't get around to helping them find what they wanted to buy, something Hastings corporation couldn't 'see' because zero-sum transactions of angry customers doesn't create a receipt for the accounting department. One person cannot help customers in three different departments at the same time, that's just physical impossibility, but that's how Hastings attempted to raise profit margins. Now one of their locations has shut down completely. Hey, it's less overhead, right?
But the reason why I focus on fraud, abuse, and waste is to make sure if we're raising taxes, that we're actually using it efficiently and productively. Some of it involves cutting bureaucracy, some of it involves creating bureaucracy: a bureau of 'insurance fraud investigation' would be a good investment, methinks. Some already exist at the state level, but again, lots of fraud manages success because it operates over state-lines. Hence, Florida has an insurance fraud department, and is also one of the most publicized areas of insurance fraud.
"Simple procedurally, perhaps, but not politically."
Exactly. That's the difference between politics and solutions. Solutions are never, ever no-cost. There's always a cost. Politics is the job of finding the solution that pleases everybody, and as a result, it usually pleases nobody. But the reason it exists is so that we can debate the solution and find the better, lower cost solution (and cost in this case isn't always financial, it could also be a labor cost or a health cost or a security cost or a rights cost or…), and the problem is that people sometimes value some things far beyond their actual value, such as low taxes. Financial savings from low taxes don't mean jack shit if you're making no money, and the issue right now is that lots of people aren't making any money at all. So we need to focus on how to get them making money, and the 'low taxes = job creation' equation doesn't add up, its missing qualifiers. It's a literal rhetorical jump to conclusion.
Another way of saying this is a joke a friend of mine came up with recently: "You're momma's so dumb, she thinks Keynesian supply side economics is socialism." The Republican's rhetoric right now is typically political double-standard: "WHY ISN'T THE GOVERNMENT CREATING JOBS? WE HAVE TO CUT MONEY FROM THE GOVERNMENT!" Uhhhh… how can the government operate if it has no income? And why does cutting from the government rarely equate salary decreases for high-profile political offices?
"TPC looked only at the tax reductions in Ryan's plan, which also included offsetting–but unidentified–cuts in tax credits, exclusions, and deductions. TPC found that in 2015, relative to today's tax system, those making $1 million or more would enjoy an average tax cut of $265,000 and see their after-tax income increase by 12.5 percent. By contrast, half of those making between $20,000 and $30,000 would get no tax cut at all. On average, people in that income group would get a tax reduction of $129. Ryan would raise their after-tax income by 0.5 percent.
Nearly all middle-income households (those making between $50,000 and $75,000) would see their taxes fall, by an average of roughly $1,000. Ryan would increase their after-tax income by about 2 percent.
Ryan would extend all of the 2001/2003 tax cuts, and then consolidate individual rates to just two—10 and 25 percent. In addition, he'd repeal the Alternative Minimum Tax, reduce the corporate rate from 35 percent to 25 percent, and kill the tax provisions of the 2010 health reform law.
Earlier this week, TPC projected the tax cuts in Ryan's budget would add $4.6 trillion to the federal deficit over the next decade, even after extending the 2001/2003 tax cuts, which would add another $5.4 trillion to the deficit."
Yeah, not surprising analysis. Any information, however, on how well it'll be able to pass? I mean Obama is against it but how much veto power does he have against it, are there other plans submitted against it, what will happen to it as its processed through the legislative branch?
A virtual poster (6ft x 6ft) showing the 2012 federal budget. I haven't perused it just yet but what's interesting is that it is designed with National Security (60% of federal spending) on the left side, which means I'm going to look at it to see if I can discern methods of cutting defense, and compare to cutting anything else.
Does Ryan's budget include an allocation for Soylent Green r&d?
very funny
In general I do think power should be decentralized, but not in some of these cases. Education? Environment? Education is not 'discretionary', it is the most basic entitlement everybody in the country should get. And the environment? This is not a case where actions are insular: If you pollute the environment it affects everybody even outside the state.
Here's the thing about taxes. Suppose you are the head of a department of the government. You are given $100 million, and you only spend $70 million. Do you: A) Give the extra $30 million back, or B) Find a way to spend it? If you give it back, guess what you'll get next year. $70 million. But what if you need that $100 million next year? So, you spend that extra $30 million on something, anything. You expand your department and its overhead. Then next year you go back to the federal government and say you need more.
We have a fundamental flaw in the way we think of funding. If one year you get $100 million, and next year you get $95 million, you don't think of it as receiving $95 million dollars, you think of it as a 5% cut. That is reactionary, and leads to the perpetually ballooning overhead described in the previous paragraph. Every single dollar should have to be newly justified every single year.
Given that is newly justified, yes, it is ridiculous that capital gains tax is 15% and regular income is 35%, and taxing should be done at a reasonable, progressive rate.
Also, we have a disturbing decreasing ratio of workforce to retired people and unsustainable systems that people have been planning their financial future based on. Social security was designed when there were 16 working people for every one retired person. Now there's 2.5. It's obvious this system is unsustainable if the cutoff and benefit stays the same, but touching it is political cyanide, so instead we're just paying huge rates for a system that's going to explode out from under us in a few decades, instead of making the sacrifices and compromises we need to stabilize a system that ensures the basic needs of elderly are met.
You know what happens when you cut funding to states? They raise property taxes and it becomes impossible for poor people to move into better neighborhoods.
But yeah, federal spending that is actually discretionary should be cut, and every department should have to publicly justify every penny they get every year.
"every department should have to publicly justify every penny they get every year."
How much will that bureaucratic procedure cost?
(Half-joking. This is why politicians present these issues as "x amount over x years." In order that that money can be more efficiently accounted for and running the government for a year isn't six months of accounting and THEN six months of legislation. But of course this is not defending inefficient budgeting practices such as justifying budgetary futures instead of defending current budgetary needs.)
Does Ryan's budget include an allocation for Soylent Green r&d?
Since there seems to be little room for discretionary spending in his budget, it would have to fall under military spending? Or maybe he could somehow tie this into medicare and medicaid spending? (That sounds like a good movie idea. ;)
Everyone knows Ira's death in that movie is a visualization of the dreaded death committees.
DiB said, How much will that bureaucratic procedure cost?
This is a good point. I suspect that policymakers will resort to some bureaucratic procedures—which, generally take more time and therefore cost money—to justify expenditures. But I think the bigger problem is developing a rational budgeting process. Al Gore and Bill Clinton pushed for this when they were in office. (I believe it was called "performance based budgeting.") And while the concept is really good, in practice it's not as smooth or efficient as one may think.
Jirin said, But yeah, federal spending that is actually discretionary should be cut…
But you're talking as if there is something that is actually discretionary in an objective sense. What is discretionary to the wealthy, may not be discretionary to the poor, etc.
In federal tax terminology, the budget is divided into mandatory spending (Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid), defense spending, non-defense discretionary spending, and interest. This means that roughly stated, all non-mandatory spending is 'discretionary.' It has little to do with frames of reference based on wealth and more to do with what sectors and services the government is providing.
Well, I would probably include interest on debt as mandatory, as well. Of course, it's not mandatory to pay back our debt (including the interest on debt), but we don't really have to pay for entitlement programs, either. Technically, there isn't an expenditure that is mandatory or discretionary for that matter. People (citizens via elected officials) determine what is mandatory and discretionary.
But even if we look at what falls under discretionary spending as DiB has defined above, there will be differences in opinion about what spending is crucial and what spending is not. For example, Jirin thinks that spending on eduction is not discretionary, but there are many others who do not feel that way (especially in terms of federal spending).
Democracy without education is not democracy at all: It's the plutocracy that marxists accuse it of being.
The trouble with this poster is, is there much I look at and want to say "Yeah, axe that entire program?" Probably not. There's some research budget there that could probably be accomplished just as or more efficiently by providing incentives to the private sector, there's 'favor for favor' pork projects buried in there, and there's a lot of funding people aren't willing to cut for fear of the 'job destroyer' designation on the election resume.
But it's all buried very cleverly: It'd take an objective expert to find out exactly what's in there.
Or maybe, change the system so coming in under-budget doesn't diminish your future funding? For instance, say, for every dollar you give back to the federal government, 50 cents of that dollar gets added onto next year's budget.
_Democracy without education is not democracy at all: It's the plutocracy that marxists accuse it of being.
I think most people would agree that education is important, but not everyone agrees that the federal government should be funding education. Must the federal government fund education or provide educational services to its citizens (versus the state and local governments or even priviate/non-profit institutions)? Personally, I don't think they MUST—hence, it's a discretionary item.
But it's all buried very cleverly: It'd take an objective expert to find out exactly what's in there.
I hear what you're saying, and I'm with you to some extent, but I'm not sure this objective expert exists. Are there objective answers to what the government should and should not do? Are there objective answers to the amount of money and resources should go into these services? I'd say no to both questions.
Or maybe, change the system so coming in under-budget doesn't diminish your future funding? For instance, say, for every dollar you give back to the federal government, 50 cents of that dollar gets added onto next year's budget.
I don't know if that's much more rational, but I know what you're trying to get at. I would favor this more if this was contingent on reaching certain benchmarks set by policymakers—and if we could identify meaningful benchmarks. (I also like the idea of allowing agencies to create a "savings account" for these monies that can be carried over from year to year.)


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Brady et al. To Appear at Toronto's 'Just for Laughs' Festival, 7/6-7/11
The Toronto Just for Laughs Festival has announced the performers for this year's festival's gala performances, Variety reports. The festival will include six gala performances and will run from July 6 to July 11.
The first gala, to be held on July 8 at 7:00pm, will be hosted by Wayne Brady and will feature Gabriel Iglesias, Harland Williams, Tim Minchin, Mike Birbiglia and Sebastian Maniscalo. Iglesias, Williams, and Minchin will return for the 9:30pm on July 8, which will be hosted by Demetri Martin and will also feature Elon Gold and Tommy Tiernan. Iglesias, Williams, Minchin, Gold, and Tiernan will all return for both the 7:00pm and the 9:30pm galas on July 9, which will be hosted by Garry Shanding.
Brad Garrett will host the 7:00pm gala on July 10, which will feature John Heffron, Mike Wilmot, Jimmy Carr and Maniscalo. Louis C.K. will host the evening's 9:30 gala, which will feature Todd Barry, Wilmot, Birbiglia, Carr and Tiernan. For more information on Just for Laughs, visit http://www.hahaha.com/en/.
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10:00 AM to 4:00 PM - Main Campus: Homeschool students and parents who are interested in selective liberal arts colleges will benefit greatly from this workshop.During the workshop, we will offer information sessions on the college search process and the application process. We will address common myths about the cost of private college education and provide insights on scholarship and aid opportunities with private colleges in general. We will also offer a panel discussion on college student life led by current Berry students and an interactive session designed to give parents and students insight on how admission decisions are made. The workshop will also include a complimentary lunch for all guests, plus the option of a guided walking tour of Berry's Main Campus (for those interested).Please register online and find more information at www.berry.edu/admission/homeschoolworkshopHomeschool students and parents who are interested in selective liberal arts colleges will benefit greatly from this workshop. - See more at: http://berry.edu/admission/homeschoolworkshop/#sthash.6oJWqVRD.dpuf
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Alexander Nikulin's Blog Part II
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Wasnt given a chance.
December 7, 2007.
My second game in the National Hockey League was against Philadelphia, though I cant brag about it. I played just over four minutes and simply didnt have time to do anything. Although I already was feeling a lot more confident. But I wasnt given a chance, even though I thought I was doing okay. Prior to the game I was a little anxious, of course, especially after such an unlucky first game, but I wasnt panicked.
The next day I worked at practice, and then met up with Ottawas GM Bryan Murray. He explained that I was going back to Binghamton. But I stayed in Ottawa two more days. Problems with the US visa arose, and a team representative was helping me extend it. Didnt feel like going out, so whenever I had free time I stayed in the hotel. They didnt send me to Binghamton in a limousine, but still a nice car. To be honest, for the kind of hockey I displayed they couldve sent me back on a public bus.
Ive thought a lot about my recall to Ottawa. In the first game I certainly gave into emotions. As I talked about before, I just burned out and wasnt able to show everything I was capable of. And in the second game I played too little. I believe I just need time and trust for adaptation. I experienced the same in the AHL and now feel confident in the new league. But in Ottawa I had no room for error, which is difficult for any rookie.
I cant say there were certain things I couldnt do. Speed in the NHL is not faster than in the AHL. The main difference is the puck-handling technique, higher performance skill. They make very few mistakes.
Im hoping theyll give me one more chance this season. I know what to work on, what to do to raise the bar. And in the future everything will depend on my game. But nevertheless I received a good lesson. The callup to the NHL and the return to Binghamton is a great psychological endurance test. Obviously, I didnt want to go back. And at first I felt ill at ease. Wasnt upset with anyone, but I wont lie, I was disappointed. Everything is fine now.
They love the game in Ottawa. Everyone says hockey is a religion in Canada, and having been there during the regular season I will agree. Sold-out arenas, lots of people after the game. Although I have a feeling that the same people are asking for autographs. But we dont deny anybody.
The defenseman Anton Volchenkov got injured. But Im not surprised. He blocks all the shots! Not afraid of anything! He acts selflessly. By the way, we had dinner together when I was up with the team, we talked. Im wishing Anton a speedy recovery.
Im back in the apartment I was renting with Ilja Zubov. Thankfully he hadnt rented my room out, left everything as it was. Thank you, Ilja. I got right back to work. The very first game upon returning I played very well against Bridgeport, where our team won 4-0, and I scored a goal and had three assists. Two days later I received another point.
I was put right back into the first line, and overall Im spending a lot of time on the ice. Im playing not just the first but also the third line. I dont go out in penalty-killing situations, but Im constantly out for power-plays. Intensive game experience wont hurt.
Last edited by ThirtyFive: 01-02-2008 at
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Microsoft's Music Deals app offers a treasure trove of free and inexpensive music every Tuesday. Why not take advantage of it!Read More
Microsoft Introduces Work & Play Bundle which includes Office 365, Xbox Music Pass, Xbox LIVE Gold, Skype Unlimited World and Skype WiFi for $199 per year.Read More
Microsoft confirms rumors as it announces the purchase of Mojang, the makers of Minecraft.Read More
Xbox One August Update enables mobile purchasing among other several features.Read More
Xbox Music API is now open to all third party developers. The affiliate program is interesting too, but will developers come?Read More
The Surface Pro 3 is a great laptop replacement. What does the Surface Family of devices say about Microsoft's plans?Read More
Several updates, including external storage support, are coming to Xbox One in the June update.Read More
If you bought Xbox LIVE Gold and don't need it after June, you can request a refund after the update rolls out.Read More
Two big cost-cutting moves made by Microsoft: Xbox One will be sold without Kinect and entertainment apps will now be free and not require Xbox LIVE Gold.Read More
At //build/, Microsoft made key announcements to get closer to realizing their vision of "One Windows", hoping to increase developer interest in Windows.Read More
Can Microsoft appeal to non-gamers and not alienate the gamers to make Xbox One the go-to device for the living room?Read More
The much-anticipated Xbox v.Next is going to be revealed at Microsoft campus on May 21. #XboxReveal event will be streamed live.Read More
Microsoft shows off its "Holodeck" system to recreate your room into a more intense cinematic experience. Its focus is on the "Xbox goes big"Read More
Microsoft Minesweeper Arrives on Windows RT, finally.Read More
I finally got to use a Surface with Windows RT. I love it.Read More


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Rugby League
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Travis Burns
Josh Hodgson thinks Travis Burns can shine in Hull derby on Good Friday
Wednesday 27th March 09:16
Hull KR hooker Josh Hodgson believes Australian stand-off Travis Burns will have no problems dealing with the passion of his first Good Friday derby against Hull FC.
Our experts gives their view on what we can expect from Sam Burgess
Sam Burgess has been named on Bath's replacements bench for Friday's clash with Harlequins at the Recreation Ground and much is expected of the former rugby league star known as 'Slammin Sam'.
Warrington Wolves have used mixed martial arts to prepare for Super League 20
There's not many sports people that can teach a rugby league team how to be more physical, but the Warrington Wolves have found just the thing.
Four Nations: What do the four teams need to do to reach the final?
In the most competitive tournament since it was regularised in 2009, all four teams go into this weekend's final round-robin fixtures in the Four Nations Series with a chance of reaching the final in Wellington on Saturday week.
Experts & Blogs
Read the thoughts and opinions of Stevo with skysports.com


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Alitalia is to find out imminently whether it has won government contracts to operate several subsidised routes between Sardinia and mainland Italy.
The Italian flag carrier has applied to both the national aviation authority ENAC and Sardinaia's autonomous government to operate public service obligation (PSO) flights to Alghero and Olbia from Milan Linate and Rome Fiumicino for four years.
A competing application for the Alghero-Rome route has been made by regional carrier Livingston.
Alitalia says it may also a bid for the Cagliari-Rome route, to be decided on later.
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