text:
Present address: Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UNR 5175, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
Pulsed resources and climate-induced variation in the reproductive traits of wild boar under high hunting pressure
Article first published online: 22 JUN 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01579.x
© 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 British Ecological Society
Journal of Animal Ecology
Volume 78, Issue 6, pages 1278–1290, November 2009
Additional Information
How to Cite
Sabrina, S., Jean-Michel, G., Carole, T., Serge, B. and Eric, B. (2009), Pulsed resources and climate-induced variation in the reproductive traits of wild boar under high hunting pressure. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78: 1278–1290. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01579.x
Publication History
- Issue published online: 13 OCT 2009
- Article first published online: 22 JUN 2009
- Received 29 October 2008; accepted 22 May 2009 Handling Editor: John Quinn
- capital–income continuum;
- life-history tactic;
- proportion of females breeding;
- Sus scrofa;
- ungulate
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
1. Identifying which factors influence age and size at maturity is crucial for a better understanding of the evolution of life-history strategies. In particular, populations intensively harvested, hunted or fished by humans often respond by displaying earlier age and decreased size at first reproduction.
2. Among ungulates wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa L.) exhibit uncommon life-history traits, such as high fertility and early reproduction, which might increase the demographic impact of varying age at first reproduction. We analysed variation in female reproductive output from a 22-year long study of an intensively hunted population. We assessed how the breeding probability and the onset of oestrus responded to changes of female body mass at different ages under varying conditions of climate and food availability.
3. Wild boar females had to reach a threshold body mass (27–33 kg) before breeding for the first time. This threshold mass was relatively low (33–41% of adult body mass) compared to that reported in most other ungulates (about 80%).
4. Proportions of females breeding peaked when rainfall and temperature were low in spring and high in summer. Climatic conditions might act through the nutritional condition of females. The onset of oestrus varied a lot in relation to resources available at both current and previous years. Between none and up to 90% of females were in oestrus in November depending on the year.
5. Past and current resources accounted for equivalent amount of observed variations in proportions of females breeding. Thus, wild boar rank at an intermediate position along the capital–income continuum rather than close to the capital end where similar-sized ungulates rank.
6. Juvenile females made a major contribution to the yearly reproductive output. Comparisons among wild boar populations facing contrasted hunting pressures indicate that a high demographic contribution of juveniles is a likely consequence of a high hunting pressure rather than a species-specific life-history pattern characterizing wild boar.
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
Age and size at maturity are key life-history traits (Cole 1954; Schaffer 1974), that shape observed demographic tactics of vertebrate populations (Gaillard et al. 1989) through their influence on survival, reproduction and growth, as well as on offspring survival (Stearns 1992). In this context, factors influencing those life-history traits are expected to cause differences in individual fitness, and should thereby lead population abundance to fluctuate over time and evolutionary changes to occur (Lande 1982). More recently, an increasing number of studies have revealed that human activities impact the evolutionary changes observed in wildlife populations (Palumbi 2001), and lead to influence markedly life-history traits, such as body mass and reproductive traits (e.g. de Roos, Boukal & Persson 2006; Proaktor, Coulson & Milner-Gulland 2007). This is especially the case in populations intensively exploited (i.e. fishery, hunting; see Milner, Nilsen & Andreassen 2007; Allendorf et al. 2008; Fenberg & Roy 2008; Darimont et al. 2009 for recent reviews). Hence, identifying the factors influencing age at first reproduction and reproductive output is crucial to understand the dynamics and evolution of populations under strong human influences.
In mammals, the age at maturity and to some extent the fecundity is condition dependent and females have to reach a threshold body mass above which they are able to breed (see Gaillard et al. 2000 for a review). Climatic conditions, habitat quality and population density generally drive variation in female performance, through their impact on food resources (Langvatn et al. 2004). According to differences in the origin of the energy allocated to reproduction, species have been ranked along a capital–income breeder continuum. At one end, capital breeders only used body reserves stored prior to the reproductive period, whereas at the other end income breeders only rely on the short-term acquisition of resources during the reproductive period (Drent & Daan 1980; Jönsson 1997). Most mammals use both body reserves and current resources to face with the energetic requirements of late gestation and early lactation, the most costly stages of reproduction in mammals (Oftedal 1985), but the relative proportion coming from body reserves varies a lot. In most large temperate ungulates, females mainly rely on reserves accumulated during the previous summer-fall to cover the relatively low energy expenditures they allocate to reproduction (Festa-Bianchet, Gaillard & Jorgenson 1998). With similar size (and thereby similar capacity of storing body reserves, e.g. Demment & Van Soest 1985) but higher reproductive effort, wild boar are expected to be more dependent on current resources than other ungulates and to rank closer to the income breeder end of the continuum.
We aimed to analyse variation in age at first reproduction in an intensively hunted wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa L.) population, in which an individual has more than half a chance to be shot within a given hunting season (Toïgo et al. 2008). Wild boar in this population therefore had a short generation time. Variation in age at first reproduction is expected to be more influential on growth of a population with a short than with a long generation time (Gaillard et al. 2005). Moreover, among ungulates, wild boar are characterized by some peculiar life-history traits that might increase the demographic impact of variation in age at first reproduction. First of all, female wild boar can give birth for the first time at a younger age (1 year of age, Mauget 1982) than other similar-sized ungulates (2 or 3 years of age, Hayssen, Van Tienhoven & Van Tienhoven 1993). They also have a high fertility, with a mean litter size as high as five (e.g. Servanty et al. 2007), whereas most other similar-sized ungulates produce singletons (Hayssen et al. 1993). Finally, previous studies have shown that the onset of sexual maturity in wild boar females strongly depends on resource availability (e.g. Pépin & Mauget 1989), and have highlighted the importance of acorn mast. Tree mast is a typical pulsed resource (e.g. Ostfeld & Keesing 2000), which fluctuates from year to year, and may then induce large variation in female reproduction and thereby in population growth rate [see Perrins 1979 in tits (Parus spp.), Hannon et al. 1987 in woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus Swainson 1827); Ostfeld, Jones & Wolff 1996 in the white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus Rafinesque 1818); Newton 1998 for a review in birds, Shimada & Saitoh 2006 for a recent review in rodents]. In this study, we aimed to identify the factors shaping yearly and age-specific variation in the timing of oestrus and in the proportion of females breeding at a given date. Our study encompassed a period of wide variation among years in temperatures, precipitations and tree-mast production. We tested the relative influence of phenotypic attributes (age and body mass) and environmental factors (winter resources, climatic factors known to influence plant phenology in spring and summer) on the proportions of females that were in oestrus at a given date (called proportion of females breeding thereafter). As we expected age-specific responses of reproductive traits to environmental variation (Gaillard, Festa-Bianchet & Yoccoz 1998), we measured the age-specific proportion of females breeding.
We tested the following three hypotheses: (H1) based on the relatively early age at first reproduction of wild boar and on the short generation time of this intensively hunted population, we expected that the threshold body mass to breed for the first time should be less than 80% of the asymptotic adult mass, the value generally observed in ungulates (Gaillard et al. 2000), (H2) for a given age class, we expected higher proportions of breeding in heavy than in light females. The proportions of females breeding should also increase throughout the hunting season because an increasing proportion of females enter in oestrus throughout the winter (Mauget 1982), and (H3) we expected increased availability of resources to influence positively proportions of females breeding. Moreover, as current reproduction is costly in terms of energy, and may involve costs in terms of future reproduction and body mass, we expected the availability of resources both in the current and previous year to be related to the proportions of females breeding a given year. Wild boar should thus have a more intermediate position on the capital–income breeder continuum than similar-sized ungulates that are closer to the capital end.
Materials and methods
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
Study area and hunting procedure
The study was conducted in the 11 000 ha Châteauvillain-Arc en Barrois forest (Haute-Marne), in the north-eastern part of France (48°02′ N; 4°55′ E). In this area, the climate is intermediate between continental and oceanic. During the last 20 years, the mean annual rainfall was 890 mm and the mean monthly temperature has ranged from 2 °C in January to 18·5 °C in August (Météo France). This forest is mainly composed of oak (Quercus petraea Liebl. 1784, 41%) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L., 30%). The forest clump is administratively divided into two parts: (i) the 8500 ha core, which is managed by The Office National des Forêts (ONF; National Forestry Department), and is divided by forest trails into plots of about 15 ha and (ii) the 2500 ha periphery, which only includes private or communal areas. The study area is surrounded by a cultivated plain and bordered by a highway at the north-east, limiting exchanges with other wild boar populations.
Three ungulate species are present in the forest (i.e. wild boar, red deer Cervus elaphus L. and roe deer Capreolus capreolus L.). The wild boar has no natural predator when adults but is intensively hunted every year since 1976. Depending on the year, the hunting season begins between mid-October and the first week-end of November in the forest part managed by the ONF. The hunting season ended late January until 2000, but, thereafter ended 1 month later. Intense drives are organized each week-end within the hunting season in the forest part managed by the ONF. Hunters are posted around a hunted area (a patch of 250–500 ha) and are waiting for wild boars startled by beaters and flushing dogs. The number of hunted wild boar consistently increased between 1986 and 1996 (from 165 to 1261), and remained high since then (see Fig. 1 in Toïgo et al. 2008).
During 3 weeks in June and July, supplementary feeding (in most cases, maize Zea mays L.) is used as a dissuasive tool in the forest part managed by ONF to reduce wild boar damage to agricultural crops (Vassant 1997). The amount of food supplied varies between 0·06 and 0·12 kg per ha per feeding day. Similarly, maize is provided every second or third day from October to April (only in years with no mast production) to prevent damage to the surrounding fields and/or meadows.
Data collection
In the part of the forest managed by the ONF, the mass, the ovaries and the reproductive tract of each hunted female were collected from 1983 to 2005. As hunting drives performed during a given year cover the whole forest, the reproductive tracts we analysed accurately reflect female reproduction at the population level. Dressed body mass (±1 kg) was measured after the animal had been eviscerated (i.e. without the digestive system, heart, lungs, liver, reproductive tract and blood). Dressed body mass corresponds to about 80% of total live body mass (Gaillard, Brandt & Jullien 1993) and was then used as a measure of the maternal body condition.
In a seasonal breeder like wild boar the reproductive status can be assessed by examining the reproductive tracts and the ovaries (e.g. Abaigar 1992). Rut generally begins in mid-December, but can occur earlier in acorn-mast years (e.g. Matschke 1964). Sagitally cut ovaries were examined to observe (i) the presence of Graafian follicle, which indicated that females were in oestrus and/or (ii) the presence of corpora lutea, which indicated a recent ovulation (Fernández-Llario et al. 2004). Finally, the presence of embryos or foetuses in the reproductive tract clearly indicated that females were pregnant. The reproductive status of each female was then classified into two categories: reproductive (either in oestrus, having ovulated or pregnant) vs. non-reproductive (no oestrus, no ovulation and no foetus).
Age was estimated according to tooth eruption and replacement patterns (Baubet et al. 1994) by distinguishing three age classes: (i) juvenile (less than 1 year of age), (ii) yearling (between 1 and 2 years of age) and (3) adult (older than 2 years of age).
Each year, food availability was measured indirectly through diet composition, using the analysis of stomach contents throughout the year and notably during the hunting period (Brandt et al. 2006). Wild boar are opportunistic omnivores, but their diet is primarily composed of vegetation, and, when available, oak and beech mast is highly preferred to any other food resources, namely compared to agricultural crops (Schley & Roper 2003). We distinguished four categories of years (Supporting Information, Table S1): (i) years with high oak mast production, when acorns represented 75–90% of stomach contents during the hunting season, (ii) years with medium oak mast production, when acorns represented 50–65% of stomach contents, (iii) years with high beech mast production, when beechnuts represented 65–85% and (iv) years with no mast production, when maize was the preferred item (15–55%) and with acorn or beechnut representing less than 3% (see Bieber & Ruf 2005 for a similar approach).
Climatic data were obtained from Météo France (Villiers-le-Sec's weather station for temperatures and Châteauvillain's weather station for precipitations). As weather may affect both quality and abundance of food and thereby influence the timing of reproduction, we tested the influence of mean spring and summer temperatures and precipitations on the proportions of females breeding. Mean spring temperatures and precipitations were calculated from April to June when climatic conditions influence plant growth in temperate forests (Geisser & Reyer 2005), and thereby affect the availability and quality of forage during lactation (when the energetic requirements peak; Oftedal 1985). We calculated mean summer temperatures and precipitations from July to September when climatic conditions affect vegetation phenology and when females show a seasonal inhibition of reproduction (Mauget 1982). During our study period, precipitations and temperatures varied a lot from year to year (Fig. 1).
Data analysis
We tested whether between-individual differences in the onset of oestrus were generated by differences in age, dressed body mass, month of year, mast production during current and previous years, and/or changes in climatic conditions. As the proportion of female breeding and its variation are strongly age specific in large herbivores (Gaillard et al. 2000), we performed separate analyses for each age class (i.e. juvenile, yearling and adult females) to assess the responses of the proportion of female breeding to observed variations in climate and resources. To test for a possible interaction of mast production during current and previous years, we built a synthetic variable (referred to as MIXTURE hereafter) that included feeding conditions in both current and previous years (Supporting Information, Table S1).
Females shot in October and February were not included. Indeed, as hunting did not occur every year during those months, the sample size of females killed per age class and per year was too small to be included. The analyses were thus restricted to November, December and January.
The response variable (i.e. the reproductive status of a given female) was binomially distributed. We thus fitted generalized linear models with a logit link function in an ancova-like procedure (see Festa-Bianchet et al. 1998 for details). Model selection was based both on the Akaike Information Criterion corrected for small sample size (AICc) and Akaike weights (AICc weights) to compare the relative performance of the tested models (Burnham & Anderson 2002). The model with the lowest AICc was selected as the best one. When the evidence ratio (i.e. the ratio between AICc weights, Burnham & Anderson 2002) between competitive models was low, the parsimony criterion was used and the simplest model retained (Burnham & Anderson 2002).
We broke down the analysis into two steps to avoid over-parameterized models. We first tested for effects of dressed body mass, month of the hunting season and MIXTURE, together with their possible interactions and then, we tested for the additional effects of temperature and rainfall in spring and summer. Residual deviance was consistently less than the associated numbers of degrees of freedom, so we had no indication of over dispersion (McCullagh & Nelder 1989). We also checked whether the selected model fitted well our data by performing a test on the Pearson residuals (McCullagh & Nelder 1989). We measured the explanatory power of the selected model as the proportion of deviance explained, as recommended by Schemper (1990). All analyses were performed with r 1.7.1 (R Development Core Team 2004).
To rank wild boar along the capital–income breeding continuum, we started from a general model including the effects of body mass and month of hunting as well as their interactions. We performed this analysis on the whole data set (i.e. including all age classes). We then added either the effect of current and/or previous resources. We quantified in each case the proportion of total deviance that was accounted for by these factors.
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
We collected data on 1666 females. Previous and current resources accounted for similar proportion of deviance (7·74% and 7·36% respectively) when we added one or the other to the global model which included the effects of dressed body mass, month of hunting and their interactions. Including the effect of MIXTURE led to reduce slightly the size of our data set (1518 vs. 1666 individuals), but the inclusion of the variable MIXTURE strongly improved the model fit (AIC = 1279·9 when MIXTURE was included vs. AIC = 1614·0 when only the effects of past and present resources were considered). We then tested different models including only the variable MIXTURE that combined previous and current resources for each age class.
Juvenile females
The selected model included interactive effects among body mass, month of hunting and MIXTURE (Table 1a). When testing for climatic effects, the final selected model included both spring and summer temperature and spring rainfall (Table 1a) and accounted for 41·3% of the observed deviance in the proportion of females breeding.
|Tested models
|AICc weights
|Evidence ratio
|(a) Model selection for juvenile females. The selected model accounted for 41·3% of observed variation
|First step: model selection without climatic data
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + M × MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + M × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + M × MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + M × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + W × MIXTURE
|Selected model: (1): Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + M × MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Second step: model selection with climatic data
|(1)+ Tspring + Rspring + Tsummer
|(1)+ Rspring + Tsummer
|(1)+ Tsummer
|(1)+ Tspring + Rspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|(1)+ Tspring + Tsummer
|(1)+ Rspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|(1)+ Rsummer + Tsummer
|(1)+ Tspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|Final model: Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + M × MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE + Tspring + Rspring + Tsummer
|(b) Model selection for yearling females. The selected model accounted for 42·2% of observed variation
|First step: model selection without climatic data
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + M × MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + M × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + M × MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + M × MIXTURE
|Selected model: (1): Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Second step: model selection with climatic data
|(1)+Tspring + Rspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|(1)+Tspring + Rspring + Tsummer
|Final selected model: Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE + Tspring + Rspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|(c) Model selection for adult females. The selected model accounted for 51·2% of observed variation
|First step: global model without climatic data
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + W × M + W × MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = M + MIXTURE
|Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + M × MIXTURE
|Selected model: (1): Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE
|Second step: model selection with climatic data
|(1)+Tspring + Rspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|(1)+Tspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
|(1)+Tspring + Tsummer
|(1)+Tspring + Rspring + Tsummer
|Selected model: Logit (proportions of females breeding) = W + M + MIXTURE + Tspring + Rspring + Rsummer + Tsummer
The body mass effect
The proportion of females breeding increased with body mass (slope of 0·226 ± 0·056 on a logit scale) and throughout the hunting season (slope increased by 0·024 ± 0·058 in December and by 0·107 ± 0·061 in January, logit scale; Fig. 2). The effect of body mass on the proportion of females breeding also depended on food availability and climatic conditions. Under average climatic conditions less than 20% of juveniles were typically breeding in January, when they weighed between 20 and 25 kg dressed mass, but when a year without fructification followed an average acorn year (AAN) the proportion of juvenile females breeding increased by up to 40% (Fig. 3). No juvenile weighing less than 19 kg bred: the threshold body mass above which they breed thus occurred between 33·3% and 40% of the mean observed female's adult body mass. A mean threshold among ungulate species studied so far occurred at 75·48% (±12·36) of the adult mass (Table 2).
|Body mass (kg) at first reproduction
|Adult body mass (kg)
|% of the asymptotic size
|Study site
|Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)
|Gaillard et al. 1992
|Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)
|34·3a 63·455
|44·70a 71·3
|76·7 89
|Norway (North Ottadalen) Norway (Riast/Hylling)
|Reimers et al. 2005; Weladji et al. 2002
|Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
|47a 45a
|67·2a 60a
|69·9 75
|Belgium France
|Bertouille & De Crombrugghe 2002; Bonenfant et al. 2002
|Mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon Blyth 1841)
|21 kga
|Garel et al. 2005
|Alaskan Moose (Alces alces gigas Miller 1899)
|Schwartz & Hundertmark 1993
|Moose (Alces alces)
|120a 140a 150a
|180a 178a 180a
|66·7 78·65 83·33
|Sweden Norway Norway
|Sand 1996; Sæther et al. 1996; Solberg et al. 2004
|Bison (Bison bison L.)
|76·65–88·44 Mean: 82·545
|Green & Rothstein 1991
|Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus)
|86·1–88 Mean: 87·05
|Côté & Festa-Bianchet 2001
|Fallow deer (Dama dama)
|Langbein & Putman 1992
|Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)
|Jorgenson et al. 1993 Festa-Bianchet et al. 1995
|Wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa)
|32·79–40·98 Mean: 36·89
|Gaillard et al. 1993; this study
The effects of climate and resources
The effect of MIXTURE on the proportion of females breeding suggested the occurrence of a time-lag in the onset of breeding in relation to available resources (Fig. 2). For instance, three times more juvenile females are breeding in November and December in a beechnut year following an average acorn year (AAB) than in an average acorn year following a beechnut year (BAA; Fig. 2). Proportion of females breeding increased when temperature and rainfall in spring were lower than the average. For a mean dressed mass of 28·4 kg and for instance, when an acorn year followed a year with no fructification (NA), 81·76% bred whereas 72% bred when climatic conditions in spring were higher than the average (Fig. 4). Moreover high temperature in summer had a positive effect on proportion of females breeding: 82·2% bred against 70·99% when temperature was less than average (Fig. 4).
Yearling females
The selected model included the effects of dressed body mass, month of hunting, MIXTURE and of the interaction between body mass and MIXTURE (Table 1b). When looking for climatic influences, the final selected model included temperatures and precipitations in both spring and summer and accounted for 42·2% of the observed deviance in the proportion of yearling females breeding (Table 1b).
The body mass effect
As in juveniles, body mass had a positive effect (slope of 0·16 ± 0·039 on a logit scale) and the proportion of females breeding increased over time: for a mean dressed mass of 47·3 kg, 7·99, 30·87 and 81·88% bred in November, December and January respectively (Fig. 2). However, the relationship between body mass and the proportion of females breeding was less pronounced in yearlings than in juveniles. This is likely due to the fact that most females (80–100%) were in oestrus independently of their body mass at the end of the hunting season (Fig. 2).
The effects of climate and resources
The effect of MIXTURE on the proportion of females breeding was more pronounced in yearlings than in juveniles, indicating a delayed oestrus in yearlings (Fig. 2). For instance, more yearling females were breeding in November and December when an average acorn mast year was followed either by a beechnut mast year (AAB) or by no fructification (AAN) than when a beechnut mast year was followed by an average acorn mast year (BAA) (Fig 2). As observed in juveniles, when temperature and rainfall in spring were higher than the average the proportion of females breeding decreased whereas when rainfall and temperature in summer were higher than the average the proportion of females in oestrus increased (Fig. 4).
Adult females
The selected model only included the main effects of body mass, month of hunting and MIXTURE (Table 1c). When looking for climatic influences on the proportions of females breeding, the final selected model included temperatures and precipitations during both spring and summer and accounted for 51·2% of the observed deviance in the proportion of adult females breeding (Table 1c).
Unlike younger females, more than 90% (i.e. between 92% and 100%) of adult females entered in oestrus before the end of the hunting season (Fig. 2). As in yearlings, the proportions of adult females breeding were lower when temperature and rainfall in spring were higher than the average, and higher when temperature and rainfall in summer were higher than the average (Fig. 4). We also found delayed effects of food availability on breeding status (Fig. 2).
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
Some main findings emerge from this study: as expected (i) the threshold body mass to reproduce for the first time occurred at a much lower body mass in this heavily hunted population of wild boar than in similar-sized ungulates studied so far (i.e. only one third of adult body mass vs. about 80%); (ii) heavier females became reproductive in higher proportions than lighter females, and the proportions of females breeding increased throughout the hunting season and (iii) the proportions of females breeding and the timing of oestrus varied in relation to both food resources and climate.
Most yearlings and adult females (90–100%) showed active reproduction each year at the end of the hunting season, irrespective of dressed body mass, the food resource availability or climatic conditions. While previous studies have reported a high reproductive output in female wild boar (Mauget 1982; Groot Bruinderink, Hazebroek & Van Der Voot 1994; Massei, Genov & Staines 1996), we clearly showed here that once sexual maturity has been reached, nearly every female attempts to reproduce each year whatever the environmental conditions (Fig. 4). Wild boar females seem thus to follow a more risky life-history tactic than other similar-sized ungulate females such as bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis Shaw 1804, Festa-Bianchet et al. 1998), mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus de Blainville 1816, Festa-Bianchet & Côté 2008) or reindeer/caribou (Rangifer tarandus L., Cameron 1994), which tend to skip reproduction when in poor conditions so to maximize their own survival (Gaillard & Yoccoz 2003). Moreover, while sexual maturity generally occurs between 2 (e.g. bighorn sheep) and 4 (e.g. mountain goat) years of age in similar-sized ungulates, a large proportion of juvenile wild boar can reproduce as early as at 1 year of age.
Like reported for other ungulates (Table 2), young wild boar only reproduce when a threshold body mass has been reached. This threshold dressed body mass was between 20 and 25 kg (i.e. 26·8–33 kg live mass; Gaillard et al. 1993) in yearling females, and up to 80% of juveniles above the threshold showed reproductive activity in January (Fig. 3). This high proportion of juvenile females breeding may even be under-estimated as we did not have access to the reproduction of females during the non-hunting season. Indeed, a 2-year study showed that in three different parts of Germany, only 30% of juvenile females showed active reproduction during the hunting season, whereas up to 60% were pregnant in the following March–April (Gethöffer, Sodeikat & Pohlmeyer 2007). However, the observed threshold mass above which juvenile females can reproduce is less than 40% of adult mass, which is very low compared to the observed average of 75% among ungulate species studied so far (Table 2). Two different explanations could account for such marked differences between our results and those reported for similar-sized ungulates. First, as wild boar exhibit very unusual combinations of life-history traits (i.e. large body mass and high fecundity; Focardi et al. 2008), the low threshold body mass we reported here might correspond to another life history characteristic of wild boar. Alternatively, the ecological context of the studied population might be involved. First the studied population faced with the most heavy hunting pressure ever measured for a large mammal (Toïgo et al. 2008), so that an early sexual maturity relative to full adult body mass might result from a selective pressure generated by hunting as commonly observed in fishes for instance (e.g. Conover & Munch 2002). Second, the studied population had a low population density and lived in a highly productive forest so that the per capita food resource was high, leading to high reproductive performance (Bonenfant et al. 2009). The available evidence so far collected in contrasted populations of wild boar tends to support an overwhelming influence of hunting. With the low life expectancy caused by the high risk of being shot, an increased reproductive effort early in life should be selected for only in intensively hunted populations (Festa-Bianchet 2003; Garel et al. 2007) provided that food resources will not be limiting as observed in the focal population (i.e. high frequency of mast years and low density). As expected the threshold body mass we reported here was lower than that observed in less intensively hunted populations of wild boar (Table 3). It is especially noteworthy that only wild boar females from Chambord (the only population with a high hunting pressure among the eight for which we got data) might had similar threshold body mass as we observed here. Moreover, the threshold body mass reported in intensively hunted populations was much lower than that measured on females captured in the wild as piglets and then raised in captivity and fed ad libitum [35 kg (i.e. 28 kg dressed mass); Pépin & Mauget 1989]. In this latter study, the authors tested for the effect of different plans of nutrition on growth and sexual maturity and found that sexual maturity was never reached before 20 months (Pépin & Mauget 1989). Those results clearly indicate that early reproduction at low body mass is not a species-specific trait of wild boar and support the widespread occurrence of marked among-population variation in the relationship between mass and reproduction (see e.g. Albon, Mitchell & Staines 1983 on red deer; Heard et al. 1997 on moose Alces alces L.). Available evidence therefore provide strong support for involving a response of wild boar to the high hunting pressure to account for both the high proportions of juvenile females breeding and the low threshold body mass at which reproduction occurs in this heavily hunted population.
|Studied area, Localization
|Studied years (hunting season)
|Hunting information
|Chambord, France
|1986/87 to 1988/89
|7·5–9·5 hunted wild boar/100 ha
|In February, 16% (N = 4/25) of juvenile females weighing between 26·8 and 30 kg live mass (i.e. 20 and 24 kg dressed mass) were observed in oestrus
|Unpublished data (ONCFS and Domaine National de Chambord)
|Châteauvillain, France
|1983/84 to 2004/05
|5·21 hunted wild boar/100 ha (±2·66, range: 0·64–9·27)
|Threshold body mass between 26·8 and 33 kg live mass (i.e. 20 and 25 kg dressed mass)
|This study
|Valle Medio de l'Ebro, Zaragoza, Spain
|1994/95 to 2005/06
|32% of hunted females are less than 1 year of age for an estimated density of less than 1 wild boar/100 ha (high hunting pressure) Observed life expectancy: 6 years
|29·4% (N = 5/17) of juvenile females were pregnant The mean observed body mass in juveniles was 34·6 ± 9·7 kg
|Herrero et al. 2008
|Grésigne, France
|1978/79 to 1980/81
|0·5–0·7 hunted wild boar/100 ha
|No reproduction in juveniles although there was a good acorn mast in 1978
|Pépin et al. 1987 Spitz et al. 1984
|Regions of Trás-os-Montes, Beiras, Alentejo Portugal
|1999/00 and 2000/01
|0·595 hunted females wild boar/100 ha (Beiras) 1·315 hunted females wild boar/100 ha (Alentejo)
|In Beiras, a minimum threshold body mass of 33 kg live mass (i.e. 25 kg dressed mass) was observed in juveniles No reproduction was observed in juveniles in Alentejo
|Fonseca et al. 2004
|Pirineo Occidental, Huesca, Spain
|1990/91 to 1992/93
|0·63 hunted wild boar/100 ha for an estimated density of 3·3 wild boar/100 ha (low hunting pressure) 30·7% of hunted females are less than 1 year of age Observed life expectancy: 10 years
|6·7% (N = 1/15) of juvenile females were pregnant The mean observed body mass in juveniles was 24·6 ± 6·5 kg
|Herrero et al. 2008
Interestingly, we observed little monthly variation in the proportion of juveniles breeding according to available resources, whereas a high variation in monthly proportions of females breeding occurred in yearlings and adults (Fig. 2). The timing of oestrus, as well as the marked influence of resource availability on the reproductive output in both the current and previous years may suggest the occurrence of reproductive costs on subsequent reproduction. Yearlings included both females that previously gave birth as juveniles and might thus have incurred some reproductive costs (Oftedal 1985) and females that did not previously reproduce and therefore had only allocated energy to growth and body reserves. Among adults, all females previously gave birth (i.e. they were all multiparous) and most of them had reproduced the previous year (i.e. no reproductive pause sensuCameron 1994). Such high proportions of reproductive females each year indicate that females should have sufficient energy and nutrients to meet the high energetic costs of a reproductive attempt and often have to recover from this high energy expenditure before reproducing again (Gittleman & Thompson 1988). Thereby, the delay in the recovery of body condition is likely to be determined by the availability of food resources. Obviously, producing and rearing young may cause a negative energy balance among females that will not be totally compensated for by the end of the summer, the period during which females (i) have generally finished lactating and (ii) are in anoestrus. Moreover, as the observed variation in proportion of females breeding, accounted for by past and present resources was nearly equal (around 7·5%), wild boar could be ranked at an intermediate position on the capital–income continuum (e.g. Jönsson 1997). While comparable data on similar-sized ungulates are not available, the strong influence of body condition on reproductive output, the low fecundity, and the high average survival of offspring from birth to weaning reported for these species (see Gaillard et al. 2000 for a review), as well as their ranking close to the capital-breeder end of the continuum (e.g. Festa-Bianchet et al. 1998) are indicating that current resources around birthing time are much less influential than body reserves to shape their yearly reproductive success.
Feeding conditions during both current and previous years also influenced proportions of females breeding as juveniles. Environmentally-induced maternal effects (e.g. Mousseau & Fox 1998), might thus affect female reproductive output. As mast production is an unpredictable and pulsed resource (e.g. Ostfeld & Keesing 2000), the level of food in a given year is a poor predictor of the resources that juveniles will encounter at the time of their potential first reproduction in the following year. Mother–offspring similarity in mass growth when juvenile could be higher when available resources are limited as has been shown in red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Erxleben 1777) when spruce cones are limited (McAdam & Boutin 2003). Compensatory growth might thus explain how juvenile females could reach the threshold body mass to breed when facing low resources during a given year.
Our results support the important role of climatic variation in determining females' reproductive performance, certainly acting trough their nutritional condition. The proportion of females breeding were positively influenced by (i) a less than average temperature and rainfall in spring through a longer period of high quality forage (Langvatn et al. 1996) and of storage in bulbous plants (Fenner 1998) and (ii) a rainy and hot summer through a longer vegetative growing season (Fenner 1998) and in the consumption of earthworm (Baubet, Ropert-Coudert & Brandt 2003; Fig. 4).
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
We showed that the timing of the oestrus of wild boar females is greatly influenced by environmental factors operating through climate and food resources. Furthermore, we showed that multiparous females can adjust the timing of their oestrus. Such a short-term adjustment induces a time delay in the reproduction (i.e. gestation does not start during the same month every year) so that both the timing of births and the duration of the growth period for juveniles should vary over years.
Our results showed that juveniles make a large contribution to the yearly recruitment, maybe as a result of the high hunting pressure faced by wild boar in the focal population. As most females are not living more than two or three breeding seasons, selective pressure should favour an increased reproductive effort early in life and so, juveniles should invest more in reproduction at the risk of reduced adult size or shorter lifespan (Festa-Bianchet 2003; Garel et al. 2007). As the generation time in our population was especially low (i.e. about 2 years, Gaillard, Vassant & Klein 1987) compared to what can be expected for similar sized large herbivore (e.g. 7 years, Gaillard et al. 2008), the selective advantage of reproducing yearly should be higher in wild boar than in similar-sized ungulates (see Stenseth & Dunlop 2009 for similar arguments). The low threshold mass we reported here, along with the short generation time, involves a high potential impact on population growth to changes in recruitment parameters. Reproducing early in life at low mass might be a response of wild boar to high hunting pressure.
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
We wish to thank Météo France for the climatic data. Thanks to the Office National des Forêts and to François Jehlé for enabling the Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage to be present at the 'butchery' during the hunting season. We kindly thank all the people that helped, in one way or another to take the data during this long-term study. We are notably very grateful to Gilbert Corbeau (in memory of him) and Pascal Van den Bulck for their legendary capacity for handling knives! Thanks to Laurent Crespin for comments on an earlier version of the manuscript and to Tracey Blythman for correcting the English. We kindly thank Carlos Fonseca for the extra information concerning reproduction of wild boar in Portugal and two anonymous referees for helpful comments on a previous draft. Sabrina Servanty received financial support from the Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage and both from the Région Languedoc-Roussillon and the Université Montpellier 2. This work was partly granted by the research program GICC2.
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
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Supporting Information
- Top of page
- Summary
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- Supporting Information
Table S1 Number of females for which we identified the reproductive status for each year (hunting season) and for each age class.
Please note: Wiley-Blackwell are not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
|Supporting info item
Please note: Wiley Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.


text:
A Pretty City
A lot of people don't think there is much to Poland, besides Krakow in the south. But Warszawa has quite a few things to do! There is the Old Town which is beautiful and a nice place to get food, you also have the Warszawa Uprising Museum which is totally awesome and a must see. I would also suggest going to the top of the Soviet built Palace of Sciences and Culture (or something along those lines) and paying to go to the top, from the top of this building you can see a beautiful view.
Insider Tip:Bring some warm weather clothes, I went in late May and was cold with a jumper and a Northface.

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About me: •My mom says I'm just so awesome I...
About me: •My mom says I'm just so awesome I shouldn't need an introduction. •I've tamed an inoperable mechanical bull, once held a job acquiring mobile home parks in Canada, won a karaoke contest on personality alone, hit the longest ground ball home run in the history of all softball history-ness, and was Mr. March in a studly, pin-up calendar. •I'm highly selective. •God made me hard to handle. •I hate being told what to do and routinely subvert individuals in positions of power. •Scar tissue is stronger than regular tissue. Realize the strength, then move on. •I've seen so many things...you wouldn't even believe. •Call me dense, but I don't understand why fat chance and slim chance have the same meaning. •The things you own end up owning you. •Recently it occurred to me that when you've done everything right, people won't be sure that you've done anything at all. •You can't know where you're going unless you understand where you've been. •I use spell check. •I'm unique and special just like everyone else. •Years ago I concluded there's nothing worth watching on TV, so I unplugged and I haven't missed it at all. *Update* I have cable again and, quite frankly, I'm still not impressed. •When I get out of bed. I don't roll out, I dismount. •I sport a 5 o'clock shadow 24 hours a day. •I refuse to play Rock-Paper-Scissors because I don't understand how paper can beat rock. •Women trust me. •I never re-decide. •Sometimes, I embellish my stories for pure entertainment value...people understand that I do this and appreciate me for making the mundane and boring exciting and fun. •I have quite a few tats. Several are visible and large. But, I'm a professional so they can be concealed. More are on the way. •I eat my veggies first. •I work out a lot with heavy weights and am generally always in pain from doing so, but the mind cannot be strong if the body is weak... •Sometimes I forget I'm still awake and say inappropriate things out loud. •The credentials on my wall do not define me as a person. •I prefer to ask for forgiveness instead of permission. •I'm not perfect but parts of me are exceptional. •I've always wanted to be in a zombie flick just to see if I can lead them in a line dance. •To this day, the music video for Runaway Train by Soul Asylum haunts me. •I fear nothing, save for dolls and ventriloquist dummies.
Coffee and conversation , Cooking , Dining out , Movies/Videos , Museums and art , Music and concerts , Exploring new areas , Nightclubs/Dancing , Performing arts , Playing cards , Playing sports , Political interests , Shopping/Antiques , Travel/Sightseeing , Watching sports , Wine tasting
Aerobics, Basketball, Billiards / Pool, Football, Martial arts, Other types of exercise, Running, Weights / Machines
I exercise 5 or more times per week.
I like Birds, Cats, Dogs, Fish, Horses
I don't have any pets but if I did I'd definitely opt for a pet dinosaur or a pet zombie. I would, however, be good with an insanely smart chimp...
Some other viewpoint
I'm a proficient dive bar explorer and pride myself on having an uncanny ability to find those cool, unknown places that no one else knows. But, if I like you I might show you. The pool at my condo during the summer, I swear I live at Melrose Place.
The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX
My life, Californication, She Wants Revenge, my car, the gym, sexual innuendos, my tats (apparently they're permanent), documentaries, STL Cards, Sunday Funday, Chipotle, offending horrible people, margaritas, indie films, orange slices, and whiskey.
I enjoy smoking, petty theft, drinking, and self-righteous indignation. On the weekends I love watching the cars parked illegally across the street getting towed.
Everything Is Going to Kill Everybody, Damned by Palahniuk, The Drudge Report, and Best Practices for Revenue Management in the Multi-family Industry (it was horrible...they should have consulted me before they published)
Z{{Cta}} {{#if HasMoreInfo}} ?{{CtaSecondary}} {{/if}}
|What he is looking for
|6'0" (182cms)
|3'0" (91cms) to 8'0" (243cms)
|Body type:
|Athletic and toned
|Slender, About average, Athletic and toned
|No preference
|Dark brown
|No preference
|No Way
|No Way, Occasionally, Daily, Cigar aficionado, Yes, but trying to quit
|Social Drinker
|No preference
|Financial / Accounting / Real Estate
|No preference
First, an ER EMT on track to medical school, didn't take. Managed money for the ultra wealthy, grew weary of their entitlement mentality. Today, I'm the youngest asset manager at a private equity real estate firm. Guess the secret works...
|No preference
|Never Married
|No preference
|Have kids:
|No preference
|Wants kids:
|No preference
|White / Caucasian
|Latino / Hispanic, White / Caucasian
I'm Dutch, we're a proud people who have brought the world great discoveries such as CD's, bacteria, The rings of Saturn, the telescope, and Australia. You. Are. Welcome.
|I'll tell you later
|No preference
|No preference
|Graduate degree
|Some college, Bachelors degree, Graduate degree, PhD / Post Doctoral
I have a few degrees in finance and economics related disciplines but you'll almost never hear me refer to them in conversation. I am not a piece of paper on a wall.


text:
For sale in our Chicago showroom is a very low mileage 2002 BMW 530i. The 5 series was introduced in 1972 with... More
This 1988 BMW M3 is in Zinnoberrot with Black leather. The E30 M3 is among the most recognizable and sought after BMW amongst the collector... More
68,897 Actual mile Arizona title Rare BMW E24 635 CSI "shark nose" with 635 CSI L6 badging Broadway Static coilover suspension with camber plates Swift springs 18K/16K with... More
For sale in our Fort Lauderdale showroom is a sleek and sexy 2007 BMW M6 Roadster. This drop top M6 for sale is powered... More
Up for sale in our Ft. Lauderdale showroom is this absolutely gorgeous 1988 BMW 325i 2-door Convertible. This truly rare model was optioned with... More
Up for sale in our Houston showroom is one of the most racecar turned luxury cars to be produced the 2003 BMW Z8 Alpina.... More
This 1957 BMW Isetta 600 is a rare find and desirable car in need of complete restoration. Blue with tan interior. For only $8,950... More
This 1957 BMW Isetta 300 is in need of complete restoration Red with tan interior. For just $7,950... More
This 2011 BMW M3 hardtop convertible is for sale in our Louisville KY showroom. The M series from BMW has been around since... More
For sale in our Fort Lauderdale showroom is a 2008 BMW 535I. This sporty sedan is powered by a twin turbocharged 3.0 liter inline... More
For sale in our Fort Lauderdale showroom is a low mileage 2011 BMW 335i. With only 31502 miles this Bimmer is quite the find!... More
This 1960 BMW 2600 Sedan is a very original car that's been sitting in storage waiting to be restored. Silver with blue interior. Quite... More
BMW 850i V12 300 HP 1990 new paint very good condition Marvellous 1990 BMW 850i with original V12 300pk engine. 2 Years ago new paint,... More
1975 BMW 2002: Excellent ownership and restoration history, previous owner of 15 years. Call us for more details or come see it at our Detroit... More
For sale in our Detroit showroom is a sporty 1997 BMW Z3 . This true 1997 German Z3 Roadster Convertible sports a 2.8 six... More


text:
Super League: Wigan Warriors edge out Widnes Vikings
Last Updated: 07/06/13 10:39pm
Super League leaders Wigan Warriors held on for a 33-32 win in a 12-try Friday night thriller against Widnes Vikings at the Select Security Stadium.
A topsy-turvy contest remained in the balance right through to the final hooter with Widnes wing Patrick Ah Van completing his hat-trick in the 78th minute to bring his side within one point.
Despite getting the ball back, Widnes could not find a way through in a frantic finale and Wigan survived to claim their 13th consecutive victory in all competitions.
The Warriors, who were without Sam Tomkins and handed a debut to club legend Jason Robinson's son Lewis Tierney at full-back, scored six tries including two for Anthony Gelling.
Tierney, with his father watching on from the stands, marked his arrival in Super League with a first-half try and there were also scores from Logan Tomkins, Josh Charnley and Scott Taylor.
Taylor's effort in the 74th minute immediately followed a drop goal from Sam Powell to give Wigan breathing space at 33-26 in front - and they needed it as Ah Van crossed late on and Jack Owens landed the conversion.
The youthful Wigan side had led 16-4 but trailed 26-22 after a Rhys Hanbury-orchestrated Widnes fightback.
Wigan had nine first-teamers out but were still quickly into their stride as Tomkins' brother Logan drove over from dummy half after just three minutes.
Widnes produced a quick response as Ah Van charged over in the corner from a powerful flat pass by Hanbury.
Tierney, with his father watching on from the stands, showed some nimble footwork as he chased back to claim a high Hanbury kick under pressure and soon made a telling contribution in attack. The Warriors moved upfield expertly and the 18-year-old was on hand to take a Chris Tuson pass and cross in the corner.
Josh Charnley curled over the touchline conversion and Wigan looked in complete command after scrum-half George Williams showed great vision to pick out Gelling with a crossfield kick.
But Widnes stunned Wigan with two tries in the closing 13 minutes of the first half. Hanbury first burst through a small gap to send forward Adam Lawton over and further showed his creative abilities to set up another with a deft kick for Owens to pass inside to Frank Winterstein. With Owens converting both, the scores were level at the break.
Long range
Widnes carelessly allowed Charnley to break through a tackle and the winger seized an opening to race the length of the field and cross for the eighth consecutive match. He converted his own try and Wigan almost had another on their next attack but Gelling was denied by a forward pass.
Hanbury was not prepared to let Widnes lie down and he levelled the scores again with an individual effort after collecting Dave Allen's offload.
Wigan were frustrated when Harrison Hansen was denied by the video referee and Widnes countered quickly to take the lead as Hanbury picked out Ah Van with another fine pass. Ah Van then thought he had his hat-trick but was ruled to have just been pushed into touch by the video referee.
Wigan made the most of that reprieve with a break upfield that saw Gelling cross to level the scores. Charnley could not manage the conversion but Wigan did edge back ahead when Powell landed a drop goal with eight minutes remaining.
Powell made another impressive intervention moments later with a darting run and brilliant pass for Scott Taylor to claim what proved the decisive try, although there was still time for Ah Van to complete his treble.
Post Comment
First Utility Super League
Tue 30th Jun
Hull K R34 - 28Salford Red Devils
Wed 1st Jul
Wakefield Wildcats26 - 16Hull FC
Thu 2nd Jul
Warrington Wolves17 - 6Wigan Warriors
Fri 3rd Jul
Leeds Rhinos46 - 18St Helens
Sun 5th Jul
Huddersfield Giants0 - 0Hull K R
Hull FC0 - 0Wakefield Wildcats
Salford Red Devils0 - 0Catalans Dragons
Castleford Tigers0 - 0Widnes Vikings
Thu 9th Jul
Wigan WarriorsvsLeeds Rhinos
Fri 10th Jul
St HelensvsHuddersfield Giants
Sun 12th Jul
Hull FC0 - 0Castleford Tigers
Salford Red Devils0 - 0Hull K R
Wakefield Wildcats0 - 0Warrington Wolves
Widnes Vikings0 - 0Catalans Dragons
Thu 16th Jul
Warrington WolvesvsSt Helens
Fri 17th Jul
Hull K RvsHull FC
Leeds Rhinos0 - 0Salford Red Devils
Wigan Warriors0 - 0Widnes Vikings
Sat 18th Jul
Catalans DragonsvsHuddersfield Giants
Sun 19th Jul
Wakefield Wildcats0 - 0Castleford Tigers
Thu 23rd Jul
Hull FCvsWigan Warriors
Fri 24th Jul
St Helens0 - 0Hull K R
Sun 26th Jul
Huddersfield Giants0 - 0Wakefield Wildcats
Leeds Rhinos0 - 0Catalans Dragons
Widnes Vikings0 - 0Salford Red Devils
Castleford Tigers0 - 0Warrington Wolves
Super League 2013, round 18
Eight-try win for Wildcats
Wakefield snapped their four-game losing streak with a 46-10 win at Salford City Reds to keep their play-off hope alive.
Brown hails attacking play
St Helens coach Nathan Brown praised his team's positivity in the 30-18 win over Bradford at Langtree Park.
Saints climb into top eight
St Helens held off a second-half fightback to secure a 30-18 victory over Bradford at Langtree Park.
- Reds v Wildcats: Teams
- Hull coach offers no excuses
- Ratchford earns the plaudits
- Broncos hit by 15-try Wolves
- Betts upbeat despite loss
- Rovers coach 'satisfied'
- McDermott 'unimpressed'
- Rhinos back to winning ways
- Rovers stun high-flying Giants
- St Helens v Bulls: Teams
- Dragons v Hull FC: Teams
- Broncos v Wolves: Teams
- Hull KR v Giants: Teams
- Rhinos v Tigers: Teams
- Vikings v Warriors: Teams
- Tautai facing two months out
- Tierney poised for Wigan bow


text: 'Aftermath' Illuminates Lives Of Uprooted Iraqis September 26, 2009 Composed almost entirely of interview transcripts, the off-Broadway play focuses on ordinary citizens whose lives have been upended by the conflict in their home country. It's a powerful look at conflict from the inside. Listen Loading… 6:57 Playlist Download Embed Embed Close embed modal <iframe src="http://www.npr.org/player/embed/113211306/113237115" width="100%" height="290" frameborder="0" scrolling="no">


text:
Karen Altman had already come and gone, taking Shira and little Ari back across the street, where she made everyone soup. There would be no more talk about the trip upstate. Instead, 2-year-old Ari Patz watched the goings-on from the Altmans' front window. This was turning into his second sleepover in a row and his first away from home, but he didn't cry. When Shira and Chelsea stopped playing cards in the other room and drifted off to sleep, Ari stayed at the front window. His face pressed up against the panes of glass that stretched the length of the Altman loft, he watched his mother and father, moving from the street below to the Patz front room across the way, and back again. The Patzes' tall windows showcased the blur of activity. From her vantage point over Ari's shoulder, Karen Altman watched Stan too, as his wiry frame paced the length of sidewalk in front of the building, the floodlights illuminating his thin, now pinched face. Karen could see just by the way Stan was holding himself and by the expressions on his face that he was enraged. Not at the cops, not at his wife, but at the gods, she thought. She half expected him to start shaking his fist at the skies. The gods seemed to be piling on when, shortly before midnight, they began spitting on the searchers in a slow, steady drizzle. By 1:15 a.m., when authorities requested bloodhounds to be brought in from upstate, any traces of Etan— his prints or a scent the dogs could follow— were in the process of being washed away.
"Wouldn't it be awful," whispered Karen's husband, Larry, from behind her and just out of Ari's earshot, "if they never found Etan, and they never found out what happened?"


text:
So my family's in WDW while I'm slaving away at college (okay, pity party over, I'm going to WDW two weeks from now :) ) and they're using the dining plan. We've used the dining plan many times before but this is their first time going where the tip and appetizer were not included. Apparently, at every meal, the server comes over with the bill which has a preprinted "suggested" tip of 18% or 20% already figured out for you. The server points to the suggested tip and then stands there while you pencil in your tip amount and sign your receipt. My parents are pretty baffled by this and say that the pressure to tip way more than you want to is ridiculous. This has happened at every meal since they left (on the 25th). Even as someone who has worked in food service, I would never EXPECT to be tipped 20%.
Is this a good move on Disney's part? Is doubling the tax or 15% no longer appropriate? Does anyone else find this pretty rude? Any other experiences with this weird tipping policy?


text:
Rafflecopter has made entering Giveaways so easy. If you have giveaway/s with Rafflecopter entry, simply share it here.
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I interviewed my kids about earth day and it was pretty funny. what would yours say? join the fun to win a big BBC Earth Day DVD & Blu-ray prize pack.
Enter my Ageless perfume giveaway with low entries!
Baskets of Love Giveaway for Mom Ends 5/5
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$ 200 Amazon Gift Code and Bea's Gift Baskets and Gifts Basket (Up to $50)
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Thirty-One Utility Tote
Enter today! http://thecrazynutsmom.com/2012/04/baskets-of-love-giveaway.html
Family 4 Pack AMC Movie Passes ends 4/28 http://www.twobearsfarm.com/2012/04/family-four-pack-of-amc-movie-t...
New Giveaway, from 4/21 to 5/5 Author Penny Zeller writes Historical Romance novels. I am hosting the giveaway of her First book in Montana Skies Series, McKenzie. You can read more about her book and a chance to get it on my blog, http://dawnsdelightsart.com/2012/04/mckenzie-montana-skies-series-g...
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text:
Hollywood's Weirdest Couple Is Staying Strong
Michael Jackson's Daughter Paris Reveals Her Boyfriend
Emma Watson's Intentional "Side Boob"
Beyonce Isn't as Flawless as We Thought
Best Celebrity Beach Bodies of 2015
Famous Kids: Where Are They Now?
You Won't Believe How Brad and Angie Travel
A Simple Way to Lose Fat and Relieve Gas and Bloating
Caitlyn Jenner Shows Off Her Tomboy Side
Caitlyn Jenner Shares Magnificent Father's Day Photo
How Is Jill Zarin Coping After Horrible Cancer News?
10 Celebrity Eccentricities
The Science of Willow & Jaden Smith
Celebrities You Didn't Know Share Exactly the Same Face
Halle Berry Can't Keep it Together: The Latest Drama Unveiled
Brad Pitt & Angelina Jolie: When is it Time to Seek Help?
Did You know These Stars Were Born Rich?
12 Celebrities Who Are Kind of Gross
Jennifer Love Hewitt's Baby Boy's Name Will Surprise You
Hollywood Stars Who Were Total One-Hit Wonders
This Girl's Fake Pregnancy Prank Totally Backfired
Taylor Swift Stuns Everyone by Posting Sexy Bikini Pic
Dwayne Johnson Confesses His Crush on Hayley Atwell
5 People the Internet Hates the Most
Can You Guess Who These Celebrity Feet Belong To?
The Worst Celebrity Beach Bodies
Taylor Swift's BFFs Majorly Betrayed Her
5 Celebrities You Didn't Know Where Adopted
Ben and Jennifer: It's Officially Over


text:
Jillian by Amy Kuschel, Size 10
Designer: Amy Kuschel
Collection: Unknown
Style: Jillian
Size: 10
Color: Ivory
Condition: New With Tags
Amy Kuschel's Jillian gown embodies sophisticated elegance as it virtually floats down the aisle... it is breathtaking! Unique French lace, decadent beading, and artistic ribbon detail adorn Jillian's romantic V-neckline bodice. A textured grosgrain ribbon in antique taupe/peach serves as a waistband sash adding a refreshing touch of color. The back view of this dress is equally as stunning with spaghetti straps wrapped in the same grosgrain ribbon tastefully highlighting an otherwise open back. The sash continues down the airy Italian silk gazar skirt as a mock bow with looped ribbon detail. The skirt is a slimming A-line style that doesn't add extra bulk to your figure. Combining vintage and contemporary architecture, this wedding dress is for a truly romantic yet chic bride!


text:
GAINESVILLE, Fla. – Tickets to the University of Florida men's basketball team's game against SEC-foe Georgia on Wednesday, January 9 at 7 p.m. are still available.
Click here for the original story.
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Tickets Still Available for the Men's Basketball Game against Georgia
Started by gatoraus, Jan 08 2013 09:54 AM
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text:
KShop Suggestions in/around Chandler, AZ
Looking for BMW service/shops recommendations in the Chandler, AZ area.
Integrity, honesty, competent, and fair.
Will be storing a couple of "Brick" K 1200's in the area and we're getting our ducks in order for future service work.
Fluid changes, valve adjustment, tire changes.
Independent or official.
Speak up "Brick" owners.
Who does your work???
If you want a BMW dealer, Victory BMW is on Arizona Ave in Chandler. If you want an independent, Zen Moto is off the 101 and Scottsdale Rd in Scottsdale. I've had work done at both places and am more comfortable with Zen.
Quality Cycles
Try Dave at Quality Cycles. He is BMW and a good guy. Also in the area your looking for.
+2 for ZEN Moto. Give Dillon a call at 480-600-2978 he will take good care of you and your bikes.
I've been taking my bike to Josiah at dirtballcustoms.com (520) 548-7358. He's on Scottsdale Rd and Thomas. He's a hell of a lot cheaper than the dealers and he has worked at both of the BMW motorcycle dealers in the area. He has quite a following from folks that used to get their bikes serviced at Victory BMW by him. He's now gone independent and will be moving to a big shop on Broadway and Country Club very soon. I wish he worked on cars, too because its hard to find an honest mechanic these days. I would steer clear of Victory BMW for service. They have a very bad reputation. I do take my bike into GoAZ for any warranty work since they're somewhat honest, but they wouldn't be my first choice for standard maintenance work.
I have used each of the shops mentioned above, all with good result. Zen has moved way up north though so is not as convenient for us SE valley folks.
Since you mentioned flying brick BMWs, I'd go with Dave at Quality Cycle Service in Mesa near Alma School and Main st. 480-964-4800.
Another vote for Dillon @ Zen. Worth the trip.
plus 10
Zen, Dillon- can't go wrong. you will never second guess the work no matter where you are in the world. Don't be a square in a round hole, go to dillion and get it done right
Hey Fite, I'll go along with Zen Moto....:deal
Zen +1
+1 Zen
I'm guessing this fellow at Zen knows his way around "brick" motors?
Things are shaping up well around the frozen wasteland.
I am spending this winter getting the RS ready to live in America.
Still have not finalized a solid storage gig but have a few options.
Game plan is to ship to S.Dak. and take about 6 weeks to find Phoenix.
Bucket List entries include the "Wall" in DC, Barbers, Wheels through Time, and the Dragon.
How's the new job?
OBTW..... A big shout-out to those others folks suggesting quality service work.
Thank you.
Another vote for Josiah at Dirtball Customs here. :freaky
As far as I can tell, he's good with all bikes.
I'm taking my connie to him tommorrow.
Job is OK. Getting ready to go to mexico for the end of the world. If it don't happen, I'll be back in AZ on the 22nd.
I'll toss another positive toward Dillon at Zen Moto. Great guy and mechanic :thumb
This is Josiah with Dirtball Customs. I know these bikes inside and out. I am also the only independent BMW Mechanic in the area that has BMW Police contracts. I am also good friends with Dillion at Zen. He is an awesome Tech. I will tell you that he does handle every manufacturer just like me. However when it gets into certain things with BMW motorcycles he usually sends them to me. I also have all of the diagnostic and special tools for BMW. My new shop is in mesa. If you are in the chandler area then I am a short distance away. I have a full waiting room, customer lounge, showroom with riding gear and much more. Let me know if there is anything I can do for you.
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Life is good is always looking to add new talent to our pool.
We are lucky dogs to get so many responses to the open positions we post. That big volume makes it difficult to respond to each candidate in a more personal manner. But rest assured we will carefully review your submission and contact you if we have additional questions relating to your resume. If we feel that your skills and experience match the requirements of our job opportunity, we will contact you directly. No phone calls please.
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Here are some of our current openings:
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One of the oldest buildings in the state and the oldest on Yale's campus, Connecticut Hall is a distinguished Georgian-style building that was once a dormitory that counted Noah Webster as a resident. This reproduction giclée print from Old Blueprints captures the intricate details of the original plan in traditional white on blue.
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Truglo Red Dot Sight 30MM Black TG8030DB$59.99
- 5 MOA reticle designed for quick acquisition, dual-color reticle illumination (red and green)
- Shock resistant to 1000-Gram, waterproof, fog-proof, unlimited eye relief, wide field of view
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- Special anti-reflective interior eliminates stray light from appearing inside the sight
- Integrated weaver-style mounting system, battery included, lifetime limited warranty
OMP Slotted Kisser Button 9/16'' 100 Pack 33213$59.99
Ensuring consistency and proper alignment. Constructed from a comfortable, long-lasting material designed to endure any condition. Large 9/16" diameter, 100 per pk. Includes clips for slip-free placement.
- Manufacturer: OCTOBER MOUNTAIN PRODUCTS
- UPC Code: 810173011310
Flambeau Outdoors Sting-Ray Cross Bow Case 6467SC$59.99Its rugged high-impact shell and fully foam-padded bottom with hook-and-loop strapping system protect your crossbow and keep it from shifting during travel. Large enough to accommodate most makes and models of crossbows with scopes. Holds quiver on side of crossbow stock. Dual adjustable pillar system with storage caps that incorporate built in broadhead wrenches. Dimensions: 41-1/2" x 32-1/4" x 10-1/2". Learn More
Blackpowder Products Scope Kit w/ Low Mount Rings Black AA2002$59.99
This Scope Kits gives you a KONUS 3-9x32 scope with DuraSight Integral Muzzleloader Mounts. This gives you everything you need to scope up just about any inline muzzleloader including CVA, Thompson Center, or Traditions.
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OMP Power Hex T-Key Set 28172$59.99
Eleven keys with 6" arms featuring one piece, cushioned T handles for extra comfort, while providing superior torque. Set includes sizes: 5/64, 3/32, 7/64, 1/8, 9/64, 5/32, 3/16, 7/32, 1/4, 5/16, and 3/8. Bench/wall mount stand included.
- Manufacturer: OCTOBER MOUNTAIN PRODUCTS
- UPC Code: 037516606143
Big Dog Hound Dog 15' Ladder Tree Stand BDL-091$59.99
- 17.25" X 12" Foot Platform
- 19.5" X 13.5" Seat Platform
- Seat Height: 20"
- Attaches Securely With (1) Looped Ratchet Strap
- Quiet, Non-Skid, Raised Mesh Foot Platform
- Telescopic Ladder Support Bar
- Pinned Ladder Sections
- Free Full Body Fall Arrest System Included
- Maximum Load Capacity: 300 lbs.
- (Ladder Height Is Measured To Seat Platform)
Out of stock


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Ark Birds and Bees Kent is a smallholding which is located on the outskirts of Charing; a quiet village which is nestled on the beautiful North Downs area of Kent.
The seasonally run family business was established in 2008 by husband and wife team Pat and Debbie Hillman who both share a passion for animals and country living.
Pat and Debbie's ethos is to endeavour to give the animals on the smallholding, the best care and to ensure that the animals are able to free range in as natural habitat as possible.
Due to work commitments the smallholding saw a number of changes during 2012 and the business has now been streamlined to enable the couple to focus on the bee keeping side of the business with the supply of bee keeping equipment and hive components.
Thank you for taking an interest and we hope that you enjoy browsing our website.
We are sorry but this year as we have other commitments we have closed the poultry side of the business, however we still continue to stock beekeeping equipment.
Please accept our apologies for any disappointment that this may have caused.


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There is a thread for ASh and one for companions/rivals but no one for the TRio. So assuming they are in XY anime which pokemon will they catch?
There is a thread for ASh and one for companions/rivals but no one for the TRio. So assuming they are in XY anime which pokemon will they catch?
I feel like they should be carrying their DP Pokémon, if only because their exits were completely abrupt and unexpected, and not in a funny way like Lickitung or anyone. :x
I do wonder what they're going to do now that they both own 4-5 Pokémon each. I guess they could either start over again, or just use their Unova Pokes and continue to ignore their DP ones.
Also, if they're going to be like they were pre-BW, I think we can expect Pokémon along the lines of Wobbuffet and Mime Jr again where they're there to be funny and/or cute rather than be experts at fighting.
Amoonguss. But that may just be the species itself. They don't really have any personality. Some of that is down to screen time, but they really seemed to have zombified TR as a whole for most of BW.
I'd like Amoonguss to either develop a personality and begin stun sporing James with affection, or James should get a new grass or grass/poison type that continues the tradition. Funny how after all this "new and fresh" stuff BW tried, I'm eager to see the silly stuff again. Guess BW writers are just that bad.
Personally, I feel like they should leave all their Pokemon at TRHQ, excluding Mime Jr. and Wobbufett.
When they returned with Frillish and Amoonguss, it was an absolute waste. They should have returned with their old Pokemon. The only reason they didn't take them to Unova in the first place was because they would have stood out with the Unova Pokemon. But when they returned there were Kanto Pokemon in eastern Unova. I see no good reason why they shouldn't have returned with their old Pokemon. Their BW Pokemon have absolutely no personality and frankly, their boring.
For XY, the only Pokemon I can see them catching at this point is Skrelp, but I hope that Jessie and James' captures are limited too one, and if not one, than none.
I'm hoping Wobbuffet comes back. I really miss it and if they're still willing to show it in shorts and Kalos has no restriction when it comes to old gen pokemon, I think at the very least Wobbuffet should come back.
I also miss Jessie with Seviper. I'm just so used to seeing it that I wouldn't mind if Seviper came back either. At the same time though, TR should probably just stick to one regional pokemon, Meowth, and Wobbuffet.
Manene was useless most of the time, but his interaction with Kojiro was cute. Wouldn't mind seeing him return.
Either way, I just hope their pokemon have more personality than their BW ones which were only tools all the time.
You'd think they'd be treated better with the way Kojiro got Desumasu and all but I guess it didn't matter.
I hope they bring back Mime Jr. (or this Kalos's equivalent) and Wobuffett .
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I hope Cacnea returns too James. I loved the episode when James sent him to train with Gardenia. And I also want Wobuffet back. But I can see James with a Skrelp.
I hope they continue doing what they did before BW and keep only their current Pokémon to take to Kalos. I don't see them with any of the Pokémon revealed so far, but I assume Jessie will catch a poison-type and James, a grass-type.
I think they could either take their Unova Pokemon or start fresh. I could see the return of Wobbufett, and maybe Mime Jr., either way.
If Kalos has some kind of Poison Snake Pokemon, I would think Jessie would catch it. And James will probably continue with the Grass types.
It's a bit difficult to speculate right now, because we only know a small handful of the Gen VI pokemon. I agree that Skrelp seems like the most obvious possibility, of the ones we actually do know.
Of their older pokemon, Wobbuffet is honestly the only one who I currently feel has any kind of chance of coming back, if only because of his continuing presence in the Pikachu shorts (the Meloetta shorts were special anniversary ones with a "reunion" vibe, so those weren't too surprising, but it's interesting that he'll apparently feature in the Eevee short too - I think the writers do enjoy using him as Meowth's sidekick in those things). Even then, I remain a bit doubtful as to whether we'll actually ever see him on the main cast again.
Last edited by garrison-san; 3rd July 2013 at 03:03 PM.
Claimed: Golett ~ Iron Fist ~ Shadow Punch ~ Big Pearl ~ Light Clay.
With the announcement of Spritzee, I can see James picking up one in the Kalos region. It reminds me of Yamask in that it's cute but morbid. If it can learn Smoke Screen or the like, it would be beneficial to have one.
I'm not sure about any carrying over from the Unova region. I never quite liked Amoongus or Frillish. Jessie keeping her Woobat would be cool, though.
I don't even like fruit smoothies. Give me a double-tall half-caf latte with foam any day.
Wobbuffet should return if TR are going back to comedy. Seriously the unova pokes can get lost they had no back story no personalities or anything.


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