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The present invention relates to efficient organic light emitting devices (OLEDs). More specifically, the present invention relates to white-emitting OLEDs, or WOLEDs. The devices of the present invention employ two emitters in a single emissive region to sufficiently cover the visible spectrum. White emission is achieved from two emitters in a single emissive region through the formation of an aggregate by one of the emissive centers. This allows the construction of simple, bright and efficient WOLEDs that exhibit a high color rendering index.
1. An organic light emitting device comprising an emissive layer, wherein the emissive layer comprises
an aggregate emitter,
a monomer emitter, and
wherein the substituents at the 2, 4, 5, 6, and each 4′ position are independently selected from hydrogen, phenyl, or polyphenyl; and
wherein the emission from the aggregate emitter is lower in energy than the emission from the monomer emitter, and wherein the combined emission of the aggregate emitter and the monomer emitter sufficiently spans the visible spectrum to give a white emission.
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11. An organic light emitting device comprising
an anode;
a hole transporting layer;
wherein the substituents at the 2, 4, 5, 6, and each 4′ position are independently selected from hydrogen, phenyl, or polyphenyl; and
an electron transporting layer; and
a cathode;
wherein the emission from the aggregate emitter is lower in energy than the emission from the monomer emitter, and wherein the combined emission of the aggregate emitter and the monomer emitter sufficiently spans the visible spectrum to give a white emission.
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This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application, Ser. No. 10/112,257, filed Mar. 29, 2002, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. �119(e) of provisional application Ser. No. 60/344,133, filed Dec. 28, 2001, the contents all of which are incorporated herein by reference. This application also claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. �119(e) of provisional application Ser. No. 60/368,496, filed Mar. 29, 2002.
The claimed invention was made by, on behalf of, and/or in connection with one or more of the following parties to a joint university-corporation research agreement: Princeton University, The University of Southern California, and the University Display Corporation. The agreement was in effect on and before the date the claimed invention was made, and the claimed invention was made as a result of activities undertaken within the scope of the agreement.
This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. F33615-94-1-1414 awarded by DARPA. The government has certain rights in this invention.
The present invention relates to efficient organic light emitting devices (OLEDs). More specifically, the present invention relates to white-emitting OLEDs, or WOLEDs. The devices of the present invention employ two emitters in a single emissive region to sufficiently cover the visible spectrum. White emission is achieved from two emitters in a single emissive region through the formation of an aggregate by one of the emissive centers. This allows the construction of simple, bright and efficient WOLEDs that exhibit a high color rendering index.
Organic light emitting devices (OLEDs), which make use of thin film materials that emit light when excited by electric current, are expected to become an increasingly popular form of flat panel display technology. This is because OLEDs have a wide variety of potential applications, including cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), computer displays, informational displays in vehicles, television monitors, as well as light sources for general illumination. Due to their bright colors, wide viewing angle, compatibility with full motion video, broad temperature ranges, thin and conformable form factor, low power requirements and the potential for low cost manufacturing processes, OLEDs are seen as a future replacement technology for cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and liquid crystal displays (LCDs), which currently dominate the growing $40 billion annual electronic display market. Due to their high luminous efficiencies, electrophosphorescent OLEDs are seen as having the potential to replace incandescent, and perhaps even fluorescent, lamps for certain types of applications.
Devices whose structure is based upon the use of layers of organic optoelectronic materials generally rely on a common mechanism leading to optical emission. Typically, this mechanism is based upon the radiative recombination of a trapped charge. Specifically, OLEDs are comprised of at least two thin organic layers between an anode and a cathode. The material of one of these layers is specifically chosen based on the material's ability to transport holes, a "hole transporting layer" (HTL), and the material of the other layer is specifically selected according to its ability to transport electrons, an "electron transporting layer" (ETL). With such a construction, the device can be viewed as a diode with a forward bias when the potential applied to the anode is higher than the potential applied to the cathode. Under these bias conditions, the anode injects holes (positive charge carriers) into the HTL, while the cathode injects electrons into the ETL. The portion of the luminescent medium adjacent to the anode thus forms a hole injecting and transporting zone, while the portion of the luminescent medium adjacent to the cathode forms an electron injecting and transporting zone. The injected holes and electrons each migrate toward the oppositely charged electrode. When an electron and hole localize on the same molecule, a Frenkel exciton is formed. These excitons are trapped in the material which has the lowest HOMO-LUMO energy gap. Recombination of the short-lived excitons may be visualized as an electron dropping from the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) to the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), with relaxation occurring, under certain conditions, preferentially via a photoemissive mechanism.
The materials that function as the ETL or HTL of an OLED may also serve as the medium in which exciton formation and electroluminescent emission occur. Such OLEDs are referred to as having a "single heterostructure" (SH). Alternatively, the electroluminescent material may be present in a separate emissive layer between the HTL and the ETL in what is referred to as a "double heterostructure" (DH).
In a single heterostructure OLED, either holes are injected from the HTL into the ETL where they combine with electrons to form excitons, or electrons are injected from the ETL into the HTL where they combine with holes to form excitons. Because excitons are trapped in the material having the lowest energy gap, and commonly used ETL materials generally have smaller energy gaps than commonly used HTL materials, the emissive layer of a single heterostructure device is typically the ETL. In such an OLED, the materials used for the ETL and HTL should be chosen such that holes can be injected efficiently from the HTL into the ETL. Also, the best OLEDs are believed to have good energy level alignment between the HOMO levels of the HTL and ETL materials.
In a double heterostructure OLED, holes are injected from the HTL and electrons are injected from the ETL into the separate emissive layer, where the holes and electrons combine to form excitons.
Light emission from OLEDs has typically been via fluorescence, however OLED emission via phosphorescence has been recently demonstrated. As used herein, the term "phosphorescence" refers to emission from a triplet excited state of an organic molecule and the term "fluorescence" refers to emission from a singlet excited state of an organic molecule. The term luminescence refers to either fluorescent or phosphorescent emission.
Successful utilization of phosphorescence holds enormous promise for organicelectroluminescent devices. For example, an advantage of phosphorescence is that potentially all excitons formed by the recombination of holes and electrons, either as a singlet or triplet excited state, may participate in luminescence. This is because the lowest singlet excited state of an organic molecule is typically at a slightly higher energy than the lowest triplet excited state. For example, in typical phosphorescent organometallic compounds, the lowest singlet excited state may rapidly decay to the lowest triplet excited state, from which the phosphorescence is produced. In contrast, only a small percentage (about 25%) of excitons in fluorescent devices are capable of producing the fluorescent luminescence that is obtained from a singlet excited state. The remaining excitons in a fluorescent device, which are produced in the lowest triplet excited state, are typically not capable of being converted into the higher energy singlet excited states from which the fluorescence is produced. This energy, thus, becomes lost to decay processes that heat-up the device rather than emit visible light.
Typically, phosphorescent emission from organic molecules is less common than fluorescent emission. However, phosphorescence can be observed from organic molecules under an appropriate set of conditions. Organic molecules coordinated to lanthanide elements often emit from excited states localized on the lanthanide metal. Such radiative emission is not from a triplet excited state. Furthermore, such emission has not been shown to be capable of producing efficiencies high enough to be of practical value in anticipated OLED applications. The europium diketonate complexes illustrate one group of these types of species.
Organic phosphorescence may be observed in molecules containing heteroatoms with unshared pairs of electrons but, typically, only at very low temperatures. Benzophenone and 2,2′-bipyridine are such molecules. Phosphorescence can be enhanced over fluorescence at room temperature by confining, preferably through bonding, the organic molecule in close proximity to an atom of high atomic number. This phenomenon, called the heavy atom effect, is created by a mechanism known as spin-orbit coupling. A related phosphorescent transition is a metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) that is observed in molecules such as tris(2-phenylpyridine)iridium(III).
The realization of highly efficient blue, green and red electrophosphorescence is a requirement for full color display applications with low power consumption. Recently, high-efficiency green and red organic electrophosphorescent devices have been demonstrated which harvest both singlet and triplet excitons, leading to internal quantum efficiencies (ηint) approaching 100%. See Baldo, M. A., O'Brien, D. F., You, Y., Shoustikov, A., Sibley, S., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., Nature (London), 395,151-154 (1998); Baldo, M. A., Lamansky, S., Burrows, P. E., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., Appl. Phys. Lett., 75, 4-6 (1999); Adachi, C., Baldo, M. A., and Forrest, S. R., App. Phys. Lett., 77, 904-906, (2000); Adachi, C., Lamansky, S., Baldo, M. A., Kwong, R. C., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., App. Phys. Lett., 78, 1622-1624 (2001); and Adachi, C., Baldo, M. A., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., 46, 863 (2001). Using a green phosphorescent material, fac tris(2-phenylpyridine)iridium (Ir(ppy)3), in particular, an external quantum efficiency (ηext) of (17.6�0.5)% corresponding to an internal quantum efficiency of >85%, was realized using a wide energy gap host material, 3-phenyl-4-(1′-naphthyl)-5-phenyl-1,2,4-triazole (TAZ). See Adachi, C., Baldo, M. A., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., 46, 863 (2001). More recently, high-efficiency (ηext=(7.0�0.5)%) red electrophosphorescence was demonstrated employing bis(2-(2′-benzo[4,5-a]thienyl)pyridinato-N, C3)iridium (acetylacetonate)[Btp2Ir(acac)]. See Adachi, C., Lamansky, S., Baldo, M. A., Kwong, R. C., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., App. Phys. Lett., 78, 1622-1624 (2001).
In each of these latter cases, high efficiencies are obtained by energy transfer from both the host singlet and triplet states to the phosphor triplet, or via direct trapping of charge on the phosphorescent material, thereby harvesting up to 100% of the excited states. This is a significant improvement over what can be expected using fluorescence in either small molecule or polymer organic light emitting devices (OLEDs). See Baldo, M. A., O'Brien, D. F., Thompson, M. E., and Forrest, S. R., Phys. Rev., B 60, 14422-14428 (1999); Friend, R. H., Gymer, R. W., Holmes, A. B., Burroughes, J. H., Marks, R. N., Taliani, C., Bradley, D. D. C., Dos Santos, D. A., Bredas, J. L., Logdlund, M., Salaneck, W. R., Nature (London), 397, 121-128 (1999); and Cao, Y, Parker, 1. D., Yu, G., Zhang, C., and Heeger, A. J., Nature (London), 397, 414-417 (1999). In either case, these transfers entail a resonant, exothermic process. As the triplet energy of the phosphorescent material increases, it becomes less likely to find an appropriate host with a suitably high energy triplet state. See Baldo, M. A., and Forrest, S. R., Phys. Rev. B 62,10958-10966 (2000). The very large excitonic energies required of the host also suggest that the host material may not have appropriate energy level alignments with other materials used in an OLED structure, hence resulting in a further reduction in efficiency. To eliminate this competition between the conductive and energy transfer properties of the host, a route to efficient blue electrophosphorescence may involve the endothermic energy transfer from a near resonant excited state of the host to the higher triplet energy of the phosphorescent material. See Baldo, M. A., and Forrest, S. R., Phys. Rev. B 62,10958-10966 (2000); Ford, W. E., Rodgers, M. A. J., J. Phys. Chem., 96, 2917-2920 (1992); and Harriman, A.; Hissler, M.; Khatyr, A.; Ziessel, R. Chem. Commun., 735-736 (1999). Provided that the energy required in the transfer is not significantly greater than the thermal energy, this process may be very efficient.
The quality of white illumination sources can be fully described by a simple set of parameters. The color of the light source is given by its CIE chromaticity coordinates x and y. The CIE coordinates are typically represented on a two dimensional plot. Monochromatic colors fall on the perimeter of the horseshoe shaped curve starting with blue in the lower left, running through the colors of the spectrum in a clockwise direction to red in the lower right. The CIE coordinates of a light source of given energy and spectral shape will fall within the area of the curve. Summing light at all wavelengths uniformly gives the white or neutral point, found at the center of the diagram (CIE x,y-coordinates, 0.33, 0.33). Mixing light from two or more sources gives light whose color is represented by the intensity weighted average of the CIE coordinates of the independent sources. Thus, mixing light from two or more sources can be used to generate white light. While the two component and three component white light sources will appear identical to an observer (CIE x,y-coordinates, 0.32, 0.32), they will not be equivalent illumination sources. When considering the use of these white light sources for illumination, the CIE color rendering index (CRI) needs to be considered in addition to the CIE coordinates of the source. The CRI gives an indication of how well the light source will render colors of objects it illuminates. A perfect match of a given source to the standard illuminant gives a CRI of 100. Though a CRI value of at least 70 may be acceptable for certain applications, a preferred white light source will have a CRI of about 80 or higher.
The most successful approaches used to generate white OLEDs described previously involve separating three different emitters (luminescent dopants) into individual layers. Three emissive centers are needed to achieve good color rendering index (CRI) values, as the lines are typically not broad enough to cover the entire visible spectrum with fewer than three emitters. One approach to the design of WOLEDs involves segregating the individual dopants into separate layers. The emissive zone in such a device is thus composed of distinct emissive layers. Kido, J. et. al. Science, 267, 1332-1334 (1995). The design of such a device can be complicated, since careful control of the thickness and composition of each layer is critical for achieving good color balance. The separation of emitters into individual layers is essential to prevent energy transfer between the red, green and blue emitters. The problem is that the highest energy emitter (blue) will efficiently transfer its exciton to the green and red emitters. The efficiency of this energy transfer process is described by the Forster energy transfer equations. If the blue emitter has good spectral overlap with the absorption spectra of the green or red emitters, and the oscillator strengths are high for all of the transitions, the energy transfer process will be efficient. These energy transfers can occur over distances of 30 Å or more. Likewise the green emitter will readily transfer its exciton to the red emitter. The end result is that the red emitter dominates the spectral composition if the three are doped into the film at equal concentrations. With fluorescent dyes the exciton migration lengths are comparatively short and the balance between the three emission colors can be controlled by varying the dopant ratios (more blue is needed than green and more green than red to achieve equal intensity at all three colors). If the dopant concentration is kept low the average distance between dopants can be kept below the Forster energy transfer distance and the affects of energy transfer can be minimized. Having all three dyes within a single layer involves a four component film, with each dopant present at <1%. The preparation of such a film is difficult to carry-out reliably. Any shift in dopant ratio will severely affect the color quality of the device.
The situation with phosphorescent emitters is somewhat different. While the Forster radii of phosphorescent dopants may be lower than for fluorescent dopants, the exciton diffusion lengths can be >1000 Å. In order to achieve high efficiency with electrophosphorescent devices, the phosphorescent materials generally need to be present at much higher concentrations than for fluorescent dopants (typically >6%). The end result is that mixing the phosphorescent materials together in a single layer leads to a severe energy transfer problem, just as observed for fluorescent emitters. The approach that has been used successfully segregates the phosphorescent materials into separate layers, eliminating the energy transfer problem.
The present invention is directed to efficient organic light emitting devices (OLEDs). More specifically, the present invention is directed to white-emitting OLEDs, or WOLEDs. The devices of the present invention employ two luminescent emitters, or lumophores, in a single emissive region to sufficiently cover the visible spectrum. The lumophores may emit via fluorescence (from singlet excited states) or via phosphorescence (from triplet excited states). White emission is achieved from two luminescent emitters in a single emissive region through the formation of an aggregate by one of the lumophores. The two emissive centers (the aggregate emitter and the monomer emitter) are doped into a single emissive layer. This allows the construction of simple, bright and efficient WOLEDs that exhibit a high color rendering index.
Thus, an object of the present invention is to produce white light emitting OLEDs that exhibit high external emission efficiency (ηext) and luminance.
Another object of the invention is to produce white-light-emitting OLEDs that exhibit a high color rendering index.
Yet another object of the invention is to produce white-light-emitting organic light emitting devices that produce white emission having CIE x,y-chromaticity coordinates approaching (0.33, 0.33).
Yet another object of the invention is to provide OLEDs that may be used for large area, efficient light sources in diffuse-illumination applications, such as are now ubiquitously filled with conventional fluorescent lamps.
For example, an object of the invention is to produce white light emitting OLEDs comprising an emissive region, wherein the emissive region comprises an aggregate emitter, and a monomer emitter, wherein the emission from the aggregate emitter is lower in energy than the emission from the monomer emitter, and wherein the combined emission spectrum of the aggregate emitter and the monomer emitter sufficiently spans the visible spectrum to give a white emission.
For the purpose of illustrating the invention, representative embodiments are shown in the accompanying figures, it being understood that the invention is not intended to be limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown.
The present invention will now be described in detail for specific preferred embodiments of the invention. These embodiments are intended only as illustrative examples and the invention is not to be limited thereto.
The present invention is directed to producing efficient, white emitting OLEDs. The devices of the present invention employ two emitters in a single emissive region to sufficiently cover the visible spectrum. White emission is achieved from two luminescent emitters in a single emissive region through the formation of an aggregate by one of the lumophores. The aggregate emitter comprises two or more emissive molecules or moieties that are bound in the ground state and/or in the excited state. Generally, the aggregate emitter will be composed of two emissive molecules (i.e., a dimer), which may be alike or different. The lumophores may emit via fluorescence (from singlet excited states) or via phosphorescence (from triplet excited states). The two emissive centers (the aggregate emitter and the monomer emitter) are doped into a single emissive layer. This allows the construction of simple, bright and efficient WOLEDs that exhibit a high color rendering index. Among methods for producing white light, electrophosphorescence is preferred as the most effective mechanism for OLED light emission due to its demonstrated potential for achieving 100% internal quantum efficiency. Surprisingly, we have found that the phosphorescent emission from the aggregate excited state is often greater than would be expected, even given the potential for achieving 100% internal quantum efficiency. While electrophosphorescence, typically achieved by doping an organometallic phosphorescent material into a conductive host, has successfully been used to generate the primary colors necessary for display applications, efficient generation of the broad spectral emission required of a white light source had, until now, remained elusive.
While separating the emitting materials into separate layers may make the color tuning of a three dopant electroluminescent devices a relatively straightforward process, such as disclosed in co-pending application Ser. No. 60/291,496, entitled "High Efficiency Multi-color Electro-phosphorescent OLEDs", filed May 16, 2001, the multiple layer approach adds complication to the device. It would be much simpler if devices could be made with two emitters rather than three and if the two emitters could be present in the same emissive region. If that were the case, devices might be fabricated in the same high efficiency, long lived structures that have been demonstrated for monochromatic electroluminescent OLEDs. In order to use only two dopants and get an acceptable CRI value, one of the dopants must have a very broad emission line. Unfortunately, broad emission lines had been typically observed only in inefficient devices.
A promising approach to reducing the number of dopants and structural heterogeneities inherent in the multiple color-band architecture is to employ a lumophore that forms a broadly emitting exciplex (i.e. a state whose wavefunction overlaps a neighboring, dissimilar molecule) in its excited state. Recently, fluorescent exciplex OLEDs have been demonstrated with Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) coordinates close to the ideal white light source of (0.33, 0.33), and an external efficiency of ηext=0.3%, a luminance efficiency of ηp=0.58 lm/W and a maximum luminance of 2000 cd/m2. See Berggren, M. et al. J. Appl. Phys. 76, 7530-7534 (1994); and Feng, J. et al. Appl Phys. Lett. 78, 3947-3949 (2001). These values lie well below those needed in practical lighting applications. The emission from such OLEDs was reported to be produced solely by exciplexes.
We have found that the solution to achieving an efficient white emitting OLED involves obtaining emission from two luminescent emitters in a single emissive region, wherein one of the emissive centers is a monomer and the other emissive center is an aggregate. The aggregate emitter comprises two or more lunophores that are bound in the ground state and/or in the excited state. Generally, the aggregate emitter will be composed of two molecules (i.e., a dimer), which may be alike or different.
An excimer or exciplex is formed when the lumophores comprising the aggregate emitter are bound in the excited state but not bound in the ground state. An excimer is a dimer with an excited state wavefunction that extends over two identical molecules. An exciplex is a dimer with an excited state wavefunction that extends over two dissimilar molecules. In excimers and exciplexes, the constituent molecules are bound together in the excited (excitonic) state, but rapidly dissociate to two discrete molecules after relaxation. The end result is that the exciton has no absorption in the ground state. Excimer and exciplex formation is favored where there is a significant overlap between the LUMOs of the constituent species. The excimer and exciplex energy is lower than that of an exciton localized on either of the two molecules that make it up and it's emission is typically a broad line. Since excimers and exciplexes both lack a bound ground state, they provide a unique solution to the achievement of efficient energy transfer from the charge-carrying host matrix to the light emitting centers. Indeed, for the case of two emitting centers, use of an excimer or exciplex prohibits energy transfer between the emitting centers, eliminating complicated intermolecular interactions, which make color balancing using multiple dopants problematic. For a review of the properties of excimers and excitons see Andrew Gilbert and Jim Baggott, Essentials of Molecular Photochemistry, 1991, CRC Press, Boston, pp. 145-167.
In another embodiment of the invention, the molecules that comprise the aggregate emitter are bound in both the ground state and in the excited state. For example, a dimer of the phosphorescent organometallic compound may have a metal-metal bond in the ground state. Practically, it can be difficult to determine whether the lumophores comprising the aggregate emitter are bound in the ground state or not, when doped into molecular thin films, of the type used for the fabrication of OLEDs. It may be the case for some aggregate emitters that the truth is somewhere between the extremes. For example, a dimer of the phosphorescent organometallic compound may have a weak metal-metal bond in the ground state, but in the excited state the bond shortens and the dimer becomes strongly bound. In this case, the dimer is not an excimer or an exciplex, as the dimer is bound in the ground state. The phosphorescent dopants may well be involved in both π-π stacking and metal-metal interactions in the doped films, leading to either excimer or MMLCT excited states. Thus, emission from these films may have contributions from both excimeric and oligomeric excited states. In either case, the emission spectra observed from the aggregate, whether bound in the ground state or not, are typically broad and unstructured, occurring at lower energy than that of the monomer. Thus, the term "excimer" or "exciplex" as used herein may in some cases refer to aggregates having strongly bound excited states and weakly bound ground states. Additionally, the term "aggregate" as used herein includes excimers and exciplexes as conventionally understood.
In one embodiment of the invention, both monomer and aggregate emission are achieved from the same dopant. Those dopant molecules that are in relatively close contact with another dopant molecule will be able to form the aggregate state. Dopant molecules that are isolated will give monomer and not aggregate emission. A white OLED may result, if the relative contribution from each emissive center is appropriately controlled, for example, by adjusting the concentration of each emitter in the emissive layer. To achieve well balanced monomer and aggregate emission from an emissive layer with a single luminescent dopant and achieve high efficiencies the monomer-aggregate ratio must be achieved at an appropriate concentration of the dopant. Different approaches that affect the nature of intermolecular interactions in the film, and thus the degree of monomer-aggregate emission may be used to control the monomer-aggregate emission ratio. One such approach is to vary the amount of steric bulk in the dopant molecule. A second approach is to change the host matrix. Both approaches are believed to affect the degree of association of the dopant material in the emissive layer and hence the ratio of monomer and aggregate states.
Using such methods, it is a particular feature of the present invention that WOLEDs can be fabricated with both a very high efficiency and a very high CRI by adjusting the concentration of the dopant so as to be substantially the same throughout the emissive layer. Naturally occurring variations in the distance between neighboring molecules determines the extent of aggregate formation for a given host-dopant combination, such that the desired balance of monomer and aggregate emission is achieved. The emission spectrum produced by the devices of the present invention sufficiently span the visible spectrum so as to appear is substantially white, for example, a CIE x-coordinate of about 0.30 to about 0.40 in combination with a CIE y-coordinate of about 0.30 to about 0.45. Preferably the CIE x,y-coordinates arc about (0.33, 0.33). Moreover, the devices of the present invention are preferably capable of producing white emission having a CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage) color rendering index (CRI) of at least about 70. More preferably, the CRI is higher than about 80. Alternatively, instead of seeking a very high CRI, the method might be used to produce a selected color having prescribed CIE coordinates.
The devices of the present invention are comprised of an anode, an HTL, an ETL and a cathode. In addition, the device may contain additional layers, such as, but not limited to, an exciton blocking layer (EBL), a separate emissive layer, or a hole injection layer (HIL). In one embodiment, the HTL will also serve as the region in which exciton formation and electroluminescent emission occur. Alternatively, the ETL may serve as the region in which exciton formation and electroluminescent emission occur. In yet another embodiment, the device may comprise a separate emissive layer in which exciton formation and electroluminescent emission occur. The emissive region comprises two types of emissive centers. One of the emissive centers will form an aggregate to give a broad emission spectrum. The other emitter will emit as a monomer. In one embodiment of the invention, a single luminescent material can emit as both the aggregate emitter and as the monomer emitter. Color optimization leading to a high color rendering index may be achieved by selection of the aggregate forming emitter and the monomer emitter so that their emissions cover the visible spectrum and by varying the concentrations of the emitters.
In a preferred embodiment, the two luminescent materials are doped into a matrix material. The matrix material will typically be a charge carrying material. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the luminescent materials will be phosphorescent emitters (i.e., they will emit from triplet excited states). Materials that are present as charge-carrying host and dopant are selected so as to have a high level of energy transfer from the host to the dopant material. High efficiencies are obtained by energy transfer from both the host singlet and triplet states to the phosphor triplet, or via direct trapping of charge on the phosphorescent material, thereby harvesting up to 100% of the excited states. In addition, these materials need to be capable of producing acceptable electrical properties for the OLED. Furthermore, such host and dopant materials are preferably capable of being incorporated into the OLED using starting materials that can be readily incorporated into the OLED by using convenient fabrication techniques. For example, small molecule, non-polymeric materials, may be deposited by using line-of-sight vacuum-deposition techniques, or by using an organic vapor phase deposition (OVPD) technique such as disclosed in application Ser. No. 08/972,156, filed Nov. 17, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,337,102, and entitled "Low Pressure Vapor Phase Deposition Of Organic Thin Films", which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. Alternatively, polymeric materials may be deposited using spin-coating techniques.
In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the emissive region of the device will be comprised of an excimer and a monomer emitter. The luminescent materials that comprise the monomer and excimer may emit via fluorescence or phosphorescence. The monomer emitter will preferably be one that emits in the high energy (for example, blue or green) portion of the visible spectrum. The excimer emitter preferably provides a broad emission which spans the low energy portion of the visible spectrum. There is no absorption into this excimer state, so there will be minimal energy transfer from the monomeric emitter to the excimer.
To achieve efficient excimer emission from a doped layer, control of the dopant concentration is an important consideration. Excimers will typically form when planar molecules are in close proximity to each other. For example, square planar metal complexes, such as certain complexes of Pt, have been demonstrated to form excimers in concentrated solutions and in thin films. For example, FPt(acac) shows monomer emission in 10−6 M solutions of dichloromethane and excimer emission in concentrated 10−3 M solutions.
At appropriate concentrations, it is possible to get both monomer and excimer emission from the same dopant. Only those dopant molecules that are in relatively close contact with another dopant molecule will be able to form the excimer state. Dopant molecules that are isolated will give monomer and not excimer emission. If the monomer is blue emitting and the excimer is yellow emitting, a white OLED may result, if the relative contribution from each emitter is appropriately controlled, for example, by adjusting the concentration of each emitter in the emissive layer.
Forming excimer states requires that the two emissive molecules be in close proximity to each other, so that they can dimerize when one of them is promoted to its excited state. This suggests that there should be a strong concentration dependence in excimer formation. For example, when FPt is doped into a host matrix, such as CBP, at 1%, only monomer emission is observed in the photoluminescence spectrum of the thin film. At this low doping level, the molecules are isolated. As the doping concentration is raised, the amount of excimer emission increases as the monomer line decreases. At FPt doping levels of 2-3%, the ratio of monomer to excimer emission is close to 1:1. At this doping level, some of the FPt molecules are isolated and others are in close proximity to another FPt molecule, leading to efficient excimer formation. At a doping level of 6% nearly complete excimer emission is observed.
If an OLED is prepared with the FPt film doped at about 2-3%, it should be possible to prepare a white OLED. This device has only a single dopant, present in a homogeneously doped thin film. Unfortunately, a doping level of about 2-3% is generally too low to efficiently quench the host excitons, resulting in significant host emission in the electroluminescence spectrum. In order to make efficient phosphorescent OLEDs, the doping level is preferably above about 6%, with the highest efficiencies at higher doping levels. At doping levels high enough to prepare efficient OLEDs, only excimer emission is observed for FPt. In order to achieve more efficient white emission from a single dopant (via simultaneous monomer and excimer emission) the doping level leading to balanced emission should be increased.
When the steric bulk of the emitter is increased, the likelihood that an excimer can be formed in the solid state is decreased. The added bulk prevents the molecules from associating closely. This is readily seen in the spectra of FPt2 (FIG. 9). The t-Bu groups of the complex prevent close face-to-face packing of these molecules in the doped films. As a result, only monomer emission is observed in the photoluminescence spectra of doped thin films of FPt2, at doping levels as high as 25%. FPt forms excimers too readily and FPt2 does not form excimers. When molecules with intermediate levels of steric bulk are used, it is possible to achieve mixed monomer/excimer emission at moderate doping levels. The role of is added steric bulk is clearly seen in the photoluminescence spectra of thin films of FPt3 (
In another embodiment of the present experiment, the monomer/aggregate emission ratio is optimized by changing the host matrix material. For example, in a single dopant system (both monomer and aggregate emission from the same dopant) the degree of association of the dopant in the emissive layer, and thus the ratio the emissive states, can be varied by modifying the host matrix material. Without being limited by theory, during the growth of doped films, there are competing processes between the aggregation of dopants and their dispersion in the host matrix. If the host matrix acts as a good solvent, the dopants will be more evenly dispersed in the film, favoring monomeric species. A poorly solvating host matrix will not disperse the monomer dopant efficiently, leading to dopant aggregation. Thus, a better solvating host will favor the monomeric species in comparison to the aggregate species at a given dopant concentration. Various properties of the host matrix material may be important in determining its solvent properties for a particular dopant, including dipole moment, association energy and other physical characteristics, such as degree of crystallinity.
In another representative embodiment, the device is prepared from two different emissive materials so that one emits blue light from monomeric excited states. The other dopant emits from an excimeric state, leading to broad yellow emission. For example, a device that was prepared to demonstrate this concept utilized a blue emissive octahedral Ir complex, FIrpic, which does not form excimeric states at any doping level. The other dopant used in the device was a planar Pt complex, FPt, which efficiently forms excimeric states, even at low doping levels. When each of the dopants was present at 6%, the resulting electroluminescent emission consisted of roughly equal contributions from FIrpic (monomer) and FPt excimers.
Whenever an exciplex emitter is used to provide the broad emission which spans the low energy portion of the visible spectrum, the emissive region of the device will be comprised of an exciplex and a monomer emitter. The luminescent materials that comprise the monomer and excimer may emit via fluorescence or phosphorescence. The monomer emitter will preferably be one that emits in the high energy (for example, blue or green) portion of the visible spectrum. The exciplex emitter provides a broad emission which spans the low energy portion of the visible spectrum. There is no absorption into this exciplex state, so there will be minimal energy transfer from the monomeric emitter to the exciplex. Thus, if a device is prepared, for example, with two blue-emitting phosphorescent materials, one which forms an exciplex with the matrix material and one which does not, a white device may be prepared. The exciplex could emit yellow and would not trap energy from the non-exciplex forming dopant, since the exciplex has no ground state absorption (the oscillator strength for absorption is zero, thus the Forster radius=0). Thus, the ratio of blue to yellow emission may be readily tuned by) varying the ratio of the two emitters, without the complication of energy transfer from the blue emitter to the yellow one. An example of two such materials are FIrpic and FPt. The Ir complex does not form exciplexes and the Pt complex forms a yellow exciplex in a TAZ matrix. The electroluminescence spectra of the two devices and their sum are shown in FIG. 1. The Ir based device has a peak external efficiency of 6% and the Pt based device (exciplex emission) has an external efficiency of 4%. The two light sources summed give a white light source with a CRI of 82, comparable to some of the best illumination sources.
The monomer emitter, the emitter which is not involved in aggregate emission, may be chosen from among the high energy (e.g., blue) luminescent materials. The monomer emitter will typically be a luminescent compound with sufficient steric bulk to prevent the needed proximity in the solid state for the formation of aggregates at a particular concentration. Preferred monomeric emitters comprise organometallic transition metal complexes that have an octahedral coordination geometry, or that have a square planar geometry and have ligands of sufficient steric bulk to prevent aggregate formation.
The phosphorescent materials for use in the present device are typically organo-metallic compounds. The phosphorescent materials may be selected from organometallic compounds as taught in co-pending applications U.S. Ser. No. 08/980,986, filed Jun. 18, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,238, and Ser. No. 09/978455, filed Oct. 16, 2001, each of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.
Various compounds have been used as HTL materials or ETL materials. The ETL materials may include, in particular, an aryl-substituted oxadiazole, an aryl-substituted triazole, an aryl-substituted phenanthroline, a benzoxazole or a benzothiazole compound, for example, 1,3-bis(N,N-t-butyl-phenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (OXD-7), 3-phenyl-4-(1′-naphthyl)-5-phenyl-1,2,4-triazole (TAZ); 2,9-dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-phenanthroline (bathocuproine or BCP); bis(2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-bcnzoxazolate)zinc; or bis(2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-benzothiazolate)zinc; such as disclosed in C. Adachi et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, 904 (2000). Other electron transporting materials include (4-biphenyl)(4-tertbutylphenyl)oxadiazole (PDB) and aluminum tris(8-hydroxyquinolate) (Alq3).
The material of a hole transporting layer is selected to transport holes from an anode to an emission region of the device. HTL materials mostly consist of triaryl amines in various forms which show high hole mobilities (˜10−3 cm2/Vs). An example of a material suitable as a hole transporting layer is 4,4′-bis[N-(naphthyl)-N-phenyl-amino]biphenyl (α-NPD) with a hole mobility of about 5�10−4 cm2/V sec. Other examples include N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]4,4′-diamine (TPD), 4,4′-bis[N-(2-naphthyl)-N-phenyl-amino]biphenyl (β-NPD), 4,4′-bis[N,N′-(3-tolyl)amino]-3,3′-dimethylbiphenyl (M14), 4,4′,4′-tris(3-methylphenylphenylamino)triphenylamine (MTDATA), 4,4′-bis[N,N′-(3-tolyl)amino]-3,3′-dimethylbiphenyl (HMTPD), 3,3′-Dimethyl-N4,N4,N4′,N4′-tetra-p-tolyl-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine (R854), N,N′,N″-1,3,5-tricarbazoloylbenzene (tCP) and 4,4′-N,N′-dicarbazole-biphenyl (CBP). Additional suitable hole transporting materials are known in the art, and examples of materials that may be suitable for the hole transporting layer can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,745, which is incorporated herein by reference.
In addition to the small molecules discussed above, the matrix may comprise a polymer or polymer blend. In one embodiment, the emissive material(s) are added as a free molecule, i.e. not bound to the polymer, but dissolved in a polymer "solvent". A preferred polymer for use as a matrix material is poly(9-vinylcarbazole) (PVK). In an alternative embodiment, the emitter is part of the repeating unit of the polymer, for example Dow's polyfluorene materials. Both fluorescent and phosphorescent emitters may be appended to polymer chains and used to make OLEDs. Layers in a device comprising a polymeric matrix are typically deposited by spin-coating.
Preferred host matrix materials for the emissive layer include carbazole biphenyl (CBP), and derivatives thereof, N,N′-dicarbazoloylbenzenes, and derivatives thereof, and N,N′,N″-1,3,5-tricarbazoloylbenzenes, and derivatives thereof. Derivatives may include the above compounds substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, CN, CF3, CO2alkyl, C(O)alkyl, N(alkyl)2, NO2, O-alkyl, and halo. Particularly preferred host matrix materials for the emissive layer include 4,4′-N,N′-dicarbazole-biphenyl (CBP), N,N′-meta-dicarbazoloylbenzene (mCP), and N,N′,N″-1,3,5-tricarbazoloylbenzene (tCP). CBP has a number of important properties as a matrix material, such as, a high triplet energy of 2.56 eV (484 nm) and ambipolar charge transporting properties, that make it an excellent host for phosphorescent dopants.
Neat thin films of CBP crystallize readily. Doping a small molecule into the CBP (such as an emissive dopant) stabilizes the film in an amorphous or glassy form, which is stable for long periods. mCP on the other hand forms a stable glass, even when undoped. Crystallization during device operation can lead to failure of the device, and so is avoided. Having a material that forms a stable glass, even when undoped, is a benefit, since the crystallization process is less likely to occur. A metric that is used to evaluate glass forming ability of a given material is its glass transition temperature, Tg. This temperature characterizes the thermal stability of a glassy material, thus a high Tg is desirable for OLED materials. At the Tg, a significant thermal expansion typically occurs, leading to device failure. mCP has a Tg value of 65� C. While this value is acceptable for device preparation, a higher Tg may be desirable for the making devices with the longest possible lifetimes. Increasing the Tg is readily accomplished by adding large, rigid groups to molecules, such as phenyl and poly-phenyl groups, and similar aryl groups. This phenyl addition/substitution should be done in a manner that does not lower the triplet energy, however, or the host material will not be as suitable for use in blue or white emissive devices. For example, adding phenyl groups to the carbazole unit itself (e.g. 4′ positions in the Compound I) will generally lower the triplet energy, making the mCP derivative less suitable for blue or white devices.
Suitable electrode (i.e., anode and cathode) materials include conductive materials such as a metal, a metal alloy or an electrically conductive oxide such as ITO, which are connected to electrical contacts. The deposition of electrical contacts may be accomplished by vapor deposition or other suitable metal deposition techniques. These electrical contacts may be made, for example, from indium, magnesium, platinum, gold, silver or combinations such as Ti/Pt/Au, Cr/Au or Mg/Ag.
When depositing the top electrode layer (i.e., the cathode or the anode, typically the cathode), that is, the electrode on the side of the OLED furthest from the substrate, damage to the organic layers should be avoided. For example, organic layers should not be heated above their glass transition temperature. Top electrodes are preferably deposited from a direction substantially perpendicular to the substrate.
The electrode that functions as the anode preferably comprises high work function metals (≧4.5 eV), or a transparent electrically conductive oxide, such as indium tin oxide (ITO), zinc tin oxide, or the like.
In preferred embodiments, the cathode is preferably a low work function, electron-injecting material, such as a metal layer. Preferably, the cathode material has a work function that is less than about 4 electron volts. The metal cathode layer may be comprised of a substantially thicker metal layer if the cathode layer is opaque. If the cathode is intended to be transparent, a thin low-work function metal may be used in combination with a transparent electrically conductive oxide, such as ITO. Such transparent cathodes may have a metal layer with a thickness of 50-400 Å, preferably about 100 Å. A transparent cathode, such as LiF/Al may also be used.
For top-emitting devices, a transparent cathode such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,703,436, or co-pending patent applications U.S. Ser. No. 08/964,863, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,469,437 and Ser. No. 09/054,707, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,420,031, each incorporated herein by reference, may be used. A transparent cathode has light transmission characteristics such that the OLED has an optical transmission of at least about 50%. Preferably, the transparent cathode has light transmission characteristics that permit the OLED to have an optical transmission of at least about 70%, more preferably, at least about 85%.
The devices of the present invention may comprise additional layers, such as an exciton blocking layer (EBL), a hole blocking layer (HBL) or a hole injection layer (HIL). One embodiment of the invention uses an exciton blocking layer that blocks exciton diffusion so as to improve overall device efficiency, such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,097,147, which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.
To prevent electron or exciton leakage from the luminescent layer into the hole transporting layer, particularly in devices having a high energy (blue) phosphorescent emitter, an electron/exciton blocking layer may be included between the luminescent layer and the HTL. High energy phosphorescent dopants tend to have high energy LUMO levels, approaching those of the transport and host materials. If the dopant LUMO level approaches the LUMO energy of the HTL material, electrons can leak into the HTL. Likewise, exciton leakage into the HTL layer can occur as the emission energy of the dopant approaches the absorption energy of HTL material. Therefore, introduction of an electron/exciton blocking layer between the HTL and luminescent layer may improve the device characteristics. An efficient electron/exciton blocking material will have a wide energy gap to prevent exciton leakage into the HTL, a high LUMO level to block electrons, and a HOMO level above that of the HTL. A preferred material for use in an electron/exciton blocking layer is the fac-tris(1-phenylpyrazolato-N,C2′)iridium(III) (Irppz).
In still other embodiments of the invention, a hole injecting layer may be present between the anode layer and the hole transporting layer. The hole injecting materials of the present invention may be characterized as materials that planarize or wet the anode surface so as to provide efficient hole injection from the anode into the hole injecting material. The hole injecting materials of the present invention are further characterized as having HOMO energy levels that favorably match up, as defined by their relative IP energies, with the adjacent anode layer on one side of the HIL layer and the emitter-doped electron transporting layer on the opposite side of the HIL. The highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) obtained for each material corresponds to its ionization potential (IP). The lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is equal to the IP plus the optical energy gap, as determined from absorption spectra. Relative alignments of the energies in the fully assembled devices may differ somewhat from those predicted, for example from the absorption spectra.
The HIL materials, while still being hole transporting materials, are distinguished from conventional hole transporting materials that are typically used in the hole transporting layer of an OLED in that such HIL materials have a hole mobility that may be substantially less than the hole mobility of conventional hole transporting materials. For example, m-MTDATA has been identified as effective in promoting injection of holes from ITO into the HTL consisting of, for example α-NPD or TPD. Possibly, the HIL effectively injects holes due to a reduction of the HTL HOMO level/ITO offset energy, or to wetting of the ITO surface. The HIL material m-MTDATA is believed to have a hole mobility of about 3�10−5 cm2/V sec as compared with a hole mobility of about 5�10−4 cm2/V sec and 9�10−4 cm2/V sec of α-NPD and TPD, respectively. Thus, the m-MTDATA material has a hole mobility more than an order of magnitude less than the commonly used HTL materials α-NPD and TPD.
Other HIL materials include phthalocyanine compounds, such as copper phthalocyanine, or still other materials, including polymeric materials such as poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT) or poly(ethene-dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulphonic acid) (PEDOT:PSS) which are effective in promoting injection of holes from the anode into the HIL material and subsequently into the HTL.
The thickness of the HIL of the present invention needs to be thick enough to help planarize or wet the surface of the anode layer. For example, an HIL thickness of as little as 10 nm may be acceptable for a very smooth anode surface. However, since anode surfaces tend to be very rough, a thickness for the HIL of up to 50 nm may be desired in some cases.
Substrates according to the present invention may be opaque or substantially transparent, rigid or flexible, and/or plastic, metal or glass. Although not limited to the thickness ranges recited herein, the substrate may be as thin as 10 mm if present as a flexible plastic or metal foil substrate, or substantially thicker if present as a rigid, transparent or opaque substrate, or if the substrate is made of silicon.
The OLEDs and OLED structures of the present invention optionally contain additional materials or layers depending on the desired effect; such as protective layers (to protect certain materials during the fabrication process), insulating layers, reflective layers to guide waves in certain directions, and protective caps, which cover the electrodes and organic layers in order to protect these layers from the environment. A description of insulating layers and protective caps is contained for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,538, which is incorporated herein by reference.
Although a high CRI value is often preferred, the devices of the present invention may be used to produce a light source that provides other colors as well. Incandescent bulbs are actually slightly yellow, rather than pure white. By changing the ratio of monomer emitter to aggregate emitter, as described herein, the color of the resulting device can be tuned, for example, to imitate the light emitted from an incandescent bulb. By adjusting the concentration of a dopant, the steric bulk of a dopant, and the host material used in the emissive layer, a device may be constructed that will provide an unsaturated (not monochromatic) colored emission.
There may be substantial variation of the type, number, thickness and order of the layers that are present, dependent on whether an inverted sequence of OLED layers is present, or whether still other design variations are used. Those with skill in the art may recognize various modifications to the embodiments of the invention described and illustrated herein. Such modifications are intended to be covered by the spirit and scope of the present invention. That is, while the invention has been described in detail with reference to certain embodiments, it will be recognized by those skilled in the art that there are other embodiments of the invention within the spirit and scope of the claims.
Where available, solvents and reagents were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Company. The reagents were of the highest purity and used as received.
The ligand 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)pyridine (F2ppy) was prepared by Suzuki coupling 2,4-difluorophenylboronic acid and 2-bromopyridine (Aldrich). The Pt(II) μ-dichloro-bridged dimer [(F2ppy )2Pt(μ-Cl)2Pt(F2ppy)2] was prepared by a modified method of Lewis. (Lohse, O. et al. Synlett. 1999, 1, 45-48). The dimer was treated with 3 equivalents of the chelating diketone ligand and 10 equivalents of Na2CO3. 2,6-dimethyl-3,5-heptanedione, and 6-methyl-2,4-heptanedione were purchased from TCI. 3-ethyl-2,4-pentandione was purchased from Aldrich. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure, and the compound purified chromatographically. The product was recrystallized from dichloromethane/methanol and then sublimed.
Irppz was prepared by dissolving Ir(acac)3 (3.0 g) and 1-phenylpyrazole (3.1 g) in 100 ml glycerol and refluxing for 12 hours under and inert atmosphere. After cooling the product was isolated by filtration and washed with several portions of distilled water, methanol, ether and hexanes and then vacuum dried. The crude product was then sublimed in a temperature gradient of 220-250� C. to give a pale yellow product (yield 58%)
mCP was prepared by the palladium-catalyzed cross coupling of aryl halides and arylamines. (T. Yamamoto, M. Nisbiyama, Y. Koie Tet. Lett., 1998, 39, 2367-2370).
The electrophosphorescent excimer WOLEDs were grown on a glass substrate pre-coated with an indium-tin-oxide (ITO) layer having a sheet resistance of 20-W/sq. Prior to organic layer deposition, the substrates were degreased in ultrasonic solvent baths and then treated with an oxygen plasma for 8 min. at 20 W and 150 mTorr. Poly(ethylene-dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulphonic acid) (PEDOT:PSS), used to decrease OLED leakage current and to increase fabrication yield, was spun onto the ITO at 4000 rpm for 40 s, and then baked in vacuum for 15 min at 120� C., attaining an approximate thickness of 40 nm. The hole transporting and host materials, as well as the two dopants were prepared by standard procedures (See Lamansky, S. et al., Inorg. Chem. 40, 1704-1711, 2001) and purified by thermal gradient vacuum sublimation. The molecular organic layers were sequentially deposited without breaking vacuum by thermal evaporation at a base pressure of <8�10−7 Torr.
Deposition began with a 30 nm-thick 4,4′-bis[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-phenyl-amino]biphenyl (α-NPD) hole transport layer (HTL), followed by a 30 nm thick emission region consisting of the blue emitting phosphors FIr(pic) and FPt(acac), both doped at 6 wt % into a 4,4′-N,N′-dicarbazole-biphenyl (CBP) host. The final organic layer deposited was 50 nm of bathocuproine (BCP). This layer serves as a hole and exciton blocking layer, and as an electron transport medium.
After deposition of the organic layers, the samples were transferred from the evaporation chamber into a N2 filled glove box containing ≦1 ppm of H2O and O2. After affixing masks with 1 mm diameter openings to the samples, they were transferred into a second vacuum chamber (<10−7Torr) where the cathode metal (consisting of 5 Å of LiF followed by 70 nm of Al) was deposited through the masks. The samples were only exposed to air while being tested. A cross section of the device structure is shown in FIG. 6.
It is convenient to begin the design of the WOLED by examining the photoluminescence emission (PL) and excitation (PLE) spectra of the materials used in the device emissive region. Three doped films and an undoped "control" CBP film, each 1000 Å thick, were grown by thermal evaporation on separately solvent-cleaned quartz substrates. The PL and PLE spectra of the films were taken using a Photon Technology International QuantaMaster fluorescence system.
The PL spectrum of Film 2 shows bands consistent with CBP and FPt(acac) monomer emission only. CBP emission is at λ=390 nm, and FPt(acac) monomeric emission has peaks at λ=470 nm and λ=500 nm (see FIG. 5). The spectrum observed for FPt(acac) in CBP is very similar to the same molecule in dilute solution. At <1 wt %, the randomly distributed FPt(acac) molecules are, on average, separated by 30 Å, precluding significant excimer formation. The lack of a broad, long wavelength peak in Film 2 suggests that exciplexes do not form between CBP and FPt(acac). That is, if exciplexes form between these moieties, exciplex emission from a FPt(acac)-CBP complex would be present even in the most lightly doped samples.
As the FPt(acac) doping concentration is increased to ˜7 wt % (Film 3), strong excimer emission is observed with an orange-red peak at λ=570 nm along with the characteristic monomer emission at λ=470 nm and λ=500 nm. The higher doping level leads to complete quenching of the CBP fluorescence. For Film 3, the measured lifetime of t=7.2 ms of the FPt(acac) emission at λ=570 nm, compared with 8.3 ms at λ=470 nm, is also consistent with excimer formation on FPt(acac) complexes.
Doping of FPt(acac) between 1 wt % and 7 wt % leads to spectra that are consistent with simultaneous monomer and excimer emission from the dopant. At a doping level of 3 wt %-4 wt % the monomer and excimer lines are balanced, leading to white emission. While this film composition could in principal be used to make a white OLED, the doping level is too low for the device to have a reasonable efficiency and give a spectrum free of CBP fluorescence.
Film 4 consists of CBP doped with 6 wt % FIr(pic) and 6 wt % FPt(acac). Here, CBP emission is absent in the PL, but the PLE spectrum still indicates that it is the main absorbing species, and that energy is efficiently transferred to both FIr(pic) and FPt(acac). The PL emission of the double-doped film is similar to the electroluminescence (EL) of the WOLED, shown in FIG. 6.
The energy transfer process can be understood in the double-doped system by referring to the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital energies (LUMO) of the three organic components (lower right inset, FIG. 7). The transfer of triplet energy from CBP to FIr(pic) occurs via an endothermic process described by Adachi, C. et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 2082-2084 (2001). Assuming the same positions of the HOMO energy levels of (5.8�0.1 eV), and the LUMO energy levels of (3.2�0.1 eV) of both FPt(acac) and FIr(pic), a similar endothermic triplet energy transfer pathway can be expected for CBP and FPt(acac). Resonant energy transfer between the triplet levels of the two dopants is also likely since they are present at high concentration in the CBP matrix. However, direct energy transfer from FIr(pic) to the excimer can not occur because the excimer has zero ground state absorption, preventing the cascading of energy from the blue to the yellow emission centers. This essentially decouples the excited states of these molecules, allowing for simple optimization of the doping to achieve the desired color balance.
The light output power from the WOLED was measured using a Newport Power Meter and a calibrated silicon photo diode, and then calculated ηext using current density-voltage characteristics shown in the left inset of
A neat film of FPt(acac) has measured lifetimes of t=4.8 ms and 5.2 ms at λ=470 nm and λ=600 ms, respectively. Hence, as the current density increases, the FPt(acac) excimer states may become saturated compared to the monomer and FIr(pic) and lead to increased blue emission. The spectral changes reflect small changes in CIE coordinates from (0.40, 0.44) to (0.35, 0.43).
OLEDs were prepared with FPt3 at doping levels of 8, 10 and 12%. The device structure consisted of ITO/NPD (400 Å)/Ir(ppz)3 (200 Å)/CBP-FPt3 (300 Å)/BCP (150 Å)/Alq3 (200 Å)/Mg-Ag. The current voltage characteristics of the-three devices were similar, with progressively less leakage current at low voltage as the doping level is increased. The CBP host emission was not observed at any of the doping levels, indicating that the FPt3 dopant is efficiently trapping all of the excitons formed in the CBP matrix. While exciton formation in the CBP is a possible result of hole-electron recombination, it is also possible that the hole or electron could be trapped at the FPt3 molecule and direct recombination at the dopant occurs. The latter process will lead to excitons being formed on the dopant, without requiring energy transfer from the matrix material, i.e. CBP in this case. The Ir(ppz)3 electron blocking layer was necessary to prevent electron leakage into the NPD layer, which leads to NPD emission in addition to dopant monomer-excimer emission. The three devices all show turn-on voltage between 3 and 4 volts and achieve maximum luminances between 4,000 and 10,000 Cd/m2. The spectra of the devices show very little variation as the voltage is raised, i.e. the monomer to excimer ratio is not significantly affected by voltage or current density. The 10 and 12% doped devices give peak efficiencies of 4 and 3.5%, respectively. The 10 and 12% doped devices also give very good power efficiencies, of 8 and 6.5 lm/W, respectively (at 1 Cd/m2).
Thin films of mCP doped with varying wt % of FPt were prepared by co-depositing the, two materials onto a glass substrate. The spectra of FPt doped in mCP, at a range of concentrations, are shown in FIG. 20. The wavelengths of the emission maxima for the monomer and aggregate states of FPt doped into mCP are the same as those of FPt in CBP. Balanced monomer/aggregate emission is observed at a doping level of approximately 15 wt %, roughly three times the concentration required to achieve an equivalent monomer/aggregate emission ratio from FPt doped CBP films. This suggests that mCP is a better solvent for FPt, leading to fewer FPt . . . FPt interactions in the doped mCP film, at a given concentration.
In contrast to the CBP doped films, no host emission is observed in the photoluminescence spectra of lightly doped mCP films (<1 wt % FPt), indicating that energy transfer from mCP to FPt is more efficient than from CBP to FPt. Despite the high triplet energy of CBP (phosphorescence λmax=460 nm), energy transfer from CBP to blue phosphorescent dopants, such as the Pt complexes used here, is an endothermic process. In contrast, mCP has a phosphorescence spectrum peaked at 410 nm, making energy transfer from mCP to the Pt complex dopants a more efficient, exothermic process. A more efficient energy transfer from the host to the dopant will affect the amount of dopant necessary to quench emission, as observed.
Both CBP and mCP have low dipole moments (ca. 0.5 D), so electrostatic interactions between the dopants and host materials are expected to be similar. This is consistent with the observation that the spectra of monomer and aggregate states for doped mCP and CBP films are the same. Without being limited by theory, the differences between CBP and mCP, which give rise to differing dopant solubilities, is related to their molecular structures. Planar molecules tend to have high association energies, which promote crystallization and hinder glass formation. CBP is expected to be largely planar in the solid state. This is consistent with our observation that undoped CBP thin films rapidly crystallize when deposited directly on glass or ITO substrates. The high CBP association energy may tend to exclude monomer dopant, leading to aggregate formation at moderate doping levels. mCP readily forms a stable glass when deposited on either inorganic or organic substrates, suggesting it has a nonplanar ground state structure. The glass transition temperatures for the mCP is 65� C. Steric interactions between adjacent carbazole groups and the phenyl ring lead to a prediction that both CBP and mCP should have nonplanar ground state structures, as seen in the geometry of the energy minimized structures in FIG. 21. While the minimized structure of CBP appears somewhat nonplanar, it is important to note that the calculated energy difference between the structure shown and the planar conformer is only 18 kJ/mol. In contrast, the energy cost to planarize mCP is 35 kJ/mol. The principal cause of the large barrier to flatten mCP is H . . . H repulsions between adjacent carbazoles, interactions that are absent in CBP. Based on the structural differences, we expect the degree of solvation of a square planar Pt dopant by mCP to be very different from that of CBP. This change significantly affects the monomer/aggregate ratio at a given doping level in CBP vs. mCP.
The CIE coordinates and the color rendering index (CRI) for the photoluminescence spectra of 1 doped into mCP are given in Table 1.
A device was fabricated with the structure NPD (400 Å)/Irppz(200 Å)/mCP:FPt (16% 300 Å)/BCP (150 Å)/Alq3(200 Å)/LiF(10 Å)/Al(1000 Å). The use of the mCP host in place of CBP significantly improves the device performance. The efficiency, current-voltage characteristics, and spectra of the device are shown in
An OLED was prepared as in Example 3 except the Irppz EBL was omitted (i.e. NPD/mCP-FPt/BCP/Alq3). The EL spectrum has a significant contribution from NPD and quantum efficiency of the devices drops by roughly a factor of two. (see FIG. 24). Overall, the Irppz electron/exciton blocking layer increases the OLED efficiency, removes NPD emission from the spectra and makes the spectrum independent of voltage.
The energy level diagram for the mCP and CBP devices, shown in
While the present invention is described with respect to particular examples and preferred embodiments, it is understood that the present invention is not limited to these examples and embodiments. In particular, the present invention may be applied to a wide variety of electronic devices. The present invention as claimed therefore includes variations from the particular examples and preferred embodiments described herein, as will be apparent to one of skill in the art.
Patent Citations
Non-Patent Citations
Referenced by
Legal Events
Original Image


text:
Xxxwww.com WebBoar Website Analysis
Whois Summary
Email Summary:
1,265 domains are linked to xxxwww.com owner's email .
Phone Summary:
Technical contact's phone is linked with 645 domains.
Name Summary:
1,257 domains are linked to xxxwww.com owner's name .
We've found 2 records in xxxwww.com's whois history:
There was 1 change of registrar (including domain drops) since 10 Feb, 2004
|Check Whois Analytics for xxxwww.com to get a complete Whois report including a list of all the domains with the same owner, admin or tech contact details.
Web Hosting Information:
|Along the last month the amount of websites hosted at CYBER WURX didn't change. There are 39,917 website(s) hosted at CYBER WURX
Domain MX Information:
|Mail eXchanger #1:
|mx.fakemx.net [648,832 domains on this MX]
Domain Nameserver Information:
|Nameserver #1:
|ns2.dsredirection.com [1,159,447 domains on this NS]
|Nameserver #2:
|ns1.dsredirection.com [1,159,462 domains on this NS]

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Journal Sentinel business reporter Tom Daykin talks about commercial real estate and development.
Video: Daykin discusses north side development bailout
Business reporter Tom Daykin discusses a proposal to bail out two tax incremental financing districts that paid the city's costs tied to developments that were supposed to create around 90 single-family homes and a 24-unit townhouse project on the city's north side.
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Read and share your thoughts on this story.


text:
Hostelworld "meet the world" by Lucky Generals
Rating: 5.0
By Maisie McCabe, campaignlive.co.uk, Monday, 18 November 2013 11:15AM
The win means MBA will help promote Telefonica-owned O2 to small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs) through predominantly digital communications. MBA's work could also include other platforms.
The incumbent on the account was TMP, which was involved in the review.
O2 defines SMB as anything from SOHO [single office/home office] companies employing one to ten people, right up to businesses employing 2,000 people.
Stephen Maher, the chief executive of MBA, said: "We cannot wait to help 02 'be more dog' in the way the brand is positioned to the business audience through the creation of some really exciting digital work."
Campaign revealed the pitch was taking place in May. ISBA advised O2 on the review in its early stages.
This article was first published on campaignlive.co.uk
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Rating: 5.0
Agency: Grey London
Rating: 5.0


text:
So I just reopened my arcade to install an 80mm case fan, and some how the red LEDs in the bottom of my smart storm shorted out, now I only have 2/3s of the colors I had on the bottom. Since I hate the cheap quality of it to begin with I was wondering if there was another multicolor LED kit out there? If not can you tell me what the best one is that I can solder different LEDs to? (I use green, blue and red LEDs in my fan might as well put them in my led case kit too)
Smart Led Storm 360 V2 Alternative?
Started by HrutkayMods , Jun 04 2012 02:41 AM
4 replies to this topic
Posted 04 June 2012 - 02:41 AM
Posted 28 July 2012 - 07:45 PM
Is all that is is about 12 inches of RGB strip. You would have to power it with 12v, but it appears that you know what you are doing, so that shouldn't be an issue. I, personally, hate the Storm kits. Sorry for the company is reading this post. We purchased a ton of them a while back and nearly all of them were bad. They are just terrible quality and WAY over priced. There are about $5 in parts there. Hope that helps out a little bid.
Posted 04 August 2012 - 04:21 AM
thanks, I ended up making a custom white LED strip and powered it off the power supply port
Posted 08 August 2012 - 09:37 PM
Nice, do you have any pics? Everyone loves to see a good photo of a project.
Posted 22 August 2012 - 05:54 AM
They'll be coming if I ever finish the dag on thing... I've been waiting on the BB DemoN
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text:
HSBC "lift" by Grey London
Agency: Grey London
Rating: 5.0
campaignlive.co.uk, Monday, 05 July 1999 12:00AM
- Granada Media Commercial Enterprises has announced a re-design the official ITV-F1 website in the run up to Sunday's Formula 1 British Grand Prix race.
The re-vamped site, located at www.ITV-F1.com, now carries an array of enhanced features, which include an F1 Superstore, a multimedia content area and a loyalty club in addition to the regularly updated coverage of the latest developments in Formula 1.
Caroline Hughes, commercial controller, at Granada Media, said: "Development of ITV-F1.com is key to maintaining loyalty with its 350,000 users. The site has its own identity, echoing the action of the TV broadcast and insight of the magazine, but fulfilling a very different media need of our viewers."
A new content area, Sound & Vision has been created to house the site's multimedia content. This area features footage not seen before on television and behind the scenes action from the teams as well as interviews with top drivers.
Advertisers supporting the new site include Agfa Cameras, Alfa Romeo, Apple, Audi, Autobytel, Books On Line, BMW, BT, Excite, Ford, Foster's, Gillette, Guinness, IBM, Intel, Psygnosis, Mazda, Microsoft, Tesco
The ITV-F1 website is designed and maintained by Eidos Technologies, a wholly owned subsidiary of Eidos.
This article was first published on campaignlive.co.uk
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Agency: Grey London
Rating: 5.0


text:
No New Criminal Charges Investigation Shows 'Mismanagement' in Sheriff's Office
Gordon, Tony, Lissau, Russell, Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, IL)
Byline: Tony Gordon and Russell Lissau Daily Herald Staff Writers
A three-year investigation into allegations of wrongdoing in the Lake County sheriff's office has ended and won't result in more criminal charges, prosecutors announced.
However, the joint inquiry by the attorney general's office and the local state's attorney's office uncovered "significant financial mismanagement, incompetence and lack of supervision," officials said.
"The lack of additional criminal charges does not mean there was nothing wrong in the sheriff's office," said Ellen Mandeltort, deputy attorney general for criminal justice.
Prosecutors released the 11-page report summarizing their findings Wednesday.
The investigation - sparked by allegations former corrections officer Michael Horowitz made in August 2003 -already has resulted in the indictment of two ex-jail directors and resignations of two high-ranking county officials.
Former jailers Lawrence Lesza and Charles DeFillipo were indicted last year and charged with filing false documents in an attempt to increase DeFillipo's pension by more than $300,000. The two have pleaded not guilty and are scheduled to go on trial Dec. 4.
In April, Undersheriff Gary Stryker and Joni Young, the county's director of central services, resigned because of violations of county policies underpinned by a romantic relationship between the two.
Attorneys for Lesza and DeFillipo declined to comment. Stryker could not be reached.
Young, who is only occasionally mentioned in the report, said she and other officials knew the allegations were, for the most part, unfounded.
Horowitz made his accusations public during a televised county board meeting Aug. 12, 2003. He started reading a letter detailing 24 complaints but was interrupted and told to file the memo with the state's attorney's office. Prosecutors began their probe a short time later.
The state's attorney's office asked for help from the attorney general's office to avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest.
Sheriff Gary Del Re said Wednesday he was pleased no further criminal prosecutions will result from the probe, and has begun correcting procedural problems cited in the report.
"I am pleased that 23 of the allegations were determined to be unfounded," Del Re said. "Secondly, we have already taken significant steps in addressing the problem areas cited in the report."
Horowitz said he was satisfied with the report's conclusions.
"It justified what I've been saying all along, that there were things that were not right (in the sheriff's office)," he said.
County Board Chairwoman Suzi Schmidt said she was disappointed the investigation took so long to wrap up.
"There's nothing criminal here, and I think it's unfair to some people to make it last so long," she said. "Were there mistakes made? Yes - and we have to correct those."
During a meeting with the media Wednesday, Mandeltort and Deputy State's Attorney Jeff Pavletic said the investigation was lengthy because of the breadth of Horowitz's allegations and the thoroughness of the examination.
"We had to look at tens of thousands of documents and interview people throughout the country," Pavletic said. "In addition, we received the assistance of the FBI in some areas of the investigation and brought in a forensic auditing firm."
They said Horowitz's allegations of criminal conduct within the office were unsupported by evidence or beyond the reach of the statute of limitations, which generally insists criminal prosecutions be brought within three years of the occurrence of a crime.
"We have to be sure that we have evidence admissible in court under the law, and if we do not have the horses, we do not move forward," said Assistant Attorney General Joe Ponsetto, chief of special prosecutions. …


text:
Updates in Naturopathic Gastroenterology
March 15–16, 2014
Did you miss the Updates in Naturopathic Gastroenterology Conference? You can purchase the recordings.
Purchase the entire weekend or select presentations.
In naturopathic medicine, the root of health or disease often lies with the digestive tract. This weekend conference features presentations by naturopathic physicians whose clinical practices focus on various aspects of gastroenterology. Join excellent faculty presenters for updates in key topics for the general practitioner, as well as for GI-focused physicians.
New cutting edge topics and treatments
Microscopic Colitis, Microflora "Biotypes," Helminthic therapy, Proctology and more!
Special focus on inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
Clinical case discussions focused on the management and treatment of GI conditions
Industry exhibitions featuring the latest advances in GI technology and therapeutics
Earn 14.5 CEUs, learn valuable clinical pearls and create professional networks!
Mona Morstein, ND – "Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis, Cannabanoid Hyperemesis and Pancreatitis"
Steven Sandberg-Lewis, ND, DHANP – "The IBS-IBD Connection"
Eric Yarnell, ND, RH (AHG) – "Advances in Understanding the Gut Flora"
Steve Gardner, DC, ND – "Updates in Naturopathic Proctology"
Mark Davis, ND – "Treatments for C.dificile" and "Helminthic Therapy"
Lisa Shaver, ND, LAc – "Research Updates on Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity"
Robert Scott Bell, D.A.Hom. – "Restoring Gut Integrity After Iatrogenic Enterocolitis"
Aristo Vojdani, PhD – "The Gut-Brain Axis in Autoimmune and Neuroimmune Disorders"
Registration is closed.
Conference Links
Participant Registration
Attend in–person or online.


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You can now invite anyone to meet at your favorite Starbucks.
Limited-time feature
54 year old man | Boca Raton, FL, USA | Seeking women 40-54 within 50 miles
Smart, Sweet, Seasoned
I am honest, warm, and funny. Words that describe me: intense, energetic, highly-motivated, goal-driven, socially-engaged, successful (within my own professional domain). I am playful and inquisitive, always open to new ideas and new adventures. I like to get out and do things. In a relationship I am flexible and easy-going. I am looking for a woman who approaches life as an adventure (but not as an extreme sport); is successful in her own way; is smart, educated, and active; and who is emotionally available for a long term relationship. Let's start slow and see where it goes. Please do not contact me if: 1. You have a picture of yourself in a bikini (have some discretion) 2. You have a picture of yourself in a tight dress with a hem less than 12 inches from your naughty bits (see parentheses above) 3. You have a picture of yourself in or leaning on a fancy car (you are not a salesperson) 4. You have a picture of yourself on or leaning on a motorcycle (see parentheses above) 5. Your primary picture shows you in a cowboy hat (you need a horse, not a boyfriend) 6. You have a small, yappy dog (I do not like dogs I can drop-kick) 7. You have a small, yappy dog in ribbons (i am speechless here) 8. You are 50 and have never been married (what is up with that?) 9. You do not have at least a four-year college degree (smarts and education are not the same) 10. You list your political views as "middle of the road" (there is nothing in the middle of the road but yellow lines and dead armadillos) 11. You say -- any place in your profile -- "it's all good" (actually it is not) 12. Your tag line is not original (as in "live, love, laugh") Finally, Disclosure Statement: I do not own a car (or a motorcycle or a boat for that matter). I am a cyclist and I am fortunate enough to live within 15 minutes of everything I need. So if that is a problem for you, well then, you can !@#$ off too.
Camping , Coffee and conversation , Dining out , Movies/Videos , Museums and art , Music and concerts , Political interests , Shopping/Antiques , Travel/Sightseeing
Aerobics, Bowling, Dancing, Running, Tennis / Racquet sports, Walking / Hiking, Weights / Machines, Yoga
I exercise 3-4 times per week.
I like Cats, Dogs
Very Liberal
I have traveled extensively: lived in China for three years; traveled the far east; and spent some time in Europe. Favorite cities: Seattle, NYC, Paris, Hanoi, Shanghai.
I love doing just about anything with the woman I love. It is the company, not the place that gives me the greatest joy. That said, my absolutely favorate things are: cuddling, good conversation, and food.
I love walks on the beach, travelling, movies, exercising, hanging out at home, shopping, reading, sleeping late when time permits, cafes, music, theater. The most important thing for me is spending time with the one I love, no matter what we do.
I read a lot for my work -- mostly nonfiction. But I enjoy a good novel from time to time. Most recently I have begun reading dozens of the best memoirs in preparation for writing my own. I also am a news junky.
Z{{Cta}} {{#if HasMoreInfo}} ?{{CtaSecondary}} {{/if}}
|What he is looking for
|5'3" (160cms)
|4'10" (147cms) to 5'6" (167cms)
|Body type:
|About average
|Slender, About average, Athletic and toned, A few extra pounds
|No preference
|Auburn / Red
|No preference
|No Way
|No Way
|Social Drinker
|No preference
|Education / Teacher / Professor
|No preference
I am a college professor and author.
|$50,001 to $75,000
|No preference
|No preference
|Have kids:
|Yes, and they live away from home (2)
|No preference
|Wants kids:
|No, but it's OK if my partner has kids
|No, No, but it's OK if my partner has kids
|White / Caucasian, Other
|No preference
I am Jewish, which I consider an ethnicty as well as religion. The Europeans considered us Asian (West Asian) since we came from east of the Ottoman Empire. Also, some of my ancestors came from Spain, so I have Moorish blood in me.
|No preference
I am Jewish (non-practicing) with a strong Buddhist/Taoist bent.
|No preference
|PhD / Post Doctoral
|No preference
I have a non-traditional education. I went to an alternative college in Washington State and to the New School for Social Research in New York for my graduate training. I have a PHD in political science.


text:
they need to be eliminated from the western world
If selected for publication, it will appear as soon as possible on Haaretz.com.
French anti-terror judges ordered the detention on Saturday of a man on suspicion he aided an Al-Qaida-inspired gunman prepare for a shooting spree last year, a judicial source said.
Mohamed Merah killed four Jews and three soldiers in and around the southern city of Toulouse in March 2012 before he was shot dead by police.
Anti-terror judges have put the unnamed 25-year-old detained man under formal investigation to determine whether he helped Merah steal a scooter that was used in the shootings.
Merah's brother Abdelkader has also been in detention since March last year on suspicion of complicity in terrorism, murder and theft. He denies being an accomplice in the killings.
Under French anti-terror laws suspects can be held for up to four without charges while an investigation is carried out.
The attack was the worst on French soil since 1995 bombings on the France's underground train network by Algeria's Armed Islamic Group (GIA) that killed eight and wounded scores.


text:
I'm learning the Zend Framework and it uses a MVC model.
I still have not got my head around what MVC Model, View, Controller is.
What are the three different areas for and what would the program flow look like?
I'm learning the Zend Framework and it uses a MVC model.
I still have not got my head around what MVC Model, View, Controller is.
What are the three different areas for and what would the program flow look like?
M - Models - are often the biggest source of confusion. These are the parts of your application that do all the 'heavy lifting' - they handle database access, perform the complex application-specific logic and are responsible for most of what your application 'does'. Unlike Views and Controllers, the Zend Framework doesn't have a base class for Models - this is because there's no real consistency in what they do. Some frameworks (like Ruby on Rails) try to present some sort of database-wrapper as a base for Model, but there are many cases (3rd party feed/API, static files, non-persistent calculations, concepts that span multiple tables...) for which this is, at best, a misleading practice. The Model is the part of the application where you're still forced to program and the framework can't really save you from it.
V - Views - are the simplest components here. They should be simple PHP/HTML templates. They're given view objects, arrays, strings, etc. which they then put into a page. There shouldn't be much (if any) complex logic here - loop over these, display this (if defined), zebra stripe this table and whatnot. There's some magic happening with View Helpers (such as the helper that magically renders a
C - Controllers - In the broadest sense, the controller is responsible for taking user requests, sending them off to Model objects and preparing Models to be handed to the Views. It's the glue that holds everything together. If you're using Zend MVC, you're concerned with 2 controllers -
A rough test to see if you're splitting things along the right lines is to envision a major change to your site. A visual redesign would almost entirely be handled in the Views. Moving all your URLs would change your Controllers. Converting from a web app to a GUI app would replace the views and controllers, but your model would still be mostly unchanged. If you rewrite your models, you have a whole new application.
There are several other questions on Stackoverflow that give an explanation of the MVC concept:
A very good explanation of the concept can be found on Wikipedia:
In relation to Zend Framework:
The Zend Framework has its own very nice Quick Start/Tutorial which especially introduces MVC.
Quote from there:
In as few words as possible:
Your models know how to access tables containing your data; your views know how to display content; and your controllers glue it together (what view do I show? what model should I use?).


text: http://lgn.linux-hardcore.com – Two weeks ago I've started the LGN Theme contest, but so far there wasn't even one submission. I would like to think that you are working hard and pushing the limits to the last day, but there is also the possibility that the prize isn't good enough. Leszek Stańczyk from the Polish GNU/Linux game reseller (Distributions)


text:
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text:
ultra low rise destroyed skinny leg jean
Make a move toward the slinky with our slimmest cut and lowest rise. This skinny jean hugs you from hip to ankle with stretchy softness and edgy destroyed details. Top it with a draping tunic or graphic tee for awesomeness that looks effortless.
- Slim fit, ultra low rise, skinny leg with 32" inseam
- One-button closure with zip fly
- Five-pocket styling with back pocket stitching detail
- Medium wash with whiskering and destruction
- Cotton/Lycra® spandex
- Machine wash
- Imported


text:
Welcome to the forum:
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Also take note of the forum guidelines.
Support hours:
Our moderators actively respond to forum support requests during normal business hours which are Monday-Friday, 8am - 5pm Central Standard Time, typically within one business day. Although some moderators choose to work during the weekends, we can not guarantee immediate attention to your requests. Thanks for understanding.
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Premium support includes theme/plugin issues such as: bugs encountered under normal operation, how to use basic features, basic WordPress help, and basic help with customization (meaning we point you to resources and will help in more depth as time allows). More information.
Page Builder By Siteorigin Causing Exchange Problems
Posted 13 November 2013 - 12:24 AM
See below:
Error Source Details
Type Plugin Name iThemes Exchange Version 1.6.1 Author iThemes Path .../wp-content/plugins/ithemes-exchange File lib/templates/messages.php
Other Software Details
WordPress Version 3.7.1 PHP Version 5.2.17
Full Error Details
Type Fatal Error (E_ERROR) Message Call to undefined function it_exchange() File .../wp-content/plugins/ithemes-exchange/lib/templates/messages.php Line 20 Type Description This type of error indicates that PHP cannot continue to run the code. Typical causes of this type of error are code bugs that have typos, missing or incomplete files (such as a file that was only partially uploaded), and the code using more memory than it is allowed.
Posted 13 November 2013 - 11:03 AM
Can you please (always ) provide us with a URL where we can take a look?
I was able to install Page Builder without any errors and all my Exchange pages appear fine. Did you receive the error when you installed Exchange or when you installed Page Builder?
What version of Exchange are you using? Make sure that you're using the latest version (1.6.1) and then see if the error still continues.
Any additional information you can provide would be helpful.
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text:
I currently have a query that results in the following recordset:
Array ( [Contestant] => Array ( [id] => 1 [name] => test [age] => [city] => atest [telephone] => [email] => email@example.com [why_model_house] => a [highschool] => [photo] => 5329_119145013633_512383633_2487923_7196193_n0.jpg [active] => 1 ) [0] => Array ( [Contestant_votes] => 4 ) [Vote] => Array ( [id] => 1 ) )
I can get the paginator->sort to work with every data in it except the "Contestant_votes" since it doesn't belong in a model it's currently in the Array[0]
I tried doing this :
<?php echo $paginator->sort('Votes', '0.Contestant_votes'); ?>
and this:
<?php echo $paginator->sort('Votes', 'Contestant_votes'); ?>
But it doesn't work. The conestants_votes field is generated by the following query:
'Contestant.*, count(Vote.contestant_id) as Contestant_votes'
So that's why it's not in a model. Is there a way to trick cakephp into thinking that Contestant_votes is part of the Contestant model or a way to add it to the paginator so I can sort it?
Thanks in advance,
Fabian Brenes


text:
Bears kick off training camp at 3 PM
Posted in News and Rumors on July 23, 2008 at 8:40 am by
Bears fans needn't fret anymore; the Bears are back in town. Well, Bourbonnais, anyway. Players reported to Olivet Nazarene University yesterday and will practice for the first time at 3 p.m. today. In his training […] Read the full article »