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Batterer Intervention- Program Approaches and Criminal Justice
Chapter 3
The Causes of Domestic Violence:
From Theory to Intervention
The origins of domestic violence
are the subject of active debate among victim advocates, social workers,
researchers, and psychologists concerned with batterer intervention. More than
in most fields, the theoretical debate affects practice. Over the last two
decades, a number of practitioners representing divergent theoretical camps have
begun to move toward a more integrated "multidimensional" model of
batterer intervention in order to better address the complexity of a problem
that has psychological, interpersonal, social, cultural, and legal aspects. Two
practitioners who advocate an eclectic approach to batterer intervention
describe the dilemma of practitioners looking for a single explanation for
battering as follows:
During a recent conversation, a respected colleague of ours suggested that
marital aggression was rooted in a need for control. "Men," he said,
"use aggression to control their female partners." We agreed. Control
is certainly an important factor in the dynamics of marital violence. His
treatment approach, well known and effective, focused on helping abusers
relinquish control and share power with their spouses. Several weeks later, we
discussed the same topic with the director of a treatment program for wife
abusers, who stated that "poor impulse control" and "defective
self-concept" were the critical factors. We agreed. Abusers are certainly
impulsive and often have poor self-esteem. Her treatment program, which focused
on these factors was, she claimed, very successful. Sometime later, one of our
graduate students, well aware of these previous conversations, reported on a
workshop she had attended. The model presented at the workshop conceptualized
marital violence as a couples' problem and suggested that communication between
spouses was the critical factor. Conjoint couples' counseling was suggested as
an effective intervention for violent couples. Again, we could agree. The safest
conclusion would appear to be that there are numerous routes by which husbands
come to be wife abusers and a multitude of variables that increase the
likelihood of violence.[1]
In practice, few batterer programs represent a "pure" expression of
one theory of domestic violence; the majority of programs contacted for this
report combine elements of different theoretical models. As a result, when
discussing program theory with batterer intervention providers, criminal justice
professionals need to understand not only the primary theory the program
espouses but also the program's content, because programs may identify with one
theory but draw on or two more theories in their work. Experts caution criminal
justice agencies against accepting an eclectic curriculum uncritically: program
components borrowed from different theoretical perspectives should be
thoughtfully chosen to create a coherent approach, not a scattershot attempt
hoping to hit some technique that works.
Criminal justice professionals are likely to encounter programs based on one or
more of the following theories of domestic violence. Each theory locates the
cause of the violence differently:
o Society and culture -- Social theories of domestic violence attribute the
problem to social structures and cultural norms and values that endorse or
tolerate the use of violence by men against women partners. For example, the
feminist model of intervention educates men concerning the impact of these
social and cultural norms and attempts to resocialize them emphasizing
nonviolence and equality in relationships.
o The family -- Some sociologists locate the cause of domestic violence in the
structure of the family, the interpersonal interactions of families, and the
social isolation of families. For example, family systems theory attributes the
cause to communication problems and conflict within intimate relationships and
teaches communication skills to help partners avoid violence. As noted below,
couples counseling, an intervention based on family systems theory, is
controversial because of its failure to assign blame for the abuse to one person
and to identify a victim. Couples counseling is also considered dangerous to the
victim because it encourages the victim to discuss openly issues that may spark
later retaliation by the batterer.
o The individual -- Psychological theories attribute domestic violence to the
individual batterer's predispositions and experiences. Battering may be
attributed to personality disorders and biological dispositions to violence or,
as social learning theory suggests, to the role of the batterer's social
environment during childhood. Attachment theory, a form of social learning
theory, focuses on the interaction of caregivers with their children and the
impact of that first attachment on an individual's ability to establish safe and
healthy relationships later in life. Batterer interventions based on this theory
attempt to facilitate secure attachments between batterers and loved ones
(intimate partners, children, and parents). Psychodynamic approaches target the
underlying psychological cause of the violence, while cognitive behavioral
approaches teach batterers new patterns of nonviolent thinking and behavior.
It is important for criminal justice professionals to understand the assumptions
and goals of service providers whose interventions have divergent theoretical
bases, because not all intervention approaches employ techniques that are
equally compatible with the goals of the criminal justice system -- protecting
the victim as well as rehabilitating the offender.
Overview of Theories and Related Interventions
Feminist (or profeminist; see box, "The Language of Batterer
Intervention"), family systems, and psychotherapeutic theories of domestic
violence offer divergent explanations of the root causes of battering and lead
to distinct intervention models. The following section outlines the basic tenets
of each theory, illustrates how these assumptions influence the choice of
intervention strategies, and notes the advantages and disadvantages of each
theoretical and treatment approach. As noted previously, however, examples of
programming based exclusively on one theory are becoming increasingly rare.
Feminist Approaches: The Social Problem Approach
Batterer intervention programs originated in the early 1970's, as feminists and
others brought to public attention the victimization of women and spawned grass
roots services such as rape hot lines and battered women's shelters.[3]
According to Anne Ganley of Seattle's Veteran Administration Medical Center and
David Adams of EMERGE in Boston, providers of services to battered women felt
that victims who had received services either returned home to face the same
destructive environment or left the relationship -- and the batterer found a new
victim. To help victims, advocates realized, it was also necessary to address
the root cause of their problems -- the perpetrators of violence. Profeminist
men concerned with sexism in themselves and society felt a particular
responsibility for working with male abusers. As a result, some of the first
systematic interventions for batterers developed from a profeminist perspective.
What Is a Feminist Model of Battering?
Central to the feminist perspective on battering is a gender analysis of
power.[4] According to this view, domestic violence in intimate relationships
mirrors the patriarchal organization of society in which men play a dominant
role in most social institutions. Along with verbal, emotional, and economic
abuse, violence is a means of maintaining male power in the family when men feel
their dominance is being threatened. Economic roles have left women dependent on
men and unable to escape abusive situations.[5] Men's superior physical strength
may enable them to dominate women through violence.
Feminists argue that a consequence of the social arrangement in which men hold
the positions of respect and power is that men and women alike devalue the
feminine and over-value the masculine. To the batterer, women are childlike and
incompetent. It is not uncommon for batterers to convince their wives that they
are not capable of adult activities, such as driving a car or holding a job.[6]
For example, a former victim reported that her husband had convinced her that
she could not turn on the washing machine without breaking it, so she had to
wait until he returned from work before she could do the laundry for their seven
children. Similarly, in disputed custody cases when a batterer and partner
separate, the husband often contends that his wife is incapable of taking care
of the children.[7]
In the feminist view, batterers feel that they should be in charge of the
family: making decisions, laying down rules, disciplining disobedient wives and
children, and correcting unsatisfactory performance of duties.[8] Batterers may
typically exercise control over the family in nonviolent, coercive ways and only
sometimes resort to violence. As men, batterers feel entitled to gender-based
respect and obedience; therefore, what they perceive to be disrespect and
disobedience infuriates them. Batterers often rationalize their violence on the
grounds that it was necessitated by their partner's actions: she provoked or
caused it, and they simply reacted as any man would.
Feminist programs attempt to raise consciousness about sex role conditioning and
how it constrains men's emotions and behavior (through education around sexism,
male privilege, male socialization). Programs with a feminist philosophy present
a model of egalitarian relationships along with the benefits of nonviolence and
of building relationships based on trust instead of fear (see exhibit 2-1,
"Equality Wheel"). Most feminist approaches support confronting men
over their power and control tactics in all domains of the relationship,
including verbal and psychological abuse, social isolation, the undermining of
the victim's self- confidence, and sexual coercion (see exhibit 1-1, "The
Power and Control Wheel"). A particular concern of profeminist male group
facilitators is the constant risk and temptation of colluding with batterers.
For example, a male facilitator at Family Services of Seattle reported that when
his female cofacilitator was absent at one session, the men in the group
expected him to drop his profeminist "guise" and participate in or
agree with their negative characterizations of women.
Advantages and Criticisms of the Feminist Model
Perhaps because work with batterers was originated by battered women's advocates
and feminists, the feminist perspective has influenced most programs. A national
survey conducted in 1986 found that 80 percent of programs attempt to change sex
role attitudes, stop violence, and increase self- esteem.[9] Even programs
adopting a family systems model (see below) may advocate an egalitarian and
democratic relationship to couples in treatment. Support for the feminist
analysis of the role of power in domestic violence comes from the observation
that most batterers are able to control their anger and avoid resorting to
violence when "provoked" by someone more powerful than they, such as
their work supervisors, police officers, or judges. Further support for the
feminist analysis comes from research showing that batterers are less secure in
their masculinity than nonbatterers[10] -- the theory being that men who do not
feel masculine will need to assert their masculinity more forcefully to
compensate for their sense of inadequacy. Other studies have documented the
sense of entitlement batterers feel in controlling their partners' behavior and
in justifying violence if these women deviate from the female sex role.[11]
Critics have claimed that the feminist perspective overemphasizes sociocultural
factors, such as patriarchal values, to the exclusion of individual factors like
growing up abused.[12] Men's behavior in intimate relationships varies across
individuals, and broad cultural factors cannot explain this variability.
Feminist theory predicts that all men in our society will be abusive, claim its
critics, adding that besides being untrue, this theory makes it impossible to
predict which men will be violent. To make individual predictions, a model must
assign a role to other factors including, but not limited to, psychological
Other criticisms center not on the validity of feminist explanations of
battering but on the translation of that theory into programming. For example,
some observers argue that feminist educational interventions are too
confrontational in tone and, as a result, are ultimately self- defeating,
alienating batterers, increasing their hostility, and making them less likely to
become engaged in treatment. It is possible that the goal of the feminist model
-- to rebuild the batterer's belief system in order to achieve nonviolence --
may be unnecessarily ambitious and adversarial. Batterers' existing value
systems may be more easily fine-tuned to emphasize nonviolence (e.g., building
on religious convictions or humanism) without a feminist overlay.
Another concern is that educational programs may effectively transmit
information without deterring violent behavior. A 1991 evaluation of three
short-term psychoeducational batterer programs in Baltimore found that while
batterers considered the curriculum helpful, they recidivated at a higher rate
than batterers who did not receive treatment.[13] A study of graduates of
Duluth's Domestic Abuse Intervention Project found that completion of the
feminist educational intervention had no impact on recidivism after five
years.[14] Outcomes such as these point to the need for broader evaluations that
examine the impact of systemic factors -- arrest and prosecution policies, court
procedures, and probation supervision -- on intervention effectiveness, as well
as a clarification of the goals of feminist-based interventions. If deterrence
is not a likely outcome of an intervention, other goals, such as punishment,
education, behavioral monitoring, or social change, must be explicitly advanced.
(A few practitioners are in fact shifting their primary focus away from
individual change in batterers in favor of social change through a coordinated
community response. See chapter 5, "Criminal Justice Response").
The Family Systems Model
The family systems model regards individual problem behaviors as a manifestation
of a dysfunctional family unit, with each family member contributing to the
problem. Rather than identifying one individual as the cause of the violence and
removing that person from the home or singling that person out for treatment,
the model advocates working with the family or couple together, providing
support with the goal of keeping the family intact.
According to the family systems (or "interactional") model,[15] both
partners may contribute to the escalation of conflict, with each striving to
dominate the other. Family systems theorists believe that most abuse is verbal
and emotional, but as the conflict escalates, either partner may resort to
violence. Because, from this perspective, interactions produce violence, no one
is considered to be the perpetrator or victim, even if only one person is
physically violent. Family systems theory also suggests that interactions may
permit or facilitate abusive behaviors in one person, such as a nonabusive
parent's failure to intervene in child abuse or a family member's failure to
establish appropriate personal boundaries, thus setting the stage for their own
victimization. Family systems therapists criticize psychological approaches that
focus on individual deficits (low self-esteem, dependence, anger) while
neglecting to teach interpersonal skills that could promote safety. Family
systems theory leads to treatment that involves improving communication and
conflict resolution skills. Both members of the couple can develop these skills
through "solution-focused brief therapy" that:
o locates the problem in the interaction rather than in the pathology of one
o focuses on solving the problem, rather than looking for causes; and
o accentuates the positive -- for example, examining occasions when the couple
avoided violence.
Advantages and Criticisms of the Family Systems Model
Advocates of the family systems approach note that many violent couples would
like to remain together and that there may be positive aspects to the
relationship that counseling can build on. However, while some observers report
that over half of domestic violence couples remain together,[16] a study of
abused wives whose husbands did become nonviolent found that most of the women
subsequently terminated the marriage because of other marital problems that
became apparent after the violence ended.[17]
Both feminist and cognitive-behavioral approaches agree that partner abuse does
not involve shared responsibility. Both approaches firmly hold that batterers
bear full responsibility for the violence, victims play no causal role, and no
one incites violence. Of particular concern to both feminist and
cognitive-behavioral proponents is the format of couples counseling: encouraging
each partner to discuss problems openly with the other partner can put the
victim at risk after the session if the woman expresses complaints. Furthermore,
no frank exchange between counselor and victim concerning the abuse is likely to
be possible in the presence of the batterer. Moreover, the format is conducive
to victim- blaming. Finally, if the court prohibits the batterer from contacting
the victim, the family systems approach will violate the court order. For these
reasons, couples counseling is expressly prohibited in 20 State standards and
guidelines (see box, "Controversial Approaches to Batterer
Intervention" and appendix A.3). Judges involved with partner abuse cases
that also involve child abuse need to pay particular attention to safety issues
raised by family systems interventions, which may be the treatment approach
recommended by child welfare workers who are working toward a goal of family
reunification. In such cases, issues of victim and child safety must be weighed
carefully, and if a family systems approach is chosen, close monitoring is
Psychological Approaches: A Focus on Individual Problems
Psychological perspectives hold that personality disorders or early experiences
of trauma predispose some individuals to violence.[18] Being physically abusive
is seen as a symptom of an underlying emotional problem.[19] Parental abuse,
rejection, and failure to meet a child's dependence needs can be the
psychological source of battering. People with these underlying problems may
choose partners with whom they can reenact the dysfunctional relationship they
had with their parents. Two forms of batterer intervention have evolved from
this perspective: individual and group psychodynamic therapy and
cognitive-behavioral group therapy.
Individual and Group Psychodynamic Counseling
Psychoanalysis can be undertaken not only in individual counseling but also in
unstructured batterer groups that allow members to explore their life
experiences. Psychodynamic therapies involve uncovering the batterer's
unconscious problem and resolving it consciously. Proponents of psychodynamic
therapy for batterers believe that other interventions are superficial: since
other therapies are unable to eliminate the abuser's deep-rooted and unconscious
motive for aggression, they cannot end violence but only suppress it
temporarily. Long-term change requires exposing and resolving the root cause of
the violent behavior.
Advantages and Criticisms of Psychodynamic Approaches
Browne and Saunders recently conducted a study comparing a "process
psychodynamic treatment model" with a feminist/cognitive-behavioral
intervention and found no difference in recidivism rates based on partners'
reports. Nevertheless, they argue:
[T]here were two advantages to the process- psychodynamic model. It retained a
significantly higher percentage of men in treatment and it was more successful
with men who had dependent personality disorders. Regardless of the treatment
approach used, more self-disclosure and less lecturing were related to greater
group cohesion, which in turn was related to lower recidivism rates.[20]
Critics argue that psychodynamic therapy merely assigns a psychiatric label to
people who batter (e.g., insecure, narcissistic, dependent, compulsive, or
suffering from intermittent explosive disorder) without explaining how they got
that way or what can be done about it.[21] The psychodynamic approach has also
been criticized for allowing batterers to continue the behavior until the
underlying psychological problem is resolved.[22] David Adams, director of
EMERGE, gives the example of a batterer mandated to treatment who had already
learned in individual psychotherapy that he battered because he was insecure. At
the intake interview for the batterer program, the counselor asked the man
whether he was going to continue to choose to be violent until he resolved his
insecurity. The man said that he had never thought of battering as a choice, but
now he would reconsider the notion.[23] Feminists argue that labeling batterers
as having psychological problems not only exonerates them in their own eyes but
also ignores the cultural acceptability of male dominance in the family and how
it serves to keep the batterer in control of his partner. The approach pays
attention to internal psychological functions of abuse for the batterer but
ignores the interpersonal function of controlling the other person's behavior.
In practice, many psychologically oriented programs have moved away from the
original stance that battering is caused primarily by psychological disorder and
always indicates an emotional problem. Instead, they have integrated social
explanations with psychological explanations. For example, some psychologically
oriented theorists propose that it is the combination of a man's low self-esteem
and a cultural expectation that men should be dominant and successful that
produces a batterer.
Cognitive-Behavioral Model of Change
Cognitive-behavioral therapy is used in the treatment of violent offenders.
Whereas the psychoanalytic tradition focuses on psychological disorders based in
the unconscious and early childhood experiences, the cognitive-behavioral model
focuses on conscious material in the present: therapy is intended to help
individuals function better by modifying how they think and behave in current
situations. The theory behind cognitive-behavioral batterer interventions
maintains that behaviors are learned as a result of positive and negative
reinforcements (rewards and punishments) for engaging in particular behaviors
under particular circumstances (e.g., parental pride or praise for aggressive
behavior). Behavior is also influenced by how people mentally construct and
interpret their environment and experiences -- that is, the way they think about
themselves,other people, and their relationships. The cognitive-behavioral
theory postulates that men batter because:
o they are imitating examples of abuse they have witnessed during childhood or
in the media;
o abuse is rewarded;
o it enables the batterer to get what he wants; and
o abuse is reinforced through victim compliance and submission.
Cognitive-behavioral interventions focus on "cognitive restructuring"
and skill building. Counselors focus on identifying the chain of events that
lead each batterer to violence, starting with beliefs and "self-talk"
-- the way we talk to ourselves in our minds (see exhibit 2- 2, "A
Cognitive Model of Woman Abuse"). For example, a batterer whose partner is
ten minutes late may tell himself, "She's out with her boyfriend" or
"She can't be trusted." The programs attempt to restructure the
beliefs and "self-talk" that lead to violence; for example, "I
don't know why she's late, but I'm sure she's trying to get here." The
programs help batterers to analyze the thought patterns underlying violent
reactions (e.g., "Dinner isn't ready because my wife doesn't respect
me") and learn new ways of understanding situations that trigger violence
(e.g., "Dinner isn't ready because my wife had a busy day"). The
program teaches nonviolent alternative behaviors, such as conflict-resolution
tactics, relaxation techniques, and communication skills.[24]
Advantages and Criticism of the Cognitive- Behavioral Models
One advantage of the cognitive-behavioral model is that its analysis of
battering and its intervention strategy are compatible with a criminal justice
response to domestic violence. The approach holds the batterer fully responsible
for his violence and fully responsible for learning and adopting nonviolent
alternatives. Without trying to solve larger issues of social inequality on the
one hand, or delving into deep- seated psychological issues on the other, the
cognitive-behavioral approach simply focuses on the violent acts themselves and
attempts to change them. The model also offers a straightforward intervention
that can be implemented in a limited period of time.
The feminist perspective criticizes the cognitive- behavioral approach for
failing to explain why many men with thought patterns or skills deficits that
allegedly explain their domestic violence are not violent in other
relationships, how culture or subcultures influence patterns of violence, and
why some men continue to abuse women even when the behavior is not rewarded.[33]
These criticisms are usually moot because most cognitive-behavioral programs
integrate the feminist analysis of domestic violence, both in the cognitive
component (for example, by examining thoughts that encourage wife-beating, such
as "She should obey me. I'm the man of the household.") and the social
learning aspects (for example, by discussing how sexism in the media and in
society provides models of social support for abusing and degrading women). (See
exhibit 2-3, "Example of an Integrated Feminist/Cognitive-Behavioral
Compatibility of the Models With Criminal Justice Goals
The feminist educational approach to batterer intervention is theoretically more
compatible with a criminal justice perspective than either the family systems or
psychotherapeutic approaches in several respects.[34]
o The feminist educational view of domestic violence is that the behavior is
criminal, not just the result of faulty couple interactions or mental illness.
o The feminist educational view is that consequences are appropriate. By
contrast, the psychotherapeutic explanation results in a treatment approach that
is designed to modify the inner emotional life of the batterer through insight
and possibly medication. Changing the inner person and prescribing medication to
alter behavior may be considered by some to be beyond the scope of a criminal
justice intervention.
o The primary goal of feminist educational programs is to hold batterers
responsible for their violence. While most psychological programs also make this
claim, feminists believe that the psychotherapeutic view of batterers as victims
of childhood trauma or other mistreatment undercuts a program's ability to hold
batterers responsible. The family systems approach -- unlike the criminal
justice system -- holds the victim as well as the batterer accountable.
o The explicit goal of feminist educational approaches is to end the abusive
behavior rather than to heal the batterer (the psychotherapeutic goal) or to
improve relationships (the family systems goal).
A case can be made, however, that psychological interventions can also meet the
needs of the criminal justice system. The aim of the criminal justice system in
sending men to batterer programs is to reduce recidivism; for this to happen,
the intervention has to be effective. While advocates of the feminist
educational model criticize the psychotherapeutic model for failing to hold
batterers responsible for their behavior, advocates of the psychotherapeutic
approach respond that educational interventions are not successful in deterring
or rehabilitating batterers because they are too short and superficial and do
not address the needs of batterers with severe mental illness, who may comprise
up to 25 percent of all batterers.[35] Indeed, the "confrontational"
and didactic process of the feminist model -- as well as the feminist rhetoric
in which it is framed -- may alienate the batterer and increase his hostility
and resistance. For example, an assistant group facilitator for the Compassion
Workshop in Silver Spring, Maryland, reported that, when he was in treatment,
feminist interventions had only increased his anger and denial, while
subsequent, nonconfrontational, compassion-based treatment had helped him become
nonviolent. His wife, a cofacilitator of the group whose role was to give the
perspective of the victim, agreed that the feminist education model had
exacerbated her husband's abuse but that after psychologically oriented
counseling, he was now violence free.
While the narrow treatment goals of the strictly educational feminist programs
are compatible with the criminal justice view -- simply stopping the abusive
behavior as expeditiously as possible and holding the batterer responsible --
the feminist theory of domestic violence also has broad social goals that may be
seen as going beyond the purview of the criminal justice system. Because
feminist theory locates the cause of domestic violence in social structures and
the organization of society, social change may be seen as the ultimate goal of
the curriculums. In a sense, though, even this broad goal is consistent with a
criminal justice agenda in that it suggests that broad-based community education
and a coordinated community response are necessary for preventing domestic
violence. In contrast, it is difficult to identify a broad prevention strategy
that follows from either the individualistic psychotherapeutic theory of
domestic violence or the family systems model.
Finally, some practitioners and criminal justice professionals are beginning to
regard any form of batterer intervention as a proxy for intensive probation.
While the curriculum may not deter reoffenses over time, at least during program
participation batterers are being monitored closely, and their victims are
receiving at least minimal attention and referrals. This heightened vigilance
with regard to the batterer's behavior and the victim's welfare is compatible
with criminal justice goals.
As will be seen in the following chapters, however, theoretical compatibility
with the criminal justice system is not the only important factor in selecting a
batterer intervention. On a practical level, interventions must be able to
retain batterers in treatment and address any obstacles to program
Conclusion: Multidimensional Models Dominate the Field
Many practitioners accept that there are compelling features in more than one
theoretical model. In practice, regardless of their primary perspective, most
programs have adopted some tenets of the feminist model. For example, they view
sexual inequality and masculine role expectations of dominance as core issues to
address -- along with cognitive-behavioral techniques for modifying behavior --
and they teach batterers to use "time-outs" (a behavioral technique
for controlling emotional outbursts). Longer-term programs may progress through
the feminist and cognitive models in stages, and some even progress to a
psychotherapeutic group process model for aftercare. These programs have a brief
initial phase using a feminist educational model to tackle denial of
responsibility, a longer second phase teaching cognitive-behavioral techniques
for skill-building, and a third phase delving into individual psychological
issues in an unstructured format for those men identified as having
psychological problems contributing to battering. (See chapter 3, "Pioneers
in Batterer Intervention: Program Models," for a detailed description of
various program models.) Other programs blend treatment modalities and
approaches by combining individual, group, and couples treatment sequentially
over an extended period of two to three years.
Programs may also use different models or materials to accommodate the special
needs of specific types of batterers, most commonly substance abusers, African
Americans, Asians, Latinos, recent immigrants, female offenders, gay and lesbian
batterers, or batterers with poor literacy skills. (See chapter 4, "Current
Trends in Batterer Intervention," for a discussion of culturally specific
Some practitioners may resist incorporating consideration of individual
psychology and cultural differences in interventions because they are concerned
that the individual approach will eclipse consideration of the sociological
factors emphasized by the prevailing feminist model. However, the critical issue
from a criminal justice perspective is simply "what works"; if
mixed-model interventions that incorporate psychotherapeutic elements or
cultural competence are shown to be more effective in retaining and engaging
batterers in treatment, questions of theory are likely to become secondary.
Discussions such as these are rapidly being translated into experiments in
practice. Chapter 4, "Current Trends in Batterer Intervention,"
discusses a range of innovations in batterer treatment that attempt to link
individual characteristics of batterers to specific interventions or
combinations of interventions in order to increase program retention and
1. Rosenbaum, A. and R.D. Maiuro, "Eclectic Approaches in Working With Men
Who Batter," in Treating Men Who Batter: Theory, Practice, and Programs,
ed. P.L. Caesar and K.L. Hamberger, New York: Springer, 1989: 65-195.
2. Mary Russell, for example, justifies her use of the expression "wife
assault" on the grounds that "domestic violence" and "family
violence" ignore the "male to female direction" of most violence
between partners. See Russell, M., "Wife Assault Theory, Research, and
Treatment: A Literature Review," Journal of Family Violence, 3 (3) (1988):
3. Schechter, S., Women and Male Violence: The Visions and Struggles of the
Battered Women's Movement, Boston: South End Press, 1982.
4. Pence, E. and M. Paymar, Education Groups for Men Who Batter: The Duluth
Model, New York: Springer, 1993.
5. In support of the point that women may remain with men who abuse them because
of economic dependence, Ida Johnson found in a study of 426 battered women
leaving a Central Florida battered women's shelter that a woman was more likely
to return home if the batterer had a high income and the woman was unemployed;
if she had an independent income and his income was insufficient to support a
family, the woman was unlikely to return home. Johnson, I. M., "Economic,
Situational, and Psychological Correlates of the Decision-making Process of
Battered Women," Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human
Services, (March 1992): 168-176.
6. There is disagreement over whether batterers actually believe that women are
incompetent or whether promoting that notion merely serves their needs to
control their wives in order to restrict their activities. Rusbult and Martz, in
a study of women leaving a domestic violence shelter in Lexington, Kentucky,
found that the strongest predictor of whether women would return to the batterer
was whether they had a driver's license and access to a car. Rusbult, C.E. and
J. M. Martz, "Remaining in an Abusive Relationship: An Investment Model
Analysis of Nonvoluntary Dependence," Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 21 (1995): 558-571.
7. O'Sullivan, C. and B. Birns, Contested Custody Cases When Violent Marriages
End, Paper presented at the First National Conference on Children Exposed to
Family Violence, Austin, Texas, June 1996.
8. Browne, K., D.G. Saunders, and K.M. Staecker, "Process-Psychodynamic
Groups for Men Who Batter: Description of a Brief Treatment Model,"
University of Michigan, January 26, 1996.
9. Gondolf, E. W. and J. Hanneken, "The Gender Warrior: Reformed Batterers
on Abuse, Treatment, and Change," Journal of Family Violence, 2 (2) (1987):
10. Gondolf and Hanneken, "The Gender Warrior." The measure is Bem's
Sex Role Inventory.
11. Browne, Saunders, and Staecker, "Process- Psychodynamic Groups for Men
Who Batter."
12. Dutton, D., "Patriarchy and Wife Assault: The Ecological Fallacy,"
Violence and Victims, 9 (2) (1994): 167-182.
13. Harrell, A., "Evaluation of Court Ordered Treatment for Domestic
Violence Offenders," Final Report, Washington, DC: The Urban Institute,
14. A 1990 evaluation of the Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project (DAIP)
found that program participation had no impact on recidivism. She, M.,
"Predicting Batterer Recidivism Five Years After Community
Intervention," Report, Duluth, Minnesota, 1990.
15. Giles-Sims, J., Wife-battering: A Systems Theory Approach, New York:
Guilford, 1983.
16. While it is true that many victims who seek services want to maintain the
relationship while eliminating the abuse, and that most programs report that 30
to 40 percent of the men in treatment are separated, no long-term data show what
percent of relationships in which there has been battery last. See Sirles, E.A.,
S. Lipchik, and K. Kowalski, "A Consumer's Perspective on Domestic Violence
Interventions," Journal of Family Violence, 8 (3) (1993): 267.
17. Bowker, L., Ending the Violence: A Guidebook Based on the Experience of
1,000 Battered Wives, Holmes Beach, FL: Learning Publications, 1986.
18. Russell, "Wife Assault Theory."
19. Specific disorders that have been found in batterers are post-traumatic
stress disorder (probably due to childhood trauma), depression, low self-esteem,
and personality disorders. Personality disorders usually mentioned by therapists
who work with batterers are antisocial personality disorder, narcissism, and
borderline personality disorder. In addition, passive- aggression, paranoia,
obsessive-compulsive disorder, and intermittent explosive disorder have been
said to foster aggression. A psychotherapeutic reference describes the
personality disorders as follows: People with antisocial personality disorder
are irresponsible, irritable, and aggressive; they are not sadistic but are
reckless and have no remorse; they are unable to maintain friendships or
romantic relationships. Narcissists are hypersensitive but lack empathy; they
have difficulty with relationships because they expect others to meet their
special needs. Borderline personalities are characterized by instability of
identity, self- image, and relationships; they want to be alone but fear
abandonment; they are often moody and depressed and, in severe cases,
self-destructive and suicidal. Reid, W.H. and M.G. Weise, The DSM- III-R
Training Guide, New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1989. See also Dutton, D., "Trauma
Symptoms and PTSD-like Profiles in Perpetrators of Intimate Abuse," Journal
of Traumatic Stress, 8 (2)(1995): 299-316; and Maiuro, R., T.S. Cahn, P.P.
Vitaliano, B.C. Wagner, and J.B. Zegree, "Anger, Hostility, and Depression
in Domestically Violent Versus Generally Assaultive and Nonviolent Control
Subjects," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56 (1) (1988):
20. Browne, Saunders, and Straecker, "Process- Psychodynamic Groups for Men
Who Batter."
21. See Dutton, "Patriarchy and Wife Assault."
22. Adams, D., "Treatment Models for Men Who Batter: A Profeminist
Analysis," in Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse, ed. K. Yllo and M.
Bograd, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988: 176-199.
23. Adams, "Treatment Models for Men Who Batter," 176-177.
24. Hamberger, K.L. and J. E. Hastings, "Recidivism Following Spouse Abuse
Abatement Counseling: Treatment Program Implications," Violence and
Victims, 5 (3) (1990): 160.
25. Information provided by Roland Mauiro.
26. Hamberger, K.L. and J. E. Hastings, "Court- Mandated Treatment of Men
Who Assault Their Partner: Issues, Controversies, and Outcomes," in Legal
Responses to Wife Assault, ed. Z. Hilton, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
1993: 188- 229.
27. Tolman, R. M. and D. G. Saunders, "The Case for the Cautious Use of
Anger Control With Men Who Batter," Response, 11 (2) (1988): 15-20.
28. Tolman and Saunders articulate this concern, while accepting anger
management as part of a cognitive-behavioral intervention: "The use of
anger control techniques with batterers is problematic when battering is framed
exclusively as an anger problem, when the issues of dominance and control of
women by men are ignored in treatment, and when practitioners fail to address
societal reinforcements for battering." Tolman and Saunders, "The Case
for the Cautious Use of Anger Control With Men Who Batter," 19. See also
Ptacek, J., "The Clinical Literature on Men Who Batter, A Review and
Critiques," in Family Abuse and Its Consequences: New Directions in
Research, ed. B.T. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J.T. Kirkpatrick, and M.A. Straus,
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1986: 149-162.
29. Dutton, D., The Domestic Assault of Women: Psychological and Criminal
Justice Perspectives (revised), Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 1995.
30. Two studies showing a recurrence of violence among program participants who
said they used anger management to reduce their violence are: Gondolf, E.,
"Men Who Batter: How They Stop Their Abuse," Paper presented at the
Second National Conference for Family Violence Researchers, Durham, NC, 1984;
and Kelso, D. and L. Personette, Domestic Violence and Treatment Services for
Victims and Abusers, Anchorage: Altam, 1985.
31. Daniel O'Leary's studies comparing single-sex group and couples-group
interventions were unable to retain couples when the batterer had a history of
severe violence. Rosenbaum, A. and K. D. O'Leary, "The Treatment of Marital
Violence," in Clinical Handbook of Marital Therapy, ed. N.S. Jacobsen and
A.S. Gurman, New York: Guilford, 1986. Gondolf studied 12 men who had been
through a men's group program and were deemed to be fully reformed (versus 38
who were not). Several of these highly motivated men had sought professional
help before coming to the batterer program but they had found no improvement
after individual or couples therapy. According to their self-reports, the
batterer group they subsequently attended gave them what they needed to stop
battering. Gondolf and Hanneken, "The Gender Warrior."
32. Edelson, J. L. and M. Syers, "Relative Effectiveness of Group
Treatments for Men Who Batter," Social Work Research and Abstracts, (June
1990): 10-17.
33. According to social learning theory, a retaliatory attack should decrease
future abuse. However, two national surveys found that when women resist
violently, the batterer's violence usually increases in severity. This result is
consistent with the feminist view that the intent of physical abuse is to punish
resistance and disobedience. Bowker, L., Ending the Violence: A Guidebook Based
on the Experience of 1,000 Battered Wives, Holmes Beach, FL: Learning
Publications, 1986; Feld, S. L. and M.A. Straus, "Escalation and Desistance
From Wife Assault in Marriage," in Physical Violence in American Families,
ed. M.A. Straus, and R.J. Gelles, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1990: 489-505.
34. Edelson and Syers, "Relative Effectiveness of Group Treatments for Men
Who Batter." This article reports an experiment in which all comers to a
program were assigned to a brief or intense intervention and to one of three
models: the Duluth "educational" model, a self-help group, and a
combined group process-educational model. The results showed no difference
between the brief and intense programs, except for the few men of color who were
less likely to recidivate if they completed the long program; the structured
feminist educational model was found to be most effective.
35. Gondolf, E., "Multi-Site Evaluation of Batterer Intervention Systems: A
Summary of Preliminary Findings," Working Paper, Mid-Atlantic Addiction
Training Institute, October 24, 1996.
Key Points
o Most interventions employ a mixture of theories in their curriculums, the most
common of which is a psychoeducational model that encourages profeminist
attitude change while building interpersonal skills using cognitive-behavioral
o Three categories of theories of domestic violence dominate the field. Each
locates the cause of domestic violence differently, and each theory leads
practitioners to employ different approaches to batterer intervention:
-- Society and Culture. Social and cultural theories attribute the problem to
social structure and cultural norms and values that endorse or tolerate the use
of violence by men against women partners. The feminist model of intervention
educates men concerning the impact of these social and cultural norms and
attempts to resocialize them emphasizing nonviolence and equality in
-- The Family. Family-based theories of domestic violence focus on the structure
of the family, interpersonal interactions within the family, and the social
isolation of families. The family systems model of intervention focuses on
developing healthy communication skills with a goal of family preservation and
may use couples therapy, a treatment approach prohibited by 20 State standards
and -- guidelines regulating batterer intervention (to protect the safety of the
-- The Individual. Psychological theories attribute domestic violence to
personality disorders, the batterer's social environment during childhood,
biological disposition, or attachment disorders. Psychotherapeutic interventions
target individual problems and/or build cognitive skills to help the batterer
control violent behaviors.
o Both feminist educational and cognitive- behavioral interventions can be
compatible with the goals of the criminal justice system -- protecting the
victim as well as rehabilitating the offender. However, feminist educational
programs offer some advantages. By contrast, family systems interventions
conflict with criminal justice goals by failing to identify a victim and a
perpetrator, an identification the law requires.
The Language of Batterer Intervention
The shift in providers of help to batterers and their partners from
psychotherapists to feminist social activists to professional mental health
providers has created tensions in the field that are exhibited in the language
of batterer interventions. Criminal justice professionals need to be aware of
the connotations of various terms so that they can communicate effectively with
service providers.
For example, the term "domestic violence" itself has a gender-neutral
connotation. A number of feminists, seeing a link with other violence against
women and noting the severity of injuries inflicted on women by male partners,
prefer such terms as "wife abuse" and "woman abuse."2
Programs based on feminist theories of battering are often described as
"profeminist," indicating male support for feminist goals. Mental
health professionals may talk about "counselors" or
"therapists" providing "treatment" to "clients,"
while profeminist "facilitators" or "teachers" provide an
"intervention" to "batterers" using a didactic format
described as "classes." Feminist- based programs object especially to
the word "treatment" and may not consider rehabilitation the program's
primary goal, as Red Crowley of Atlanta's Men Stopping Violence program
Let's start with the word treatment. We do not see our work as therapy.
Battering is the natural outgrowth of patriarchal values. We want to change
those values. Batterers' intervention classes serve a number of purposes: they,
like shelters, make visible what has been systematically concealed, that is, the
horrendous problem of violence against women; create an opportunity to engage
the community and the criminal justice system in the effort to stop the
violence; and contribute to research. Giving men who want to change the
opportunity to do so is just one purpose of the intervention.
The three most widely used intervention approaches -- "educational" or
"psychoeducational classes," "couples therapy," and
"group process" -- are each associated with a theory of the cause of
domestic violence. Thus, "educational programs" are most often based
on feminist theory; "couples therapy" may suggest a link with family
systems theory; and "group process" programs base their work on either
psychodynamic or cognitive behavioral theories. Some practitioners -- especially
those with eclectic programming -- may use terms interchangeably; others harbor
strong objections to mislabeling their approach and consider some terms to have
great symbolic meaning. Criminal justice professionals need to be sensitive to
the language used by intervention providers and to ask practitioners to explain
the importance of unfamiliar terminology.
Attachment Abuse
A small number of practitioners base batterer interventions on psychological
theories of attachment, affect, and individuation. These interventions consider
battering to be "attachment abuse" -- that is, abusive behaviors
toward intimates arising from the individual's insecure attachment to his or her
caregivers as a child. Attachment theory describes two broad categories of
attachment relationships: secure attachments that result from the caregiver's
responsiveness to the child's emotional and physical needs, and a range of
insecure attachment patterns that may develop if a child's emotional and
physical needs are not met by caregivers. Insecure attachments in childhood may
lead, in adult relationships, to emotional distress, anxiety, anger, depression,
and emotional detachment when the specter of loss or separation arises in an
intimate relationship. These feelings may lead to attachment abuse.
Batterer interventions based on theories of attachment, such as the Compassion
Workshop (see chapter 4), seek to enhance the batterers' ability to regulate
their own emotions and to stimulate a sense of "compassion" for both
themselves and their intimates (partners, children, and elders) using cognitive
behavior techniques that are designed to interrupt the batterers' violent
emotional response to guilt, shame, and fear of abandonment.
Controversial Approaches to Batterer Intervention
The following approaches, although commonly used, are controversial. Criminal
justice professionals referring batterers to programs that feature these
techniques must be careful to learn how these approaches are being integrated
into the programs and be wary of programs using these methods as their primary
Anger Management
While some researchers have suggested that a small percentage of battering may
be attributable to a psychological disorder involving uncontrollable rage,[25]
the "anger management" model attributes battering to out-of-control
(rather than uncontrollable) anger. Anger management programs offer a short-term
intervention that teaches batterers to recognize the physiological signs of
anger and to then implement relaxation techniques to defuse the anger.[26] The
intervention may also teach stress management and communication skills.[27] Many
batterer treatment providers disavow the single-focus "anger
management" treatment, instead incorporating anger management as one
component of their intervention, sometimes under another name.
Critics have raised several concerns about the anger management approach -- even
as a component of more comprehensive treatment:
o Anger management programs address a single cause of battering, ignoring other,
perhaps -- more profound, causes.[28]
o According to the feminist model, although they may claim to feel out of
control, batterers -- are not out of control: battering is a decision, a choice.
The social learning model adds that -- batterers choose to use or threaten
violence because of its effectiveness in controlling their -- partners. The
violence persists because it is rewarded.
o Anger management programs teach batterers nonviolent ways to control their
partners. If -- the underlying issue of batterer control of the victim is not
addressed, critics maintain, men-- will misuse the techniques used to
"control" anger -- stress management and communication skills -- to
continue to control the victim. For example, a batterer could refuse his --
childcare responsibilities on the grounds that it is stressful.
o According to "misattribution of arousal" theory, men learn to label
all strong emotional states -- as anger when they are, in fact, experiencing
feelings of betrayal or hurt.
o Interventions therefore need to focus on identifying the underlying emotion
men are feeling -- in situations in which they batter rather than on means of
controlling the mislabeled anger.[29]
o Two studies of anger management interventions that were parts of comprehensive
batterer treatment programs found that men who completed the programs but whose
violence continued reported that they had used anger management techniques to
attempt to control their violence, whereas men who were successful in avoiding
violence after the program said they ended their abuse through empathy, a
redefinition of manhood, and cooperative decisionmaking.[30]
Finally, some practitioners are concerned that any short-term, single-focus
approach can be dangerous because it gives victims, judges, and batterers the
illusion that the problem has been solved. Some practitioners feel that the
availability of brief, inexpensive anger management programs even undermines the
credibility of the more difficult, lengthy, and expensive treatments other
programs provide. One-time "Saturday Afternoon Special"- style anger
management programs arouse particular concern among practitioners who feel that
such short-term programs trivialize the severity of the problem in the eyes of
the batterer and are unlikely to have any deterrent effect.
Individual and Couples Counseling
Many practitioners disapprove of -- and at least 20 State standards and
guidelines expressly prohibit -- couples counseling for batterers. In addition,
a number of program directors disapprove of individual counseling as the sole
intervention for battering. Group work is considered important in helping
abusers to overcome their denial by hearing other men acknowledge and deal with
their behavior, and to break the isolation that is considered part of the
syndrome of abuse.
Although systematic research comparing couples and group interventions has not
been conducted,[31] anecdotal evidence and the beliefs of providers (many of
whom serve on committees to draft or approve State standards or guidelines) have
limited the utilization of couples therapy for domestic violence. The
practitioners' disapproval is based on a belief that victims of abuse are
intimidated and cannot fully participate in therapy in the presence of their
abusers. If victims do reveal the batterer's violence or disclose other
problems, they face the threat of reprisal. Restrictions on couples therapy and
individual psychotherapy for battering are a point of contention between
feminist-oriented batterer intervention providers and mental health providers in
many communities.
Self-Help Groups: Batterers Anonymous
Self-help batterer groups are modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous and Parents
Anonymous. Member-run support groups are facilitated by former batterers who
have been nonviolent for at least a year.[32] Although there are some ground
rules and facilitators may introduce specific topics, the approach is
unstructured, with members setting the agenda, usually addressing their personal
Self-help or support groups are an accepted model of follow-up for batterers who
have completed a program and want continued support to prevent relapse, to
continue the change process, or to have a place to address ongoing problems.
Self- help groups are controversial as an initial intervention, however, because
it is questionable whether former batterers -- especially those who have been
nonviolent for only a year -- are qualified to conduct groups, unless they have
been extensively involved with a program, have been trained, and are supervised.
In addition, facilitators tend to use an aggressive, even belligerent, style of
confrontation that more traditional programs view as inappropriate modeling of
antagonistic behavior that borders on abuse. By contrast, other professionals
are concerned that support groups run by former batterers may be insufficiently
confrontational about members' excuses for violence and too supportive of
batterers' hostility toward women.
Batterer Intervention- Program Approaches and Criminal Justice
Chapter 3

subset: commoncrawl


text:
7 Crystals You Need to Bring Love Into Your Love Life
7 Crystals You Need to Bring Love Into Your Love Life
Crystals are energy. We use them in computers and clocks, but they can also help us in our personal life. Each crystal vibrates and emits different energies. Many are vibrating at the energy of universal love. In general, any pink or green crystal will help bring more love into your life, but there are certain crystals you can use to help bring love into your life. The following include the best stones for inviting love and light into your world.
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text:
Geographic Range
Golden-headed lion tamarins are found only in Brazil. Due to habitat destruction, they are confined to the southern part of the state of Bahia, Brazil (Mitchell and Erwin 1986).
- Biogeographic Regions
- neotropical
Leontopithecus chrysomela lives in the tropical forests of South America at heights of 3 to 10 meters (Mitchell and Erwin 1986, Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
- Terrestrial Biomes
- forest
Physical Description
Head and body length: 200-336mm
Tail length: 315-400mm
The physical appearance of Leontopithecus chrysomela is similar to other species of tamarins. It has relatively large canines with a small head and body. It is mostly black with a thick, long golden mane (Nowak and Paradiso 1983). There is very little sexual dimorphism in this species; males and females are quite similar in appearance (Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Range mass
- 360 to 710 g
- 12.69 to 25.02 oz
In tamarin society, males and females mate for life and take equal part in raising their young.
- Mating System
- monogamous
Leontopithecus chrysomelas is a seasonal breeder. Breeding occurs mostly during the warm and wet season, September through March (Nowak, R.M. and J.L. Paradiso 1983).
Males and females reach sexually maturity at different times: males at approximately 24 months, and females at 18 months. Upon reaching sexual maturity, females begin an estrous cycle of two to three weeks. There is a gestation period of 125-132 days (Nowak, R.M. and J.L. Paradiso 1983)
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
- Breeding season
- Breeding occurs mostly during the warm and wet season, September through March
- Range gestation period
- 125 to 132 days
- Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
- 18 months
- Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
- 24 months
Both males and females care for their young.
- Parental Investment
- provisioning
- female
- female
- female
- provisioning
- female
- male
- female
- provisioning
- Average lifespan
Status: captivity
- 21.3 years
- AnAge
- Average lifespan
Golden-headed lion tamarins are diurnal and spend most of their time in tropical forests at heights of 3 to 10 meters. They do not even come down to sleep at night. Leontopithecus chrysomela sleeps in tree holes, vines, or epiphytes.
L. chrysomela live in family groups of 2 to 8 individuals, with an average size of 3 to 4 individuals, however they may form temporary associations of 15 to 16 (Nowak and Paradiso 1983). A typical family group consists of a mated pair plus their youngest offspring. Adults of the same sex are very aggressive toward one another for territorial defense purposes (Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
Vocalizations among golden-headed lion tamarins are based on activity and behavior. Trills are used when activity is solitary. Clucks can be heard while an animal is foraging. Long calls indicate vigilance. Whines are made when two individuals are making contact with one another (Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
- Key Behaviors
- arboreal
- scansorial
- diurnal
- motile
- territorial
- social
Communication and Perception
Food Habits
Golden-headed lion tamarins are primarily insectivorous and frugivorous. However, they have been known to eat invertebrates such as spiders and snails. There are also records of this species eating lizards, bird eggs, and even small birds (Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
- Primary Diet
- omnivore
- Animal Foods
- birds
- reptiles
- eggs
- insects
- terrestrial non-insect arthropods
- mollusks
- Plant Foods
- fruit
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
The cocoa industry is fairly large in Brazil. Because cocoa plants grow best in shade, plantation owners prefer to have forests surrounding their crop. Therefore, a few of the forests that would have been destroyed for development have been left intact (Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
The tamarins, after being pushed out of their native forests, have started to move into these plantation forests. Many plantation owners have complained that this movement is adversely affecting their crop (Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
Conservation Status
Leontopithecus chrysomela numbers have been significantly depleted over the past several years. The remaining wild population, which exists only in a small region of Brazil, includes a total of 200 animals. The main problems for L. chrysomela are habitat destruction and illegal live capture. Over the past several years, these tamarins have been captured for use in zoological parks, laboratories, and the pet trade. However, this is a small problem compared to the habitat destruction this species has been faced with (Mitchell and Erwin 1986, Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
Only 1-5% of Brazil's original Atlantic forest is left standing. Deforestation has occurred heavily over the past five years to provide lumber and space for agriculture, livestock pasture, and housing development (Mitchell and Erwin 1986, Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
There are currently a few conservation projects in effect in Brazil. Una Biological Reserve is a protected 11,000 ha area within L. chrysomela range. However, reports indicate that this amount of space is still inadequate to promote a recovery of the population. The United States, in conjunction with the World Wildlife Federation and many smaller Brazilian institutions, has had a conservation program running since 1979. However, population size has declined dramatically since then. A third conservation effort, the Rio de Janeiro Primate Center, has a captive breeding colony of L. chrysomela. However, the colony is made up of only 25 animals (Mitchell and Erwin 1986, Nowak and Paradiso 1983).
- IUCN Red List
More information
- Appendix I
Barbara Lundrigan (author), Michigan State University, Karen Kapheim (author), Michigan State University.
- Neotropical
living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.
- arboreal
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- bilateral symmetry
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- chemical
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- diurnal
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- endothermic
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- forest
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- iteroparous
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- monogamous
Having one mate at a time.
- motile
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- native range
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- omnivore
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
- seasonal breeding
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- social
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- tactile
uses touch to communicate
- territorial
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- viviparous
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
Mitchell, G., J. Erwin. 1986. Comparitive Primate Biology: Behavior, Consevation, and Ecology. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc..
Nowak, R., J. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.


text:
Pat McMahon
Check your history books: for the United States, World War I began in 1917, when we declared war on Germany.
The official end, or armistice, was two years later, when Germany said, "We give up!" Everybody knows, that for our country, World War II unofficially began with Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941. The next day the president and Congress officially declared war on Japan. That country surrendered unconditionally in 1945, and that, forever, put an end to America going to war.
It's 2014 and apparently we've been at peace all this time. That's certainly constitutionally true. What about Korea and Vietnam and the Persian Gulf and Iraq and now Afghanistan? Well, interestingly, those thousands and thousands of lives weren't lost during war time.
The rules about an official declaration of war by Congress were just ignored, so there was no official beginning, and have you noticed, ever since WWII there hasn't really ever been an end?
Maybe that's why nobody ever wins anymore -- after a while people just stop shooting, and just like old soldiers, the sounds of battle and death just fade away.
I'm Pat McMahon.


text:
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Our most popular iComfort® model combines plush, cushioning comfort with advanced support and is now enhanced with Serta's exclusive EverFeel™ Technology. A layer of our EverCool® Memory Foam works with the Cool Action™ Dual Effects® Gel Memory Foam to gently contour and cradle at the sleep surface. This not only helps relieve pressure build-up, it also helps provide your body with proper and targeted support throughout the night.
Our original iComfort® collection is now enhanced with both our Cool Action™ Dual Effects® Gel Memory Foam and our new exclusive EverFeel™ Technology for a difference you'll feel the moment you lie down.
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Is a boxspring included?
- No, this is a mattress only. This is also sold as set with a Regular boxspring (9") or a Low Profile Boxspring (5.75"), or with the Motion Perfect II Adjustable Foundation (7.5").
- One sided - No Flip Design. Today's mattresses are specifically designed to be single sided so they do not ever have to be flipped. Turning the mattress over is not required, but you can still rotate it.
- No. Bed frames are sold separately.
- 2" EverCool® Memory Foam + 1" PillowSoft™ Foam
- ¾" EverFeel™ Technology
- 1 ½" Cool Action™ Dual Effects® Gel Memory Foam
- ComfortLast® Foam Core with Ultimate Edge® Mattress Edge Support
- Fireblocker - Meets the requirements of 16 CFR Part 1633 - Federal flammability (open flame) standards
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Upon receipt of your online order, Serta begins production of your bed, which takes approximately 3 business days. It is then sent to your local carrier, who will contact you 24-48 hours after receiving your order to schedule a delivery.
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Warranty Information
You can feel confident when you switch to a new iComfort® Sleep System by Serta® with our 10-Year Limited Warranty and our 120-Day In-Home Trial. This trial program is offered exclusively by Serta to our retail partners, allowing you to experience your new iComfort Sleep System in your home for up to 120 days – and still exchange it if you are not completely satisfied.
Once your iComfort Sleep System is delivered and set up in your home, sleep on it for a minimum of 30 nights to adjust to the new level of comfort and support. If you are not completely satisfied after the first 30 nights, up to 120 nights, contact your Serta retailer to discuss your options.
*Excludes delivery and set up fees. Other charges may apply. Offer does not apply to Serta® Adjustable Foundations, iComfort® Pillows and other iComfort® accessories.


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Posted May 28, 2012 on AP on Fox
American tennis player Mardy Fish tells USA Today he recently had a medical procedure to correct a heart problem. Fish, who hasn't played since late March after being diagnosed with fatigue, says he had a procedure called cardiac catheter ablation on Wednesday to deal with misfiring electrical pulses in his heart. He is recovering at his home in Los Angeles. Fish, who at No. 10 is the highest-ranked American on the ATP Tour, tells USA Today that at times he would wake up with his heart racing as if he'd been running sprints. He said: ''It felt like my heart was going to jump out of my chest.'' Fish says he can resume light training soon and hopes to play at the grass-court tune-up for Wimbledon that begins June 11.
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What do Kiwi Fruit and Color Printers have in Common?July 26, 2011 4:56 am | by Joyce Yeung, TAOS, (www.taosinc.com) | Blogs | Comments
I am always thrilled when I see one of our customers take one of our light sensors and design it into ingenious applications that use light to measure, detect and analyze just about anything.
MA-COM Introduces Two New Front End Integrated CircuitsJuly 25, 2011 11:39 am | Product Releases | Comments
M/A-COM Technology Solutions introduced two new Front End Integrated Circuits (FEICs). The XZ1003-QT and XZ1004-QT are fully integrated, monolithic, FEICs for Multi Media over Coax Alliance (MoCA) mid-band and high-band RF applications.
15 inch Class 1, Division 2 Certified Ruggedized 316L Stainless Steel MonitorJuly 25, 2011 10:58 am | Product Releases | Comments
The Industrial Automation Group of Advantech introduces a new 15" flat panel industrial monitor designed for the harshest environments, the FPM-8151H.
Highly Reliable DC Power System In Limited SpaceJuly 25, 2011 10:35 am | Product Releases | Comments
Power Sources Unlimited announces the Eltek Valere Trilogy DC Power System.
Wahl C150 On-site Multifunction CalibratorJuly 25, 2011 10:15 am | Product Releases | Comments
The ergonomically designed Wahl C150 On-site Multifunction Calibrator features unique built in "easy connect" terminals, portable and bench top flexibility, and easy to use intuitive embedded software.
3-MHz, 100-mA Step-down DC-DC Converter Adds Run-time to Ultra-low Power Wireless and MCU ApplicationsJuly 25, 2011 9:37 am | Product Releases | Comments
Texas Instruments Incorporated introduced a 3-MHz, 100-mA synchronous step-down DC/DC converter, which integrates a bypass switch and a unique DCS-Control technology and extends battery run-time by 20 percent in low-power wireless and MSP430 MCU-based applications.
DesignArt Networks First to Deliver on 3GPP Small Cell SoCsJuly 25, 2011 9:23 am | Product Releases | Comments
DesignArt Networks announced the availability of several complete compact base station reference designs for the DAN3000 SoC family, including the availability of the DAN3000 LTE PHY software pack.
Pressure Sensors Ensure Accuracy of WindmillsJuly 25, 2011 9:20 am | Product Releases | Comments
Wind energy offers an environmental friendly fuel alternative to fossil fuel-generated electricity. Windmills are required to convert this "green" energy of the wind into electricity. Because of the remote location of many windmills, sensors serve as critical components in their operation, maintenance and safety.
LED heat sink extrusions compatible with all Bridgelux LEDsJuly 25, 2011 9:04 am | Product Releases | Comments
Newark announced today an exclusive stocking agreement for Wakefield Solutions' new LED heat sink extrusions. Wakefield and Bridgelux engineering teams worked together at Newark's behest to design an optimal heat sink extrusion line which is compatible with all Bridgelux LEDs.
Return to Zero - First Silicon Gone GoodJuly 25, 2011 8:09 am | Articles | Comments
Return to Zero is a funny comic strip for engineers, with lab humor, odd situations, and exploding circuits that of course makes a sport out of solving the trickiest of engineering problems.
High Quality, Low ESR Multilayer Organic RF CapacitorJuly 25, 2011 7:13 am | Avx Corporation | Product Releases | Comments
AVX Corporation has developed an 0603 case size surface mount capacitor capable of supporting frequencies from 700 MHz to well above 5 GHz.
Voltage Sensing Relay & Timer Conserves Vehicle EnergyJuly 25, 2011 4:32 am | Product Releases | Comments
The FlexMod VSRT conserves the starting power of a vehicle battery by shutting off auxiliary loads when either starting voltage drops to a low level, or a pre-set timer times out.
Return to Zero - Comic ReliefJuly 22, 2011 7:23 am | Articles | Comments
Return to Zero is a funny comic strip for engineers, with lab humor, odd situations, and exploding circuits that of course makes a sport out of solving the trickiest of engineering problems.
Contactless Capacitive Sensor Signal Conditioners most practical for harsh environmentsJuly 22, 2011 7:16 am | by David Grice, System Architect, ZMDI (www.zmdi.com) | Articles | Comments
Capacitive-based sensors have been in use for many years, but they are seeing a rapid increase in interest for a variety of reasons. One of the primary reasons for this is the expanding number of harsh environment applications where capacitive sensing is the best choice...
Implementing IPSec for Embedded DevicesJuly 22, 2011 6:40 am | by Robert Vamosi, Senior Analyst, Mocana | Articles | Comments
With millions of new electronic devices connecting to the Internet every day, criminal hackers are increasingly focusing on a new type of target: mobile and embedded systems. Such systems include point-of-sale terminals, wireless routers, smart phones, our cars...
Easy-mount kits ideal for limited space design-installation applicationsJuly 22, 2011 5:07 am | Product Releases | Comments
A new series of Hardware Mounting Kits for PC/104 and PC104-Plus Bus Drives ideal for limited space design/installation applications is among the latest developments from Keystone Electronics Corp. Engineered to ease assembly of new modules and multi-board stacks...
Vibration controllers serve test applicationsJuly 21, 2011 12:01 pm | Product Releases | Comments
Type 7541 and 7542 vibration controllers are designed to meet the requirements of vibration testing for durability test applications - including automobiles and military vehicles - offering users the latest technologies as part of the complete vibration test solution from Brüel & Kjær.
WR90 'U' and 'F' Type Rotary JointsUnits Minimize Losses From 8.0 to 12.4 GHzJuly 21, 2011 11:30 am | Product Releases | Comments
Microwave Development Labs has introduced a pair of new WR90 waveguide rotary joints in "U" and "F" configurations.
Software Helps Students Tackle Real World ChallengesJuly 21, 2011 11:30 am | by Ed Thum, Program Director, Global Marketing, IBM Rational | Blogs | Comments
Currently most college students learn core development skills by working on individual projects. But when those students eventually go to work for a larger software company, they will inevitably be part of a team of programmers, working on one small slice of a much bigger pie.
RO-LINX PowerCircuit Busbars For Emerging Power Electronics ApplicationsJuly 21, 2011 11:23 am | Product Releases | Comments
Rogers Corporation's Power Distribution Systems Division has announced an innovative new solution for emerging power electronics applications: RO-LINX PowerCircuit busbars.
Hybrid Networking Key to Enabling the Digital HomeJuly 21, 2011 11:09 am | by Ganesh Swaminathan, Senior Product Marketing Manager, Qualcomm Atheros (www.qca.qualcomm.com) | Blogs | Comments
With ever increasing demand for high-definition content consumption and distribution within the home, the consumer needs a highly reliable home network.
Tektronix TDS2024C Oscilloscope TeardownJuly 21, 2011 9:15 am | Videos | Comments
Dave of the EEVblog tears down the Tektronix TDS2000 series TDS2024C DSO, what's inside?
Compact MKP Caps Offer Capacitance Values to 75 uFJuly 21, 2011 7:43 am | Product Releases | Comments
TDK-EPC introduced the B3279* Series of types of EPCOS MKP film capacitors for AC output filters. These capacitors feature rated voltages of
Audio System-on-a-Chip Is Presented as World's FirstJuly 21, 2011 6:55 am | Product Releases | Comments
Wolfson Microelectronics plc has announced the WM5100, said to be the world's first Audio System-on-a-Chip (SoC), integrating a low power, multi-channel audio hub, with full transmit path (Tx) noise cancellation, receive path (Rx) noise cancellation and
Rugged Video Distribution System Serves Deployed Surveillance PlatformsJuly 21, 2011 6:53 am | Product Releases | Comments
Curtiss-Wright Controls Embedded Computing has introduced the newest addition to its industry leading Skyquest family of rugged video management system products, the Skyquest VDSU-1407 Video Distribution System Unit.


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Bebe Furniture Country Heirloom 2-Step Step Stool
Bebe Furniture Country Heirloom 2-Step Step Stool
Weights & Dimensions
|Product Type: Step stool
|Color: Brown
|Primary Material: Wood
|Number of Items Included: 1
|Rust Resistant: No
|Slip-Resistant Feet: No
|Slip-Resistant Steps: No
|Lightweight: No
|Wheels/Casters Included: No
|Compatible Tray/Work Platform: No
|Folding: No
|Number of Steps: 2
|Telescoping: No
|Eco-Friendly: Yes
|Country of Manufacture: United States
About the ManufacturerBebe Furniture is proud of their history. Woodworking expertise has been in their family through three generations handed down from Father to Son. Their skills and business philosophy were brought to this country two generations ago and evolved into Bebe Furniture. Today Bebe Furniture brings a tasteful elegance into your home with classic handcrafted furniture, blending old world charm and style with a level of craftsmanship attained only by their unique manufacturing process. While other manufactures look for "Short Cuts" through mass production, Bebe Furniture continues to create furniture with the same number of individuality. Bebe's tradition of excellence uses the same tools as their forbears. The human eye, the human hand and the skilled craftsmen working together creating fine furniture for you. Their quality craftsmanship and design ensure enjoyment and use for generations to come. Bebe Furniture strives to provide a quality product that is both functional in use and is a value to the consumer. Bebe's strong belief that the retail consumer is ultimately their customer ensures high levels of customer service to their network of authorized dealers.
Bebe Furniture Country Heirloom 2-Step Step Stool
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OUR SKU # BFU1003Country Heirloom 2-Step Step Stool is also sometimes listed under the following manufacturer numbers: 513-Light


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Self Rescue for Climbers - Escaping the Systemby Steve Long Feb/2011
This article has been read 26,614 times
In part 2 of this short video series, Steve Long shows how to escape the system.
Part 1 - Tying off the Belay Plate
Having locked off the plate (see Self Rescue for Climbers - How to Tie Off a Belay Plate), you can now connect the casualty or stuck climber directly to the belay anchor so that you are now freed from the safety system - ensure that your anchors can take the direction of loading that will ensue.
Attach a prusik loop to the live rope using a reliable prusik knot such as a klemheist. This can be connected back to the belay anchor using a long sling, then tensioned by sliding the prusik as far down the live rope as possible. The belay device can now be carefully released and slack paid out to check that the prusik is holding the load without slipping. The brake rope should now be fixed directly to the anchor using an Italian (M¸nter) hitch and removed from the belay plate. Finally tension the rope and tie off the hitch with a couple of half-hitches (ìM¸nter muleî)
Anchors Out of Reach
If the belay is not a convenient central anchor point, but consists of one or two anchors beyond arm's reach, escaping the system involves a couple more steps. Attach a sling to the belay ropes using a klemheist and join this to the prusik. Having escaped the system you can secure the live rope by tying an overhand knot on a bight below the klemheist and then fixing a M¸nter mule to a karabiner clipped into the loop. The anchors can now be equalized using slings to create a central anchor point. Connect the live rope back to this and if necessary all the rest of the rope can now be stripped from the anchors to be used for a rescue.
Aimed at recreational climbers, Self Rescue for Climbers is a comprehensive guide to solving problems encountered in such situations as multi pitching in the mountains, sea cliffs or roadside crags. The DVD's format enables the viewer to access relevant information quickly, providing a basic toolbox of techniques which can be applied in any situation.
With scenarios filmed on famous climbs in locations including Malham, Gogarth, the Llanberris Pass and Tremadog, Self Rescue for Climbers is not only 90 minutes of expert instruction, but also a stunning tribute to the possibilities available to the recreational climber in North Wales.
Buy here from www.safetysteve.co.uk
There is a wonderful feeling of freedom when you can run it out above gear, climbing as hard as you can, totally consumed by the... Read more
Drones are everywhere these days, making spectacular aerial films at modest budgets. MIC Rob Johnson has a new business flying... Read more
Matt Heason takes us on a tour of Millstone in the Peak District.
"The fact that Millstone has been quarried has left it with... Read more


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The former Prime Minister also slammed the BJP for its "obstructionist" role in blocking the GST bill during the UPA rule.
The bench said it cannot be argued by the CIDC that no substantial grant-in-aid is received and therefore it could not be regarded as "Public Authority".
Alleging that NITI Aayog has not become functional despite a year of its creation, Surendra Kumar claimed that Panagariya has still not been assigned a specific responsibility.
Competition Commission has approved Max India's proposed corporate restructuring plan to vertically split the company through a demerger into three separate listed firms, including one for life insurance.
EU outlined plans to limit how much multinational companies can reduce taxes on their European earnings through the use of creative accounting.
The NITI Aayog has prepared a background paper outlining the broad structure of the National Energy Policy announced by Pranab Mukherjee.
Worried over the changes, CM Akhilesh Yadav made a representation to the PM, FM Arun Jaitley and Niti Aayog objecting to the slashing of funds.
The projected private investment of Rs 26.83 lakh crore in infrastructure sectors during the 12th Five Year Plan (2012-17) is unlikely to materialise.


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"LSSU gave me the educational and organizational tools to be able to succeed at those endeavors after college."
Scott Shackleton '83
Former State House of Representatives
LSSU Outstanding Alumnus Award '05
Michael Furr
Network Telecom Administrator
Disclaimer: Any links to external web sites and/or non-Lake Superior State University information provided on university pages or returned from university web search engines are provided as a courtesy. They should not be construed as an endorsement by Lake Superior State University of the content or views of the linked materials.
For directory updates, complete and return this form to Human Resources.
1st Place with ROV
First Place
Lake Superior State University
One of only two teams to complete the event. Others in the group of 11 participants included: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Arizona, Monterey Peninsula College, Cape Fear Community College of Wilmington-North Carolina
2003 Marine Advanced Technology Center (MATE), Remotely Operated Vehicle Competition
Open All-Around Champion
June 14, 2003
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
Learn More...
-Computer Eng.
-Electrical Eng.


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FurnishND – New On-Campus Furniture Management Program For Notre Dame Faculty & Staff
Beginning December 1, all day-to-day departmental furniture acquisition and furnishing removal requests should be submitted through this online request form as part of a new University program, FurnishND.
Visit FurnishND for more details.
Learn more about when faculty and staff should visit the Surplus Property store
Surplus Property
Notre Dame's Surplus Property embodies the University's commitment to environmentally-friendly practices by reducing waste and reusing assets that are no longer needed by a department. We accomplish this by reallocating assets throughout the University, or by selling them to individuals and nonprofit organizations.


text: Ok, so there's this girl I know and her mom's PC is super high maintenance (sp?), I'm probably over there 2-3 times a month. This time, she bought a Linksys 802.11g router (same as mine, but a little less modern). Anyways, her sons were trying to install it and had no idea how, so I went over there to try and fix it. I know how to install routers, but something wierd happened. The internet was working fine until I had wired it through the router, after wiring it and getting onto the last step of the installation process, and after it configured the router, it was searching for an internet connection and said it couldn't find one, but I knew it was working before because I went online to DL WinSoc. After looking around in the properties I noticed that after hardwiring the cable back to the modem, the modem's IP was still at the 192.168 number, which is the starting IP of the routers, and wasn't its original 68.xx number, and I tried resetting the modem via turning on and off and even hitting the reset button, but after all that it still thinks it's connected to the router and will not connect to the internet, any help?


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Neoseeker : Games : Nintendo DS : Adventure : Mystery : Nancy Drew: The Mystery of the Clue Bender Society
BackgroundThe Clue Bender Society, a group consisting of the world's greatest detectives, is looking for their newest member. Teen super-sleuth Nancy Drew is among three exceptional candidates that could make the cut if she can solve a series of pre-determined challenges before the others. But when a secret tome containing the solutions to history's greatest mysteries goes missing, the Clue Bender Society's test case becomes real; they turn to Nancy and the other applicants to help recover the book before it ends up in the wrong hands. With only 24 hours to solve the case and earn membership into the Society, Nancy Drew will have to be at the top of her game.
- Play as Nancy Drew the worlds most recognizable teen sleuth
- 3rd Person action adventure
- Use the DS microphone to discover hidden clues
- All-new cell phone feature lets you keep up with incoming information
- Use Nancy's Clue Journal to check objectives and discover new information
Official URLOfficial Site
Recent threads
- tommy dad Jan 16
grimAuxiliatrix played Nancy Drew: The Mystery of the Clue Bender Society
Data782 owns Nancy Drew: The Mystery of the Clue Bender Society
Data782Pretty good =) NancyDrewTheMysteryOfTheClueBenderSociety DS
Dec 27, 09 5:14pm
Spiritualadded 14 new screenshots
Apr 16, 09 4:29am
- Genre: Mystery Adventure
- Perspective(s): Third Person
- Developer: Gorilla Games
- Publisher: Majesco Games
Released North America Jul 15, 2008
Nancy Drew Series
- Nancy Drew: Tomb of the Lost Queen
- Nancy Drew: Warnings at Waverly Academy
- Nancy Drew Dossier: Resorting to Danger
- Nancy Drew: Ransom of the Seven Ships
- Nancy Drew Dossier: Lights, Camera, Curses!
- Nancy Drew: The Haunting of Castle Malloy
- Nancy Drew: Legend of the Crystal Skull
- Nancy Drew: The White Wolf of Icicle Creek
- Nancy Drew: The Creature of Kapu Cave
- Nancy Drew: Last Train to Blue Moon Canyon
- Nancy Drew: Curse of Blackmoor Manor
- Nancy Drew: The Secret of Shadow Ranch
- Nancy Drew: The Haunted Carousel
- Nancy Drew: Treasure in a Royal Tower
- Nancy Drew: Stay Tuned for Danger
- Nancy Drew: The Model Mysteries
- Nancy Drew: The Hidden Staircase
- Nancy Drew: The Mystery of the Clue Bender Society


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If you're a senior about to shove off on your vacation, here are a few notes on the current state of senior travel.
AIRLINES. Forget any special senior deals. The only airline with meaningful senior fares is Southwest, and its senior fares are good deals only for travel booked within a week or less of departure. Otherwise, its advance purchase fares for travelers of any age are a far better bet. And although some other airlines still ask for "seniors" on their online reservation pages, I haven't seen any worthwhile senior fares from any other line in years.
RAILROADS. North American railroads are kind to seniors. Amtrak offers 15 percent discounts from the lowest available coach fare on most trains to seniors age 65 or over; VIA Rail Canada offers 10 percent or more on all rail fares, including sleepers, to seniors 60 or over. But, as with airfares, VIA Rail's frequent half-price sales and highly discounted "escape" fares, for travelers of any age, are typically even better deals.
Overseas railroads aren't so senior friendly. Only four countries offer senior railpasses. Senior passes in Ireland and Romania are good buys in either class, but the first-class-only senior BritRail pass is considerably more expensive than the second-class pass for travelers of any age. The best senior railpass deal is in France, where the first-class-only senior pass is just a few dollars more than the any-age second-class pass. The Belgian, British, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish railroads offer senior discounts up to 50 percent on individual tickets, mostly starting at age 60, but most require purchase of a yearly senior card, which you typically can't buy until after you arrive. Oddly, the Japanese, who supposedly revere their elders, offer no senior rail deals.
HOTELS. Many North American hotel chains and independents, especially in the budget and mid-priced range, offer modest senior discounts, usually 5 percent to 10 percent. They're available to seniors 50 or over through AARP, and to various ages without AARP membership. Many of the big chains offer their senior discounts world-wide, not just in North America, but smaller independent hotels in Europe typically do not offer senior pricing. Again, view a senior discount as "Plan B" when you can't find a better any-age deal.
CRUISES. Most online cruise agencies ask for your age, but whether senior status helps is always uncertain. Still, there's no downside to asking.
PACKAGE TOURS. Tour packagers seldom discount to seniors; they don't have a big enough margin to offer a substantial cut to anyone, but Liberty Travel offers some modest deals to AARP members. And several operators specialize in tours designed for seniors, going at a slower pace and with less strenuous requirements than for any-age tours.
RENTAL CARS. Rental car companies give discounts to just about any organization you can name. The Avis/Budget deal with AARP doesn't appear to offer prices any lower than you can get elsewhere, but rentals through AARP include somewhat better collision and U.S. liability insurance, as well as a waiver of any extra-driver charge.
LOCAL TRANSIT. Many U.S. transit systems offer senior discounts, typically around 50 percent, mostly starting at age 65, but some important systems, including Boston, Chicago, and Washington, require seniors to get prior ID cards. In Pennsylvania, seniors use transit free by showing a Medicare card, with some time-of-day limits. Outside the U.S., however, few transit systems offer senior deals. I haven't encountered any in Asia or Europe.
SUPER SENIOR DEALS. Even though I've been covering senior deals for a long time, I somehow managed to miss the idea of "super senior" discounts until recently. On my trip to Austria and Italy last year, however, I observed a senior taking advantage of an offer of free rides on some cable car systems to seniors age 80 and over, and in recent digging, I found that the Italian State Railway "Silver Card" that offers discounts of 15 percent on most trains, available to seniors 60 or over for 30 euros, is free to seniors 75 or over. Keep your eyes peeled for similar deals if you've passed the 75 mark.
(Send e-mail to Ed Perkins at eperkins(at)mind.net. Perkins' new book for small business and independent professionals, "Business Travel When It's Your Money," is now available through http://www.mybusinesstravel.com or http://www.amazon.com)
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