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Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison R. A. Hess1, K. Carnes Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Reproductive Biology and Toxicology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61802, USA Abstract Setchell et al., 1983; Adamopoulos et al., 1984; Claus et al., 1985;Claus et al., 1992; Bujan et al., 1993.). At Testosterone and estrogen are hormones im- first it was thought that this male source of estrogen portant to both sexes. In the adult testis, estrogen is was produced primarily by the accessory sex glands synthesized by Leydig cells and germ cells, producing and that estrogen's function should be relegated to in- a relatively high concentration in rete testis fluid and in fluencing the female reproductive tract after ejacula- semen of several species. Estrogen receptors (ER) are tion, a role that it may indeed play to some degree present in the testis, efferent ductules and epididymis of (Willenburg et al., 2003). In the 1930's it was reported most species; however, ERα is reported absent in the that developing testes were responsive to the "female" testis of a few, including man. ERα is abundant in the hormone (also reviewed by Wolff and Ginglinger, efferent ductule epithelium of every species examined 1935; Weniger, 1990). It was also known in the 1930's to date. Its primary function is the regulated expression and 40's that developmental exposure to high doses of of proteins involved in fluid reabsorption. Disruption estrogens could induce malformations in the male re- of ERα, either in the knockout (ERαKO) or by treat- productive tract (Burrows, 1935; Greene et al., 1940; ment with a pure antiestrogen, results in dilution of McLachlan, 1979; Arai et al., 1983). However, as late cauda epididymal sperm, disruption of sperm morphol- as the early 1990's, many scientists still considered ogy, inhibition of sodium transport and subsequent wa- estrogen receptor presence in the adult male reproduc- ter reabsorption, increased secretion of Cl-, and even- tive tract to be only a residual of embryological differ- tual decreased fertility. Loss of aromatase activity in entiation (Greco et al., 1993). Previous reviews have the ArKO mouse does not result in an ERαKO or anti- already covered important aspects of estrogen's influ- estrogen phenotype, suggesting that epithelial ERα in ence on male reproductive development (Sharpe, 1998; the efferent ductules may exhibit ligand-independent Hess et al., 2001b; Iguchi et al., 2001; O'Donnell et al., activity. In addition to the primary regulation of lu- 2001; Hess, 2003; Sharpe, 2003); therefore, here we minal fluid and ion transport, estrogen is also responsi- will focus on a comparison of estrogen synthesis, re- ble for maintaining a differentiated epithelial morphol- ceptor localization and potential function in a variety of ogy through a mechanism remaining to be discovered. adult male species. Thus, estrogen or its receptor is important for male reproductive tract function in numerous species. Estrogen synthesis and inactivation Keywords: estrogen, aromatase, estrogen receptor, testis, In several species, estrogen levels are re- efferent ductules, epididymis, prostate, sperm, fertility markably high in the semen (Waites and Einer-Jensen, 1974; Ganjam and Amann, 1976; Eiler and Graves, Introduction 1977; Free and Jaffe, 1979; Setchell et al., 1983; Ada- mopoulos et al., 1984; Claus et al., 1985; Claus et al., Estrogen has been found in the semen and flu- 1992; Bujan et al., 1993). Estrogen concentrations wi- ids of the male reproductive tract of many species thin the testis and semen can reach levels that exceed (Waites and Einer-Jensen, 1974; Ganjam and Amann, even the female vasculature (Table 1). Of particular 1976; Eiler and Graves, 1977; Free and Jaffe, 1979; note, concentrations of estradiol in testis venous blood 1 Corresponding author: firstname.lastname@example.com Received: June 5 2004 Accepted: July 13 .2004 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 5 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison and lymph are relatively high in all species. Rete testis often found at extreme levels in the horse, bull and fluid concentrations vary considerably between species, boar (Ganjam and Amann, 1976; Eiler and Graves, with the rat showing the highest, at 249 pg/ml (Free 1977; Claus et al., 1985; Claus et al., 1992; Lemazurier and Jaffe, 1979). In semen, conjugated estrogens are et al., 2002). Table 1. Estrogen concentrations in the male. Source Concentration Species References Testis 104-200 pg/ml Monkey (Waites and Einer-Jensen, 1974) venous blood 17.5 pg/ml Rat (de Jong et al., 1973) 450 ng/ml Horse (Setchell, 1982) (estrone-sulfate) 1.09 nmol/L (total estrogens) Boar (Setchell et al., 1983) 52.4 nmol/L (estrone-sulfate) 926 pg/ml Man (Adamopoulos et al., 1984) Testis lymph 900 ng/ml Horse (Setchell and Cox, 1982) (estrone-sulfate) 1.86 nmol/L (total estrogens) Boar (Setchell et al., 1983) 705 nmol/L (estrone sulfate) Rete testis fluid 14-195 pg/ml Monkey (Waites and Einer-Jensen, 1974) 249 pg/ml Rat (Free and Jaffe, 1979) 11.5 pg/ml Bull (Ganjam and Amann, 1976) 0.38 nmol/L (total estrogens) Boar (Setchell et al., 1983) 8.60 nmol/L (estrone-sulfate) Semen 6.7-162 pg/ml Man (Purvis et al., 1975; Adamopoulos et al., 1984; Bujan et al., 1993; Luboshitzky et al., 2002a,b; Nade- ri and Safarinejad, 2003) 73- 144 pg/ml (estradiol) Horse (Claus et al., 1992; Lemazurier et 385 pg/ml (conjugated estradiol) al., 2002) 739 pg/ml estrone 4116-9612 pg/ml (estrone-sulfate) 50-890 pg/ml Bull (Ganjam and Amann, 1976; Eiler and Graves, 1977) 430 pg/ml (estradiol) Boar (Claus et al., 1985) 860 pg/ml (estrone) Estrogen synthesis in the male reproductive In the dog, aromatase activity is a marker for Sertoli tract was first thought to occur in Sertoli cells during cell tumors (Peters et al., 2003). In general, aromatase development, but then only in Leydig cells of the adult has not been found in rete testis, efferent ductules, epi- testis in most species (Rommerts and Brinkman, 1981; didymis or vas deferens. However, scattered reports are van der Molen et al., 1981; Rommerts et al., 1982; found for epididymal presence of aromatase ([human Payne et al., 1987; O'Donnell et al., 2001; Carreau et efferent ductules and proximal epididymis; Carpino et al., 2003; Sharpe et al., 2003). Table 2 shows the re- al., 2004]; cultured rat cells; Wiszniewska, 2002). ported locations for estrogen synthesis in the adult male Currently, a growing body of evidence indicates that reproductive system. There is a consistent presence of germ cells also synthesize estrogen, and possibly serve aromatase in Leydig cells, but several species also re- as the major source of estrogen in the male re- portedly show activity in Sertoli cells of the adult testis. productive tract (see review by Carreau et al., 2003). 6 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison Table 2. Aromatase presence in adult male reproductive tissues. Species Tissues References Mouse1 Leydig cell (Nitta et al., 1993; Janulis et al., 1996b; Wang et al., 2001b; Bilinska et Immature germ cell al., 2003; Catalano et al., 2003; Golovine et al., 2003) Spermatozoa Rat1 Leydig cell (Rommerts and Brinkman, 1981; Rommerts et al., 1982; Tsai-Morris et Immature germ cell al., 1984; Papadopoulos et al., 1986; Payne et al., 1987; Janulis et al., Spermatozoa 1996a; Levallet and Carreau, 1997; Janulis et al., 1998; Carpino et al., Epididymal epithelium3 2001; Genissel et al., 2001; Lanzino et al., 2001; Levallet et al., 1998a, b; Turner et al., 2002; Wiszniewska, 2002; Bourguiba et al., 2003a,b; Tira- do et al., 2004) Rooster Leydig cell (Kwon et al., 1995; Vaillant et al., 2001) Immature germ cell Spermatozoa Fish Total testis analysis (Callard et al., 1985; Betka and Callard, 1998; Kobayashi et al., 1998; Leydig cell Freking et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2001b; Agate et al., 2002; Dalla Valle et Immature germ cell al., 2002; Gonzalez and Piferrer, 2003; Kobayashi et al., 2003; Blazquez and Piferrer, 2004) Amphibian Total testis analysis (Ohtani et al., 2003; Kuntz et al., 2004) Turtle Total testis analysis (Place et al., 2001) Bear2 Leydig cell (Tsubota et al., 1997; Okano et al., 2003) Sertoli cell Immature germ cell Boar Leydig cell (Conley et al., 1996) Cattle Total testis analysis (Vanselow et al., 2001) Ram Total testis analysis4 (Schmalz and Bilinska, 1998; Quirke et al., 2001; Vanselow et al., 2001) Leydig cell Stallion Leydig cell (Eisenhauer et al., 1994; Lemazurier and Seralini, 2002; Lemazurier et Sertoli cell al., 2002; Sipahutar et al., 2003; Hess and Roser, 2004) Immature germ cell Dog Leydig cell (Peters et al., 2003) Sertoli cell (tumors) Raccoon Leydig cell (Qiang et al., 2003) Sertoli cell Immature germ cell (elongate spermatid) Bank vole Leydig cell (Bilinska et al., 2001; Fraczek et al., 2001; Kotula-Balak et al., 2003) Sertoli cell Immature germ cell Marmoset Immature germ cell (Turner et al., 2002) Rhesus Leydig cell (Pereyra-Martinez et al., 2001) Immature germ cell Human Immature germ cell (Brodie et al., 2001; Carreau et al., 2002b; Turner et al., 2002; Aquila et Spermatozoa al., 2003; Carreau et al., 2003; Lambard et al., 2003; Rago et al., 2003; Epithelium of efferent Simpson, 2003; Carpino et al., 2004; Ellem et al., 2004) ductule Epithelium of proximal epididymis Prostate stromal cell 1 Early work showed only Leydig cells being positive for Aromatase in the adult testis. 2 Location depended upon the season (Tsubota et al., 1997). 3 Only in primary culture cells (Wiszniewska, 2002). 4 One study found no expression of aromatase in the developing and adult sheep testis (Quirke et al., 2001). Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 7 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison The first reports to demonstrate aromatase in found in interstitial cells. More recently, Carreau and testicular germ cells and sperm (Fig. 1) were published others have confirmed aromatase presence in testicular through a collaborative effort at the University of Illi- germ cells and sperm and have demonstrated aromatase nois (Nitta et al., 1993; Kwon et al., 1995; Janulis et expression and activity in human sperm (Carreau and al., 1996a, b; Janulis et al., 1998). Its presence in germ Levallet, 1997; Carreau et al., 1998; Carreau et al., cells was found in diverse species ranging from mice 1999; Carreau, 2000; Carreau, 2001; Carreau et al., to chicken testes (Fig. 1) and was localized in the 2001; Aquila et al., 2002; Carani et al., 2002; Ca- Golgi of round spermatids and throughout the cyto- rreau, 2002; Carreau et al., 2002a, b; Aquila et al., plasm of elongating and late spermatids. The en- 2003; Carreau, 2003; Carreau et al., 2003; Lambard zyme is also found in the cytoplasmic droplet of et al., 2003; Rago et al., 2003; Carreau et al., 2004; epididymal sperm (Fig. 2), but its presence and ac- Lambard et al., 2004). Only a few species, such as tivity are higher in sperm isolated from the efferent the horse (Eisenhauer et al., 1994; Hess and Roser, ductules and head of the epididymis than from the 2004; Lemazurier et al., 2002; Lemazurier and cauda region (Janulis et al., 1996a; Rago et al., 2003). Seralini, 2002; Sipahutar et al., 2003), have not Aromatase in germ cells and spermatozoa represent shown testicular germ cells to be aromatase-positive approximately 62% of the total testicular amount (Table 2). It is unknown if the lack of staining was due (Levallet and Carreau, 1997; Levallet et al., 1998b; to differences in antibodies or if species simply differ Carreau et al., 1999). Its biological activity in develop- in the sources of estrogen found in the reproductive ing germ cells has been found to equal or exceeded that tract. Figure. 1A. Aromatase in the mouse testis show immunohistochemical staining of Leydig cells (L), elongated spermatids (E), and released sperm (S). 1B. Aromatase in the mouse epididymis showing staining of the cytoplasmic droplet on sperm tails (CD). 1C. Rooster testis showing aromatase in Leydig cells (L), round spermatids, and elongated spermatids (E). Figure 2. A drawing showing how aromatase (P450 Arom) found in sperm cytoplasmic droplets decreases as the sperm traverse the epididymis. 8 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison These recent discoveries of germ cell produc- ity (Song et al., 1995) and then in 2001 the testis of this tion of estrogen in the male reproductive tract led to mouse strain was shown to be 16 fold less sensitive to new hypotheses regarding estrogen receptor presence estrogen than the B6 strain of mice (Spearow et al., in the tract and its potential function. The Leydig cell is 2001). Spearow further showed that the CD-1 testis no longer considered the only source of estrogen for expresses 3.5 times more estrogen sulfotransferase than the reproductive tract and it appears that Leydig cell the B6 mouse testis (Spearow et al., 2001). Testes of the derived estradiol would more likely target the lymphat- estrogen sulfotransferase knockout mice are reported to ics and peripheral circulation, rather than the lumens of be damaged, with Leydig cell hyperplasia and hypertro- rete testis and epididymis. Leydig cells lie adjacent to phy and decreases in the weights of testis and epididymis endothelial cells of the lymphatic system, a region re- (Qian et al., 2001). Sperm motility is also reduced, as ported to have very high concentrations of estrogens well as fertility. Exogenous estrogen treatment of the (Setchell, 1982; Setchell et al., 1983). However, blood estrogen sulfotransferase knockout mice induces further estrogen concentrations are low in the male, therefore, decline in sperm quality (Tong and Song, 2002). we presume that estrogens from Leydig cell synthesis would provide limited endocrine activity in the repro- Estrogen receptors in the male reproductive tract ductive tract. In the efferent ductules, blood-borne es- trogens would likely have even less effect, as these Estrogen receptor-like proteins were found in ductules are responsible for reabsorption of over 90% epididymal tissues over 30 years ago (Danzo et al., of the luminal fluids (Clulow et al., 1998) and thus dis- 1975). However, early investigations into estrogen re- play an overwhelming luminal to basal orientation, ceptor presence and function in the male reproductive which could limit the movement of substances from tract lead to the conclusion that estrogen was more basement membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Although important during development than in the adult this hypothesis has not been tested directly, there are (Danzo, 1986). Estrogen binding in epididymal tis- studies suggesting that this region of the male tract sues has been noted in numerous species, including does not respond to exogenous androgens following the dog (Younes et al., 1979; Younes and Pierrepoint, castration (Fawcett and Hoffer, 1979). More recent 1981), human (Murphy et al., 1980), turtle (Dufaure et studies, however, suggest that after castration the effer- al., 1983), monkey (Kamal et al., 1985; West and ent ductules do respond to estrogens and androgens Brenner, 1990), ram (Tekpetey and Amann, 1988), (Oliveira et al., 2004). Nevertheless, current data dem- guinea pig (Danzo et al., 1981), and the rat (Kuiper et onstrate that in most species luminal estrogen, pro- al., 1997). In the mouse, estrogen binding was found duced by testicular germ cells and luminal sperm, is throughout the testis and epididymis (Schleicher et al., more than sufficient to target estrogen receptors found 1984; Hess et al., 1997b). The strongest binding was in epithelial cells lining the male reproductive tract found in the efferent ductule epithelium and initial (Hess, 2002; Hess et al., 2002; Hess, 2003). segment epididymis, with lesser binding in the distal Estrogens are inactivated through sulfoconju- tract (Schleicher et al., 1984). However, binding assays gation, catalyzed by the enzyme estrogen sulfotrans- do not differentiate between ERα and ERβ; therefore, ferase, which is abundantly expressed in liver (Song other methods, such as immunocytochemistry, in situ and Melner, 2000; Song, 2001). Interestingly in the hybridization and Northern blot analysis, have been male, estrogen sulfotransferase has been found to show used to separate the two ER subtypes. Unfortunately, the highest concentration and specific organ activity in these techniques do not provide identical results and the testis (Hobkirk and Glasier, 1992; Song et al., disagreements are found in ER presence in the male 1995; Song, 2001). This enzyme has been studied in (Hess et al., 2002). the male of only a few species, but was found in testis Using immunocytochemistry, ER has consis- of pigs, mice, rat, guinea pig and man ( Hobkirk et al., tently been localized in the epithelium of efferent duc- 1989; Hobkirk and Glasier, 1992; Song et al., 1995; tules (West and Brenner, 1990; Sato et al., 1994; Ergun Song, 2001; Miki et al., 2002). In the testis, its pres- et al., 1997; Fisher et al., 1997; Goyal et al., 1997a; ence is exclusive to the Leydig cell, but along the tract Hess et al., 1997b; Kwon et al., 1997; Goyal et al., it is found in the epididymal epithelium and the epithe- 1998; Saunders et al., 2001). However, in the goat and lium and smooth muscle of the vas deferens of the monkey, only nonciliated cells of the efferent ductal mouse (Tong and Song, 2002). It has not been found in epithelium stained ER positive (West and Brenner, prostate or seminal vesicles. The reproductive tracts of 1990; Goyal et al., 1997b). With the discovery of ER other species have not been investigated. Estrogen sul- subtypes α and β, more precise localization of ERs has fotransferase is regulated in the testis and epididymis been reported, but even the new antibodies can result in through pituitary gonadotrophins (LH) and androgens confusing data (Fisher et al., 1997; Goyal et al., 1997a; (Tong and Song, 2002). The CD-1 mouse testis was Hess et al., 1997a; Kwon et al., 1997; Goyal et al., shown in 1995 to have the highest organ specific activ- 1998; Hess et al., 2002; Nie et al., Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 9 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison 2002; Zhou et al., 2002). One of the best examples is strong staining using another antibody, 6F11 (Zhou et the mouse, which shows weak epididymal staining for al., 2002). ERα has now been localized in the male ERα using the H222 antibody (Iguchi et al., 1991), but reproductive tract of at least nine species (Table 3). Table 3. Localization of ERα, ERβ and estrogen binding (E) in the testis and male reproductive tract epithelium: a species comparison. Rat Mouse Dog Cat Goat Rabbit Ra Boar Bir Fish Mon Man * ** m d *** key Organ Testis αβ -α α -/+α +/-α Leydig αβ αβ E α αβ α +/-α -β Peritubular αβ +/-α αβ -α -α +/-β β Sertoli -α -/+α -αβ -α α -α β β -β Germ cells -/+α -/+α -α -α α +/-α β β β Sperm -/+α -α α +/-α Rete testis Epithelium -α αβ α α β β β Efferent duc- αE αE α -α tules Nonciliated αβ αβ E αβ αβ α α Ciliated αβ αβ E αβ - -α /+α β Epididymis E E -/+α E E E E E -/+α E Cell line αβ α -/+α -/+α Initial Seg- α ment Principal cell -α -α -α -α β β β β Narrow/apical -α αβ -α -α β E β β Basal cell -α αβ -α -α β β β Caput E Principal cell -α αβ -α αβ β β Apical cell -α αβ -α αβ 10 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison β E β Basal cell -α αβ -α αβ β β Corpus Principal cell -α -/+α -α αβ β β β αβ Clear cell -α αβ -α β E β Cauda Principal cell -α -α -α αβ β β β Clear cell -α αβ -α αβ β E β Vas deferens Principal cell -α -α -α αβ β β β Basal cell -α -α -α αβ β β β Prostate Principal cell -α -α -α β β References 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1. Rat: ERα, (Saunders et al., 1998; Shughrue et al., 1998; Pelletier et al., 2000; Sar and Welsch, 2000; Mowa and Iwanaga, 2001; Saberwal et al., 2002; Oliveira et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2004). ERβ, (Prins et al., 1998; Saunders, 1998; Shughrue et al., 1998; van Pelt et al., 1999; Makela et al., 2000; Pelletier et al., 2000; Sar and Welsch, 2000; Atanas- sova et al., 2001; Weihua et al., 2001; Asano et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2004; Tirado et al., 2004). Estrogen binding, (Hess et al., 1997b); (Kuiper et al., 1997). 2. Mouse and vole*: ERα, (Atanassova et al., 2001; Bilinska et al., 2001; Prins et al., 2001; Risbridger et al., 2001; Shibayama et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2002; Takao et al., 2003; Sipila et al., 2004). ERβ, (Atanassova et al., 2001; Bilinska et al., 2001; Prins et al., 2001; Risbridger et al., 2001; Shibayama et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2002; Takao et al., 2003; Sipila et al., 2004). Estrogen binding, (Schleicher et al., 1984; Hess et al., 1997b). 3. Dog: ERα, (Telgmann et al., 2001; Nie et al., 2002). ERβ, (Telgmann et al., 2001; Nie et al., 2002) 4. Cat: ERα, (Telgmann et al., 2001; Nie et al., 2002). ERβ, (Telgmann et al., 2001; Nie et al., 2002) 5. Goat: ERα, (Mansour et al., 2001). Estrogen binding (nonspecific antibodies), (Goyal et al., 1997a; Goyal et al., 1998;) 6. Rabbit and guinea pig**: Estrogen binding, (Danzo et al., 1975; 1977; 1978; Danzo and Eller, 1979; Danzo et al., 1981; Danzo et al., 1982; Hendry and Danzo, 1985; Danzo, 1986; Hendry and Danzo, 1986; Hendry et al., 1987) 7. Ram: Estrogen binding, (Linde et al., 1975; Raeside et al., 1999). 8. Boar: ERβ, ( human efferent ductules and proximal epididymis Carpino et al., 2004; cultured rat cells Wiszniewska, 2002). Estrogen binding, (Tekpetey and Amann, 1988). 9. Bird: ERα, (Janssen et al., 1998). 10. Fish, newt***, amphioxus***and turtle***: ERα, ( Socorro et al., 2000; Arenas et al., 2001; Bouma and Nagler, 2001; ; Wu et al., 2001; Fang et al., 2003; He et al., 2003). ERβ, (Socorro et al., 2000; Arenas et al., 2001; Bouma and Nagler, 2001; Wu et al., 2001; Fang et al., 2003; He et al., 2003). Estrogen binding, (Dufaure et al., 1983). 11. Monkey: ERα, (Heikinheimo et al., 1995; Pelletier, 2000; Saunders et al., 2001). ERβ, (Heikinheimo et al., 1995; Pelleti- er, 2000; Saunders et al., 2001). Estrogen binding, (Kamal et al., 1985; West and Brenner, 1990). 12. Man: ERα, (Pelletier, 2000; Pelletier and El-Alfy, 2000; Denger et al., 2001; Makinen et al., 2001; Saunders et al., 2001; Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 11 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison Brand et al., 2002; Gonzalez-Unzaga et al., 2003; Aquila et al., 2004; Lambard et al., 2004). ERβ, (Mosselman et al., 1996; En- mark et al., 1997; Moore et al., 1998; Pelletier, 2000; Pelletier and El-Alfy, 2000; Denger et al., 2001; Makinen et al., 2001; Saun- ders et al., 2001; Brand et al., 2002; Shoda et al., 2002; Gonzalez-Unzaga et al., 2003; Lambard et al., 2004; Aquila et al., 2004). The most consistent data across species has been ERα Zhou et al., 2002). presence in the Leydig or Interstitial cells (Fig. 3), even In contrast, ERα is found only in the inter- in the fish testis. There are conflicting reports of ERα stitium of the testis in most species examined (Table 3). in germ cells and sperm (Wu et al., 2001; Nie et al., The ERβ knockout mouse ( Krege et al., 1998; Couse 2002; Zhou et al., 2002; Aquila et al., 2004; Lambard et al., 1999) shows no testicular phenotype and double et al., 2004). Efferent ductules are positive for ERα in ERαβ knockout mice appear identical to the ERα all species examined (Fig.4), although one study knockout mice (Lubahn et al., 1993; Eddy et al., 1996; showed no immunostaining in man (Pelletier and El- Couse et al., 1999; Dupont et al., 2000; Mahato et al., Alfy, 2000). Analysis of mRNA from the efferent duc- 2001). tules has indicated that the receptor is expressed 3.5 fold greater than in female tissue (Hess et al., 1997b). The epididymis has generally been found to be ERα negative, although select species, such as the cat and mouse, have shown strong staining for this receptor in specific regions and select cell types (Nie et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002). Narrow, apical and clear cells of the rodent epididymis show intense binding affinity for estrogens (Schleicher et al., 1984) and also show in- tense staining by immunohistochemistry for ERα (Saunders et al., 1998; Pelletier et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2002; Oliveira et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2004). The prostate epithelium always appears ERα negative, while stromal cells are positive. The discovery of a second form of ER (ERβ) complicates the interpretation of earlier data from es- trogen binding studies, as it is unknown in those studies to which ER binding has occurred. ERβ was originally discovered because of it high expression in prostate (Kuiper et al., 1996), but it has now been found in all tissues of the male reproductive tract, in both epithe- lium and stromal tissues (Table 3). However, a function for ERβ in the male reproductive tract awaits further investigation, as the ERβ knockout mouse has been shown to be fertile and appears to have a normal testis and epididymis (Krege et al., 1998). ERβ is more wi- dely distributed in the male tract than ERα (Hess et al., 2002) and shows strong reactivity in efferent ductules, similar to ERα. The male tract is an example where both receptors are expressed in high concentrations within the same cell (Nie et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002). ERβ appears to be weaker in initial segment epididymis but stronger in the corpus, cauda and vas deferens. In the testis, ERβ is the more abundant recep- tor and is typically found in nearly every cell type of the interstitium and the seminiferous tubule (Fig. 3), except for the elongated spermatids (Saunders et al. Figure 3A. ERα in the mouse testis. Leydig cells (Ly) and 1997; Rosenfeld et al., 1998; Saunders et al., 1998; van peritubular myoid cells (M) are strongly positive. 3B. ERβ in Pelt et al., 1999; Bilinska et al., 2000; Jefferson et al., the mouse testis. Nearly all cell types are positive except for 2000; Pelletier, 2000; Taylor and Al-Azzawi, 2000; the elongate spermatids (E). Leydig cell (Ly); peritubular Makinen et al., 2001; McKinnell et al., 2001; Saunders myoid cell (M); pachytene spermatocytes (P); round sper- et al., 2001; Takeyama et al., 2001; Nie et al., 2002; matid (R). 12 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison Figure 4. ERα in the efferent ductule epithelium of several species: mouse, rat, hamster, dog, cat and marmoset monkey. Non- ciliated principal cells are strongly positive in all species, but ciliated cells (C) are less positive in some. Future studies must attempt to resolve con- al., 2002; Scobie et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002), the flicting reports found in the literature regarding the ERβ knockout (ERβKO) male testis appears normal and presence or absence of ERs in the male reproductive the males are fertile (Krege et al., 1998Couse et al., tract of different species. It is difficult to reconcile, for 1999; Dupont et al., 2000). example, the generally accepted lack of ERα expres- There are no data showing that ERα is impor- sion in germ cells with new reports of ERα expression tant in initiating or maintaining spermatogenesis. in human sperm. It will also be important to determine Transplantation of germ cells from the ERαKO mouse why the cat and mouse express ERα in epididymal tis- testis into a normal testis (made devoid of germ cells) sue, while other species generally show no immu- produces normal spermatozoa capable of fertilization nostaining in this region. How could such a divergence and results in live offspring (Mahato et al., 2001), sug- in expression evolve? On the other hand, ERβ is nearly gesting that testicular ERα has no influence on sper- ubiquitous in its presence, both in the epithelium and matogenesis. However, loss of estrogen synthesis in the stroma throughout the male reproductive tract. It is ArKO mouse (O'Donnell et al., 2001; Robertson et al., possible that in some species ERβ compensates for the 2001) results in decreased fertility with aging. Another lack of ERα, while in the cat and mouse, the duel pres- study in the mouse also suggests that estrogen may have ence of both receptors may be necessary for balancing testicular function, acting through the Leydig cell unique epididymal functions of fluid reabsorption and (Akingbemi et al., 2003). It was suggested that testos- sperm maturation. terone concentrations are elevated in the ERαKO male (Eddy et al., 1996), due to the disruption in feedback Estrogen Function in Testis regulation at the hypothalamus, and the more recent study indeed shows that Leydig cells isolated from the Estrogen appears to have only a minor role in ERαKO testis have increased production of testoster- adult testicular function (see review by O'Donnell et al., one and when treated with the pure ER inhibitor ICI 2001). However, Hardy and colleagues (Akingbemi et 182,780 show increased steroidogenesis (Akingbemi et al., 2003) have demonstrated in mouse cells that anti- al., 2003). Therefore, ER in the testis, although not estrogen treatment inhibits Leydig cell activity in vitro, necessarily essential for spermatogenesis, appear to but estradiol alone was unable to stimulate Leydig cell have a subtle function in Leydig cells. steroidogenesis. In the developing testis, estrogen has Although estrogen may not be essential for significant activity in establishing Sertoli cell function spermatogenesis, there is indirect evidence of estro- (O'Donnell et al., 2001) and potentially even in establish- gen's influence on spermatogenesis. Ebling and col- ing Sertoli-germ cell adhesion (MacCalman and leagues (Ebling et al., 2000) found that estradiol im- Blaschuk, 1994; MacCalman et al., 1997). However, in plants in the hpg mouse, which is deficient in gonad- the total absence of estrogen synthesis, the aromatase otropin releasing hormone (GnRH), stimulated a 4-5- knockout (ArKO) male shows normal spermatogenesis at fold increase in seminiferous tubular volume, in the the beginning of puberty and only with aging does the absence of measurable levels of androgens. Although it testis begin to develop lesions associated with round is possible that this effect was due to the slightly ele- spermatids (O'Donnell et al., 2001; Robertson et al., vated levels of FSH, an alternative hypothesis put for- 2002). This is not entirely surprising in light of the fact ward was direct effects of estrogen on cells of the tes- that ERα is not present in the seminiferous epithelium of tis. This hypothesis appears plausible when the ArKO the mouse (Nie et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002) and al- mouse data are taken into consideration, as ArKO tes- though ERβ is found in Sertoli cells and nearly all germ tes are normal at first, but with aging show decreases in cells ( Saunders et al., 2001; Nie et al., 2002; Saunders et weight, seminiferous epithelium, and germ cell num- Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 13 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison bers (Robertson et al., 1999). When the ArKO male is transported sperm from testis to the epididymis. How- maintained on a soy-free diet, these effects are acceler- ever, it is now known that efferent ductules have an ated and enhanced (O'Donnell et al., 2001; Robertson important function in the reabsorption of over 90% of et al., 2002). Thus, soy based phytoestrogens likely the rete testis fluid and thereby concentrate sperm prior protected the testis somewhat in the ArKO mouse, sug- to entering the epididymal lumen (Clulow et al., 1998). gesting that small amounts of estrogen do have testicu- Nonciliated cells of the epithelium are reabsorptive, lar effects independent of FSH or LH. similar to proximal tubules of the kidney, having a This potential role for estrogen in the testis brush border of microvilli connecting in the apical cy- will most likely be found in the germ cells, as they ex- toplasm to a profusion of apical canaliculi, vesicles, press ERβ abundantly (Saunders et al., 2001; Nie et al., tubules and membrane-bound bodies, which constitute 2002; Saunders et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002) and an elaborate endocytotic/lysosomal system (Hermo et genistein has a higher affinity for ERβ than for ERα al., 1994). In the basal region, rough endoplasmic re- (Kuiper et al., 1998). Finally, although the Sertoli cell does ticulum, mitochondria and lipid droplets are common not express ERα, it is interesting that in the ERαKO testis (Ilio and Hess, 1994). there is significantly less seminiferous tubular secretion The efferent ductules express an abundance of than in the wild-type testis (Hess et al., 1997a). The both androgen and estrogen receptors (Hess et al., same effect was suggested for the ArKO testis, as 2002; Nie et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002; Oliveira et seminiferous tubule luminal volume and tubular length al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2004). Therefore it was not was decreased (Robertson et al., 2002). surprising to discover that the ERαKO mouse and the Another compelling study that would suggest antiestrogen-treated rodents are infertile or show ERβ having a role in spermatogenesis comes from greatly reduced fertility (Lubahn et al., 1993; Eddy et long-term treatment of the rat and mouse with ICI al., 1996; Oliveira et al., 2002; Cho et al., 2003). Nu- 182,780 (Cho et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2002). Simi- merous prior reviews have covered this transgenic lar to the results seen in the ArKO mouse (O'Donnell et mouse (Couse and Korach, 1999a, b; Hess, 2000a, b; al., 2001; Robertson et al., 2002), at first there was no Hess et al., 2001a, b; Couse and Korach, 2001; Couse effect on the testis, as spermatogenesis progressed et al., 2001; O'Donnell et al., 2001; Carani et al., 2002; normally. But with time, the testis shows severe atro- Hess et al., 2002; Hess, 2003). Although the ERαKO phy in the rat (Oliveira et al., 2002) and hypospermato- testis appeared normal before puberty, after the onset genesis and abnormal germ cell development in the of spermatogenesis, the testis began to degenerate and mouse (Cho et al., 2003). In the rat, seminiferous tubu- eventually became atrophic (Eddy et al., 1996). By 150 lar atrophy was caused by back-pressure induced by days, cauda sperm from the ERαKO male were abnor- fluid accumulation within the rete testis, similar to the mal and sperm concentrations were significantly re- reported effects seen in the ERαKO mouse (Hess et al., duced (Eddy et al., 1996), suggesting that the reproduc- 1997a). However, in the mouse there was no seminif- tive tract was also abnormal. A later study by the erous tubular dilation or increase in testis weight (Cho- Eddy's lab showed that ERαKO germ cells trans- et al., 2003); therefore, the effects on spermatogenesis planted into a normal testis (treated with busulphan to could not have been induced by fluid accumulation, but remove native germ cells) were capable of fertilization were more likely due to direct effects of the antiestro- (Mahato et al., 2000). That study clearly pointed to gen on ERβ found in the germ cells (Zhou et al., 2002). extra-testicular regions, such as the efferent ductules It is also possible that indirect effects due to increases and epididymis, being the major source of pathological in testosterone concentration or alterations in paracrine alterations in ERαKO males (Eddy et al., 1996; Hess et factors associated with Leydig cell effects (Akingbemi al., 1997a). et al., 2003). Thus overall, estrogen appears to have a The rete testes in the ERαKO mouse and the function in the adult testis, not only in the Leydig cell antiestrogen ICI 182,780 treated male mouse and rat but also possibly within the germinal epithelium. How- are dilated and protrude into the testis (Eddy et al., ever, disruption of this function appears to require an 1996; Hess et al., 1997a; Lee et al., 2000; Oliveira et extended period of inhibition. al., 2001). Based upon these data, we hypothesized that the efferent ductules were either a) occluded due to Estrogen Function In Efferent Ductules excessive reabsorption, or b) dilated due to an inhibi- tion of fluid reabsorption. After careful examination, In all species studied to date, efferent ductules we found the second hypothesis to be true (Fig. 5), as are a major site for estrogen function in the male re- the efferent ductule lumen was dilated markedly when productive tract. The ductules connect rete testis to ERα was inhibited (Hess et al., 1997a; Hess et al., epididymis (Hess, 2002). One-third or more of the head 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Nakai et al., 2001; Oliveira et of the epididymis in man and other mammals contains al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2001; Cho et al., 2003). There these ducts and it was once thought that they simply appeared to be an inhibition of fluid reabsorption and 14 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison Figure 5A. Wild type mouse (WT) showing normally dilated proximal efferent ductules. 5B. In the ERαKO mouse, the proximal efferent ductule lumen is extremely dilated compared to WT. 5C. WT efferent ductule epithelium by light mi- croscopy showing normal columnar height. Nonciliated cells contain lysosomes (L) and endosomes (E) and have a promi- nent microvillus border (M) lining the lumen. Cilia (Ci) protrude into the lumen from the ciliated cell. 5D. ERαKO effer- ent ductule epithelium by light microscopy showing decreased epithelial height. Nonciliated cells contain few cytoplasmic organelles and the microvillus border (M) lining the lumen is greatly reduced. Cilia (Ci) protrude into the lumen from the ciliated cell. possibly a net inward flux of water into the ductal lu- after inhibition for an extended period of time. men (Hess et al., 1997a). Thus, excessive accumulation In the ERαKO and ICI 182,780 treated ro- of fluid in the lumen overloaded the funnel-like ductal dents, the endocytotic apparatus was nearly lost and system that is found in the rodent. As predicted, the accu- other cytoplasmic organelles of the nonciliated epithe- mulation of fluid caused a transient increase in testis lial cells were greatly reduced and scattered randomly weight in ERαKO males between 32-81 days of age and in the efferent ductules (Hess et al., 1997a; Hess et al., then a steady decrease in weight out to 185 days of age, 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Nakai et al., 2001; Zhou et al., when total atrophy was observed (Hess et al., 1997a). 2001). The endocytotic pathway includes apical vesi- These data suggested that long-term atrophy of testes in cles and PAS+ lysosomal granules, which are promi- the knockout mouse was caused by backpressure of the nent in nonciliated cells of normal efferent ductules accumulating luminal fluids, a well-recognized patho- (Hermo and de Melo, 1987; Ilio and Hess, 1994; Clu- genesis found after exposure to various toxicants (Hess low et al., 1998). With ERα inhibition, efferent ductule et al., 1997a; Hess et al., 2000). However, atrophy was epithelium was also flattened and the microvillus bor- only partially induced by the antiestrogen treatment in der was shortened and even absent in some cells (Figs. the adult mice (Cho et al., 2003), but was induced by 5, 6). All of these changes are consistent with a de- long-term treatment with ICI 182,780 in the rat crease in fluid reabsorption, which was observed in the (Oliveira et al., 2001; Oliveira et al., 2002). These data ERαKO male (Hess et al., 1997a). Thus, in the absence have led us to hypothesize that the ERβ that is present of a functional ERα, the apical surface of this reabsorb- within the seminiferous epithelium, which would be ing epithelium is transformed into a non-absorbing blocked in the ICI 182,780 treated males, does have a structure that appears to have lost its terminal differen- role in normal spermatogenesis, but is disrupted only tiation (Al-Awqati et al., 2003). Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 15 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison estrogen. As new ER inhibitors are developed it will be possible to determine the separate contributions of the two receptors in male reproduction. Because both re- ceptors are present in the same cell types of the male reproductive tract, it is possible that ERβ functions to dampen ERα in a manner similar to that found in other tissues (Gustafsson, 2003; Lindberg et al., 2003; Strom et al., 2004). The aromatase knockout mouse (ArKO) does not exhibit the ERαKO and ICI 182,780 (Table 4) treatment phenotypes (Fisher et al., 1998; Robertson et al., 2001; Robertson et al., 2002). This raises several questions regarding the physiology of estrogen in the testis and efferent ductules, but the most likely answer Figure. 6A. Wild type mouse (WT) efferent ductule epithe- lium at higher magnification by electron microscopy. The lies in the fact that ERα is constitutively expressed in nonciliated principal cells are columnar and the apical cyto- the rodent species (Oliveira et al., 2004), although plasm is filled with lysosomes (L) and the endocytotic appa- regulated by testosterone (it is not clear that the recep- ratus (E). The microvillus brush border (M) shows extensive tor in this study was ERα) in the goat (Goyal et al., individual protrusions. N, nucleus. 6B. ERαKO efferent 1998). The ArKO mouse, which lacks estrogen, most ductule epithelium at higher magnification by electron mi- likely still expresses ERα abundantly in the efferent croscopy. The nonciliated principal cells are short and the ductules. If so, this will be an excellent example of apical cytoplasm lacks the typical lysosomes and endocytotic ligand-independent activity of ERα, which could main- apparatus. The microvillus brush border (M) consists of short irregular protrusions. The nuclei (N) are somewhat distorted tain NHE3 expression and subsequent ion transport and and flattened. fluid reabsorption. Evidence has been accumulating that ERα can be activated in the absence of ligand by The ERαKO mouse provided the first strong several mechanisms; the most well established being evidence that estrogen, or more specifically, a func- EGF induced tyrosine phosphorylation of ERα tional ERα, is involved in the regulation of fluid trans- (Coleman and Smith, 2001; Marquez et al., 2001). Ac- port in the male reproductive tract, and responsible for tivation of MAP kinase induces ERα translocation to increasing the concentration of sperm as they enter the the nucleus (Osborne et al., 2001; Lu et al., 2002) and epididymis. Subsequent studies have shown that the recently it was shown that acetylation of ERα by p300 major Na+ transporter in the efferent ductule epithet- cofactors also provides a ligand-independent mecha- lium (NHE3) is down regulated in the ERαKO male nism for ERα signaling (Wang et al., 2001a). It is pos- reproductive tract). Both the mRNA and NHE3 protein sible that fluid reabsorption in the efferent ductules are decreased substantially in ERαKO and ICI 182,780 commands extreme important factors? for maintenance treated efferent ductule tissue (Zhou et al., 2001; of fertility such that down regulation of ion transporter Oliveira et al., 2002). Because the ERαKO mouse expression in this epithelium requires the loss of more lacks a functional ERα throughout development, the than one receptor to cause a reduction in fluid and ion antiestrogen treatment studies are the only ones that transport. Thus, it appears that estrogen 'receptor' ac- effectively demonstrate that ERα is essential for adult tion in this epithelium is more important than the function of the efferent ductule epithelium (Lee et al., presence of hormone itself. 2000; Lee et al., 2001a; Zhou et al., 2001; Oliveira et al., 2002; Cho et al., 2003; Oliveira et al., 2003). Estrogen function in epididymis and vas deferens ICI 182,780 treatment of the adult male rat (Oliveira et al., 2001; Oliveira et al., 2002) demon- The epididymis and vas deferens in most spe- strated that there were species differences in response, cies contain only ERβ and not ERα within the epithe- with the rat showing greater variability than the mouse lium (Hess et al., 2002; Hess, 2003). However, binding (Cho et al., 2003). It is interesting that the rat testes studies suggest that estrogen could have an influence in became totally atrophic (Table 4), similar to the this region either during development or possibly in the ERαKO mouse, while the ICI treated mice testes adult. In the first experiment to suggest that estrogen showed only limited atrophic seminiferous tubules and could influence epididymal function in the intact adult partial disruption of spermatogenesis. Other species are mouse, estradiol benzoate plus testosterone propionate currently under investigation and it will be interesting decreased sperm transit times through the tract to determine whether different species and even strains (Meistrich et al., 1975). Estradiol alone was even more of rodents show varying sensitivity to the pure anti- effective and resulted in the passage of immature sperm 16 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison Table 4. Comparison of animal models: the role of estrogen in male reproduction. a b c d e f g h i j k l m Experimental Model ERαKO1 + + + + + + + + + + + - + 2 ERβKO - - - - - - - - - - - + - 3 ERαβKO + + + + + + + + + + + + + ArKO4 + + - + + - - - - - + - + EsulfotransKO5 - Nd + + + Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd + + Nd ICI 182,7806 + +/- +/- +/- + + + + + + + + - Tamoxifen7 -/+ + + +/- + Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd + +/- + Raloxifene8 - - - - - Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd - + Nd Arom Overexpression9 Nd + - Nd + Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd + Nd Aromatase Inhibitor10 + + + + Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd + - +/- Isoflavones (Soy)11 - - - - - Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd - + - a- Infertility or decreased fertility or delayed infertility; b- Increased or decreased LH and/or testosterone; c- Change in testis weight or testicular atrophy d- Seminiferous tubular disruption e- Leydig cell effects f- Efferent ductule luminal dilation g- Decreased efferent ductule epithelial height h- Decreased efferent ductule endocytosis and/or microvilli i- Decreased expression of sodium/hydrogen exchanger 3 and carbonic anhydrase II j- Increased expression of efferent ductule ion transporters k- Effects on sperm, including cauda sperm counts and/or motility l- Effects on prostate or prostate cancer cells m- Effects on sexual behavior n- Nd- Not determined 1 ERαKO: (Lubahn et al., 1989; Lubahn et al., 1993; Eddy et al., 1996; Hess et al., 1997a; Dupont et al., 2000; Hess et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2000; Mahato et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2001a; Ogawa et al., 2000; Mahato et al., 2001; Nakai et al., 2001; Prins et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2001; Akingbemi et al., 2003). 2 ERβKO: (Krege et al., 1998; Dupont et al., 2000; Gustafsson and Warner, 2000; Risbridger et al., 2001; Weihua et al., 2001). 3 ERαβKO: (Couse et al., 1999; Dupont et al., 2000) 4 ArKO: (Fisher et al., 1998; Robertson et al., 2001; Robertson et al., 2002) 5 Estrogen sulfotransferase knockout: (Qian et al., 2001) 6 ICI 182,780: Mouse; (Hess et al., 1997a; Lee et al., 2000; Cho et al., 2003); Rat; (Oliveira et al., 2001; Oliveira et al., 2002); Prostate; ( Huynh et al., 2001; Turner et al., 2001; Ho, 2004); Human Sperm; (Aquila et al., 2004) 7 Tamoxifen: (Schill and Landthaler, 1981; Buvat et al., 1983; Danner et al., 1983; Brigante et al., 1985; Dony et al., 1985; Noci et al., 1985; Rozenboim et al., 1986; 1989; Robinzon et al., 1990; Minucci et al., 1997; Li, 1991; Chou et al., 1992; Gill- Sharma et al., 1993; Kotoulas et al., 1994; Adamopoulos et al., 1997; Belmonte et al., 1998; Gopalkrishnan et al., 1998; Parte et al., 2000; Du Mond et al., 2001; Gill-Sharma et al., 2001; Padmalatha Rai and Vijayalaxmi, 2001; Saberwal et al., 2002; Gill-Sharma et al., 2003; Nam et al., 2003; Sethi-Saberwal et al., 2003; Corrada et al., 2004) 8 Raloxifene: ( Neubauer et al., 1993; Neubauer et al., 1995; Hoyt et al., 1998;) 9 Arom Overexpression: (Hiramatsu et al., 1997; Fowler et al., 2000; Gill et al., 2001; Luthra et al., 2003; Simpson, 2003) 10 Aromatase Inhibitor: (Trunet et al., 1993; Ulisse et al., 1994; Panno et al., 1995; Shetty et al., 1998; Hayes et al., 2001; Hayes et al., 2000; Mauras et al., 2000; Turner et al., 2000; Omura et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2002; Luthra et al., 2003; Leder et al., 2004;) 11 Isoflavones (soy): ( Mitchell et al., 2001; Robertson et al., 2002; Morrissey and Watson, 2003; Faqi et al., 2004) into the cauda epididymis, resulting in total sterility. endogenous testosterone. A more recent study has The study did not determine effects on serum hormone shown that reducing serum testosterone or blocking concentrations, which leaves open the possibility that androgen receptor function will also decrease sperm estrogen was not acting directly, but instead interfering transit time through the proximal segment of the epidi- with gonadotropin secretions and the production of dymis (Klinefelter and Suarez, 1997). Other studies Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 17 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison have shown that estrogen can influence contractions of fertilizing ability of epididymal sperm (Lubicz- the reproductive tract (Markus et al., 1980; Elmallah et Nawrocki, 1974). Although other specific effects have al., 1995; Velasco et al., 1997). This potential mecha- been noted after estrogen treatment, it is not clear nism for estrogen action in the epididymis should be whether or not the effects on the epididymis were direct further studied, as environmental estrogens, when given or indirect. In general, the effects of castration on the developmentally, also inhibit sperm transit time in the epididymis are reversible by testosterone administra- adult male reproductive tract (Gray et al., 1995). tion and estrogen is antagonistic (Jones et al., 1980; Other studies have shown that estrogen, even Ma et al., 1998). Therefore, the question of estrogen's in the presence of maintenance levels of testosterone, importance in regulation of the epididymis and vas def- produces harmful effects on the epididymis and reduces erens remains unanswered. Figure. 7. This summarizes the presence of P450aromatase, estrogen receptors (ER) and targets for estrogen function and dys- function in the male reproductive tract. In the adult testis of many species, Leydig (LC) and germ cells (round spermatids-rs; elongated spermatids-es) and sperm express aromatase. Sertoli cells (SC) in the adult do not synthesize estrogen to any great extent. Estrogen (E2) synthesized by these sources target the abundance of ERα and ERβ found down stream in the efferent ductules. Estrogen does influence Leydig cell function but questions remain regarding its effect on the germ cells. In the mouse there are many epithelial cell types that contain ERα along the reproductive tract, but in other species only the efferent duc- tules express this receptor, while ERβ is nearly ubiquitous in epithelial cells of testis and epididymis of all species examined. Estrogen's primary function in the male tract is the regulation of fluid reabsorption in the efferent ductules via ERα, which increases the concentration of sperm prior to entering the epididymis. Disruption of ERα results in decreased Na+ transport and thus decreased water (H2O) and fluid reabsorption. This inhibition is mediated by a decrease in the expression of NHE3 mRNA and protein and also decreases in carbonic anhydrase II (CAII) and aquaporin I (AQP-1) proteins. There is also an in- crease in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein and mRNA, which adds to the NHE3 effect by secreting Cl- into the lumen (Lee et al., 2001a). This inhibition (indicated by ) of fluid reabsorption results in the dilution of cauda epididymal sperm, disruption of sperm morphology, and eventual decreased fertility. In addition to this primary regula- tion, estrogen is also responsible for maintaining a differentiated epithelial morphology, which includes the expression of mi- crovilli, lysosomes through an unknown mechanism that is apparently associated with cell polarity. Summary and Conclusions cells remain questionable. Estrogen is synthesized by the germ cells, producing a relatively high concentra- Estrogen is found in abundance in the testis, tion in rete testis fluid, which then targets estrogen re- rete testis fluid and semen of many species. Its impor- ceptors that are abundant in efferent ductule epithelium tance in the regulation of the male reproductive tract is in all species examined. In some species, ERα is pre- now evident (Fig. 7), with convincing data showing sent even in the epididymis, but in most species only direct effects on the function of Leydig cells and the ERβ is expressed in epididymis and vas deferens. Es- efferent ductule epithelium. Potential effects on germ trogen's primary function in the male tract appears to 18 Anim. Reprod., v.1.n.1, p.5-30, Oct./Dec. 2004 Hess et al. The role of estrogen in testis and the male reproductive tract: a review and species comparison be the regulation of fluid reabsorption in the efferent Aquila S, Sisci D, Gentile M, Carpino A, Middea E, ductules via ERα. Disruption of the receptor results in Catalano S, Rago V, Ando S. 2003. Towards a dilution of cauda epididymal sperm, disruption of physiological role for cytochrome P450 aromatase in sperm morphology, inhibition of sodium transport and ejaculated human sperm. Hum Reprod, 18:1650-1659. subsequent water reabsorption, increased secretion of Aquila S, Sisci D, Gentile M, Middea E, Catalano S, Cl-, and eventual decreased fertility. The mechanism by Carpino A, Rago V, Ando S. 2004. Estrogen Recep- which estrogen regulates epithelial morphology, such tor (ER)alpha and ERbeta Are Both Expressed in Hu- as microvillus growth and expression of endosomes man Ejaculated Spermatozoa: Evidence of Their Direct and lysosomes, remains to be determined. Based upon Interaction with Phosphatidylinositol-3-OH Kinase/Akt the data reviewed, we must conclude that estrogen or Pathway. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 89:1443-1451. its receptor is important for male reproductive tract Arai Y, Mori T, Suzuki Y, Bern H. 1983. Long-term function in numerous species. effects of perinatal exposure to sex steroids and dieth- ylstilbestrol on the reproductive system of male mam- Acknowledgments mals. Int Rev Cytol, 84:235-265. Arenas MI, Royuela M, Lobo MV, Alfaro JM, We would like to acknowledge past and present Fraile B, Paniagua R. 2001. Androgen receptor (AR), trainees and visiting scientists whose work has helped estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-alpha) and estrogen recep- to shape our understanding of estrogen function in the tor-beta (ER-beta) expression in the testis of the newt, male: Hiro Nitta, Ken Ilio, Yu-Chyu Chen, Dan Gist, Triturus marmoratus marmoratus during the annual Masaaki Nakai, Sarah Janssen, Lynn Janulis, Hyun cycle. J Anat, 199:465-472. 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