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A deformable stamp for patterning a surface. The stamp can be placed in contact with an entire 3-dimensional object, such as a rod, in a single step. The stamp can also be used to pattern the inside of a tube or rolled over a surface to form a continuous pattern. The stamp may also be used for fluidic patterning by flowing material through channels defined by raised and recessed portions in the surface of the stamp as it contacts the substrate. The stamp may be used to deposit self-assembled monolayers, biological materials, metals, polymers, ceramics, or a variety of other materials. The patterned substrates may be used in a variety of engineering and medical applications.
1. A method of patterning a surface, comprising:
providing a stamp having a lumen with a portal;
passing at least a portion of a substrate into the lumen via the portal; and
modulating the dimensions of the stamp by reducing a cross sectional dimension of the lumen to place an interior stamping surface of the lumen in contact with an exterior surface of the substrate and thereby producing a pattern on the exterior surface of the substrate.
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placing the channel in fluidic communication with a fluid source; and
causing a fluid to flow from the fluid source through a path bounded by the raised portions and the substrate.
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41. A method of patterning a surface, comprising:
providing a stamp having a lumen with a first portal;
providing a substrate having a lumen with a second portal;
passing at least a portion of the stamp into the lumen of the substrate via the second portal; and
modulating the dimensions of the stamp by increasing a cross sectional dimension of the lumen of the stamp to place an exterior stamping surface of the stamp in contact with an interior surface within the lumen of the substrate and thereby producing a pattern on the interior surface within the lumen of the substrate.
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This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. �119(e) to U.S. provisional application 60/225,175 filed Aug. 14, 2000, entitled Deformable Stamp for Patterning Three-Dimensional Surfaces, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.
This invention pertains to a method and apparatus for patterning a surface and, more specifically, a method and apparatus through which a three dimensional surface may be stamped in a single step.
The rapid pace of recent technological development has been made possible by improvements in microfabrication techniques. One technology that has fueled the development of microfabrication for semiconductor processing as well as other manufacturing fields is photolithography. In a typical positive photolithographic process, a mask is first placed over a silicon wafer which has been coated with a resist. The resist is then exposed to light through the mask, rendering the exposed sections of the resist non-adherent to the silicon wafer. Finally, the exposed resist is rinsed away to reveal the silicon substrate. In a negative photolithographic process, the non-exposed portions of the resist are removed. The substrate can then be processed, for example, by etching or plating, producing a pattern on the surface. However, one drawback to this process is that the initial lithographic process is limited to line-of-sight applications. In addition, traditional lithographic techniques require the use of large quantities of liquid etchants that are difficult to recycle and dangerous to dispose of. It is also difficult to vary the chemical or mechanical properties across different sections of the surface using traditional lithographic techniques. Moreover, these techniques frequently employ ion-bombardment methods that may damage the substrate. Traditional lithographic techniques are also incapable of processing large surface areas; the largest area that can be fabricated for semiconductor applications is approximately one square inch. To fabricate larger areas, a number of smaller areas must be processed and subsequently fitted together, a costly and time consuming process (c.f. U.S. Pat. No. 5,669,303).
The development of organic self-assembled monolayers (SAM) has addressed some of the problems associated with traditional lithographic techniques. These monolayers can be patterned, enabling the variation of surface properties over a given area (C. S. Dulcey, et al., Langmuir, 12:1638, 1996). Some methods of SAM formation involve the use of bulk solutions of the individual molecules in different solvents. The substrate on which the SAM is to be deposited is immersed in the solution, from which the molecules chemisorb or physisorb onto the substrate surface.
Another recently developed technique, contact printing, combines the advantages of self-assembled monolayers and lithographic techniques. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,512,131 to Kumar, et al., and 5,900,160 to Whitesides, et al., the entire contents of both of which are incorporated herein by reference, disclose a method of patterning the surface of a material by stamping it with a chemical species that can form a self-assembled monolayer. The surface of the stamp is coated with the chemical species and the stamp placed in contact with a surface to transfer the chemical species from the stamp to the surface, leaving a self-assembled monolayer deposited according to a pattern on the surface of the stamp. The portions of the surface that are not covered by a SAM may be etched, plated, or filled in with an additional SAM-forming species. To form a pattern on a cylindrical surface, the surface may be rolled over a planar stamp. Alternatively, a planar stamp can be used to form a pattern on a large surface by disposing it about a cylinder that is rolled over the surface to be patterned. Examples of the patterning of a cylindrical surface are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,951,881, to Rogers, et al., the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
For procedures in which either the stamp or the stamped surface is rolled, alignment of the stamp with the surface is critical. If a cylindrical substrate is rolled over the stamp, the alignment of the substrate with the stamp must be precisely adjusted to ensure that, if a portion of the substrate is double stamped, then only previously stamped portions of the substrate are double stamped. Otherwise, portions of the surface which were not meant to be stamped may come in contact with the raised features of the stamp, resulting in deposition of material. For a large area stamp, the stamp must also be carefully placed to ensure that any distortion due to gravity does not result in misplacement of the stamp on the surface. A number of methods of ensuring proper alignment and stamp placement are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,925,259 to Biebuyck, et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,669,303 to Maracas, et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,947,027 to Burgin, et al. Deformation of the stamp is also addressed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,937,758 and 5,817,242 to Maracas, et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,621 to Turner, et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,725,788 to Maracas, et al. These inventors also describe a number of applications exploiting surfaces patterned with self-assembled monolayers. U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,446 to Maracas, et al., discloses a method and apparatus for placing a biological reagent on a substrate using contact stamping technique. U.S. Pat. No. 5,976,826 to Singhvi, et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,776,748 to Singhvi, et al., disclose methods and devices for forming patterned arrangements of cells and other biological materials on a surface separated by cytophobic reagents. U.S. Pat. No. 5,727,977 to Maracas, et al., discloses a method for manufacturing a field-effect device such as a transistor using contact-stamping techniques. U.S. Pat. No. 6,020,047 to Everhart discloses a method of contact printing self-assembled monolayers on metallized thermoplastic films.
There remains a need, however, for the development of methods for the stamping of three-dimensional surfaces, particularly for those methods that result in improved registration and alignment of the stamp and more efficient processing.
In one aspect, the invention is a method of stamping a surface. The method comprises providing a stamp having a stamping surface, disposing a substrate proximate to the stamping surface, and modulating the dimensions of the stamp to place the stamping surface in contact with substrate. The method may further comprise modulating the dimensions of the stamp before the step of disposing the substrate. The method may further comprise modulating the dimensions of the stamp to facilitate removal of the stamping surface from the substrate. Modulating the dimensions may comprise applying a mechanical stress or an electrical stimulus, removing a mechanical stress or an electrical stimulus, creating or venting a vacuum, applying or removing a magnetic field, or any combination of the above. The mechanical stress may comprise a positive or negative hoop stress, a tensile stress, or a hydrostatic stress. The entirety of the stamp may be modulated at the same time. At least one of the stamping surface and a surface of the substrate may exhibit convexity in at least one dimension not resulting from a surface texture or pattern. The method may further comprise exposing the substrate to electromagnetic radiation by transmitting said radiation through the stamp, portions of which may be opaque. The stamping surface may comprise a pattern comprising at least one channel defined by raised portions on the surface of the stamp. A lateral dimension of a channel or raised portion may be 100 nm or greater.
In an alternative embodiment, the method may further comprise disposing a tranferable material on the stamping surface. When the stamp is in contact with the substrate, the tranferable material is transferred to the substrate in a pattern corresponding to the pattern on the stamping surface. The transferable material may comprise a self-assembled monolayer forming molecule, protein, amino acid or nucleic acid sequence, synthetic peptide, simple or complex carbohydrate, lipid, organic or inorganic molecule, polymer precursor, organometallic complex, metal, metallic species in a solver, metal colloid in a solvent, electroless plating precursor, biological or non-biological particles suspended in a medium, or any combination of the above.
The method may further comprise placing the channel in fluidic communication with a fluid source and causing a fluid to flow from the fluid source through a path bounded by the raised portions and the substrate. The fluid may comprise an etchant, a polymer precursor, a sol-gel fluid, a metal colloid and a solvent, cells suspended in a medium, a metallic species in a solvent, a metal, an electroplating solution, an electroless plating solution, a reactive gas, or any combination of the above. In another embodiment, the fluid may comprise a solution comprising a self-assembled monolayer forming molecule, a protein, an amino acid sequence, a synthetic peptide, a simple or complex carbohydrate, a nucleic acid sequence, a lipid, an organic or inorganic molecule, a polymer precursor, and electroless plating precursor, an organometallic complex, a metallic species, cells in a medium, or any combination of the above.
The method may further comprise of adjusting the temperature of the fluid while it is in the channel or exposing it to an electric current or magnetic field, electromagnetic radiation, or ultraviolet light. The method may further comprise adjusting the temperature of the substrate while the fluid is in the channel. A lateral dimension of a channel or raised portion may be 200 nm or greater.
The method may further comprise disposing a material on the substrate before passing the fluid through the channels. A component of the fluid may interact with the material when it is disposed in the channel. The fluid may comprise a carrier and a material dissolved or suspended in the carrier, and the method may further comprise allowing the carrier to dissipate and the material to harden. The method may further comprise wetting the stamping surface with a fluid. When the stamping surface is in contact with the area to be patterned, an interaction of the substrate with the fluid may cause the substrate to develop a surface texture in a pattern conforming to the stamping surface of the stamp. The fluid may dissolve or swell the substrate, and the substrate may comprise a polymer.
The method may further comprise removing the stamp from the substrate and placing at least a portion of a second stamp against the substrate. Before placing, the method may comprise disposing the substrate in a specific position with respect to the second stamp. Disposing may comprise positioning the substrate with a micrometer stage, optically setting a mark on the substrate with respect to the stamp, or aligning a mark on the substrate with a laser. The substrate may comprise a metallic material, a semiconductor material, a ceramic, or a polymer. Alternatively, the substrate may comprise a coating of one of these materials. The method may further comprise disposing a material on the substrate before the step of placing.
The stamp may comprise a lumen having a portal providing communication between the lumen and an exterior of the stamp. The walls of the stamp defining the lumen may be characterized by flat, curved, or a combination of these. The stamp may comprise a tube or balloon. A cross section of the stamp may include two raised portions having an angular distance between 0� and 180� therebetween. The stamp may have a diameter of at least 100 μm. The stamp and the substrate may have the same or different shapes, and the stamp may be adapted and constructed to contact a substrate having an open, partially closed, or closed surface.
In another embodiment, the invention is a method of patterning a surface. The method comprises providing an elastomeric stamp having a textured surface, and placing at least a portion of the stamp against a substrate having an area to be patterned. The entire area to be patterned by the stamp is in contact with the textured surface when the stamp is placed against the substrate, at least one of the textured surface and a surface of the substrate exhibits convexity and at least one direction not resulting from a surface texture or pattern. The method may further comprise disposing a transferable material on the textured surface. When the stamp is in contact with the substrate, the transferable material is transferred to the substrate in a pattern correspondence to a pattern defined by the textured surface. The texture may comprise at least one channel defined by raised portions on the textured surface of the stamp. The method may further comprise placing the channel in fluidic communication with a fluid source and causing a fluid to flow from the fluid source into the channel along a surface of the substrate. Alternatively, the method may further comprise wetting the textured surface with a fluid. When the textured fluid is in contact with the area to be patterned, an interaction of the substrate with the fluid causes the substrate to develop a surface texture in a pattern conforming to the textured surface of the stamp. The method may further comprise exposing the substrate to electromagnetic radiation by transmitting said radiation through the stamp, wherein the texture comprises regions opaque to said radiation. The substrate may comprise a metallic material, a semiconductor material, a ceramic, a glass, a polymer, or any combination of the above, or a coating comprising any of the above.
In another embodiment, the invention is a deformable stamp having a textured surface. The stamp is arranged and constructed to adopt at least two conformations. In the first conformation, a substrate can be placed proximate to the stamp, and, in the second conformation, a textured surface on the stamp is in contact with the substrate. The stamp may comprise an elastomer. The elastomer may comprise poly(dimethylsiloxane), poly(butadiene), poly (acrylamide), poly(butylstyrene), a chlorosilane polymer, an epoxy polymer, a diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A, a polymer having an aminated aromatic backbone, a polymer having a triazine backbone, a polymer having a cycloaliphatic backbone, a co- or block-polymer of any of the above, or any combination of the above.
The textured surface may comprise at least one channel defined by a raised portion of the stamp. A lateral dimension of a channel or a raised portion may be 100 nm or greater. The stamp may exhibit convexity in at least one dimension not resulting from a surface texture or pattern. The stamp may comprise a lumen having a portal providing communication between the lumen and an exterior of the stamp, and walls of the stamp defining the lumen may be characterized by flat, curved, or a combination of these. The stamp may comprise one or two portals, or more. A cross section of the stamp may include two raised portions having an angular distance between 0� and 180� therebetween. The lumen may have a diameter of at least 100 μm. The stamp may comprise an interior and an exterior surface. Either the exterior or the interior surface may comprise the textured surface. The channel and the raised portions may each define a pattern characterized by being continuous, discontinuous, or a combination of both. The substrate and the stamp may have the same or different shapes. The stamp may be adapted and constructed to conform to a substrate having a shape selected from at least partially closed, open, multi-planar, and non-planar.
In another aspect, the invention is a method of releasing a molded polymer from a master. The method comprises swelling the polymer with a solvent, and sliding or disengaging the polymer from the master. The molded polymer has a partially closed surface. The polymer may have a relief pattern molded into at least one surface. The polymer may comprise an elastomer. The solvent may comprise dichloromethane, toluene, tetrahydrofuran, benzene, chloroform or carbon tetrachloride. The method may further comprise inverting the stamp.
In another aspect, the invention is a method of continuously stamping a substrate. The method comprises providing a stamp having an at least partially closed surface, placing the stamp in contact with a substrate, and causing relative advancement of the substrate with respect to the stamp. The stamp revolves about an axis parallel to a surface of the substrate; the stamp has a pattern defined by raised portions on a surface that contacts the substrate; and an ink is transferred from the stamp to the substrate where the substrate comes in contact with the raised portions. The pattern defined by the raised portions may be continuous with respect to a circumference of the stamp. The method may further comprise re-inking the stamp. Re-inking may comprise placing a reservoir of ink and fluidic contact with the stamp. The stamp is re-inked as it revolves. The method may further comprise choosing a speak of stamp revolution such that a re-inked portion of the stamp will dry before the re-inked portion of the stamp contacts the substrate. The method may further comprise drying a re-inked portion of the stamp before the re-inked portion contacts the substrate.
In another aspect, the invention is an apparatus for patterning a substrate. The apparatus comprises a chamber having first and second ends, wherein the chamber is in fluidic communication with a vacuum source, first and second caps sealably affixed to the first and second ends of the vacuum source, first and second rigid tubes sealably attached to the first and second ends, wherein the first and second tubes provide a conduit from an exterior of the apparatus to an interior of the apparatus, and a stamp having first and second and sealably attached to an interior and of each of the first and second rigid tubes. The caps and tubes may be removable. A lumen of the stamp is in fluidic communication with the exterior of the chamber. At least one of the seals may be effected by an o-ring, gasket, or threaded fitting. A chamber may comprise two portions that are sealably connected.
In another aspect, the invention is a photolithographic mask comprising a deformable stamp. The stamp may be at least translucent, and a textured surface on the stamp may comprise interspersed opaque and at least translucent regions. The stamp may comprise an interior and an exterior surface, and the textured surface may comprise the interior or the exterior surface. The opaque regions may be metalized, and the stamp may comprise a transparent material. The texture may comprise at least one channel defined by raised portions on the textured surface of the mask, and the opaque regions may comprise an end surface of the raised portions or walls of the channel. The texture may comprise the interspersed opaque and at least translucent regions.
In another aspect, the invention is a method of inking a stamp. The method comprises providing a re-inker having a surface and placing the surface of the re-inker in contact with a stamping surface of the stamp. Placing comprises modulating the dimensions of the stamp or contacting a portion of the stamping surface with the re-inker and a substrate to be patterned by the stamp simultaneously. The re-inker may have first and second surfaces not in fluidic communication with one another. The re-inker may be incorporated into a substrate to be patterned by the stamp or may comprise a molecular gel. The stamping surface of the stamp may be an interior or an exterior surface. Before placing the surface of the re-inker in contact with the stamping surface, the re-inker may be disposed between the stamp and the substrate or first and second portions of the re-inker may be separated along a seam and the portions disposed between the stamp and the substrate.
The invention is described with reference to the several figures of the drawing, in which,
In recognition of the need for improved stamping methods, the present invention provides methods and apparatus for patterning a three dimensional surface. In general, in one aspect, the method of the present invention involves 1) providing a stamp having a stamping surface; 2) disposing a substrate proximate to the stamping surface, and 3) modulating the dimensions of the stamp to place the stamping surface in contact with the substrate. In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of stamping a surface comprising: 1) providing an elastomeric stamp having a textured surface; and 2) placing at least a portion of the stamp against a substrate having an area to be patterned, wherein the entire area to be patterned by the stamp may be in contact with the textured surface when the stamp is placed against the substrate, and at least one of the textured surface and a surface of the substrate exhibits convexity that does not result from a surface texture or pattern. In certain preferred embodiments, the pattern comprises at least one channel defined by raised portions on the patterned surface of the stamp, and the method further comprises causing a fluid to flow into the channels along the surface of the substrate when the textured surface is in contact with the substrate. The textured surface may be coated with an ink, a material that is transferred to the substrate upon contact.
Certain exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described in more detail below; however, it will be appreciated that these are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention.
Exemplary Production and Characteristics of the Stamp
As described above in the method of the invention, the patterning process begins with production of the stamp. In general, the stamp is fabricated from an elastomer cast from a master mold. The master is typically metallic but may be formed from any stiff material. For example, the master may be a glass rod electroplated with metal, a polymer, a ceramic, a composite material, or a substrate that has been coated with a resist and then patterned such that the remaining resist defines the desired pattern. It will be appreciated that the master need only be stiff enough to provide a precise mold for the material for the stamp. To produce the master, a pattern corresponding to the inverse of the pattern desired for the stamp is cut or patterned onto a blank. One of ordinary skill in the art will realize that the cutting tool may be controlled by any computer-aided design (CAD) program. A variety of techniques may be exploited for the production of the master mold. Exemplary techniques include electron discharge machining (EDM), micromachining, laser ablation, rolling microcontact printing, or electroplating, among others. The only limitations on the pattern are the resolution of the fabrication technique, the imagination of the CAD stamp designer, and the specification for the final product.
The stamp need not be the same shape as the substrate. For example, a cylindrical stamp may be employed to pattern a substrate having a square cross-section. Indeed, the substrate need not have a closed or partially closed surface; it may define an open surface without a lumen. For example, the substrate may define a portion of a sphere or spheroid or include a saddle point. The substrate may also take the shape of a variety of other open or partially closed three-dimensional surfaces. The stamp for such a surface may be formed as a balloon having a stamping surface shaped to pattern the substrate (
It will also be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art that the stamp may be fabricated with a variety of patterns. The pattern may be defined by raised and recessed portions formed in the surface of the stamp. The outer surfaces of the raised portions eventually contact the substrate. Together with the recessed portions, they define channels for conducting fluid along a surface of the substrate. The recessed and the raised portions may each define a continuous or discontinuous pattern or a combination of these. For example, the recessed portions may define two separate networks of interconnected channels. The channels may also extend to the edge of the stamp. They may take a variety of shapes including geometric patterns of various symmetries, spirals, rings, lines, arrays of geometric shapes such as circles, squares or other two dimensional shapes, parallel or interlacing channels, or any other pattern which the practitioner can imagine. While the channels are referenced in the plural, it will be understood that the pattern may comprise a single channel or other continuous pattern. A wide variety of patterns are disclosed by the references discussed in the background of the invention and are examples that may be generated by the methods of the present invention.
Referring to
The stamp may be formed from any elastomer, for example, poly(butadiene), poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), poly (acrylamide), poly(butylstyrene), polymerized chlorosilanes such as methylchlorosilanes, ethylchlorosilanes, and phenylchlorosilanes, and random or block co-polymers of these elastomers. Epoxy polymers, characterized by a three-member cyclic ether group commonly referred to as an epoxy group, 1,2-epoxide, or oxirane, may also be used to form the stamp. For example, diglycidyl ethers of bisphenol A or compounds based on aromatic amine, triazine, or cycloaliphatic backbones may be used as well. The stamp may be formed of combinations of materials; however, at least the stamping surface should comprise an absorbent material selected to absorb SAM-forming solutions and other materials to be stamped. Preferably, the stamping surface is free of materials that are prone to leaching by the preferred SAM solvents of the invention.
Alternatively, the stamp itself may be fabricated from a polymer gel as disclosed by U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,621, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. In certain preferred embodiments, polymer gels having pore sizes of about 5 to about 200 nm enable the material to be stamped to flow within the gel. It will be appreciated that the gel composition may be adapted to the chemical properties of the stamped material. For example, hydrogels such as those based on acrylic acids esterified to a sugar and cross-linked polyacrylamides may be used to stamp hydrophilic molecules. Furthermore, polymers and liquid carriers may be chosen to stamp macromolecules such polymers and proteins onto a surface.
The stiffness and mechanical behavior of the stamp may be controlled by adjusting the cross-link density of the polymer by standard polymer chemistry techniques. Alternatively, the stiffness of the stamp may be adjusted by the polymer composition, molecular weight, microstructure (branched vs. linear, cross-link density, chain texture and alignment, etc.). It will be appreciated that elasticity enables the stamping surface to closely conform to the substrate and completely transfer the stamped material to minute irregularities in the surface to be stamped or non-planar or multi-planar surfaces. However, the stamp should not be so elastic such that the stamping surface flares or otherwise deforms while in contact with a substrate, resulting in blurring of the desired pattern. Addition of a backing will promote anisotropic behavior by removing a direction in which the stamp can expand or move. For example, a PDMS stamp may be backed by a stiffer elastomer. Alternatively, the stamp may be stiffened by fibers or a mesh embedded in the elastomer. The fibers may be fabricated from nylon, carbon, or other materials that can be drawn into fibers or woven
One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the material selected for use in fabrication of the stamp is also selected so as not to undergo substantial shape changes when the stamp is formed. For example, when a monomer or other hardenable fluid is brought into contact with the mold, curing should not expand or shrink the elastomer by more than 3-5%, preferably 1-2%, of its uncured volume. Preferably, no significant shape change should occur upon hardening. Any change in the pattern of the stamping surface should be within tolerable limits of precision for patterns transferred to the substrate surface, as defined by the specification for the final product. However, according to the method of the present invention, the stamp material may be reversibly swellable. Such swelling may facilitate removal of the stamp from the mold and be reversed upon extraction of the solvent from the stamp.
A tubular stamp according to the present invention may be mounted in a patterning apparatus to pattern a substrate. An exemplary apparatus is depicted in
If the stamp is used to deposit a material onto a surface via contact printing, it is inked with a material capable of chemisorption or physisorption onto a surface. The inking may, for example, be accomplished by contacting the stamp with a piece of lint-free paper, a cotton swab, a sponge, or other absorbent moistened with the ink, pouring the ink directly onto the stamp, or disposing the stamp about an inker in the same manner as for contact printing of a substrate (
For the purposes of this disclosure, the ink is the material actually deposited by the stamp and comprises the material to be deposited with or without a solvent or carrier. Following inking, the solvent is evaporated, leaving the material on the surface of the stamp to be patterned on the substrate. Any solvent into which the material dissolves or in which the material may be suspended or emulsified may be employed, but one which facilitates absorption by the stamping surface is preferred. For example, organic solvents such as ethanol, THF, acetone, diethyl ether, toluene, isooctane, etc., may be used as carriers. Ethanol is particularly preferred for PDMS stamps. The concentration of the SAM-forming compound in the ink solution may be as low as 1 μM. A concentration below 100 mM is preferred, and concentrations of 1-10 mM are particularly preferred.
After the stamp is inked, a substrate is placed proximate to it so that the stamping surface opposes the substrate surface. The process of disposing the stamp against a substrate exploits the elastomeric properties of the stamp. In the embodiment wherein a tubular stamp is used to pattern the exterior of a columnar substrate, the stamp 10 is fixed in the apparatus 40 and the stamp modulated to increase its diameter (
Alternatively, the substrate may be passed around the outside of the stamp and patterned on its interior. In this embodiment, the stamp 10 is passed inside a lumen of the substrate 16 and its interior lumen pressurized, expanding the stamp to place it in contact with the inside surface of the substrate (
The material can be transferred to the stamping surface very rapidly. The stamp and substrate need not be held in contact for an extended period; contact times of about 1s are sufficient to deposit a SAM on a surface, although contact may be maintained for substantially longer periods of time. In addition, several stampings may be performed between inking steps.
It will be appreciated that the dimensions of the stamping surface may be modulated by a variety of methods. For the apparatus described in
Alternatively, the stamping surface may be formed as a thin layer on a backing comprising an electrostrictive or magnetostrictive material. The remainder of the stamp is molded on the opposing side of the backing. When a voltage or magnetic field is applied across the material, it deforms, modulating the dimensions of the stamp. If the stamp is formed from a gel, modification of the pH of a solution in contact with the gel will cause shrinkage or expansion of the stamp. Reversal of the pH change will return the stamp to its original shape.
It will be appreciated that long sections of substrate material may be processed according to the first method by repeating the modulation and release process several times, each time advancing the substrate by a predetermined interval. If it is undesirable to process a portion of the substrate twice with the same stamp, the interval should be at least as great as the length of the textured portion of the stamp. Thus, in another aspect, the present invention provides a method for the processing of large amounts of substrate in a continuous manner without cutting the substrate into sections. However, it is not necessary to produce a continuous pattern, and the substrate may be advanced to provide a small gap between patterned areas. Alternatively, a single substrate may be passed through a series of several stamps, each of which may either deposit or enable fluidic patterning of the substrate with a different pattern or ink.
Multiple or batch stamping processes may require careful alignment and placement of the substrate with respect to the stamp. For example, a mark may be placed on the substrate which enables it to be aligned with respect to the stamp optically, for example, with a laser. Alternatively, a robotic system or micrometer stage may be used to precisely advance the substrate in the apparatus or series of apparatuses.
In addition, during a continuous stamping process, the stamp itself must be re-inked. This may be accomplished by a variety of techniques. Of course, the substrate material may be removed from the apparatus, for example, by cutting the substrate material between the processed and unprocessed portions and inking the stamp as described above. In another embodiment, an inker having an exterior diameter greater than the substrate but less than the interior diameter of the modulated stamp (or vice versa, depending on whether an interior or an exterior surface of the surface is being stamped) may be passed into the apparatus. The surface of the inker opposed to the substrate is fabricated from a "leak proof" material to prevent ink from contacting the substrate. The stamp is allowed to contact the inker and is then modulated so that the inker may be removed. For applications where a substrate is stamped several times, or where it is undesirable to cut sections of the substrate following stamping, the inker 71 (
In another embodiment, a molecular gel may be disposed about the non-stamping portion of the stamp. Such a gel may be polymerized in situ or fabricated separately and placed against the stamp. For example, the gel may be a cylinder arranged concentrically within or outside of the stamp, depending on where the stamping surface is located. The gel acts as a reservoir, and, because it is distributed over the entirety of the stamp, it reduces the diffusion length the ink must traverse to reach the stamping surface. The ink for the gel may in turn be replenished according to any of the techniques described thus far. Alternatively, the stamp may be placed in fluidic communication with a reservoir of ink and the ink allowed to diffuse into the gel.
The use of a polymer gel for contact printing enables the stamp to be re-inked from its exterior. The material to be stamped is transported to the exterior of the stamp and flows through its pores to the stamping surface, obviating separation of the stamp, which creates a seam which may make modulation of the stamp's dimensions more difficult. An inker similar to that described in the above paragraph may still be used to resupply the gel from its exterior—such an inker would not require an ink-impermeable "leak proof" surface.
The stamp may also be employed to print a large area of substrate with a continuous pattern. Instead of placing the stamp 10 in apparatus 40, it is mounted on a rotor and placed in contact with a substrate 76. The substrate is advanced against the stamp and the stamp rotated to match the advance (
The resolution of the techniques embodied by the instant invention is defined by two variables: first, the resolution of the pattern, and second, the size of the stamp. The stamp can be fabricated to produce a pattern having a resolution ranging from several centimeters to a micron or less, e.g., 500, 200, or 100 nm. For example, patterns having a resolution of 100 μm may be used to adhere single cells. The stamp itself can be fabricated with an interior diameter of as little as 100 μm. Of course, if the stamp is not cylindrical, then portions of the stamp may be less than 100 μm across. The interior diameter of the stamp may range up to several centimeters. In addition, stamps may be fabricated with lengths of 30 cm or more because the spherical or tubular shape of the stamp provides mechanical support. The only limit on the size of the stamp is the ability to produce an apparatus which can contain it. Longer stamps may need to be supported at intervals to prevent them from sagging under their own weight.
The resolution of the stamp also determines the optimal height of the raised features of the stamp. The raised features should be approximately the same size as the smallest feature of the stamp. However, the raised and recessed portions may have very different dimensions. For example, a stamp may have raised portions measuring 50 μm across with recessed portions only 1 μm across.
The resolution of the stamp in traditional planar printing techniques is also limited by the diameter of the substrate when printing on curved substrates. Traditional planar stamping techniques have difficulty placing widely disbursed patterns on small diameter objects. If the diameter of a tubular substrate is less than the distance between raised portions on the stamp, then the substrate will actually fall in the channels and get stuck. On the other hand, such a substrate may be patterned in a single step by the processes of the instant invention. Indeed, if one desired to pattern a cylindrical substrate with two lines of deposited material extending longitudinally on opposite sides of the cylinder, one could produce such a pattern in a single step using the techniques of the invention.
The stamp in turn may be used to deposit a plethora of materials on substrates drawn from all classes of materials, including metals, ceramics, glasses, semiconductors, polymers and composites. The substrate may also include a coating comprising, for example, any of these materials or composites thereof.
In one embodiment, the stamp may be used to deposit materials which form self-assembled monolayers. Such molecules generally have at least three sections. The anchor section of the molecule forms a bond with the substrate, attaching the entire molecule thereto. Adjacent to the anchor is a tether that acts as a spacer and is generally inert with respect to subsequent processing steps or interactions, although it is not required to be so. Any tether that does not disrupt SAM packing and that allows the SAM layer to be somewhat impermeable to various reagents (e.g., etchants) or organic or aqueous environments is suitable. The tether may be polar, non-polar, halogenated (e.g., with fluorine), positively charged, negatively charged, or uncharged. For example, a saturated or unsaturated, linear or branched alkyl, aryl, or other hydrocarbon spacer may be used. Any combination of these functional groups may also be used in the tether. Exemplary tethers include long chain (e.g., C4-C17 or more) hydrocarbon groups. A terminal group is at the opposite end of the molecule, adjacent to the tether, and comprises a functionality which confers a specific surface property on the assembled monolayer, which functionality is typically exposed when the SAM is formed. Terminal groups with hydroxyl or amine moieties will tend to be hydrophilic, while halogenated and aliphatic groups will tend to be hydrophobic. Aromatic groups contribute to specific chemical interactions and are also photoactive. Alternatively, if no specific terminal group is chosen, the end of the tether essentially forms the terminal group. For example, hydrocarbon tethers present a methyl terminal group, while a halogenated or hydroxylated hydrocarbon will present a halogenated or hydroxylated terminal group. Alternatively, a functional group exposed at the surface of the SAM, but which is not the terminal end of a SAM-forming molecule, may be the terminal group.
The anchor group chosen for the SAM will depend partially on the substrate material. For example, organosilanes may be deposited on silicon, glass, fused silica, or any substrate with an oxidized surface. Carboxylic acids may also be used as anchors to oxidized substrates such as silica, alumina, quartz, glass, and other oxidized surfaces, including oxidized polymeric surfaces. Metals such as gold, silver, copper, cadmium, zinc, palladium, platinum, mercury, lead, iron, chromium, manganese, tungsten, and alloys of these may be patterned by forming thiol, sulfide, and disulfide bonds with molecules having sulfur-containing anchor groups. In addition, molecules may be attached to aluminum substrates via a phosphonic acid (PO3 2−) tether. Nitriles and isonitriles may be used to attach molecules to platinum and palladium, and copper and aluminum may be coated with a SAM via a hydroxamic acid. Other functional groups available suitable for use as anchors include acid chlorides, anhydrides, sulfonyl groups, phosphoryl and phosphonic groups, hydroxyl groups, and amino acid groups. Of course, SAMs may be deposited on semiconductor materials such as germanium, gallium, arsenic, and gallium arsenide. Unoxidized polymeric materials, especially those having electron-rich elements in their backbones or side chains, may also be used as substrates. Exemplary materials include epoxy compounds, polysulfones, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymers, and biodegradable polymers such as polyanhydrides, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, and copolymers of these materials. Non-conductive materials may also be used as substrates.
A wide variety of chemical groups may serve as the terminal portion of the SAM. The terminal group may be hydrophobic or hydrophilic or selectively bind various biological or other chemical species. For example, ionic, non-ionic, polar, non-polar, halogenated, alkyl, aryl or other functionalities may be exploited as part of the terminal group. A non-limiting, exemplary list of such functional groups includes those employed as tether groups as well as: —OH, —CONH—, —CONHCO—, —NH2, —NH—, —COOH, —COOR, —CSNH—, —NO2 −, —SO 2 −, —RCOR—, —RCSR—, —RSR, —ROR—, —PO4 3−, —OSO3 −2, —SO3 −, —PO3 2−, NHxR4−x +, —COO−, —SOO−, —RSOR—, —CONR2, —SO3H, —(OCH2CH2)nOH (where n=1-20), —CH3, —PO3H−, —2-imidazole, —N(CH3)2, —NR2, —PO3H2, —CN, —(CF2)nCF3 (where n=1-20), olefins, hydrocarbons, etc. In the above list, R is hydrogen or an organic group such as a hydrocarbon or fluorinated hydrocarbon. As used herein, the term "hydrocarbon" includes aliphatic, aromatic, cyclic, polycyclic, unsubstituted, and substituted organics, e.g., alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, alkaryl, aralkyl, etc. The hydrocarbon group may, for example, comprise a methyl, propenyl, ethynyl, cyclohexyl, phenyl, tolyl, naphthyl, and benzyl group. The term "fluorinated hydrocarbon" is meant to refer to partially and fully fluorinated derivatives, in addition to perfluorinated derivatives of the above-described hydrocarbon groups. A wide variety of functionalities that may be used to modify the chemical properties are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,776,748, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
Materials may also be stamped directly on the surface rather than through SAMs or via a tether. For example, precursor colloids for electroless plating may be deposited. Methods for printing such colloids are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,060,121, to Hidber, et al., the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, metals may be deposited directly or via SAMs that include one or more chelating agents. Particles such as latex beads may be suspended in a solvent and stamped on the surface, as may inorganic, metallic, and organometallic species that can physisorb or chemisorb to the substrate.
Biological molecules or molecular fragments may also be patterned on a substrate using the techniques of this invention. Such molecules may be incorporated into an ink and directly stamped onto a polystyrene or other polymeric substrate to which the biological molecule adheres. The stamp is placed against the substrate and held there until the molecules have adhered through physical or chemical interactions to the substrate. Exemplary molecules include extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin, collagen, and laminin, albumin, amino acid sequences, cell adhesion sequences such as -R-G-D-, synthetic peptides, various proteins and enzymes, and sugars such as lectin binding sugars. Biological molecules that form SAMs may be deposited directly onto the substrate. All of these molecules may be anchored to the surface via a separate functionality, such as a silane or thiol attached to the molecule via a tether. Proteins may also be immobilized via hydrophobic interactions. Molecules may also be chosen that have specific receptors, such as antibodies and antigens, cell surface receptors and ligands, etc. These molecules may modify a surface, enabling the immobilization of biological molecules, molecular fragments, cells, or cell components. In addition, a variety of biological materials can be used to prevent the attachment of others. For example, intact and fractionated cells and organelles, lipids, simple and complex carbohydrates, and some proteins and nucleic acids have a low affinity for biological molecules and cells. Many of the organic molecules described above also discourage adherence of biological materials. The '446 patent describes additional methods of depositing biological materials such as oligonucleotides on a surface. The '748 patent provides additional methods of modifying deposited materials to alter their properties.
It will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art that the substrate may be modified before deposition of the desired molecule. For example, both metallic and non-metallic surfaces may be oxidized. The surface of a polymeric material may be stiffened by increasing the cross-link density, for example, by exposure to ultraviolet light. Ion bombardment may be used to modify the surface chemistry of a variety of materials. In addition, surfaces may be coated completely with a resist or other material which is then patterned by the stamp. Any biological, non-biological, organic, or inorganic material, or a combination of any of these, may be used as a surface modifier. For example, polymeric or metallic coatings may be employed. While the substrate of the present invention generally comprises a smooth surface, this is not required, and surface modifiers may be deposited to form various surface textures such as particles, strands, precipitates, gels, sheets, tubing, spheres, containers, capillaries, pads, slices, films, slides, etc. The substrate may additionally include a bonding layer, e.g., a thin titanium or chromium film, to promote adhesion between the surface material and the underlying substrate. The penetration depth or coating thickness may be adjusted depending on the modification technique, coating material, or the desired application. For example, the amount of material altered by ion bombardment depends on both ionic energy and exposure time.
The stamps of the invention may also be used for fluidic patterning. In one embodiment, a stamp 10 having a continuous pattern of channels 60 is placed against the substrate 16 (
Fluidic patterning can exploit many of the advantages of bulk deposition from a solution while using smaller quantities of material. In but one embodiment, electroless plating may be performed by passing an activating agent such as a palladium, gold, or platinum colloid through the channels 60 or even coating the entire substrate with the agent before placement of the stamp. Following deposition of the activating agent, the portions of the substrate unprotected by the stamp may be metallized. The process may be repeated to deposit a series of layers on the substrate. In addition, a sensitizing agent such as a palladium, tin, or copper halide may be flowed through channels 60 before (or in place of) patterning the colloid or used to coat the entire substrate. In another embodiment, if the activating agent is patterned on the surface either fluidically or via contact printing, the entire substrate may be subsequently immersed in the metallization solution, or the surface may be metallized with a plurality of metals in a pattern defined by one or more stamps. Besides palladium colloids and other activating agents, colloids of other materials may also be deposited on the surface via fluidic patterning, as disclosed by the '121 patent. As the solvent evaporates or is otherwise dispersed from the colloid, either before or after removal of the stamp, the suspended particles form a network on the substrate surface. Biological materials may also be deposited on the substrate through fluidic patterning techniques. Indeed, if a surface is previously prepared with a specific receptor, fluidic patterning may be used to selectively deposit one molecule out of a solution which may contain many biological species. In addition, reactive gases may also be passed through the channels to react additively or subtractively with the surface of the substrate. Alternatively, if a magnetic material is to be deposited on the substrate, it may be desirable to expose the material to a magnetic field as it is flowed over the substrate, resulting in a permanent magnetic field in the deposited material.
In addition, materials may be fluidically patterned on the substrate via sol-gel processes. A precursor, typically an organometallic compound or an inorganic salt, is subjected to a series of hydrolysis, condensation, and polymerization reactions. The resulting "sol," a suspension of macromolecular particles in a liquid carrier, is patterned on the substrate and allowed to condense into a gel phase. Further drying and heat treatment converts the gel into a solid phase. The chemical processes which make up the sol-gel method are well known in the art and are described, for example, in The Physics and Chemistry of Sol-Gel Processing, by Brinker, et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1990), the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
A variety of materials with flowable precursors may also be patterned on a substrate via fluidic techniques. Polymers may be patterned on the substrate by flowing a liquid pre-polymer or monomer through the channels and exposing it to ultraviolet light through a transparent stamp. Self-curing polymers such as epoxies may also be patterned on the surface. In another embodiment, the fluid passed across the substrate may be exposed to an electric or magnetic field or heated. For example, a heated fluid may be passed through the network of voids, and it is also possible to heat the fluid directly as it passes over the substrate. For example, a metallic substrate may also serve as a heater through resistive heating, or the entire apparatus may be heated, for example, in an oven or radiatively. Sol-gel techniques may be exploited to form ceramics and other materials with the channels in the stamp serving as a mold for the sol. Colloids, inorganic materials, hybrid organic/inorganic materials, and biological materials can also be molded on the surface. The material is dissolved or suspended in a solvent and passed into the network of voids, following which the solvent is allowed to dissipate, leaving the molded material behind. The material may be cross-linked or crystallized as the solvent is dissipated. Other techniques for hardening flowable material in capillaries may also be exploited for use with the stamps of the invention. Exemplary techniques are described in U.S. Patent No. 6,004,444 and Xia, et al., "Soft Lithography," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed, 37:550-575(1998), the entire contents of both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
Because the fluid is circulated from an inlet to an outlet through the channels defined by the raised portions of the stamp, fluidic patterning may also be exploited to perform electrochemical reactions on the substrate surface. For example, a metal or other conductive material may be electroplated on a substrate by establishing a current through the flowing material. The conductive substrate serves as one electrode, and a counter electrode is placed in the reservoir which feeds the solution through the network of voids. Alternatively, the counter electrode may be disposed in a reservoir where the used plating solution is collected. Materials may also be galvanically removed from the substrate by reversing the voltage.
Indeed, fluidic patterning techniques may be applied to a variety of applications where nothing is deposited on the surface. For example, a stamp may be disposed on a substrate having a catalytic surface, for example, platinum, and a fluid containing the reagents for a chemical reaction passed through the channels. The unreacted molecules are fed into the channels on the stamp and emerge as the reaction product. Similarly, a surface coated with a particular enzyme, for example, a protein kinase, may facilitate a biological reaction.
Additionally, the substrate surface may be patterned via stamping or fluidic patterning, or both. The stamp may deposit one material via contact printing and provide a path for fluidic patterning simultaneously. Because SAMs are autophobic, that is, they repel additional molecules of the same composition to prevent the formation of a second layer, the stamp can be left in contact with the substrate surface for extended periods of time.
The techniques of the invention can also be used for solvent-assisted micromolding (SAMIM). The stamp is wetted with a material that is a good solvent for the substrate, which may be polymeric. When the stamp contacts the substrate, the solvent either swells or dissolves a thin layer of the substrate material, causing it to conform to the pattern of the stamping surface. Once the solvent dissipates, the polymer solidifies to form a relief having a pattern complimentary to that of the stamp. SAMIM can be used to mold the substrate in a variety of patterns; the patterned substrate may be further processed via contact printing, fluidic patterning, or other surface modification techniques such as oxidation. Appropriate solvents for swelling polymeric substrates include those that can be used to swell the stamp and other organic solvents and are selected for the particular substrate. For example, acetone is a good solvent for polystyrene, and toluene is appropriate for use with polycarbonate.
In another embodiment, the stamp may be used as a mask, for example, for photolithography. The stamp is metallized with the desired pattern, for example, by electroless techniques or etching, to form a mask. Such a mask may be fabricated by the techniques of the invention. For example, a metallic or other opaque coating 74 may be deposited on the ends of the raised portions of the stamp or the interior walls (including the sides and bottoms) of the recessed portions (
Uses and Processing of Patterned Surfaces
One of ordinary skill in the art will realize that, once the surface of the substrate has been patterned, it may be processed in a variety of ways. In one embodiment, the deposited material itself can be chemically modified. For example, functional groups at the surface of monolayers may be further functionalized, i. e., by the addition of an amine to a carboxyl-terminated molecule. Alternatively, functionalities containing aromatic groups may be modified photoactively. For example, phenyltrichlorosilane films become detached from a substrate when exposed to intense violet radiation. A SAM-forming compound may include an exposed functionality including a protecting group that may be removed to effect further modification of the SAM. For example, a photoremovable protecting group may be selected such that it may be removed without disturbing of the SAM of which it is a part. Such protective groups may be selected from a wide variety of positive light-reactive groups, e.g., nitroaromatic compounds such as o-nitrobenzyl derivatives or benzylsulfonyl. Photoremovable protective groups are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,854, issued Sep. 1, 1992, and incorporated herein by reference, as well as articles by Patchornik (J. Am. Chem Soc., 92:6333, 1970) and Amit, et al. (J. Org. Chem., 39:192, 1974), the contents of both of which are incorporated herein by reference. Alternately, a reactive group may be provided that may be activated or deactivated by electron beam lithography, x-ray lithography, photolithography, or any other radiation patterning method. Reactive groups, especially acids, bases, and biological molecules, may also be activated or deactivated chemically, for example, by a change in pH. Such protections and deprotections may aid in chemical or physical modification of an existing surface-bound SAM, for example in lengthening existing molecular species forming the SAM. Such a modification is described in the '854 patent.
In addition, the surface of the substrate may be modified by adding material to either the patterned or the blank portions of the substrate. Exemplary modifications such as electroless plating are discussed above. In another example, cells or other biological materials may be patterned on the substrate. If the pattern comprises a relatively hydrophilic material (e.g., a metallic substrate or an aminated terminal group) separated by hydrophobic patches (e.g., a polymer substrate or methyl—terminated group), hydrophilic molecules such as DNA will deposited selectively on the hydrophilic portions of the substrate. In contrast, if the patterned material is relatively cytophilic (e.g. matrix protein), then cells or cell membrane materials will attach selectively to the patterned portions of the substrate. The specificity of attachment of biological materials may be increased by patterning specific proteins or receptors on the substrate surface. A variety of organic and inorganic materials may also be deposited on appropriately patterned surfaces. For example, a surface patterned with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) may be used to facilitate selective deposition of iron or other metals onto the substrate. Hydrophilic molecules, such as those containing oxygen or nitrogen, will selectively attach via electrostatic forces to the hydrophilic portions of an appropriately patterned substrate. For example, these molecules will selectively deposit on the sections of a plastic substrate patterned with a hydrophilic SAM and the unpatterned sections of a metallic substrate patterned with a hydrophobic SAM. Alternatively, two SAMs having tethers of different lengths or different terminal groups may be patterned on a surface to vary its chemical and/or topological characteristics. Topological variation can be exploited to laterally stabilize cells or facilitate chemical reactions. Patterned material, such as SAMs, polymers, and plated metals, may also be used as a resist to prevent etching of the underlying substrate. The unpatterned portions of the substrate may then be partially or completely removed through the use of appropriate etchants.
It will also be appreciated that these stamps and methods described herein have applications in a variety of fields including biology, chemistry, physics, medicine, and engineering. Some of the chemical applications such as microanalysis and microcatalysis have already been discussed above in connection with fluidic patterning. The techniques of the invention can be used to produce microelectrodes in a variety of configurations by metallizing selected portions of a non-conductive substrate or by etching selected portions of a metallized substrate. For instance, an electrode may be fabricated with two interdigitating electrodes. A material placed across the electrodes will complete the circuit and produce a reading on a volt- or ammeter if it is conductive. These electrodes can also be used in a variety of medical applications. For example, it is well known that electric current run along the surface of an endoscope has anti-bacterial properties. While the source of the anti-bacterial activity is not completely understood, disposing an electrode on a catheter or endoscope to create the effect is a basic application of the techniques of the instant invention. In addition, the size of the electrodes can be modified along the surface of the endoscope.
In but one example, the electrodes may be configured to provide resistive heating at the end of the endoscope. Many endoscopic procedures, such as sigmoidoscopy, use dual purpose catheters which can be used to both visualize tissue inside the body and perform a second function such as taking a biopsy. A catheter equipped with an electrode can be used to visualize tissue and remove diseased material, such as a polyp, by burning it off, much as a dermatologist burns a mole off a patient's skin. Alternatively, electrodes on an endoscope may be used to do in situ chemical analysis within the body. As before, an analyte flowing across interdigitating electrodes will complete the circuit between them, resulting in a measurable electrical current or voltage. Electrodes disposed on an endoscope may also be used to induce electroluminescence in a tissue or fluid. Electrical voltage transmitted through the electrode stimulates luminescence in the fluid which can then be detected by a fiber-optic cable disposed within the endoscope. Of course, electrodes may be used to directly measure electrical activity inside a body, for example, in the brain, or the metallized catheter may be employed as an antenna. If the catheter is partially metallized in the pattern of a tight coil, it can also serve as an inductor. Instead of receiving power directly, the components patterned onto the catheter can be powered via inductive coupling with a power source external to the patient. The principle of inductive coupling is based on the behavior of a coil, in which a magnetic field will be induced when electrical current is passed through the coil, and vice versa. The current induced in the catheter can be used to perform any of the techniques described above or any other technique where it is desirable to deliver current to a patternable device in a patient.
Ligands such as antibodies or DNA may also be disposed on the surface of an endoscope. The coated section of the endoscope may be sheathed until it has reached the area of interest, at which the ligands will be exposed to the local environment. These ligands can then be used to detect the presence of a variety of analytes at a specific site in the body. Alternatively, radioactivity detectors may be disposed on the surface of the endoscope to detect the presence or absence of a radioactive label that had previously been injected into a patient.
In addition to short-term medical devices such as the endoscope described above, long-term medical devices such as coronary stents may also be fabricated according to the techniques of the invention. Indeed, the fabrication of a stent is one of the basic applications of the techniques that enable the patterning of a cylinder. A stamp is fabricated having the pattern desired for the stent. The size of the various raised portions of the stamp are adjusted to allow the final product, the stent, to expand and contract along microjoints defined by the patterning. A resist is patterned on the surface of a substrate and the unpatterned substrate completely etched to leave a mesh matching the pattern of the original stamp. Material is deposited on the mesh to increase its thickness and optimize the mechanical and structural properties of the completed stent. The surface is then modified to improve biocompatibility. For example, the surface may be coated with a molecule to prevent blood clots or the adhesion of lipoproteins or plaque. Alternatively, the stent may be coated with molecules that promote specific cellular activity in that section of the artery. The substrate is removed and the completed stent inserted into an artery. The order of these steps may be changed. For example, the substrate may be removed before the biological coatings are deposited, enabling the interior and exterior surfaces of the stent to be coated.
In addition, the techniques of the invention can also be used to produce scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Either contact printing or fluidic patterning may be exploited to pattern surface modifying materials on a variety of scaffolds. Both cell adhesion proteins and regulatory agents, in addition to integrins, cell adhesion sequences such as -R-G-D-, and other biologically active molecules, may be deposited onto the scaffold. In addition, scaffolds may be fabricated using the techniques of the invention. For example, a tubular implant for use in nerve regeneration may be patterned to create a surface texture which would promote the elongation of axons and the myelination of nervous tissues. These textured surfaces may additionally be coated with extracellular matrix materials and other biological molecules which promote cell growth, adhesion, migration, or elongation. Scaffolds may also be produced for use in tissue engineering of blood vessels. The interior and exterior surfaces of these scaffolds may be patterned to promote the development of epithelial and endothelial cells. In addition, these implants may be patterned either additively or subtractively to promote the growth of smooth muscle tissue, a component of the arterial wall. Cylinders and other tubular shapes may also be produced to facilitate the regeneration of connective tissues such as tendon and ligament. For example, in many injuries where a section of the tendon or ligament is crushed, a healing model is proposed in which the undamaged portions of the tissue are fed into opposite ends of a tube which promotes growth of the tissue across the gap between the two ends. This cylinder is preferably biodegradable and may include agents which promote the migration growth and synthetic activity of connective tissue cells such as tenocytes. Substrates can also be fabricated as cylinders which both include the biological agents and are textured to facilitate the migration of cells and the formation of healthy tissue.
The techniques of the invention may also be used to print biodegradable or biocompatible coatings on long term prostheses such as pacemakers and hip implants. These coatings may be designed to promote cell or tissue adhesion or to discourage a biological process such as clotting. The invention may also be used to provide mechanical texture to such implants to facilitate their retention in the body. Patterning and contact printing techniques may also be used in the fabrication in such materials. For example, they may be used to fabricate electrodes for pacemakers that have a larger effective surface area than current electrodes.
The invention also has potential applications in applied physics, for example, in the production of diffraction gratings in optical fibers. Optical fibers are formed from a core of a first material that is surrounded by a cladding of a second material having a lower index of refraction. The mechanical integrity of the fiber is protected by forming a jacket, preferably polymeric, about the surface of the cladding. In some optical fibers, the core material experiences a change in refractive index upon exposure to light at a specific wavelength and a threshold intensity. By forming a pattern of an opaque material about the surface of an optical fiber, the refractive index of the core material of the fiber can be patterned by exposing the patterned fiber to light as described above. Indeed, it is not necessary that the material patterned on the fiber be completely opaque. It only needs to modify the intensity, wavelength, or phase of the radiation to prevent modification of the refractive index of the shielded material or enable differential modification of the refractive index of the masked and unmasked portions. The surface of the fiber may be patterned according to any of the techniques described above. For example, the entire surface may be metallized and a resist placed on the surface to enable removal of the unpatterned metal coating, leaving the resist-coated metal behind to prevent transmission of light into the fiber. Alternatively, the pattern may be placed on the surface through electroless plating. In another embodiment, the stamping surface of a transparent stamp may be patterned with an opaque material. The stamp can be used as a mask through which a fiber-optic cable disposed in the lumen can be irradiated.
Exemplary materials that may be used to produce patterned optical fibers include those which exhibit a change in refractive index upon exposure to radiation, especially at UV or visible wavelengths, including glass, germanium oxide glass, silica doped with germanium, europium or cerium, x-ray treated glass, lithium and strontium barium niobates, barium titanate, polycrystalline materials, photopolymers, and Kerr-effect materials. While lasers provide a convenient source of patterning radiation, any source of radiation may be used so long as it can induce the desired change in refractive index and is compatible with the pattern on the optical fiber. Frequency doubled or recently developed blue lasers can also be used to practice the invention (Nakamura, et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 70: 868, 1997). Additional information on applications and exemplary materials for patterned fibers can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,951,881, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
The techniques of the invention may also be used to create microcoils for electrical applications. A glass tube or rod may be stamped with a metallic coating such as silver and then electroplated to build up a thick coil, preferably 1 micrometer thick. In an alternative embodiment, the coil may be formed via fluidic patterning of the metallic precursor followed by electrochemical deposition of the microcoil material using the fluidic patterning techniques of the invention. If the stamped metallic coating is not adherent, a primer coat such as titanium may be provided or the metal may be deposited using electroless techniques. Alternatively, the entire tube may be coated with a metal using conventional techniques such as evaporation. This coating may then be selectively etched and electroplated using the techniques of the invention. Multiple coils may be provided by patterning the interior and exterior of a tube or by combining tubes of various diameters concentrically.
Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of the specification or practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with the true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims.
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Rheumatoid arthritis.
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
website. Available at:
http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health%5FInfo/Rheumatic%5FDisease/default.asp. Updated August 2014. Accessed November 3, 2014.
Rheumatoid arthritis. The Merck Manual Professional Edition website. Available at: http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/musculoskeletal%5Fand%5Fconnective%5Ftissue%5Fdisorders/joint%5Fdisorders/rheumatoid%5Farthritis%5Fra.html. Updated May 2013. Accessed November 3, 2014.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at:
http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. Updated April 10, 2014. Accessed November 3, 2014.
Using heat and cold for pain relief. Arthritis Foundation website. Available at:
http://www.arthritistoday.org/arthritis-treatment/natural-and-alternative-treatments/remedies-and-therapies/heat-cold-for-pain-relief.php. November 3, 2014.
Welch V, Brosseau L, et al. Thermotherapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(4):CD002826.
Occupational therapy for arthritis. Arthritis Foundation website. Available at:
http://www.arthritistoday.org/arthritis-treatment/natural-and-alternative-treatments/remedies-and-therapies/arthritis-occupational-therapy.php. November 3, 2014.
This content is reviewed regularly and is updated when new and relevant evidence is made available. This information is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with questions regarding a medical condition.
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Fire Management Plan Update
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The Environmental Assessment is currently being completed by a company contracted by the National Park Service. Based upon preliminary work on the Environmental Assessment, Fire Management staff is updating the previous draft of the Fire Management Plan. The Plan is projected to be completed and approved this year.


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Sarah Moore was CFO leading up to one of the largest bank failures in U.S. history.
LAKE BUENA VISTA, Fla. — Gaming, solar projects and small business lending are promising niches.
Three credit unions have filled the spots left behind by their retiring longtime CEOs, including one that had to fill the seat for the first time in its 37-year history.
Do recent survey results - three in 10 Americans have not visited a branch in the past six month - mean the death of branches is rapidly approaching?
CEO moves top list of credit union people news this week.
Bankers say consumers want both digital services and branches, but research suggests consumers have cooled on brick-and-mortar, especially for transactions.
Consumers might not often use branches located nearby, but they like having the option available.
Consumers might not always use branches located nearby, but they like having the option available.
New deal expands the partnership between the nation's largest credit union and one of the nation's largest merchant processors.
February's service interruptions potentially affected hundreds of credit unions. DI blames data center component failure.


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Gourmet Smokeless Indoor Grill by Smart Planet
Stroncare means "to break." Here, in this old recipe from Ancona, the homemade pasta strands are broken into pieces and, according to one version in La cucina nella tradizione ebraica, boiled in meat stock for about two hours! I doubt that so long a time is needed to cook fresh egg pasta. For a real shortcut, use spaghetti broken into pieces and cook it for 10 minutes. Then you can call this minestra spezzata, meaning "broken-up" pieces.
- 3 1/2 to 4 cups all-purpose flour
- 4 jumbo eggs
- Olive oil for working dough plus 2 tablespoons
- 1 small head celery, cut into 1-inch lengths
- 4 tablespoons tomato paste
- Salt and freshly ground pepper to taste
- About 2 1/2 quarts flavorful meat broth
In a large bowl, mound the flour, make a well in the center and break the eggs into the well. Using a fork, beat the eggs until blended, then gradually pull the flour into the well. When all the flour has been incorporated, you will have a rather stiff dough. Turn out onto a lightly floured work surface and knead well until the dough is elastic, about 15 minutes, then cut into several pieces. Dip your fingers into the olive oil, and roll the pieces back and forth on the work surface until they form spaghetti like ropes. Cut the ropes into 2-inch lengths. These are the stroncatelli.
Warm the 2 tablespoons olive oil in a saucepan over medium heat. Add the celery and sauté, until pale gold, about 10 minutes. Stir in the tomato paste and a little water to cook until the celery is tender, about 8 minutes longer. Season with salt and pepper. Set aside.
In a saucepan, bring the meat broth to a boil. Add the stroncatelli and simmer for 20 minutes. Add the celery mixture and cook for about 18 minutes. Ladle into shallow soup bowls to serve.
Recipe reprinted by permission of Chronicle. All rights reserved.
RecID 3302
nutrition information per serving
322 calories; 7g total fat; 138mg cholesterol; 265mg sodium; 44g carbohydrates; 2g fiber; 18g protein
These nutrition facts are calculated according to the ingredients listed in this recipe. Any substitutions will change these facts. Although we strive for accuracy, please note that food manufacturers occasionally change their food formulas, which could affect the calculations as shown.
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IDC just released its latest numbers on the top smartphones by operating system showing iOS and Android continue to collectively dominate the market with both experiencing growth during 2014. Together, iOS and Android grabbed 96.3% of all smartphone shipments, which IDC points out is up from 95.6% in 4Q13 and from 93.8% in calendar year 2013.
AAPL shares reach new record high of $120 following Apple's record Q1 earnings report
Apple's stock soared the day after the company reported its record breaking quarter with over $74 billion in revenue and more than 74 million iPhones sold, and now Apple's stock has reached a new all-time high during trading. The company briefly touched on $120/share during trading this morning and is on track to break its previous record closing high soon. Read more
AAPL up 8% to near record highs, bringing the rest of the market with it
Apple broke many records with its latest quarter reporting $74.6 billion in revenue and $18 billion in profit with 74.4 million iPhones sold, numbers which greatly surpassed both Apple's guidance and the even higher consensus analysts predicted, and Wall Street is taking notice.
Following a dismal day for the market yesterday which saw Apple down a few points ahead of its earnings report—it was soon back on the rise in after hours trading—both Apple and the Dow are climbing this morning largely due to those record numbers yesterday. Hovering around 7.5% higher since opening this morning and occasionally crossing 8%, Apple is positioned to cross its previous record high shortly. Read more
Apple closes at record high with nearly $700B market cap
Update: Apple crosses $700B market cap…
Apple's stock today closed at a record high of $118.62 per share (post 7-1 split) with a market cap of nearly $700 billion at $695.7 billion. Read more
Apple drops 5.7% to fourth place or rises 28% in Q4 U.S. PC shipments, depending who you ask
IDC has announced preliminary PC shipment numbers for the fourth quarter of 2013, with Apple dropping from third to fourth place on the list. Apple shipped about 438,000 fewer machines than the same quarter in the previous year, allowing Lenovo to catch up and overtake them, despite Lenovo's gain of only 163,000 shipped units.
HP, Dell, and Toshiba maintained the same positions as the previous year. While most companies lost a portion of their market share this year, Lenovo and Dell managed to claim most of the free space in the market. Overall the market saw a 1.6% drop over last year's sales—about 285,000 shipments.
Gartner, on the other hand, reports that Apple actually gained quite a bit of market share. How these two numbers are so far apart is a mystery, but it's possible that IDC included Surface-style tablets in its numbers, potentially skewing the results in comparison to Gartner's numbers. Read more
IDC: iPad drops below Android with 40% share of worldwide tablet market, Apple still top vendor
Research firm IDC is out today with preliminary data from its quarterly study tracking worldwide tablet market share putting Apple at 40% market share compared to Android's 56.5% of the market in Q1 2013. In the year ago quarter, Apple held 58.1% of the market surpassing Android's 39.4%. IDC says Android shipments were increased thanks to strong growth of Samsung's smaller sized tablets, while ASUS moved into the number 3 spot with 350.0% year over year growth due to strong demand for the Nexus 7:
ASUS managed to move into the number 3 vendor spot as it continued to see decent tablet shipment demand from the highly marketed Nexus 7 device. But, with Google's I/O conference right around the corner and expectations of an imminent device refresh, the company will need to find a way to sustain its momentum. Amazon fell to the number 4 position, once again the victim of a highly seasonal product cycle.
Despite Apple taking number two behind Android for tablet shipments by operating system, it remains the top vendor by OEM taking a 39.6% share of the market vs Samsung's 17.9% and 5.5% for ASUS. IDC notes that Apple actually exceeded expectations for Q1, where it typically experiences a drop off in shipments, by selling 19.5 million units compared to a forecast of 18.7 million: Read more
Apple's evolution leaves it between two camps for investors, explains low share price (AAPL)
An insightful Reuters blog by financial journalist Felix Salmon suggests that Apple's surprisingly low share price may be due to the evolving nature of the company leaving it between two sets of investors.
Conservative investors, who like slow-growing stocks with high dividends, are constitutionally uncomfortable with the volatility inherent in the tech world. And technology investors, who are happy taking that kind of risk, want to see substantial growth. Apple, notwithstanding the fact that it's one of the most valuable companies in the world, is falling through the capital-markets cracks.
Apple always used to be the company which surprised and delighted investors and customers alike. Its guidance to investors was deliberately pessimistic, blowing through those figures when it reported actual revenue and earnings. It was notoriously secretive about new products, launching new ones in a playful manner with Steve Jobs' famous 'One more thing' moments… Read more
AAPL earnings preview: what the analysts expect
Update: AAPL blew away expectations.
At 4.30pm Eastern, Apple will report its Q2 results (and we'll be covering it live). It's the day when the last three months of analyst predictions and forecasts come home to roost.
Apple's newly-realistic guidance revenue is $41b to $43b, with margins of 37.5 – 38.5 percent. These numbers would suggest earnings per share of just over $10 … Read more
iPhone, iPad leads in business, profitability, Android leads in smartphone marketshare
Henry McCracken over at Time has done us all a favor by collecting various data sets that illustrate the state of iOS versus Android.
The data ranges from device marketshare to revenue from app downloads, which presents some stark differences between the two platforms.
We unpack the results below.
comScore: Apple increases lead as top smartphone vendor in US, iOS steals market share from Android
Research firm comScore is out with its usual monthly report that ranks the top smartphone OEMs and platforms for the three-month period ending in February. Apple continues to grow its lead this month as top OEM in the U.S., jumping 3.9-percent from November to 38.9-percent of the market and increasing its lead on the second biggest OEM by subscribers, Samsung:
Samsung ranked second with 21.3 percent market share (up 1 percentage point), followed by HTC with 9.3 percent share, Motorola with 8.4 percent and LG with 6.8 percent.
It's important to point out that the shipped vs. sold argument doesn't apply to comScore's results, as its data comes from surveys tracking smartphone subscribers and usage and not sales or units shipped. Google grabs the spot as top smartphone platform at the end of February, but Apple continues to close the gap capturing 38.9-percent of the market (up from 35 percent) compared to Google's 51.7-percent (down from 53.7-percent): Read more
Apple grabs 61.5-percent of global tablet market in Q3, 10 times over closest competitor (Samsung)
Last time we checked with research firm IDC, they listed Apple at 68.3-percent of the worldwide tablet market with approximately 9.3 million units of the iPad 2 shipped in quarter two of 2011. While the firm's estimates for Q3 saw a drop to 61.5-percent of the market, Apple still leads the market and increased shipments from the 9.3 million in Q2 to approximately 11.1 million units in Q3.
To put that in perspective, Apple's closest competitor, Samsung, is over 10 times behind with just 5.6-percent of the market. The overall tablet market increased 23.9-percent to approximately 18.1 million units, representing a 264.5-percent increase from the year-ago quarter.
As for where Apple stands in comparison to the overall Android tablet market, IDC expects Android tablet market share to increase rapidly in Q4 from just 33.2-percent in Q3 to 40.3-percent. It's important to note that IDC recently included "media tablets," such as Amazon's Kindle Fire and Barnes & Noble's Nook Tablet, in their worldwide tablet market estimates. These additions will more than likely account for much of the increase.
This morning, Morgan Stanley significantly raised its forecasts for 2012, predicting Apple could possibly sell 90 million iPads during the year (in addition to 190 million iPhones). The analysts apparently have high hopes for Android 4.0's ability to offer a competitive alternative to iPad going forward:
Apple moves up to the #2 spot in Brand Value
Top U.S. Brands via Brand Finance
According to Brand Finance, a London-based research firm, Apple is now second to Google in brand value after a 33% increase to overtake IBM, Microsoft, Wal-Mart, and GE for the first time. The firm attributes Apple's success to "innovative design, loyal consumer base and well-executed marketing activities."
Google, sitting in the top spot with a brand value of almost $48.3 billion was up 9% among the top 30 U.S. brands analyzed by the Brand Finance. Other top companies other than Apple and Google all seen a significant drop including Microsoft down 9% to $39 billion, and IBM and AT&T both experiencing decreases from the year previous.


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"I am my own worst enemy, I'm not the smartest mutha fucka n shit and I don't pretend to be."
Last edited by IrkenInvader; 06-30-2012 at 02:32 PM.
I will never forget you, CBot. You will always be my one true love.
I will never forget you, CBot. You will always be my one true love.
I'd rather have nothing than have a lie.
Say my name and his in the same breath, I dare you to say they taste they same.
Join the Best e-fed, EWNCW!! Send a PM to Tommy Thunder, Kingstrem, TheJosephBanks, S.E.Zero, TTC or me filling the form you'll find in the Inferno Thread.
Find all the EWNCW links here.
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SAN DIEGO – MMAjunkie.com is on scene and reporting live from Saturday's "Strikeforce: Rousey vs. Kaufman" event at Valley View Casino Center in San Diego.
Be sure to follow along with the latest card updates in our "Strikeforce: Rousey vs. Kaufman" live-results post, and then discuss the event in the comments section below.
Round-by-round updates and official results begin at approximately 8 p.m. ET (5 p.m. PT local time) for the preliminary card and 10 p.m. ET for the main card.


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From MagicPedia, the free online encyclopedia for magicians by magicians.
Revision as of 04:35, 30 July 2010 by Philippe billot (Talk | contribs)
Holdout (or Hold-out) is any device that feeds objects (e.g. coins, cards) to or from the hand. Usually associated with gambling cheats.
Jack Miller was an expert on the use of the holdout and popularized it.
- See also Pull which only vanishes objects from the hand.
- Holdout Miracles, by Ed Mishell (1969)
- Bob Kohler / Bob Fitch Professional Holdout (2002)
- Antonio Romero Perfect Holdout (2002)
- Victor Trabucco Holdout (2004)
- Jack Miller Holdout (DVD 2007)
- Michel Invisible Hand (2008)


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Overseas, KEH always has some good gear: they are not too expensive, although shipping is s-l-o-w.
slow? i had a delivery from Keh to my front door in altona, vic. in 4 days! my only criticism of Keh is that their shipping is expensive and they don't provide a cheaper alternative


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Most anticipated game in 03?
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Horus the pointy master
Join Date: Jul 2002
Location: Salt Lake City, UT
Posts: 4,609
Originally posted by 99 to Life
there is no way it'll take anyone 12 hours to play Doom III. Condisdering you'll have to do certain missions over and over to get it the way you want it....it could take months. Like Half-Life.....I played it for about 3 months until I became a pro at it and then it took me another 3 or 4 months to play the whole game from the start....so it took about half a year. Well......that was mainly because the new patches made the old save games worthless....so you had to start all over again and they kept releasing new ones.....they're still releasing 'em....lol.....bastards. Doom III will take me a while to finish.....since I only play games late at night when the rest of the family is sleeping. Then when the sun comes up I go to sleep until about 12 PM. so now way will it take anyone 12 hours unless they don't screw up once in the game, don't have to go piss, don't eat.....don't sleep, and God knows what else.
Just play the damn game! Gosh! man, talk about overdoing it! what do you do? save every 3 steps so that you don't mess something up?!? I mean, the way you say you play games, you totally suck all the fun out of them. Just reading your post made me lose interest in HL and Doom 3... 3 months to beat a game?!!
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Recent Headlines
Cosby said he got drugs to give women for sex
The AP reports that during a 2005 deposition "The Cosby Show" star admitted to giving sedatives to at least one woman.
in Lifestyle
RETAIL THERAPY: Amazon plans massive 'Prime Day' to celebrate 20th birthday
The online retail giant plans to celebrate two decades of deals and two-day shipping with "more deals than Black Friday."
in Music
Lady Gaga falls over during Monaco show
The "Poker Face" hitmaker tripped over the train of her long gown but managed to keep on going.
Nicolas Cage almost played 'Superman'
And there's video to prove it!
in Music
Ed Sheeran lands role in 'gruesome' new show
The "Thinking Out Loud" hitmaker has landed a role in a top-secret TV pilot.
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Temperature: 73°
High: 86° - Low: 69°


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Robert J. Carey, principal deputy chief information officer at the Department of Defense, announced his retirement in an email to colleagues on March 26.
His last day on the job will be March 28.
Carey has been in his current position since October 2010. Before that, he was CIO of the Department of the Navy, where he succeeded Dave Wennergren in 2006.
Carey's federal career spans more than three decades. His service began with the Army at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in 1982. He switched to the Department of the Navy in 1985, where he worked in a variety of engineering and leadership positions. He joined the staff of the Navy CIO in February 2000 and was promoted to deputy CIO in December 2002.
Carey was a 2013 Federal 100 winner and was named Defense Executive of the Year for 2009 by GCN, FCW's sister publication.
In winning the Federal 100 award, he was cited for his work as co-chairman of the CIO Council's Information Security and Identity Management Committee, where he helped guide development of a mobile computing security requirement for unclassified information in just four months.
Carey noted in his email that he also served in the Navy Civil Engineer Corps Officer for 25 years, and was mobilized for both the Gulf War and the Iraq War.
Posted by John Bicknell on Mar 26, 2014 at 10:19 AM
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Three-time Federal 100 winner is leaving government in July.
Members of Congress heaped hard questions on federal IT leaders at a June 16 hearing and suggested strongly that somebody needs to be fired.
Senate bill carves out exemption for supercomputing and other lab IT; an earlier version of the measure would have exempted the entire Department of Energy.
OPM is partnering with CSID to try to manage the fallout from a massive breach of some 4 million federal personnel records.
Steve Kelman applauds the OMB's move to make career employees "goal leaders" for performance management initiatives -- but wishes it had come far earlier in the administration.
In an exclusive interview, Jimaye Sones, who was Defense Information Systems Agency comptroller from 2005 to 2013, says he was reassigned after revealing questionable accounting practices at the agency.
Through computer forensics training and internships, veterans are helping Immigration and Customs Enforcement tackle a backlog in child exploitation cases.
After two months on the job studying DOD's cybersecurity and IT needs, Secretary Ashton Carter is set to unveil a new Pentagon cyber strategy in Silicon Valley.
The failure of massive federal IT projects can usually be traced to poor management. The solution is as multilayered as the projects themselves.
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