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A method and apparatus can adaptively control a pulsed power arc welding process. A trainable system can recognize an empirical transfer mode from a signal emitted during an arc welding pulse and determine a pulsed power parameter set to produce a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse, by controlling a power source using the parameter set.
1. A method of adaptively controlling a pulsed power arc welding process, comprising:
sensing a signal emitted during an arc welding pulse;
employing a trainable system to:
recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal;
determine a pulsed power parameter set to produce a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse; and
controlling a power source using the parameter set.
2. The method of
3. The method of
4. The method of
5. The method of
6. The method of
7. The method of
8. A method of controlling a pulsed power arc-welding process, comprising:
sensing a radiant flux signal emitted during an arc welding pulse;
employing a neural network to:
recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal;
determine a pulse period increment to produce a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse; and
controlling a power source using pulse period increment, whereby only a single metal droplet is transferred during each pulse for at least about 90% of the pulses.
9. A method of training a neural network for controlling a pulsed power arc welding process, comprising:
producing training data and validation data for a plurality of pulse examples, wherein each example includes:
a representation of a signal emitted during at least one arc welding pulse;
an empirical transfer mode for the pulse;
producing a set of control flags, wherein each flag includes:
a classification of an empirical transfer mode relative to a target transfer mode;
a control action for at least one value in a pulsed power parameter set; and
training a neural network using the training data, the validation data and the flags, whereby the network:
recognizes the empirical transfer mode 01 one or more arc welding pulses; and
applies the control action, thereby producing a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse.
10. The method of
11. The method of claim l0, wherein the target transfer mode consists essentially of a single metal droplet transferred during each pulse for about 90% of the pulses.
12. The method of
13. The method of
14. The method of
15. An apparatus for controlling a pulsed power source for arc welding, comprising:
a sensor;
a controller, comprising:
a signal acquisition module, whereby a signal from the sensor is acquired;
a trainable system, wherein the system is trained to:
recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal;
control a parameter set for a pulsed power source, whereby a modified transfer mode is produced in a subsequent pulse; and
a control interface to control the power source using the parameter set.
16. The apparatus of
17. The apparatus of
18. The apparatus of
19. The apparatus of
20. An apparatus for controlling a pulsed power source for arc welding, comprising a neural network trained to:
recognize an empirical transfer mode from a signal emitted during an arc welding process; and
determine a parameter set for an arc welding pulsed power source to produce a modified transfer mode.
21. A system for adaptively controlling a pulsed power arc welding process, comprising:
means to sense a signal emitted during an arc welding pulse;
a trainable system comprising:
means to recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal;
means to determine a pulsed power parameter set to produce a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse; and
means to control a power source using the parameter set.
22. A system to control a pulsed power arc-welding process, comprising
means to sense a radiant flux signal emitted during an arc welding pulse;
a neural network comprising:
means to recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal;
means to determine a pulsed power parameter set to produce a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse; and
means to control a power source using pulse period increment, whereby only a single metal droplet is transferred during each pulse for at least about 90% of the pulses.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/368,052, filed on Mar. 27, 2002, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is commonly used to join pieces of metal in high throughput production, for example, in assembly lines employing robotic welders, such as in automotive manufacturing. An electric arc between one or more workpieces and a consumable electrode liquefies the electrode into metal droplets, which are shielded by an inert gas such as argon. These droplets form a weld by penetrating the metal of the workpieces before solidifying.
A variation called pulsed GMAW, which is controlled by pulsing the current and/or voltage of the welding power supply, is particularly preferred in high throughput production because it produces low spattering and good bead finish while generating little heat. These characteristics are essential to avoid heat distortion and residual stress on relatively thin workpieces.
A significant limitation of pulsed GMAW is the complexity of optimizing the power supply parameters in real time in response to changing materials and process variables. In an attempt to deal with this limitation, commercially available GMAW systems employ computerized parameter control in combination with recorded information about materials and ideal process conditions. However, these efforts are limited for two reasons.
Generally, such simple algorithmic control schemes involve understanding of the fundamental relationships between all process variables and the ability to measure and analyze those variables in real time. For GMAW processes, these fundamental relationships are not yet completely understood. Furthermore, were these relationships understood, it would still be expensive and complicated to measure the essential variables and calculate appropriate control actions, all in real time.
For some schemes, the level of understanding and the number of variables that are measured can be reduced by compiling databases of observed variables correlated with optimized control parameters. However, for many commercially important GMAW processes, the number of independent process variables makes this a difficult, time-consuming task. Furthermore, a specific application may introduce a process variable not contemplated during development, rendering the scheme inefficient or unusable in that application.
An attempt to solve the parameter complexity problem proposed to vary a single control variable, the pulse period, based on a single observed variable, the arc light intensity. Generally, the intensity varies with time in relation to the formation of liquid metal droplets at the arc. Because high weld quality is related directly to controlled droplet transfer, this method proposes to improve weld quality by cutting the pulse period short in response to an arc light intensity cutoff. This method, however, has not been successful because of numerous defects. First, the variation of arc light intensity does not always give a definite indication of droplet transfer. Second, many welding conditions of commercial interest do not generate sufficient variation in arc light intensity to reliably trigger a cutoff, for example, carbon steel welding shielded with argon based mixtures with less than 5% of carbon dioxide. Third, control of a GMAW process by varying each instant pulse in real time can lead to over-control of current variations, which results in control oscillation, unstable metal transfer, and poor weld quality.
There is a need in the art to reduce the complexity of controlling the power parameters in a pulsed GMAW system. In particular, there is a need to create stable metal transfer in a GMAW process independent of welding materials and process conditions.
One embodiment of the invention is a method of adaptively controlling a pulsed power arc welding process. The method includes the step of sensing a signal emitted during an arc welding pulse. A trainable system is employed to recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal and to determine a pulsed power parameter set to produce a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse. Another step is controlling a power source using the parameter set.
Another embodiment of the invention is a method of training a neural network for controlling a pulsed power arc welding process. Included is a step of producing training data and validation data for a plurality of pulse examples, wherein each example includes a representation of a signal emitted during at least one arc welding pulse and an empirical transfer mode for the pulse. Another step is producing a set of control flags, wherein each flag includes a classification of an empirical transfer mode relative to a target transfer mode and a control action for at least one value in a pulsed power parameter set. Yet another step is training a neural network using the training data, the validation data and the flags, whereby the network recognizes the empirical transfer mode of one or more arc welding pulses and applies the control action, thereby producing a modified transfer mode in a subsequent pulse.
Another embodiment of the invention is an apparatus for controlling a pulsed power source for arc welding, comprising a sensor and a controller. The controller further includes a signal acquisition module, whereby a signal from the sensor is acquired, and a neural network. The neural network is trained to recognize an empirical transfer mode from the signal and control a parameter set for a pulsed power source, whereby a modified transfer mode is produced in a subsequent pulse. The controller also includes a control interface to control the power source using the parameter set.
Another embodiment of the invention is a computer program product comprising a computer readable medium and instructions carried by the medium. The instruction are for causing a computer to recognize an empirical transfer mode from a signal emitted during an arc welding process, and determine a parameter set for an arc welding pulsed power source to produce a modified transfer mode.
The disclosed embodiments provide significant improvements in automated GMAW welding processes. The embodiments use a simple signal emitted by the welding process to maintain or achieve a desired single metal droplet transfer mode per welding pulse. The embodiments are compatible with signals that are noisy or give indefinite indication of droplet transfer. The embodiments are also compatible with a variety of welding conditions, including carbon steel welding shielded with argon based mixtures with less than 5% of carbon dioxide. Additionally, the embodiments lead to a stable metal transfer condition without oscillation, which gives improved weld quality and uniformity.
The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of particular embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.
The disclosed embodiments are generally related to controlling an arc welding process to create a stable metal transfer condition regardless of welding materials and process conditions. Particular embodiments of the invention include a method and an apparatus for using a trainable system to control a GMAW process by recognizing a single process variable, i.e., a signal emitted by the welding process.
A pulsed GMAW process uses a power source to supply time dependent power to a workpiece, and to a consumable electrode that is brought near the area of the workpiece to be welded. An electric arc is created between the workpiece and the consumable electrode, causing metal droplets to form and transfer from the end of the consumable electrode to the workpiece.
In another example, the controller 120 can be configured without the trainable system 128. In this case, the computer 124 and the display 126 can be configured so that a trained operator can evaluate the signal and change the power supply parameters manually to produce a modified transfer mode.
The power supply 112 creates an electric waveform, which can be, for example, a square wave, a sine wave, a sawtooth wave, a linear combination of the preceding, and the like. Preferably, the waveform approximates a square wave.
For example,
Depending on the welding materials, the welding environment, and the power source, any number of droplets can detach during one full pulse waveform, and they can detach during any point in the waveform. Weld quality generally depends on a consistent metal transfer mode. A target transfer mode can be defined to occur when for about some percentage of pulses, one droplet is transferred per pulse during about the center of the pulse period. The percentage of pulses can be selected to be any suitable percentage, such as between about 50% and about 100%, with 90% being a particularly suitable percentage.
An empirical transfer mode is the apparent transfer mode that is indicated by the signal emitted from the arc welding process. A modified transfer mode is a transfer mode that is produced by changing one or more of the power source parameters. For example, the modified transfer mode approaches the target transfer mode, i.e., the modified transfer mode is more like the target transfer mode than the empirical mode observed prior to changing the power source parameters. More particularly, the modified transfer mode is the target transfer mode.
The droplet transfer modes can be observed by sensing a signal emitted during an arc welding pulse that is related to the droplet transfer. A signal can be, for example, radiant flux, electric potential flux, sonic emissions, mechanical vibrations, magnetic flux, and the like. A sensor is a device that senses a signal, for example, a photodiode, a charge coupled device (CCD), a galvanometer, a microphone, a piezoelectric vibration sensor, a capacitance sensor, a magnetometer, and the like. A sensor can be a passive sensor, i.e., that senses the naturally emitted signal from the welding process, or an active sensor, i.e., a sensor coupled with a device that interrogates the welding process, such as a photodiode coupled with a laser. Preferably, the signal sensed is radiant flux, i.e., luminescence naturally emitted during the arc welding pulse, and the sensor is a photodiode.
Depending on welding materials, welding environment conditions, and power source parameters, the signal that is emitted can cover a range, from clearly indicating droplet transfer to being indefinitely indicative of droplet transfer. That is, at one extreme, a signal can exhibit a distinct singular feature that is correlated with droplet transfer, and at the other extreme, a signal can represent indefinite droplet transfer behavior. "Indefinite droplet transfer" can include noisy or discontinuous signals due to noise in the process or the sensing system, and can also arise when the droplet transfer event itself is not discrete. Thus, as described below, one aspect of the invention is that the transfer mode of the signal is recognized rather than simply determined by a simple threshold or cutoff. A threshold system is not robust, i.e., it is not tolerant of indefinite behavior and cannot generally be applied to different conditions without adjustment.
As used herein, a trainable system is a program, algorithm or other analytical method into which data are input in the form of a training set from which the system can "learn" to determine patterns and that will allow for predictions of outcomes upon analysis of unknowns similar to those in the training set. A trainable system can be a software program, an algorithm coded into hardware, such as a field programmable gate array, a hardware algorithm such as a custom microprocessor, a combination of the preceding, and the like. "Learning" and analysis of the unknown samples may be performed by any of a number of methods including the use of a support vector machine (SVM), an artificial neural network, classification and regression analysis (CART), Bayesian networks, or other algorithms, software programs or a combination thereof.
An artificial neural network is trainable system that is an interconnection of simple processing elements, units, or nodes whose functionality is loosely based on that of biological neurons. Each processing element ("neuron") transforms the summation of several weighted inputs ("synapses") into an output using non-linear transfer functions (such as sigmoid functions). As a result, neural networks are also described as parallel distributive processors.
In the invention, a number of different neural network architectures can be used, including, for example, an Adaline network, a back-propagation network, a Hopfield model, a bi-directional associative memory network, a Boltzmann machine, a counter-propagation network, a self-organizing map, an adaptive resonance theory network, a probabilistic neural network, and the like. See, for example, Masters, T. Practical Neural Network Recipes, New York, John Wiley, 1993, the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. More particularly, a probabilistic neural network is used. A probabilistic neural network offers several benefits, including rapid training speed, ease of training to additional examples, robustness to noisy or discontinuous data, and better performance in classifying data such as patterns. See, for example, Specht, D. F. Neural Networks, Vol. 3, (1990) 109–118; U.S. Pat. No. 6,442,536; U.S. Pat. No. 5,554,273; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,327,357; the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference.
A probabilistic neural network is a neural network that includes two hidden layers in addition to the input and output layers, and is used to classify input data relative to training data.
For example,
The n�m weight elements of W are developed from the training data. The first layer calculates the separation between the inputs and the training data to create the net input vector t (i.e., t={t1, t2, . . . tj, . . . tn}) for the layer, for example:
As shown, the calculation of each element tj can include multiplication by a bias adjustment bj (i.e., an element of bias vector b={b1, b2, . . . bj, . . . bn}) to adjust the sensitivity of each neuron.
Each net training input tj is then operated on by transfer function ƒ, preferably a nonlinear function such as a sigmoid or a radial basis function. Most preferably, the transfer function is a radial basis function, for example:
The effect of the transfer function is to calculate an output rj for each neuron representing the probability that the input data is close to the training data. The set of outputs for the first layer are thus represented by output vector r, i.e., r={r1, r2, . . . rj, . . . rn}. Inputs that are close to the training data will generate outputs that are close to the maximum of the transfer function; inputs that are far from the training data will generate outputs that are close to zero. An input that is close to several training inputs will have large outputs from several neurons. Parameter σ is the spread of the basis function; a larger spread value will cause more neurons to respond to an input, and a narrower spread will cause a more specific response from fewer neurons.
The p neurons in the second, or summation layer correspond to the p classes, i.e., empirical modes, against which the input data is to be classified. The first layer is connected to the summation layer through a layer weight matrix W′:
Matrix W′ is composed of n column vectors of p elements wherein each vector has a 1 for the element corresponding to one of the p classes, and zeros elsewhere. The net input vector t′ to the summation layer are created by the product of matrix W′ and the output r of the preceding layer:
Thus, the net input t′k for each second layer neuron represents the probability that the input data represents a particular class k of the p classes.
The transfer function in the second layer determines how to output this classification information. For example, the second layer transfer function is a compete function that ranks the probabilities and assigns a 1 to the highest probability value and 0 to the other values. The output then represents the class, i.e., empirical mode that the probabilistic neural network has determined for the input data. Thus, the PNN takes input data, compares it to the training data, calculates the probability that the data is in any particular class, i.e., empirical mode, and then assigns it to a class based on the probability.
Those of ordinary skill in the art should recognize that methods involved in a trainable system such as a neural network may be embodied in a computer program product that includes a computer usable medium. For example, such a computer usable medium can include a readable memory device, such as a solid state memory device, a hard drive device, a CD-ROM, a DVD-ROM, or a computer diskette, having stored computer-readable program code segments. The computer readable medium can also include a communications or transmission medium, such as a bus or a communications link, either optical, wired, or wireless, carrying program code segments as digital or analog data signals.
One aspect regarding effective training of the network is to capture the general trends in the data without over fitting the data in order to ensure generalization of the network. To this end, the data upon which it is trained is typically divided into a training set and a validation set. The network is built by continuously adjusting weights and adding processing elements until its performance has reached a minimum criteria for the training set, and generalization is then evaluated by the performance of the network using the validation sets.
In the system, the training set includes examples of signals correlated with empirical transfer droplet transfer modes. Each example contains a representation of a signal corresponding to a pulse and an empirical transfer mode, e.g., one droplet per pulse, determined by examining a high speed videograph of that pulse. A representation of a signal can be a single pulse, a sample having a window of multiple pulses, a representative pulse from a sample of multiple pulses, a single pulse that is an average of multiple pulses, and the like. A representation of a signal is generally in discrete form. For example, a pulse can be divided into equal segments and each segment can be reduced to abstract parameters, such as an average signal parameter and a slope parameter. The validation set is of the same form as the training set, but is formed from a different experimental data collected under the same conditions.
The output of the network is a set of one or more control flags that indicate the control parameters for the power supply. For example, a system could use three flags. One flag is the default condition, i.e., the empirical transfer mode matches the target transfer mode and no change is made in the control parameters. A second flag corresponds to an empirical mode that does not match the target mode, for example, less than one droplet per pulse when the target mode is one droplet per pulse. In this example, a control action is an incremental increase in the pulse period. A third flag corresponds to more than one droplet per pulse and has the control action of an incremental decrease in the pulse period. Additional flags can be used to provide smaller increments for the control outputs, or to provide separate control outputs for different parameters.
A particular embodiment of present invention is illustrated by the following example, which is not intended to be limiting in any way.
The photodiode sensor used to measure luminescence emitted by the welding process was chosen so that it operates in a linear region of its response curve, i.e.; so that its maximum gain overlaps with the signal emitted by the welding process in question. In this example, the sensor is a TIL78, a high-speed silicon PIN photodiode with the following technical specifications: peak wavelength=890 nm; light current (max)=28.5 μA; dark current (max)=60 nA; rise/fall time=5 ns; power dissipation=100 mW; acceptance angle=120�; capacitance (VR=20V)=4 pF; and operating temp.=−40� C. a +100� C.
The current from the sensor can be amplified and digitized by a signal interface, which can be any of a number of acquisition systems known to one skilled in the art, such as a custom signal interface, a software package, a software configurable analog/digital data acquisition card for a PC, and the like. For example, commercially available solutions that can be used include software packages, e.g., MATLAB� 6.5 with Neural Network Toolbox 4.0.2 (The MathWorks, Inc. Natick, Mass.), or a combined hardware/software system, e.g., a NI PCI-6071E analog/digital data acquisition card combined with LabVIEW software (both from National Instruments Corporation, Austin Tex.).
A second op amp 616, in this case an LM741, trims the gain. Again, a variable resistor 618 adjusts the gain between the input voltage signal and the output voltage signal. Through routine experimentation, the two variable resistors can be adjusted so that the extremes of the photodiode signal, corresponding to base current and pulse current, are within the linear range of each op amp. The circuit is additionally provided with a 5 to 9 V power supply 620, a 984 ohm fixed resistor 622, a 63 V, 47 microfarad capacitor 624, a fixed 559 ohm resistor 626, a 63 V, 47 microfarad capacitor 628, and signal output at 630.
If the data is sent to a PC, any of a number of data display programs known to the art can be used to graph and analyze the data, for example the MATLAB� software above. Alternatively, a dedicated program can be written to visualize the data. In these cases, the recognition of the empirical transfer mode relative to a target transfer mode can be performed by a trained user. The user can modify the parameters of the pulsed power supply until the empirical transfer mode signal appears to match the target transfer mode signal.
In this example, however, automatic control of the pulse power parameters was provided by a two-layer probabilistic artificial neural network created using the MATLAB� software above.
During development of the neural network, two data sets were created, a training data set and a validation data set. Each set contained information for seven hundred pulses. The raw signal data is acquired using several batches of experiments, using one or more of the parameters as follows: gas type (pure Ar, Ar+2% O2, Ar+4% CO2, Ar+8% CO2, Ar+5% O2, Ar+3% CO2+2% N2), consumable electrode composition (plain carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminum) and consumable electrode size (diameters of 1.0 and 1.2 mm), welding position (flat and overhead) and joint configuration (bead-on-plate and grooved). The power supply parameters are set so that the pulse period can be varied through a range of transfer modes around the target transfer mode of one droplet per pulse, from less than one droplet per pulse to more than one droplet per pulse.
The experimental conditions vary among experiments within each data set and the sensor signals are conditioned by the neural network according to parametric values, which will lead to the identification of different patterns, as follows: Each period was partitioned into five equal segments. Two values were calculated for each segment; pulse current dispersion D, which is the ratio of the mean current of a partition to the maximum current of the period; and slope, or the rate of change of signal versus time. The raw sensor signal data is prepared before inclusion in each data set. To avoid problems with transient signals and noise, sensor signal data is acquired in sample windows, in this example in windows containing 10 pulses. Each pulse period within a window is treated separately, i.e., the data is separated into discrete pulse periods. In this example, Thus, each pulse period generated 5�2=10 values that together constitute a pattern. The patterns for the 10 periods within each sample window were ranked, and the most common pattern was selected as representative of the entire sample window.
Actual droplet detachment behavior was recorded by high speed videography. The videography was performed by a dedicated computer controlled system that automatically correlated the images with the sensor data. The system includes a Ne—He laser to illuminate the welding zone and the resultant images are captured by a 2000 frame-per-second video camera. Details of this videographic system are described in B�lsamo, PSS; Vilarinho, LO; Vilela, M; Scotti, A. International Journal of Joining Materials, Vol. 12, (2000) pp. 1–12, the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference.
A series of control flags are determined for the network. In this example, empirical droplet transfer modes are classified into seven control flags centered on the target transfer mode. The target mode is one droplet per pulse, transferred at about the center of the pulse period. In terms of controlling the pulse period for a subsequent pulse, the flags indicate to the system what changes, if any, should be made. Flags 1–3 indicate that the pulse period should be longer, while flags 5–7 indicate that the pulse period should be shorter. Flag 4 is the default condition, i.e., the empirical mode matches the target mode. Using these flags and the high-speed video images above, the droplet transfer mode of each pulse the empirical transfer mode of each pulse in the training and validation data sets is classified.
Two data sets, the training set and the validation set, are created from the characterized raw data and the assigned control flags. Table 2 shows the structure of the sets used for this example. Each record contains the representative pulse pattern selected from the 10-pulse sample window described above, i.e., the dispersion (D) and slope values (S) calculated from the data for each segment. Thus, each record in the set contains ten characterization numbers plus the assigned control flag. Enough data is collected to provide a substantial number of pulse records for each data set, in this example, 700 pulse records per set. While conditions vary among experiments within each data set, the range of conditions between data sets is identical.
The PNN is trained using the training data set. Subsequently, the validation data set is used to assure that the trained network could recognize new signals with acceptable accuracy, without being over-trained. In the validation phase for this example, the level of matching between the predicted flag by the neural network and the actually flag assigned in the validation data is greater than 90%, often greater than 98%.
The trained system is then used to operate the welding power supply in a live test. The system readily varies the pulse period parameter to change the empirical transfer mode to a modified mode, eventually maintaining the target transfer mode of one droplet per pulse. The performance is verified by comparing the sensor signal over time with high-speed videography of the welding process, where the change in the transfer mode from any empirical mode to the target transfer mode is readily seen.
The experiment can be varied by sending the signal directly to a display, instead of or in addition to the neural network, where a trained operator can compare the signal with the signal schematics shown in
In a variation, only three flags are used, i.e., an increment action, a decrement action, and no action, for example, flags 3, 4, and 5 as described above. A larger number of flags gives finer control, but is less robust, i.e., is harder to generalize to new systems.
In another variation, only two flags are used, i.e., no action, or an adjustment that can be either an increment or decrement action. For example, if the empirical transfer mode is the target mode, no action is taken. If the empirical mode is not the target mode, the system "guesses" a direction for the adjustments, either increasing or decreasing. If the target mode is not reached within a timeout period, the adjustment proceeds in the opposite direction.
In another variation, the size of the sample window is varied, choosing from 1 to 40 pulses per window. It is found that lower numbers of pulses lead to less robust control, i.e., the system is more susceptible to transients and noise, while with larger numbers of pulses, the system is more robust but the control action is slower. If the number becomes significantly larger than 40, control instability results.
Another variation is to change the interface gain by manually adjusting the resistors R1 and R2. Alternatively, an automatic gain circuit can be combined with a second light sensor to adjust the resistors automatically based on the overall light emitted by the arc.
Yet another alternative is to have a more generic system. Instead of having the neural network trained for a few select conditions (for a given electrode size, material, and gas composition) at a time, it can be trained for a wide range of contemplated conditions at the same time. This typically involves more experiments, larger training and validation sets, and longer training times, but can result in a trained system that is capable of controlling the welding process under a much wider range of conditions.
While the system has been particularly shown and described with references to particular embodiments, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and details may be made without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims. For example, the methods of the invention can be applied to various environments, and are not limited to the described environment.
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Audi A4 Emotion TrailerDie neue Generation der Bestseller-Familie A4 wurde auf sämtlichen Technikfeldern neu entwickelt. Das Ergebnis: Niedrige Emissionen, beste cw -Werte, wegweisende Technologien in Sachen Infotainment sowie die größte Auswahl im Wettbewerb bei Fahrerassistenz- und Sicherheitssystemen. Weitere Informationen zum neuen Audi A4 finden Sie im Audi MediaCenter: https://www.audi-mediacenter.com/de
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- Automobili Lamborghini as most popular company among Italy's university graduates
- Audi Board of Management Member for Human Resources Thomas Sigi: "Consistently implementing the goal of being an 'attractive employer worldwide'"
- Top rankings for Audi group in Germany and Hungary as well
The Audi Group is more popular than ever as an international employer. The Audi subsidiary Automobili Lamborghini has taken first place in the latest publication of the prestigious "Employer of Choice" rankings, ahead of Vodafone and Ferrari. Audi had already come out ahead in Germany and Hungary as the favorite employer for future university graduates: Audi Hungaria was selected for the sixth consecutive time as the country's most attractive company. AUDI AG also achieved top places in the rankings by German graduates from trendence and UNIVERSUM.
Superb opportunities for career development, an excellent work environment and the fascination of the brand: these are the reasons Italian university graduates selected the Audi subsidiary as the "Employer of Choice." In the study carried out by the Fondazione Emblema foundation, the maker of luxury sports cars is the top address for young Italian university graduates, ahead of Vodafone and Ferrari.
"My warmest congratulations to Automobili Lamborghini for this outstanding achievement in the Italian employer rankings," said Thomas Sigi, Member of the Board of Management of AUDI AG for Human Resources." The award is a testament to the high attractiveness of the brand and its excellent products." At Lamborghini, as at all subsidiaries of the Audi Group, the goal of being an "attractive employer worldwide" is firmly embedded in the corporate strategy." The many international awards of this year show that we are well on our way to achieving this strategic goal as well," Thomas Sigi continued.
Umberto Tossini, Head of Human Resources and Organization at Automobili Lamborghini: "Working at Lamborghini means contributing to the development of a product that is recognized all over the world. For us, what counts here is professionalism and commitment of the highest order."
In addition to the election for the "Employer of Choice," Lamborghini was also recently honored as the "Top Employer Italia 2014" by the Top Employers Institute.
University graduates and employees in Germany and Hungary also confirm the popularity of the Audi Group as an employer: In spring 2014, for instance, AUDI HUNGARIA MOTOR Kft., was named the "Most attractive employer" in Hungary for the sixth consecutive time. In Germany, AUDI AG posted a double victory in the latest FOCUS survey of 19,000 employees. The company took first place in both the overall ranking and in that of the major companies in the German automotive industry. Audi also achieved top spots in the current rankings by university graduates conducted by the renowned consulting institutes trendence and UNIVERSUM. According to these rankings, the carmaker remains the favorite employer for the most university students in Germany, especially among prospective engineers.


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TUCSON, Ariz. (AP)—Racehorse basketball doesn't work against Arizona. The 14th-ranked Wildcats can run and gun and still play stifling defense.
Salim Stoudamire had 15 of his 18 points in the second half, helping Arizona turn a close game into a 97-79 rout of Arizona State in their Pac-10 opener Sunday.
"They were up and down just like us," Stoudamire said. "They wanted to push it, but they ran out of gas."
Channing Frye had a season-high 21 points and Mustafa Shakur added 20, including a season-high four 3-pointers, for the Wildcats (11-2), who won their eighth straight.
"Between Mustafa and Salim, they were 8-of-10 from 3-point range," Arizona coach Lute Olson said. "Neither of them are forcing any shots. They were outstanding in every phase of the game.
"One turnover apiece, and defensively, I thought they really kept the pressure on the ASU guards."
Hassan Adams, Arizona's third-leading scorer, had eight points on 3-for-14 shooting, but had 10 rebounds and seven assists.
Frye and Ivan Radenovic neutralized the Sun Devils' Ike Diogu, an inside scorer who goes to the free throw line more than anyone in the college game.
Diogu had 23 points, 11 rebounds and five blocks, but went nearly 24 minutes without a field goal when the game was still in doubt as Arizona State had a nine-game winning streak snapped.
"Every time I got the ball, there were two or three defenders on me," Diogu said. "When I would think I had an open shot, I would turn right into a defender."
The Wildcats put it away with a 14-0 run started by Stoudamire's 3-pointer with 8:39 to play. Stoudamire added a basket and two free throws, and Chris Rodgers capped it with a 3-pointer with 6:32 left, opening an 85-63 lead.
Kevin Kruger had 14 points and Serge Angounou added 12 for the Sun Devils (11-2). Jason Braxton and Steve Moore each had 10, giving Arizona State five starters in double figures.
The Wildcats have won 19 of the last 20 meetings, beating the Sun Devils by 19 and 25 points last season, and they usually dominate the first half.
This time, it was excruciatingly close for 20 minutes.
Stoudamire's 3-pointer 2:06 into the second half put Arizona up 53-43—the first double-digit lead for either team.
The Sun Devils battled back within four points twice, the second time on a fast-break layup by Moore, cutting the deficit to 56-52 with 14:24 to play. But Frye had six of Arizona's next 13 points, and the Wildcats took a 69-58 lead when Rodgers scored on a goaltending call on Diogu with 9:46 left.
Shakur helped Arizona stay close when the Sun Devils took a 27-18 lead with 10:56 left in the first half on Kruger's third 3-pointer in 2 1/2 minutes.
Shakur, anxious to escape Olson's doghouse, had 10 points during a 28-14 run that lasted the rest of the half. Arizona got a lead it never relinquished— 38-36—on Shakur's 3-pointer with 3:50 to play.
"He was all over me trying to make me better," Shakur said of recent practices. "It gets you when your coach is all over you, but I know he's doing it to make me better. I need to suck it up and try harder."
Diogu, a 90 percent free throw shooter who leads the nation in free throws (122) and attempts (140), was 6-of-11 from the line.
It was Diogu's 72nd game in double digits, covering his entire college career.
"Very seldom do I see him get frustrated," Arizona State coach Rob Evans said. "We are mature enough to handle this loss. It's only the first (conference) game of 18."


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42 year old woman | Costa Mesa, CA, USA | Seeking men 31-50 in California, United States
'Dance like no one is watching'
I am passionate about my career, how it will affect not just my life, but the lives of others. I love helping people whenever I get a chance. By profession, I am a user experience developer, which means I serve people by developing web apps that will make life and work just a little easier and more efficient. Okay, it may not be missions work, but I am helping people. ;) When I am not working, I enjoy spending time with family & friends or just spending time on my own hiking, running, or relaxing at home. I am kind of not sure about this online thing. I've tried it before and met many "interesting" people. I just figured I'd give this one more try... who knows. :) I am hoping to meet someone who is deep, genuine, really lives out his faith and reflects God's love. A bonus if you appreciate and actually laugh at my dumb jokes. ;)
Alumni connections , Camping , Coffee and conversation , Business networking , Cooking , Dining out , Hobbies and crafts , Movies/Videos , Museums and art , Music and concerts , Exploring new areas , Performing arts , Playing sports , Religion/Spiritual , Travel/Sightseeing , Volunteering
Cycling, Dancing, Martial arts, Running, Walking / Hiking, Yoga
I exercise 3-4 times per week.
Don't display my sign
Middle of the Road
Vanguard University of Southern California, Costa Mesa, CA
I love music, musical theater, dance, concerts! I love learning! I also really enjoy being outdoors: hiking, walking, running, playing, etc. At night, I will usually be out with friends or streaming movies with a big bowl of buttery popcorn!
For fun... see "Favorite things"
Right now I have 4 books I've started: "The Art of Unit Testing", "The Complete Guide to Money", "God is Great, God is Good", and "Idols of the Heart". The first two are for work, the second two are for my own spiritual growth. :)
Z{{Cta}} {{#if HasMoreInfo}} ?{{CtaSecondary}} {{/if}}
|What she is looking for
|5'2" (157cms)
|5'10" (177cms) to 6'2" (187cms)
|Body type:
|Athletic and toned
|Athletic and toned
|Black, Blue, Brown, Grey, Green, Hazel
|Dark brown
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|Technical / Science / Computers / Engineering
UI/User Experience Developer
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|Latino / Hispanic, White / Caucasian, Other
|Latino / Hispanic, White / Caucasian, Other
|Christian / Protestant
|Christian / Protestant, Spiritual but not religious, Christian / Other
|English, Spanish
|Bachelors degree
|Associates degree, Bachelors degree, Graduate degree, PhD / Post Doctoral


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Roger Lee MEYZINDI Photographer
JennaJaydenModel Female Akron, Ohio, US My MM URL: http://www.modelmayhem.com/jennajayden
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I have been traveling all the US from Vegas to FL to Ohio this past year and am in NE Ohio area for another 2 weeks before traveling back to Vegas for my career. I am interested in any/all types of shoots & am open minded when it comes to your ideas. I'm fine with nudity.
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April 2, 2014 - Industry News
MATS, LOUISVILLE -- SmartTruck says computational fluid dynamic tests show its undertray aero device produces fuel savings of better than 6%.
Tags: SmartTruck, Mid-America Trucking Show, Aerodynamics, Fuel Economy
March 31, 2014 - Industry News
MATS, LOUISVILLE -- SmartTruck's UT6Plus aerodynamic device provides the fuel saving performance required by EPA SmartWay to deliver at least 9% improvement in fuel economy, qualifying for SmartWay's new Elite level.
Tags: SmartTruck, Mid-America Trucking Show, Aerodynamics, EPA SmartWay, Trailers
October 23, 2013 - Industry News
UPDATED -- Officials with SmartTruck fired back at testing results announced a month ago showing trailer undercarriage air deflectors result in fuel savings far less than some manufacturers are claiming, releasing its own third-party research at the American Trucking Associations' annual convention.
Tags: SmartTruck, PIT, Aerodynamics, MPG, Fuel Economy, Trailers
We offer e-newsletters that deliver targeted news and information for the entire fleet industry.
The expert, Mark Betner from CITGO, will answer your questions
The expert, Rence Oliphant from Hendrickson, will answer your questions
Eaton Expands Flex Reman Transmission Lineup
ARI Adds Custom Dashboards to Fleet Management System
TruckTech+ Provides Diagnostics to Fleets and Dealers
ALK Adds HOS Manager to PC Miler


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Lawn Tractor Shoulder Bolt
Part #: 532193406
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Substitution: 193406 Learn why
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Choose this manufacturer-approved shoulder bolt for your lawn tractor.
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NPR News
Foraging In The Office Fridge: Petty Theft Or Public Service?
A splash of milk for your coffee might pass, but helping yourself to a whole sandwich? Like any controversial office issue, the ethical lines that cut through the fridge aren't so clear.
Foraging In The Office Fridge: Petty Theft Or Public Service?
A splash of milk for your coffee might pass, but helping yourself to a whole sandwich? Like any controversial office issue, the ethical lines that cut through the fridge aren't so clear.
After Students Went To Wage Jihad, Teacher Highlights Youth Radicalization
A German-Syrian religious studies teacher was shocked when she heard that five of her former students had left Germany to join jihadist groups in Syria. "It felt like a personal defeat," she says.
Judge Rules For The Release Of Photos Showing Prisoner Abuse
The ACLU's years-long lawsuit claims the public release of photos that document abuse in prisons in Iraq and Afghanistan is crucial to holding the government responsible.
Pope Accepts Resignation Of Cardinal Accused Of Sexual Misconduct
Keith O'Brien, who stepped down as Archbishop of St. Andrews in Scotland two years ago, will be stripped of his privileges but not his title, the Vatican says.
2 Men Convicted In Canada In 2013 Train Derailment Plot
Raed Jaser and Chiheb Esseghaier were found guilty on terrorism-related charges for a plan to derail a passenger train traveling from New York to Toronto.
Police In India Arrest Hundreds In 10th Grade Cheating Scandal
The crackdown follows the airing of video taken in the northeast that showed parents, relatives and friends of students scaling school walls to pass cheat sheets through windows.
A New 3-D Printing Method Is Rising Out Of The Ooze
Remember how the T-1000 in Terminator 2 re-formed out of molten metal? The folks at Carbon3D figured out how to do that in real life, and what they created may be the next iteration of 3-D printing.
As Americans Eat Healthier, Processed Foods Starting To Spoil
Kraft Foods recently announced a massive recall of its macaroni and cheese. The company — and the processed food industry in general — are hitting some stressful times.
Fire In Brooklyn Home Kills 7 Children
The fatal blaze that started shortly after midnight is being described as New York City's worst in seven years.
Kerry Cites Progress In Iran Talks, Saying Deal Is Possible
The secretary of state says all sides appear to be getting closer to an agreement, although he acknowledges remaining differences.
Tsarnaev Friend Testifies: He Was Never Violent
NPR's Tovia Smith tells NPR's Scott Simon about the prosecution's case against Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. He has admitted to carrying out the Boston Marathon bombing with his brother.
Expert: Iran Has Territorial Ambitions
The U.S. and its international partners continue nuclear negotiations with Iran. NPR's Scott Simon speaks to Yale professor Stephen Carter about Iran's position in the Middle East.
400 Years Later, Spain May Have Found 'Don Quixote' Author's Grave
Archaeologists in Madrid may have discovered the long-lost remains of Miguel de Cervantes. NPR's Scott Simon asks whether or not the bones are his, and if they'll attract tourists to the site.
Opinion Editor: Penn State Frats Need Immediate Reevaluation
Penn State is investigating the Kappa Delta Rho fraternity for a private Facebook page with pictures of nude women. NPR's Scott Simon talks to Emily Chappell, opinions editor for The Daily Collegian.
In Tunisia, Society 'Wasn't Quite Prepared' For Liberal Reforms
More than 20 people were killed this week when two gunmen stormed Tunisia's national museum. NPR's Scott Simon talks with William McCants of the Brookings Institution about the attack's repercussions.
Ex-Boxing Champ Steps Back Into Spotlight As A Face Of Addiction
Mexican boxer Julio Cesar Chavez rarely fell in the ring, but alcohol and drugs knocked him down for decades. He's clean now and telling his story to help fellow Mexicans get clean too.
Under ISIS, Life In Mosul Takes A Turn For The Bleak
The militants have held Iraq's second largest city since June. Now, local Sunni residents are weary of ISIS, there are signs of strain within their ranks, and it's almost impossible to flee.
Justice Department Weighs In On Assembly-Line Justice For Children
For the first time, the federal government asserting juveniles' right to counsel by wading into a Georgia case alleging inadequate counsel. Authorities say the problems occur nationwide.
On Libel And The Law, U.S. And U.K. Go Separate Ways
An HBO documentary about Scientology, Going Clear, won't be released in Britain. Neither will the book on which it's based. That's because British and U.S. free speech protections are very different.


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This week, RLUIPA Defense continues its effort to aggregate important new stories reflecting the intersection of religion, land use and local government.
Indiana's First Church of Cannabis in Indianapolis – Indiana's...more
While the IRS made only minor changes to Form 990, Form 990-EZ, and Form 990-PF for the 2014 tax year, the IRS made significant revisions to Schedule A. ...more
NUMBER OF THE WEEK: $1.4 Trillion. The estimated total of individual income taxes the Internal Revenue Service is expecting to collect on April 15. The U.S. House of Representatives has returned from recess and is planning to...more
Recent months have been eventful for exempt organizations and their advisors. While fundamental tax reform remains a possibility, with a number of proposals on the table that would significantly change the rules for exempt...more
On March 31, 2015, the Commissioner of the IRS reported in a speech to the National Press Club that the IRS is "under new management" due to major changes in management staff over the last few years. Many of these management...more
April 15th is fast approaching. This is the time of year when many of our clients ask us how to properly document charitable contributions. In several recent cases, donors have been denied all or a portion of their...more
The Internal Revenue Service replaced proposed regulations under Section 501(r) of the Internal Revenue Code (the "Code") with final regulations in late 2014 (the "Final Regulations"). As enacted in the Patient Protection and...more
In the last days of 2014, the IRS released regulations that finalized the compliance requirements for charitable hospitals. These new 2014 IRS regulations relate to the Community Health Needs Assessment (CHNA or needs...more
Are you responsible for ensuring that your hospital financial assistance policies are compliant with IRS section 501(r) requirements? Then you will want to know that the IRS recently finalized its regulations to section...more
The IRS has released guidance in three areas of interest to entities that benefit from tax-exempt bond financings, particularly hospitals and educational institutions. This guidance creates new rules related to management...more
In This Issue:
- What You Should Do
- Background
- Final Regulations
- Hospital Facilities and Organizations
- Failures to Satisfy the Requirements of Section 501(r)
- Community...more
On December 29, 2014, the Internal Revenue Service and the Department of Treasury issued final regulations on requirements described in Section 501(r) for charitable hospitals exempt from federal income tax under Section...more
Does A Tax-Exempt Healthcare Organization's Participation in an Accountable Care Organization (ACO) Adversely Affect Its Tax-Exempt Financing? IRS Notice 2014-67 Provides Guidance....more
On October 24, 2014, the Internal Revenue Service issued Notice 2014-67 (the "Notice"), which provides important guidance and increased flexibility for issuers and conduit borrowers of tax-exempt bonds regarding contracting...more
On August 26, 2014, the IRS and the Department of the Treasury issued the 2014-2015 Priority Guidance Plan. The Priority Guidance Plan includes 18 exempt organization law projects and four projects relating to charitable...more
A change in function of a Section 501(c)(3) organization results in the IRS revoking its exemption.
To receive Section 501(c)(3) status, exempt organizations apply for exemption from the IRS. The exemption application...more
On July 11, 2014, the IRS released a Technical Advice Memorandum ("TAM") finding that a tax-exempt hospital's income from the performance of laboratory services for non-patients was not subject to the unrelated business...more
Earlier this year, while Washington was fixated on former Internal Revenue Service (IRS) employee Lois Lerner and her missing emails, her former employer quietly denied the application for exemption of an organization seeking...more
Recently I have assisted several clients restructure the tax-exempt obligations originally issued to finance their affordable housing projects. The purpose of these restructurings has been for anything from reducing the...more
It's that time again – another election year. And if your organization is exempt under Section 501(c)(3) of the Code ("Exempt Organization" or "EO"), the EO cannot participate in, or intervene in, any political campaign on...more
In 2013, the IRS revealed that it had selected "social welfare" groups (like the Tea Party) applying for tax-exempt status for closer scrutiny. That investigation is still ongoing and it has given the IRS a black eye....more
For tax year 2013, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has made a change to the manner in which tax-exempt organizations that operate one or more hospital facilities compute community benefit for purposes of reporting on...more
2013 was something of a lost year for the Exempt Organizations (EO) Division of the IRS. In the spring, the Division was embroiled in a controversy involving the targeting of conservative advocacy groups that led to the...more
The IRS released guidance at the end of 2013 that is helpful for tax-exempt hospitals in complying with the detailed additional federal tax requirements set forth in section 501(r) of the Internal Revenue Code. The guidance...more
In This Issue:
- What You Need to Know
- Background
..Notice 2014-2
..Notice 2014-3
- Correction of a Failure
..Proper Disclosure of Failure
..What You Should Do Now
- Excerpt from...more
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text: Big Food Fast Required Reading Serve Up Some Patriotism This 4th Of July With This Mind-Blowing Flag Recipe American Flag BBQ How To Be A Better Friend Highest Grossing Summer Films Guide To July 2015 Electric Shavers Top 10 Dating Ten Situations That Put Women In The Mood For Sex Read More True Nature 20 Ways To Get The Rush Of Your Life Read More Entertainment News Trending News: Rihanna Gets Fully Naked In Terrifying New BBHMM Video Read More Top 10 Entertainment Hollywood's Digital Fountain Of Youth Is Almost There (But Not Quite) Read More Fashion Advice How To Buy The Perfect Jeans Read More Tech News Trending News: Will The New iPhone Emphasize Speed And Battery Life Over Design Upgrades? Read More Best of the Web 8 Surprisingly Awesome Reasons To Stay Friends With Your Ex Read More True Nature Over 100 Ways The Great Outdoors Will Change Your Life Read More Power & Money News Trending News: Meet The Man Who Just Pledged $32 Billion To Charity Read More Best of the Web 6 Reasons Why You Should Seriously Consider Getting It On During Her Time Of The Month Read More Fashion Trends Style Matters: The 2015 Tour de France Cycling Gear Read More Tech News Trending News: This New Device Will Completely Hide Your IP Device Read More Best of the Web Girl Got You Tongue-Tied? Here's What To Say Read More Fitness & Workouts Exposing Stupid Gym Sayings Read More Dating News Trending News: Science Has Discovered How You Can Date Someone Out Of Your League Read More Wine & Dine Viva El Daiquiri! How Cuban Rum & A Dash Of Tradition Improve This Party Staple Read More Outside Content This Is How Bespoke Post Will Help You Make The Most Of Your Summer Read More Car Reviews We Took The New 577-HP Mercedes-AMG GLE 63 For A Ride. It's Insane Read More Top 10 Dating 10 Things You're Doing To Kill The Mood Read More Fitness & Workouts 10 Workouts You Didn't Know You Could Do In A Park Read More Top 10 Power & Money These Three Amazing Micro Apartments Show Just How Far You Can Stretch Less Than 500 Square Feet Read More Top 10 Dating A Definitive List Of The Greatest Sex Positions Read More True Nature 20 Accomplishments Your Friends Will Be Jealous Of Read More Trending Dear NYC, There's An Alternative to Annoying Subway Sounds Read More Power & Money News Trending News: Meet The Man Who Just Pledged $32 Billion To Charity Read More Appearance Don't Let Your Next Trip To The Barbershop Be A Horror Story -- Here's How To Get A Good Cut Read More Dating Tips Here's Why Free Dating Sites Aren't Working For You (And What You Can Do About It) Read More Entertainment News Trending News: This Trailer For 'Steve Jobs' Is Surprisingly Awesome Read More Watches The Best Traditional Men's Watches For Any Budget Read More Entertainment News Trending News: Jim Carrey Believes California's Vaccination Laws Are Dumb and Dumber Read More Appearance Hair Today, Coiffed Tomorrow: The Hair Products Your Bathroom Cabinet Craves Read More Entertainment News Trending News: Creed Is The Rocky Reboot That We Didn't Know We Wanted Read More Travel 25 Reasons Why Japan Should Be On Your Bucket List Read More ad


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The Story of Civilization, Volume I
The Story of Civilization (Book #1)The Story of Civilization, Volume I: A history of civilization in Egypt and the Near East to the Death of Alexander, and in India, China, and Japan from the beginning; with an introduction on the nature and foundations of civilization. This is the first volume of the classic Pulitzer Prize-winning series.
The Complete Story of Civilization
Our Oriental Heritage, Life of Greece, Caesar and Christ, Age of Faith, Renaissance, Age of Reason Begins, Age of Louis XIV, Age of Voltaire, Rousseau and Revolution, Age of Napoleon, ReformationThe Complete Story of Civilization by Will Durant represents the most comprehensive attempt in our times to embrace the vast panorama of man's history and culture. This eleven volume set includes: Volume One: Our Oriental Heritage; Volume Two: The Life of Greece; Volume Three: Caesar and Christ; Volume Four: The Age of Faith; Volume Five: The Renaissance; Volume Six: The Reformation; Volume Seven:
The Story of Ancient Irish CivilizationThis edition features • illustration • a linked Table of Contents and Index CONTENTS I. How the Ancient Irish People were Governed by their Kings and Chiefs II. How the Warlike Old Irish Conquered Foreign Lands III. How Kings, Chiefs, and People Were Subject to the Brehon Laws IV. How the Ancient Irish Lived As Pagans V. How the Irish People Lived As Christians VI. ...
The Story of Ancient Irish Civilization - The Original Classic EditionFinally available, a high quality book of the original classic edition of The Story of Ancient Irish Civilization. It was previously published by other bona fide publishers, and is now, after many years, back in print. This is a new and freshly published edition of this culturally important work by P. W. (Patrick Weston) Joyce, which is now, at last, again available to you. Get the PDF and EPUB
The Story of Civilization, Volume IV
The Story of Civilization (Book #4)The Story of Civilization, Volume IV: A history of medieval civilization—Christian, Islamic, and Judaic—from Constantine to Dante: A.D. 325-1300. This is the fourth volume of the classic, Pulitzer Prize-winning series.
The Story of Civilization, Volume II
The Story of Civilization (Book #2)The Story of Civilization, Volume II: A history of Greek civilization from the beginnings, and of civilization in the Near East from the Death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest. This is the second volume of the classic Pulitzer Prize-winning series.
A Forest Journey: The Story of Wood and CivilizationA contemporary view of the effects of wood, as used for building and fuel, and of deforestation on the development of civilization.Until the ascendancy of fossil fuels, wood has been the principal fuel and building material from the dawn of civilization. Its abundance or scarcity greatly shaped, as A Forest Journey ably relates, the culture, demographics, economy, internal and external politics,


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KT Photography Photographer
Sabina CaoModel Female Seattle, Washington, US
Mayhem # 2621059
About MeI am an amateur model with some experience from college and am looking to expand my portfolio. I'm hoping to work with a lot of great people!
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GitHub Coupons & Promo Codes
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We have 2 GitHub offers for you to choose from including 2 sales. Latest offer: 'Check Out GitHub Services and Offers Today!' In the last day, 1 promos have been used. The last time an offer was used was July 7, 2015.
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While the final four nations push their abilities to the limit in the search for World Cup gold, test your own football skills with our Women's World Cup Kick-Off Ball contests.
Veteran striker Mohammadou Idrissou has been left out of Cameroon's final 23-man squad for the FIFA World Cup by coach Volker Finke.
On the tenth anniversary of his tragic death, it is truly poignant that a FIFA Confederations Cup semi-final will be taking place and Marc-Vivien Foe's life and legacy will be celebrated. Football will never forget him.


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A telecommunications network comprising a plurality of nodes interconnected via communications paths is configured by the determination of a routing plan for the traffic carried by the network. A set of possible paths, e.g. the eight shortest paths between each pair of network nodes is determined, and each path is allocated a digital code characteristic of that path identity. Groups of paths are selected, each group comprising one path from each set, and for each said group being characterised by a bit string comprising the digital codes of the paths comprising that group. These bit strings are then used as starting values or chromosomes in a genetic algorithm search procedure to generate and evaluate new path groups so as to determine an optimum combination or routing plan of paths between the network nodes.
1. A method of configuring a telecommunications network so as to optimise traffic routing within the network and to select optimised traffic routes, said network comprising a plurality of nodes interconnected by communications links, each said link having a predetermined bandwidth capacity and incorporating one or more communications channels, the method comprising the steps of determining for every pair of nodes in the network a set of n possible shortest paths comprising a sequence of links between those nodes where n is a power of 2, assigning to each said shortest path a respective n bit binary code, forming groups of said shortest paths, each said group containing shortest paths one selected from each set and each group being represented as a unique bit string comprising a sequence of the binary codes of its component paths, assigning a cost value to each said shortest path and determining for each said group a cost term comprising the sum of the cost values of its component paths, for each said group of paths, constructing a utilisation table identifying a traffic demand imposed on every network link use by the paths of that group and determining a congestion factor comprising the number of links whose bandwidth capability would be exceeded by a predetermined level of usage, determining for each said group a bandwidth factor comprising the number of communications channels that will be required to support the traffic demand, determining for each said group of paths a fitness function comprising a weighted sum of the cost factor, the congestion factor and the bandwidth factor for that group of paths, assembling a population pool of groups of paths selected according to their respective fitness functions, selecting from the population pool a gene pool of groups of paths of preferred fitness function, generating an offspring pool from said gene pool and population pool via a genetic operator, and repeating said selection and offspring pool generation to determine a network routing solution achieving a predetermined fitness function value, wherein pairs of members of the gene pool are selected at random and, with a first predetermined probability, identically positioned portions of their bit sequences are interchanged, wherein mutations are introduced into the gene pool by introducing random changes in individual bit values with a second predetermined probability, wherein said first and second probabilities are adjusted in value during the route selection process, and wherein said weighting values are adjusted for particular routes so as to render those route less favourable for selection, thereby preserving those routes for availability to priority customers.
2. A method as claimed in claim 1, wherein each said set of paths comprises the shortest routes between the respective nodes.
3. A method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said communications channels are synchronous channels.
4. A method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said communications channels are virtual channels in an ATM network.
5. A method as claimed in claim 1, wherein each said set of paths comprises eight paths.
This invention relates to the routing of telecommunications traffic in a network comprising a plurality of nodes interconnected by paths. In particular, the invention relates to a method of defining a traffic routing plan for such a network and to a method of routing traffic via the routing plan.
As telecommunication s networks become more complex and the traffic load increases there is a need to determine the routing of traffic within a network so as to minimise the number of communication channels used, to reduce the risk of being unable to handle traffic and to minimise the total cost to the system operator. At present, traffic routing is determined largely on an empirical basis as a full analysis of a complex network to obtain an analytical solution is an intractable problem. It is thus very difficult if not impossible for an operator to ensure that a network is used with a high degree of efficiency under all traffic conditions. It is also difficult for an operator to provide efficient allocation of new traffic routes on demand.
The object of the present invention is to minimise or to overcome this disadvantage.
According to the invention there is provided a method of configuring a telecommunications network whereby to determine traffic routing, said network comprising a plurality of nodes interconnected by communications paths, and each said path incorporating one or more communications channels, wherein the method includes determining a set of possible paths between each pair of network nodes, allocating to each path of each said set a digital code characteristic of that path identity, selecting groups of paths each said group comprising one path from each set, providing for each said group a respective bit string comprising the digital codes of the paths comprising that group, and using the bit strings of said groups as starting values or chromosomes in a genetic algorithm search procedure whereby to generate new bit strings corresponding to new path groups, determining for each said new path group a fitness function representative of the effectiveness of that new path group relative to the other path groups, and evaluating the new path groups from their respective fitness functions so as to determine an optimum combination of paths between the network nodes.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method of routing traffic in a telecommunications network comprising a plurality of nodes interconnected by communications paths, each said path incorporating one or more communications channels, wherein the method includes determining a set of possible paths between each pair of network nodes, allocating to each path of each said set a digital code characteristic of that path identity, selecting groups of paths each said group comprising one path from each set, providing for each said group a respective bit string comprising the digital codes of the paths comprising that group, and using the bit strings of said groups as starting values or chromosomes in a genetic algorithm search procedure whereby to generate and evaluate new path groups so as to determine an optimum combination of paths between the network nodes, and routing the traffic via said optimum combination of paths.
The genetic algorithm uses the bit strings representing the paths as chromosomes to generate new combinations of paths which are then evaluated to determine those which represent better solutions to the routing problem. The bit strings of these new paths then form new starting values in an iterative procedure which may be continued either until a solution satisfies predetermined criteria or until a predetermined number of iterative cycles have been completed.
The technique may be employed in the construction of a transmission network manager to provide control of traffic routing. The technique may also be employed in ATM switching applications to provide predictive capacity management for the allocation of virtual channels for voice traffic.
A general description of the genetic algorithm procedure is given by J. H. Holland in 'Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems', University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Mich.
An embodiment of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings in which;
FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a typical network illustrating the routing of traffic between nodes;
FIG. 2 is a flow chart illustrating the process of evaluating combinations of traffic routes;
FIG. 3 illustrates the genetic algorithm procedure for determining routing solutions for the network of FIG. 1.
Referring to FIG. 1, there is depicted a highly schematic diagram of a telecommunications network 11 comprising a number of nodes A to Q, each adjacent pair of nodes in the network being coupled via a corresponding link. Traffic between a pair of nodes, e.g. A and B, is routed over a path which comprises one or more links. For example, traffic between nodes A and B may be routed over a path comprising the links between the nodes K, L, M and J, or over a path via the nodes E, F, G, H and J. In general there will be a large number of possible paths between a pair of nodes. In the network of FIG. 1, each link may conveniently be identified by its end nodes. Thus, the link between the nodes K and L is represented as KL. It will be appreciated that in the network of FIG. 1, there may be some links whose traffic handling capacity is higher than that of other links. In the network of FIG. 1, the nodes may comprise switches or exchanges and the links may comprise trunk groups.
The choice of a particular route between a pair of nodes will in general depend on considerations of the bandwidth required to accommodate the traffic and the cost of the path to the network operator. However, this choice cannot be made in isolation as the traffic route between every other pair of system nodes must also be considered. Thus, in the network of FIG. 1, traffic between nodes C and D may be routed along a path via nodes N. M, L, G, P and Q. However, this particular route uses the link LM which is already used by one of the routes from A to B. If too many routes in the final routing plan for the network also use this particular link there may well be insufficient bandwidth on that link to accommodate the routing plan. It will also be appreciated that in the network of FIG. 1, each individual link will have a designated bandwidth. In the European SDH standard format this bandwidth may be represented in the form 1�63, 4�63 or 16�63, these being the number of virtual containers that are accommodated on a STM1, a STM4 or a STM16 path respectively. Thus, when considering usage of a particular network link, the bandwidth or capacity of that link must be taken into account.
It will be understood that when the routing of traffic between every pair of network nodes is considered, the problem of defining an optimum routing plan becomes extremely complex. A generally preferred solution to be aimed at is one in which every system link is used to 50% of its capacity, although in practice an acceptable solution is one which approaches this preferred solution.
Referring now to FIG. 2, this comprises a flow chart illustrating our method of determining an effective routing plan for the telecommunications network of FIG. 1. For every pair of nodes in the network we determine a set of n routes or paths between those nodes. Preferably, these paths comprise the n shortest routes between the two nodes. Conveniently n is a power of 2 and for most applications a set of 8 shortest routes may conveniently be employed. Each of these routes is identified by a three bit binary code which, in the case of 8 routes, will range from 000 to 111. The next step is to form groups of paths, each group comprising paths selected one from each set. Each group is represented as a unique bit string or chain formed from the binary codes of the paths forming the group. Thus for example, the bit string 010100110 . . . represents the group comprising the third path between the first pair of nodes, the fifth path between the second pair of nodes, the seventh path between the third pair of nodes and so on. Although the routes shown in FIG. 2 are point to point, it will be appreciated that the technique may be adapted to address the problem of point to multipoint routing.
The groups of paths thus determined represent each a possible solution to the network routing problem, although some of these possible solutions may of course be infeasible e.g. on the grounds of cost and/or of traffic handling capability. These possible solutions are evaluated to determine a measure of their effectiveness as solutions so that potentially good solutions can be retained and ineffective or poor solutions discarded. This evaluation is made on the basis of a fitness function whose determination will be described below.
The first part of the evaluation process assigns a cost, i.e. a network operator cost, to each bit string in the bit chain representing a path comprising one or more links. This cost is made up of the sum of the costs of the respective network links used by the traffic between the corresponding nodes. These costs, which may be stored in a lookup table, are summed to provide a path cost term (C) in a fitness function for the network.
In addition to the path cost, we also consider the total utilisation of each link in a proposed path group. For each group of paths we construct a utilisation matrix or table which identifies the total traffic demand imposed on every network link by those paths of the group which incorporate that link. I.e. for each path in that group we record a tally of the links used by that path. This tally will of course identify links whose capacity would be overused or underused, and for each potential solution we determine the number (B) of links whose bandwidth capability would either be exceeded or would exceed a predetermined level of usage. This is in effect a congestion factor.
The evaluation process next determines the number of channels and/or the band width that will be required to support the traffic requirements. The amount of traffic on any link determines the number of channels (N) that are required to support that traffic.
We then define a fitness function F for each potential solution as:
Where w1, w2 and w3 are weighting factors which the operator can define to force the process to concentrate on minimising either the path costs or the number of channels used, or to provide a trade off between these constraints. Appropriate values of these weighting factors will be determined by the system operator to match the particular network configuration and traffic requirements. A bias against selection of particular routes can be introduced by adjustment of the corresponding weighting factor w3 so as to reserve these routes for subsequent availability to priority customers or so as to inhibit the routing of traffic on paths whose occupancy is already greater than a predetermined value. The purpose of the genetic algorithm procedure is to generate new solutions or Oath groups whose fitness function is minimised.
Referring now to FIG. 3, this illustrates the genetic algorithm process for determining routing information from the potential solutions represented by the groups of paths. Each potential solution or path group can be regarded as a chromosome and the component bit codes representing the component paths of the group can be considered as the genes of that chromosome. The paths to be employed as the initial inputs to the genetic algorithm procedure may either be determined on a random basis or a preferred set of paths may be determined from their fitness function as defined above so that the most unfavourable paths are excluded from the initial selection.
The function "select" in FIG. 3 is used to sample the population pool P to generate a gene pool Q, this selection may be done with replacement so that a good solution may be chosen many times. On the other hand, bad solutions may not appear at all in Q. The desired quality in any select mechanism is that good solutions have a better than average chance of being chosen, while bad solutions have a worse than average chance of being chosen. In the described embodiment, this selection is based on the fitness function defined above.
If "select" were the only genetic operator available, then the population could quickly converge to multiple copies of the best solution in the initial population. In order to ensure that the search space is effectively explored, recombination operators are employed with the "create" function of FIG. 3. Typically, we employ crossover and mutation functions described below.
In the crossover function, solution strings are chosen at random and, with a predetermined probability pc, identically positioned substrings are exchanged. For example, in a single point crossover, a random crossing point is defined and the portions of the strings to the one side of this point are exchanged. Thus, the strings:
are recombined to provide the new strings
In a similar multipoint crossover process, a number of crossing points are selected and the corresponding bit substreams are interchanged
If we have, for example, an initial population of bit strings in which, for one particular position, the bit value is identical for all members of the population, then all offspring of this population generated by the crossover process will retain this characteristic. This will obstruct exploration of the full search space. To overcome the risk that this situation might occur, we employ a mutation process to introduce random changes at the gene level, i.e. at the bit level. A gene or bit is selected at random with a probability pm, and its value is changed from ONE to ZERO or from ZERO to ONE. This introduces a background mutation into the evolutionary process and ensures that the entire search space is made available. Operation of the genetic algorithm on this mutating population ensures that undesirable mutations die out, but desirable mutations are propagated through the population in subsequent generations.
Other, application specific operators may also be employed to ensure that the search space is as extensive as possible and that the better solutions are retained in the population pool.
The genetic algorithm (FIG. 3) commences with an essentially random population of chromosomes, each chromosome representing a possible solution to the routing problem. Some of these chromosomes are selected by the algorithm on the basis of their fitness function defined above to form a gene pool Q from which a new set or offspring pool R of chromosomes is created using a genetic operator. A new population pool P′ is then constructed from the original pool P, the gene pool 0 and the offspring pool R. This process is continued either until a solution is found which satisfies a predetermined criterion determined from the fitness function or until a particular time period has elapsed after which it is expected that little further improvement will result. It will be appreciated that the solution obtained in this manner may or may not be the best possible analytic solution to the routing problem, but it will at worst be a close approximation thereto. In formal terms, the algorithm may be listed as follows:
{objective is to minimise value (p) such that pεU}
P, Q, R; multiset of solutions⊂U;
initialise (P)
while not finish (P) do
Q:=select (P);
R:=create (Q);
P:=merge (P,Q,R)
end GA
In each new iteration, the algorithm manipulates the genes in the gene pool to generate corresponding new path combinations which are then evaluated for fitness. By selecting the better potential solutions this establishes a gene pool containing the more favourable genes. The effects of the crossover and mutation functions can be varied as the algorithm proceeds by suitable adjustment of their respective probability values pc and pm.
Having determined an appropriate solution to the problem in the form of a binary bit string, this solution is then translated back into the corresponding path routing information for application to the network.
In a development of the technique, the search procedure may be facilitated by "seeding" the population pool of a new search with solutions found from a previous similar search and stored in a memory. We have found that this injection of previously found routing patterns into the initial population employed for a new search can reduce the number of iterations required to converge on an acceptable solution and thus reduce the time required to reach this solution.
In a further application, the technique may be employed as a design tool for the modification or extension of an existing network e.g. to accommodate increased traffic demand. Such modification will generally include the addition of further nodes to the network and/or an increase in the channel capacity of one or more network links.
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I understand that some loved Millionaire. Personally, I think it is the worst thing Disney has done since the openeing of DCA.... It had absolutely NO entertainment value for me, and another "game show" type thing has NO interest from me.
Disney is HIGHLY unlikely to build anymore 'edutainment-y' rides... They have proven themselves non-cost-effective time and time again. No staying power. I understand that some people really like those rides, but look at it realistically. How many cartoon based rides have closed in Disneyland... Disney World? How many edutainment-y rides have been replaced, redone?
Of the rides likely to be built, Mission:Space is the top of my list.


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10 Moments of Mind Blowing Glory from Kandui
Longer lefts on a NE swell at mid to high tides. Gets better on the incoming tide because it generally doesn't break at low. Shuts down if it gets overhead. Surprisingly crowded for an average-consistency spot. The pier does little to cut the drift.
20 Jun 18:00 5447
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7 Oct 01:00 1295
20 Sep 17:00 1028
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My wedding ring shockd everyone
I feel in love with this ring the moment I saw it on the website. Everyone was surprised at the wedding on how big it was and how it sparkle in the light. I just love my ring I haven't taken it off since my wedding. I love it, and I constantly get comments on it. Like, "that man must really love you to put something like that on your hand."
Good for price.
The ring design is nice, but the diamonds are very small. Even though the diamonds are small they have a nice sparkle.
- How did the image on site compare with the actual product? The diamonds are smaller than shown on the image.
- How accurate was the sizing? The ring is true to size.
- Please tell us about the quality of the product. The ring is of good quality.
This ring is so pretty and has so much sparkle.
THe ring is a pretty ring with lots of sparkle. it is huge and I am using it as a temp ring until my husband gets me a $$$$ one. But it is so freakin big and pretty full of diamonds I may keep it
- How did the image on site compare with the actual product? the ring is actually wayyyy bigger in person
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