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Materials in the Economy Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1221 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Materials in the Economy— Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment By Lorie A. Wagner U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1221 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior Gale A. Norton, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey Charles G. Groat, Director First printing February 2002 Free on application to U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services Box 25286, Denver Federal Center Denver, CO 80225 For more information about the USGS and its products: Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/ This publication is also available online at: http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/pub/circulars/c1221/ Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government III Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1 Materials in the Economy............................................................................................................................ 2 Sidebar: Consumption and Use of Materials .................................................................................. 5 Material Flows............................................................................................................................................... 9 Sidebar: The Need for Data ............................................................................................................. 10 Sidebar: Mercury Materials Flow .................................................................................................. 11 Scarcity ........................................................................................................................................................ 14 Sidebar: Recycling Statistics........................................................................................................... 16 Environment ................................................................................................................................................. 18 Sidebar: Point and Nonpoint Sources of Contamination—Industrial and Natural................. 21 Sidebar: Are Electric Vehicles the Answer? ................................................................................. 23 Sidebar: Sulfur—A Materials-Flow Analysis................................................................................ 24 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 28 References Cited ........................................................................................................................................ 28 Figures 1. Graph showing world population growth from 1950 to 2000 ................................................. 2 2. Flowchart showing materials flow cycle.................................................................................. 3 3–4. Graphs showing: 3. Percentage, by weight, of renewable and nonrenewable materials used in the United States from 1900 to 2000.................................................................. 3 4. U.S. flow of raw materials by weight, 1900–2000 ......................................................... 4 5. Pie chart showing U.S. flow of raw materials by weight, 1950 and 2000 ............................ 7 6. Graph showing U.S. net import reliance for selected nonfuel mineral materials in 2000 ........................................................................................................................... 8 7–9. Flowcharts showing: 7. Generalized commodity flow cycle................................................................................. 9 8. Domestic flow of mercury, 1996 .................................................................................... 12 9. Domestic product flow of mercury through end uses, 1996..................................... 13 10. Graph showing reported U.S. industrial consumption of mercury, 1970–97..................... 14 11. Diagram showing pathways for mineral-based materials to enter the environment .......................................................................................................................... 19 12. Bar graph showing number of motor vehicles, by world region, in 1980, 1990, and 1996.............................................................................................................................. 20 13. Graph showing trends in sulfur production in the United States, 1978–2000................... 25 14. Flowchart showing sulfur cycle in the environment ............................................................ 27 IV Tables 1. Salient U.S. recycling statistics for selected metals, 2000 .................................................. 17 2. Generation, materials recovery, composting, and discards of municipal solid waste, 1960–99 ................................................................................................ 17 3. Generation and recovery of materials in municipal solid waste, 1999.............................. 18 4. Annual emissions and fuel consumption for an average U.S. passenger car ................. 21 Conversion Factors Conversion factors for SI (metric) and inch/pound (U.S. customary) units of measurement. Multiply By To obtain mile 1.609 kilometer gallon 3.785 cubic decimeter pound avoirdupois 0.4536 kilogram ton, short (2,000 pounds) 0.9072 metric ton Materials in the Economy— Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment By Lorie A. Wagner Introduction whether for a particular material or a collection of materials, enables the sum of potential consequences to be envisioned, priorities to be set, and methods to combat negative impacts of Increased use of goods and services, coupled with popula material flows to be developed. Analyzing the entire materials- tion growth, has increased the impact humans have on the flow cycle helps to ensure that decreased use of one material environment. In the past, studies concentrated on the major does not increase the use of a less environmentally friendly environmental effects, including polluted rivers, smog, and material. The information derived from materials-flow analy acid rain. In the last decade, the focus has expanded to include ses also aids decision-makers in making informed decisions the less obvious impacts that humans are having on the envi about the impacts materials use has on the economy, the envi ronment, such as depletion of the ozone layer, accumulation ronment, and society. of greenhouse gases, loss of biodiversity, and bioaccumulation Understanding materials use and its impacts is increas of toxic substances. ingly important because the global environment is being This report examines the environmental effects of popula tion growth and increased use of materials, the role that mate- rials play in the economy, and concerns over the scarcity of materials. In the United States, the gross domestic product (GDP) exhibited nearly a five-fold increase to $9.9 trillion in 2000 from $2.0 trillion in 1950 (2000 dollars) (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000; International Monetary Fund, 1980, 2001). Meanwhile, U.S. population increased from 152 million in 1950 to 281 million in 2000 (International Monetary Fund, 1980, 2001). As shown in figure 1, by 2000, world population was more than 6 billion (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). Globally, nearly half of all people now live in cities, and an increasing number of them travel enormous distances every year by private car and in aircraft (United Nations Environ ment Programme, 1999). In many parts of the world, technol ogy has transformed patterns of communications, diet, family life, health, leisure activities, and work. More materials need to be extracted or harvested, processed, manufactured, trans- ported, and recycled or disposed to meet the changing lifestyle and growing world population. The increased use of materials transforms the landscape as more factories, warehouses, dis tribution terminals, and retail outlets are built to supply the increased demand for goods and services. Given the present trends in the use of materials and the growing world population, will the resources necessary to produce the desired goods continue to be available? Will the environment be able to absorb the resulting impacts? An understanding of the entire system of flows necessary to support our material needs, from extraction through use and end-of-life, such as is shown in figure 2, is needed. Looking at Vast amounts of goods are available for consumers to purchase the flow of materials from the perspective of a whole system, (source: Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997). 1 2 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment 7000 6000 5000 WORLD POPULATION, IN MILLIONS Europe 4000 3000 Asia and Oceania 2000 South America 1000 North America Africa 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 YEAR Figure 1. By 2000, world population was more than 6 billion (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). altered due to the use of materials on an unprecedented scale. Technological improvements, and increased understand The increased demand for materials, which may not be able to ing of environmental impacts over the past half-century, have be met by current technology, is driven by population growth led to the development of products that both use materials and the demands for a rich material life all over the world. more efficiently and pollute less. For example, automobiles today are more fuel efficient and produce fewer tail-pipe emis sions than in the past. In addition, better public understanding of the environmental consequences of the "consumer society" has begun to bring about shifts in purchasing behavior and lifestyle choices. The challenge in the next century will be to continue efforts toward increased efficiency and wise use of natural resources. Materials in the Economy Food, fuel, and materials are three broad categories of commodities used in the economy to support the needs of soci ety. This study examines materials—such as plastic, metal, and paper—and industrial mineral commodities—such as cement and sand and gravel—while providing a broad overview of all materials, emphasizing mineral-based materials. Mineral-based materials play a vital role in the economy of the United States and the world. The value of all mineral- Growing populations and urban sprawl affect the environment based products manufactured in the United States during 2000 (source: Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997). was estimated to be $429 billion. Imports of raw and processed Materials in the Economy 3 Figure 2. The materials-flow cycle aids in the analysis of the flow of materials through the environment and economy. The cycle is used to trace the flow of materials from extraction through production, manufacturing, and utilization to recycling or disposal. Throughout these processes, the potential for losses exist either through the discard of wastes or dissipation of materials to the environment. From this type of analysis, particular processes can be identified for more efficient materials use. 100 mineral materials rose to an estimated $71 billion in 2000. PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MATERIALS USED, 90 Renewable materials Exports of raw and processed mineral materials during the year reached an estimated value of $43 billion (U.S. Geologi• 80 ON A PER-WEIGHT BASIS cal Survey, 2001a, p. 6). 70 Since the beginning of the 20th century, the types of 60 materials used in the United States have changed signiÞcantly. 50 Nonrenewable materials In 1900, on a per-weight basis, 41 percent of the new1 materi• als used domestically were renewable, as shown in Þgure 3 40 (Matos and Wagner, 1998, Þg. 2). 30 By the end of the 20th century, only 5 percent of the 20 3,400 million tons2 of new materials entering the U.S. econ• 10 omy in 2000 were renewable. Of all the materials used during 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 YEAR 1New materials in this report refers to newly produced materials—either by the extraction of resources, or by recycling—flowing into the economy. It Figure 3. Renewable and nonrenewable materials used in the United does not include, for example, an automobile purchased in prior years that is States. Use of nonrenewable resources has increased dramatically in still in use. the United States during the 20th century (modified from Matos and 2In this report, all reference to tons are metric tons, unless otherwise stated. Wagner, 1998, fig. 2). 4 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment selves, such as agricultural, fishery, forestry, and wildlife prod ucts. If the rate they are harvested becomes so great that it drives the resource to exhaustion, the base that supports a renewable resource can be destroyed. Nonrenewable resources form over long periods of geo logic time. They include metals, industrial minerals, and organic materials (such as fossil-fuel-derived materials used to manufacture plastics). In 1900, the quantity of new materials entering the U.S. economy was 161 million tons, as shown in figure 4. The changes in the quantity entering the U.S. economy each year mirrored major economic and military events, including the depression of the 1930's, World War I, World War II, the post-World War II boom, the energy crunch of the 1970's, and the recession of the 1980's. The U.S. economy moved rapidly from an agricultural to an industrial base. In the 1950's The production of metals and minerals play a vital role in the econo- and 1960's, it shifted toward a service economy. These trends mies of the United States and the world (source: Brøderbund Soft- changed the mix of materials used, as shown in figure 5, and ware, Inc., 1997). were accompanied by automation, computerization, electrifica tion, more extensive processing, high-speed transport, minia this century, more than half were used in the last 25 years turization, and sophisticated technology. The data and detailed (Matos and Wagner, 1998, p. 107). descriptions about the data and trends have been described by Renewable resources are those that regenerate them- Matos and Wagner (1998, p.109–113). 4000 3500 U.S. RAW MATERIALS FLOW, IN MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS 3000 Oil crisis Recession 2500 2000 Crushed stone, 1500 sand, and gravel Industrial minerals World Recycled 1000 Great Primary War II metals Depression Nonrenewable metals Agricultural and organics World War I forest products 500 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 YEAR Figure 4. U.S. flow of raw materials by weight, 1900–98. The use of raw materials dramatically increased in the United States throughout the 20th century (modified from Matos and Wagner, 1998, fig. 3). Materials in the Economy 5 Consumption and Use of Materials "Consumption" refers to the use of the services that goods, made from materials, provide. It means the destruction of the economic value added to a product, through design for example, not necessarily the destruction of the materials of which the product is composed. For example, consumers purchase items such as automobiles, clothing, electricity, housing, and refrigerators. When a new automobile is purchased, both the materials of which the automobile is physically composed and the assembly of these materials into a working automobile is purchased, but, more important, the services of transportation that the automobile provides is acquired. When the automobile reaches the end of its useful life and is no longer able to provide reliable transportation, the materials of which the automobile is composed are available to be transformed or recycled into other useable products. Therefore, although the use of materials is generally referred to as consumption, in many cases, the materials remain after the end of the useful life of the product to be reused or recycled into new products. In 2000, 95 percent of all automobiles that had reached the end of their useful life were recycled (Steel Recycling Institute, 2001, photo source: Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997). Through use, some products are dissipated. That is, the materials of which they are made are not available for recycling at the end of the product's useful life. An example of a dissipative use in an automobile is a brake lining. Over time much of the brake lining wears away, with the resulting small particles being dropped along roadsides. Whereas the remnant of the worn down brake lining is available for recycling, the worn away portion is not. 6 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Consumption and Use of Materials—Continued The Golden Gate Bridge, constructed in the 1930's, still serves the needs of society (source: Microsoft Corp., 2000). A new automobile, for statistical purposes, is considered "consumed" in the year it is purchased by a consumer and driven off the showroom floor, even though it will provide many years of service. This statistical accounting is used for other commodities as well. For example, large quantities of cement, sand and gravel, and stone were "consumed" in the construction of the Hoover Dam (built from 1931 to 1936). The Hoover Dam is still providing its intended services today. The same can be said of such American icons as the Golden Gate Bridge (constructed 1933–37), the Statue of Liberty (erected 1885–86), and the Empire State Building (constructed 1930–31). Infrastructure (bridges, buildings, highways, etc.) may last 35, 50, or 100 years or more. In such cases, the use of materials today is an investment for tomorrow. Crushed stone and construction sand and gravel make up other materials, although gross weight increased during the as much as three quarters (by weight) of new resources used last few decades. Reasons for this include the greater propor annually. Use of these materials greatly increased as a result tion of lighter weight materials (such as aluminum); the intro of infrastructure growth (especially the Interstate Highway duction of high-strength, low-alloy steel in vehicles; and the system) after World War II. In recent decades, construction availability of substitute materials. materials have been used mainly in widening and rebuilding Improvements in recycling technologies, reduced recy roads damaged from weather and heavy traffic loads and in cling costs, and increased consumer preferences for environ construction of bridges, ramps, and buildings (Tepordei, 1999). mentally sound products have resulted in the growth of recy Other industrial-mineral commodities account for the cled metals, paper, concrete, and wood products. The sudden next largest share of materials usage, almost equivalent, on a emergence of recycled materials shown in figure 4 in the per-weight basis, to all of the remaining materials. Industrial- 1960's reflects new criteria for reporting recycled material mineral commodities include cement for ready-mix concrete, (before the 1960's, recycled material was included in total potash and phosphate for fertilizer, gypsum for drywall and materials; Matos and Wagner, 1998). According to estimates, plaster, fluorspar for acid, soda ash for glass and chemicals, in 2000, 62.1 percent of all aluminum beverage cans (Alumi and sulfur, abrasives, asbestos, and various other materials for num Association, Inc., 2001a) and 45 percent of paper were use in chemicals and industry. recovered for recycling (American Forest & Paper Association, Use of metals, by weight, declined slightly relative to 2001). The 2000 recycling rates for steel-containing products Materials in the Economy 7 1950 natural oil. New materials replaced old because of cost advan Crushed stone, tages or more desirable properties or both. sand, and gravel Agricultural and forestry products include nonfood mate- 62% rials derived from agriculture (such as cotton, wool, and tobacco), fishery products (such as fish meal), wildlife (primar ily fur), and forest products (such as wood and paper). Materials production and use play an important role in the economy of the United States and the world. In an increasingly global economy, natural resources are commonly extracted in one country, processed or converted into products in another, and consumed in a third country. Materials production occurs 10% 8% Agricultural where the resources are present. For example, timber produc 17% and forest Industrial Metals tion must take place in a forest area where the trees exist. products minerals 3% Processing sites may be close to or away from the main use Nonrenewable organics or production areas. In some cases, it can be economically advantageous to locate processing away from the production or use site. 2000 Given these circumstances, materials are heavily traded Crushed stone, sand, and gravel internationally. Examining just the U.S. net import reliance 75% for mineral-based materials shows the global nature of U.S. mineral-based materials usage, as shown in figure 6. 12% 4% 5% Industrial 4% Nonrenewable Agricultural minerals Metals organics and forest products Figure 5. U.S. flow of raw materials by weight, 1950 and 2000. The mix of materials consumed from 1950 to 2000 has changed. were 84.1 percent for appliances, 95.0 percent for automobiles, and 58.4 percent for steel cans (Steel Recycling Institute, 2001). Nonrenewable organic material3 is today a major compo nent of materials use. Use of nonrenewable organics emerged gradually in the early part of the 20th century, accounting for approximately 2 million tons in 1900. It subsequently underwent rapid growth, to 148 million tons in 2000. The use of nonrenewable organic material increased as a result of the development of new products and markets and material substi tutions in established markets. In some applications, synthetic fibers replaced natural fibers; plastic replaced wood, metal and other mineral-based commodities; and synthetic oil replaced 3Organic materials are derived from feedstocks of petroleum (including In 1900, the United States used approximately 66 million tons of agri natural-gas liquids), dry natural gas, and coal for nonfuel applications. This cultural and forestry material such as this timber being loaded for use includes resins used in the production of plastics, synthetic fibers, and syn as pulp in making paperboard or for lumber. In 2000, the United States thetic rubber; feedstocks used in the production of solvents and other petro used more than 180 million tons of agricultural and forestry materials chemicals; lubricants and waxes; and asphalt and road oil. (source: Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997). 8 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment 2000 U.S. NET IMPORT RELIANCE FOR SELECTED NONFUEL MINERAL MATERIALS Commodity1 Major Import Trade Sources (1996–99) Percent ARSENIC TRIOXIDE China, Chile, Mexico 100 ASBESTOS Canada 100 BAUXITE and ALUMINA Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil 100 COLUMBIUM (niobium) Brazil, Canada, Germany, Russia 100 FLUORSPAR China, South Africa, Mexico 100 GRAPHITE (natural) China, Mexico, Canada 100 MANGANESE South Africa, Gabon, Australia, France 100 MICA, sheet (natural) India, Belgium, Germany, China 100 QUARTZ CRYSTAL Brazil, Germany, Madagascar 100 STRONTIUM Mexico, Germany 100 THALLIUM Belgium, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom 100 THORIUM France 100 YTTRIUM China, Hong Kong, France, United Kingdom 100 GEMSTONES Israel, India, Belgium 99 BISMUTH Belgium, Mexico, United Kingdom, China 95 ANTIMONY China, Mexico, South Africa, Bolivia 94 TIN China, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia 86 PLATINUM South Africa, United Kingdom, Russia, Germany 83 STONE (dimension) Italy, Canada, Spain, India 80 TANTALUM Australia, China, Thailand, Japan 80 CHROMIUM South Africa, Kazakhstan, Russia, Zimbabwe 78 TITANIUM CONCENTRATES South Africa, Australia, Canada, India 76 COBALT Norway, Finland, Zambia, Canada 74 RARE EARTHS China, France, Japan, United Kingdom 72 BARITE China, India, Mexico, Morocco 71 POTASH Canada, Russia, Belarus 70 IODINE Chile, Japan, Russia 69 TUNGSTEN China, Russia, Bolivia 68 TITANIUM (sponge) Russia, Japan, Kazakhstan, China 62 ZINC Canada, Mexico, Peru 60 NICKEL Canada, Norway, Russia, Australia 58 PEAT Canada 52 SILVER Canada, Mexico, Peru 52 SILICON Norway, South Africa, Russia, Canada 48 DIAMOND (dust, grit, and powder) Ireland, China, Russia 47 MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS China, Canada, Austria, Australia 45 MAGNESIUM METAL Canada, Russia, China, Israel 40 COPPER Canada, Chile, Mexico 37 BERYLLIUM Russia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Germany 35 ALUMINUM Canada, Russia, Venezuela, Mexico 33 PUMICE Greece, Turkey, Ecuador, Italy 33 LEAD Canada, Mexico, Peru, Australia 24 GYPSUM Canada, Mexico, Spain 22 SULFUR Canada, Mexico, Venezuela 22 NITROGEN (fixed), AMMONIA Trinidad and Tobago, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela 21 CEMENT Canada, China, Spain, Venezuela 20 IRON ORE Canada, Brazil, Venezuela, Australia 19 IRON and STEEL European Union, Canada, Japan, Mexico 17 MICA, scrap and flake (natural) Canada, India, Finland, Japan 17 PERLITE Greece 15 SALT Canada, Chile, Mexico, The Bahamas 15 TALC China, Canada, France, Japan 12 CADMIUM Canada, Belgium, Australia 6 PHOSPHATE ROCK Morocco 1 1 In descending order of import share Additional mineral commodities for which there is some import dependency include: Gallium France, Russia, Kazakhstan, Canada Rhenium Chile, Germany, Kazakhstan, Russia Germanium Russia, Belgium, China, United Kingdom Selenium Philippines, Canada, Belgium, Japan Indium Canada, China, Russia, France Vanadium South Africa, China Mercury Canada, United Kingdom, Kyrgyzstan, Spain Vermiculite South Africa, China Zirconium South Africa, Australia Figure 6. 2000 U.S. net import reliance for selected nonfuel mineral materials (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001a, p. 5.) Material Flows 9 Material Flows The analysis of materials flow can lead to improvements in product design, technological innovation that increases the efficiency of resource use, better waste-management practices, Meeting the current material aspirations of people all over and policies that better integrate economic, resource, and eco the world will require increasing extraction, processing, and system concerns. transport of renewable and nonrenewable resources. Expected As the flow of material increases to meet our increasing global population growth will increase these demands. use, the effect on the environment may also increase. This Materials use requires materials to flow from extraction impact on the environment can be minimized by encouraging through processing to use and disposal or recycling. The industries to use less harmful materials, developing new pro flow of materials has significant economic, environmental, and cessing technologies that are friendlier to the environment, social impacts at each stage. Impacts occur with the original substituting benign materials for environmentally harmful resource recovery, transportation, processing, manufacturing, materials, using less material (source reduction), or recycling. and use of goods, and with the flow of material after the useful As material flows increase, the residuals (e.g., emissions, leak- life of the good: disposal, recycling, remanufacturing, or reuse. ages, etc.) could also increase. If they continue to increase, Material-flow studies track the movement of materials problems could arise because the Earth is a closed system beginning with extraction, through processing and creation of and the ability of the ecosystem to absorb these residuals is final goods, to disposal or recycling of the product as shown in bounded (Rogich, 1996, p. 208). figure 7. These studies also identify where the materials reside A vast amount of materials are moved or mobilized in our over time in the form of products that are in use. These studies society to allow us to either extract minerals and materials or can identify the various processes by which emissions (or construct new structures—these are unpriced or not recorded. residuals) enter the environment (fig. 7) and can also identify These flows are referred to as "hidden flows"—the flows of the quantities of materials involved. materials that are necessary to create the goods and services we POST CONSUMPTION Ore and finished product Semi-manufactured Concentrates products IMPORTS INCINERATION Quaternary recycling EXPORTS ENVIRONMENT INVENTORY EXPORTS CHANGES COMPOST SUPPLY FABRICATION PRODUCTION PROCESSING CONSUMPTION DISPOSAL SOURCES Animal Primary LANDFILL Vegetable Coproduct Mineral Byproduct SCRAP Gases Primary recycling RECYCLE IMPORTS Secondary RECYCLE recycling Tertiary recycling Atmospheric emissions generated Solid waste discharge Figure 7. Generalized commodity flow cycle. The diagram shows a generic material flowchart that illustrates the path from origin through disposition for virtually any material. Resources such as water and land are beyond the scope of this flow concept; therefore they are excluded. Although some categories may not pertain to all commodities, the framework provides a perspective for material flow (Kostick, 1996, p. 213). 10 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Ships, such as the one shown here unloading containers, transport goods to and from the United States (source: Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997). The Need for Data Inherent in materials-flow analyses is the need for reliable, consistent data. As stated by the U.S. Interagency Working Group on Industrial Ecology, Material and Energy Flow (2000, p. 78–79): Data collected by Federal Agencies on consumption of commodities, use of energy resources, and industrial and municipal waste generation provide an essential base for analyzing the flow of physical materials through the U.S. economy. Data on environmental emissions (urban air quality, toxic releases, etc.) reveal trends in the environmental performance of U.S. industry, as well as the efficacy of policies to reduce air and water pollution. Federal Agencies also provide geological data on the U.S. land mass and scientific information on the geographic extent and impact of human activities on the landscape. National-level information is useful for an overview and a sense of the trends, problems and opportunities in materials and energy flows. Information needed to support decision-making is most useful when disaggregated to a regional, local, industry sector or enterprise level. This level of detail in the gathering and analysis of data can be expensive but is necessary to support informed decisions and more efficient use of energy and materials with less environmental degradation. Material Flows 11 use but that do not enter into the statistics normally associated support the construction of buildings, dams, and highways. with materials usage. Examples of these hidden flows include In order to better understand the impact that our use materials such as mine tailings, which remain after the ore is of materials can have, material-flow studies target specific extracted, and earth and stone that are moved to make way for or substances, such as mercury. Trucks, such as the one shown here, transport vast quantities of the materials used within the United States. In 1997, in terms of value of shipments and tons, trucks transported approximately 70 percent of all goods transported (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999, p. 9) (photo source: Lorie Wagner). Mercury Materials Flow Although natural sources of mercury exist in the environment, both measured data and models indicate that the amount of mercury released into the biosphere each year has increased since the beginning of the Industrial Age. Mercury is distributed in the air, water, and soil in minute amounts and can be mobile within these media. Mercury, its vapors, and most of its organic and inorganic compounds are poisonous and can be fatal to humans, animals, and plants (Carrico, 1985, p. 506). The information presented here is an excerpt of the study "The materials flow of mercury in the economies of the United States and the world" (Sznopek and Goonan, 2000). As part of an increased emphasis on materials flow, this report researched changes since 1991 and identified the associated trends in mercury flows; it also updated statistics through 1996. It looked at both domestic and international flows because all primary mercury-producing mines are currently foreign—86 percent of the mercury cell sector of the worldwide chlor-alkali industry is outside the United States—there is a large international mercury trade (1,400 tons in 1996) and environmental regulations are not uniform or similarly enforced from country to country. 12 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Mercury Materials Flow—Continued Although natural sources of mercury (such as mineral deposits, hot springs and volcanoes) exist in the environment, increased amounts of mercury have entered into the biosphere from anthropogenic (human-derived) sources. Some of the more significant anthropogenic mercury-emission sources include coal combustion, leaching of solid wastes in landfills, manufacturing-process leaks, and municipal and medical waste incin erations. The materials-flow study addresses the life cycle of mercury from extraction through processing, manufacturing, use, reuse, and disposition. This study characterizes not only the movement of materials (including losses to the environment) but also the stocks. A stock (inventories, or products in use, for example) occurs when a specific material resides, relatively unaltered, for a period of time. Figure 8, the domestic flow of mercury in 1996, shows that 144 tons of mercury were added to the environment in 1996. The largest source of anthropogenic mercury emissions (nearly 50 percent of all human-derived emissions) is from coal-fueled utility boilers used for electrical generation. Complete recovery of mercury emissions from this source presents a problem because mercury is present in coal in very small quantities, but the enormous amount of coal burned produces a large overall contribution. The diagram also shows that secondary production of mercury was greater than reported mercury consumption in the United States in 1996. Figure 8. Domestic flow of mercury, 1996. Numbers are in metric tons (Sznopek and Goonan, 2000, p. 5). Material Flows 13 Mercury Materials Flow—Continued By examining the domestic product flow of mercury through end uses in 1996, the disposition of mercury and the stocks of mercury can be determined, as shown in figure 9. The diagram shows that most mercury in use today is used in chlor-alkali facilities, followed by wiring devices and switches, measurement and control devices, and dental uses. Figure 9. Domestic product flow of mercury through end uses, 1996. Numbers are in metric tons (Sznopek and Goonan, 2000, p. 7). The consumption of mercury in products has declined over time as a result of both consumer and producer concerns over the use of mercury (fig. 10). U.S. legislation, such as designating mercury as a hazardous pollutant in 1971, restricted the sale and disposal of batteries containing mercury and restricted the disposal of fluorescent light tubes containing mercury, all of which led to the declining use and emissions of mercury. Environmental concerns have produced many rules, regulations, and mandates that, over the years, have greatly reduced worldwide mercury use and production and have greatly reduced anthropogenic mercury emissions. Such a trend toward reduced mercury usage is expected to continue into the future but probably at a reduced rate because the only remaining uses for mercury appear to be essential ones. Even with reduced usage, the world will have to deal with large mercury inventories that have accumulated to support the past use of mercury in industrial processes and products. The large amount of mercury emissions derived from coal combustion also remains a problem. 14 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Mercury Materials Flow—Continued 2500 EXPLANATION U.S. INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF MERCURY, Other Dental 2000 Instruments Batteries Switches IN METRIC TONS 1500 Lighting Laboratory Paint Chlor-alkali 1000 500 0 1970 1975 1980 1975 1990 1995 YEAR Figure 10. Reported U.S. industrial consumption of mercury, 1970–97 (Sznopek and Goonan, 2000, p. 4). Scarcity Scarcity is the lack of adequate supply to meet demand. As consumption and usage continue to grow, especially for nonrenewable resources, questions begin to arise over the ade quacy of existing resources to meet our future needs and desires. How much of the Nation's or the world's total mineral wealth has already been discovered? How much is left? Is scarcity inevitable? Concern that resource depletion may threaten the welfare of future generations dates back at least 2 centuries. Today the debate over this threat not only continues but seems more polarized than ever. In one school are those who contend the Earth can not for long continue to support current and anticipated levels of demand for oil and other exhaustible resources. In the opposing school are those who claim, with equal conviction, that the Earth (with the help of market incen tives, appropriate public policies, and new technology) can As populations continue to expand, more pressures are placed on amply provide for society's needs for the indefinite future. natural resources (source: Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997). When interest in this topic reignited in the 1990's, the focus of concern shifted slightly from resource exhaustion per se to the United States uses vast quantities of mineral-based materi the environmental damage associated with mining and mineral als, future shortages are not necessarily inevitable. Economic production (Tilton, 1996). incentives, greater efficiencies in materials use, increased Is the potential scarcity of resources an issue? Although recycling, designing products for future recycling or reuse, Scarcity 15 or plastic bottles, paper cartons, and aluminum or steel cans all could be used. These commodities can be considered substi tutes for one another in this application. Factors such as price, ease of handling, the filling equipment used, and packaging requirements of the beverage all can influence which commod ity is chosen for use. Exploration.—The discovery of additional sources of materials decreases the possibility of scarcity. New techniques, better equipment, and new theories regarding the formation of mineral deposits all have contributed to increasing our known resources. Mining lower grade material.—Over time, techniques have been developed that have enabled lower grade ores to be One of the concerns over our increasing usage of materials is economically mined and processed. This allows more of the whether adequate resources will be available for future generations world's endowment of natural resources to be extracted. (source: Cheryl Bloomquist, Duluth, Minn.). Processing efficiencies.—Efficiencies in materials pro cessing and handling have meant that more of the material is able to reach the market. Better ore-processing technologies result in more of the minerals being extracted from the ore. pollution prevention, and advances in technology are just a few This causes less waste per ton of mineral recovered; therefore, of the ways to reduce dependence on mineral-based materials. less ore needs to be extracted to yield the same amount of Listed below are some of the ways in which potential usable minerals. future shortages of materials could be minimized. Recycling.—When materials are recycled, it means that Economic incentives.—As the price of the commodity less new "virgin" material needs to be extracted or harvested. increases, people generally use less. For example, when the Recycling includes the concepts of reuse and remanufacturing. price of gasoline increases, people tend to drive less or use In many cases recycling materials is a great energy saver. For public transportation more, thereby decreasing the use of gaso example, recycling aluminum beverage containers saves about line. 95 percent of the energy needed to make primary metal from Miniaturization of products.—Technologic developments ore (Wilburn and Wagner, 1993). In addition, recycling is a in manufacturing products have resulted in products that are significant factor in the supply of many of the key metals smaller being able to provide the same or greater services as used in our society; it provides environmental benefits in terms older products that are larger in size. Examples of products of energy savings, reductions in the volume of waste, and that have undergone significant miniaturization are computers reductions in emissions associated with energy savings (U.S. and their components and cellular phones. Geological Survey, 2001b, p. 62.1). New materials research.—Research into new materials Reuse.—The reuse of a product involves the recovery can create specialty materials with superior performance char or reapplication of a package, used product, or material in a acteristics for specific applications, or it can develop uses manner that retains its original form or identity (U.S. Environ for materials that are available in abundance. Over time and mental Protection Agency, 1999, p. 7). Reuse of products such with increasing use, these "new" materials become traditional as refillable glass bottles, reusable plastic food storage contain materials. Bronze, iron, aluminum, and plastic were at one ers, refurbished wood pallets, and discarded railroad ties being time "new" materials (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1990). used as landscaping timbers are examples of reuse. The sale of Technologic advancements.—Development of, or items from garage sales or thrift stores is another example. improvements in, technologies can result in less material being Remanufacturing.—Products can be rebuilt to extend required to manufacture products. The aluminum beverage their useful life. The broken or worn parts are removed and container is an example. Technologic advancements in the replaced, the item may be checked to make sure it is in manufacturing process enabled the walls of the beverage con good working order and is resold in the marketplace, many tainer to be made thinner and thinner. This allows more prod times at a greatly reduced price from a similar new product. ucts to be manufactured per pound of aluminum. Aluminum Some remanufactured products also come with warrantees. beverage containers today are 52 percent lighter than they The automotive remanufactured parts industry is a common were 20 years ago. In fact, the number of cans per pound of example where rebuilt alternators and motors have been read aluminum has gone from about 23 in 1975 to about 33 in 2000 ily available for many years. (Aluminum Association, Inc., 2001b). Landfill mining.—Landfills were once looked upon as the Substitution.—Replacing one commodity for another is final resting place for unwanted items. However, with existing a way in which scarcity of a commodity can be lessened. technology, some landfills can be looked upon as sources In some applications, several commodities have the desired of recyclable materials and may be "mined" to reclaim and properties. For example, in the packaging of beverages, glass recycle the valuable materials. 16 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Waste utilization.—Waste streams from one process can 1999). be used as an input or a valuable resource for another pro Doing without or doing with less.—Another way to cess, thereby reducing the need for new materials. An exam reduce our dependence on minerals is to go without or to ple is the reuse of concrete and asphalt from demolished make do with less. Households today have more "stuff" than infrastructure. As Americans go about tearing up roads and ever before. It used to be that the average home had only one tearing down buildings, they generate large quantities of television set, one car, etc. This is no longer true. To house demolition waste, yielding over 200 million tons per year our increased belongings, larger and larger homes are being of recycled aggregates. The bulk of the aggregate recycled built. For example, in 1987 the average area of a new single- from concrete—an estimated 68 percent—is used as road family home was 1,905 ft2, but by 2000 it had risen to 2,273 ft2 base. The remainder is used in such products as new concrete (National Association of Home Builders, 2001). Doing without mixes, asphalt hot mixes, riprap, and general fill (Goonan, so many material possessions is an option. Recycling Statistics Recycling has been one of the main approaches to waste reduction and a means by which our resources can be extended. Recycling also includes reuse, repair, and remanufacturing. How are we doing at recycling? Recycling rates can be measured at various points, for example at the industrial phase where the product is being produced, after the product is used, or at different collection points—residential, commercial, and institutional. Below are two examples of recycling rates in the United States. Metals Recycling, a significant factor in the supply of many of the key metals used in our society, provides environmental benefits in terms of energy savings, reduced volumes of waste, and reduced emissions associated with energy savings. The reusable nature of metals contributes to the sustainability of their use. A study examining the flow of more than 20 recycled metals is currently underway by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Table 1 shows salient U.S. apparent supply and recycling statistics for selected metals. Recycling contributed 80.7 million tons of metal, valued at about $17.7 billion, or more than half of metal apparent supply by weight in 2000 (J.F. Papp, written commun., November 5, 2001). As shown by table 1, recycled sources supplied 63 percent of lead; 55 percent of iron and steel; 50 percent of titanium; more than 30 percent of aluminum, copper, and magnesium; and more than 20 percent of chromium, tin, and zinc. Municipal Solid Waste Municipal solid waste, otherwise known as trash or garbage, consists of everyday items such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. Not included are materials that also may be disposed in landfills but that are not generally considered municipal solid waste, such as construction and demolition debris, municipal wastewater treatment sludges, and nonhazardous industrial wastes (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, p. 4). In 1999, a total of approximately 230 million short tons of municipal solid waste was generated in the United States (nearly 7 million short tons more than in 1998), according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 2000 report "Municipal solid waste in the United States: 1999 facts and figures." This total equals 4.6 pounds per person per day, as shown in table 2. The generation of paper and paperboard waste is higher than any Scarcity 17 Table 1. Salient U.S. recycling statistics for selected metals, 2000. [In metric tons and percent recycled for each material. Data are rounded to three significant digits; may not add to totals shown. NA, not available; W, data withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Source: J.F. Papp (written commun., November 5, 2001)] Commodity Recycled from Recycled from Recycled3 Apparent Percentage new scrap1 old scrap2 supply4 recycled Aluminum5 2,080,000 1,370,000 3,450,000 9,610,000 36 Chromium6 NA NA 139,000 589,000 24 Copper7 956,000 353,000 1,310,000 4,080,000 32 Iron and steel8 NA NA 74,000,000 134,000,000 55 Lead9 35,400 1,080,000 1,120,000 1,790,000 63 Magnesium10 52,200 30,100 82,300 209,000 39 Tin 8,450 6,600 15,100 52,100 29 Titanium11 NA NA 18,500 W 50 Zinc 369,000 66,900 436,000 1,610,000 27 1Scrap that results from the manufacturing process, including metal and alloy production. New scrap of aluminum, copper, lead, tin and zinc excludes home scrap. Home scrap is scrap generated in the metal-producing plant. 2Scrap that results from consumer products. 3Metal recovered from new plus old scrap. 4Apparent supply is production plus net imports plus stock changes. Production is primary production plus recycled metal. Net imports are imports minus exports. Apparent supply is calculated on a contained weight basis. 5Scrap quantity is the calculated metallic recovery from purchased new and old aluminum-based scrap, estimated for full industry coverage. 6Chromium scrap includes estimated chromium content of stainless steel scrap receipts (reported by the iron and steel and pig-iron industries) where chromium content was estimated to be 17 percent. Trade includes reported or estimated chromium content of chromite ore, ferrochromium, chromium metal and scrap, and a variety of chromium-containing chemicals. Stocks include estimated chromium content of reported and estimated producer, consumer, and Government stocks. 7Includes copper recovered from unalloyed and alloyed copper-based scrap, as refined copper or in alloy forms, as well as copper recovered from aluminum-, nickel-, and zinc-based scrap. 8Iron production measured as shipments of iron and steel products plus castings corrected for imported ingots and blooms. Secondary production measured as reported consumption. Apparent supply includes production of raw steel. 9Lead processors are segregated by primary and secondary producers. This segregation permits inclusion of stocks changes for secondary producers. 10Includes magnesium content of aluminum-based scrap. 11Percent recycled based on titanium scrap consumed divided by primary titanium sponge metal and scrap consumption. Table 2. Generation, materials recovery, composting, and discards of municipal solid waste, 1960–99. [In pounds per person per day; population in thousands. From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000, p. 2)] Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 1995 1999 Generation 2.68 3.25 3.66 4.50 4.40 4.62 Recovery for recycling 0.17 0.22 0.35 0.64 0.94 1.02 Recovery for composting1 Negligible Negligible Negligible 0.09 0.20 0.26 Total materials recovery 0.17 0.22 0.35 0.73 1.14 1.28 Discards after recovery 2.51 3.04 3.31 3.77 3.26 3.33 Population (thousands) 179,979 203,984 227,255 249,907 263,168 272,691 1Composting of yard trimmings and food wastes. Does not include mixed municipal solid waste composting or backyard composting. 18 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Recycling Statistics—Continued other category, as shown in table 3. Of the total approximately 230 million short tons of municipal solid waste generated, 28 percent was recycled, up from 10 percent in 1980 and 16 percent in 1990. Disposal has decreased from 90 percent of the amount generated in 1980 to 72.2 percent of municipal solid waste in 1999. The per-capita discard rate (after recovery for recycling, including composting) was 3.3 pounds per person per day in 1999, up from 3.1 pounds per person per day in 1996. Table 3. Generation and recovery of materials in municipal solid waste, 1999. [Includes wastes from residential, commercial, and institutional sources. Negligible, less than 50,000 short tons or 0.05 percent. From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000, p. 6)] Weight Recovery Material generated (% of generation) (millions of short tons) Paper and paperboard 87.5 41.9 Glass 12.6 23.4 Metals Steel 13.3 33.6 Aluminum 3.1 27.8 Other nonferrous metals1 1.4 66.9 Total metals 17.8 35.2 Plastics 24.2 5.6 Rubber and leather 6.2 12.7 Textiles 9.1 12.9 Wood 12.3 5.9 Other materials 4.0 21.4 Total materials in products 173.6 29.3 Other wastes, total 56.3 23.3 Food, other2 25.2 2.2 Yard trimmings 27.7 45.3 Misc. inorganic wastes 3.4 Negligible 1Includes lead from lead-acid batteries. 2Includes recovery of paper for composting. Environment mineral-based materials being added to the environment in excess of what would normally be present. Some mineral-based materials are considered benign— Mineral-based materials occur naturally in the environ that is, they do not usually interact with or cause harm to ment and are an inherent part of our total environment. They plants, animals, or humans. Sand and gravel are examples exist in the ecosystem; in rocks, soil, surface water, and ground of benign materials. Materials such as arsenic, cadmium, water; and small amounts of mineral-based materials are con and mercury can be considered toxic in certain forms and sidered essential for plants, animals, and humans. amounts. Besides these natural sources, there are also anthro In the natural environment, the elements that make up pogenic sources. Human activities—such as driving automo minerals also compose rocks and soil. These elements can biles, manufacturing products, growing food, participating in move throughout the ecosystem. As rocks break down due to recreational activities, and receiving medical care—result in weathering and erosion, or when volcanoes erupt, elements are Environment 19 tion n ATMOSPHERE ala Inh orptio Co nd s n en Ab estio sat Ing ion y Eva ca por De atio n Decay BIOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE ion rat po Eva n tio Sedimentation ita Decay ion Chemical/ cip biological reactions lut Pre So According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, driving a car Chemical/biological reactions SOIL SEDIMENT is probably a typical citizen's most "polluting" daily activity (source: Microsoft Corp., 2000). n We tio ath e nta eri dim ng Se ROCKS dispersed into the environment and can migrate into air, soil, or water and can become concentrated in living organisms. Figure 11 shows the ways in which materials can enter the Figure 11. Mobile metal pathways. The diagram shows pathways for environment naturally. mineral-based materials to enter the environment (Board, 1996). Elements can be quite mobile in water, and the majority of our environmental problems are ultimately associated with the contamination of surface and ground water (Gough, 1993, p. 3). When water comes into contact with rocks and soils, some of the minerals and organic substances dissolve and enter natural waters. The combination of some natural processes with human activities can increase these substances to harmful or toxic levels. Therefore, toxic substances may have both natural and human sources. Natural point sources for toxic substances may include mineral deposits; anthropogenic point sources may include industrial processing facilities, mining operations, or chemical facilities; and anthropogenic nonpoint sources may include entire cities or counties (Gough, 1993, p. 3). Natural sources of toxic substances include rocks, volca noes, sediments, and soil. For example, sedimentary rocks in central Oklahoma contaminate ground water with arsenic, chromium, selenium, and uranium. In the west-central United States, certain sedimentary rocks contain toxic amounts of selenium. Some plants can concentrate selenium in their tissue, which can result in livestock disease and death (Gough, 1993, p. 3). The other way materials can enter the environment is by way of human activities. Common anthropogenic sources include burning coal to produce electricity, chemical pro cesses, disposing of and incinerating waste, emissions from automobiles, manufacturing, mining, and the use of pesticides and fertilizers in food production. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994a) Natural. environments may be at risk of negative environmental reported that, "Emissions from an individual car are generally impacts as a result of our materials consumption (source: Brøderbund low, relative to the smokestack image many people associate Software, Inc., 1997). 20 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment with air pollution. But in numerous cities across the country, ness has resulted in individual citizens, local organizations, the personal automobile is the single greatest polluter, as emis- corporations, and governments all working to decrease emis sions from millions of vehicles on the road add up. Driving sions to the environment. Regulations have been enacted to a private car is probably a typical citizen's most 'polluting' reduce air pollution, for example. Source reduction, switching daily activity." to less environmentally harmful alternatives, recycling, and Since the 1970 census year, the American population has just plain doing without have decreased the impact of our increased by one-third, but the number of motor vehicles on materials use on the environment. the road—cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles—has nearly According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency doubled (Anderson, 1999). Figure 12 shows the number of (1998): motor vehicles in various countries of the word. The improvements in air quality and economic prosperity that Table 4 displays the annual emissions and fuel consump- have occurred since EPA initiated air pollution control programs tion for an average passenger car. in the early 1970's illustrate that economic growth and environ- Efforts are underway to limit the impact that our materials mental protection can go hand-in-hand. Since 1970, national use has on the environment. Increased environmental aware- total emissions of the six "criteria pollutants" [carbon monoxide, EXPLANATION West Asia North America Total = 676.2 6.4 Latin America and the Caribbean Europe and Central Asia Asia and the Pacific 223.2 Africa Total = 541.7 5.5 208.6 44.2 Total = 391.1 2.3 NUMBER OF MOTOR VEHICLES, BY REGION, IN MILLIONS 32.3 184.7 256.5 191.0 17.4 129.1 127.3 93.2 52.3 5.3 11.1 18.6 1980 1990 1996 Figure 12. The number of motor vehicles in the world has nearly doubled in the last 16 years, from 391.1 million in 1980 to 676.2 million in 1996. Transportation now accounts for one-quarter of world energy use and about one-half of the world's oil production (United Nations Environment Programme, 1999). Environment 21 Table 4. Annual emissions and fuel consumption for an average U.S. passenger car. [Values are averages. Estimated mileage is 12,500 miles per year. Individual vehicles may travel more or less miles and may emit more or less pollution per mile than indicated here. Emission factors and pollution/fuel consumption totals may differ slightly from original sources due to rounding. From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997, p. 1)] Pollutant and problem Amount1 Pollution or fuel consumption2 Hydrocarbons: Urban ozone (smog) and air toxics ......................2.9 grams per mile........................80 lb of HC Carbon monoxide: Poisonous gas ........ 22 grams per mile .......................606 lb of CO Nitrogen oxides: Urban ozone (smog) and acid rain .......................1.5 grams per mile.......................41 lb of NOx Carbon dioxide: Global warming........ 0.8 pounds per mile.................. 10,000 lb of CO2 Gasoline: Imported oil 3 ..................... 0.04 gallons per mile...............550 gallons gasoline 1The emission factors used here come from standard EPA emission models. They assume an "average," properly maintained car or truck on the road in 1997, operating on typical gasoline on a summer day (72° to 96°F). Emissions may be higher in very hot or very cold weather. 2Fuel consumption is based on average in-use passenger car fuel economy of 22.5 miles per gallon and average in-use light truck fuel economy of 15.3 miles per gallon. Source: DOT/FHA, Highway Statistics (1995). 3Total net imports as a share of petroleum consumption reached a record high of 51 percent in 1998. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 1998. lead, nitrogen dioxide, ground-level ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide] declined 31 percent, while U.S. population sions) created per unit of material flow. Decreases in the rate increased 31 percent, gross domestic product increased 114 of goods turnover are possible, and the potential for processes percent, and vehicle miles traveled increased 127 percent. that emit fewer residuals also exists. Productive uses for flows that are now considered residuals are also possible. All of these Even though the emissions of these six "criteria pollut hold promise for decreasing the impact our materials use is ants" have declined, overall, the present situation appears to having on the environment. indicate that the absolute quantity of residuals entering the Excluding questions of energy availability and possible environment will increase as our use of materials increases resource scarcity for some commodities, the magnitude of unless our material-use preferences or methods to produce and the flow of material in the economy is not a problem if the use goods are modified. Increased recycling is one option to absolute quantity of residuals released to the environment does potentially reduce the quantity of residuals (wastes and emis not exceed the environment's ability to absorb these residuals. Point and Nonpoint Sources of Contamination— Industrial and Natural —From Gough (1993, p. 27–29): Point-source pollution Point-source pollution comes from a single source located in a small area such as a factory, power plant, or natural spring. There are many types of point-source pollution that degrade the quality of water, air, and soils. Examples include emissions of particulates and acidic gases into the atmosphere from active volcanoes, metalliferous springs whose waters have 22 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Point and Nonpoint Sources of Contamination— Industrial and Natural—Continued interacted with unmined mineral deposits, natural oil seeps, and acid-mine drainage from mine and mill tailings. If pollutants are released underground, then they can contaminate the ground water and the rock aquifers through which the ground water flows. Air pollution can arise from activities such as power generation, mineral smelting, or industrial processing. Solid particles (particulates) generated by these sources can degrade air quality and visibility, and gases released from these sources (such as sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen gases) can react with atmospheric water to generate rain that is acidic or that has other chemically hazardous qualities. Soil pollution can result from both air- and water-based pollution. For example, high concentra tions of heavy metals can be found in soils near smelters and in soils through which metal- bearing surface waters or ground waters have flowed. To effectively clean up sites that have been affected by point-source pollution, it is necessary to understand the geochemical processes that control how the pollutants interact with the environment. The following two USGS activities involving both general research and specific site studies help address the geochemical behavior of natural and human (anthropogenic) point-source contaminants. In Hawaii, USGS scientists are examining the origin of natural, volcano-related, acidic aerosols in the atmosphere, which can cause respiratory problems among island inhabitants. Chemical and isotopic data on the aerosols show whether they resulted from the interactions of molten lava from the Kilauea Volcano with sea water or from the reaction of sulfur dioxide of volcanic origin with moisture in the atmosphere. By understanding the origin of the aerosols, health officials can recommend measures to help humans avoid contact with the aerosols. Another study showed that springs in areas of uranium-rich bedrock can be local point sources of dissolved uranium. The uranium is dissolved during normal weathering of uranium- rich rocks and can be reconcentrated onto organic matter as the springs emerge in organic- rich soils or wetlands. The following is an example of one such uranium-bearing spring that enters a wetland in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. The natural spring waters that help sustain this wetland contain 30 to 80 parts per billion (ppb) uranium compared to a regional background value of less than 5 ppb. The concentration of dissolved uranium by peat is very efficient and produces haloes (peat regions that are high in uranium) in the immediate vicinity of the emergent source springs. Dried samples of peat collected near the spring pools contain as much as 3,000 parts per million uranium, which represents up to a 100,000-fold concentra tion. This direct observation of the extraction of uranium by peat provides another example of how wetlands can improve water quality through their metal-sorption capabilities. Nonpoint-Source Pollution Nonpoint-source contamination has no single, clearly defined source area and can result from both natural and human-induced processes. The most commonly studied are those either introduced or exacerbated by human activities. Agriculture is an important nonpoint source of contamination. This is a result of two generalized activities—leaching of contaminants that man has added to the soil or the crops, such as organic herbicides or pesticides and nitrates or phosphates from fertilizers, and leaching of naturally occurring pollutants in the soil, chiefly as the result of irrigation, which are then concentrated to abundances incompatible with plant or animal life. Environment 23 Point and Nonpoint Sources of Contamination— Industrial and Natural—Continued The role of the USGS in the study of nonpoint-source pollution studies is focused on its ability to understand the chemical and physical processes controlling the pollutants in the environment. The definition of base-lines in agricultural and native soils and parent material has helped define what the pollution source is, how large the source is, the associated elements, and what the controlling processes are. With the knowledge of source and controls, remediation steps can be effectively planned and implemented with minimal impact on human health. [One such example is uranium from marine deposits.] Marine shales and sandstones underlie large parts of the Western United States. Much of the uranium in these rocks is loosely bound and the rocks can weather under conditions typical of the semiarid West, [releasing uranium to the environment]. Irrigation can increase the natural loss of the uranium. Runoff from irrigation may directly reenter irrigation ditches for reuse. Local ponding of runoff waters or creation of waterlogged soils can also bring uranium and other elements to the surface, where they are concentrated by evaporation. Soils thus contaminated may be rendered unfit for cultivation. Additionally, uranium and other elements concentrated at the surface may be removed by rainfall runoff and carried downstream, thus contaminating waters far beyond the irrigated fields. Irrigation-return waters, regardless of the paths they have followed, may drain into their originating rivers via natural or artificial flow paths. Further downstream they may be taken out again and again for irrigation. When these waters become unfit for use on fields, they may be stored in permanent reservoirs and become more saline through further evaporation. These reservoirs may reach high levels of toxicity for animal or plant life. Towns and individuals may get their drinking water from aquifers that have been recharged, in part, by irrigation-return waters. Are Electric Vehicles the Answer? —From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994b): Electric vehicles are gaining attention as an option for improving air quality and lessening United States dependence on imported oil. Research and development is under way on advanced battery and fuel cell technology and automakers are stepping up efforts to design electric vehicles for fleets and personal use. Even though today's technology is new, battery- powered vehicles have been around for a long time. Electrics flourished before the rise of the gasoline automobile and some 50,000 electric vehicles were in use in the United States by 1912. Electric vehicles are sometimes referred to as "zero-emission vehicles" because they produce essentially no pollution from the tailpipe or through fuel evaporation. This is important, for it means that the use of electric vehicles could greatly reduce emissions of carbon monoxide and smog-forming pollutants in cities with dirty air. While electric cars themselves are clean, generating the electricity to charge vehicle batteries produces air pollution and solid waste. If electric powerplants produce electricity using clean energy sources such as solar or hydropower, then emissions are negligible. But power plants which combust conventional fuels like coal (used for more than half of the electricity gener ated in the United States today) produce emissions such as particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. These same plants also create carbon dioxide, a combustion product of all fossil fuels, which contributes to global warming. 24 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Are Electric Vehicles the Answer?—Continued There are several factors that affect this pollution tradeoff. It may be easier to control pollution at a power plant than from individual vehicles. Power plants often are located outside major centers of urban air pollution, and finally, while only a fraction of today's power plants use renewable resources (biomass, wind, geothermal, or solar power), electricity can be produced from these clean sources of energy. Potential health or safety risks associated with widespread electric vehicle use have not yet been fully evaluated. Many vehicle batteries contain toxic elements or produce toxic emissions, which could make battery production, transport, use, and disposal a significant solid waste issue. The United States must consider how to safely dispose of or recycle these batteries. What about hybrid electric vehicles? Hybrid electric vehicles have batteries to provide electric power but are also equipped with a small internal combustion engine (usually powered by gasoline). The engine provides a power boost and/or can be used to recharge the batteries, as pure electrics today simply cannot achieve the range, performance, or convenience of a modern gasoline car. Unfortunately, the extra engine substantially increases pollution from the vehicle, erasing many of the air quality benefits of pure electric vehicles. Sulfur—A Materials-Flow Analysis —From J.A. Ober (written commun., May 22, 2000): Through its major derivative, sulfuric acid, sulfur ranks as one of the more important elements used as an industrial raw material. In fact, consumption of sulfuric acid has been regarded as one of the best indexes of a nation's industrial development. More sulfuric acid is produced in the United States every year than any other chemical (Ober, 2000). The USGS collects, analyzes, and disseminates information on the domestic and international supply of and demand for sulfur. The sulfur industry is different from many other important modern mineral indus tries in that the disposal of excess supplies of sulfur is becoming a more important consideration than the question of how to sustain production. Unlike other industries that are searching for economical methods to produce a usable product from decreasing reserves and poorer grades of ore, sulfur producers must strive to find innovative uses for continually growing sulfur supplies. As environmental concerns increase, the trend is to minimize the effects of mining by recycling mineral materials or substituting with more environmentally friendly materials. For the sulfur industry, however, increased environmental awareness results in further increases in the sulfur supply and smaller increases in the demand for sulfur in many industrial processes. The unusual sulfur situation is a result of the changes of sulfur supply sources throughout the past 70 years. Whereas many mineral commodities are produced as a primary product from the mining of discreet ore bodies, or as desirable byproducts from mineral processing, the majority of sulfur produced is the result of environmental measures implemented to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere at petroleum refineries and nonferrous metal smelters and to remove poisonous hydrogen sulfide gas from natural gas deposits. Voluntary sulfur production, whether in the form of mined elemental sulfur or pyrites that are produced and burned to recover their sulfur content as sulfuric acid, has become continually less important in the global sulfur supply equation as shown in figure 13. Environment 25 Sulfur—A Materials-Flow Analysis—Continued 14 IN MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS 12 U.S. SULFUR PRODUCTION, Total 10 8 Recovered 6 4 Frasch-process production* 2 Byproduct 0 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 YEAR * Includes 10 months of Frasch-process data for 1993; the other 2 months are included with recovered sulfur data to conform with proprietary data require ments. Data are estimates for 1994 through 2000. Figure 13. Trends in sulfur production in the United States, 1978–2000 (Ober, 2000, 2002). The Frasch process, used to mine native sulfur, is one in which superheated water is forced into the sulfur deposit for the purpose of melting the sulfur. Molten sulfur is then pumped to the surface. The long-term prospect is that 90 percent or more of the world sulfur supply will come from environmentally regulated sources and that output from these sources will be produced regardless of world sulfur demand. As a result, new operations that produce sulfur as the primary product will probably not be developed, and more voluntary operations will be curtailed. In 2000, voluntary sources of production—Frasch-process sulfur,4 native sulfur, and pyrites—accounted for only 14 percent of the world output of about 57.2 million tons; in 1980, these same sources supplied 50 percent of the world production of 55.0 million tons. Voluntary production of sulfur should continue to decline, and recovered sulfur supply will continue to expand at a faster pace than demand. As more countries enact and enforce environmental legislation on a par with European and North American laws, tremendous new quantities of sulfur could be recovered. More stringent regulation and compliance will be long-term developments and cannot be quantified at this time, but changes are inevitable. In fact, the impact of projects to improve sulfur recovery, especially at copper smelters, is already being felt. Demand for sulfur has not kept up with production, creating a growing inventory of elemental sulfur globally. This situation is not expected to change significantly as long as most energy is produced from fossil fuels. Disposal of excess sulfur may become difficult if new high-volume uses for elemental sulfur are not implemented. 4The Frasch process, used to mine native sulfur, is one in which superheated water is forced into the sulfur deposit for the purpose of melting the sulfur. Molten sulfur is then pumped to the surface. 26 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Sulfur—A Materials-Flow Analysis—Continued Global Sulfur Cycle When considering the materials flow of any mineral, the global cycle must be considered; the scope of the global sulfur cycle dwarfs those of most others. More than 50 million tons of sulfur in all forms is produced annually worldwide for industrial consump tion. The natural sulfur cycle is much harder to quantify but may be comparable in size. In addition, the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, liberates tremendous quantities of sulfur dioxide, only some of which is recovered as byproduct sulfur compounds or waste material through gas-cleaning processes; the rest is released into the atmosphere. Although most chemical elements have a global cycle, the global sulfur cycle is unusually active and pervasive with inputs from natural and man-made sources. Much of the cycle is difficult to quantify. The amount of sulfur that is produced through mining or as environmental byproducts at oil refineries, natural gas processing plants, and nonfer rous metal smelters is reasonably well defined, but the quantity of sulfur dioxide released from electric power plants and industrial facilities in developing countries is harder to measure. Estimates of sulfur emissions from natural sources are even more difficult to measure because of the variety of sources, variability of emissions over time, the wide range of compounds involved, and the difficulties in measuring in remote locations. The Natural Sulfur Cycle The natural sulfur cycle is extremely complex and difficult to measure. Sulfur is pervasive in nature; it is a component of many forms of rock; and it is found in most fossil fuels (in varying quantities in coal, crude oil, and natural gas). Sulfur is essential in all living things, both plants and animals (Moss, 1978, p. 23). Natural sources of sulfur include volcanoes, sea spray, organisms, and the weather ing of sulfide minerals to sulfates, as shown in figure 14. Sulfates from the weathering of sulfide minerals can eventually reach the oceans through river runoff and erosion and become components of marine sediment. Other weathered sulfates react with bacteria to form compounds that are incorporated into the soil and plant systems. Animals may then ingest the plants and the sulfur compounds and are ultimately returned to the environment as sulfates (Moss, 1978, p. 27–29). Volcanoes are the most dramatic natural source of sulfur, emitting sulfur during eruptions and also during noneruptive periods of volcanic activity. Most volcanic emis sions enter the atmosphere, but some—especially elemental sulfur deposits—are found surrounding the volcano. Seawater contains about 2.65 mg of sulfate per gram of water, and, as bubbles of seawater break, particles of sea salt are formed and emitted into the atmosphere. This sea spray is one of the largest sources of sulfur in the atmosphere, especially over open oceans. About 90 percent of this material is believed to cycle back into the oceans, with the remainder passing over the continents (Kellogg and others, 1972). The sulfate in seawater may come from weathered minerals discussed previously or through the decay of ocean organisms. One of the more recent estimates of natural sulfur sources in the atmosphere places the input for open-ocean biogenic production (derived from the physiological activities of organisms) at 46 percent of total natural sulfur in the atmosphere, volcanoes at 18 percent; eolian (wind-raised) dust at 16 percent, terrestrial plants and soils at 13 percent, biomass burning at 4 percent, and coastal zone and wetland biogenic sources at 3 percent (Whelpdale, 1992, p. 6). Environment 27 Sulfur—A Materials-Flow Analysis—Continued Figure 14. Contributors of sulfur to the environment are many and diverse. Natural sources of sulfur include volcanoes, oceans, plants, and animals. The burning of fossil fuels provides most of the sulfur from industrial sources. The Anthropogenic Sulfur Cycle The amount of sulfur entering the atmosphere through human activityÑthe anthro• pogenic sulfur cycleÑis easier to deÞne than the natural sulfur c ycle, but there remain signiÞcant uncertainties to its size in less developed areas of the world. The majority of anthropogenic sulfur emissions are in the form of sulfur dioxide resulting from the burning of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) and the smelting of nonferrous metal ores and other industrial processes and burning (Whelpdale, 1992, p. 6). Globally, man-made sulfur inputs to the atmosphere began to increase signiÞcantly s early in the 20th century and continued the trend until about the mid-1970Õ when environmental regulations in North America and Western Europe began to limit allowable sulfur emissions. 28 Materials in the Economy—Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment Conclusions International Monetary Fund, 1980, International financial statistics yearbook: Washington, D.C., International Monetary Fund, p. 432–438. The flows of materials generated in the world economy International Monetary Fund, 2001, International financial statistics significantly affects peoples lives and the global environment. yearbook: Washington, D.C., International Monetary Fund, p. As population increases and people all over the world strive for 1032–1033. a rich material life, the world is altered, wastes are generated, Kellogg, W.W., Cadle, R.D., Allen, E.R., Lazrus, A.L., and Martell, E.A., and the landscape is modified at a scale that is unprecedented. 1972, The sulfur cycle: Science, v. 175, no. 4022, February 11, p. In order to meet the people's future material needs, 587–595. resources must be used wisely and impacts to the environment Kostick, D.S., 1996, The material flow concept of materials: need to be minimized. There are many steps that can be taken, Nonrenewable Resources, v. 5, no. 4, p. 211–233. and many that have already been taken, to continue satisfying society's material needs and desires. Matos, G.R., and Wagner, L.A., 1998, Consumption of materials in It is no easy feat to supply society's needs and desires the United States, 1900–1995: Annual Review of Energy and the without causing some damage to something somewhere. Environment 1998, v. 23, p. 107–122. Building a road displaces native animals that inhabit the land. Microsoft Corp., 2000, Microsoft Clip Gallery Live: Microsoft Corp. Building a dam changes fish habitats. Building a house means [web site accessed August 2, 2000, at URL http://cgl.microsoft.com/ cutting down trees. Certain resources are required and always clipgallerylive/default.asp]. will be required. The challenge, then, is to find ways to satisfy Moss, M.R., 1978, Sources of sulfur in the environment—The global society's needs sensibly, with an eye toward balancing material sulfur cycle, in Nriagu, J.O., ed., The Atmospheric Cycle, [pt. 1 of needs with their potential impact on the world's life-support Sulfur in the Environment]: New York, John Wiley and Sons, p. systems and with the environmental values society holds. 23–50. National Association of Home Builders, 2001, Characteristics of new single-family homes—1987–2000: National Association of References Cited Home Builders [web site accessed November 2, 2001, at URL http://www.nahb.com/facts/forecast/sf.html]. Aluminum Association, Inc., 2001a, Americans recycle 2 of 3 aluminum Ober, J.A., 2000, Sulfur, in Metals and Minerals: U.S. Geological Survey cans: Aluminum Association, Inc. [web site accessed October 19, Minerals Yearbook 1998, v. 1, p. 75.1–75.22. 2001, at URL http://www.aluminum.org/newsa.cfm?pressid=108]. Ober, J.A., 2002, Sulfur, in Metals and Minerals: U.S. Geological Survey Aluminum Association, Inc., 2001b, Industry facts—The aluminum Minerals Yearbook 2000, v. 1, p. 76.1–76.24. can: Aluminum Association, Inc. [web site accessed November 2, 2001, at URL http://www.aluminum.org/default2.cfm/2/29]. Rogich, D.G., 1996, Material use, economic growth, and the environment: Nonrenewable Resources, v. 5, no. 4, p. 197–210. American Forest & Paper Association, 2001, Recycling overview: American Forest & Paper Association [web site accessed Sznopek, J.L., and Goonan, T.G., 2000, The materials flow of mercury in October 30, 2001, at URL http://www.afandpa.org/recycling/ the economies of the United States and the world: U.S. Geological afandpa_overview.html]. Survey Circular 1197, 28 p. Anderson, J.W., 1999, Do cheap gas prices undermine U.S. Steel Recycling Institute, 2001, Fact sheet—A few facts about steel— climate policy?: Resources for the Future [web site accessed North America's #1 recycled material: Steel Recycling Institute August 26, 1999, at URL http://www.weathervane.rff.org/features/ [web site accessed October 19, 2001, at URL http://www.recycle feature063.html]. steel.org/fact/main.html]. Board, Paul, 1996, Inside science—Number 94: New Scientist, v. 152, Tepordei, V.V., 1999, Natural aggregates—Foundation of America's no. 2051, October 12, p. 1–4. future: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-144-97, 4 p. Brøderbund Software, Inc., 1997, Clickart® 300,000—Premiere image Tilton, J.E., 1996, Exhaustible resources and sustainable pak: Brøderbund Software, Inc. development—Two different paradigms: Resources Policy, v. 22, Carrico, L.C., 1985, Mercury, in U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Facts no. 1/2, p. 91–97. and Problems, 1985 edition: U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 675, p. United Nations Environment Programme, 1999, GEO-2000 and the 499–508. GEO process, overview GEO-2000: United Nations Environment Goonan, T.G., 1999, Recycled aggregate—Profitable resource Programme [web site accessed September 24, 1999, at URL conservation: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-181-99, 2 p. http://www.unep.org/geo2000/ov-e/0001.htm]. Gough, L.P., compiler, 1993, Understanding our fragile environment— U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000, Consumer price index: U.S. Lessons from geochemical studies: U.S. Geological Survey Circular Bureau of Labor Statistics [web site accessed August 10, 2000, at 1105, 34 p. URL ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/cpi/cpiai.txt]. References Cited 29 U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1990, The new materials society—Challenges U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Municipal solid waste and opportunities, v. 1 of New Materials Markets and Issues: U.S. in the United States—1999, facts and figures: U.S. Environmental Bureau of Mines, 150 p. Protection Agency, 136 p. U.S. Census Bureau, 1999, Transportation, in 1997 Economic Census: U.S. Geological Survey, 2001a, Mineral commodity summaries 2001: U.S. Census Bureau 1997 Commodity Flow Study, EC977TCF-US, U.S. Geological Survey, 193 p. 169 p. U.S. Geological Survey, 2001b, Recycling—Metals, in Minerals and U.S. Census Bureau, 2001, International data base—Table 1, midyear Metals: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 1999, v. 1, p. population: U.S. Census Bureau [web site accessed October 25, 62.1–62.15. 2001, at URL http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/agggen]. U.S. Interagency Working Group on Industrial Ecology, Material and U.S. Energy Information Administration, 1998, Energy in the United Energy Flow, 2000, Industrial ecology material and energy flows in States: A brief history and current trends: U.S. Energy Information the United States: U.S. Interagency Working Group on Industrial Agency [web site accessed May 19, 2000, at URL http://www. Ecology, Material and Energy Flow, 95 p. eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh1998/eh1998.html]. Whelpdale, D.M., 1992, An overview of the atmospheric sulphur cycle, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1994a, Automobile in Howath, R.W., Stewart, J.W.B., and Ivanov, M.V., eds., SCOPE emissions—An overview: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 48—Sulphur Cycling on the Continents—Wetlands, Terrestrial Fact Sheet OMS-5, 3 p. Ecosystems and Associated Water Bodies: New York, John Wiley and Sons, p. 5–26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1994b, Electric vehicles: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Fact Sheet OMS-10, 2 p. Wilburn, D.R., and Wagner, L.A., 1993, Aluminum availability and supply—A minerals availability appraisal: U.S. Bureau of Mines U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Annual emissions and Information Circular 9371, 140 p. fuel consumption for an average vehicle: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, DPA420-F-97-037, 2 p. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, National air quality and emission trends report, 1997: U.S. Environmental Protection Manuscript approved for publication December 5, 2001 Agency, 454/R-98-016, 2 p. Published in the USGS Central Region, Denver, Colorado U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, Characterization of Editing, layout, photocomposition—Richard W. Scott, Jr. municipal solid waste in the United States—1998 update: U.S. Cover design, figures 2, 8–10, 14—Carol A. Quesenberry Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 530, 17 p. Figures 1, 3–7, 11–13—Springfield and Springfield
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Patriots Release DL Marcus Forston & TE D.J. Williams
The New England Patriots announced that they have released DL Marcus Forston and TE D.J. Williams on Thursday. Forston, 24, originally signed with the Patriots as an undrafted free agent out of Miami back in 2012. He later signed on New England's practice squad three times before signing a future/reserve contract witht he team back in January. He has appeared in four games...
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D.J. Williams, Sealver Siliga Miss Practice For Patriots With Injuries
The New England Patriots are running dangerously low on tight ends as they prepare for their first preseason game of the 2014 season. Tight end D.J. Williams did not practice for the Patriots on Wednesday after injuring his ankle during Tuesday's joint practice with the Washington Redskins. Williams was present for practice, according to multiple reports from Richmond, Va., but...
The worst draft pick spent on a TE in Packers history
Nothing is worse than watching a talented draft pick flop, but it happens. Usually a "flop" is a player who is drafted early in the draft and doesn't live up to his expectations but really, where they are taken in the draft is irrelevant as the draft is structured by need first and talent second. The Green Bay Packers worst draft pick spent on a tight end came in the fifth...
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New England Patriots Week 16 Inactives
The following players are inactive, and will not play for the Patriots in the Week 16 game against the Baltimore Ravens: WR: Kenbrell Thompkins WR: Josh Boyce N. Solder D.J Williams I. Sopoaga J. Bequette D. Fletcher Stay with clnsradio.com for the Patriots Post Game Show live following the game today
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D.J. Williams Hoping to Latch On With Patriots After Stints With Packers, Jaguars Did Not Work Out
FOXBORO, Mass. – D.J. Williams could never quite separate himself in a crowded tight end group in Green Bay. The Packers already had Jermichael Finley and Andrew Quarless, two other "flex" tight ends, when Williams was taken in the fifth round of the 2011 NFL draft. He could never pass Tom Crabtree either, who started five games for the Buccaneers this season after signing...
TE D.J. Williams gets another chance with Patriots
D. J. Williams finally has his packing strategy down. Now he'd like to master the Patriots playbook. The tight end has been cut three times in just over three months. And he's with New England again after Rob Gronkowski was sidelined for the season. It's Williams' latest destination in a year when he's been ready to travel to find work. He says he used to keep two bags packed but...
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Patriots Release Tight End D.J. Williams As Michael Hoomanawanui Returns to Practice
FOXBORO, Mass. – D.J. Williams didn't last long in New England. The Patriots released the tight end on Wednesday — exactly one week after they signed the Arkansas product. Williams received four offensive snaps against the Texans on Sunday. He was not targeted. The roster move coincides with Michael Hoomanawanui's return to practice. Hoomanawanui missed two weeks of practice...
D.J. Williams Says His Former College Quarterback, Ryan Mallett, Puts Patriots Concepts in 'Arkansas Terms'
FOXBORO, Mass. — It's an uphill climb for a veteran player to try to come to New England and learn the Patriots' entire playbook during training camp. D.J. Williams is trying to accomplish such a feat more than midway through the season. Williams signed on Wednesday and was active his first Sunday with the team. That's an accomplishment in itself. Of course, it helps that...
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This is a fun, little-known comedy. Clever writing and good acting by a young cast. Highly recommend.Published 2 months ago by NickFun4U
Love this movie... I don't even know why but it's just so funny to me.Published 5 months ago by Samantha
Was happy to get these product as i cant find it anywhere else and have added this to my collection gleefullyPublished 15 months ago by Rocco La Lumia
Was looking for this movie for a while finally found it here n loved it. Great movie great buy. :)Published 16 months ago by Lisa
I'm really not sure why this movie isn't more well known. Cheats is a ridiculously funny film based on a true story, and it has some really perfect moments. Read morePublished 17 months ago by HonestThief
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State oil giant Saudi Aramco will sign a final deal next week to build a new 400,000 barrels per day (bpd) oil refinery in Yanbu with China's Sinopec Group, the company said on Sunday.
January 9, 2012 11:18 by Reuters
Aramco said the formal signing would take place on Jan. 14 in Dhahran, the site of the state company's headquarters.
Industry sources had expected the two oil majors to finalise their 2011 initial agreement in November last year.
Under the initial agreement, Aramco will hold a 62.5 percent stake in the joint venture formed to develop the project–now rebranded as Yanbu Aramco Sinopec Refining Co (YASREF)– while Sinopec will own the rest.
For Sinopec, the venture would be the first refining project the Chinese state-run oil major, parent of top Asian refiner Sinopec Corp , builds outside China, putting it in a race against rival PetroChina which has snatched a string of refinery deals beyond Chinese borders.
Construction of the refinery, located on the Red Sea, is now underway and was to have been carried out by US oil firm ConocoPhillips and Aramco. But Conoco pulled out of the plans in April 2010 as it shifted away from the refining business to focus on oil and gas exploration.
Aramco has said it will push on with the project even after the withdrawal of Conoco as it is part of its drive to boost domestic refining capacity to 3.5 million bpd in 2016. In July 2010, Aramco awarded deals to build the plant seen complete in 2014.
The refinery is slated to process heavy crude from Saudi Arabia's Manifa oilfield, which is currently under development to reach an output of 900,000 bpd by 2014.
Aramco has already partnered with Sinopec at the joint venture Fujian plant in southeast China. It is considering to build three new joint venture refineries in Asia, Aramco's largest and fastest growing oil market as part of plans to boost its global refining capacity by 50 percent to over 6 million bpd. (Reporting by Reem Shamseddine. Editing by Jane Merriman)
Iran confirms has $2B oil debt with Italy's Eni
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