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Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals A Joint Project of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists and the Hospital and Health-System Association of Pennsylvania Supported by an educational grant provided by Eli Lilly and Company Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Background ........................................................................................................................................ 4 Expert Panel ....................................................................................................................................... 5 Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................. 6 Recommendations for Leaders ........................................................................................................... 7 Recommendations for Frontline Staff ............................................................................................... 8 1. Purpose, background, and use ..................................................................................................... 9 2. General recommendations for the health care organization .................................................... 12 3. Recommendations for caregiver competency ........................................................................... 17 4. Recommendations for patient information: collection, documentation, and availability ..... 19 5. Recommendations for prescribing practices ............................................................................. 21 6. Recommendations for order transcription ................................................................................ 25 7. Recommendations for order review, distribution, preparation, and dispensing ..................... 26 8. Recommendations for administration ...................................................................................... 30 9. Recommendations for monitoring and documenting .............................................................. 33 10. Recommendations for nutrition ................................................................................................ 36 11. Recommendations for patient and family involvement and education .................................. 37 12. References and resources ............................................................................................................ 39 4 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals BACKGROUND The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists hospitals has not achieved a high level of safety, and the Hospital and Health-System Association of and how the medication-use system could be rede- Pennsylvania convened a panel of experts from signed to prevent patient harm associated with medicine, pharmacy, and nursing in October 2004 poorly designed insulin-use processes. The recom- to discuss best practices for improving the safety of mendations developed from this meeting served as insulin use in hospitals. The expert panel met over the guiding principles for the Recommendations for a two-day period, evaluating current literature and Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals. recommendations to determine why insulin use in Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 5 EXPERT PANEL John R. Combes, M.D. Helena W. Rodbard, M.D., FACP, MACE President and Chief Operating Officer Center for Past President Healthcare Governance American College of Endocrinology Chicago, IL Rockville, MD Diane Cousins, B.S. Vincenza Snow, M.D., FACP Vice President Senior Medical Associate U.S. Pharmacopeia Department of Scientific Policy Rockville, MD American College of Physicians Philadelphia, PA Lois L. Kercher, DNCs, RN Vice President/Interim Chief Nursing Executive Allen Vaida, Pharm.D. Sentara Norfolk General Hospital Executive Director Norfolk, VA Institute for Safe Medication Practices Huntington Valley, PA Victoria Rich, Ph.D., RN Chief Nursing Officer Julie A. Weberski, Pharm.D., CGP Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania North Chicago VA Philadelphia, PA North Chicago, IL 6 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists Jeremiah Duby, Tucson, AZ; Peter Dumo, Pharm.D., and the Hospital and Health-System Association of Clinical Pharmacy Specialist-Ambulatory Care, Pennsylvania thank the following individuals and Harper University Hospital, Detroit, MI; Ron Gailey, groups who provided their expertise, creativity, and Pharm.D., Drug Information Specialist, Albany time to this groundbreaking project: Medical Center, Albany, NY; Vincenza Snow, M.D., FACP, Senior Medical Associate, Department of Sci- Insulin-Use Expert Panel entific Policy, American College of Physicians, Phil- adelphia, PA; Deborah Saine, Porter Medical Cen- John R Combes, M.D., President and Chief Operat- ter, Director of Pharmacy, Middlebury, VT; Edward ing Officer, Center for Healthcare Governance, G. Timm, Pharm.D., Department of Pharmacy, Al- Chicago, IL; Diane Cousins, B.S., Vice President, U.S. bany Medical Center, Albany, NY; Ronald Gailey, Pharmacopeia, Rockville, MD; Lois L. Kercher, Pharm.D., Department of Pharmacy, Albany Medi- DNCs, RN, Vice President/Interim Chief Nursing cal Center, Albany, NY; Martha Naber, Pharm.D., Executive, Sentra Norfolk General Hospital, Norfolk, Department of Pharmacy, Albany Medical Center, VA; Victoria Rich, Ph.D., RN, Chief Nursing Officer, Albany, NY; Kasey K. Thompson, Pharm.D., Direc- Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Phila- tor, Practice Standards and Quality Division, Bethes- delphia, PA; Helena W. Rodbard, M.D., FACP, MACE, da, MD; Teresa Rubio, Pharm.D., Director, ASHP Past President, American College of Endocrinolo- Section of Inpatient Care Practitioners, Bethesda, gy, Rockville, MD; Vincenza Snow, M.D., FACP, Se- MD.Miranda L. Baca, Pharm.D., Clinical Pharmacy nior Medical Associate, Department of Scientific Specialist, VA Sierra Nevada Health Care System, Policy, American College of Physicians, Philadel- Reno, NV; Melissa Blair, Pharm.D., Wilmington, NC; phia, PA; Allen Vaida, Pharm.D., Executive Direc- R. Keith Campbell, B.S., M.B.A., Washington State tor, Institute for Safe Medication Practices, Hunting- University, College of Pharmacy, Pullman, WA; John ton Valley, PA; and Julie A. Weberski, Pharm.D., S. Clark, Pharm.D., M.S., BCPS, Assistant Director CGP, North Chicago VA, North Chicago, IL. of Pharmacy, Pediatrics, The Johns Hopkins Hospi- tal, Clinical Assistant Professor, University of Mary- Drafter land, School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD; Paul S. ASHP gives special thanks to Timothy S. Lesar, Di- Driver, Pharm.D., BCPS, Clinical Pharmacist, Inter- rector of Pharmacy, Albany Medical Center, and nal Medicine, Oncology, St. Joseph's Medical Cen- Department of Pharmacy Albany Medical Center, ter, Lewiston, ID; Chad A. Panning, UW Family Prac- Albany, NY, who provided the team with a useful tice Residency Program, Cheyenne, WY; Ayanna D. framework in the design of this work. Philips, Pharm.D., BCPS, Clinical Hospital Pharma- cist, Internal Medicine, Jackson Memorial Hospi- tal, Pharmacy Department, Miami, FL; Sherry Um- Reviewers/Contributors hoefer, M.B.A., R.Ph., Vice President, Quality and Linda A. Browning, Pharm.D., Clinical Pharmacy Compliance, McKesson Medication Management, Specialist, Critical Care Medicine, Detroit Medical Brooklyn Park, MN; Maumi C. Villarreal, M.S., R.Ph., Center, Detroit, MI; R. Keith Campbell, B.S., M.B.A., Chief of Patient Care Services & Assistant Professor Associate Dean, Professor, Washington State Uni- of Pharmacy Practice, Texas Tech University HSC, versity, Pullman, WA; Paul S. Driver, Pharm.D., School of Pharmacy, El Paso, TX; Laura C. Wachter, BCPS, Clinical Pharmacist, Internal Medicine, On- M.A., R.Ph., Clinical Pharmacist I, The Johns Hop- cology, St. Joseph's Medical Center, Lewiston, ID; kins Hospital, Baltimore, MD. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LEADERS The recommendations in this document are suffi- ● Strive to link improving insulin-use safety to ciently comprehensive and supported by evidence broader efforts associated with encouraging and to ensure that an empowered team of health care implementing a culture of safety and making professionals, charged with implementing the rec- your hospital among the safest in the country. ommendations, has a strong basis for making nec- ● Remember that, year-after-year, insulin is con- essary changes to improve the insulin-use process. sistently implicated in causing the most prevent- Leaders must recognize, however, that a commit- able patient harm in hospitals through report- ment by top-management must exist to ensure that ing systems maintained by the U.S. Pharmacope- ia and Institute for Safe Medication Practices. the interdisciplinary team charged with implemen- tation has the necessary resources, authority, and ● Recognize that there are no quick-fixes to mak- organizational support to make what might be sig- ing insulin use safer in your organization. The comprehensive nature of this document reflects nificant changes in the interest of preventing pa- the complexities of the process in which insu- tient harm associated with insulin use. lin is used. As a starting point, use this docu- Leaders should consider the following: ment as a means to determine where safety gaps exist, and devise a plan with a reasonable time ● Provide this document to the interdisciplinary frame to make the necessary changes, factoring team that is responsible for leading safety and in culture and resources. quality improvement efforts in their organiza- ● Make improving insulin-use safety a priority for tions. At a minimum, the team should be com- your board of regents and use this document as prised of physicians, nurses, and pharmacists. a maker of ongoing progress toward designing The team should have a means to report on their a system that provides the maximum number efforts directly to top executives in the organi- of safeguards for patients. zation. 8 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FRONTLINE STAFF This document contains a series of well-referenced tures of various health care professions are major recommendations that, if implemented, will aug- determinants in the success of any improvement ment other efforts by your organization to protect efforts. Each recommendation is supported by a patients from preventable harm associated with crosswalk to relevant literature. Use that alignment insulin and other medications. The breadth of the with the evidence to justify making the necessary recommendations reflects the inherent complexity changes in how insulin is handled in your organi- of the medication-use process in general and, spe- zation. cifically, the high-risk nature of insulin. Strive to document the successes of your efforts In addition to insulin, many of these recommen- to improve insulin-use safety by encouraging staff dations could apply to other high-risk medications. and others to share their individual and collective Utilize this document first as a self-assessment tool experiences with the implemented improvements to determine where safety gaps might exist. Priori- in the process. Use those experiences to make chang- tize your findings based on the relative impact of a es and adaptations that fit the unique needs of your failure in the system based on the likelihood of pa- organization. And, as always, demonstrate your tient harm. Be reasonable in setting improvement commitment to a culture of safety by ensuring that goals making sure your recommendations and ap- your experiences are shared with others through proaches have sufficient buy-in by leaders and front- national reporting systems such as those maintained line staff. Organizational culture and the subcul- by USP, ISMP, and FDA MedWatch. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 9 INTRODUCTION Types of insulin-use errors include ● administration of a wrong dose, Statement of Purpose ● administration to the wrong patient, Insulin is widely considered to be one of the most ● use of the wrong insulin type, important and beneficial drug discoveries of the 20th century. Its therapeutic benefits are undeni- ● administration via the wrong route, able when health care processes are designed with ● wrong timing of doses, appropriate safeguards. However, preventable pa- ● omission of doses, tient harm associated with errors involving insulin ● failure to properly adjust insulin therapy, and use continues to be a problem in many hospitals. ● improper monitoring, timing, and assessment Despite the substantial attention to medication safe- of blood glucose (BG) results. ty in general, and insulin safety specifically, evi- dence over the past 10 years suggests that patient Factors contributing to insulin-use errors are nu- injuries are still occurring. Insulin consistently ap- merous: the use of abbreviations, failure to follow pears as a top offender, leading to the most harm- the "leading zero always/no trailing zero" rules, leg- ful and severe adverse events on the list of high- ibility problems, calculation errors, measurement alert drugs published by the United States errors, mis-timing of doses, sound-alike/look-alike Pharmacopeia (USP) and the Institute for Safe Med- errors, decimal point errors, pump-setting errors, ication Practices (ISMP). drug therapy knowledge deficit, inadequate access The purpose of this report is to assist health care to and interpretation of accurate patient informa- organizations and practitioners in improving the tion, and miscommunication (ISMP, USP). Imple- safety and effectiveness of insulin use in hospital- mentation of recommended general medication- ized patients. This report strives to provide a com- safety practices (ASHP, ISMP) will reduce the risk to prehensive set of recommendations and, therefore, patients from insulin-use errors. Practices that have incorporate and cite numerous and diverse resourc- been suggested include pre-printed orders, standard- es. The recommended safer insulin therapy practic- ized insulin order sets, elimination of insulin slid- es guidelines are intended to meet and exceed cur- ing dosage scales, elimination of commonly used rent regulatory and accreditation (JCAHO) standards dangerous abbreviations, implementation of inde- and recommendations of professional bodies [Amer- pendent second-person verifications, and others ican Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (ISMP, Kowiatek, Santell, Smetzer, USP 2005). How- (AACE), American Diabetes Association (ADA), ever, large gaps still exist in the implementation of American Society of Health-System Pharmacists these practices, and even greater gaps exist in the (ASHP), ISMP, and USP] as well as to drive improve- evidence documenting improvement in safety and ments in the standards of care. patient outcomes. The format of this report as a list of best practic- Prevention of hypoglycemia from unintention- es characteristics was adapted from the ISMP, which al insulin-use errors is only one aspect of safe and has successfully assisted organizations in medica- effective insulin use. Data suggest that the most tion-safety assessments and guided improvements. common causes of both hypoglycemia and hyper- Each of the recommendations includes its own set glycemia are deficiencies in the use and monitor- of references. The referenced resources should be ing of insulin therapy (Smith, Winterstein). Addi- used to provide additional information and specif- tionally, emerging data on the benefits of improved ic details that will be necessary for effective imple- glycemic control for hospitalized patients make the mentation of safer insulin practices within health achievement of safe BG targets an important pa- care organizations. tient safety goal. Failure to appropriately manage hospitalized patients' hyperglycemia to achieve Background and Statement "tight control" is now viewed by many experts Twelve percent of patients discharged from hospi- (Clements, AACE 2003, ADA 2005a) as a type of tals carry the diagnosis of diabetes, and up to twen- medication error because therapy is not managed ty-five percent of all hospitalized patients meet the effectively enough to reduce the risk of adverse criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes (Clements, ADA outcomes. Of course, the greatest risk of efforts to 2005a). Factors such as medications and stress cause achieve tighter BG control is hypoglycemia (Rubin, many non-diabetic patients to develop hyperglyce- Saleh). Thus, the safe and effective use of insulin in mia while hospitalized. Insulin is used in both of hospitalized patients should be viewed as interde- these populations to manage hyperglycemia. With pendent processes. such frequent use of insulin comes the risk of error Ensuring the safety of insulin therapy is a pre- and subsequent patient harm. requisite to successful implementation of practices 10 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals to achieve the BG targets for hospitalized patients RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MAKING HIGH-IMPACT currently being recommended (Clement, Cryer CHANGE 2002b, Rubin, Saleh, Thompson). Given the need Considering the complexity of improving insulin for multiple system changes to optimize insulin therapy safety in hospitals and lessons learned in therapy, many recommendations provided in this previous efforts, organizations should approach report are overarching medication-safety principles insulin safety in a comprehensive and coordinated integrated with recommendations for specifically manner. The impact of comprehensive medication- improving management of insulin therapy. Taken safety practices is substantially greater than the sum together with other medication-safety recommen- of its components. Recommended individual insu- dations (ISMP, ASHP), these practices are likely to lin-safety practices will, if implemented, marginal- improve the safety of insulin use in hospitals. This ly improve safety, while implementation of com- report strongly encourages the use of overall safe- prehensive and coordinated improvements are medication practices within the context of an or- likely to have a major impact on patient outcomes. ganization-wide comprehensive diabetes and hyper- The following are high-level recommendations nec- glycemia management system. essary for organizations to make significant change These guidelines provide practice recommenda- in the safety and efficacy of insulin therapy: tions, references, and tools to help hospitals assess current practices and identify high-impact ap- proaches to improving the insulin-use process, 1. The organization should designate a high-level emphasizing a detailed description of the charac- project leader/sponsor with overall responsibil- teristics of a safe inpatient insulin-use system. Rec- ity for program success (IHI). ommended potential best practices for safe and ef- 2. The insulin therapy multidisciplinary group fective insulin use in hospitals were identified should coordinate and lead development of in- through a wide variety of resources, including a stitutional policies and procedures for insulin practices (IHI, ISMP). comprehensive review of the medical literature, web-based searches, recommendations of profes- 3. Institutional policies should incorporate safe sional organizations, review of relevant regulatory medication practices in general, as well as prac- tices specific to insulin (ASHP, IHI, ISMP). requirements and accreditation standards, discus- sions with medication-safety and diabetes care ex- 4. Institutional policies should establish evidence- perts, and peer-to-peer communications. Many rec- based target standards for glycemic control for patients in the hospital (ADA 2005, Clement). ommendations for insulin use in hospitals are based on the comprehensive technical review by Clem- 5. Policies should require the ordering of all com- ent et. al. (Clement), which is a reliable resource ponents of insulin therapy in a defined format, preferably using mandatory pre-printed, guide- for improving the use of insulin in hospitalized line-based order sets [or formatted computerized patients. The medication-use policies, guidelines, prescriber order entry (CPOE) orders] for most recommendations, and statements of ASHP, ISMP, patients prescribed insulin. Order process design and the Institute for Health care Improvement (IHI) should incorporate medication-safety principles (available at www.ihi.org) are suggested resources and evidence-based BG control standards (Clem- for many best practices recommendations for safe ent, Rubin). insulin use and medication-use systems in general. 6. Insulin orders should prompt and facilitate or- Most recommendations for improving insulin der transcription, pharmacist and nurse order safety are based on experience and engineering review, pharmacy computer order entry, and models of process improvement. Some have been nursing workflow. evaluated using controlled trials; however, applica- 7. Insulin orders should include (or refer to) de- bility will vary based on individual care environ- fined standards for laboratory and clinical in- ment characteristics. Whenever implementing rec- sulin therapy monitoring practices (Clement). ommended safety practices, organizations must 8. Insulin administration record, glucose monitor- carefully assess the potential for risks associated with ing results, and carbohydrate intake should be changes and monitor for unintended consequenc- effectively displayed to allow caregivers to ac- es. These recommendations will likely require mod- curately and efficiently assess data. ification as changes in technology, drug therapy, 9. Institutional policies should promote and pro- nutrition, and glucose monitoring occur and as fur- vide for the ongoing involvement of patients ther evidence and experience related to improving and families in care processes. insulin-use safety become available. Such changes will require an organized, sustained, and commit- ted effort to be successfully implemented. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 11 How to Use the Guidelines Accessing the referenced resources will assist you Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospi- in the building of a "toolkit" for improving insulin tals are organized by patient care process compo- therapy processes most applicable to individual care nents. Each recommendation should be reviewed settings. Institutions and groups using the guide- and current practices compared with proposed safe lines are strongly urged to collect and share similar practices. References for each recommendation pro- tools obtained from other resources or developed vide additional support and information specific to internally. Individual organizations will vary in the recommendation or regarding general medica- current practices, available resources, technologies, tion-safety practices that apply to insulin use. Many need for improvement in insulin-use practices, avail- of the cited references also provide resources useful able opportunities, and organizational priorities. as "how-to" examples in regards to the effective The specific process improvement sequence, tech- implementation of these practices. Those referenc- niques, and methods used in implementation of es listed in italics include useful tools such as ta- potential best practice recommendations will simi- bles, charts, reproductions of protocols, order sets, larly vary from organization to organization. documentation sheets, and teaching aids. 12 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals PATIENT CARE PROCESS Committee and other appropriate bodies should establish comprehensive safety-based policies and procedures for the use of insulin within the institu- COMPONENTS tion. It is recommended that a multidisciplinary team, including physicians (and endocrinologists General Recommendations for the specifically), nurses, pharmacists, dieticians, diabe- Health Care Organization tes educators, laboratory staff, quality management staff, and others, be tasked with developing, rec- Insulin therapy involves multiple care providers and ommending, and implementing specific process is undertaken throughout many areas of a hospi- improvements related to insulin use. This team tal. In order to provide the safest possible use of would be expected to collaborate with all other rel- insulin therapy, organizations must implement sys- evant components of the organization. tem-wide processes that reduce risk of error and improve the management of insulin therapy. Many Establishing Evidence-Based Care recommendations for improving the safety of in- Standards sulin therapy involve application of general medi- Institutions should establish standards for safe in- cation-safety practices as promoted by a number of sulin therapy practices and standards for glycemic professional organizations (ASHP, ISMP, USP). Such control in specific populations of hospitalized pa- broad changes require organizational commitment tients (ADA 2005a, Clement). These standards and leadership. It is worth emphasizing the need should be evidence-based and developed by appro- for organizations to actively promote a culture of priate multidisciplinary care provider groups, ap- safety and learning. The success of any effort will proved by governing bodies, and disseminated, be greatly enhanced when such an environment is implemented, and monitored properly. Such stan- present. dards should be clear, comprehensive, and detailed. A process for measurement of outcomes versus es- Establishing Organizational Structures tablished standards should be implemented. Simi- Institutions should identify or establish the high- larly, an active error-detection, reporting, and as- level organizational bodies and individuals in lead- sessment program focused on insulin therapy ership positions that will be responsible for spon- should be established. soring and guiding efforts to improve insulin Specific guidelines and recommendations for therapy practices. Assigning responsibility for im- organization-wide safe insulin therapy practices are provement at an appropriate level in the organiza- provided in the table below. The care standards tion assigns ownership, increases awareness, estab- should be periodically reviewed and modified based lishes priority, and allows for proper application of on new evidence from the medical literature and resources. The Pharmacy and Therapeutics (P&T) experiences within the organization. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 13 General Recommendations References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) The organization should actively promote a culture of safety. Without such a AHRQ, IHI, ISMP culture, the likelihood that effective insulin-safety practices will be implemented and adhered to will be greatly reduced. Clear expectations for effective communi- cation, coordination, and teamwork should be delineated, communicated, and promoted. A non-punitive "learning" approach to error and error reporting should be promoted. The organization should implement general medication-use system and safety ASHP, JCAHO, ISMP, recommendations as delineated by JCAHO, ASHP, ISMP, and other relevant organi- USP zations and bodies. Such practices will directly impact the safety of insulin therapy in a hospital. The organization, through appropriate bodies, should develop and implement ADA 2005, Campbell, specific system-based strategies for improving use and safety of insulin. Clement, Ku, Thompson The P&T Committee, or similarly responsible organization-wide committee, should ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO determine and have oversight of the policies and procedures related to insulin use in the organization and insulin products and administration devices to be stocked and used within the organization. Safety concerns should be a significant part of the Committee's evaluation. Through appropriate multidisciplinary committees, the organization should estab- ADA, ASHP, Goldberg, lish clear, comprehensive, and coordinated policies and procedures related to ISMP, JCAHO insulin use. Policies should include education and competency requirements for all involved staff. Access to policies should be readily available to staff. Compliance with insulin therapy–related policies should be monitored on a routine basis. The organization should establish defined responsibilities for pharmacists in the Thompson management of patients receiving insulin therapy. The organization should have an active ongoing process for detecting, reporting, ASHP, IHI, ISMP and assessing adverse patient events related to insulin use. Organizations should monitor the use of 50% dextrose and glucagon as triggers for case review to determine if that use was associated with insulin therapy. All cases of ketoacidosis or diabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state occurring Clement while patients are inpatients should automatically prompt a root cause analysis (RCA) to determine system causes or deficiencies. Ongoing concurrent and retrospective review (such as frequency trending) of BG ADA 2004, Clement, measurements below an established minimum critical value (i.e., hypoglycemia) NCCLS, ISMP, Nichols, and above a maximum value (i.e., hyperglycemia) should be implemented. Efficient Sacks communication links to prescribers, nurses, dieticians, and pharmacists should prompt a patient, nutrition, and drug therapy review. The organization should have an active ongoing process for detecting, reporting, Cavan, Davis, Gilman, and assessing process errors and other occurrences related to insulin use. The IHI, ISMP, Manning, program should include assessment of "near-miss" errors. Information should be Quinn, Santell, Smith communicated to appropriate groups and individuals within the organization. The organization should have an ongoing process to review and monitor prescrib- Baldwin, Clement, ing practices related to insulin use. Kowiatek, Smith The organization should regularly review compliance with completion of ordered ISMP, Gilman, Heatlie, BG monitoring and insulin administration. Kowiatek, Manning, Smith 14 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals General Recommendations References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Insulin therapy management process improvements in organizations should be data IHI, ISMP, Kowatek, driven. Information from active detection, practitioner review, laboratory BG Manning, Smith, Trence, critical value alerts, error reports, as well as relevant internal and external informa- Winterstein tion should be used to guide insulin-use process improvements. System changes related to insulin should be designed and evaluated through IHI, ISMP, ASHP, Smith structured methods such as failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA). All changes to insulin therapy management–related processes are monitored for success and unintended consequences. Insulin (all forms) should be designated as a "High Alert" medication within the ISMP, JCAHO organization. The "High Alert" nature of insulin should be communicated to staff because the common and widespread use of insulin may result in safety net work- arounds and complacency by staff. Strategies to reduce errors with insulin as a "High Alert" medication should be ISMP, JCAHO delineated (e.g., use of independent "double checks" at critical process or error- prone steps). Defined processes to recover from (ameliorate) insulin therapy errors when they do occur should be delineated and communicated to the staff. Hypoglycemia "rescue" agents (dextrose and glucagon) should be readily accessi- Clement, ISMP, Tomky ble throughout the organization. A standard method for management (e.g., protocol or algorithm) of hypoglycemia should be approved, established, communicated, and readily available to caregivers. Important patient-specific information related to insulin use should be readily Baldwin, Clement, ISMP, available and effectively shared with all involved caregivers. JCAHO, Smith, Thomp- son Standardized interpretation of language and terms should be in place across the Baldwin, Clement, ISMP, organization. Examples follow. JCAHO, Smith ● Prandial insulin—rapid or short-acting insulin or insulin mix given prior to or with meals ● Basal insulin—long-acting insulin given once or twice daily ● Correction or supplemental insulin—rapid or short-acting insulin given to reduce BG or added to prandial insulin ● Finger stick—bedside capillary blood glucose (CBG) monitoring ● Insulin-deficient patient—patient requiring ongoing insulin therapy to avoid ketoacidosis Appropriate elements of the organization should be directed to establish appropri- AACE, Clement, ADA ate evidence-based target BG ranges for defined patient groups associated with 2005, Bryer-Ash, improved outcomes (e.g., critical care, acute MI, stroke patients). Connor, Goldberg, Finney, Van der Berghe Essential patient information should be obtained, accurately documented, and Baldwin, ISMP, JCAHO accessible to all caregivers involved. Access to information regarding reconciled inpatient medications and laboratory results is readily available to caregivers. Access to medication and laboratory results for patients in outpatient settings should be available. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 15 General Recommendations References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) The organization should establish standardized procedures for the safe use of Advocate Lutheran, insulin to achieve BG targets associated with improved patient outcomes. These Campbell, Clement, include: Dagogo-Jack, Furnary, Lewis, Luther-Midelfort, 1. Protocols for continuous insulin infusions in various settings and patient Middelfort, Markowitz, populations. 2. Protocols for high-risk transitions of insulin therapy (e.g., critical care infu- Maynard, Moghissi, O'Callaghan, Provi- sion to general ward). dence Health, Quevedo, 3. Conversion from infusion to intermittent subcutaneous administration. Rubin, Shokough-Amri, 4. Patients not eating. 5. Patients who are eating intermittently. Trence, Zimmerman 6. Patients on continuous enteral nutrition. 7. Patients on intermittent enteral nutrition. 8. Patients on continuous parenteral nutrition. 9. Patients on cycled parenteral nutrition. 10. Perioperative and peri-procedural patients. 11. Pregnant and post-partum patients. 12. Hyperglycemic patients receiving high-dose glucocorticoid therapy. 13. Neonatal and pediatric patients. Insulin algorithms used in the organization should be designed to improve caregiv- Clement, Rubin er communication and coordination and assist in achieving BG targets recognizing individual variability and intra-patient variability over time. Protocols related to insulin use should be approved by appropriate organizational JCAHO, ISMP bodies. Documents are readily available to caregivers. A process for systematic review/updating and for ensuring use of only the most ISMP, JCAHO recent version of approved protocols should be in place. Protocols for insulin therapy should include both the generic and brand name(s) of ISMP insulin products. Problems and issues with use of approved protocols should be documented and Clement, Smith forwarded to appropriate individuals or groups. All insulin therapy protocols and order sheets should be reviewed at least annually. JCAHO The organization should systematically implement appropriate alerts and warnings JCAHO, ISMP to reduce risk of errors with insulin therapy: 1. Use TALLman lettering to distinguish between look-alike/sound-alike prod- ucts (e.g., NovoLOG /NovoLIN, LantUS/LenTE). 2. Emphasize the word mix when such products (e.g., NovoLOG MIX 70/30) are prescribed, dispensed, transcribed, labeled, and documented. 3. Use stickers and labels judiciously to distinguish products or call attention to important information. Appropriate warnings should appear in information systems (e.g., pharmacy, CPOE, ISMP, JCAHO medication administration record) when medications that significantly alter BG levels or insulin regimen requirements are started or stopped, or the dose is in- creased (e.g., corticosteroids, oral hypoglycemics, quinolone antimicrobials). Organizational policy should require that insulin orders in pediatric patients be JCAHO, ISMP ordered in the format of "units per kilogram" with final calculated insulin dose specified in the order by the prescriber. All weight-based dose calculations should be independently re-calculated by the pharmacist and nurse. 16 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals General Recommendations References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Organizational policies should define and limit the use of insulin infusions and JCAHO dilutions to predetermined standard concentrations and solutions. All such products should be prepared by the pharmacy. The organization should specifically define circumstances in which insulin concen- ASHP, ISMP trations other than U-100 are used for intermittent subcutaneous doses (e.g., criteria for use of U-500 insulin or use of diluted insulin). Orders for diet (or lack thereof) should be available to reviewing pharmacists and JCAHO, ISMP other individuals without ready access to the medical record. A system for alerting caregivers should be in place when patients receiving insulin have orders written for significant reductions in caloric intake. The organization should have a process to alert the pharmacy and other appropri- Clement, JCAHO ate care providers whenever insulin-deficient patients are admitted or identified. The institution should use a Consistent Carbohydrate Diabetes Meal-Planning ADA 2003, Swift System. The organization should have an established process for patients demonstrating Clement 2004, JCAHO hyperglycemia requiring insulin therapy during hospitalization to receive follow-up evaluation for the presence of diabetes or pre-diabetic state. The organization should have defined standards for interdisciplinary patient and ADA 2005a, ASHP, family education (and documentation thereof) related to insulin therapy. Clements, Davis, JCAHO, ISMP, Nettles The organization should have a defined standard for individualized interdiscipli- ADA 2005a, Clement, nary discharge planning process for patients to be discharged taking insulin. Nettles, Thompson Organization should establish criteria and appropriate safety measures for the use JCAHO, ISMP of insulin in treatment of severe hyperkalemia. Needle stick injury prevention practices should be incorporated into all relevant ISMP, JCAHO insulin therapy policies and procedures. Infection control and sharps/waste disposal are incorporated into all relevant ISMP, JCAHO insulin therapy policies and procedures. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 17 Caregiver Competency knowledge base and staff competencies should be defined in detail for each caregiver role, and all in- Safe insulin therapy is dependent upon the compe- volved staff should be made aware of the roles and tency of staff providing care. Given the high fre- expectations of other caregivers in providing insu- quency and complexity of insulin use in hospital- lin therapy. Staff should be made aware of, and ized patients, and the inherent risks of insulin should adhere to, organization policies and proce- therapy, organizations should implement a system- dures related to insulin therapy. Recommendations atic process to ensure the initial and ongoing com- for general staff competency related to safer insu- petency of all staff involved in the care of patients lin practices are provided in the table below. receiving insulin therapy. Minimum expected Caregiver Competency References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) New employee training and prior experience related to use of insulin should be Baldwin, Fajtova, formally assessed, and any deficiency addressed, prior to allowing the individual to Clement, ADA 2003, independently care for patients using insulin. ADA 2005a, JCAHO, ISMP All involved in the care of patients treated with insulin should be appropriately Baldwin, Brigham oriented to the specific organizational policies, procedures, practices, and equip- Womens, JCAHO, ISMP, ment used in that care. Gilman, Manning, Heatlie, Nettles Because insulin therapy is a dynamic process in hospitalized patients, it is neces- ADA, Clement, Gilman, sary that caregivers possess the knowledge to make critical decisions. All individu- Heatlie, Hirsch 2005, als who prescribe, dispense, prepare, administer, and monitor insulin should Manning, Nettles, Smith, demonstrate knowledge and have ready access to information regarding insulin Thompson therapy management, including but not limited to: 1. Diabetes and hyperglycemia. 2. Hypoglycemia and its treatment. 3. Names (brand and generic) of available insulin products and formulations. 4. Indications for insulin. 5. Routes of insulin administration. 6. Measuring insulin doses. 7. Appropriate mixing of insulin in the same syringe. 8. Appropriate dosages. 9. Onset, peak, and duration of action of insulin types. 10. Appropriate timing of insulin administration. 11. Appropriate assessments of patient medical and medication history. 12. Appropriate clinical and laboratory monitoring procedures and assessment of results. 13. Appropriate assessment of nutritional intake. 14. Potential insulin adverse effects. 15. Cautions and warnings for insulin therapy. 16. Potential drug–drug interactions. 17. Potential for errors in providing insulin therapy. 18. Proper storage and handling of insulin products and devices. 19. Specifics regarding practices for safe insulin use within the organization. Critical new information regarding insulin therapy and insulin products is effective- Clement, ISMP ly communicated to all caregivers. 18 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Caregiver Competency References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) The organization should have a process for periodic competency assessment of Clement, ISMP caregivers involved in insulin therapy management. The organization utilizes information obtained from insulin error reporting and Baldwin, IHI, Kowiatek, monitoring to improve staff education and competency processes. JCAHO, Smith, USP, Winterstein Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 19 Patient Information: Collection, caregivers (JCAHO 2005). Organizations should es- tablish specific procedures for obtaining, document- Documentation, and Availability ing, and communicating information critical to the Availability and use of patient information is nec- safe use of insulin therapy. Recommendations for essary for the safe use of medications in hospital- organizations are provided below and apply to all ized patients. Current standards require that impor- patients with insulin orders. tant patient information is readily accessible to Patient Information References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Patient history of diabetes should be clearly identified in the medical record. ADA 2005, Clement Diagnosis of diabetes is communicated to the pharmacy and to nutrition services. 2004 Patients should be assessed to determine if they are insulin deficient or non- Clement 2004 deficient (able to produce endogenous insulin). Assessment should be documented. Patients determined to be insulin deficient must be treated with insulin at all times to avoid ketoacidosis. Insulin-deficient patients include the following (Clement 2004): 1. Type 1 diabetics 2. Pancreatectomy or pancreatic dysfunction 3. History of wide fluctuations in BG 4. History of diabetic ketoacidosis 5. Insulin use for 5 years or more or diabetes for more than 10 years An accurate and complete medication history is obtained, reconciled, and record- Baldwin, Fajtova, ASHP, ed for all patients. This history includes over-the-counter products, complementary JCAHO, ISMP and alternative medications, and nutritional supplements. Medication history is communicated to the pharmacy. Patients should be asked to bring their insulin as well as other medications to the Clement hospital for visual validation. Medications brought to the hospital should not be left with the patient unless they are part of a self-administration program consistent with all accreditation and legal standards. Patient medications not used in the hospital should be stored appropriately or provided to family members/others to be returned to the patient's home. An accurate and complete history of current insulin therapy should be obtained Baldwin, Fajtova, and recorded. Clement, JCAHO, ISMP 1. Type of insulin(s) (brand and formulation) 2. Storage of insulin 3. Dose(s) of insulin(s) 4. Times of dose administration for each insulin type 5. Route of administration 6. Use of other hypoglycemic agents 7. BG monitoring plan, including device used and site of blood sampling 8. Dose modifications based on dietary intake and measured BG 9. Usual dietary intake and/or meal patterns 10. Compliance with dietary plan 11. Sleep-wake patterns 12. Hypoglycemic episodes, hypoglycemic symptoms 13. Typical BG control patterns 14. Hyperglycemic episodes 20 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Patient Information References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) 15. Compliance with insulin regimen 16. Compliance with BG monitoring plan 17. Hemoglobin A1c levels 18. Past /known effects of concurrent drug therapies, medical conditions, and nutritional intake on BG control and insulin dose regimen needs 19. Assessment of patient understanding/knowledge of diabetes and treatment Organizations should consider implementation of standardized forms for medica- tion and insulin therapy documentation, which prompt collection of pertinent information. Insulin and other medications for diabetes orders are reconciled as patients transi- IHI, JCAHO, Thompson tion from one care environment to another within the organization. Insulin and other medications for diabetes prescriptions are reconciled with pre- admission use as well as changes made during hospitalization. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 21 Prescribing Practices practices and procedures. These procedures should be designed to appropriately direct care through Prescribers and prescribing practices play a key role clear and complete orders, and establish expecta- in safe insulin use. Prescribers commonly initiate tions for communication with patients and other the cascade of care events involved in the provi- caregivers' responsibilities. Recommendations for sion of insulin therapy to patients. Organizations safe insulin prescribing practices are provided in the should develop and implement safe prescribing table below. Prescribing Practices References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Insulin should only be prescribed by individuals with knowledge of insulin therapy, Baldwin, Fajtova, ISMP, glucose control strategies, and insulin monitoring in hospitalized patients. JCAHO, Thompson Individuals prescribing insulin should be familiar with the patient's medical history ISMP, JCAHO related to insulin and other hypoglycemic agent use. Prescribers should actively participate in communications with the patient and ISMP, JCAHO family regarding insulin therapy while in the hospital and upon discharge. The prescriber should actively lead and coordinate insulin-related care and effec- JCAHO tively communicate with other caregivers involved with the patient. The prescriber should appropriately respond in a timely fashion to any and all JCAHO patient, family, and other caregiver concerns regarding insulin therapies. Insulin therapy should be ordered in a standardized format or by using pre-printed Baldwin, Campbell, or electronic order sets that prompt appropriate guideline-directed orders. Clement, Dagogo-Jack, Levetan 2002, Metchik, Moghissi, Quevedo, Thompson, Trence Orders for insulin should include: Baldwin, Fajtova, 1. At least two patient identifiers. Clement, ISMP, JCAHO, Manning, Smith, Thomp- 2. Specific indication for use of insulin with appropriate terminology of insulin therapy defined by the organization (e.g., insulin-deficient patient, basal, son prandial, supplemental, correction dose, etc.). 3. Target range of therapy in terms of control of hyperglycemia and lower limits of BG. 4. Insulin type(s)—all orders for "insulin" without qualifying type of insulin (e.g., regular, NPH, lente, aspart, glargine, lispro) must be clarified prior to administration. For greatest clarity, provide both generic and brand name of insulin product. 5. Dose(s) for each insulin type. 6. Specific time of administration (or preferably use of organization standard times), either as specific time of day (clock hour) or as time prior to or with food or meals. 7. BG monitoring regimen specified by time of day and/or as time prior to food or meals. 8. Specific insulin dose regimen adjustment based on dietary intake and/or BG results. 9. Route of administration. 10. Orders for management of hypoglycemia. 11. Description of the role of the patient in management of insulin therapy. 12. Patient-specific issues and care needs. 22 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Prescribing Practices References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Handwritten insulin therapy orders or handwritten components of pre-printed order ISMP, JCAHO sets should be legible. All illegible orders should be clarified in writing prior to administration. Insulin therapy orders are clearly written. Ambiguous insulin therapy orders are ISMP, JCAHO clarified in writing prior to administration. The abbreviation "u" or "U" should not be used for units. The word "units" must be ISMP, JCAHO written in full. Leading zeroes should be used before all decimal points when insulin is ordered. ISMP, JCAHO No "trailing" zeroes should be used following decimal points. No "prohibited" abbreviations as determined by the organization should be used. ISMP, JCAHO Verbal and telephone orders for insulin should be minimized and used only when ISMP, JCAHO necessary in urgent medical situations. In all cases, such orders should be immedi- ately transcribed into the patient's medical record and then read back to the prescriber for confirmation. All orders for standing regimens (i.e., not correction doses) of rapid or short-acting Baldwin, Fajtova, insulins (including insulin mix products) should be ordered to be given at an Clement, Thompson appropriate time prior to or with meals rather than a specific time of day or as a number of times per day # (e.g., "twice daily" or "B.I.D." should not be used). All patients receiving insulin should have BG monitored. BG measurements should Clement, Thompson be ordered to be done at appropriate times and evaluated at least daily. Appropriate adjustments of basal and/or prandial insulin dose regimen are made. A plan for increased patient monitoring early in hospitalization should be in place Clement, Thompson for appropriate patients because hypoglycemia commonly occurs with change in caloric intake as patients are transitioned from outpatient to inpatient settings. Standardized correction, supplemental, or adjustment insulin dose orders should be Advocate Lutheran, established and ordered in a standard format, using CPOE, or approved pre-printed Baldwin, Clement, order sheets. Maynard, Metchik, Mohissi, Quevedo Only regular, aspart, or lispro insulins should be used for adjustment, supplemen- Clement tal, or correction doses. Intermittent sliding scale insulin regimens should not be used alone to manage ADA 2005, Baldwin, hyperglycemia in diabetic patients. Hyperglycemia commonly occurs when sliding Clement, Thompson scale insulin dosing is used without basal insulin therapy or continuation of oral hypoglycemics. Type I diabetics should have orders to continue basal insulin at appropriately Clement, ADA 2003 adjusted doses when patients are not eating (except for temporary discontinuation due to significant hypoglycemia) and receive a parenteral source of dextrose. Non-specific orders such as "titrate insulin drip to target BG range" should not be JCAHO allowed in the organization. Instead provide specific titration parameter or refer to an established standard process. All insulin infusions (critically ill, non-critically ill, severe hyperglycemic, DKA Clement, Goldberg, Ku, patients) should only be ordered using approved protocols, algorithms, or order Luther-Midelfort, sets. Moghissi, Quevedo, Trence, Zimmerman Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 23 Prescribing Practices References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Protocols for insulin should consider both the actual BG levels and the rate of Clement, Maynard change of BG over time. Alteration or modification of approved insulin protocols should only be allowed as ISMP, JCAHO approved by the organization. Approved insulin protocols should not require or should minimize the use of ISMP calculation. The use of insulin infusions should automatically trigger the use of frequent and Clement defined monitoring of BG. Insulin infusion solutions ordered should be standardized and limited in number. ISMP, JCAHO All insulin dilutions and admixtures should be prepared by the pharmacy. Transition from insulin infusion to subcutaneous insulin should be ordered using an Clement, Maynard approved format, CPOE, or pre-printed order sheet so as to provide clear and complete instructions. Orders for transition should include an order to administer subcutaneous insulin prior to discontinuation of the insulin infusion (short-acting insulins are administered 1 to 2 hours prior to discontinuation, while intermediate or long-acting insulins are administered 2 to 3 hours before infusion discontinua- tion). Orders for perioperative administration of insulin therapy should be established and Clement, Coursin, written using a predetermined format or using established format, CPOE, or pre- Dagogo-Jack, Levetan, printed order sets or protocols. Shokough-Amiri Practices for insulin use for patients receiving parenteral nutrition are established Clement and written using a predetermined format or using established pre-printed order sets or protocols. Insulin therapy for hyperglycemic patients on total parenteral nutrition (TPN) or Clement with unstable BG or fluctuating dextrose administration should not be initially ordered to be added to TPN solutions, but rather should be administered as a separate standard insulin infusion. Insulin may subsequently be added to the TPN when the patient's TPN dextrose requirement is determined to be stable. All orders for insulin infusions with TPN should include orders for managing the insulin infusion (such as stop the insulin, reduce insulin dose, and/or monitor BG) if the TPN solution infusion is stopped or significantly reduced and prescriber contacted. The prescriber should assess the need for adjustment of insulin regimens whenever ADA 2005, Baldwin, changes in concurrent drug therapy occur. Fajtova, Clement, JCAHO The prescriber should assess the need for adjustment of insulin regimens whenever ADA 2005, Clement, changes in dietary intake or fluid therapy occur. Changes in patient caloric intake Smith are one of the most common causes of hypoglycemia in hospitalized patients. The prescriber should assess the need for adjustment of insulin therapy whenever Baldwin, Fajtova, significant changes in the patient's medical condition(s) occur. Clement, Levetan, Moghissi, Smith Attempts should be made to simplify insulin regimens while achieving glycemic Clement control goals. The prescriber should appropriately respond to any and all patient, family, and JCAHO other caregiver concerns regarding insulin therapies. 24 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Prescribing Practices References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) When used, CPOE systems include appropriate alerts to reduce risk of error in ISMP, Smetzer, insulin prescribing. CPOE systems should alert prescribers to unsafe orders, appro- Thompson priateness of dose regimens, drug interactions, and dietary interactions, and should prompt use of organization-specific protocols and orders for BG monitoring. CPOE systems include proper alerts to reduce the risk of error from confusion related to various insulin products. CPOE insulin orders should be formatted in a guideline- directed manner, linking appropriate medication, diet, and monitoring orders. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 25 Order Transcription ably from institution to institution, and often with- in an institution. Institutions should carefully eval- Order transcription is a critical step in the medica- uate their practices for transcribing insulin orders tion-use process as it translates prescribers orders utilizing available information of internal error re- into a document (e.g., the medication administra- ports and performing FMEA. Ongoing monitoring tion record or MAR), which defines how treatment of insulin transcribing practices is highly recom- will be provided. This process will vary consider- mended. Order Transcription References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) A defined organization-wide process for transcription of insulin therapy orders and Gilman, ISMP, JCAHO, BG monitoring orders should be delineated and implemented. The transcription Manning, Smith process should be standardized, allowing variance between patient care units only when necessary. Staff transcribing insulin orders and BG monitoring orders should be specifically trained to transcribe insulin orders, and their competency should be assessed on a regular basis. Orders for insulin and BG monitoring should be completely and accurately tran- ISMP, JCAHO, Gilman, scribed into the MAR and presented in such a way as to provide clear insulin Manning, Smith therapy directions. Pharmacy-generated MAR (paper or electronic) should be used if technology is ISMP available. Handwritten transcribed orders should be easily legible and unambiguous. ISMP, JCAHO If MAR is NOT pharmacy generated, a process should be in place to reconcile the ISMP, JCAHO MAR with the pharmacy medication profile prior to administration of insulin. The abbreviation "u" or "U" should not be used for the word "units." The word ISMP, JCAHO, Kowiatek "units" is always spelled out completely. Leading zeroes should be used before all decimal points. No trailing zeroes should ISMP, JCAHO, Kowiatek be used following decimal points. No "prohibited" abbreviations should be used. ISMP, JCAHO, Kowiatek The organization should have a process for an independent double check of ISMP transcribed insulin orders and BG monitoring orders. The double check should be documented. No insulin should be administered until the double check has been completed and documented. All scheduled prandial doses of rapid or short-acting insulin will be transcribed to a Clement, Heatlie, specific time in minutes prior to meals or with meals (for rapid-acting insulins). Gilman, Manning, Smith Patients identified as insulin deficient and requiring regular insulin therapy should Clement have their status clearly documented in the MAR. All concerns, confusion, or uncertainties regarding insulin orders identified during ISMP, JCAHO transcription should be resolved with the prescriber prior to insulin administration. When handwritten MARs are used: 1. Minimize the number of pages used and "fragmentation" of insulin-related orders. 2. Transcribe all insulin orders together. 3. Insulins to be administered together in one syringe (e.g., mixing regular and NPH prior to administration) are always transcribed together. 26 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Order Review, Distribution, trol practices (e.g., unit dosing) are not always pos- sible, and implementation of other safety strategies Preparation, and Dispensing is required. Pharmacy practices related to insulin therapy play Pharmacist's review of insulin orders and thera- a central role in safe insulin therapy for hospital- py is also often limited because of inadequate ac- ized patients. Critical components include access cessibility to, availability of, and/or inefficient pro- controls, such as limitations on stocked items, safe cesses to obtain patient-specific information. storage, and restricted access to insulins and phar- Improving both the access to information and pro- macy-based insulin product preparation practices. vision of training in appropriate data assessment Due to the variable nature of insulin therapy in will enhance the ability of pharmacists to improve hospitalized patients, traditional safety- based con- insulin safety. Order Review, Distribution, Preparation, and Dispensing References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) The pharmacy should routinely stock only those insulin products approved by the ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO P&T Committee or other responsible body. The organization should use single "brand" source for each insulin type. Product safety should be considered in the approval process. Pharmacists should have the therapeutic skills and knowledge of organization- ASHP, Fajtova, ISMP, specific practices to competently review insulin therapy–related orders and to JCAHO, Kowiatek, Smith prepare and dispense insulin products. The pharmacy should establish a standard process for pharmacist review of insulin ISMP, JCAHO orders. The pharmacy computer should include appropriate alerts and decision support ISMP elements to reduce error risk. Pharmacy technicians involved in distribution and preparation of insulin products ISMP should be educated regarding the high-alert status of insulin, appropriate safety practices, and consequences of error. All orders for insulin should be reviewed by a pharmacist prior to administration ISMP, JCAHO except in an emergency when the drug is under the direct supervision of a licensed independent practitioner. Insulin order review should include: ASHP, Clement, ISMP, 1. Positive patient identification using two identifiers. JCAHO, Kowiatek, 2. Completeness of order (see section on prescribing practices). Smith, USP 3. Appropriate regimen for specific insulin products. 4. Appropriateness of doses and dose regimens. 5. Timing of doses in relation to meals. 6. Monitoring of BG has been ordered. 7. Appropriateness of dosage adjustments. 8. Potential drug interactions. 9. Potential for error and confusion. 10. Presence of orders for treatment of hypoglycemia. The following information is readily available to the pharmacist reviewing insulin Baldwin, Fajtova, orders: Clement, Grissinger 2003, ISMP, JCAHO 1. Indication for use of insulin. 2. Insulin-dependent status (i.e., whether patient is insulin deficient). 3. Goals of insulin therapy. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 27 Order Review, Distribution, Preparation, and Dispensing References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) 4. Patient co-morbidities. 5. Concurrent medications. 6. Prior insulin use and response. 7. Patient age, weight, and height. Required actions when insulin orders are incomplete, ambiguous, or raise any ISMP, JCAHO concerns should be clearly defined. Archived information regarding patient's medication use for past hospitalizations is ISMP readily available. Pharmacists should independently check weight-based dose calculations for all ISMP, JCAHO insulin doses ordered for patients weighing less than 50 kilograms, or those ordered using a weight-based dose equation. The pharmacy computer should alert the pharmacist when orders for insulin fall ISMP, JCAHO outside pre-determined dose limits based on total amount of insulin or based on a unit-per-kilogram basis. A limit using unit per kilogram should be used for all patients weighing less than 50 kg. The pharmacy computer should be directly linked to the laboratory computer, or ISMP, JCAHO the reviewing pharmacist should have real-time access to the laboratory computer. The pharmacy should have easy access to point-of-care (bedside) BG monitoring JCAHO, ISMP results. The pharmacy should be informed when insulin-deficient patients are admitted or Clement, JCAHO identified. The pharmacy should contact prescribers when insulin is not ordered or is discontinued for identified insulin-deficient patients. Insulins should be purchased, obtained, and stored in the pharmacy in such a ASHP, ISMP manner as to reduce the chance of wrong product selection: 1. Look-alike/sound-alike products should be separated within storage areas (e.g., refrigerators). 2. Only regular insulin (lispro and aspart if subcutaneous insulin pumps are also prepared) should be stored in the parenteral products area. 3. Appropriate labels/signs and separation should be used to differentiate insulin products and reduce risk of wrong product selection. 4. TALLman lettering should be used in labeling of insulin storage areas Pharmacists should be specifically trained to enter insulin orders into the pharmacy ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO, computer system so as to produce organization-established labels, warnings, Smith, Santell, USP medication administration records, and patient profiles. The pharmacy computer should include appropriate alerts to reduce the risk of ISMP error in prescribing. Pharmacy computer systems should alert pharmacists to unsafe orders, appropriateness of dose regimens, drug–dietary interactions, prompt use of organization-specific protocols, and orders for BG monitoring. Pharmacy computer systems should include proper formatting, structure, and alerts to reduce risk of error from confusion related to various insulin products. If CPOE is available, the system should interface with the pharmacy system. ISMP An independent double check (properly documented) and/or machine-readable ISMP verification should be required whenever insulin products are dispensed from the pharmacy or placed in unit-based medication dispensing cabinets. 28 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Order Review, Distribution, Preparation, and Dispensing References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) The pharmacy should dispense individual supplies of insulin products labeled with ISMP specific patient name and second identifier (e.g., insulin products should not be shared among different patients). If doses of insulin are included on the label, they are listed as "units" or "units = ml", but not "ml" alone. The pharmacy should prepare individual patient-scheduled doses of intermediate ISMP (NPH) or long-acting insulins (glargine, detimer) unless these products are provided as individual patient insulin devices (e.g., insulin pens) or given mixed with short- acting agents (NPH). Insulin administration devices (e.g., Innolets) should be labeled on the device itself, not the removable cover. The pharmacy should use appropriate auxiliary labels to alert and differentiate ISMP insulin products when appropriate. Floor stocks of insulins should be minimized or eliminated. If floor stocks of insulin ISMP, JCAHO, Smetzer, are available, only regular insulin should be available as a stock item on patient USP care units. Access to the floor stock supply should be limited and controlled. Removal from floor stock should require an independent second check prior to administration. Specific clinical situations requiring access to floor stock insulin (e.g., severe hyperkalemia) should be defined and monitored. In such emergent situations, an independent double check by two professionals should occur. Insulin should not be available to be removed from unit-based medication dispens- ISMP, JCAHO ing cabinets without review of insulin orders by a pharmacist. If override of con- trols is allowed (and must be defined by the organization) in emergent situations, an independent double check by two professionals should occur and an explana- tion for override provided. When removed, insulin products should be properly labeled with the patient's name and second identifier, as well as expiration date. Insulin products should be maintained in a secure manner at all times. ISMP, JCAHO All insulin infusions and diluted insulins should be prepared in the pharmacy. ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO, USP A limited number of standard concentrations are used for insulin infusions. All JCAHO, ISMP insulin infusions will undergo an independent double check prior to dispensing. A limited number of standard insulin dilutions should be prepared using appropri- Clement, ISMP, JCAHO ate diluting solution. All insulin dilutions should undergo an independent double check prior to dispensing. Special warnings and labels should be considered for placement on the diluted insulin to alert caregivers. All insulins should be measured using appropriately sized insulin syringes marked ADA 2005, Clement, in "units." Tuberculin and other syringes should not be used unless preparing ISMP intravenous solutions requiring doses greater than 100 units. All pharmacy-prepared parenteral insulin products should be prepared in compli- USP, ASHP ance with USP Chapter 797 standards. Institutional procedures should be established regarding potential insulin dose Ling, USP delivery variability due to binding to IV bags and tubing. Procedures should be established to minimize dose variability when IV tubing is changed. Considerations should include insulin concentration, infusion flow rates, clinical application, and patient characteristics. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 29 Order Review, Distribution, Preparation, and Dispensing References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) The dextrose content of intravenous drug solutions used in insulin therapy patients Krajicek should be assessed and communicated to other patient caregivers. Pharmacy-generated MARs should include specific administration times or time Clement, ISMP, Gilman, prior to meals for all standing insulin doses. Manning, Smith Pharmacy-generated MARs should include appropriate warnings and alerts related ISMP to insulin therapy. When a patient is prescribed more than one type of insulin, pharmacy-generated ISMP, JCAHO, Smetzer MARs should clearly discriminate between insulin types. The pharmacy should routinely inspect patient care areas for unauthorized, unla- ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO beled, and non-secure insulin products and actively remove any unauthorized insulin products from patient care units. Insulin should never be borrowed from or shared with another patient. ISMP, JCAHO Insulin should not be stored at the bedside unless secure and under control of the JCAHO nurse even when patients are performing self-management. When insulin is needed, the insulin should be obtained and provided to the patient for observed administration, then returned to secure storage area. Use of patient's own insulin supply is allowed only as defined by organizational policies. If patient's own insulin is allowed, independent verification of product by pharmacist, nurse, or prescriber is performed and documented. Non-formulary insulin products should be obtained and dispensed according to ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO institutional policies and procedures. Prior to dispensing a non-formulary insulin product, appropriate communication, staff education, and safety measures should be implemented. The pharmacy should establish a process for ongoing review of changes in insulin ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO orders, and pharmacists should routinely review patient responses to ordered insulin therapy and make suggestions for changes when appropriate. Pharmacists should communicate with prescribers, nurses, dieticians, patients, and ASHP, ISMP, JCAHO others to coordinate insulin therapy. Pharmacists with special training or knowledge/experience in the management of Baldwin, ISMP, Smith insulin therapy in hospitalized patients should be available for consultation. 30 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Administration monitoring, and patient education). Changes throughout the insulin-use system support the care- Safe insulin administration practices result from giver and reduce risk for error when administering implementation of both safe administration proce- insulin. Because administration is one of the sharp dures as well as recommended changes in all other points of care provision, effective safety practices components of the process (e.g., organizational, at this step of the process are critical. information, prescribing, transcribing, dispensing, Administration References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Nurses or other caregivers administering insulin should be knowledgeable about Baldwin, Brigham insulin products and their use, management of glycemia in complex hospitalized Womens, Gilman, patients, recognition and management of hypoglycemia, and proper methods for Heatlie, ISMP, JCAHO, bedside monitoring. Manning The following information should be readily available to the nurse reviewing Baldwin, Brigham insulin orders and/or administering insulin: Womens, ISMP, JCAHO 1. Indication for use of insulin 2. Insulin-dependency status 3. Goals of insulin therapy 4. Patient co-morbidities 5. Concurrent medications 6. Prior insulin use and response 7. Patient age, weight, and height 8. Most recent BG measurement results Insulin therapy orders should be reviewed for appropriateness prior to administra- ISMP, JCAHO tion. All concerns should be resolved prior to insulin administration. Insulin should not be administered until a pharmacist has reviewed the latest ISMP, JCAHO insulin order(s), unless there is an emergent need and the drug is under the supervi- sion of a licensed independent prescriber. Insulin orders should not be carried out until the order transcription has been ISMP, JCAHO, USP verified and documented for accuracy by an independent double check. Insulin should not be stored at the bedside unless secure and under control of the JCAHO nurse even when patients are performing self-management. When insulin is needed, it should be obtained and provided to the patient for observed administra- tion, then returned to a secure storage area. Patient nutrition status should be considered prior to administration of all insulin ADA 2005, ADA 2003, doses. Clement All correction, supplemental, or adjustment doses of insulin should be based on ADA 2005, Clement, bedside BG measurements taken immediately prior to insulin administration along Gilman, Heatlie, Man- with appropriate assessment of nutritional (carbohydrate) intake and prior insulin ning doses and responses to insulin. Rapid-acting insulins (and rapid-acting insulin mix products) should be adminis- Clement, Smith tered only when meals are being consumed or present on the unit available for the patient to start to consume within 15 minutes. Only insulin syringes should be used to measure insulin doses. ADA 2005, ADA 2003, ISMP Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 31 Administration References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) All measured insulin doses should be confirmed by independent checks by two ISMP, JCAHO individuals. Practices for mixing insulins, including which insulins can be mixed, should be ADA 2003c, ADA 2005, defined by the organization. Individuals mixing insulins should be properly trained Clement, RNAO and demonstrate competency. Mixing of insulins should be performed using proper aseptic technique. Insulin should be administered using appropriate safety procedures: ADA, ADA 2003c, ADA 2005, Clement, ISMP, 1. Proper patient identification using two identifiers (e.g., compare arm band to JCAHO, RNAO , USP MAR or by bar-code identification) plus positive verbal verification by patient asking to state name and date of birth. 2. Insulin should be measured only using correct size insulin syringes or appropriate insulin delivery devices (e.g., insulin pens). 3. Insulins should be mixed only according to manufacturer's recommenda- tions. 4. An independent double check with another caregiver should occur prior to administration that includes ordered dose, insulin type, and measured dose. 5. Whenever appropriate, patient and/or family should provide additional double check. 6. Patient should be evaluated for signs or symptoms of hypoglycemia. 7. When insulin doses are measured in an insulin syringe, the doses should be prepared at the patient's bedside. 8. The MAR should be brought into the patient's room during administration, unless prohibited by policy such as infection control concerns. Practices for proper subcutaneous injection of insulin should be defined, including ADA 2003c, ADA 2005, choice of injection site(s), rotation of injection sites, documentation of injection Clement, JCAHO, RNAO site, site preparation, and injection technique. All insulin infusions should be administered using an IV pump with free-flow ISMP, JCAHO protection. Insulin infusions should be delivered using only approved infusion devices that the nurse is familiar with and competent to use. Insulin infusions should be administered using smart pump technology with ISMP, JCAHO appropriately defined maximum and minimum infusion rates, alerts, and override criteria. Pre-printed guides to appropriate setting of IV pumps should be used, even when ISMP smart pump technology is available. An independent double check of insulin infusion product and IV pump setting ISMP, JCAHO should be done each time a new insulin IV infusion bag is hung. The distal ends of IV insulin lines should be clearly and boldly labeled. ISMP Documentation of insulin administration should occur immediately following JCAHO administration while at the bedside. The organization should implement bedside bar-code reconciliation processes to ISMP confirm insulin product, patient, and time of administration. Insulin doses or dose changes in response to a BG measurement should be docu- British Columbia, IHI (SENSE?) mented as both the time and result of the BG and the insulin dose administered. The patient's own insulin pumps are only used as defined by the organization. Baldwin b 32 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Administration References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) When patient's own insulin pumps or devices are used, institution policies should JCAHO, Baldwin b specifically define safety practices and responsibilities of the patient, nurse, pre- scriber, pharmacy, and other appropriate departments. If the organization allows self-management using the patient's own insulin, insulin JCAHO pump, or device, all institution policies for insulin should be adhered to. Insulin should not be stored at the bedside, allowing unsupervised access. Patient self- monitoring, insulin administration, and documentation is always observed by the nurse and confirmed in the medical record. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 33 Monitoring and Documentation methods and communication of insulin therapy monitoring results should be easily correlated with The clinical and laboratory monitoring of patients insulin therapy and nutritional intake (Heatlie, Gil- and the response to the results of the monitoring man, Manning, Smith). Appropriate warnings, are major determinants of safe and effective insu- alerts, and communication processes should be in lin use. Appropriate monitoring requires that care- place when monitoring identifies defined critical givers possess both technical skills and clinical values or clinical findings. knowledge of insulin therapy. Documentation Monitoring and Documentation References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Patients receiving insulin therapy should receive appropriate clinical and laboratory ADA 2005a, Clement, monitoring, including: Smith, Thompson 1. Clinical monitoring for signs or symptoms of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia. 2. BG monitoring. The organization should adhere to the principles outlined in the ADA Position ADA 2004, Clement, Statement on Bedside BG Monitoring in Hospitals: JCAHO, NCCLS, Vander- bilt MC 1. Clear administrative responsibility should be delineated. 2. Well defined policy/procedure manual should be available. 3. Training program for individuals performing the testing should be in place. 4. Effective and comprehensive quality control procedures should be in place. 5. Regularly scheduled equipment maintenance should be performed. 6. Staff performing BG monitoring should be appropriately trained, and ongoing competency should be assessed and documented. Appropriate bedside monitoring of BG should be ordered and provided for all ADA 2005, Clement, patients receiving insulin. Nettles Standards for minimum frequency for monitoring of BG should be established by ADA 2005, Campbell, the organization. For example, minimum requirements could include: Clement, Smith, Thomp- son, Tomky 1. Patients who are eating: pre meals and at bedtime. 2. Patients not eating: every 4–6 hours. 3. Infusions: every hour initially until stable, then every 2 hours. Monitoring of BG by unit personnel should be under the direction and supervision ADA 2004, NCCL, of the hospital clinical laboratory services. JCAHO Accuracy and correlation of capillary and BG measurements should be closely ADA 2004, Clement, evaluated. NCCLS, Nichols, Sacks The presence of patient factors that may cause errors in bedside BG monitoring ADA 2004, Clement, should be identified, documented, and communicated. Examples of such factors NCCLS, Nichols, Sacks would include: 1. Low hematocrit 2. High hematocrit 3. Shock and dehydration 4. Hypoxia 5. Hyperbilirubinemia 6. Severe lipemia Use of alternate site capillary BG monitoring should generally not be used in hos- Clement pitalized patients because such measurements fail to detect rapid changes in BG. 34 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Monitoring and Documentation References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Standing BG monitoring times should be defined and standardized for similar Clement, IHI patient populations across the institution and coincide with the time meals served when appropriate. Given the complexity of performing bedside glucose monitoring during insulin Heatlie, Gilman, Man- therapy, specific policies and procedures and useful tools to assist caregivers in this ning, Nettles process should be developed. Given the complexity of performing bedside glucose monitoring during insulin ther- Campbel, Nettle, apy, targeted staff training and monitoring of this process should be implemented. Thompson The organization should ensure proper blood sampling when blood is drawn Clement through an IV site to avoid false-positives due to sampling through lines containing dextrose solutions. The organization should define time limits for insulin administration prompted by a Clement, Manning, BG measurement (e.g., if insulin is not administered within a given time frame, the Smith measurement must be repeated). Results of all BG monitoring should be clearly documented in the medical record Barglowski, British and be easily correlated with insulin doses, concurrent oral hypoglycemic(s) Columbia, Medtronics administration, and caloric/meal intake. Graphical or flow sheet documentation of BG measurements' timing and amount of Barglowski, British insulin(s) administration as well as timing and amount of caloric intake (oral, per Columbia, Medtronics tube, intravenous) should be used. The organization should have an effective process for communication of BG ADA 2004, ISMP, measurements outside of set limits (low and high critical levels) to appropriate JCAHO, NCCLS caregivers. Actions to be taken by the caregiver in response to critical level alerts should be defined and standardized. Insulin use should trigger alerts to appropriate caregivers when factors associated Allen, Bates, Clement, with hypoglycemia are present: Cryer 2002a, Cryer 2002b, Smith, Tomky 1. Sudden reduction in oral intake or NPO status. 2. Discontinuation of enteral feeding. 3. Discontinuation of parenteral nutrition. 4. Reduction or discontinuation of dextrose-containing intravenous solutions. 5. Failure of patient to eat after prandial insulin dose has been administered. 6. Unexpected transport from unit after rapid or short-acting insulin has been given (i.e., risk of no food to be given). 7. Reduction in glucocorticoid dose. 8. Addition of new antihyperglycemic therapy. Hypoglycemia should always be considered when a patient receiving insulin has ADA 5005c, Allen, altered level of consciousness for no apparent reason. Bates, Ben Ami, Clem- ent, Cryer 2002a, Cryer 2002b, Jones Hypoglycemia should not be ruled out as a cause of confusion or altered behavior Clement, Cryer 2002a, based on a capillary (finger stick) BG result; a laboratory measured venous BG level Cryer 2002b should also be obtained. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 35 Monitoring and Documentation References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) As part of the monitoring procedures, policy allows nurses to administer hypoglyce- Clement mia rescue agents (dextrose or glucagon) per established standard order sets or protocol with minimal physician oversight (but with appropriate prescriber notifica- tion of events). Nurses and other appropriate caregivers expected to urgently treat hypoglycemia Clement, Cryer 2002a should be properly trained, and their ongoing competency should be assessed. When patients practice self-monitoring of BG, the accuracy of the patient's tech- ADA 2004, Clement nique should be determined (including use of patient's own device if allowed by policy). Patients should be directly observed when performing diabetes self management JCAHO and documentation. The self-management documentation should be verified by the nurse in writing. 36 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Nutrition establish a standard set of terms for nutrition ther- apy just as they should for insulin ordering and BG Insulin therapy should be linked with the nutri- monitoring. Nutritional intake should be docu- tional therapy of hospitalized patients. Organiza- mented so it may be easily correlated with insulin tions should utilize a Consistent Carbohydrate doses and BG measurements. Clinical nutrition ser- Diabetes Meal-Planning System for all patients vices must play an active role in coordinating care receiving insulin therapy. Organizations should of patients receiving insulin. Nutrition References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Nutrition of hospitalized patients receiving insulin should be appropriately individ- ADA 2003b, JCAHO, ualized. Swift Registered dieticians should participate in the care of hospitalized patients receiv- ADA 2005a, Clement, ing insulin. JCAHO, Nettles The institution should utilize a Consistent Carbohydrate Diabetes Meal-Planning Clement, ADA 2003b, System. Staff caring for diabetic patients should be educated regarding this system. Swift Standardized language for describing and ordering nutrition based on the Consis- ADA 2003b, ISMP, tent Carbohydrate Diabetes Meal-Planning System for patients on insulin should be JCAHO defined and communicated to staff. All orders for nutrition for patients on insulin should use organization-defined terminology. Orders for diets such as no concentrated sweets, "no sugar added," "low sugar," ADA 2003b, Clement etc. should not be allowed. The carbohydrate intake of patients on insulin therapy should be monitored and Clement, Swift documented. Documentation of carbohydrate intake should be displayed with insulin doses and BG monitoring results. The dextrose content of intravenous drug solutions used in insulin-therapy patients Krajicek, Thompson should be assessed and communicated to other patient caregivers. A system should exist for identifying patients who require nutritional assessment Clement, JCAHO, and notifying the dietitian. Nettles, Swift Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 37 Patient and Family Involvement and coordinated multidisciplinary process. Caregiv- ers should be specifically trained to provide patient and Education and family education and assess patient knowledge Patient participation in care is a critical safety net and skills. Patient education should include discus- for insulin therapy. Effective involvement and edu- sion of potential for errors and methods of reduc- cation of patients and families require a planned ing risk. Patient and Family Involvement and Education References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) Patients (and/or families of patients) receiving insulin should be properly educated ADA 2005b, Davis, and engaged in their care. ISMP, JCAHO, Nettles Hospitals should promote use of diabetes self-management for inpatients, while AZHHA, Campbell, ensuring patient safety and compliance with all applicable standards of care. Nettles Hospital policies should clearly define the criteria for selection of patients to ADA 2005 b, Clement, perform self-management of diabetes while in the hospital and the specific practic- Davis, JCAHO , Nettles es required for safe and effective patient care. 1. Physicians and nurses caring for a patient should agree that self-management is appropriate. 2. Patients should be competent to provide self-management (including admin- istration, monitoring, and assessment). 3. Patients should have an expected stable level of consciousness. 4. Patients should have fairly stable known insulin needs. 5. Patients should successfully perform diabetes self-management at home. 6. Patients should have demonstrated the physical skills/ability to perform self- management tasks. 7. Patients should have documented adequate oral intake. 8. Patients should demonstrate proficiency at calorie counting. 9. Patients should be proficient at using multiple daily injection regimens. 10. Patients should be proficient at self-monitoring of BG. 11. Correlation of patient-determined CBG and laboratory BG should be per- formed and documented. 12. Patients should be proficient at sick-day management of insulin therapy. Patients playing an active role in insulin therapy should be determined to be Clement, Nettles competent. Verification of competency should be documented. Competency should be assessed at regular intervals as determined by the individual situation. The role of the patient and/or family in the management of insulin therapy while in Clement, JCAHO, the hospital should be jointly agreed upon and documented in the medical record. Nettles All policies and procedures should be adhered to when self-management is al- lowed. Newly diagnosed diabetics started on insulin should be educated sufficiently ADA 2005b, Clement, (provided with "diabetes survival skills") to safely go home, with proper arrange- Davis, Nettles ments made for follow-up education and training. More in-depth patient education should be provided when appropriate. Requirements for patient discharge should be delineated. Recommendations follow: 1. Patients should demonstrate ability to select and measure insulin products accurately. 2. Patients should demonstrate ability to accurately perform CBG monitoring, assess results, and determine appropriate action.The patient should be pro- vided with appropriate organization-approved written videos or computer- 38 Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals Patient and Family Involvement and Education References/Resources See list at end of docu- ment for full citations. (Note: references printed in italics include sample order sets/protocols, etc.) based instruction at an appropriate reading level in a language the patient is fluent in. Patient understanding should be documented. Cultural and literacy factors should be considered in the education of the patient ADA 2005b, JCAHO, and decisions regarding insulin management. Nettles Discharge planning should include appropriate communication and coordination ADA 2005b, Clement, among the patient and family, physicians, nurses, pharmacists, diabetes educators, Davis, JCAHO, Nettles, and other involved caregivers. Discharge plans should be individualized and Campbell agreed upon by all individuals involved. Discharge planning should include appropriate assessment and follow-up for ADA 2005b, Clement, insulin use post-hospitalization. Davis, JCAHO, Nettles, Thompson The patient should be provided with appropriate written documents to safely and ADA 2005b, JCAHO, effectively facilitate change in care environments and communicate with care Campbell, Davis, providers. Nettles, Thompson Appropriate information regarding the patient's insulin therapy should be commu- JCAHO, Campbell, nicated to providers caring for the patient following hospital discharge, including Nettles, Thompson the patient's pharmacy. A standardized communication form regarding diabetes care for the patient should be used. Recommendations for Safe Use of Insulin in Hospitals 39 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES Links American Diabetes Association (ADA 2004). Bed- side BG monitoring in hospitals. 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