text:
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J Physiol 576.2 (2006) pp 547–556
Spinal dorsal horn neuronal responses to myelinated
versus unmyelinated heat nociceptors and their
modulation by activation of the periaqueductal grey
in the rat
Simon McMullan1and Bridget M. Lumb2
1Hypertension and Stroke Research Laboratory, University of Sydney, Australia
2Department of Physiology, University of Bristol, UK
The aim of this study was to further understand the central processing of inputs arising from
unmyelinated and myelinated nociceptors by (i) determining the response characteristics of
of skin heating to preferentially activate unmyelinated (C-fibre; 2.5◦Cs−1) versus myelinated
neurones encode well only over the first 5◦C above threshold, and that at higher temperatures
responses decline. In contrast, responses to A-nociceptor activation are linear and encode skin
temperature over more than 10◦C, and almost certainly into the tissue-damaging range. PAG
stimulation raised thresholds and decreased significantly the magnitude of responses to A- and
C-nociceptor activation. However, differences were revealed in the effects of descending control
on the relationships between skin temperature and neuronal firing rate; the linear relationship
that occurred over the first 5◦C of slow rates of skin heating was no longer evident, whereas
that to fast rates of skin heating was maintained over the entire range, albeit shifted to the right.
control from the DL/L-PAG. The data are discussed in relation to the role of the DL/L-PAG in
mediating active coping strategies.
(Resubmitted 21 July 2006; accepted after revision 14 August 2006; first published online 17 August 2006)
Corresponding author S. McMullan: Hypertension and Stroke Research Laboratory, Royal North Shore Hospital,
St Leonards, Sydney, NSW 2065, Australia. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Information about noxious events in the periphery
is conveyed to the spinal cord in myelinated and
nociceptor convey different qualities of the nociceptive
message, first and second pain, respectively (Raja et al.
1999), and have different roles in animal models of
chronic pain (Fuchs et al. 2000). They have distinct
pharmacological and physiological properties, such as
their conduction velocities and their ability to encode the
et al. 2001), and recent evidence from this laboratory
indicates that they activate distinct central pathways
linking the hypothalamus and midbrain (Lumb et al.
A major determinant of the pain experience is
descending control, which originates from a number
of supraspinal sites and acts to modulate nociceptive
transmission at early stages in pain pathways in the dorsal
horn of the spinal cord (Willis, 1988; Willis & Westlund,
nociceptive reflexes evoked by activity in unmyelinated
(C-fibre) versus myelinated (A-fibre) heat nociceptors:
C-fibre-evoked withdrawal responses to noxious heating
has important implications as neurones in the DL/L-PAG
co-ordinate active coping strategies, of which modulation
to stressors and in emergency situations (Lovick &
Bandler, 2005). One interpretation of this finding is that
C ?2006 The Authors. Journal compilationC ?2006 The Physiological SocietyDOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.117754
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548S. McMullan and B. M. Lumb
J Physiol 576.2
distracting information conveyed in C-nociceptors while
preserving the rapidly conducted well-localized aspects of
emergency situations.
Given the different roles of unmyelinated and
myelinated nociceptors in normal and pathological pain
the central pathways that they activate, and a selectivity in
their descending control, it is of considerable importance
to gain a better understanding of the spinal processing of
input from these two classes of nociceptor.
To this end, the aims of the current study were twofold:
of dorsal horn neurones.
Animal preparation
Experiments were conducted on 18 adult male Wistar
rats (275–300g). All experiments were carried out in
accordance with the UK Animals (Scientific Procedures)
Act, 1986, and associated guidelines. Anaesthesia was
induced with halothane (2–3% in O2), and the trachea,
carotid artery and external jugular vein were cannulated,
Arterial blood pressure and rectal temperature were
monitored and maintained within physiological limits.
During preparatory surgery, anaesthesia was maintained
withdrawal or blood pressure changes.
Preferential activation of myelinated and
unmyelinated heat nociceptors
A heating apparatus that delivered 'slow' or 'fast' rates
of skin heating to the dorsal hindpaw was used to
preferentially activate unmyelinated (capsaicin-sensitive)
or myelinated (capsaicin-insensitive) heat nociceptors,
respectively (McMullan et al. 2004). The apparatus was
a modified version of that described by Yeomans and
1996), in which slow and fast rates of heating activated
nociceptive primary afferents with conduction velocities
<2.3ms−1(i.e. C-fibres) and >3ms−1(i.e. A-fibres),
respectively. In brief, heat from a sputter-coated projector
bulb was focused onto a thin disk of blackened copper
with the dorsal surface of the skin of the hindpaw. A
was fixed in position between the surface of the copper
disk and the skin, and used to record skin temperature,
which was digitized and captured at 50sampless−1on a
PC running Spike2 version 3.21 (Cambridge Electronic
Design, Cambridge, UK). Using a constant bulb voltage,
fast rates of heating (7.5±1◦Cs−1, measured over 2s
from the start of heating) were used to preferentially
fast and slow ramps, respectively, were rejected. In order
to prevent tissue damage, skin heating was terminated by
a feedback-controlled cut-off device fitted to the power
source. Cut-offs to fast and slow rates of heating were set
at 57 and 55◦C, respectively; data from heating trials in
cut-off value and included in the analysis.
Single-unit dorsal horn recordings
Extracellular single-unit recordings were made from
Class2 (Menetrey et al. 1977) deep dorsal horn
In brief, the vertebrae at each end of a laminectomy
between T13 and L2 were clamped, and a 4% agar pool
was formed over the exposed tissue. To allow access to
the spinal cord, a small window was cut in the agar and
filled with warm mineral oil. The dura were removed,
and extracellular recordings of single unit activity were
made using homemade borosilicate glass microelectrodes
mounted on an active-probe headstage (Intra 767b; WPI,
UK). Electrodes were filled with 4m NaCl and had a
resistance of 4–10M?. The filtered (Neurolog125; low
cut-off, 500–700Hz; high cut-off, 5kHz) and amplified
(Neurolog105; ×1000) signal was monitored on an
oscilloscope, captured by a PC running Spike2 version
also captured as Spike2 'Wavemarks', permitting online
arithmetic plotting of instantaneous firing frequency on a
separate data channel. In some cases multiunit recordings
were made. Wavemarks were used to compare spike shape
at 20kHz) and compared using K-means cluster analysis.
fields of recorded neurones typically extended over an
area equivalent to one quarter of the dorsal surface of the
hindpaw, and were responsive to both low- (e.g. brush)
and high-intensity (e.g. noxious pinch, heating) stimuli.
Only cells that had excitatory receptive fields that were
both accessible to the heater and larger than the copper
disk that formed the heating contact with the skin were
included in the study.
C ?2006 The Authors. Journal compilationC ?2006 The Physiological Society
Page 3
J Physiol 576.2
Dorsal horn responses to heat and their modulation by the PAG 549
Neuronal activation in the PAG
The head was fixed in a flat skull position in a stereotaxic
instrument and a small window, extending approximately
3mm lateral and 5mm rostral to lambda, was removed
from the temporal bone using a small drill fitted with a
round dental burr.
Triple-barrelledglass micropipettes
diameter ∼40µm) were driven vertically into the PAG at
approximately 7.5mm caudal to bregma, 0.8mm lateral
to the midline, and between 4.0 and 5.3mm deep to the
cortical surface. Micropipette barrels contained: 50mm
dl-homocysteic acid (DLH; Sigma, UK) solution in
pH-buffered Ringer solution for neuronal stimulation,
Ringer solution for control injections, and saturated
Drug solutions (6nl), or larger volumes of dye solution
(∼60nl), were pressure-ejected under microscopic
guidance. A calibrated graticule was used to measure
meniscus movement, from which ejection volumes
were estimated. Micropipettes were positioned in the
evoked increases in arterial blood pressure.
(overall tip
Experimental protocol
In a control period, neuronal responses to fast or
slow rates of heating were recorded at 8min intervals.
Following three control trials, a 6nl injection of DLH was
made into a previously identified pressor site within the
Figure 1. Data from an individual Class 2 dorsal horn neurone
A, raster plot to illustrate the response of the neurone to supramaximal electrical stimulation in its cutaneous
receptive field at time zero. B, photomicrograph to illustrate the recording site (pontamine sky blue (PSB) deposit)
in the dorsal horn. C, response to a fast heating trial. Top trace, average discharge frequency per second. Middle
trace, skin temperature. Lower trace, extracellular unit recording. Vertical lines, 1◦C bins. Continuous horizontal
line, background level of firing which is subtracted from the firing rate to calculate the magnitude of the response
(shaded area).
PAG. Approximately 20s after injection (at which point
cardiovascular changes evoked by DLH injection were
maximal), a fourth heating trial was delivered to the
receptive field. Neuronal responses to three subsequent
(post-test) heating trials were then recorded at 8min
intervals. If, following a complete series of heating trials,
signal were still optimal, a second series of heating trials,
using the other rate of heating, was conducted (i.e. if the
fast rates of heating).
At the end of recording the composition of afferent
input to the unit was assessed using electrical stimulation
in the cutaneous receptive field. Bipolar needle electrodes
were inserted into the centre of the receptive field and
single rectangular pulses, 1–1.5ms wide, were delivered.
Pulse amplitude was gradually increased until single
action potentials were reliably evoked. Stimulus intensity
was then increased by a factor of 20 (up to a maximum of
100V). Raster displays were constructed from repeated
sweeps and units were classified as C+ve if a distinct late
volley of action potentials was evoked with a latency of
∼200ms. In 5/19 cells it was not possible to determine
afferent composition. Raster displays from all other
neurones indicatedexcitatory
myelinated and unmyelinated afferents (e.g. Fig.1A).
the composition of afferent input were not included in
further analysis.
inputs fromboth
C ?2006 The Authors. Journal compilationC ?2006 The Physiological Society
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550S. McMullan and B. M. Lumb
J Physiol 576.2
electrodes with micropipettes containing saturated PSB
in sodium acetate. PSB was ejected under iontophoresis
(7µA, 7–10min) at the cord surface and at the depth
of the recording site (e.g. Fig.1B). Rats were killed
with a lethal intravenous bolus of pentobarbitone at
the end of experiments, and the midbrain and marked
sections of spinal cord were removed and placed in 7%
phosphate-buffered paraformaldehyde. Fixed tissue was
sectioned at 50µm and stained with neutral red. Sections
were visualized under a microscope and camera lucida
drawings made of injection and recordings sites. Cells
included in this study were recorded at an average depth
of 904±101µm from the surface of the spinal cord.
Data analysis
In order to determine thresholds of responses to slow
and fast rates of heating, the rate of spontaneous activity
occurring between 10 and 5s before the start of heating
and remained elevated relative to average spontaneous
firing frequency during the reference period. If, after
injection of DLH, heating did not evoke a neuronal
response, a value equivalent to the lamp cut-off
temperature was assigned. Two-way analysis of variance
(Graphpad Prism 4.0) was used to determine any
differences in the effects of DLH microinjection on
neuronal responses evoked by slow and fast rates
of heating. Bonferroni post-tests were used to detect
slow or fast rates of heating.
Response magnitude was also quantified. Activity
cut-off was broken into 1◦C bins (Fig.1C), and the
number of action potentials occurring in each bin was
to the first bin of the response. Pre-trial spontaneous
activity was measured and, after correcting for bin width,
subtracted from each bin of the response. Data from
repeated measures, i.e. data from trios of control and
post-test trials, were averaged. All data points were
normalized with respect to the first bins of control
responses, which were assigned the value of 100%. Data
were excluded from analysis. Curve fitting and linear
correlations were used to determine the relationships
between skin temperature and neuronal firing frequency.
functions (Graphpad Prism 4.0). Magnitudes of evoked
responses were determined by calculating the normalized
area under the temperature–response curve. Data are
expressed as means±s.e.m.
Neuronal responses to slow and fast rates of heating
Recordings were made from 19 Class2 neurons in the
in analysis because their afferent composition could not
be determined by electrical stimulation of the receptive
field. Of the 14 neurons that received convergent input
from both myelinated and unmyelinated afferent input,
responses to slow rates were examined in 11 cells (i.e. it
was possible to examine responses to both fast and slow
rates of heating in nine units).
Responses of an individual neurone to slow and fast
rates of skin heating are illustrated in Fig2A and B, and
relative to threshold for the entire population in Fig.2C.
Activity evoked by slow heating trials increased linearly
with skin temperature over the first 5◦C of a response,
reached a plateau, and subsequently decreased. This
pattern of response fitted a Gaussian response profile
(r2=0.63, Fig.2C) rather than a straight line (r2=0.24).
In contrast, neuronal activity evoked by fast rates of skin
heating exhibited a strong linear correlation with skin
temperature (r2=0.9; Fig.2C) over the full range of skin
heating (i.e. from average threshold of 46.1◦C to lamp
fast rates of skin heating generally evoked significantly
more activity than slow rates of heating (Fig.2C). When
expressed as area under the curve, activity evoked by fast
rates of heating (322.1APs−1 ◦C) was greater than that
evokedbyslowratesofheating(139.1APs−1 ◦C;P <0.01).
were normalized and expressed as a percentage of action
potential frequency recorded over the first 1◦C of control
responses (as in Fig.6), the values for goodness of fit
(r2) of linear (fast) and Gaussian (slow) regressions were
increased to 0.97 and 0.78, respectively.
Effects of PAG stimulation
Microinjection of DLH into sites in the DL/L-PAG
(Fig.3) evoked pressor responses of 19.7±1.9mmHg. In
9/14 cells, spontaneous firing was reduced shortly after
DLH injection (latency, 1–2s). In five of these cells, the
reduction in firing was preceded by a transient (∼0.5s)
but reproducible increase in action potential frequency.
In these cases, the increase in firing frequency was almost
PAG activation evoked strong inhibition of neuronal
responses to both slow and fast rates of skin heating
(Fig.4). On average, thresholds of responses to slow rates
C ?2006 The Authors. Journal compilationC ?2006 The Physiological Society
Page 5
J Physiol 576.2
Dorsal horn responses to heat and their modulation by the PAG 551
of heating were increased significantly from 45.1±1 to
51.4±1.6◦C (n=11, P <0.001; Fig.5A) and thresholds
to fast rates of heating were increased from 46.1±1 to
54.6±1.1◦C (n=12, P <0.001; Fig.5B). In the 24min
period following PAG stimulation (post-test), thresholds
of responses to both slow and fast rates of heating
recovered to their control values. Two-way analysis of
variance indicated that the degree to which the threshold
of neuronal responses to heating was increased by DLH
microinjection was independent of rate of skin heating
in control, test and post-test periods were calculated
by measuring the area under the curve of normalized
activity plotted against temperature relative to threshold
Figure 2. Activation of class 2 dorsal horn neurons by slow and fast rates of skin heating
A and B, firing frequencies (upper traces) and extracellular recordings (middle traces) of an individual neurone
to illustrate the relationship between skin temperature (lower traces) and responses evoked by slow (A) and
fast (B) rates of skin heating. C, temperature–response relationships of Class 2 neurones to slow (open symbols,
n = 11) and fast (filled symbols, n = 12) rates of skin heating; data are means ± S.E.M.; responses to fast rates
of heating follow a linear relationship (r2= 0.9), whereas responses to slow rates best fit a bell-shaped function
(r2= 0.63);∗P < 0.05,∗∗P < 0.01 (two-way Student's t test), statistical significance between responses at any
given temperature above threshold (hashed line).
(see Fig.6). Note, however, that due to the increase in
response threshold evoked by PAG stimulation, there was
a reduction in the range of temperatures over which
neuronal responses were evoked (i.e. the range between
threshold and heating cut-off was reduced from 8 or 9◦C
to 5 or 6◦C). In view of this, for consistency, area under
6◦C of control responses to slow and fast rates of heating,
The profiles of responses to slow rates of skin heating
immediately after PAG activation no longer fitted a
Gaussian profile (r2=0.37; Fig.6A). In the 24min
period following PAG stimulation (post-test), profiles of
C ?2006 The Authors. Journal compilationC ?2006 The Physiological Society


text:
Gunmetal Black Ep 01
episode 14.24 / 5.00 4,389 Views
Lucina's First Day
A look at the first day of Lucina in Super Smash4.23 / 5.00 13,968 Views
BATMAN v SUPERMAN final showdown
SPOILERS!!4.16 / 5.00 12,781 Views
Ok first LOVE DIS TING LIKE CHERRY PIE
second where is the easter egg
Um one of the worst dbz parodies ever, egoraptor hasn't done anything that good in a long time, I know this is old too, but this just shows he's an overrated cunt.
It was great...
i refuse to believe that egoraptor contributed to this garbage
Not QUITE as funny as the first one, but still good!

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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Another convicted murderer escaped from prison with the help of a correctional officer with whom he was having sex, authorities say. This time the drama unfolded in North Carolina.
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Arizona Cardinals
John Abraham shines in preseason debut with Cardinals
When John Abraham signed a one-year deal on July 25, Arizona Cardinals general manager Steve Keim hoped he'd bring an instant level of credibility to the team's pass rush.
Just two weeks later, the 35-year-old outside linebacker certainly didn't disappoint in his debut with the team.
On the first play of the second quarter in the Cardinals' preseason opener Friday night, Abraham, who had 10 sacks with the Atlanta Falcons in 2012, stripped Green Bay Packers quarterback Graham Harrell at Arizona's 47-yard line.
The football was recovered by Sam Acho, and the Cardinals followed up the turnover with a 52-yard touchdown drive.
"You know, for me it is preseason. It is more just cut and dry, get into shape and just play football, like I usually do," Abraham said at halftime. "Doing that just helps the team out and helps them see that I have a little something left. For me, it is just about playing football right now."
Abraham finished the night -- albeit in limited action -- with one tackle, one sack and one forced fumble.
Not bad, not bad at all.
"I felt pretty good," Abraham said of his night. "I didn't get as many plays as I wanted to but it is the first game. I felt comfortable. I think the first drive was bad for, letting them get down the field on us. But we were able to hold them at the end. But this is more for the young guys, this first game. The second and third games are more for us."
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Poly: Choice or Predisposition?
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Join Date: Nov 2013
Posts: 221
I chose
I chose to be in an open marriage. I always thought i would be monogamous. I never had any mindset other than that. After many years of marriage, and finding that neither of our needs were getting met by the relationship, we decided to open up and try to meet some needs at home and others outside the relationship. This works more less for us.
It's complex though. When I'm really into someone, I do not look at other guys or fantasize about other guys or want them. That would make me sort of monogamous. However, I don't believe that this kind of interest (coupled with the stress of a home life can survive). I can only speak for myself, but there are many many unhappy married people.
That said, I also was never one to keep myself in a nuclear family. I have had friends (platonic ones) who I would say I am as dedicated to as my family. These relationships have sometimes included daily interactions for plus 10 years. Is sex the only element of monogamy? I would say that these friendships with people I have intense emotional dialog and commitment to would also be a form of polyamory.
I actually consider what I do closest to something gay male couples have always done.
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text: Announce your event here Robotics: Science and Systems Conference 2015-07-13 to 2015-07-17 Sapienza University of Rome, Italy The 2015 Robotics: Science and Systems Conference will bring together researchers working on algorithmic or mathematical foundations of robotics, robotics applications, and analysis of robotic systems. http://www.roboticsconference.org/ The 33rd International Conference of the System Dynamics Society 2015-07-19 to 2015-07-23 Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA The conference theme is "Reinventing Life on a Shrinking Earth." While Earth has not changed size in absolute terms, it is definitely shrinking with respect to the activity it supports. We have all experienced the effects of the greater interconnectivity: global economic recession, global business competition, pandemics, crowding and congestion, depletion of natural resources, strategic acquisition of water supplies, rising health care costs and management, and rapid economic development in many nations, spurring resource depletion, pollution, and climate change. Complex business and societal challenges have arisen from the increasing activity on the globe that conventional institutional designs have failed to address. System Dynamics uniquely provides a strategic framework to explore the challenges of a shrinking Earth, giving a greater understanding and exposing counterintuitive insights that allow us to reinvent our institutions and our lives. http://conference.systemdynamics.org/


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VIEWS: 22 PAGES: 28 POSTED ON: 1/21/2011 Public Domain
An Analytical Report On Network Security 1 This page Intentionally left blank. 2 An Analytical Report On Network Security Prepared for Elke M. Leeds, PH.D. Professor of MIS Coles College of Business Prepared by: Elana Golder Damir Nalic Daniel Rice Jessica Rosenthal The Shady Tree Network System Team Students of BISM 2100 Coles College of Business June 6, 2008 3 Letter of Authorization The purpose of this assignment is to expose students to emerging technologies and to create an opportunity for students to utilize their professional written business communication skills. This formal report will submitted through an interactive web page to provide a bundled resource on this semester"s project. This may be completed in a team of 4 students (formal report coordinator, research coordinator, editor, and attribution (APA) style check for references and citations) or individually. The team project will add an Operating Agreement (Team Charter) to appear after the Letter of Transmittal. You are being asked to perform a detailed analysis on Internet Security with a specific focus on hacker"s and their new targets. This is an ANALYTICAL Report (See Chapter 10) and will conclude with a list of recommendations for protecting your personal computer against attack. At a minimum, your report should include information related to the following – these any appear in an order: An introduction to Internet Security – Current Issues, Threats, Industry Response, Available Tools. Develop your Problem Statement. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems – What are they? What are they supposed to do? Who are they intended for? What specific technologies are generally considered to be part of these systems? This is a basic information section and provides information related to the journalistic questions. Introduction to Computer Hacking – The history of hackers? Who are they? What are their different objectives? What tools do they use? Who is the most at risk for an attack? How successful have they been – a particular case history? A conclusion summarizing the main points of the paper. A recommendation section outlining the actions required to protect your system in the environment you described. Suggestions for future research and investigation Use both commercial and academic resources (Minimum of 15 references – 20 needed for full credit). Where appropriate, you should incorporate charts, graphs, or other visual aids to illustrate the facts you present both in your report. This report will be submitted to turnitin.com – anti plagiarism detection software – please ensure that you cite your resources appropriately, use quotations and page number references for quotes and internal citations (Author, Date) for paraphrased content. Written Report: Your managerial report must be posted to your website (Each student must upload a copy). Employ all facets of effective business writing and refer back to your text (Chapter 12, Completing Formal Business Reports) for the Formal Report Structure. Chapter 11 contains information on the Headings required and the visuals needed. Criteria: TEAM: 30 i A comprehensive formal report employing the 7 C's of business writing – these are quality points in combine grammar, spelling, readability, structure, and adherence to required format. INDIVIDUAL: 10 Thorough research of sources – on average every paragraph has a source listed. References works are paraphrased, balanced between academic and commercial resources, and relevant. TEAM: 10 Attributions and Citations done properly in APA style. The Reference list is complete. Internal Citations are done properly. The paper was submitted to turnitin.com (10 pt automatic deduction) TEAM: 10 Letters of Acceptance and Transmittal with roles, team information, accountability and scope. – Operating Agreement INDIVIDUAL: 30 Detailed analysis covering requirements stated above – these are content points. INDIVIDUAL: 10 Well developed recommendations – this is the crux of the analytical report. It should be detailed enough to know exactly what response you want from your reader and how you want the reader to follow through on that objective. Elke M Leeds Professor, BISM 2100 ii 1000 CHASTAIN ROAD • KENNESAW, GEORGIA • 30144 PHONE: 770-423-6584 • FAX: 770-423-6601 Letter of Acceptance May 20, 2008 Professor of MIS, Coles College of Business C/o Dr. Elke M. Leeds Kennesaw State University 1000 Chastain Road Kennesaw, GA 30144 Dear Dr. Leeds: As representatives of Shady Tree Network Security, we appreciate that you have considered our company as a primary candidate to develop an analytical report about network security. We are elated to receive this opportunity and are committed to produce top quality information for you. In our report, we desire to present information to help you understand the threats and solutions relating to network security. The content of our information will consist of four essential elements including: An overview of network threats, response to threats, and tools to combat these issues. An in-depth look at the history of hackers, tools for use, and key targets for hackers. A comparison between intruder protection systems and intruder prevention systems. A recommendation on how to protect your network and systems. Thank you for choosing us as your research team. We look forward to develop an excellent report to satisfy all of the criteria you are looking for. Sincerely, Elana Golder, Damir Nalic, Daniel Rice, Jessica Rosenthal Shady Tree Network Security Team iii Letter of Transmittal June 06, 2008 Professor of MIS, Coles College of Business C/o Dr. Elke M. Leeds Kennesaw State University 1000 Chastain Road Kennesaw, GA 30144 Dear Dr. Leeds: We write to inform you that the assignment given has been completed. In this report, you inquired us to find information related to internet security. Through our research, we have discovered data concerning to all of your criteria. The core information of this report consists of: An explanation as to how viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and blended threats damage your systems as well as different types of protective solutions to guard your network from destruction. There exists two types of hackers; ethical and unethical. We found that ethical hackers use their knowledge to benefit the network community. Oppositely, there are unethical hackers who are more numerous and want to cause havoc in the system. The difference between intrusion detection and intrusion prevention systems. Ideas and recommendations on how to in act a system of security to protect your network. We would like to present this report to you and go in depth about our findings. You can reach us at (770) 123-STNS or at email@example.com. Our team is grateful for this opportunity someone of your caliber and we wish to participate in your future endeavors. Sincerely, Elana Golder, Damir Nalic, Daniel Rice, Jessica Rosenthal Shady Tree Network Security Team iv Team Operating Agreement Team Formation: As a team, Elana Golder, Damir Nalic, Daniel Rice, and Jessica Rosenthal, we formed a Team Charter Agreement that would enable us individually and as a whole to successfully produce this report. Our prime goal was to present credible information in a professional fashion. This report was motivated by the desire of having an above average grade on this assignment. Our group set certain time limitations to each part of the project. Although it was a little difficult to be able to meet at the same time, our team kept the communication strong through emailing and phone calls. This report subject was very interesting and each member wanted to learn more through research. Building Activities: Our group had an opportunity to get to know each other during class. We all sat together while in our class and knew that each person was a dedicated student. Team Goals: As a group, we read through the letter of authorization and analyzed each portion and discussed who was going to write it and what content needed to be in their piece. We were presented with an outline of what Dr. Leeds desired; however, we wanted to surpass the expectations by delivering quality work. Decision Making and Team Roles: There will be a mutual division of response abilities, giving each party the bandwidth to make decisions on assigned sections. Team Roles: Primary; Secondary responsibilities~ Jessica Rosenthal- Research and compose an introduction about threats and solutions related to network security; Assist team members in finding references and other information if needed. Elena Golder- Research and compose section on hackers and their relation to network security. Daniel Rice- Research and compose section covering information about Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems; Properly format all citations in APA format and place in text citations for all references. Damir Nalic- Compose the conclusion and develop recommendations for network security; final editing of paper Compile and format report. v Project Timeline: All members will have primary responsibilities completed by Sunday night, June 1st. Meet Monday, June 2nd, or Tuesday, June 3rd (depending on best scheduling), to group format the Letter of Acceptance and the Letter of Transmittal. Also we will have a checkpoint during this meeting to make sure every one is on time with their duties. By Wednesday, June 4th, or Thursday, June 5th (depending on progress.), we will finalize the report and have one team member submit the report to Turn-It-In.com to check for plagiarism issues. On Friday, June 6th, all last phase corrections will be completed and the remaining team members will post report on Turn-It-In.com. Then all members will post the report on their own respective webpage. Team Code of Conduct: All parties will agree upon allotments of work and fulfill all duties assigned. If any party has troubles fulfilling duties, they will approach the team and ask for help. All parties will agree to the time goals that were set in the beginning. Each party shall perform responsibilities the fullest ability. Each party will create original work and cite all references. All interaction will be appropriate. Conflicts will be settled immediately Establishing Work Ownership: Our group met and discussed what each member of the team would be responsible for. The group decided on who would do what by assigning each part randomly to each member. Anyone who had a preference on which part to do or was familiar with or had an interest in doing a specific part was able to choose. Our group came to agreement with the following responsibilities for each member: Introduction to Internet Security- Jessica Rosenthal o Researcher Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems- Daniel Rice o APA style check Introduction to Computer Hacking- Elana Golder o Recheck formal report Conclusion summarizing the main points- Damir Nalic o Editor Additional work such as the letters we agreed to meet and complete them as a group. vi Communication options in the following order: Webct- uses the mail option to communicate with fellow members. Email- use email to share information, and exchange ideas with group members. Phone- provided phone numbers from each member of the group in case email isn"t an option. Group meetings- meet with group to develop report and discuss progress and ideas. Conflict Management: Non-performance clauses Positive reinforcement o Nominate a team leader o Explain to the fellow member what that individual can do to improve performance, instead of criticizing them. o Have regular meetings and follow-ups to assure everyone is on schedule. o Set goals for completing assignments. Negative reinforcement o Tell what the team member is doing wrong. o Not assigning member specific jobs. o Not nominating a team leader o Weak communication skills with team members Meetings: Held regular meetings online and met as a team several times in the student center. If you were not able to attend the meeting you had to send an email explaining why you would miss it. Everyone was held accountable for their part of the project and everyone was able to discuss what problems they incurred and as a team we decided how to handle the situation. We made sure to start the meetings on time and never waste any unnecessary time, since we all have busy schedules. Looked at the continuous progress of the project to see if we were on track. Held final meeting to see if everything was set to be turned in and if we needed to make any corrections before the deadline. vii Table of Contents Executive Summary: _____________________________________________________________________ 1 Network Menaces: _______________________________________________________________________________ 3 Present Day Concerns:___________________________________________________________________________ 3 Industry Response: ______________________________________________________________________________ 4 Beneficial Products:______________________________________________________________________________ 4 Introduction to Hacking: ________________________________________________________________ 4 The History of Hackers: _________________________________________________________________________ 4 What are hackers and their different objectives? _____________________________________________ 9 Tools Used: _______________________________________________________________________________________ 9 Who is most at Risk? _____________________________________________________________________________ 9 How successful have Hackers been? ___________________________________________________________ 9 Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems: ______________________________________ 10 What Are Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems, What Is Their Purpose, and Who Are They For: ___________________________________________________________________________________ 10 Technologies That Are Relevant to IDS and IPS: ____________________________________________ 10 Intrusion Detection Systems: _________________________________________________________________ 11 Intrusion Prevention Systems: ________________________________________________________________ 11 IDS vs. IPS: ______________________________________________________________________________________ 11 Conclusion and Team Recommendations: __________________________________________ 12 Conclusions and Future Research: ___________________________________________________________ 12 Recommendations for Personal Computer Security: _______________________________________ 12 References _______________________________________________________________________________ 14 viii Chart Table of Contents Internet Usage --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 Configuring Firewalls --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Timeline: Major Hacking Events (Cable News Network LP, 2003): -----------------5 ix Executive Summary: Computer users typically view all viruses identically; however, while the different types of computer viruses have similar aspects, each one is uniquely designed in order to perform one or more main functions (Beal, 2006). Through the web, hackers are able to obtain, distort, and erase personal data which can lead to identity theft. It is crucial that companies as well as individual users to equip them with the necessary software to protect their system from intrusion. Although the industry may have specialists and advanced software, their systems still may be vulnerable to attacks if there are any flaws or holes present. Currently, there is internet security software designed to protect a computer in a variety of ways such as firewalls, anti-spam, and spy ware. As technology becomes more available for consumers and companies, so does protection software. There are two types of secondary protection that a network can use to reinforce their network security. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems are used as secondary layers of defense after firewalls and anti-virus protection (Pabrai, 2004). The first type of layer, Intrusion Detection Systems, works as a type of examination network that vigilantly searches for problems such as worms, viruses, Trojans, and hackers. When these issues are found, the system alerts the user so that the trouble can be tended to. Intrusion Prevention Systems are another type of layer that can oppose multitudes of threats immediately. Prevention Systems are favored more in computer security because of their abilities and strength, while Detection Systems are not needed, but can be used as an extra step of safety. Hacking is defined as a "highly proficient computer programmer who seeks to gain unauthorized access to systems without malicious intent." (Smooth Wall Limited, 2008). Hacking has been around for centuries and continues to be a problem with the growing technology advances. There are three different types of hackers that people need to become aware of and familiar with that includes white, grey and black hat hackers. White hackers can be seen as an advantage to companies in which they can provide knowledge in ways to attack and prevent a hacker"s intentions. On the other hand, black hat hackers are the most severe type who potentially can cause significant harm to network systems. The report is an advantage to all computer users, who are at risk in experiencing a hacker"s work. Looking at the overall picture of internet security and the effectiveness of hackers, it is most certainly beneficial for anybody who uses a computer or network to have an IPS or IDS installed in their system. Reading about the latest software and security systems that are available is another great way of preventing yourself from any huge damages or financial burdens. The internet offers unlimited resources but since hackers are always coming up with new ideas and evolving their methods it should be a clear message to computer users and network owners that they need to follow pad and stay on top of their game as well. 1 Introduction to Internet Security: The creation of networking and the internet originally was intended to make tangible actions more convenient. By substituting simple daily tasks from the real world with more expedient alternatives, the internet became the preferred method worldwide. In 2006, Stanford University conducted a study based on all users of the internet. In this study, they found the average percentage of normal activities performed by average users. These common activities are very vulnerable and susceptible mediums for intrusion. Internet Usage The introduction of computer networking created a vast virtual world full of knowledge, and opportunities for communication. However, a new violation into individual"s lives was launched. This networking capability created a vulnerability to people"s privacy that was unforeseen at the time. There are numerous anti-virus security software systems that can be obtained and downloaded. Nevertheless, currently there are over one million computer viruses worldwide (Richards, 2008). Security systems are not proficient enough to protect computers from all viruses. Consequently, hackers, individuals who secretly penetrate other computer systems, have the opportunity to infiltrate personal as well as business data by phishing, implementing viruses, worms, Trojan horses to computers, as well as many other methods 2 Network Menaces: According to Glenn Baker, Symantec has labeled identity theft as the "number one pain point" (Baker, 2007). The Cyber Black Market has been formed from the selling of personal credit cards online. Hackers are now forming groups and are becoming more brilliant in their methods. They are utilizing more time in efforts of hacking into data bases. Also, top user preferred operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, are key targets for hackers. Through these systems, they are able to obtain desired information about countless users. Although there is a greater advantage to hacking into a larger data base, smaller companies and personal computers are at a higher risk. Owners usually do not have in depth knowledge about internet security and hacking. An article on Inforsecwriters.com titled Small Business Security Network Security 101, listed the main threats for small business as security holes or vulnerabilities, direct attack, viruses, worms, Trojan horses, DoS (denial of service) attacks, spam, spy ware, and inappropriate or illegal content (Nijnik, 2005). Maintaining and updating security systems is not of high importance to small business owners. The cost of computer security software can also be an issue for these smaller companies. Moreover, personal computer users do not place as much emphasis on internet security but are targets as well. Hackers are able to identify ways of exploiting a person"s information and can obtain personal and financial information. Larger companies have an advantage of protecting their data because they are usually more knowledgeable about security issues and are able to afford proper software and can frequently update it. Nevertheless, security issues continue to rise within large companies. Present Day Concerns: There are many techniques individuals can take in order to acquire private information from a data base. Phishing has become a popular method of hacking. It is a "form of deception in which an attacker attempts to fraudulently acquire sensitive information from a victim by impersonating a trustworthy entity" (Jagatic, 2007). These can be presented through email as well as advertisements on general web pages. Another mode is by creating a worm, a program that reproduces the same message and sends it to other computer systems. This is a very rapid approach to spreading a virus through out numerous systems. Trojan horses are disguised as constructive software to protect your computer but will actually become destructive and harmful. A computer virus is similar to an actual human virus. While it travels to different computers, a virus will leave a damaging aspect in each data base. Combining worms, Trojan horses, and virus is called a blended threat. This attack will perform multiple tasks without the user"s assistance (Beal, 2006). In the beginning, hackers would provide a warning to the company by stating the date the hacking would take place. This would give the company time to ensure their data bases were securely protected and place patches on holes in their systems. However, these warning periods have reduced over time. Zero day attacks are becoming a huge threat to companies such as Microsoft Windows. Another current issue is hacker ethics. There are different types of hackers categorized in different colors. There are the white, grey, and black hackers. When a computer is hacked into, the individual does not know what type of hacker it is and what information they are looking for (Parker, 2005). 3 Industry Response: Major companies have taken an initiative in protecting the company and user"s data. IT (Information Technology) Specialists are hired by companies in order to maintain the latest computer and security systems. These IT departments protect the companies" files and information by applying advanced anti-virus and firewalls to each modem. Although companies may have an IT department, this does not ensure complete protection. Many departments may miss a certain area in the programming that can become a whole or a backdoor for hackers (Saran, 2005). Over the decades, computer developers have updated the security in their systems, however, since there is a continuous problem, internet security companies have also created software to protect against intrusion. There is much different software that targets specific computers as well as certain programs. Also, hosting websites have been designed in order to sell these software packages and offer free trials for the customers to test the software (Front, 2008). Beneficial Products: The ongoing of security breeches will not cease; in order to protect ones information, advanced security software must be installed. As hackers become smarter, there is not a one hundred percent guarantee for full protection. Even when an individual has protection software, they must also be cautious about their own actions on the internet. While there are numerous amounts of products available, Norton and Zone Alarm are two software packages that provide the essential aspects to protect a computer. Norton, anti-virus software created by Symantec, has different types of security software for PC as well as Macintosh computers. Zone Alarm is also compatible with PC computers and Macintosh. Both offers anti-virus, anti-spam, anti-spy ware, and firewalls (Top, 2008). Other products that are offered include McAfee, Spy Sweeper, and Panda Security. Companies, businesses, and home users rely on the internet whether it is for communication, transferring money, or containing personal data. Sustaining a strong protective system is vital in order to prevent intrusion. The internet was created in order to be beneficial; however, because of the increase in hacking, the internet is not a safe place if not secured with the correct software. Introduction to Hacking: The History of Hackers: Hacking has dated back to the early 1800s when emergence of telephones was being discovered. Earlier back in the day you might see hacking as being a harmless act with no real intent to cause harm. One of the very first hacking incidents involved young workers of the Bell telephone company who would misdirect calls, eavesdrop on conversations, and play other harmless pranks, which led to the rise of female workers who believed to be more "reliable" according to "Hacker History"(Heaton, 2000). William Crookes was believed to be the first to reveal hardware hacking, according to "A brief history of hardware hacking" (Grand, 2006). Moving ahead to the 4 1960s was the first real case of computer hacking. The computer hacking incident involved a few MIT students who hacked into several amounts of computers. Unlike the usual hackers who cause harm, the students discovered program shortcuts called "hacks", which could "push programs beyond their original design limits." Surprisingly, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Edison were just a few well-known men who were involved in hardware hacking during the 19th century (Grand, 2006). Timeline: Major Hacking Events (Staff, 2001): 1960s: The Dawn of Hacking The first computer hackers emerge at MIT. They borrow their name from a term to describe members of a model train group at the school who "hack" the electric trains, tracks, and switches to make them perform faster and differently. A few of the members transfer their curiosity and rigging skills to the new mainframe computing systems being studied and developed on campus. 1970s: Phone Phreaks and Cap'n Crunch Hackers (phreaks) break into regional and international phone networks to make free calls. One phreak, John Draper (aka "Cap'n Crunch"), learns that a toy whistle given away inside Cap'n Crunch cereal generates a 2600-hertz signal, the same high-pitched tone that accesses AT&T's long-distance switching system. Draper builds a "blue box" that, when used in conjunction with the whistle and sounded into a phone receiver, allows phreaks to make free calls. Shortly thereafter, Esquire magazine publishes "Secrets of the Little Blue Box" with instructions for making a blue box, and wire fraud in the United States escalates. Among the perpetrators: college kids Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, future founders of Apple Computer, who launch a home industry making and selling blue boxes. 1980: Hacker Message Boards and Groups Phone phreaks begin to move into the realm of computer hacking, and the first electronic bulletin board systems (BBSs) spring up. The precursor to Usenet newsgroups and e-mail, the boards -- with names such as "Sherwood Forest" and "Catch-22" -- become the venue of choice for phreaks and hackers to gossip, trade tips, and share stolen computer passwords and credit card numbers. Hacking groups begin to form. Among the first are Legion of Doom in the United States, and Chaos Computer Club in Germany. 1983: Kids' Games The movie "War Games" introduces the public to hacking, and the legend of hackers as cyberheroes (and anti-heroes) is born. The film's main character, played by 5 Matthew Broderick, attempts to crack into a video game manufacturer's computer to play a game, but instead breaks into the military's nuclear combat simulator computer. The computer (codenamed WOPR, a pun on the military's real system called BURGR) misinterprets the hacker's request to play Global Thermonuclear War as an enemy missile launch. The break-in throws the military into high alert, or Def Con 1 (Defense Condition 1). The same year, authorities arrest six teenagers known as the 414 gang (after the area code to which they are traced). During a nine-day spree, the gang breaks into some 60 computers, among them computers at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which helps develop nuclear weapons. 1984: Hacker 'Zines The hacker magazine 2600 begins regular publication, followed a year later by the online 'zine Phrack. The editor of 2600, "Emmanuel Goldstein" (whose real name is Eric Corley), takes his handle from the main character in George Orwell's "1984." Both publications provide tips for would-be hackers and phone phreaks, as well as commentary on the hacker issues of the day. Today, copies of 2600 are sold at most large retail bookstores. 1986: Use a Computer, Go to Jail In the wake of an increasing number of break-ins to government and corporate computers, Congress passes the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, which makes it a crime to break into computer systems. The law, however, does not cover juveniles. 1988: The Morris Worm Robert T. Morris, Jr., a graduate student at Cornell University and son of a chief scientist at a division of the National Security Agency, launches a self-replicating worm on the government's ARPAnet (precursor to the Internet) to test its effect on UNIX systems. The worm gets out of hand and spreads to some 6,000 networked computers, clogging government and university systems. Morris is dismissed from Cornell, sentenced to three years' probation and fined $10,000. 1989: The Germans and the KGB In the first cyber espionage case to make international headlines, hackers in West Germany (loosely affiliated with the Chaos Computer Club) are arrested for breaking into U.S. government and corporate computers and selling operating-system source code to the Soviet KGB. Three of them are turned in by two fellow hacker spies, and a fourth suspected hacker commits suicide when his possible role in the plan is publicized. Because the information stolen is not classified, the hackers are fined and sentenced to probation. In a separate incident, a hacker is arrested who calls himself "The Mentor." He publishes a now-famous treatise that comes to be known as the Hacker's Manifesto. The 6 piece, a defense of hacker antics, begins, "My crime is that of curiosity ... I am a hacker, and this is my manifesto. You may stop this individual, but you can't stop us all." 1990: Operation Sun devil After a prolonged sting investigation, Secret Service agents swoop down on hackers in 14 U.S. cities, conducting early-morning raids and arrests. The arrests involve organizers and prominent members of BBSs and are aimed at cracking down on credit- card theft and telephone and wire fraud. The result is a breakdown in the hacking community, with members informing on each other in exchange for immunity. 1993: Why Buy a Car When You Can Hack One? During radio station call-in contests, hacker-fugitive Kevin Poulsen and two friends rig the stations' phone systems to let only their calls through, and "win" two Porsches, vacation trips and $20,000. Poulsen, already wanted for breaking into phone- company systems, serves five years in prison for computer and wire fraud. Since being released in 1996, he has become a freelance journalist covering computer crime. The first Def Con hacking conference takes place in Las Vegas. The conference is meant to be a one-time party to say good-bye to BBSs (now replaced by the Web), but the gathering is so popular it becomes an annual event. 1994: Hacking Tools R Us The Internet begins to take off as a new browser, Netscape Navigator, makes information on the Web more accessible. Hackers take to the new venue quickly, moving all their how-to information and hacking programs from the old BBSs to new hacker Web sites. As information and easy-to-use tools become available to anyone with Net access, the face of hacking begins to change. 1995: The Mitnick Takedown Serial cyber trespasser Kevin Mitnick is captured by federal agents and charged with stealing 20,000 credit card numbers. He's kept in prison for four years without a trial and becomes a celebrity in the hacking underground. After pleading guilty to seven charges at his trial in March 1999, he's eventually sentenced to little more than time he had already served while he wait for a trial. Russian crackers siphon $10 million from Citibank and transfer the money to bank accounts around the world. Vladimir Levin, the 30-year-old ringleader, uses his work laptop after hours to transfer the funds to accounts in Finland and Israel. Levin stands trial in the United States and is sentenced to three years in prison. Authorities recover all but $400,000 of the stolen money. 7 1997: Hacking AOL AOHell is released, a freeware application that allows a burgeoning community of unskilled hackers -- or script kiddies -- to wreak havoc on America Online (AOL). For days, hundreds of thousands of AOL users find their mailboxes flooded with multi- megabyte mail bombs and their chat rooms disrupted with spam messages. (AOL Time Warner is the parent company of CNN.com.) 1998: The Cult of Hacking and the Israeli Connection The hacking group Cult of the Dead Cow releases its Trojan horse program, Back Orifice -- a powerful hacking tool -- at Def Con. Once a hacker installs the Trojan horse on a machine running Windows 95 or Windows 98, the program allows unauthorized remote access of the machine. During heightened tensions in the Persian Gulf, hackers touch off a string of break-ins to unclassified Pentagon computers and steal software programs. Then-U.S. Deputy Defense Secretary John Hamre calls it "the most organized and systematic attack" on U.S. military systems to date. An investigation points to two American teens. A 19- year-old Israeli hacker who calls himself "The Analyzer" (aka Ehud Tenebaum) is eventually identified as their ringleader and arrested. Today Tenebaum is chief technology officer of a computer consulting firm. 1999: Software Security Goes Mainstream In the wake of Microsoft's Windows 98 release, 1999 becomes a banner year for security (and hacking). Hundreds of advisories and patches are released in response to newfound (and widely publicized) bugs in Windows and other commercial software products. A host of security software vendors release anti-hacking products for use on home computers. 2000: Service Denied In one of the biggest denial-of-service attacks to date, hackers launch attacks against eBay, Yahoo!, CNN.com, Amazon and others. Activists in Pakistan and the Middle East deface Web sites belonging to the Indian and Israeli governments to protest oppression in Kashmir and Palestine. Hackers break into Microsoft's corporate network and access source code for the latest versions of Windows and Office. 2001: DNS Attack Microsoft becomes the prominent victim of a new type of hack that attacks the domain name server. In these denial-of-service attacks, the DNS paths that take users to Microsoft's Web sites are corrupted. The hack is detected within a few hours, but prevents millions of users from reaching Microsoft Web pages for two days. 8 What are hackers and their different objectives? Smooth Wall Glossary defines hackers as "highly proficient computer programmer who seeks to gain unauthorized access to systems without malicious intent" (Hacker, 2008). Hackers are highly intelligent individuals who like to be in control of a situation. People recognize hackers as three kinds: black hat, grey hat, and white hat hackers. A black hat hacker is the most severe of all three and involves someone that breaks into a program for their own benefit and steals the information and then turns around and sells it into the black market. Black hate hackers are very intelligent and knowledgably to where they can break into accounts without leaving anyone evidence behind. Next, the grey hat hacker is a person who is very in between white and black hat hackers. Grey hat hackers can be both legal, doing something positive or illegal, like stealing information. The last main type of hacker is a white hacker, the least severe type. White hat hackers are usually an asset to a company. White hackers are individual who are knowledgeable and can actually prevent the "bad hackers" from hacking into their business software and can develop prevention software. All hackers have a main goal when putting their skills and knowledge to use. When hackers gain access to computer systems their objective can be good or bad ones (legal or illegal). Hackers" main objective is to usually steal information from computer software to gain information without consent. Tools Used: All hackers need good tools, without good tools hackers aren"t able to work and do things they are capable of. With the security systems business computers have, it is never easy for hackers to hack into computer software. Because computers are designed by man, they can be hacked into by man. There are several things that computers can have to make it easier for hackers. Hackers" tools consist of password-cracking tools, manufacturer"s defaults; data mining, infiltration and espionage, con games and Trojan games all contribute to hacking in computer software (What, 2008). Who is most at Risk? Hacking is a growing problem that is occurring in all types of settings. Anyone with a computer is a potential victim of this crime, and can have their information stolen without consent and no evidence. Over the years, hacking is seen more often in business networks throughout, to gain information on the company"s activities. According to "Hacking of corporate information systems" several "unauthorized activities include cyber terrorism, hactivism, hacking-for ransom, hacking-for theft, and hacking-for monetary purposes" (Elms, 2003). All companies have the risks of hackers to intrude into their business and find crucial information. Businesses that run on password protected software are especially at risk for hackers breaking into their computers. How successful have Hackers been? Hackers continue to expand their knowledge on hacking into business systems with the growing of technology. New devices, like blackberries, GPS systems, and laptops all have made it capable and convenient for hackers to tap into personal devices and businesses and get important information. Recently, the company Apple released the iPhone to their consumers, which brought some hacking problems to them. Hackers have 9 found a way to get into the iPhones and "gain access to text messages and contact information" (Richards, 2007). Fortunately for apple and their customers, security experts have found a way to overpower hackers and gain back the control. Unlike the iPhone, many hacker incidents are left without and trace and are never found. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems: What Are Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems, What Is Their Purpose, and Who Are They For: Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems are layers in the protective wall in computer security. The name in it"s self is self explanatory as to the basic, over all function of these security features. The Intrusion Detection Systems, or IDS, are programmed to "[monitor] and [identify] attempts made for unauthorized access into an organization"s infrastructure"(Pabrai, 2004). The Normally referred to as IPS, Intrusion Prevention Systems is the second related security measure that is used to fortify a computer. IPS are usually "added [as] protection from either computer viruses or hackers trying to break into [a] network" when firewalls and basic security precautions are not strong enough to protect the system (Garry, 2008). Although IPS and IDS can be used independently of each other, they are usually used together in sync to provide the utmost in protection for anyone who wishes to use them. Technologies That Are Relevant to IDS and IPS: There are common types of security that are used to protect a network prior to need of using IDS and IPS. Anti-virus programs are used in order take out any viruses, Trojans, or worms after they have been in effect. The problems with these programs is that they only take action after a problem has caused damage and they can not combat the infections affectively because the problems are ever changing when they move from host to host (Sequeira, 2002). Another security measure in networks is firewalls; the name gives you a tangible idea of what they do. A firewall is like a permanent fixture in the security structure. They are a type of umbrella that is "the first layer of defense and are typically deployed at the perimeter of the organization" (Pabrai, 2004). These two technologies are the preventative measures that are implemented in the hopes that they protect the network, but when they fail, IDS and IPS can be as a second wall of defense. Configuring Firewalls A visual of how firewalls are implemented for protection (Configuring, 2003) 10 Two types of problem identification methods IDS and IPS use are pattern and anomaly detection. Pattern detection methods work a lot like fingerprint scanners where codes are stored for recognizing perpetrators (Grimes, 2004). The second type of detection has prewritten sets of allowable characteristics, and when the coding of incoming information does not match a general set, warning flags are cued. Intrusion Detection Systems: As security systems have developed over time, intruders have adapted to breech these protections. As soon as updates reach users, there are viruses, worms, and hackers immediately trying to crack the new patches and continue to cause problems. For this ever-present problem, Intrusion Detection Systems were developed to "[detect] the presence of attacks within traffic that flows in through the holes punched into the firewall" (Sequeira, 2002). The increased surveillance IDS provides assists the user in protecting the network by increasing one"s capability to target specific threats. IDS are extremely helpful because firewalls and software alone may not be able to identify these problems by themselves, but "if a particular event is considered to constitute a security incident, an alert will be issued if that event is detected" (Inella, 2001). By using this technology, the user and better supervise the system and see what is going on. The tool in its self is quite excellent, but has some shortcomings. The greatest disappointment of IDS is that they "lack full-featured management functionality to help IT administrators gauge whether legitimate traffic was blocked, undertake quick attack investigation for validity and success, or complete log analysis for attack trend identification for timely policy modification" (Zuk, 2003). Because of its inability to be proactive in security, IDS has more of the functionality of a burglar alarm, than as an impenetrable wall of defense. Intrusion Prevention Systems: Intrusion Prevention Systems is the self-sufficient solution to basic network security. This is different from the IDS because it actually takes care of the problems via regulation. In general, the majority of IPS "[provides] the ability to set up thresholds that determine the amount of a certain type of traffic deemed acceptable…" (Lukaszuk, 2005). By setting up rules and guidelines initially for what types of information is passed, the chances of viruses, worms, or hackers intruding are minimized. IPS has two unique qualities that that make them the most valuable. The first is, since it is self controlled no human needs to use resources to take command of the problem. The second advantage is that they have inline capabilities, allowing them to work in real-time, instead of after the problem has caused issues (Pabrai, 2004). IDS vs. IPS: Out of the different options of security, which type of security system is the most useful? The consensus among consumers is that "After all, if an IPS can prevent an attack, why would you ever choose an IDS instead"(Grimes, 2004)? The results that IPS creates defend why they are the best choice in extra protection for any network. It 11 actually attacks the attackers as opposed to just spotting them. The ability to spot and destroy threats makes IPS the most effective solution for reinforcing firewalls and provides overall sound security. The success of IPS renders IDS unnecessary, but makes IDS a comfort to have in any network security structure. Conclusion and Team Recommendations: Conclusions and Future Research: While it may seem like a scenario that could never happen to you, in reality it is something that could affect anybody at any time. I am talking about vital and private information being stolen from your computer as well as dangerous viruses infiltrating your computer or a network system if you"re a company. There are ways to protect yourself and everything that is important to you on the computer or network. This includes programming Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS) or Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS). As the paper talked about the IPS protects your network from computer viruses and hackers trying to steal information. This is not just a matter for large corporations but it is very crucial for small businesses, as they seem to be the more popular targets for viruses. That has to do with the fact that they usually don"t have the same type of resources as large companies do, therefore it is widely assumed that it is easier to steal files from their networks. So it is definitely important for anybody who uses or owns a network to protect themselves with an IPS. As far as the IDS goes that is geared more towards any unknown service trying to force them into a company"s infrastructure. Therefore, it"s very essential to set up the company network properly and set up passwords and key codes. Another huge threat is hackers, which are those people who try to attack personal information on your computer or network. Hacking is used for different reasons, some do it just to show how weak a protection system may be while others do it to cause harm and damage to a computer or network. It is also known that hackers try to steal personal information from the people they hack, and those could be anything such as credit card information, private files or even worse social security numbers. Therefore, it is beneficial to understand how hackers operate and what their motive is, that way you can protect yourself and prevent yourself from any big problems. We have to continue to follow the latest trends such as who the hackers are going after and we have to make sure that we keep our computer and network protected with the newest and most innovative software available. Knowing the cyber world you live in will help you understand what can go wrong and what is out there that can help you and serve you much better then most people realize. Recommendations for Personal Computer Security: When looking at the solutions for computer security it is widely assumed that once you purchase protection software that every possible problem will go away. In contrary though, buying and installing that software does help but there are other ways to protect your computer. One way is to not download or install any unsupported applications (Sarrel, 2008). Those applications tend to have dangerous content that could severely damage your computer. It is important for you to know that the site or 12 download your opening is actually legitimate. Now, we can talk about which kind of software you should get to protect your computer and network system. Microsoft offers several products designed to meet the specific needs of their customers. For instance, if you are looking for software for your home PC or laptop, the Windows Defender is a very useful product. It protects you against pop-ups, slow performance, and security threats from spy ware and unwanted software (2008, Microsoft). This software won"t allow anybody to break through your system and slow down your computer. It also is pretty unique in that it offers life recommendations and gives you tips on how to avoid spy ware problems as well tell you when you can upgrade your system. Another security system one can use is McAfee. They are widely known and recognized as very successful in their field of work. When you log onto their website you can find many different types of security software designed with different features for different customers. There are over twenty different types of software to choose from on their website, each dedicated to provide a useful solution. You can buy or purchase anti-spam, anti-spy ware, anti-virus, data protection, and command line encryption software depending on what you need. All of the software comes with life help support as well as new recommendations and upgrades that are available for each solution you purchased. In today"s world it is very important, make that necessary, to protect your computer and all of the personal files that are saved to it; so make sure that you update any relevant protection software regularly. 13 References All about hackers [Article]. (2007). Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Google, DailyBits Web site: http://www.dailybits.com/all-about-hackers/ Baker, G. (2007, November). Latest online threats more targeted. NZ Business, 21(10), 56-57. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host Web site: http://proxygsu- ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=b th&AN=27538492&site=ehost-live Beal, V. (2006, June 30). The difference between a Virus, Worm, and Trojan Horse. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google, Webopedia Web site: http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Internet/2004/virus.asp Clark, M. H. (2003, December). Hacker culture. Journal of History of Science in Society, 94(4), 776-777. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Galileo, ISIS Web site: http://proxygsuken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dir ect=true&db=hgh&AN=12473990&site=ehost-live Configuring a distributed installation of ArcGIS server (Version 9.2) [Data file]. (2003). Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google Web site: http://webhelp.esri.com/ arcgisserver/9.2/dotNet/manager/administration/distributed_install.htm#appendix_a Elms, E. R., LaPrade, J. D., & Maurer, M. L. (2008, February). Hacking of corporate information systems: Increasing threats and potential risk management techniques. CPCU eJournal, 61(2), 1-9. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Galileo, EBSCO, CPCU Society Web site: http://proxygsu-ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url =http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=iph&AN=28858965&site=ehos t-live Front page sponsored sites. (1997-2008). Internet security- Online software. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Google, All-Internet-Security.com Web site: http://www.all-internet-security.com/ Garry, C. (2003-2008). What are the different types of Intrusion Prevention? Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google, WiseGeek Web site: http://www.wisegeek.com/ what-are-the-different-types-of-intrusion-prevention.htm Grand, J. (2006, June). A brief history of hardware hacking. MAKE Magazine, 49(6), 49. Retrieved May 29, 2008, from Galileo, EBSCO, Communications of the ACM Web site: http://proxygsu-ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login? url=http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21080984&site=ehost-live Grimes, R. (2004, August 30). Many threats, many solutions. InfoWorld, 26(35), 43-47. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host Web site: http://proxygsu- ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db= 14 a9h&AN=14273368&site=ehost-live Hacker. (2001-2008). Glossary [Definitions]. Retrieved May 30, 2008, from Google, SmoothWall Web site: http://www.smoothwall.net/support/glossary.php#H Heaton, J. (2000, December 8). Prehistory 1879-1969. In Hacker history [Article]. Retrieved May 29, 2008, from Google Web site: http://www.slais.ubc.ca/PEOPLE/ students/student-projects/J_Heaton/prehistory.htm Inella, P., & McMillan, O. (2001, December 6). An introduction to Intrusion Detection Systems. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google, Security Focus Web site: http://www.securityfocus.com/infocus/1520 Jagatic, T. N., Johnson, N. A., Jakobsson, M., & Menczer, F. (2007, October). Social phishing. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host, Communications of the ACM Web site: http://proxygsu-ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=26803437&site=ehost-live Lukaszuk, A. (2005, January). Intrusion prevention and detection: Changing the battle lines. Certification Magazine, 7(1), 40-44. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host Web site: http://proxygsu-ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aqh&AN=15380053&site=ehost-live Nijnik, I. (2005). Small business security 101. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google, InfosecWriters.com Web site: http://www.infosecwriters.com//text_resources/ pdf/SmallBusinessNetworkSecurity101.pdf Pabrai, A., & O., U. (2004, June). Intrusion detection and prevention: The second line of defense. Certification Magazine, 6(6), 36-37. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host, Web site: http://proxygsu-ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aqh&AN=13147587&site=ehost-live Parker, D. (2005, December 29). The different shades of hacker. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Google, WindowSecurity.com Web site: http://www.windowsecurity.com/ articles/Different-Shades-Hackers.html). Percent of internet users. (n.d.). The internet study: More detail. Retrieved May 31, 2008, from Google, Stanford University Web site: http://www.stanford.edu/group/ siqss/Press_Release/press_detail.html Products and solution for enterprise. (2003-2008). Retrieved May 31, 2008, from Google, Mcafee Web site: http://www.mcafee.com/us/enterprise/products/index.html Richards, J. (2008, April 10). Number of computer viruses tops one million. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google, TimesOnline Web site: http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article3721556.ece 15 Richards, J. (2007, July 23). Security experts claim first IPhone hack [Article]. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Google, TimesOnline Web site: http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/personal_tech/article212508 5.ece Saran, C. (2005, November 8). Secure measures. Computer Weekly, 36. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host Web site: http://proxygsu- ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=b th&AN=19188123&site=ehost-live Sarrel, M. D. (2008, May). Master end-user security. PC Magazine, 27(6), 101. Retrieved May 31, 2008, from Galileo, EBSCO, PC Magazine Web site: http://proxygsu- ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a 9h&AN=31548671&site=ehost-live Sequeira, D. (2002). Intrusion Prevention Systems- Security's silver bullet? Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host, SANS Web site: http://www.sans.org/ reading_room/whitepapers/detection/366.php Staff, P. W. (2001, November 19). Timeline: A 40-year history if hacking [Article]. Retrieved May 31, 2008, from Google, CNN Web site: http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/internet/11/19/hack.history.idg/ Top rated, Search by type. (1996-2008). Suites. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from Google, PC Magazine Web site: http://www.pcmag.com/category2/0,2806,1639159,00. asp Windows defender. (2008). Retrieved May 31, 2008, from Google, Microsoft Web site: http://www.microsoft.com/athome/security/spyware/software/default.mspx What are the tools hackers use? [Article]. (2008). Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Google, TechFaq Web site: http://www.tech-faq.com/hacking-tools.shtml Zuk, N. (2003, September). IPS, with IDS, is the best choice. Communications News, 40(9), 17-18. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from EBSCO Host Web site: http://proxygsu-ken1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11264328&site=ehost-live 16
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