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An adaptive predictor for use with a control system to predict error contributions due to harmonic distortion in a error signal such that the prediction signal may be fed back and added to the error signal to compensate for the harmonic distortion. The adaptive predictor takes the error signal representative of misposition error and performs a discrete Fourier analysis to determine contributions due to individual harmonics. It then adjusts the results and tallies a running total thereby adapting to a mechanical system in which it is contained. The running total is combined with a carrier signal which is clocked to produce a predictive signal representing harmonic distortion at a given time. The predictive signal is then added back with the original error signal to produce a harmonic distortion compensated signal.
1. An adaptive predictor for correcting synchronous positioning errors in a servomechanical positioning system of a disk storage device including at least one track having a centerline and a plurality of indicia by which position from the track centerline is measured and is transmitted via a position signal, drive means for rotating the disk medium, transducer means for transferring data to and from the disk medium, actuator means for moving said transducer means over the disk medium to accomplish random access of the data on the disk storage device, said actuator means being responsive to an error signal for maintaining said transducer means over said track centerline, said adaptive predictor comprising
analysis means for receiving the position signal and for selectively determining harmonic components within the position signal from position error data encompassing at least one cycle of each harmonic component and for transmitting the determination of harmonic components via a coefficients signal;
adaptive means electrically connected to said analysis means for receiving said coefficients signal and summing the coefficients signal with a cumulative error signal which is a running total of preceding coefficients signals to produce an adaptive error signal that adjusts to changes in the disk medium; and
synthesis means for receiving said adaptive error signal and for combining the adaptive error signal with a carrier signal to produce a predictor utilized for compensation of harmonic distortion in the servomechanical positioning system and is predictive of runout due to said harmonic distortion during said random access.
2. An adaptive predictor according to claim 1 wherein said adaptive predictor further comprises variable gain control for selectively controlling adjustments of the coefficients signal according to an operating mode and an environment of the disk storage device.
3. An adaptive predictor according to claim 2 wherein said variable gain control comprises an individual gain control for each harmonic being examined.
4. An adaptive predictor according to claim 1 further comprising
sampling means for reading a predetermined amount of data points from the servomechanical positioning system and generating a sample signal upon completion;
drive means for rotating the disk medium and generating an index signal upon completion of each rotation of the disk medium; and
threshold means in communication with said sampling means and said drive means for receiving said sample signal and for determining whether the sample signal occurred with an allowable threshold around said index signal.
5. An adaptive predictor according to claim 4 wherein said threshold means is adaptive to adjust the allowable threshold as determined by a time difference between the receipt of the predetermined number of samples and the receipt of the index signal.
6. An adaptive predictor according to claim 5 wherein said threshold means indicates when the allowable threshold has been exceeded to inhibit use of the samples by the adaptive predictor.
7. A method for compensating for harmonic distortion in a control system for a periodic mechanical system, said method comprising
receiving an error signal and describing harmonic distortion within the error signal by encoding said harmonic distortion within a coefficients signal;
reading a predetermined number of data points from the periodic mechanical system and, upon completion, generating a sample signal;
determining that a period of the periodic mechanical system is complete and generating an index signal upon completion;
controlling a response to harmonic distortion by selectively adjusting the coefficients signal if the sample signal occurred with an allowable threshold on either side of the index signal by combining the coefficients signal with coefficients signals of previously propagated error signals thus adapting to the control system and producing an adaptive error signal adjustable to said control system; and
combining with the adaptive error signal a carrier signal thus producing a predictor signal representative of harmonic distortion in the error signal that may be integrated with the error signal to compensate for the harmonic distortion.
8. A method according to claim 7 further comprising a step of producing a series of coefficients of non-trigonometric functions which describe the harmonic distortion.
9. An adaptive predictor for use in a control system, forming part of a mechanical system that operates on a periodic basis, for compensating for harmonic distortion due to harmonics related to the periodic basis within an error signal, said adaptive predictor comprising
analysis means for analyzing said error signal from position error data encompassing at least one cycle of each of the harmonics and for providing a coefficients signal representative of said harmonic distortion;
adaptive means in electrical communication with said analysis means for combining the coefficients signal with a coefficients signal of a previous period of operation of the mechanical system thereby producing an adaptive error signal which is adaptable to variations in the operation of the mechanical system, said adaptive means also having variable gain control for adaptively controlling adjustments of the coefficients signal such that a time constant for damping of the harmonics is adjusted as determined by an amount of time since initialization of the adaptive means; and
synthesis means for receiving said adaptive error signal and for combining the adaptive error signal with a carrier signal related to the periodic basis to produce a predictor utilized for compensation of harmonic distortion in the control system.
10. An adaptive predictor according to claim 9 wherein said variable gain control further comprises individual gain control for each of the harmonics being examined thus allowing removal of compensation for individual harmonics from the adaptive predictor according to an operating mode and an environment of the mechanical system.
11. An adaptive predictor according to claim 9 wherein said adaptive means compares the adaptive error signal to a previous adaptive error signal and alters the adjustments to the coefficients signal such that a new gain is produced.
12. An adaptive predictor according to claim 11 wherein if the adaptive error signal is larger than or comparable to the previous adaptive error signal but of opposite polarity then the gain is reduced by approximately twice a ratio of the adaptive error signal to the previous adaptive error signal and the adaptive error signal is discarded; if the adaptive error signal is comparable to the previous adaptive error signal and has a same polarity then the gain is doubled.
13. An adaptive predictor according to claim 9 further comprising
sampling means for reading a series of sample points from the error signal at a fixed interval and for transmitting a sample signal representing a number of samples read;
drive means for generating periodic motion within the periodic mechanical system and for transmitting an index signal upon determination that a period of the periodic motion is complete; and
threshold means, in communication with said sampling means and said drive means, for receiving the sample signal and for determining whether a predetermined number of sample points was read within an allowable threshold around said index signal.
14. An adaptive predictor according to claim 13 wherein said threshold means is adaptive to adjust the allowable threshold as determined by a difference between the sample signal and the index signal.
15. An adaptive predictor according to claim 9 wherein said analysis means utilizes a non-sinusoidal analysis to produce said coefficients signal which for each of the harmonics contains the magnitude of at least one non-sinusoidal function to describe the harmonic distortion.
16. An adaptive predictor according to claim 9 wherein said analysis means analyzes said error signal for integral multiples of a first harmonic in the harmonic distortion as well as sub-harmonics which are fractional multiples of the first harmonic to eliminate error due to the sub-harmonics.
17. An adaptive predictor for use in a control system, forming part of a mechanical system that operates on a periodic basis, for compensating for harmonic distortion due to harmonics related to the periodic basis within an error signal, said adaptive predictor comprising
analysis means for analyzing said error signal and for providing a coefficients signal representative of said harmonic distortion;
adaptive means in electrical communication with said analysis means for combining the coefficients signal with a coefficients signal of a previous period of operation of the mechanical system thereby producing an adaptive error signal which is adaptable to variations in the operation of the mechanical system, said adaptive means also having variable gain control for adaptively controlling adjustments of the coefficients signal such that a time constant for damping of the harmonics is adjusted as determined by an amount of time since initialization of the adaptive means;
said adaptive means compares the adaptive error signal to a previous adaptive error signal and alters the adjustments to the coefficients signal such that a new gain is produced and if the adaptive error signal is larger than or comparable to the previous adaptive error signal but of opposite polarity then the gain is reduced by a first predetermined multiple of a ratio of the adaptive error signal to the previous adaptive error signal and the adaptive error signal is discarded; if the adaptive error signal is comparable to the previous adaptive error signal and has a same polarity then the gain is multiplied by a second predetermined multiple; and
synthesis means for receiving said adaptive error signal and for combining the adaptive error signal with a carrier signal related to the periodic basis to produce a predictor utilized for compensation of harmonic distortion in the control system.
This invention relates generally to mechanical systems having control systems. More particularly, the invention concerns control systems that adaptively compensate for harmonic distortion in mechanical systems that operate on a periodic basis.
Many mechanical systems experience position errors due to harmonic distortion. The harmonic distortion induces one or more components of the mechanical system to stray from its proper position thereby creating an amount of error. Control systems are utilized to compensate for the error by determining the error amount and indicating to a servomechanism to reposition by an amount equal to the error toward the proper position thereby tracking the proper position.
For many mechanical systems, the ability to track the proper location is vital to the system's operation. In such systems, harmonic distortion severely decreases the system's ability to function and, where error signals are involved, decreases the signal-to-noise ratio. For example, a magnetic recording disk used in a computer contains multiple concentric tracks used for data storage. A control system is used by the computer's disk drive to ensure that a data transducer reads/writes in the proper location, i.e. the center of a selected track on the disk. The disk is adapted to be rotated about an axis centered in disk's central spindle hole. If this hole was punched through the disk even slightly removed from the center axis of rotation, then the disk rotation will become eccentric causing the data transducer to vary from the center of a selected track creating a position error. The error will be a maximum amount once per rotation thus creating a once around error, or first harmonic, which will have to be tracked by the control system. Another example, a data recording medium having a base fabricated from an anisotropic material, such as MYLAR�, is susceptible to changes in heat or humidity. Such changes would cause the disk to become elliptical creating a twice around error, or a second harmonic, which would have to be tracked by the control system. Further, if the disk was turned by an eight-pole motor then there may exist distortions in the eighth harmonic which would have to be tracked by the control system, in this case controlling the speed of rotation.
Another example of a mechanical system detrimentally affected by harmonic distortion is a drum printer. A focused light source in the drum printer projects light onto a receptive recording medium as the medium rotates within or on a drum, thus creating an image on the medium. If the drum is distorted in any way, the light source will have to refocus as the distance to the medium increases and decreases during the course of a revolution of the drum to avoid blurring or distorting the image. Distortions may occur in the drum if, for example, the drum was turned on a lathe utilizing a three-jaw chuck. The drum may then have distortions in a third harmonic. Or, a one-half harmonic may be created due to oil whip in a bearing as the drum rotates.
Conventional control theory teaches the use of a negative feedback loop to compensate for errors in a tracking system used, for example, in a disk drive. An example of such a loop is illustrated in FIG. 1. In such systems, a signal representing a measurement of error, as determined by the difference between current location and target or proper location, is transmitted back and its negated value is added into the tracking system to cause movement of the actuator by the amount of the error toward the target location. While responsive to the errors, this loop requires that the errors first occur before even attempting to correct them. This means that data from wrong tracks may be promulgated before any correction is attempted.
Another problem commonly found in current control systems is termed control system lag. Control system lag is the time delay between the time the tracking system detects an error and the time required for the control system to adjust to the proper location. Some of this delay is due to the electrical response of the control system, such as, for example, that resulting from a low sampling rate; the remaining delay is due to the mechanical response characteristics of the electromechanical actuator. These delays characterize the "bandwidth" of the control system. The greater the bandwidth the faster the positioning system can respond to an error condition thereby providing tightly controlled positioning. A positioning system having a high bandwidth is capable of providing increased data track density because tracks can be followed within a smaller tolerance.
Prior art teaches adding a memory loop to the aforementioned negative feedback loop so that the system can average data samples along a radial vector of a disk, for example, and predict that another point attained along the same radius will have the same error scaled accordingly. A problem with this method is that the memory loop needs to store a large number of samples per revolution and average them over many revolutions in order to achieve an acceptable noise suppression. Though this loop represents an improvement over the previously described loop, this loop at any given time examines only the samples along the same radius of the disk without any regard to the many other radii also contained in memory thereby creating a relatively low signal-to-noise ratio.
The previously described negative feedback loops are also susceptible to communicating incorrect error measurements when distortions become too great. This may occur when the central hole in the disk is severely decentered or the disk has distorted and become substantially elliptical, for example. The tracking system may cross a track and then use the incorrect track as the target, or proper, location and will calculate error with respect to the incorrect track instead of transmitting the substantial error that has actually occurred.
A prior art system, described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,536,809, entitled "Adaptive Misposition Correcting Method and Apparatus for Magnetic Disk Servo System" by Michael Sidman issued Aug. 20, 1985, employs a servo control system that periodically and iteratively determines position error. The harmonic contributions of the position error are passed through a filter having an impulse response that matches the characteristic waveform, a sinusoid.
A problem with the aforementioned approach is that the correction scheme adds the prior error with the current error before analysis. The effect is that error due to hardware is compensated for but the control system's ability to compensate for imprecision in the filter, representing the data model, is severely limited. This means that the filter applying the data model has to be near flawless and allows little margin for inaccuracy. Another problem is the storage of attained data as a vector. Using the vector requires that the entire vector must be constantly reprocessed through the filter using additional processing time. A third problem with the system is the fact that when it looks at the position error it is not able to look at read/write data and vice versa. And, since it only looks at the position error periodically, the runout may become substantial between reviews. Further, iterations to refine the harmonic contributions are expensive to the system in terms of data access speed for the same reasons. The system is also not readily adaptable to other control schemes due to the precision required in designing filters with accurate impulse responses.
Therefore, it is an object of the invention to decrease errors in control systems due to harmonic distortion thereby increasing data reliability.
It is another object of the invention to provide a control system predictive loop that is adaptive to changing conditions as well as easily adaptable to various control system designs.
It is yet another object of the invention to increase tracking reliability of a control system independent of the magnitude of the distortion.
These and other objects of the invention will be obvious and will appear hereinafter.
The aforementioned and other objects are achieved by the invention which provides, in one aspect, a method and apparatus for compensating for harmonic distortion within an error signal which is representative of error in a mechanical system that operates on a periodic basis. The invention provides an extremely versatile adaptive compensation scheme for control systems to be used by itself within the mechanical system or with existing control systems. The invention comprises an analysis means, an adaptive means and a synthesizing means combined in an adaptive predictor apparatus and method for compensating for harmonic distortion in a control system.
The analysis means receives the error signal and computes the harmonic distortion within the error signal by utilizing discrete Fourier analysis. The Fourier analysis produces a series of coefficients of trigonometric functions which describe the harmonic distortion. The coefficients for each harmonic are then encoded within a coefficients signal which is transmitted to the adaptive means.
The adaptive means controls a response to harmonic distortions by adjusting the coefficients signal using a variable gain control for selectively controlling adjustments of the coefficients signal. The gain control may also be operated independently for each harmonic being examined to provide additional control over the rate of adaptation to the mechanical system.
The adaptive means then combines the coefficients signal with an extended coefficients signal of substantially all previous periods of operation of the mechanical system. By combining the coefficients signals the adaptive means moves toward a precise definition of the harmonic distortion adaptable to variations in the operation of the mechanical system. The adaptive means then creates an adaptive error signal, or a revised extended coefficients signal, containing this definition of harmonic distortion.
The synthesis means receives the adaptive error signal and combines a carrier signal with the adaptive error signal to produce a predictor signal representative of harmonic distortion in the error signal. The carrier signal is clocked such that the output of the synthesis means is reflective of a prediction of the harmonic distortion at the current time. The predictive signal is then added to the error signal to compensate for the harmonic distortion.
The adaptive predictor is advantageously used within a conventional control system, inter alia, utilizing negative feedback. In such a system, a feedback signal is used to represent a difference between a current position in the mechanical system and a proper position. This feedback signal is fed into a first adder means where the feedback signal is negated and added to a command signal to produce a first error compensated signal. This first error compensated signal is passed to the adaptive predictor and also fed into a second adder means. The second adder means adjusts the first error compensated signal by an amount dictated by the predictive signal to produce an output signal error compensated for harmonic distortion.
The output signal is then transmitted to actuator means which responds to the output signal by adjusting the current location in the mechanical system and again producing the feedback signal representative of the difference between current location and proper location.
By using discrete analysis, the system may also monitor data reliability. This is accomplished by utilizing a sampling means to read a predetermined amount of data points from the mechanical system and generating a sample signal upon completion. At the same time, the mechanical system uses an indexing means to determine when a period of the mechanical system is complete. Upon completion an index signal is generated.
A threshold means receives the sample signal and the index signal and determines whether the sample signal occurred with an allowable threshold around said index signal. If not, the data are deemed unusable and a reporting means indicates that the allowable threshold has been exceeded.
The threshold means is also adaptive to adjust the allowable threshold based upon a difference between the sample signal and the index signal. In this way the threshold may be large during system start-up while waiting for the mechanical system to reach a steady-state and once steady-state has been achieved the threshold may be reduced for stricter analysis of transients.
In further aspects, the invention provides methods in accord with the apparatus described above. The aforementioned and other aspects of the invention are evident in the drawings and in the description that follows.
The foregoing and other objects of this invention, the various features thereof, as well as the invention itself, may be more fully understood from the following description, when read together with the accompanying drawings in which:
FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of a conventional prior art control system;
FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a control system employing an adaptive predictor in accordance with the invention;
FIG. 3 shows a conventional control system utilizing the adaptive predictor of FIG. 2.
FIG. 4 shows a disk drive utilizing the adaptive predictor of FIG. 2.
FIGS. 5(A), 5(B), and 5(C) respectively illustrate an example of an elliptical disk, the resulting tracking noise and a frequency domain plot of harmonic energies.
FIG. 6 shows a data flow diagram of a preferred embodiment of the control system utilizing the adaptive predictor of FIG. 2.
The invention is directed to a method and apparatus for compensating for harmonic distortion within a control system forming part of a mechanical system that operates on a periodic basis. In mechanical systems having a period, harmonic errors arise that repeat themselves consistently over each cycle of operation of the mechanical system. The invention examines data gathered over a period of the mechanical system and determines the harmonic errors within the system. The invention also predicts in subsequent periods that the harmonic errors will again arise at substantially similar locations during the period. Thus, the control system can compensate for the harmonic errors quickly and accurately.
The present invention provides an adaptive predictor arrangement which is versatile as to control systems and operative within a wide range of control systems regardless of the general control scheme. The adaptive nature of the invention allows the invention to be used in various systems without substantial alteration. The adaptive qualities also allow the system to adjust determinations of harmonic error as the mechanical system changes, for example, due to changing environmental conditions.
Multiple embodiments will be depicted to illustrate various control system designs utilizing the invention. In each of the illustrations, like parts will be shown with like numbers for consistency.
In FIG. 2, a simple control system is shown integrating an adaptive predictor 10 embodying the present invention into a feedback loop. In this system, a command signal 12 is used to cause an actuator 20b, which includes associated actuator circuitry, to respond. For example, such a response may be to move a read head on an optical disk drive.
Unlike the actuator 20a as shown in FIG. 1, the actuator 20b does not require compensating circuitry to compensate for a phase shift and, therefore, the actuator circuitry of actuator 20b is simplified in that respect.
A position transducer 22 then determines the position of the read head relative to its target or proper location, i.e. the center of the track to be read. The distance from the proper location is translated into an electrical signal, called the feedback signal, which is transmitted back through the feedback loop. In the present invention, the adaptive predictor 10 receives the feedback signal and passes it through an analyzer 60, an adapter 100, and a synthesizer 140 to determine the harmonic components of the feedback signal and to predict error contributions due to the harmonic components.
The analyzer 60 performs an analysis on the feedback signal to determine the harmonic components. The analysis in the preferred embodiment a discrete Fourier analysis which samples the error signal over an entire period of the mechanical system and multiplies the sampled data with an appropriate carrier signal 88 in order to determine the harmonic components.
Once the samples are gathered and the harmonic components determined, the adapter 100 then adjusts the harmonic components and calculates a running total contribution due to each individual harmonic. The running total contribution allows the control system to dynamically adapt to changes within the systems by making adjustments to changes in the harmonic contributions. In addition, the running total contribution allows the systems to asymptotically approach an exact assessment of harmonic contributions by making minute adjustments over multiple periods of operation of the mechanical system.
The running total contribution is then multiplied by a carrier signal 142 within the synthesizer 140 such that the harmonic components can be combined with the command signal 12 by the adder 18. The carrier signal 142 is time dependent and is clocked so as to multiply the harmonic contribution by a representative function, i.e. a sinusoid, thus predicting the harmonic error in the control system at any given time. The adaptive predictor passes this prediction back to the control system allowing the mechanical system to quickly attain its proper location.
FIG. 3 illustrates a second preferred embodiment of the invention in which the adaptive predictor is utilized in conjunction with the conventional negative feedback system previously described and illustrated in FIG. 1. In this system, the adaptive predictor takes as its input an error signal 16 which is a negated version of the feedback signal from the negative feedback loop 24 combined with the command signal 12. The error signal 16 is processed, by adaptive predictor 10, as described above, to produce the predictor signal predictive of harmonic distortion in the system. The predictor signal is then fed into an adder 18 which combines the predictor signal with the error signal 16 producing an error compensated signal 19. The error compensated signal 19 drives the actuator 20a which repositions the transducer 22 to correct for the position error. In the example of the disk drive read/write head, the head would be moved toward the center of the track and the residual position error, if any, passing back through the feedback loop as a position error signal would be decreased reflecting only additional runout that has occurred since the previous position adjustment.
FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of the invention where the adaptive predictor is used with an optical disk drive. While the present invention retains utility within a wide variety of mechanical devices, and may be embodied in several different forms, it is advantageously employed in connection with magnetic or optical mass storage devices for computer systems. Though this is the form of the illustrated embodiment and will be described as such, this embodiment should be considered illustrative and not restrictive.
In FIG. 4 with reference to the disk depicted in FIG. 5A, an optical disk 26 is being rotated about its center axis 26a by a drive motor 34. As the optical disk is rotated, a control system 30 is employed to position a read head 23 over a track 40 on the optical disk. As the read head 23 traverses the center of a selected track 40, a position transducer determines the distance from the center of the track and translates that distance into a feedback signal. The feedback signal is then sent back to the control system via a negative feedback loop 24 where it is evaluated by the adaptive predictor 10. The control system 30 may utilize the adaptive predictor 10 in either of the two previously illustrated forms and is, therefore, simply illustrated with bi-directional data transfer without limitation.
In practice, the read head 23 gathers data from a track 40a as the optical disk 26 rotates. If the read head 23 strays outwardly from the center of the track 40a, it begins to overlap an adjacent track. Therefore, if the read head 23 strays from the center of a track by fifty percent of the track width then the read head will be reading fifty percent of a next adjacent track (assuming that the head reads the entire track width).
To avoid this scenario, a control system utilizing negative feedback is incorporated into the system so that as the read head 23 strays off the center of the track due to unanticipated movement of the read head 23 and/or physical distortion of the tracks on the disk, among others, the control system 30 can make adjustments to the position of the read head 23 to keep it centered on a selected or target track. The control system 30 accomplishes this by using a position transducer 22 which reads its position relative to the center of the track and by transmitting the information back into the actuator 20. The position of read head 23 is known based upon transducer 22 reading reflected light incident on indicia on the disk such as wobble pits, an example of which is described in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 5,452,285, issued Sep. 19, 1995 entitled "Digital Servo for Optical Information Storage Media" by Marinus J. B. M. Monen.
The position transducer 22 then encodes its position relative to the center of the target track into an error signal which is sent along the negative feedback loop 24. In the example of the optical disk, a half micron displacement from the center of the track would translate into one millivolt feedback signal along the negative feedback loop 24.
This feedback signal is then negated and added to the command signal 12 at adder 14 as shown in FIG. 3. It is negated to cause the actuator 20 system to move in a reverse direction by the magnitude of the error.
The command signal 12 is generally equal to zero when the head actuator is in a track read mode as opposed to a track seeking or selection mode which indicates that the read head is simply going to follow the tracks 40. If a command signal is present, it is for the purpose of causing an abrupt intentional cross track movement of the read head 23; for example, to randomly access specific data on a selected track. Abrupt intentional movements in the track seeking mode, such as seek commands, are not errors and, therefore, when present the data collected by the invention will be disregarded and not used by the adaptive predictor. In the track following mode, the command signal 12 will always be assumed to be zero.
When the command signal 12 is zero, the feedback signal is simply propagated in its negative form through adder 14 resulting in the error signal line 16. The adaptive predictor 10 then samples the signal 16 and continues to sample each new error signal through one complete revolution of the disk. The number of samples is high relative to the frequency of the position error to ensure a reliable representation of the position error occurring during one revolution of the disk. In the preferred embodiment, 1024 discrete samples are taken through each revolution of the disk 26. Continuous-time analysis may also be used if higher speed calculations are required but discrete-time analysis is preferred because it is less difficult to synchronize with the periodic movement of the mechanical system.
The analyzer 60 then dissects-the sequence of signals into its harmonic components by representing the sequence of signals by means of linear operations such as summation, or integration if continuous-time analysis, on characteristic sets of functions. In the preferred embodiment, this is accomplished using a Fourier series which is series of sine and cosine functions capable of approximating a wide variety of mathematical functions. The aforementioned series is limited by the number of samples in that harmonics up to the number of samples divided by two may be ascertained. In the preferred embodiment, 1024 samples are gathered so the maximum harmonic that may be calculated is the 512th.
Once analysis of a complete revolution of the disk 26 is finished, the coefficients of the trigonometric functions defining the harmonics are then passed from analyzer 60 to the adapter 100 where they are adjusted based upon global system information such as long seeks, external vibration, and other factors, and then summed with a running total of previous coefficients representative of the individual harmonics. By doing so, the adapter 100 produces an adapted coefficients signal that is predictive of the error contribution of the individual harmonics. The adapted coefficients signal is a vector of coefficients having two elements for each individual harmonic.
In the first part of this example where the tracks 40 are initially ideally circular and disregarding other factors, the adapted coefficients would be approximately zero for the second harmonic indicating no harmonic contribution due to ellipticity. Over time, slight changes in ellipticity would be reflected in the magnitude of the harmonic as indicated by the coefficients signal.
This adapted coefficients signal is then passed on to the synthesizer 140 where the harmonic components are evaluated. Each adapted coefficient in the adapted coefficients signal is multiplied by the trigonometric function representing its harmonic evaluated at the current sample position. This information produces a predictive signal which is a sinusoid predictive of harmonic distortion at the sample position.
The sinusoid is then added back to the sequence of signals on error signal line 16 via adder 18 to produce a harmonic error compensated signal. The harmonic error compensated signal drives the actuator 20 causing the read head 23 to be repositioned to a spot adjusted for both transient errors as seen by the conventional negative feedback loop 24 and harmonic distortion as discerned by the adaptive predictor 10.
In this embodiment, the illustrated control system 30 also has input into the adaptive predictor 10 with regard to the usability of the data that has been gathered. As the optical disk 26 rotates the adaptive predictor 10 is gathering data samples representing the runout of the read head 23 which have been transmitted through the negative feedback loop 24. Since the adaptive predictor 10 strives to attain a group of samples representative of the entire optical disk 26 rotated through one complete revolution, the adaptive predictor 10 transmits back to the control system 30 a sample count 37 count of how many samples have been attained at any given time. The control system 30 then compares this sample count 37 count with an index signal or pulse 36 which is transmitted from the drive motor 34 indicating the completion of a revolution. If the adaptive predictor 10 attains a predetermined number outside of a threshold 39 around the index signal 36, i.e., of samples substantially before the index signal 36 is received or substantially after the index signal is received, then the adaptive predictor 10 will determine that the samples are unusable and will not promulgate an error correction signal due to these samples. While the preferred embodiment utilizes time based sampling, this approach to determining data usability is also amendable to angular sampling where a sample is taken every predetermined number of degrees and an index signal is transmitted at the completion of three hundred sixty degrees.
A microprocessor 32 may also be employed in conjunction with this system to monitor the control system 30 and make decisions based upon information gathered by the control system 30. For example, drive motors do not come up to their running speed instantaneously, but instead ramp up quickly and then damp contemporaneous oscillations to achieve a substantially steady state. During this initiation phase, the control system 30 acts to ignore data samples as unusable, as previously described, but after the steady state has been reached a seemingly small variation can act to make data unusable. For example, a physical bump against a table upon which the optical drive is resting may cause a variation that the control system 30 deems acceptable in comparison to initiation variations. To manage such a situation, the microprocessor 32 determines the difference between attaining the full complement of samples and receipt of the index signal and calculates a norm for the previous revolutions. This norm is then used to generate a new threshold 39 which will be downloaded to the control system causing the control system 30 to ignore the resulting data set. In this way, the microprocessor 32 acts to adaptively alter the threshold 39 to achieve greater data usability.
FIGS. 5A, 5B, and 5C provide further insight into how the adaptive predictor 10 works when viewed along either of the previously described embodiments, though the control system embodiment of FIG. 3 as applied to the physical embodiment of FIG. 4 will be used for illustrative purposes.
FIG. 5A shows as an example an optical disk 26 having tracks 40 arranged in concentric circles which are indicated individually as (a) through (d). In between each of the tracks 40 are five additional tracks which have not been drawn in order to simplify the drawing. It should be noted that this example utilizing optical media with concentric tracks can be substituted with magnetic media having spiraling tracks, inter alia, without affecting the adaptive or predictive abilities of the invention.
The object of the control system 30 in this example is to track the concentric circles and, therefore, a command signal 12 will be assumed to be non-present at all times. Given the perfectly circular nature of the tracks 40, the tracking system would not detect much error contribution due to a second harmonic, i.e. ellipticity. Ignoring other harmonics, the error signal would then contain only transients due to bumps, electrical noise, and other factors, which are handled through the feedback loop 24. The predictor signal for the second harmonic would be negligible.
FIG. 5A also indicates the same tracks 40 after becoming elliptical tracks 42 (indicated in thicker black outlines) and a read head trajectory 46 (indicated by a dot-dash outline). For reference, the two elliptical tracks 42 indicated individually as (e) and (f) represent an elliptical version of tracks (b) and (c), respectively.
The degree of ellipticity as shown is by no means outrageous considering the industry's use of popular anisotropic materials such as MYLAR, a trademark owned by E. I. DuPont De Nemours Co., Inc., which are extremely susceptible to environmental changes in heat and humidity. Note also that this example illustrates an elliptical disk producing a twice around error, or a second harmonic, but may very simply be adapted to illustrate eccentricity producing a first harmonic or various other sources of harmonic disturbances.
Beginning at the top, or highest point vertically, of the inner elliptical track (e), the position transducer would attempt to read indicia on the optical media to attain its current position on track (e). Such indicia include wobble pits which are spaced apart from each other in a sample servo system and the position is attained by periodically reading the distance from each wobble pit. But, since there is a spacing between wobble pits where the position transducer has no indicia to read, the position transducer 22 is essentially traveling blindly while between wobble pits. If a track is badly distorted, the read head may cross track boundaries and land in a next adjacent track before running into the next set of wobble pits. This occurs if the rate of change of the read head position relative to the tracks on the disk exceeds the frequency of the wobble pits.
FIG. 5B graphically illustrates an error signal that would be transmitted via the negative feedback loop 24 as the read head crosses tracks. Since there are five tracks (not shown) between (e) and (f) as previously described, there are five cycles 52 in the error signal before the relative velocity of the read head reduces to the point that the read head locks in on a track (f). The position transducer, having no knowledge of which track it is on, then sends error signals 54 back to the control system 30 relative to track (f). The control system 30 makes adjustment based upon this information to keep the read head 23 centered on track (f) thereby transmitting incorrect data.
Shortly thereafter, the ellipticity causes a similar process as described above but in reverse sending the read head back to track (e) which then transmits error signals 50 relative to track (e) which is the correct position.
This entire process repeats itself again during the second half of the rotation of the disk 26. The same set of error signals repeating twice within one 360� rotation produces a twice around error, or a second harmonic.
FIG. 5C is a graph of the frequency spectrum produced by the abovedescribed example. As our example assumes that ellipticity is the only source of harmonic error, the amplitude 56 of the second harmonic is the only significant, but not necessarily the largest, harmonic contribution. This is discerned from the error signal in FIG. 5(B) by looking at the frequency of the oscillations. The oscillations formed when tracks (e) and (f) are being read are depicted as 50 and 54 in the Figure. These oscillations are found at twice the fundamental frequency of the disk 26, or at the second harmonic 56.
The oscillations due to crossing tracks 52 are much higher frequency and for illustration have been placed at the fortieth harmonic 58. Also, for illustrative purposes, an external vibration is shown contributing minimal energy levels to an upper harmonic. This energy level has arbitrarily been placed at the forty-first harmonic 59.
A conventional negative feedback loop, as shown in FIG. 1, would not be able to handle such errors and would only transmit correct data for the short periods when the read head is located over track (e). The addition of the adaptive predictor 10 as shown in FIG. 3 compensates for this type of harmonic distortion and allows the read head 23 to accurately track the correct position.
FIG. 6 illustrates the preferred embodiment of the adaptive predictor 10 as shown in FIG. 3 but in an expanded, more detailed, form. In this embodiment, a standard Fourier analysis is performed on selected harmonics which are likely to have elevated energy levels in a given application. For example, in an optical disk drive eccentricity and ellipticity are likely where in a drum printer, as previously described, a third harmonic for a three-jaw chuck and a one-half harmonic for oil-whip of bearings would be more likely.
A Fast-Fourier Analysis may be used when a larger number of harmonics are likely. The actual number at which the Fast-Fourier analysis becomes the optimum method depends upon the processing constraints on the system. In the preferred embodiment, experimental analysis determined that standard Fourier analysis could be processed faster than Fast-Fourier analysis for up to five harmonics. In excess of five harmonics Fast-Fourier analysis is the optimum method.
Continuing the example illustrated in FIGS. 5(A) through 5(C), FIG. 6 will further illustrate the workings of the adaptive predictor 10. As the feedback signal depicted in FIG. 5(B) is transmitted through the negative feedback loop 24, the negated signal is continuously added with the command signal 12, as before. The command signal being equal to zero (previously explained), the negated signal is passed through the adder 14 essentially unaltered.
The negated signal is then passed to the adaptive predictor where it is sampled. This is accomplished by multiplying the negated signal by a trigonometric function for each individual harmonic. Since each harmonic is composed of both sine and cosine functions, this is done once for each trigonometric function for each harmonic. In the Figures, the first two lines indicate calculations to determine the first harmonic 61 and the second two lines represent the general case. Referring again to FIG. 6, the negated signal is passed into a multiplier 66 where it is multiplied by a a carrier signal, in this case a sine wave 74 is: ##EQU1## where i--the current sample number
M--the harmonic
N--total number of samples
The current sample number, i, is determined by incrementing a counter (not shown) at substantially equal predetermined clock, or angular, intervals over the entire rotation of the disk 26 where the complete rotation is represented by "2π" radians in the equation. The harmonic, M, is the integer number of the harmonic being determined. In the example, ellipticity has caused a second harmonic so the harmonic number is two, M=2.
The total samples, N, is a predetermined value representing the number of samples required to make an accurate representation of the device being monitored. In our example the total samples is one thousand twenty-four, N=1024. In practice, 1024 samples are far more than is actually required to accurately model the lower harmonics. Using such a large number of samples, though, increases the system's ability to adapt to numerous control systems having various significant harmonics.
The multiplied signal is then passed to a summation block 84 which sums each sample from the first to the Nth. Once the Nth value has been reached, the sum is released. This sum represents the coefficient of the sine function for the second harmonic.
The same analysis is performed on the cosine portion of the second harmonic to produce as an output of the summing block 86 a coefficient for the cosine contribution to the second harmonic.
The carrier signal may be any of numerous well behaved functions such as the sine function illustrated here or a Walsh function, for example. A requirement does exist that the function chosen be repeated in the synthesizer stage.
The coefficients of the respective functions then enter the adapter 100. The coefficient is then multiplied by a gain 112 through multipliers 108 and 110, respectively.
The gain adjusts the coefficients allowing the control system to adjust a time constant for damping of the harmonics. The time constant is adjusted by lowering the gain to less than one such that only a portion of the calculated harmonic contribution is compensated by the control system. In this way it will take more revolutions to completely compensate but in a noisy system where there may be contributions to the lower harmonics due to noise, it may be best to take the slower asymptotic approach to the proper predictive value. In the preferred embodiment, the gain will be unity to strive for the fastest response.
Again, a microprocessor is useful for dynamically controlling the gain of the harmonics. A high gain is often preferred initially to quickly achieve a predictor roughly indicative of the harmonics. Then the gain may be reduced to slow response to changes and to hone the predictor by narrowing the bandwidth and increasing the control systems immunity to noise.
As the gain is increased, the correction, or error compensation, is increased. However, stability is decreased because forced change amplifies inherent noise in the system. If the gain is increased, the circuit is more stable and corrections tend to be more fine and accurate but at the expense of response time which is degraded.
An interactive approach for determining gain at system startup is implemented in the microprocessor 32, where the microprocessor compares the previous harmonic components with the current harmonic components. If the current harmonic components are larger than or comparable to the previous harmonic components but of opposite polarity then the microprocessor 32 reduces the gain by approximately twice the ratio of the previous harmonic components and the current harmonic components and discards the current harmonic components. If the current harmonic components are comparable to the previous harmonic components and have the same sign then the gain is doubled.
The adjusted signals are then transmitted to an adder 116 which adds the adjusted coefficients signal to a running total of all previous adjusted coefficients signals. In this way, the system can adapt to a control system in a variety of applications since the coefficients of the harmonics are determined from sample data and then in each subsequent revolution the harmonics are more accurately compensated so that the coefficients transmitted by the coefficients signal drops off markedly and only small additions and subtractions need be made to the system to fully compensate for each harmonic during all subsequent revolutions.
The adaptive feature is especially useful in severely distorted systems, such as the example herein. The adapter 100 would have limited information to ascertain the harmonic from the small correct sections of FIG. 5(B) which are in the second harmonic. Therefore, the adapter 100 uses the information to get closer causing the correct sections of the error curve to expand thereby producing more information on the harmonic. This is repeated until the entire noise section 52 is essentially non-existent.
The adapted signal is then passed to the synthesizer 140 which reconstructs a compensating sinusoid of the harmonic frequency having an amplitude dictated by the adapted signal. This is accomplished by passing the adapted signal through a multiplier 146 that multiplies it by the harmonic signal phase shifted to compensate for time delays. In practice, the phase shift has minimal consequence upon the resulting signal because of the continuously updating nature of the predictor, therefore, the phase may be assumed to be zero without substantial detriment to the system. Experiments have actually shown that with reasonably quiet signals the adaptive predictor 10 is stable when the phase shift estimate is off by as much as �45�, so a zero phase shift assumption is reasonable and greatly increases calculation speed.
The resulting signals describing all the components of the harmonics are then added together in an adder 160 and the combined predictive signal is added back to the error signal 16 through adder 18. The predictive signal contains an expected harmonic contribution as determined by previous revolutions and therefore adds the appropriate compensation to the circuit to respond to the harmonics.
It is predictive since the established coefficients signal remains constant through a revolution and as the disk revolves the sampling counter is causing the synthesizer 140 to produce an appropriate compensating harmonic at the appropriate points in the revolution thereby predicting an error to be found at each sampling position.
The harmonic error compensated signal sis transmitted to the actuator circuit 20a which makes position adjustments based on the signal, thus tracking the elliptical tracks 42.
The following two adders 170 and 172 are not physically in the circuit but instead represent environmental and other error contributions to which the system must adapt. For example, vibration or other environmental effect's are added at adder 170 to illustrate the introduction of vibration, electrical noise, or simply a bump against a table upon which the disk is resting. These effects affect head motion.
The adder 172 adds additional effects such as the ellipticity of the disk, a center hole being off center causing eccentricity, or an eight pole motor driving the disk, for example. Each of these cause error signals that affect the relative motion in that the head does not necessarily move but position relative to the center of the track does change.
If a signal is present at the command signal 12 then a seek is being requested where the read head is being moved to another portion of the disk 26. In order that this large change is not considered an error signal, the control system 30 downloads a zero gain to the adaptive predictor for all harmonics. In this way, erroneous samples may be taken but the predictor does not attempt to adapt to them because they are removed by the adapter 100. The predictor then continues to propagate the formerly calculated predictions based upon previous data and the angular rotation of the disk.
The seek may also be refined utilizing the adaptive predictor 10 if a microprocessor 32 is present. Looking again at the disk example, eccentricity is not a function of track and the error due to eccentricity will not change over a radius of the disk. Error due to ellipticity, on the other hand, is a function of track radial location and will become more pronounced as the read head 23 travels radially outward. Therefore, when the seek is started the gain is made to be zero as above for all harmonics. Then, for each harmonic that is a function of track location, the current coefficients are uploaded to the microprocessor 32 and an extrapolation is performed to estimate the harmonic distortion at the new track and a new predictor is downloaded to the adaptive predictor 10 thereby placing the read head closer to the desired location and decreasing seek time. Once the desired track is attained, the gains are reinstated. An increased gain may be used for the second harmonic to speed settling of the downloaded value to the proper position.
In some instances, a desired action may be to ignore the harmonic error contribution. An example of this is the drum printer where slight errors may not be noticeable to the human eye and, therefore, strict error correction causing the actuator to constantly readjust for harmonic error is not desired. In this case, the harmonic error is subtracted, as opposed to added, from the command signal thus negating harmonic contribution and not allowing the actuator to respond to such error. By not responding to the error, the life expectancy of the actuator is increased.
The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The present embodiments are, therefore, to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description, and all changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are therefore intended to be embraced therein.
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In 2015, Chicago Booth is celebrating two milestones that mark its growing global influence: 20 years of the Executive MBA Program in Europe and 15 years in Asia. Read More »
The threat of deflation, plummeting oil prices,
and complex unemployment numbers are considered
at Booth's annual forecast forum in Chicago. Read More »
More than 1,500 alumni and friends returned to campus for a truly memorable weekend. See the Photo Album »
Faculty and alumni gathered for a keynote speech by Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel and participated in breakout sessions at the 62nd annual Management Conference. Read More »
Applying Artistry in Business »
The Remarkable Journeys of Booth's Renowned Quants »
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Author Archive
September 30th, 2013 at 10:14 am
Nickelodeon and Clear Channel Media And Entertainment Launch First Ever Nick-Branded Radio Station
Nickelodeon, the number-one entertainment brand for kids, and Clear Channel Media and Entertainment, the leading media company in America, with a greater[Read-More]
September 30th, 2013 at 10:09 am
The Naked and Famous to Perform 'Hearts Like Ours' on 'The Late Late Show With Craig Ferguson' on Monday, September 30
The Naked and Famous will perform the television debut of their song "Hearts Like Ours," off their new album, In Rolling Waves,[Read-More]
September 30th, 2013 at 10:06 am
Nickelodeon and Johnny Cupcakes Release 'Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles' Apparel & Accessories Line
Nickelodeon and Johnny Cupcakes today announced the launch of a brand-new adult apparel and accessories collection inspired by Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.[Read-More]
September 30th, 2013 at 9:59 am
CBS and Toyota Embark on Unprecedented Partnership for 'CBS This Morning'
CBS THIS MORNING viewers may notice something new during the show's popular 7:00 AM "Eye Opener" segment – a unique, fast-paced[Read-More]
September 30th, 2013 at 9:55 am
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Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was the top broadcast show on GetGlue, and Breaking Bad was the top cable show for the week[Read-More]
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New Series 'Criss Angel: BeLIEve' to Premiere Tuesday, October 15 on Spike
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"I Call Them My Children--To Myself, Susan"
Regarded as one of the great American Realists of the nineteenth century, Winslow Homer is known primarily for his large body of works in oil and watercolor. However, he also had an early career as a freelance illustrator, making drawings for wood engravings that were reproduced in mass-circulation periodicals such as Harper's Weekly. In 1998, the Brooklyn Museum received a generous gift of more than 250 wood-engraved illustrations by Homer from Harvey Isbitts.
Susan's frail Uncle Adam shows her his garden behind the small cottage that is now her home in a rural French village. It is the only spot of beauty in his Spartan life, and the brilliant color of the flowers reminds Susan of her own lackluster existence. Uncle Adam's loneliness is underscored in his wistful comment about his blooms, "I call them my children—to myself—Susan."
- Artist: Winslow Homer, American, 1836-1910
- Medium: Wood engraving
- Dates: 1869
- Dimensions: Image: 7 x 4 1/2 in. (17.8 x 11.4 cm) Sheet: 9 1/4 x 5 3/4 in. (23.5 x 14.6 cm) Frame: 20 x 15 x 1 1/2 in. (50.8 x 38.1 x 3.8 cm) (show scale)
- Inscriptions: Lower left, below image: "Drawn by Winslow Homer."
- Collections:American Art
- Museum Location: This item is not on view
- Accession Number: 1998.105.137
- Credit Line: Gift of Harvey Isbitts
- Rights Statement: No known copyright restrictions
- Caption: Winslow Homer (American, 1836-1910). "I Call Them My Children--To Myself, Susan," 1869. Wood engraving, Image: 7 x 4 1/2 in. (17.8 x 11.4 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Harvey Isbitts, 1998.105.137
- Image:
- Record Completeness: Good (63%)


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Written on: 21/10/2008
Good Points
The accuracy the comfort of not getting a raw shoulder
Bad Points
Bad bluing job
General Comments
Me and my brother shot my 835 shotgun with bird shot at clays and only missed 1 each perfect gun for the price i have never shot clays before and this gun made me feel like i was a pro at shooting clays good gun
As rated by our community of reviewers
" Benelli is over rated " Read More
Written by randysm
" Reloading is horrible. " Read More
" Mossberg 835 shooting high? This might help. " Read More
" Browning 325 grade 1, " Read More
" Best pump shotgun I've ever owned " Read More


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Reviews for The LonghouseAddress: 10, 1st Floor, Jalan Sultan, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Rooms from: US$ 8.90
Ratings Explained
(Hostelworld.com and Affiliate sites)
The following reviews were submitted by customers who booked through our sister site, Hostelworld.com, in the last 12 months.
The ratings in the rating box are based on all-time feedback for the property and are the opinions of the customers who submitted them; they do not express the opinions of Hostelworld.com or our affiliate sites.
Overall Rating (11 Ratings)
Customer Reviews for The Longhouse
sgaylie6625, from Canada ~ 11th Dec 2014
lizrushton85109, from England ~ 28th Nov 2014
Iven, from Malaysia ~ 20th Oct 2014
drsam3333209, from Canada ~ 9th Nov 2014
drw1013645, from England ~ 29th Oct 2014
ludinhafreitas9556, from Brazil ~ 7th Aug 2014
kaska187, from Poland ~ 5th Oct 2014
solila, from Russia ~ 24th Sep 2014
joechrisp, from England ~ 2nd Sep 2014
fionnghaile12403, from Ireland ~ 2nd Oct 2014


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DEFINITION of 'Stock ETF'
A security that tracks a particular set of equities, similar to an index. A stock ETF is traded just as a normal share of stock is traded on an exchange, but unlike a mutual fund it will have its price adjusted throughout the day rather than at market close. This type of ETF is usually made up of stocks in a similar industry, such as energy, but can cover an index of equities as well.
INVESTOPEDIA EXPLAINS 'Stock ETF'
A stock ETF allows an investor to gain exposure to a basket of equities without having to purchase individual shares. A stock ETF can be treated like a normal stock in that it can be shorted or purchased on margin. Like most ETFs, a stock ETF often carries a management fee or other type of expense, but this is typically lower than those found in a mutual fund.
Exchange-Traded Fund (ETF)A security that tracks an index, a commodity or a basket of assets ...
No-Fee ETFAn exchange-traded fund (ETF) that a broker does not charge a ...
Currency ETFExchange-traded funds (ETFs) invested in a single currency or ...
Index ETFExchange-traded funds that follow a specific benchmark index ...
Bond ETFA type of exchange-traded fund (ETF) that exclusively invests ...
Exchange-Traded Mutual Funds (ETMF)Investopedia explains the definition of exchange-traded mutual ...
Can an investor buy leveraged ETFs that track the automotive sector?As of 2015, no leveraged exchange-traded funds, or ETFs, track the automotive sector. However, a non-leveraged ETF tracks ... Read Full Answer >>
What are some examples of smart beta ETFs that use passive and active management?There are a number of smart beta exchange-traded funds (ETFs) that use passive and active management, including the WisdomTree ... Read Full Answer >>
What is the difference between the QQQ ETF and other indexes?QQQ, previously QQQQ, is unlike indexes because it is an exchange-traded fund (ETF) that tracks the Nasdaq 100 Index. The ... Read Full Answer >>
What is the QQQ ETF?The PowerShares QQQ, previously known as the QQQQ, is a widely held and traded exchange-traded fund (ETF) that gives investors ... Read Full Answer >>
What are the main benchmarks that track the banking sector?The appropriate benchmarks for tracking banking sector performance depend on the type of banking. For instance, commercial-only ... Read Full Answer >>
How are a mutual fund's C shares different from A and B shares?Class C shares are a type of mutual fund shares. Mutual fund shares are divided up into three classes: class A shares, class ... Read Full Answer >>
Mutual Funds & ETFs
4 Ways To Use ETFs In Your PortfolioTo take full advantage of these vehicles, you need to know how they can fulfill certain strategies.
Mutual Funds & ETFs
ETFs Vs. Index Funds: Quantifying The DifferencesIf you are trying to choose between these two index-tracking investments, compare the costs.
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Building An All-ETF PortfolioBalance is the key when selecting an all-ETF portfolio that will hedge against market volatility.
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A Brief History Of Exchange-Traded FundsLearn how ETFs have become the most popular investment vehicle in less than 20 years.
Mutual Funds & ETFs
How To Pick The Best ETFOf the hundreds of exchange-traded funds on the market, some are bound to fail. Learn how to pick the best of the bunch.
Options & Futures
The Benefits Of ETF InvestingExchange-traded funds provide unique opportunities for investors. Find out how.
Mutual Funds & ETFs
Active Vs. Passive ETF InvestingYou can use these securities for more than just indexing. Explore the spectrum of possible ETF strategies.
Mutual Funds & ETFs
10 Ways ETFs Can Grow Your PortfolioImplement the core/satellite approach used by money managers for better returns and lower risk.
Mutual Funds & ETFs
Introduction To Exchange-Traded FundsGet into ETFs and enjoy the benefits of a mutual fund with the flexibility of a stock.
Chart Advisor
3 ETFs Poised For A Move HigherIn this article we'll take a look at three ETFs that are positioning for a move higher. Nearby support levels are providing traders with ideal risk/reward.


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An investigation is underway at a Burlington hotel after a woman's body was found in a room Thursday morning.
One person is killed after a multi-vehicle crash on Interstate 495 in Methuen on Thursday evening.
Injuries are reported after a sailboat catches fire in Marblehead Harbor late Thursday afternoon.
A judge has denied the change of venue request from a Massachusetts teenager charged with killing his high school math teacher.
Officials said Thursday that a man found dead in his home in Columbia, New Hampshire, died of a gunshot wound to the head.
Authorities made their first arrest while enforcing New Hampshire's new hands-free law Wednesday night in Salem.
Police and witnesses say a good Samaritan who came to the aid of an elderly man who was being assaulted following a traffic accident in Lynn was himself shot by the assailant who then fled the scene.
A New Hampshire nonprofit is asking for help after a house it was building was robbed of thousands of dollars' worth of tools and other supplies.
A New Hampshire boy is recovering after being hit by a falling tree while running home as it started to rain Wednesday evening.
The New Hampshire Attorney General's Office and New Hampshire State Police are investigating a suspicious death in Columbia in Coos County.
After more than a decade, a New Hampshire cold case killing was resolved Wednesday with a guilty plea and sentence of 30 years to life.
The former owner of a Massachusetts funeral home accused of improperly caring for dead bodies and embezzling more than $375,000 from clients has been indicted on additional charges.
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Asian Studies
The Asian Studies Program at Susquehanna explores diverse topics and themes on the literary, cultural, philosophic-religious, social, and other related spheres of Asian people and civilization. It is a rewarding program, and one that complements student interest in business, law, journalism, government, education, social work, art and music.
Asian people and history represent about one half of the world's population and civilization, providing not just the largest markets in the world but also the most diverse cultures and lifestyles. The growing global importance of Asia has led the twenty-first century to be labeled by many as the Asian Century.
Asian Studies
News (RSS)
'Familiar' and 'Foreign' Combined in Chopstick-Fork Lecture
The Asian Studies Program at Susquehanna University will present a good-natured lecture by author Cathy Bao Bean, who penned the cult classic The Chopsticks-Fork Principle, A Memoir and Manual. »
Asian Studies Symposium Explores Non-Western Thought
Susquehanna University will present an Asian Studies Symposium Oct. 27–28 to explore the cultures and philosophies of the world's largest and most populous continents. »


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Beach Pockets 6-Foot Beach Umbrella
Here's a fresh twist on the old-fashioned beach umbrella: Instead of a pointy end you jab into the ground, you just fill the pockets at the base of the 6-foot-wide Beach Pockets Umbrella with sand (or shoes or other belongings) to weigh it down and keep the umbrella upright. It received an above-average score for stability (meaning the pockets do the trick after all), but on blustery days, be sure you fully load each pocket with sand to keep the umbrella from blowing away. This umbrella scored high for appearance and is available in an array of colors and patterns. It folds down to 41.5 inches for carrying. beachpockets.com.
Reviewed: June 2009
Price When Reviewed: $30.00
What do you think?
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METRO WEEK: Tucson Job Center Gets National Attention
One formerly homeless veteran got education, job with help from employment program.
One formerly homeless veteran got education, job with help from employment program.
One year's funding of plane at Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson coming up for vote.
Government spending and population growth will spur economy, UA analyst says.
Hornat, Snider, Waters can stand for election in November; petitions still circulating against Hiremath.
Former UA Assistant VP Kim Sabow will head nonprofit trade group.
Chief confirms state looking into possible involvement in local brothel case dating to 2011.
Party puts up three candidates for Tucson City Council seats now held by Democrats.
Three secretaries to gather at South Tucson training center as part of western states' tour.
5-4 Supreme Court decision leaves congressional boundaries as commission drew them.
She ran political polling organization Arizona Opinion, working mostly for Republicans.
Edward Manuel reclaims office from 8-year incumbent Ned Norris Jr.
All three Democratic City Council members up for election this year have GOP challenge.
Election Day is 18 months away and plenty of miles stand between the candidates and the ballot box.
Public demand led to 100-space location for Broadway, Speedway commuters.
Conflict started in February when Douglas fired board executives; Ducey now involved.
Four cancer charities charged in federal court with bilking donors.
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Latest Politics
John Whitman, Husband Of Former New Jersey Governor, Dies John Whitman, the husband of former Republican Gov. Christine Todd Whitman and the state's first-ever first gentleman, died Thursday. He was 71. Gov. Wolf Vetoes Bill That Would Privatize Pa. Liquor Sales Privatization is a top priority for leaders of the Republican-controlled House. The question now is, how might the liquor veto affect budget negotiations?
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when I pump it seems like more comes from my right than my left... as in 1/4 to 1/3 what the right produces... i nurse equally on both and pump the same amount of time. is this normal?
unequal amounts of milk from breasts ?
Posted 12/01/2012
Comments (4)
Posted 12/01/2012
Yes it is normal mine have done that from day one. It's just one side produces more a lot quicker just be careful you can become engored on the side more often I have a few times
Kikkalette · Original Poster
Posted 12/01/2012
thanks i worry that im not going to produce enough
Posted 12/01/2012
Completely normal, just depends in the amount of glands each side has. For example, I would pump 2oz from my left side, but only 1/2 to 3/4oz from my right, always.
Posted 12/03/2012
You will always produce enough as long as u nurse the pump doesn't work the same as nursing so you always get less that way


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Sky Sports "Kevin De Bruyne could be set for a return to the Premier League after confirming his agent has had initial talks with Manchester City. The Belgium midfielder has sparked the interest of a number of top flight clubs after a stellar season with Wolfsburg, where he was named the best player in the..." June 11
Daily Mirror "Manchester City have stepped up their efforts to sign Wolfsburg's £30million-rated midfielder Kevin De Bruyne. Desposed champions City are hoping to make Belgium international De Bruyne their first summer signing as part of their rebuilding plan to reclaim the title. De Bruyne left Chelsea..." June 10
Daily Mirror "City have targeted the former Chelsea star as they begin their overhaul of the team in the wake of this season's failure Wolfsburg will offer Kevin De Bruyne a new contract to try and keep him out of Manchester City's clutches. City have targeted the former Chelsea star as they begin their..." May 27
Daily Mail "Wolfsburg midfielder Kevin de Bruyne is a transfer target for Bundesliga champions Bayern Munich. The former Chelsea man has been in sensational form this season, bagging nine goals and 17 assists in 26 appearances while helping steer Wolfsburg to second in the German league. De Bruyne is..." March 25
Daily Mail "Manchester City will ramp up their interest in Kevin de Bruyne when director of football Txiki Begiristain watches Wolfsburg's Europa League match with Inter Milan on Thursday night. The Barclays Premier League champions have long been interested in the 23-year-old Belgian playmaker, who joined..." March 18
The Express "The former Chelsea playmaker has been heavily linked with a return to Premier League in recent weeks, with Manchester United reportedly showing an interest. It is understood that Red Devils boss Louis van Gaal is lining up a £30m move for his services in the summer, but Hecking insists he must..." March 11
The Guardian "Kevin De Bruyne's agent has ruled out a move for the Wolfsburg midfielder in the January transfer window and believes it would take an astronomical offer to persuade them to sell him. The Belgium international De Bruyne, who moved to Germany from Chelsea last January for around £18m having made..." January 22
Inside Futbol "Kevin De Bruyne has revealed that Jose Mourinho blocked a switch from Chelsea to Borussia Dortmund. The Belgian midfielder had been keen on joining Dortmund, having fallen out of favour at Stamford Bridge; he eventually moved to Dortmund's Bundesliga rivals Wolfsburg in the winter..." March 06
Pro Soccer Talk "In January 2012, Chelsea bought Kevin de Bruyne from Genk for just under $10.5 million. After two years, three league appearances, and couple of loan spells (one back to Genk after his initial purchase), the 22-year-old is about to leave Stamford Bridge, with the Blues possibly turning a nice..." January 15
Daily Mail "Kevin de Bruyne's proposed move to Wolfsburg has inched a little closer. The German club has agreed terms with De Bruyne's agents, which means the only thing left is an agreement between the two clubs. It could prove a major obstacle since Chelsea continue to publicly insist that De Bruyne..." January 09
The Telegraph "Chelsea have told German club Wolfsburg it will cost £25 million to sign out-of-favour Kevin De Bruyne on a permanent deal this month. That eye-watering figure has not put off Wolfsburg, though, who will try to negotiate Chelsea's asking price down but are ready to spend big on De..." January 03
fanatix.com "Blues aiming to more than treble their money on Kevin de Bruyne. Chelsea are demanding a whopping €30m for wantaway playmaker Kevin de Bruyne, according to Belgian newspaper Sport Wereld. Wolfsburg, Bayer Leverkusen, Borussia Dortmund and Borussia Monchengladbach are all keen to take the..." January 02
talkSport "Kevin De Bruyne is edging closer to a move away from Chelsea after holding crunch talks with the club on Thursday - and Bayer Leverkusen are leading the race to secure his services. The 22-year-old has been a peripheral figure under Jose Mourinho and wants to secure regular first-team football..." December 21
Sports Direct News "The Bundesliga outfit have not been in the best form of late, and face the possibility of being out of the title race this season, having seemingly suffered from the sale of star player Mario Goetze in the summer. Henrikh Mkhitaryan was brought in from Shakhtar Donetsk as a replacement for the..." December 10
Daily Star "Atletico Madrid are hoping to bring Chelsea duo Juan Mata and Kevin De Bruyne to Spain as they prepare to let Manchester United and Liverpool target Koke leave in the January transfer window. Both Mata and De Bruyne have seen first-team action under Jose Mourinho limited since he returned to..." December 05
Sky Sports "Wolfsburg sporting director Klaus Allofs has indicated that they would welcome the chance to sign Manchester United's Shinji Kagawa and Chelsea attacker Kevin De Bruyne. Allofs revealed the Bundesliga club are ready to make significant signings in the New Year and will pursue Premier League..." October 30
Sportsmole "Italian champions Juventus are reportedly preparing a move for Chelsea attacker Kevin de Bruyne. The 22-year-old returned to Stamford Bridge in the summer after spending last season with German outfit Werder Bremen but he has struggled to command a regular spot in Jose Mourinho's team." October 13


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Brantley Gilbert Presale Underway Today
Brantley Gilbert fans!! Here at WBKR.com, we are giving you the exclusive chance to get your tickets for the "Let It Ride" Tour BEFORE they go on sale to the general public Friday. In fact, the radio presale is underway at 10am and we have everything you need to get your tickets TODAY!


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Everyone my age has an opinion about Lana Del Ray and maybe you should too. Insights from Capstrat Intern Elizabeth Monnett.
...The issue here doesn't seem to be her music, nor the fact that she seems remarkably blasé about the whole experience. Critics and hipsters alike seem to think that Del Rey is perpetuating what is, essentially, fraud. Is that how she has always dressed? Does she really write her songs? Most people who dislike her seem to view her as a Barbie that has been dressed up and put on stage to perform and generate record sales. Take Lady Gaga – her sartorial insanity is acceptable because people believe that she herself is at the center of these choices.
What does this have to do with marketing?
This debate makes it easy to see a key trait that many Millennials are searching for in their brand of choice: authenticity....


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Dr. Judith Orloff's Guide to Intuitive Healing: Five Steps to Physical, Emotional and Sexual Wellness
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"We are the keepers of an intuitive intelligence so powerful it can tell us how to heal." In her groundbreaking new book, Dr. Judith Orloff leads readers to the heart of a radical revolution in health care: the union of medicine and intuition, of body, mind, and soul. We're all born with the gift of intuition; many of us have long ago blocked that "indisputable sense of rightness" which is our truest inner compass.
Dr. Orloff's guide will show you how to recapture, nurture, and affirm your intuitive ability, so that you can utilize it to help heal yourself. Intuition plays an indispensable role in self-diagnosis, pain control, immune response, and recovery from acute and chronic illness; it can lead you to breakthroughs in anxiety, panic, depression, and other emotional blockages, even when traditional psychotherapy has failed. Intuition also offers insights into the use of medications and the selection of the right healer for your needs. Further, it is integral for sexual healing, since sexuality is a potent connector and energy source for clarifying spirituality and improving vitality.
Dr. Orloff introduces five practical steps she uses in her own life and teaches to patients which illustrate how to harness the power of intuition to heal. You'll learn to clarify your beliefs, listen to your body's messages, access inner guidance, sense subtle energy, and interpret your dreams. Practicing these steps you'll recognize early warning signals and act on them to help prevent illness. You'll have skills to uncover important information from meditation and remote viewing (a way of intuitively tuning in) to make sense of confusing signals. The insights you'll gain from these tools will lend reason, compassion, and meaning to events such as illness, loss, or despair. Following Dr. Orloff's simple, clear instructions, illustrated with examples from her own experience and psychiatric practice, you'll recapture a sense of vision that will bring vibrance to all that you do.
"Our intuition can open us up to our spirituality and show us how to be more healthy and whole," writes Dr. Orloff. "If you're in good health, you'll want to know about intuition because it can help you stay well and recognize messages that prevent illness. If you or your loved ones need healing, you'll also want intuition to show the way." Written with abundant warmth, humor, and compassion, this guide is your companion to a healthier, more fulfilling life.
About the Author
Judith Orloff, M.D., is a board-certified psychiatrist, an assistant clinical professor of psychiatry at UCLA, and a staff member at Cedars Sinai Medical Center. She is also the author of Second Sight, a memoir about coming to terms with her intuitive abilities. Dr. Orloff is an international lecturer and workshop leader on the interrelationship of medicine, intuition, and spirituality. Her work has been featured on CNN, PBS, LIFETIME, A&E, NPR, New Age Journal, Self, and USA Today. She lives by the ocean in Los Angeles, California.
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New Generations Leadership Program 2015 Lecture featuring Tim Wise
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End of the Golden Age: Science Fiction Before and After the Atomic Bomb - Exhibit Opening
ASU Center for Science and the Imagination
Wednesday, September 12, 2012 from 1:00 PM to 2:00 PM (MST)
Join the ASU Center for Science and the Imagination and celebrated science fiction author Alan Dean Foster for the opening of "End of the Golden Age: Science Fiction Before and After the Atomic Bomb," a new exhibit developed in collaboration with the ASU Libraries and Project Humanities.
Guests will hear a brief presentation by Alan Dean Foster about the Golden Age and working with the legendary editor John W. Campbell, tour the exhibit, and converse with Mr. Foster in a relaxed, low-key environment.
Alan Dean Foster has written over 100 books and contributed to the Star Trek, Star Wars, Chronicles of Riddick and Alien franchises. Mr. Foster wrote the story for Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979) and recently wrote the novel versions of the new Star Trek reboot and Terminator: Salvation.
Arizona State University's Center for Science and the Imagination brings writers, artists and other creative thinkers into collaboration with scientists, engineers and technologists to reignite humanity's grand ambitions for innovation and discovery.
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