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Salman Khan 2002 hit and run case
125 Salman Khan 2002 hit and run case Articles
Oh no: Salman Khan SUED by producer Vijay Galani for Rs 250 crore!1 week ago 19
Like the 2002 hit-and-run and the black buck poaching cases weren't enough, Salman has another one to worry about now. Read on! Misery loves… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan wrongly accused in the 2002 hit-and-run case, says father Salim Khan!3 weeks ago 2
Ahead of HC's next hearing, Salman's father now raises a new argument. Read on to find out what he has to say... After being out on bail for over a… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan moves the Bombay High Court for permission to travel to Dubai1 month ago 1
The actor, who's on bail, moved the court on Wednesday to travel abroad for a show later this month 13 years after Salman Khan's 2002 hit and run… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan shoots Bajrangi Bhaijaan at 11700ft and minus 2 degrees!2 months ago 0
The actor shoots in freezing conditions in Kashmir... Salman Khan didn't miss a moment after he was awarded a bail by the Mumbai High Court in the… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan 2002 hit-and-run case: PIL filed in Supreme Court for cancellation of the actor's bail2 months ago 5
A PIL has been filed in SC which challenges HC's decision to grant bail to Salman in the 2002 hit-and-run case. Read on! A PIL has been filed in the… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan 2002 hit-and-run case: Singer and witness Kamaal Khan's ex Shilpi Sharma talks about his mysterious dissaparance!2 months ago 7
Singer Kamaal was a prime witness in Salman's 2002 hit-and-run case and is now nowhere to be found. Read on to know what is ex live- in partner… Read Article ▶
Just In: Salman Khan leaves for Kashmir to resume shooting for Bajrangi Bhaijaan!2 months ago 1
The superstar, who was granted bail on May 8 by the Bombay High Court, will resume shooting for his much-awaited film Bajrangi Bhaijaan... The day… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan 2002 hit and tun case: Sonam Kapoor and Nagma visit the actor- view pics!2 months ago 2
The actresses were the latest visitors at Galaxy Apartments Galaxy Apartments have become a hub of visitors. After Sonakshi Sinha, Aamir Khan… Read Article ▶
It's Hum Saath Saath Hain for Salman Khan in real life- view pic!2 months ago 4
Check out this really cute picture of the actor and his family waving at fans post his bail... The Khans have time and again proved that they are a… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan 2002 hit and run case: Kamaal Khan's statement says the actor was driving!2 months ago 2
Read the full statement of singer Kamaal, who was with the Bajrangi Bhaijaan actor at the time of the accident On May 6, Salman Khan was sentenced… Read Article ▶
Indian Express
Leaked: Salman Khan's 2002 hit-and-run case sentence suspension order by court – view pics!2 months ago 1
We EXCLUSIVELY give a glance at the High Court order Salman received Ever since the hearings of Salman Khan's 2002 hit and run case started… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan's case shows VIPs can avoid jail, says Kiran Bedi2 months ago 12
The former police officer has spoken on the much-talked about hit-and-run case, do you agree with her? The bail given to Bollywood star Salman Khan… Read Article ▶
These pictures prove why Salman Khan is one of the biggest stars of Bollywood!2 months ago 7
Emotions ran wild as hundreds of fans gathered outside the Bajrangi Bhaijaan actor's home to give him a hero's welcome Hundreds of fans gathered… Read Article ▶
5 people who must be rejoicing Salman Khan's verdict the most!2 months ago 2
That Bhai has been granted bail and his five year jail term suspended is known to all. Until next hearing which is in July, Khan is a free man and… Read Article ▶
Salman Khan 2002 hit and run case: The actor speaks up for the first time post the verdict!2 months ago 6
While the whole nation was divided into pro and anti Salman troops, the Prem Ratan Dhan Payo actor was mum until now Salman Khan and his family has… Read Article ▶
More Salman Khan 2002 hit and run case


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Originally written on NFL Trade Rumors | Last updated 2/22/13
Brad Biggs tweets that impending free agent DT Henry Melton will be franchised by the Bears if they're unable to come to a long-term agreement before the March 4 deadline. The two sides are expected to meet at the Combine this Saturday to discuss a contract. Melton, 26, is a fairly obvious candidate for the designation given that he represents the best interior lineman available in this year's free agent class. While he's only put together two standout seasons for the Bears, he's clearly an impact player worthy of a large extension. Pro Football Focus has him rated as the No. 7 best defensive tackle in league this season and we have Melton listed as the No. 5 best available player in our Top 50 Free Agents list. The post Bears Will Franchise DT Henry Melton If A Long-Term Deal Isn't Reached appeared first on NFL Trade Rumors -.
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Wright State University Libraries seek applications for a full-time Archivist to provide access to historical documents and information by organizing, describing, preserving, and providing reference to manuscript collections, local government records, and university records. Participate in departmental outreach activities such as tours, exhibits, and presentations.
Required: M.A. Public History, History, or A.L.A. accredited M.L.S./M.L.I.S.; graduate level education, training and experience in current archival theory and practice, specifically the processing and preservation of manuscript collections and two years of archival experience (graduate student experience accepted); experience in researching and providing reference service in manuscripts and local government records collections; experience using MPLP (More Product Less Process), DACS (Describing Archives: A Content Standard), and EAD (Encoded Archival Description); demonstrated knowledge of archival management systems.
Preferred: knowledge of basic office software and database use; ability to work independently and collaboratively; excellent oral and written communication skills; interest and/or classroom study in aviation history and local and regional history; experience in public speaking and classroom instruction.
For information on additional requirements and to apply, go to http://jobs.wright.edu/postings/9170 by July 1, 2015 for first consideration. Wright State University, an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer, is committed to an inclusive environment and strongly encourages applications from minorities, females, veterans and individuals with disabilities.
Wright State University Libraries seek a self-motivated and customer-oriented professional to coordinate the services of the Student Technology Assistance Center, a multimedia facility located in the University Libraries. Services include multimedia assistance for students using both Mac and PC platforms, podcasting facility, eLearning studio, instructional support, workshops, orientations, and tours.
For information on additional requirements and to apply, go to http://jobs.wright.edu/postings/9114 by May 26, 2015 for first consideration. Wright State University: AA/EOE/M/F/Vet/Disability.
As the American Library Association states, "Librarians and library workers help people find information and use it effectively for personal and professional purposes. They must have knowledge of a wide variety of scholarly and public information sources and must be on the cutting edge of technology trends in order to serve their patrons." To see more about careers in librarianship, visit the ALA website.
The Libraries hire students who participate in the Work Study Program, a federally-funded student employment program. Eligibility for the Federal Work Study Program is based on financial need. Please contact WSU RaiderConnect at (937) 775-4000 or e-mail email@example.com for more information.
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Alarm clock note pad and pen. And at night also a bottle of water my phone and iPad.
Its bad its like the leaning tower.
lamp, candle, kindle, glasses, pair of earrings.
a water cup, my ear plugs, a bottle of Valerian Root, my DSiXL and games, my favorite doll from when I was a kid and teddy
My nightstand is actually my computer desk, so I have a computer, lots of books, lamp, Puffs, reading journal, pens, rack of CD's, DVD's and computer games, glasses, cell phone, sometimes my white cat.


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GST Update Box
The Game Show Temple is officially closed
Updated date The Final Curtain Call as the Gates Rise March 17th, 2015 They do say that all good things must come to pass, and unfortunately that is exactly what's happening right now as the curtains close and the Temple gate rises up. The end of the Game Show Temple has finally come. On the evening of March 16th, 2015, Sony Entertainment began going after The Joker's Wild, and it was not a worldwide block this time. It was a copyright strike. With Sony tightening the screws since they have previously put worldwide blocks on such shows as Chain Reaction, Pyramid, and the two unsold pilots of $50,000 a Minute, including the fact that my life is changing and I do not have a lot of time for this anymore, the time has finally come to say good-bye. Also, with everything going on and knowing how crunched my schedule is these days, I am going to be unable to do the Top 100 Countdown.
All of the episodes that were uploaded to the video database, minus my projects, have been removed. The Krypton Factor was my final addition to the projects, and although my times going through the projects may occasionally have been bumpy, there are pros and cons to some things, but through my fans, I got much better. The criticisms I received, the constructive and the bad ones, were all strengthening with what I had loved to do. Without that constructive help, I probably wouldn't have gotten much further. All I can say, it's been fun. I am currently re-making the video database page so you can view those projects anytime you'd like. Also, my Store for the Game Show Temple on Zazzle will remain open.
In closing, I want to thank the many people who have been with me from start to finish, through the good days and the dark, it's what I know to have been an awesome roller coaster ride, and I am very grateful to everyone who tagged along for the ride. I'm really going to miss this for sure, and that's no joke. For me, who knows where I'll be? Maybe this isn't the end for me. Maybe it's just a new beginning...you never know. But overall everyone, thanks to everyone in the tape trading circuit who made my collection worth it to the game show fanbase, thanks to everyone who helped me along the way, but most importantly, thanks to YOU! Without you, the Game Show Temple would not have been the 8-year success it was to help you re-live your favorite game shows inside and out. I am deeply grateful. And until we see each other again, in the words of Bob Barker, "Help control the pet population. Have your pets spayed or neutered!" Good-bye, everybody!
Rulesheets The rulesheet database of the game shows out there Contestant Interviews Read real contestant interviews from when they were on the show, their experiences and what has happened for them since then Legends of the Game Show Temple My views on great contestants with their appearances on game shows Tape Trading Coliseum Prior to its closing, the Tape Trading Coliseum is where you would trade episodes with the webmaster of the Game Show Temple. Visit to see who contributed to the collection of the website over the years Special GST LIVE! Moments For the time that Game Show Temple LIVE! was on BlogTalkRadio, we've had some very special guests on the show. Click the link on the left to find out of these special people who helped put GST Live! on the map Tributes The Game Show Temple wishes to pay tribute to these past and present game show personalities Store In spite of the closing of the Game Show Temple, the GST store on Zazzle remains open for business, for you to have memorabilia to remember throughout the days this website was fully functional. Links I wasn't the only good game show website here on the Internet. Take a look at the other sites that I visit
GST Update Box
DISCLAIMER: I was a generic ordinary person, who shared all this for pure entertainment purposes only and also non-profit, in accordance with the Fair Use Act. All copyrights were acknowledged to the fullest extent, no challenge or ownership was implied or intended.


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The simplest way to find money in an old 401(k) account is to contact the former employer, according to Henry and Horne, LLP, but that is not always possible, and the plan may be abandoned. The U.S. Department of Labor notes that 401(k) plans can be abandoned for a variety of reasons, such as when a former employer or plan sponsor dies, files for bankruptcy or flees the country.Know More
The next step is to look for contact information for the plan administrator on an old 401(k) plan statement. If there are no old statements available or they do not contain the contact information, a form the company was required by law to file annually, known as Form 5500, can be searched for on the U.S. Department of Labor website. It should have the contact information.
Other options are to look up the plan with the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation, a federal insurer of private pensions, and on the National Registry of Unclaimed Retirement Benefits, a free service that helps contact the former employer, advises U.S. News & World Report. In most cases, the employee's social security number, company name, the name of the pension plan and dates of employment are necessary.Learn more about Financial Planning
Employees can borrow against their 401(K) plans with minimal paperwork, often by logging into their online accounts, according to Generation X Finance. Typically, plans allow participants to borrow up to 50 percent of their vested balances in minimum loan amounts of $500 to $1000 to a maximum loan of $50,000.Full Answer >
The simplest way to borrow against your 401(k) retirement plan is to take a temporary distribution of funds in the form of a loan. According to the IRS, many 401(k) plans allow participants to borrow tax-free funds from their account as long as the loan is 50 percent of the total balance or $50,000, whichever is less, and the loan is repaid within five years in relatively equal quarterly installments.Full Answer >
Since all monies contributed to a 401(k) plan are protected by federal laws, whether at a current or previous employer, the money is still safeguarded. The best method for locating money in a 401(k) with a previous employer is to contact the employer directly, notes 401khelpcenter.com.Full Answer >
Money contributed to a 401(k) plan is counted toward the Social Security benefits limit, according to the AARP Bulletin. Additionally, 403(b) contributions, payments made into a tax-deferred health plan, and self-employment earnings are counted, as are contributions into any insurance, fund or annuity that make payments on or after retirement.Full Answer >


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VIEWS: 7 PAGES: 16 CATEGORY: Business POSTED ON: 8/31/2010 Public Domain
Page 1 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 Amber Paynter, by Her Parent and Natural Guardian, Mona Stone, et al., on Behalf of Themselves and All Others Similarly Situated, Appellants, v. State of New York et al., Respondents. No. 75 COURT OF APPEALS OF NEW YORK 100 N.Y.2d 434; 797 N.E.2d 1225; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 May 8, 2003, Argued June 26, 2003, Decided DISSENT BY: SMITH partment (SED), its Commissioner, the Regents and their Chancellor as defendants. An amended complaint added DISSENT: the Rochester school district and surrounding districts. [*444] Smith, J. (dissenting). Because I believe Relying on the testimony of four experts and statis- that the plaintiffs have properly stated a cause of action tics compiled by the State, plaintiffs allege that the con- under the Education Article, I dissent. Plaintiffs should centration of poor and minority students in one school have the opportunity to show that a racially and socially district denies them the opportunity of a sound basic separate education does not comport with the opportunity education. Plaintiffs allege that this concentration of of a sound basic education as required by the Education poor and minority [**1232] [***826] students is the Article of the New York Constitution. result of state policies, state action and state inaction. Plaintiffs assert causes of action under the Education New York Constitution, article XI, § 1 reads: "The Article ( New York Const, art XI, § 1), the State Equal legislature shall provide for the maintenance and support Protection [*445] Clause (New York Const, art I, § 11), of a system of free common schools, wherein all the title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (42 USC § children of this state may be educated." The Education 2000d), and its implementing regulations (34 CFR 100.3 Article imposes on the State the mandatory duty to main- [b] [2] through 42 USC § 1983). tain and support a system of public schools where all the children of the state may avail themselves of a sound Plaintiffs requested injunctive relief requiring the basic education that will allow them to function produc- State to develop a plan to allow them to obtain a sound tively as civic participants capable of voting and serving education. The motion court dismissed the Education on a jury (Campaign for Fiscal Equity v State of New Article claim because plaintiffs did not allege the ab- York, 86 N.Y.2d 307, 316, 631 N.Y.S.2d 565, 655 N.E.2d sence of minimally acceptable educational facilities and 661 [1995] [CFE I]). It cannot be overstated that it is in services. The court did not dismiss plaintiffs' claims the State's interest that all children be provided with an under title VI, and its implementing regulations, giving opportunity for a free, sound education. This, however, them the opportunity to show that the enactment of Ur- is not a self-evident proposition. Those who had the ban Development Corporation Act § 15 (5) (McKinney's means to educate their own children had to be persuaded Uncons Laws of NY § 6265 [5] [L 1968, ch 174, § 1, as to support a system in which they contributed to the edu- amended by L 1973, ch 446, § 3]), prohibiting the New cation of other people's children. The latter were primar- York State Urban Development Corporation from build- ily the children of the poor. Thus, while the Education ing low income housing without local approval, was ra- Article was enacted to ensure that all the children in the cially motivated. As to the equal protection claim, the state would have access to a sound education, its enact- court found that plaintiffs "are to be given the opportu- ment was motivated by the plight of poor children. nity to develop, if possible, the historical background, the patterns of discriminatory actions and/or inactions and The Children of the Rochester City School District other factors to establish intentional discrimination as it Plaintiffs are 15 students in the Rochester City relates to section 6265 (5)" (187 Misc. 2d 227, 237, 720 School District (RCSD) who commenced this class ac- N.Y.S.2d 712). The court dismissed the entire complaint tion on behalf of 37,000 students in the RCSD. About against the suburban districts. 90% of these children are poor and about 80% are Afri- On appeal to the Appellate Division, plaintiffs ap- can-American or Hispanic. The original complaint parently abandoned their intentional discrimination named the State of New York, the State Education De- Page 2 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 claims. Thus the Appellate Division considered only the sponsibilities, even service in the armed claims under the Education Article and implementing forces. It is the very foundation of good regulations to title VI through 42 USC § 1983. The citizenship. Today it is a principal in- Court dismissed the complaint in its entirety. In addition strument in awakening the child to cul- to noting that plaintiffs failed to allege a lack of minimal tural values, in preparing him for later facilities, the Court found that plaintiffs cannot attack professional training, and in helping him resident-based education since that was the system that to adjust normally to his environment. In was constitutionalized by the Education Article. The these days, it is doubtful that any child lone dissent would have reinstated the Education Article may reasonably be expected to succeed in claim, noting that "[a]dequate educational facilities and life if he is denied the opportunity of an services do not themselves constitute a sound basic edu- education. Such an opportunity, where the cation; rather, they are necessary conditions for the pro- state has undertaken to provide it, is a vision of a sound basic education" (290 A.D.2d 95, 105, right which must be made available to all 735 N.Y.S.2d 337 [2001]). on equal terms" (347 U.S. at 493). The State's Historical Record Brown led to a conscientious effort by the State Education Department and the Regents to achieve racial This case cannot be viewed in a vacuum. It must be balance in our public schools (see United States v City of placed in historical context. During the 19th century, Yonkers, 96 F.3d 600 [2d Cir 1996]; Matter of Vetere v African-Americans in New York constituted a small per- Allen, 15 N.Y.2d 259, 258 N.Y.S.2d 77, 206 N.E.2d 174 centage of the total population (Folts, History of the [1965]). Local school districts, the Legislature, and University of the State of New York and the State Edu- other state officials resisted this effort. The resistance cation Department 1784-1996, available at was so successful that the [*447] SED and the Regents <http://www.nysl.nysed.gov/edocs/education/sedhist.htm eventually ceased to undertake desegregation efforts. >). [*446] Schools for "colored" children were estab- The resistance is documented in City of Yonkers (96 F.3d lished by laws enacted in 1841 and 1864. The latter stat- 600). The trial court found that not only did the State fail ute was challenged by a 12-year-old girl from Brooklyn to make any effort to remedy school segregation in who commenced an action seeking to be admitted to the Yonkers, but that it took steps to perpetuate it (id. at 606 all white school in her district. Over the dissent of two ). The Regents took affirmative steps to thwart desegre- Judges, this Court found that separate but equal schools gation efforts, including the firing of Commissioner Ny- did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment or the State's quist, in response to "pressures by New York State offi- Civil Rights Act of 1873 (People ex rel. King v Galla- cials and constituents who opposed desegregation on gher, 93 N.Y. 438 [1883]). The holding of Gallagher grounds that were known to be race-based" (id.). was reaffirmed by People ex rel. Cisco v School Bd. of Borough of Queens (161 N.Y. 598, 56 N.E. 81 [1900]). In 1969, the Legislature enacted Education Law § 3201 (2) prohibiting the assignment of students in par- Statutes providing for separate but equal schools for ticular schools "for the purpose of achieving equality in African-Americans were enacted even after the adoption attendance * * * of persons of one or more particular of the Education Article. These statutes were eventually races" without the approval of the local board of educa- repealed in 1938, at a time when many African- tion. The law was later ruled unconstitutional by a fed- Americans had migrated [**1233] [***827] into the eral court. n1 The trial court further found that large urban areas of the state, a trend that began during "[f]ollowing the invalidation of [Education Law 3201 § the First World War and continued after the Second (2)], the State took measures that had the cumulative World War. effect of undermining efforts to reduce school segrega- In 1954, the Supreme Court held in Brown v Board tion" (96 F3d at 606). The State also knew that the con- of Educ. of Topeka (347 U.S. 483, 98 L. Ed. 873, 74 S. struction of subsidized housing would exacerbate segre- Ct. 686 [1954]) that racially separate schools were inher- gation in housing and schools. The Second Circuit, in ently unequal. The Court stated: 1996, found New York officials liable under 42 USC § 1983, and the State, the SED, and the Regents liable un- "Today, education is perhaps the der the Equal Educational Opportunities Act. most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory school atten- dance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recogni- n1 Lee v Nyquist, 318 F. Supp. 710 (1970),affd, tion of the importance of education to our 402 U.S. 935, 29 L. Ed. 2d 105, 91 S. Ct. 1618 democratic society. It is required in the (1971). performance of our most basic public re- Page 3 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 In an opinion by Justice Leon D. Lazer, the Appel- late Division affirmed except for the federal equal pro- Education Article Litigation tection claim (83 A.D.2d 217, 443 N.Y.S.2d 843 [1981]). In 1974, the same year "the Regents revised their The Court concluded as follows: policy statement on segregation so as to 'dilute[] [its] "In the face of evidence demonstrat- pro-desegregation force'" (id.), Board of Educ., Levit- ing that large numbers of children emerge town Union Free School Dist. v Nyquist (57 N.Y.2d 27, from the school system lacking even the 439 [**1234] [***828] N.E.2d 359, 453 N.Y.S.2d 643 minimal tools necessary to function in so- [1982] ) was commenced in Supreme Court, Nassau ciety, and that the current financing County. The plaintiffs consisted of the boards of educa- scheme is in good measure a cause for the tion of 27 districts and 12 elementary and high school failures, we must conclude that the educa- students, later joined by the boards of the four largest tion article is violated by a method of fi- cities, New York City, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse, nancing which fails to establish a school and 12 other city school children. system capable of providing an education Plaintiffs alleged a violation of the Education Article for many educable children" (id. at 251). and the Equal Protection Clauses of the State and Fed- The concurring opinion of Justice Weinstein noted eral Constitutions. Justice L. Kingsley Smith, after an that "[i]n giving less aid to city students, the education eight-month trial, ruled in plaintiffs' favor on all grounds. aid formula has [*449] a disproportionately adverse Plaintiffs' complaint centered on the wide disparities in effect not only on pupils from impoverished families, but funding among the State's 700 school districts based on a also with respect to race, country of origin and alienage" financing system that relied largely on local property (id. at 254). taxes except in the large [*448] cities, which were fis- cally dependent and had many noneducational expenses. This Court reversed and dismissed the case. The Plaintiffs also claimed that the scheme established by the Court acknowledged "significant inequalities in the Legislature "denies to some children, based on the lesser availability of financial support for local school districts, real property wealth of their school districts, the means [**1235] [***829] ranging from minor discrepancies to participate meaningfully as citizens and to function to major differences, resulting in significant unevenness successfully in the labor market" (94 Misc. 2d 466, 478, in the educational opportunities offered" (57 N.Y.2d at 408 N.Y.S.2d 606 [1978]). The cities specifically 38). The Court then stated: claimed that they were treated as property-wealthy by the "No claim is advanced in this case, State's formula that did not take into account the costs of however, by either the original plaintiffs providing municipal services that other areas of the state or the intervenors that the educational fa- did not provide. The cities also argued that the State's cilities or services provided in the school formula undertook, but failed, to provide additional re- districts that they represent fall below the sources to school districts with high need students. State-wide minimum standard of educa- For the noncity plaintiffs, the court applied an in- tional quality and quantity fixed by the termediate level of scrutiny and found a violation of the Board of Regents; their attack is directed Equal Protection Clauses. The court also found that the at the existing disparities in financial re- funding scheme did not satisfy the Education Article's sources which lead to educational un- requirement that the Legislature maintain and support a evenness above that minimum standard." system of free common schools (94 Misc. 2d at 528). As (Id.) to the cities, the court found that the formula lacked a As to the equal protection claims, the Court found rational basis. With respect to the Education Article, the that education was not a fundamental constitutional right, court found that "[b]y providing reduced aid per pupil and reviewed the financing scheme under a rational basis and reduced supplemental aid per special needs pupil to standard. This characterization resulted in the dismissal the large city school districts and by failing to take into of the claims. As to the Education Article claim, the account adequately their major education overburdens, Court based its finding largely on the perception that including their large numbers of pupils lacking the basic "[w]hat appears to have been contemplated when the minimal educational skills, the State aid formula violates education article was adopted at the 1894 Constitutional section 1 of article XI of the New York State Constitu- Convention was a State-wide system assuring minimal tion" (94 Misc. 2d 466, 534, 408 N.Y.S.2d 606 [1978]). acceptable facilities and services in contrast to the unsys- Finally, the court found that "there is an equal protection tematized delivery of instruction then in existence within violation as well because of the resulting denial of equal the State" (57 N.Y.2d at 47). Yet, the Court determined educational opportunity." (Id.) that the legislative history of the Education Article was Page 4 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 "irrelevant" to the determination of what was intended law, from Marshall to Holmes, have al- (Id. at 48 n 6). The Court then interpreted the Education ways made clear, such a document's per- Article to connote "a sound basic education," which was manence rests on its adaptability to being met since "New York has long been regarded as a changing events (Jackson, Struggle for leader in free public education." (Id. at 48.) Finally, the Judicial Supremacy, p 174)" (id. at 57). Court stated that it would be unwilling to override the Finally, Judge Fuchsberg agreed with the Appellate Legislature's decision of how to distribute funds "in the Division's application of an intermediate scrutiny stan- absence, possibly, of gross and glaring inadequacy-- dard to the state equal protection claim under which something not shown to exist in consequence of the pre- standard the funding scheme could not remain. sent school financing system" (57 N.Y.2d at 48-49). In 1994, plaintiffs in Campaign for Fiscal Equity In response to the dissent, the majority stated, "The (86 N.Y.2d 307, 655 N.E.2d 661, 631 N.Y.S.2d 565 dissent illustrates the very great, and perhaps under- [1995]) commenced another action, decided today, argu- standable, temptation to yield to a result-oriented resolu- ing [*451] that the public school financing scheme vio- tion of this litigation" (id. at 49 n 9). lated the Education Article, the Equal Protection Clauses [*450] Judge Fuchsberg, the lone dissenter, took of the State and Federal Constitutions, and the imple- issue with the majority's finding that education was not a menting regulations to title VI (34 CFR 100.3 [b] [2]). fundamental right: We first distinguished Levittown by noting, "The Court there manifestly left room for a conclusion that a system "In any meaningful ordering of pri- which failed to provide for a sound basic education orities, it is in the impact education makes would violate the Education Article" (id. at 316). We on the minds, characters and capabilities then found that a sound basic education "should consist of our young citizens that we must find of the basic literacy, calculating, and verbal skills neces- the answer to many seemingly insoluble sary to enable children to eventually function produc- societal problems. In the long run, noth- tively as civic participants capable of voting and serving ing may be more important--and therefore on a jury" (id.) more fundamental--to the future of our country. Can it be gainsaid that, without Paraphrasing from Levittown, we stated, "If the education there is no exit from the ghetto, physical facilities and pedagogical services and resources no solution to unemployment, no cutting made available under the present system are adequate to down on crime, no dissipation of inter- provide children with the opportunity to obtain these group tension, no mastery of the age of essential skills, the State will have satisfied its constitu- the computer?" (57 N.Y.2d at 51). tional obligation" (id.). We then outlined a nonexclusive list of resources children need to obtain a sound basic Judge Fuchsberg relied on legislative history, in- education. We concluded that plaintiffs pleaded a proper cluding the report of the committee that drafted the Edu- cause of action under the Education Article because cation Article, for his position. He addressed the failure "[t]aking as true the allegations in the complaint, as we of the formula to provide fiscally dependent cities with must, plaintiffs allege and specify gross educational in- necessary aid, resulting in the delivery of an inadequate adequacies that, if proven, could support a conclusion education. Then he noted, that the State's public school financing system effectively "it could not be said as a matter of fails to provide for a minimally adequate educational law that the picture painted by this proof opportunity" (86 N.Y.2d at 319). of disparities and discriminations com- We dismissed the equal protection claims under the plied with even the undefined 'minimal State and Federal Constitutions. However, we sustained acceptable facilities and services' or the the claim under the implementing regulations to title VI. broadly stated 'sound basic education' * * *. [**1236] [***830] The fact is, of The concurring opinion of Judge Levine agreed that course, that in this past century, as high this Court had a responsibility to determine the meaning school and college statistics show, the ac- of a sound basic education. Relying on the words of a ceptable level of education in our country legislator during the Constitutional Convention debates, has risen, not fallen. Judge Levine concluded that the objective of the Educa- tion Article was "to 'make[] it imperative on the State to "Responsively, the constitutional de- provide adequate free common schools for the education mands of our State's education article, of all of the children of the State' and that the new provi- must be deemed to have kept pace. * * * sion would have an impact upon 'places in the State of And, as great expounders of constitutional New York where the common schools are not adequate' Page 5 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 (3 Revised Record of Constitutional Convention of 1894, proper in those cases because the constitutional at 695 [emphasis supplied])" (86 N.Y.2d at 327). Never- clauses involved contained words such as "thor- theless, Judge Levine did not agree with the key interpre- ough and efficient." (Campaign for Fiscal Equity tation of a sound basic education as requiring skills nec- v State of New York, 100 N.Y.2d 893, 948 n 1, essary to become a productive citizen. Rather, he be- 801 N.E.2d 326, 769 N.Y.S.2d 106 [Read, J., dis- lieved that, under Levittown, a system of sound basic senting].) This argument assumes that the framers education did not violate the [**1237] [***831] Edu- of our Education Article were unconcerned with cation Article if it provided basic reading and writing and the quality of the education the Legislature would computational skills, and citizenship awareness. Unlike be required to provide. But we know based on the [*452] majority's standard, this standard would not the framers' report that that assumption is incor- invite and entail "subjective, unverifiable educational rect. Even without the education committee's re- policy making by Judges, unreviewable on any princi- port, it is hard to imagine that the framers would pled basis, which was anathema to the Levittown Court" have been satisfied with an educational system (86 N.Y.2d at 332). that did not provide the opportunity for a sound basic education. Such a system can be said to be Judge Simons, on the other hand, in his dissent in inefficient. It is worth noting that the constitu- CFE I, concluded that plaintiffs had not successfully tional clauses in many of these cases do not in- pleaded a cause of action under the Education Article. clude the word "adequate," just like the Educa- After reviewing the constitutional history of the Educa- tion Clause of this State does not include the tion Article, Judge Simons noted, "I find no indication words "sound, basic." that the drafters intended to * * * impose a qualitative component within the Education Article, or to hold the State liable to make up a shortage of funds in particular school districts" (86 N.Y.2d at 335). In Judge Simons' n3 See James Madison, The Federalist No. 51. view, it was up to the State to determine the meaning of a sound basic education, and this Court should not review n4 Directing the Legislature, or other government an action under the Education Article unless a "'gross entities, to provide funding that satisfies mini- and glaring inadequacy' in State funding" was alleged mum standards is not unprecedented. Article (86 N.Y.2d at 340). Judge Simons, and to an extent XVII, § 1, provides that "[t]he aid, care and sup- Judge Levine, and now Judge Read believe that issues of port of the needy are public concerns and shall be funding and quality of education should be settled by the provided by the state and by such of its subdivi- political process and that this Court should refrain from sions, and in such manner and by such means, as participating. n2 It is certainly the case that in our system the legislature may from time to time determine." of government, the three branches are separated by walls. We have held that the Legislature may not refuse The walls, however, are not solid. n3 Rather, the concept to aid "those whom it has classified as needy" of checks and balances gives to this Court the responsi- (Tucker v Toia, 43 N.Y.2d 1, 8, 400 N.Y.S.2d 728, bility of interpreting the Constitution, even if that inter- 371 N.E.2d 449 [1977]). In Tucker, we invali- pretation reaches into spheres which are normally the dated a statute that required persons under 21 to province of the two other branches. The reach may be obtain final orders of disposition in order to be limited to pronouncing the minimum that the Education eligible for home relief. The purpose of the stat- Article requires. It does not [*453] constitute a take- ute was to "prevent unnecessary welfare expendi- over of the Legislature's responsibility to determine edu- tures by placing the burden of supporting persons cational policy and funding. n4 under 21 upon their legally responsible relatives" ( id. at 9). We found that the statute contravened "the letter and spirit" of article XVII, § 1, since it imposed a criterion unrelated to need (id.; see n2 This is not only the minority view in this also Matter of Aliessa v Novello, 96 N.Y.2d 418, Court but among the highest state courts across 754 N.E.2d 1085, 730 N.Y.S.2d 1[2001] [invali- the country. (See Appendix.) Although the word- dating, on the same grounds, a statute denying ing of the constitutional clauses varies, and some certain Medicaid benefits to permanent resi- courts have based their decisions on equal protec- dents]). In Jiggetts v Grinker, (75 N.Y.2d 411, tion grounds, there is a common understanding as 554 N.Y.S.2d 92, 553 N.E.2d 570 [1990]), we in- to the nature of the courts' role and the impor- terpreted a statute enacted pursuant to section 1 of tance of the legislative responsibility of providing article XVIII, which required the State Commis- children with an adequate education. The dissent sioner of Social Services to establish "adequate" in CFE II insinuates that judicial intervention was Page 6 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 shelter allowances for recipients of public assis- According to one writer, the "one bright spot in the tance under the Aid to Families with Dependent intellectual gloom of the century of English domination" Children program. We found that the Legislature was the founding of King's College, now Columbia Uni- sought to impose a duty on the Commissioner to versity, in 1754 (Department of Public Instruction, The "establish shelter allowances that bear a reason- Schools of New York. A Glance at the Common School able relation to the cost of housing in New York System of the Empire State, at 20 [1893] [hereinafter City" (id. at 415). In Matter of Bernstein v Toia Schools of New York]). Notably, the British issued the (43 N.Y.2d 437, 373 N.E.2d 238, 402 N.Y.S.2d royal charter that founded the college based on the urg- 342 [1977]), however, we upheld a regulation ing of the Governor that such an institution was neces- that established flat grants for shelter allowances sary "to prevent the growth of republican principles without taking into account exceptions due to which already too much prevail in the colonies" (id. at special circumstances, since it was up to the Leg- 21). On the contrary, Columbia educated such [**1239] islature, acting through the Commissioner, to de- [***833] men as Alexander Hamilton, Robert termine the amount of aid. In McCain v Koch (70 Livingston, John Jay, DeWitt Clinton, and Gouverneur N.Y.2d 109, 511 N.E.2d 62, 517 N.Y.S.2d 918 Morris. [1987]), we held that once two New York City After the Revolution in 1776, the early public agencies undertook to provide emergency hous- schools were too impoverished to offer anything more ing to homeless families with children, they had than a crude education to the poor children of the state. to provide "shelter minimally habitable" (id. at The State neither funded nor regulated public schools. In 118). These cases dealt with statutes enacted the cities, the schools where located in areas "where the pursuant to article XVII, § 1, which explicitly best families would not be disturbed by the sight of the leaves it up to the discretion of the Legislature to uncouth garb and uncultivated noise of free-school chil- determine the amount of aid to people classified dren" (id. at 23). In dilapidated schools, the children as needy. An equivalent provision is not present were taught only "spelling, reading, writing and common in the Education Article. arithmetic" with the barest of instrumentalities by teach- ers who possessed little education (id. at 26). The chil- [***832] [**1238] The conclusion of this Court dren of the wealthy, on the other hand, learned comforta- that the State is required to provide children in the bly and well in private academies and nurseries. twenty-first century with the opportunity to obtain a The first Constitution of 1777 omitted any mention sound basic education is consistent with the spirit of the of education. Lincoln blames the omission on the hasty Education Article, which represents the culmination of a actions of a marginal number of the total delegates at long fought struggle to ensure that all the children of Kingston who adopted the Constitution despite the ab- New York, not just the children of the wealthy, would sence of several prominent members, and declined to have access to a sound education. This case is a con- consider additional topics that many thought should have tinuation of that struggle as is evident from a brief his- been included (3 Lincoln, at 487). A letter from John tory. Jay, one of the absentees, to Gouverneur Morris and Mr. Origins of New York Public Schools Livingston, stated that he would [*455] have been in favor of a clause for "the support and encouragement of Initially, the struggle centered on persuading the literature" (id. at 488). Legislature to establish common schools. Although a form of public education was prevalent when the Dutch In 1784, the Legislature enacted a law incorporating West India Company controlled New Amsterdam, the the Regents of the University of the State of New York southern tip of Manhattan, public [*454] schools were as the board of trustees of Columbia, to organize other not a priority of the British authorities who assumed do- institutions of higher education, and to charter private minion in 1664 (3 Lincoln, The Constitutional History of academies, then the term for high schools (see, LaValle v New York, at 476-487 [1905]). The General Assembly Hayden, 98 N.Y.2d 155, 158-159, 746 N.Y.S.2d 125, 773 enacted two laws relating to public schools. In 1702 an N.E.2d 490 [2002]). The Regents soon realized that the act was passed for the "encouragement of a grammar free benefits of an education should be available to the school in the city of New York," which was not renewed masses. In a 1793 annual report, they stated: when it expired in 1707. (Finegan, A Documentary His- "On this occasion we cannot help suggesting to the tory of the Free School Movement in New York State, at legislature the numerous advantages which we conceive 22 [1921].) In 1732, another law was enacted "to encour- would accrue to the citizens in general from the institu- age a public school in the city of New York for teaching tion of schools in various parts of the state for the pur- Latin, Greek and Mathematics." (Id.) Only a few stu- pose of instructing our children in the lower branches of dents were able to attend the school. (Id.) Page 7 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 education; such as reading their native language with In 1800, the law expired and was not renewed de- propriety, and so much of writing and arithmetic as to spite Governor John Jay's supplications. During the next enable them, when they come forward in active life, to 11 years, the Legislature failed to respond to the suppli- transact with accuracy and despatch the business arising cations of Governor Clinton and then Governor Morgan from their daily intercourse with each other" (3 Lincoln, Lewis. The Legislature did enact several laws establish- at 502-503). ing funds to be used for the support of common schools. Two years later, Governor George Clinton embraced In 1812, the Legislature enacted, with minor modifi- the goal of public schooling and made it his foremost cations, a bill submitted by a commission it established ambition. Recognizing that the "[n]eglect of the educa- to report on a system for the establishment of common tion of youth is one of the evils consequent upon war," schools (see Judd v Board of Educ., 278 N.Y. 200, 205- Governor Clinton made the following speech when the 206, 15 N.E.2d 576 [1938]). The members were ap- Legislature of 1795 convened for the first time after the pointed by Governor Tompkins who had continued his adoption of the Constitution: predecessors' exhortations in support for common schools (3 Lincoln, at 507-508; Randall, at 8-9). In their "While it is evident that the general establishment report the commissioners concluded as follows: and liberal endowment of academies are to be highly commended, and are attended with the most beneficial "Perhaps there never will be pre- consequences, yet it can not be denied that they are prin- sented to the legislature a subject of more cipally confined to the children of the opulent, and that a importance than the establishment of great portion of the community is excluded from their common schools. Education, as the immediate advantages. The establishment of common means of improving the moral and intel- schools throughout the State is happily calculated to lectual faculties, is, under all circum- remedy this inconvenience, and will, therefore, engage stances, a subject of the most imposing your early and decided consideration" (Schools of New consideration. * * * York, at 28). "[I]n a government like ours, where That same year, the Legislature enacted a law (L the people is [*457] the sovereign 1795, ch 75) appropriating $50,000 annually for five power; where the will of the people is the years "for the [**1240] [***834] purpose of encourag- law of the land; which is openly and di- ing and maintaining schools in the several [*456] cities rectly expressed; and where every act of and towns in this state, in which the children of the in- the government may justly be called the habitants residing in the state, shall be instructed in the act of the people; it is absolutely essential English language, or be taught English grammar, arith- that that people be enlightened. They metic, mathematics, and such other branches of knowl- must possess both intelligence and virtue: edge as are most useful and necessary to complete a intelligence to perceive what is right, and good English education" (quoted in Randall, The Com- virtue to do what is right. Our republic, mon School System of the State of New York, at 6 therefore, may justly be said to be [1851] [prepared in pursuance of an act of the Legisla- founded on the intelligence and virtue of ture]; 3 Lincoln, at 526-527). the people. * * * Initially, the sum appropriated was distributed to the "As the people must receive the ad- several counties according to representation in the Legis- vantages of education, the inquiry natu- lature, and later according to their representation in the rally arises, how this end is to be attained. Assembly. In the towns, the share received hinged on The expedient devised by the legislature, the number of taxable inhabitants. In addition, each is the establishment of common schools; town was required to raise one half of the amount it re- which being spread throughout the state ceived from the State. The electors of each town and and aided by its bounty, will bring im- county were responsible for "procuring good and suffi- provement within the reach and power of cient schoolmasters, and for the erecting and maintaining the humblest citizen. * * * schools" (quoted in Randall, at 6). The electors ap- "In these schools should be taught, at pointed trustees responsible for running the schools, and least, those branches of education which commissioners responsible for running the school dis- are indispensably necessary to every per- tricts. The commissioners would distribute the public son in his intercourse with the world, and money allocated by the State according to the number of to the performance of his duty as a useful days of instruction. citizen. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and the principles of morality, are [**1241] Page 8 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 [***835] essential to every person, how- common schools are competent to instruct ever humble his situation in life. * * * A in the higher branches of knowledge. The person provided with these acquisitions, is outlines of geography, algebra, mineral- enabled to pass through the world re- ogy, agricultural chemistry, mechanical spectably and successfully" (Randall, at 9- philosophy, surveying, geometry, astron- 11). omy, political economy and ethics, might be communicated in that period of time by The Common School Act of 1812 (L 1812, ch 242) able preceptors * * * The vocation of a created a State Superintendent of Common Schools, ap- teacher, in its influence on the character pointed by the Council of Appointment. The Act contin- and destinies of the rising and all future ued the framework of its predecessor: towns were di- generations, has either not been fully un- vided into school districts and citizens qualified to vote derstood or duly estimated. It is, or ought elected trustees and commissioners. State funds were to be, ranked among the learned profes- distributed to towns according to population. Within the sions * * * I therefore recommend a semi- towns, funds were distributed based on the number of nary for the education of teachers * * * A children between the ages of 5 and 15 in each school compliance with this recommendation district. Each town was required to raise an amount equal will have the most benign influence on to their allocation. Teachers had to be examined and individual happiness and social prosper- licensed by the trustees (3 Lincoln, at 508; Randall, at ity. To break down the barriers which 11). poverty has erected against the acquisition The Act of 1812 differed in two important respects and dispensation of knowledge, is to re- from the law of 1795. First, it provided that parents, ex- store the just equilibrium of society * * * cepting the indigent, were required to contribute to the [*459] "I consider the system of our salary of teachers whenever the state funds and local common schools as the palladium of our funds were insufficient (Finegan, at 36). This was freedom * * * A visitorial authority [be- known as the rate bill. Second, the [*458] Act did not stowed upon the Secretary of State] for apply to New York City, where the Free School Society the purpose of detecting abuses in the ap- of the City of New York ran schools that did not require plication of the funds, of examining into any contribution. The Free School Society was founded the [**1242] [***836] modes and plans in 1805, with DeWitt Clinton as its first president of instruction, and of suggesting im- (Schools of New York, at 41). provements, would unquestionably be at- Gideon Hawley, the founder of what is now the tended with the most propitious effects" State University of New York at Albany, served as the (id. at 23-24). first Superintendent until 1821 when the office was abol- The next year, Governor Clinton reiterated his ear- ished and its duties transferred to the Secretary of State lier message and so did the Senate's literature committee, who served ex officio as Superintendent of Common which noted: Schools (Randall, at 18). The year 1821 was also the year of the second Constitutional Convention, which "In vain will you have established a established a perpetual fund consisting of proceeds, with system of instruction, in vain will you ap- certain exceptions, from the sale of state land to be used propriate money to educate the children of for the support of common schools (id. at 19). Five years the poor, if you do not provide persons later, in 1826, Governor DeWitt Clinton, in his address competent to execute your system, and to to the Legislature, discussed the importance of qualified teach the pupils collected in the schools * teachers and school visitors: * * [T]he incompetency of the great mass of teachers is a radical defect, which im- "The first duty of government, and pedes the whole system, frustrates the be- the surest evidence of good government, nevolent designs of the legislature, and is the encouragement of education * * * defeats the hopes and wishes of all who Our common schools embrace children feel an interest in disseminating the bless- from five to fifteen years old and continue ings of education * * * to increase and prosper. * * * "Having undertaken a system of pub- "In two years the elements of instruc- lic instruction, it is the solemn duty of the tion may be acquired, and the remaining legislature to make that system as perfect eight years must either be spent in repeti- as possible." (Id. at 28-29.) tion or in idleness, unless the teachers of Page 9 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 By 1834, the Legislature had firmly established the way they can--sustaining a school perhaps policy that the Regents were responsible for supervising only four months in the year, to secure the the instruction of common school teachers (3 Lincoln, at next apportionment of the public moneys. 515). The same year the Legislature enacted a law al- Is this policy just?--is it right to discrimi- lowing the superintendent to appoint a county board of nate in this manner, between [*461] the visitors. In 1844, the Legislature, by chapter 311 of the school children of the state? Why should Laws of 1844, established a normal school at Albany to ample provision be made for the children be supervised and controlled jointly by the Regents and residing in particular localities, and others the State Superintendent (Randall, at 55-56). turned over to the naked bounties of the state; which, although munificent in the Free School Movement aggregate, are only sufficient to pay a few A significant force instigating the establishment and weeks tuition for each child? " (Randall, improvement of common schools was the free school at 67.) movement. The name of the movement derives from the fact that the many common schools at the time were not entirely free because of the existence of the rate bill. Although poor families were exempted, the rate bill often had the effect of keeping thousands of children away n5 Earlier the same year, the superintendents of from the common schools. Many parents were unwilling 40 counties held a convention to discuss "the to be publicly adjudged indigent or too willing to [*460] practicability and expediency of ingrafting the overlook their children's truancy (Finegan, at 543). free school system upon our existing organiza- Those who supported the establishment and support of tion." (Finegan, at 101.) Horace Mann, the na- free public schools were often referred to as "the friends tional spokesman for the Common School of education." Movement, participated, giving a speech in which he told the superintendents: "If there be any such Students in New York City were not subject to the thing as innate ideas, we, in Massachusetts, are rate bill even after 1842 when the Legislature established born with an innate idea of free schools; and a public schools in the City under the general supervision citizen with us would be as much surprised, at of a board of education, in response to objections from having a rate-bill presented to him for the atten- Catholics to the Protestant leanings of the existing public dance of his children at the district school, as he schools (L 1842, ch 150). Free public schools were would if called upon to pay for enjoying the free eventually established in the other large cities of the light of the sun, or the common air of heaven." state, leaving the rate bill intact in other parts of the state. (Id. at 102.) At the Constitutional Convention of 1846, the fol- lowing provision was initially adopted by a close vote: Two years later, in 1849, after receiving numerous "The legislature shall provide for the free education and petitions, the Legislature enacted an "Act Establishing instruction of every child of the state in the common free schools throughout the state," providing that schools now established, or which shall hereafter be es- "[c]ommon schools in the several school districts in this tablished." (3 Lincoln, at 528.) n5 It was intended that state shall be free to all persons residing in the district, [**1243] [***837] the provision would also be sub- over five, and under twenty-one years of age" (L 1849, mitted to the people for their approval. The next day, ch 140, § 1). The act applied to all of the public schools, however, the provision was defeated for reasons that are including New York City. Boards of supervisors were not known (id. at 528). The friends of education pressed required to tax each county and town the same amount of on, sending petitions to the Legislature. In his 1847 an- money each was entitled to receive from the State, which nual report, Superintendent Nathaniel Benton noted: was based on population. "The extension of free schools in the School districts were given the authority to present state is progressing moderately; and laws the voters an estimate of certain expenses, and if ap- are passed nearly every session of the proved by the voters, levy the approved amount by a Legislature, providing for their establish- property tax (Randall, at 74). The law was made contin- ment in populous and wealthy villages gent on approval by the voters, and later it was approved [including New York City, Buffalo, by a vote of 249,872 to 91,951. Despite its high margin Rochester, and the Village of Poughkeep- of approval, the law did not prove popular. According to sie]; while the poorer and less populous the 1851 report of Superintendent Christopher Morgan, districts, in the same towns, are left to the boards of supervisors failed to make the necessary struggle on, from year to year, in the best Page 10 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 appropriations, leaving the school districts to raise the able' share of learning; and the residue, necessary funds. Moreover, about one-half only could either read or write." (Id. at 83.) "[i]nequalities in the valuations of taxable property contributed, in many lo- The same year, the Legislature repealed the law, re- calities, greatly to aggravate this burden, enacting the provision quoted. n6 The new act provided and a spirit of opposition to the new law, for an annual tax of $800,000, one third of which and all inflamed by its determined opponents, other funds would be distributed equally among the dis- manifested itself at the primary district tricts, and the rest distributed according to the number of meetings, and too often resulted in the en- children between the ages of 5 and 21. In addition, any tire rejection of the estimates prepared by other expenses would be provided by a rate bill exempt- the trustees * * * Appeals were assidu- ing indigent persons (Randall, at 85). ously made to the cupidity of the heavy tax-payers--their interests sought to be ar- rayed against that of their less favored brethren, and against the interests of their n6 The earlier law was ruled unconstitutional by children * * *" (Randall, at 80). this Court in 1853 for the reason that the fact of its becoming a law was made to depend upon the In arguing for a more practical law rather than the result of a popular vote (Barto v Himrod, 8 N.Y. elimination of the free school system, the Superintendent 483 [1853]). addressed the primary argument against free schools: why should certain taxpayers contribute to the education of other people's children. Echoing the arguments of In 1853, the Legislature enacted the Union Free Horace Mann and other friends of [*462] education, School Act (L 1853, ch 433) which allowed the inclusion Superintendent [**1244] [***838] Morgan argued in of secondary education within common schools, hereto- his 1851 annual report to the Legislature: fore limited to primary education. Two or more school districts could merge and create an academy, then the "Educate every child, 'to the top of term for high school, under the [*463] immediate su- his faculties,' and you not only secure the pervision of a board of education. The Superintendent community against the depredations of the retained general supervision over the common schools, ignorant and the criminal, but you bestow while the Regents were in charge of supervising and upon it, instead, productive artisans, good regulating admissions requirements of the high schools. citizens, upright jurors and magistrates, enlightened statesmen, scientific discov- In his 1855 message, Governor Myron Clark, noting erers and inventors, and the dispensers of that "[a]mong the subjects which will require your atten- a pervading influence in favor of honesty, tion there is none of more importance than the system of virtue and true goodness. Educate every public education of the State," urged the Legislature to child physically, morally and intellectu- improve the system by eliminating the rate bill, and cre- ally, from the age of four to twenty-one, ating more high schools. (Finegan, at 528.) In regards to and many of your prisons, penitentiaries the latter, he noted that in New York City, and alms-houses will be converted into "[a] free academy has been added to schools of industry and temples of sci- the system, in which a large and compe- ence, and the immense amount now con- tent corps of professors and tutors has tributed for their maintenance and support been provided, a plan of study extending will be diverted into far more profitable over five years and embracing all the channels * * * branches of study pursued in the best col- "If facts are required to illustrate the leges of the country has been adopted, connection between ignorance and crime, scientific apparatus, libraries, and all the let the official return of convictions in the aids requisite for study have been fur- several courts of the State for the last ten nished, and the general discipline and years be examined, and their instructive course of instruction have been made in lessons be heeded. Out of nearly 28,000 all respects of the highest and most effi- persons convicted of crime, but 128 had cient character. * * * While I am aware enjoyed the benefits of a good common that large cities afford facilities [**1245] school education; 414 only had what the [***839] for such a system, which cannot returning officers characterize as a 'toler- be fully enjoyed in the rural districts, I Page 11 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 think that something may be done son the declaration which your committee throughout the State in this direction. A have reported in section one might, no voluntary beginning, indeed, has already doubt, be omitted without endangering the been made in some sections, by the estab- stability of our present system of educa- lishment of union schools; and their suc- tion. But the same reasoning would apply cess shows that the system is not wholly to many other matters though fundamental impracticable" (id. at 530). * * *" (id. at 3). In 1867, after years of arduous and vigorous lobby- In a comment that, in part, explains the brevity of ing from the friends of education, the Legislature elimi- the section, the committee stated, "No desire to confine nated the rate bill by chapter 406 of the Laws of 1867, the new Constitution to the narrowest possible limits of thus allowing all students in the state to attend school for space should prevent the adoption of an enactment de- free without any out-of-pocket contributions (3 Lincoln, claring in the strongest possible terms the interest of the at 530). A year later, Governor Reuben Eaton Fenton State in its common schools." (Id. at 4.) In regards to the noted that the elimination of the rate bill was "producing purpose of ensuring that the children of the state have the a very large increase in the aggregate number of pupils at opportunity to obtain a free education in the state's com- the schools, and greater regularity in their attendance." mon schools, the committee stated: (Id. at 531.) "Whatever may have been their value The Constitutional Convention that took place in heretofore, and language has been 1867 adopted the following provision: "The legislature strained to the utmost in applying to them shall provide for the free instruction in the common terms of praise, their importance for the schools of this state, of all persons between seven and future cannot be overestimated. The pub- twenty years of age." The spokesman for the education lic problems confronting the rising committee stated as follows: [**1246] [***840] generation will de- mand accurate knowledge and the highest [*464] "[I]f there is any thing that development [*465] of reasoning power should be constitutionalized because of its more than ever before, and in view of the great importance, it is the all-important, State's policy as to higher education, to overriding interest of education. Sir, I re- which reference will presently be made, gard it as being paramount to every other too much attention cannot be called to the interest in this State. I regard this article fact that the highest leadership is impossi- as being more important to the people of ble without intelligent following, and that the State, to every man, woman and child the foundation of our educational system in the State than any other article that has must be permanent, broad and firm, if the been under consideration in this Conven- superstructure is to be of real value" (id.). tion" (4 Proceedings and Debates of 1867- 1868 NY Constitutional Convention, at The words of the committee echo the words of those 2856). who supported free public education, beginning with Governor George Clinton. Because of an unrelated political controversy, the Convention disbanded without any amendment to the Present Litigation Constitution. As stated in plaintiffs' brief, their complaint alleges At the next Constitutional Convention in 1894, the the following: committee on education drafted the clause that became "(1) RCSD students receive a shock- section 1 of the Education Article: "The legislature shall ingly inadequate education, as measured provide for the maintenance and support of a system of by all academic standards; free common schools, wherein all the children of this State may be educated." (2 Documents of 1894 NY Con- "(2) RCSD schools have an over- stitutional Convention No. 62, at 1.) As to the reason for whelmingly high level of poverty concen- constitutionalizing the duty of the State to establish and tration and racial isolation; maintain a system of free common schools, the commit- tee on education stated as follows: "(3) The excessively high concentra- tion of poverty found in RCSD schools is "It may be urged that no imagination a direct and primary cause of the subpar can picture this State refusing to provide education received by RCSD students; education for its children, and for this rea- Page 12 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 "(4) The state defendants are aware, tion of the plaintiffs in CFE I, that if the schools were and have consistently acknowledged, that provided with essential services such as certified teach- poverty concentration is a direct and pri- ers, the schools would become more class balanced, in- mary cause of inadequate education; creasing the chances that the schools would provide a sound basic education. "(5) Laws and rules created and en- forced by the state defendants have cre- That expectation is less likely in the relatively small ated and perpetuated the concentration of City of Rochester where nearly 60% of the households poverty; and are low-income. In addition, all but 100 of the 2,494 units of public housing in Monroe County are located in "(6) The state defendants have failed the City of Rochester. to take the steps that are necessary to pre- vent, reduce and/or eliminate poverty Plaintiffs should be given the opportunity to estab- concentration so as to provide RCSD stu- lish that in light of the history of segregation, and the dents with an opportunity to obtain a high concentration of poor and minority students, the sound basic education." resources made available under the State's financing sys- tem are inadequate to provide them with the opportunity Plaintiffs rely on expert testimony and state docu- to obtain the skills necessary to enable them to function ments to support these allegations. productively as civic participants capable of voting and Interpreting the allegations liberally and giving them serving on a jury. Plaintiffs should be able to show that the benefit of all favorable inferences (CFE I, 86 N.Y.2d in the City of Rochester, additional resources are needed. at 317), as we must, plaintiffs have properly pleaded a [*467] While the clear emphasis of the allegations cause of action under the Education Article. Specifically, of the complaint is on the racial and poverty aspects of plaintiffs' allegations [*466] support the claim that in the Rochester schools, this record does not indicate that light of the state's history of segregation, providing a the resources of the Rochester school district are ade- sound education in a school district with a high concen- quate. In fact, the record shows the opposite. The out- tration of poor and minorities requires more than the comes alleged in the complaint are indications that the minimal funds the State has provided. Plaintiffs cite to a resources are inadequate. n7 As in CFE I, plaintiffs 1998 SED report stating schools in districts such as would have to prove that there is a link between the out- Rochester comes and the action or inaction of the State and that if "by and large, are schools faced with the State provides sufficient funds, they would have ac- the challenge of educating large numbers cess to the resources that would allow the schools to pro- of children placed at risk by poverty * * * vide a sound basic education. Throughout this report, in fact, we docu- ment a dismaying alignment of disadvan- taged children (disproportionately chil- dren of color), schools with the poorest n7 The majority quotes from a paragraph of educational resources (fiscal and human), plaintiffs' reply brief to show that plaintiffs do not and substandard achievement." allege lack of adequate resources. But plaintiffs It cannot be overlooked that there is a correlation be- explicitly say that they do allege inadequate edu- tween plaintiffs' claim that a high concentration of poor cational services, even though they feel they were and minority students denies an opportunity for a sound not required to. Plaintiffs do argue that a school education and the fact that the funds available to their in which most students are poor and minority re- district are primarily based on property taxes. quires greater educational resources. In their own words, Like the plaintiffs in CFE I, plaintiffs argue that they are being deprived of the opportunity to obtain the skills "when a large percentage of a class is com- necessary to become productive citizens capable of vot- prised of special education students or English- ing and serving on a jury. The plaintiffs in CFE I pre- language learners, the impact on the classroom sumably believed that the opportunity for a sound educa- and on the resources needed is significant. tion would be available in New York City if schools "The same reasoning holds true when a large were provided with adequate teachers, updated books percentage of the class is comprised of poor stu- and so forth. New York City is a very diverse city in dents. The Defendants would surely not dispute [**1247] [***841] every sense of the word. Although that a class in which 90% of the students did not many of New York City's approximately 1.1 million pub- know English, or in which 90% were special edu- lic school students are poor, it was clearly the expecta- Page 13 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 cation students, would call for different educa- would indeed be beyond the scope of this Court's powers tional approaches and greater resources than a in this action. The Education Article does not require class containing no special education students or that the State ensure that families understand the impor- no English-language learners. On what basis, tance of an education, or for that matter ensure that par- therefore, can Defendants argue that a classroom ents are active participants in the education of their chil- poverty rate of 90% has no bearing on the educa- dren. But this is a red herring. It is the official policy of tion available in that classroom? A class with the Regents, and thus of the State, since the former is a such a high poverty rate obviously would require creature of the latter, that all children can learn (see far different approaches and resources than a United States v Yonkers Bd. of Educ., 123 F. Supp. 2d low-poverty classroom--and so the poverty con- 694, 701 n 11 [SD NY 2000]). A child who lives in a centration of a classroom is clearly an educational high crime neighborhood with one parent struggling to input affecting the delivery of education" (em- make ends meet is capable of learning. It is plaintiffs' phasis added). contention that when a school population is made up almost entirely of such children, the opportunity to learn vanishes. In essence, the argument is that schools that Even interpreting plaintiffs' allegations narrowly, as are racially and socially segregated do not provide the the majority does following the footsteps of the lower opportunity for a sound basic education even if the fund- courts, plaintiffs have properly pleaded a cause of action ing may be adequate. The alleged cause of the problem, under the Education Article. Under this view, plaintiffs the high concentration of poor and minority students, is are unconcerned with adequate funding. It is worth not- not one that is beyond the powers of the State to remedy. ing, however, that although plaintiffs focus on the con- centration of poor and minority students, they do not The Constitution does not place the responsibility of claim that funding does not matter. Even if, as the ma- providing a sound education on local school districts, or jority states, the allegations of the present complaint are towns, or [*469] cities. It places that responsibility inadequate, plaintiffs should be given an opportunity to squarely on the State. The purpose of the Education replead their causes of action. Article was to constitutionalize the State's responsibility to ensure that students would have access to a sound [**1248] [***842] In any event, we should not be education. If students cannot depend on the State for the satisfied that lack of funding, the only alleged culprit in opportunity of a sound education, the alternative is to Levittown and CFE I, is the one and only possible reason attend schools that do not offer the opportunity for a for the State's failure to provide the opportunity [*468] sound education and to face the significant likelihood of of a sound education. To be sure, there is language in becoming unproductive citizens. Levittown that supports the view that the State's only responsibility is to ensure that a system of education is Plaintiffs reject the argument that they should sim- funded, but that was not the holding of the case (57 ply petition the Legislature for redress, responding that N.Y.2d at 48). The holding with respect to the Education the Legislature has consistently turned its back on them Article was that it does not mandate that educational op- despite a thorough familiarity with their plight. In addi- portunities be equal throughout the state. tion, they argue, the Legislature at one point pursued policies to perpetuate their segregation, which still rever- The State has the responsibility to maintain and sup- berate today. More importantly, plaintiffs contend that it port a system in which students have access to a sound is this Court's [**1249] [***843] duty to say what the education. If students lack access to a sound basic edu- law is, to determine if there is a legal right, and if so, to cation because of a high number of uncertified teachers, provide a remedy (see Marbury v Madison, 1 Cranch [5 then it is the State's responsibility to remedy that prob- U.S.] 137, 162-163, 2 L. Ed. 60 [1803]). lem. If the concentration of poor and minority students, assuming it is true, will necessarily result in schools that The conditions alleged by the plaintiffs would have do not offer the opportunity of a sound basic education, alarmed the framers of the Education Article, who were even with adequate funding, then the State should rem- duly concerned with the education of the poor. In re- edy that problem. It may very well be the case, as the sponding to those who criticized the existence of school Appellate Division stated, that "[t]here are myriad rea- districts with high schools, they quoted from the follow- sons for academic failure that are beyond the control of ing words of Superintendent Kennedy: the State." (290 A.D.2d at 101.) The majority suggests "If the opponents of high schools "lack of family supports and health care" as possible could carry their point we should soon causes of academic failure (majority op at 441). It is not have class education in its most vicious plaintiffs' contention, however, that the State should pro- form. The wealthy classes would simply vide free health care outside of the school setting or re- send their children to private high schools, sources intended to forge family ties. Such remedies Page 14 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 and the progressive deterioration of the In sum, I would permit the plaintiffs to attempt to lower grades, unsupported by a high prove their case under the Education Article, or give the school center, would cause them to with- plaintiffs an opportunity to replead their cause of action. draw their children entirely from those grades. Those grades would thus be abandoned to the poorer classes, and at- tendance in them would become a badge of indigence. When the public school de- generates into a mere charity school the proudest of the poor will save their self- respect by keeping out of it. The public school then would be merely an assembly of paupers. As the genius of the Ameri- can people have contrived it, it is the West Point of civil life, it is the people's train- ing house for on-coming citizenship" (2 Documents of 1894 NY Constitutional Convention No. 62, at 8). There is no merit to the argument that allowing plaintiffs' suit to go forward is inconsistent with local control of education. [*470] First of all, as it stands now, the State's control over its public schools through laws and regulations is pervasive. Second, plaintiffs are not arguing for the elimination of local school boards. They argue that the State should not draw district lines in a manner that encircles poor and minority students, and sets them up for failure. There is nothing sacrosanct about district lines. In 1894, there were 11,000 school districts. By the time of Levittown, there were 700 (57 N.Y.2d at 44, 47). It cannot be said that the centraliza- tion that has occurred, and that may continue to occur, violates the Education Article. Moreover, local control has always taken a backseat to larger state interests (see Griffey, The History of Local School Control in the State of New York [1936]). Here, the larger interest is the need to insure that plaintiffs have access to a sound edu- cation. It should not be assumed, at this early stage of this litigation, that if plaintiffs were successful, the only rem- edy would entail the forced busing of students. As a model of a successful public high school, plaintiffs point to the Wilson Magnet High School located in the City of Rochester. According to plaintiffs, the school was iden- tified as one of the top 100 public schools in the country. Plaintiffs also cite the Benjamin Franklin High School whose Latin team won 52 state-wide level awards at the New York State Classical League Convention and Latin Competition. While the Education Article certainly does not require that every high school perform as well as these schools, they show that with sufficient efforts, as required by the Education Article, all the children in the City of Rochester would have the opportunity to attend schools that at a minimum provide a sound education. Page 15 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 their counterparts in surrounding [*472] states, in aca- Appendix to Dissenting Opinion demics or in the job market"); Edgewood Ind. School See Serrano v Priest, 18 Cal. 3d 728, 766, 557 P.2d Dist. v Kirby, 777 S.W.2d 391, 394-397, 33 Tex. Sup. Ct. 929, 951, 135 Cal. Rptr. 345 (1976)("education is a fun- J. 12 (Tex 1989)("If the system is not 'efficient' or not damental interest"); Horton v Meskill, 172 Conn. 615, 'suitable,' the legislature has not discharged its constitu- 648-649, 376 A.2d 359, 374 (1977) ("without doubt the tional duty and it is our duty to say so. * * * Children trial court correctly held that, in Connecticut, [*471] who live in poor districts and children who live in rich elementary and secondary education is a fundamental districts must be afforded a substantially equal opportu- right, that pupils in the public schools are entitled to the nity to have access to educational funds"); Abbott by equal enjoyment of that right, and that the state system of Abbot v Burke, 119 N.J. 287, 384-385, 575 A.2d 359, financing public elementary and secondary education as 384-385 (1990) ("students in poorer urban districts have it presently exists and operates cannot pass the test of not been able to participate fully as citizens [**1251] 'strict judicial scrutiny' as to its constitutionality"); Seat- [***845] and workers in our society. They have not tle School Dist. No. 1 of King County v. State, 90 Wash been able to achieve any level of equality in that society 2d 476, 496, 517, 585 P.2d 71, 83-84, 94 (1978)(finding with their peers from the affluent suburban districts. * * that court had a duty to interpret the Education Article * We find that in order to provide a thorough and effi- "even when that interpretation serves as a check on the cient education in these poorer urban districts, the State activities of another branch or is contrary to the view of must assure that their educational expenditures per pupil the constitution taken by another branch * * * [T]he are substantially equivalent to those of the more affluent State's constitutional duty goes beyond mere reading, suburban districts, and that, in addition, their special dis- writing and arithmetic. It also embraces broad educa- advantages must be addressed "); McDuffy v Secretary of tional opportunities needed in the contemporary setting Exec. Off. of Educ., 415 Mass. 545, 606, 615 N.E.2d 516, to equip our children for their role as citizens and as po- 548 (1993) ("the Commonwealth has a duty to provide tential competitors in today's market as well as in the an education for all its children, rich and poor, in every market place of ideas"); Pauley v. Kelly, 162 W. Va. 672, city and town of the Commonwealth at the public school 705-707, 255 S.E.2d 859, 877-878 (1979)("We may now level, and * * * this duty is designed not only to serve the define a thorough and efficient system of schools: It de- interests of the children, but, more fundamentally, to velops, as best the state of education expertise allows, the prepare them to participate as free citizens of a free State minds, bodies and social morality of its charges to pre- to meet the needs and interests of a republican govern- pare them for useful and happy occupations, recreation ment, namely the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. and citizenship, and does so economically. * * * Be- This duty lies squarely on the executive [magistrates] cause education is a fundamental constitutional right in and legislative [Legislatures] branches of this Common- this State, then, under our equal protection guarantees wealth. That local control and fiscal support has been any discriminatory classification found in the educational placed in greater or lesser measure through our history financing system cannot stand unless the State can dem- on local governments does not dilute the validity of this onstrate some compelling State interest to justify the conclusion"); Tennessee Small School Sys. v. unequal classification"); Rose v Council for Better Educ., McWherter, 851 S.W.2d 139, 155 (Tenn. Inc., 790 S.W.2d 186, 209, 211, 212 (Ky 1989) ("The 1993)(discussing Education Clause, but holding that judiciary has the ultimate power, and the duty, to apply, financial disparities violated State Equal Protection interpret, define, construe all words, phrases, sentences Clause even if the right to a public education was not and sections of the Kentucky Constitution as necessitated fundamental, because the educational system "has no by the controversies before it * * * This duty must be rational bearing on the educational needs of the dis- exercised even when such action serves as a check on the tricts"); Roosevelt Elementary School Dist. No. 66 v activities of another branch of government or when the Bishop, 179 Ariz. 233, 239-242, 877 P.2d 806, 812-815 court's view of the constitution is contrary to that of other (1994) ("the conventioneers believed that a free society branches, or even that of the public. * * * [T]he children could not exist without educated participants. * * * who live in the poor districts and the children who live in Funding mechanisms that provide sufficient funds to the rich districts must be given the same opportunity and educate children on substantially equal terms tend to access to an adequate education," defined as one which satisfy the general and uniform requirement. School has as its goal the development of seven minimum ca- financing systems which themselves create gross dispari- pacities, including "[i] sufficient oral and written com- ties are not general and uniform. * * * As [*473] long munication skills to enable students to function in a as the statewide system provides an adequate education, complex and rapidly changing civilization; * * * [vii] and is not itself the cause of substantial disparities, local sufficient levels of academic or vocational skills to en- political subdivisions can go above and beyond the able public school students to compete favorably with statewide system"); Claremont School Dist. v Governor, Page 16 100 N.Y.2d 434, *; 797 N.E.2d 1225, **; 765 N.Y.S.2d 819, ***; 2003 N.Y. LEXIS 1672 138 N.H. 183, 192, 635 A.2d 1375, 1381 (1993)("Given the duty to provide a means for school districts to fund the complexities of our society today, the State's consti- facilities that offer a safe environment conducive to tutional duty extends beyond mere reading, writing and learning" and that regulations promulgated by executive arithmetic. It also includes broad educational opportuni- branch involving "requirements for school facilities, in- ties needed in today's society to prepare citizens for their structional programs and textbooks, and transportation role as participants and as potential competitors in to- systems * * * are consistent with our view of thorough- day's marketplace of ideas"); Helena Elementary School ness"]; Abbeville County School Dist. v State, 335 S.C. Dist. No. 1 v. State, 236 Mont. 44, 55, 769 P.2d 684, 690 58, 515 S.E.2d 535 [1999]; Skeen v State, 505 N.W.2d (1989) ("We conclude that as a result of the failure to 299, 313 [Minn 1993] ["on balance, we hold that educa- adequately fund the Foundation Program, forcing an ex- tion is a fundamental right under the state constitution, cessive reliance on permissive and voted levies, the State not only because of its overall importance to the state but has failed to provide a system of quality public education also because of the explicit language used to describe granting to each student the equality of educational op- this constitutional mandate"]; Scott v Commonwealth, portunity guaranteed under" the State Education Article); 247 Va. 379, 386, 443 S.E.2d 138, 142, 10 Va. Law Rep. Campbell County School Dist. v State of Wyoming, 907 1192 [1994] ["we agree with the trial court that educa- P.2d 1238, 1264 (Wyo 1995) ("Constitutional provisions tion is a fundamental right under the (State) Constitu- imposing an affirmative mandatory duty upon the legis- tion"]; Exira Community School Dist. v. State, 512 lature are judicially enforceable in protecting individual N.W.2d 787, 796 [Iowa 1994] ["a student has a due rights, such as educational rights * * * Although this process right to an adequate education"]; see also Gould court has said the judiciary will not encroach into the v Orr, 244 Neb. 163, 168, 506 N.W.2d 349, 353 [1993] legislative field of policy making, as the final authority ["appellants failed to state facts sufficient to state a cause on constitutional questions the judiciary has the constitu- of action. Appellants' petition * * * does not specifically tional duty to declare unconstitutional that which trans- allege any assertion that * * * disparity in funding is in- gresses the state constitution"); DeRolph v State, 78 Ohio adequate and results in inadequate schooling"]; School St. 3d 193, 197-205, 1997 Ohio 84, 677 N.E.2d 733, 737- Admin. Dist. No. 1 v Commissioner, Dept. of Educ., 659 742 (1997) ("we dismiss as unfounded any suggestion A.2d 854, 857, n 5 [Me 1995] ["we believe that chal- that the problems presented by [**1252] [***846] this lenges to the state's financing of education beyond what case should be left for the General Assembly to resolve * is necessary to provide an adequate level of education * * [E]vidence was presented to establish that the appel- which meets all state standards must be evaluated, not lant school districts were starved for funds, lacked teach- under strict scrutiny, but rather under the rational basis ers, buildings, and equipment, and had inferior educa- test, and we will not set aside the legislature's determina- tional programs, and that their pupils were being de- tion unless the funding system employed somehow im- prived of educational opportunity"); Brigham v State, pinges upon the adequacy with which the state meets the 166 Vt. 246, 268, 692 A.2d 384, 397 (1997) ("Children fundamental right to a general and uniform education"]; who live in property-poor districts and children who live Vincent v Voight, 236 Wis. 2d 588, 599 n 2, 614 N.W.2d in property-rich districts should be afforded a substan- 388, 396, n 2, 2000 WI 93 [2000]["We are satisfied that tially equal opportunity to have access to similar educa- the issues presented to us in this case are appropriate for tional revenues. * * * [W]e hold only that to fulfill its decision by this court in the exercise of our constitutional constitutional obligation the state must ensure substantial role. This is an area where all three of the co-equal equality of educational opportunity throughout Ver- branches of state government share power and authority mont"); Leandro v State, 346 N.C. 336, 347, 488 S.E.2d consistent with the Wisconsin Constitution"]). A few 249, 255 (1997)(adopting the same minimum standard as courts have agreed with the conclusion of Judge Simons Rose [supra]; Lakeview School Dist. No. 25 of Phillips and Judge Read (Ex parte James, 836 So. 2d 813, 2002 County v Huckabee, 351 Ark. 31, 57-59, 91 S.W.3d 472, WL 1150823 [Ala 2002] ; Marrero ex rel. [**1253] 487-488 (2002)(same). Even in cases where plaintiffs Tabalas v. Commonwealth, 559 Pa. 14, 739 A.2d 110 have not prevailed, some [*474] courts have found that [1999]; Lewis E. v. Spagnolo, 186 Ill. 2d 198, [*475] education is a fundamental right and others have estab- 710 N.E.2d 798, [***847] 238 Ill. Dec. 1 [1999]; City lished constitutional minimums (Idaho Schools for Equal of Pawtucket v Sundlun, 662 A.2d 40 [RI 1995]; Coali- Educ. Opportunity v State, 132 Idaho 559, 563, 565, 976 tion for Adequacy and Fairness in School Funding, Inc. v P.2d 913, 917, 919 [1998] [finding that "Legislature has Chiles, 680 So. 2d 400 [Fla. 1996]).
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