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Raiders reporters Paul Gutierrez and Kate Longworth break down the Raiders' first win of the season.
Machine Generated Transcript
-- -- -- and -- -- -- you after the -- big win over the Steelers for CSN California dot com is your insider on the tear at them all. Let's start with. -- I was going on before this game I mean this is a day. You -- -- -- Tom Kelly -- media must win situation Raiders are going up against a rival franchise and that. People not really believing Oakland still hasn't and it hits a home game they really need to go out there who themselves you feel like they did that in this victory in itself out. Yeah I mean basically as as Dennis -- himself said it all that really matters is if you have one more point at the end of sixty minutes in the other team. And they did they had a -- more in Indy it was a game of of a lot of beds and blows in and you saw that they actually showed a lot of heart. A lot of gumption really to come back from being down by ten points. In the second half and beyond that it was a great all around -- for any raider fan so to speak with Marcus Allen being out there. In any raider fan worth his or her salt is gonna know. Of the the defense of this in between Al Davis and Marcus and in fact that he was welcome back. Just whether raider organization but by mark Davis and Mark Davis told me himself that this me meant a lot his mom. So is a lot of healing going on and in what makes that type of healing feeling better a victory over a rival franchise that you've had a lot of battles with. A lot of -- list since the seventies. I'm gonna break down at it because I kept watching it going OK at eighteen years maximum and instinct at that. And really there is too -- and even put on -- but let's act and is now he's going to -- -- -- the youngest is in the and -- and I'm just turned forty. Saturday on Sunday it's his first victory at -- it. Let's talk about. I can't get the copycat because you know you know exactly about we're gonna break it down when he gets out of action on in the neutral zone. But it kind of a little -- it reward play as well but what do you see a -- at him just taking charge at this. I think the smile he had when he was asked. Did you do that where you gonna run a play or we just trying to get them jump and he smiled and he said. We got to play definitely after they got the Steelers adjusted yet to forty year old coaches staring each other in the I'm wondering. It will whose guys are gonna blink first in the Steelers they blink first in the readers got a full set of downs and and they made it happens for a touchdown Richard Gordon with a persistent -- NFL careers so. You just saw a lot of growing moments rites of passage in this game and it's one of those things again -- when these two franchises -- up. You know there was no immaculate reception here in this game there was no Marcus -- going over the top ten -- -- up on top light the flame. It's one of those situations where only. A game between these two franchises can treat as many moments that. Andy in this game we the reader's ability to fight adversity a lot of things were going against the -- different points you start off with that -- -- -- and then all the exciting cars in his first it egos and -- he put on the dirt to combat. That's not more height and is the start of the cart in Rio public in the fourth quarter they get the ends of a lot of things happening. But what does that say about the strange changes that -- see what he does that at least you come back from it does that kind of restore faith for the fans that this team. Can battle through that as you know -- probably going to be an issue all season long. Yeah and and I think when you see the team able to come back through that be able to to fight through that type of adversity and have some success that just basically. Lets the fans know that -- they know what's gonna what's been they're never gonna really quit so to speak offensively and I asked Carson Palmer. What it was like in that huddle. As things are going on and get all the craziness going around is sold out stadium and the fans cheering you get guys are just gassed tired. -- was like in the huddle that Tom. It's calm in when you get guys come like that remind me again of another epic game between the Raiders Steelers the Bruce Gradkowski and back in 2009. And Bruce told me that -- that he had to get in Mario. Anderson's face telling stop looking at the boarding didn't pay attention here you know an eagle on the game winning drive it's the exact same kind of thing that happened here to -- that. That you have to get in anybody's face the -- realize what was at stake in that speaks lines. I think that does adding that what you're -- that's very scenic area I think that is. Carson Palmer breezes he is Mary evening -- on and off and it helped perhaps. The team plane to all three penalties in that that. Let's talk about. The running game. Obviously -- -- dared me that he did not play in Austin doesn't really care about -- teams are doing it does care about Raiders and be happy after that game and at finding the end -- on that big run. What you see from -- I think you saw what he can do when he gets comfortable in that zone and when the guys that are actually running that's -- lucky scheme opened up those lanes. Is huge hole. He -- he took off he made one guy that was in the -- -- get him make him miss and any out ran into the -- that actually had an angle on him so you see what you can do. And they've been talking all along. That. They believe in it they've been preaching patience and perspective. And and -- he did he broke a 64 yard run within troublesome along with that in the first half was he also ran the ball five times in the first half for four yards. Still at the end of the day he has over a hundred yards and win great -- genius wink wink. But. It broke through and it broke free for a and that's that's what you see you remember the positive plays. Sensibly to break this down into parts for you is pretty subtle play -- the rap that he's got to talk about does that mean two -- about. The defense that finally get their first victory of the season and -- -- -- -- gap. So they haven't talked about having a great deal -- -- classic defense done and on the warmer up and families or. Yeah and really can make -- a case that of course he -- -- wins the game but you can make a case that. The play of the game was at least stripping the ball because the Steelers were driving downfield. And they -- races to go ahead are you pushed the -- even higher readers come down and take advantage of it get a field goal tied the game so. You know Pat -- had a really really tough game in Miami last week and that's pretty much forgotten them is that makes huge play and as everybody knows in -- -- for not for long. As far as memories good and bad. Not for long and I just -- -- Raiders insider Paul Gutierrez thinking -- right here on the California got hot. We haven't seen and as much as it takes to get information we wanna get up straighter and so -- we got wrapped blocking bias here actually and closing the doors. On his dad being dad reader's mind.
Video Results
Let's go back to the coliseum and up Bruce Gradkowski was corner like Jimmy January have for us. But thanks guys brisket Gradkowski nice to have to stop by for all of it let's first talk about JaMarcus Russell what you saw from him just watching
Bruce Gradkowski talks with reporters, raw and uncut.
Bruce Gradkowski talks with reporters on December 16th.
Raiders QB Bruce Gradkowski says this weekend's game against the Redskins will give the Raiders a chance to prove to people that they can be consistent by winning back-to-back games.
The Raiders have picked up their practice this week ..... eleven guys that you have on the field. The Raiders they have a problem with that because Jason ..... run game then they can stop the Eagles. Raiders outside linebacker Moore is the resident
faster he rolled out administratively in the end zone our biggest matchup to watch the Raiders against the Philadelphia Eagles on Sundays and Jason Hunter. The Raiders base and it against lane Johnson the number four overall pick out of Oklahoma the
I'm Scott Raiders insider for CSN California and this is your ..... Philadelphia Eagles. And this one deals with the Raiders running game which has gotten better at ..... and he can gain steady yards and keep this raiders ' offense moving.
Are close from what he's what they've shown in the past it's a good scheme and it's it's designed to get playmakers in space. And so the biggest thing for us defenders want to make sure were eleven guys on the same page in two. Make sure there isn't any space and when they if they get the ball to
So you know I mean we we practiced the no huddle offense. A lot of the last couple of days and in disorganized it used to. The fact they're on the ball pretty quick and in being able to handle that communication process of that we have to be able handles so. Our guys really to this point and done a
Editor's note: This is the first part in a series that spotlights three Raiders -Eagles matchups to watch Sunday, 1:05 p.m., at Oakland Coliseum. Raiders RB Darren McFadden vs. Eagles NT Bennie Logan Tale of the tape: McFadden
The Raiders have gone cold on offense late in three straight games and Greg Olson believes that's not a product of poor play-calling choices.
Just a day after Raiders coach Dennis Allen said Andre Holmes' role would increase, the receiver was added to the injury report.
Programming note: Watch Thursday's Raiders press conference with Dennis Allen, Jason Tarver and Greg Olson streaming live online right here at 1:10pm Raiders linebacker Sio Moore is always seems in good spirits. The locker room jester is
Eagles head coach Chip Kelly has been a Terrelle Pryor fan for years. He tried, but failed to recruit the Raiders quarterback out of high school.
Might the Bills knock off the undefeated Chiefs in Week 9? How will the Raiders fare against Philly? PFT's picks within.
Once upon a time, Chip Kelly strongly recruited Terrelle Pryor to attend Oregon. On Sunday, his team must find a way to slow the Raiders ' QB.
Good news for homebound Raiders fans in the Bay Area -- you'll be able to watch Sunday's game live on local TV.
ALAMEDA – Just a day after Raiders coach Dennis Allen said Andre Holmes' role would increase, the ..... Criner, might be activated for the first time this season. The Raiders could also play with four receivers, as they did during the first
ALAMEDA – The Raiders ' game against the Philadelphia Eagles on Sunday at Oakland Coliseum ..... home market. This marks the fifth straight sellout this season. The Raiders decreased their overall capacity to 52,300 this season, which makes
may not have that option. Because the Raiders are still woefully thin at offensive tackle ..... called on Sunday against the Eagles. Raiders head coach Dennis Allen expects that receiver ..... more and more snaps as the weeks go on. Raiders left tackle Jared here received some good
Sit down Glen Davis. and it Los Angeles. opinion is he where he is to and you realized. Yes it in and we're we're at a point now where we can kind of RAMP up the the rehab a little bit I still think he's a little bit away. But. You know indications are that he's on schedule. And we're going to be
start news. We all the right things for. players to ever have. Q what corner what's that guys being involved overhead Raiders . doctor's help our team has guys she contracts but it is Nike Adidas store. that's over by government makes for these
I think you another Raiders they host the Eagles Sunday which quarterback will they face Michael Vick he's now so looks like nick Coles is coming back from
So I am looking forward to the greatest game this weekend yeah. Do. Tell you read my game preview this morning I remember my three keys to slowing down their offense. Yeah I was to stop there this morning and brought some really interesting used to. Good that you definitely need some fresh and


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VIENNA, Austria | On a late September afternoon, four Russian-speaking gunmen tried to kidnap Kazakhstan's former intelligence chief off a sidewalk in the heart of this normally low-crime capital.
Authorities said it was the third attempt this year against Kazakh political exiles in Austria, and it was bold: Assailants pressed a gun to the man's forehead and broke his translator's nose before cries from passers-by prompted the attackers to flee — all within view of a local police station.
The former official, Alnur Musayev, said he thinks the men were hired by agents of Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev as part of a vendetta against associates of Rakhat Aliyev, the president's former son-in-law. Once a senior diplomat, Mr. Aliyev antagonized the president early last year by vowing to challenge Mr. Nazarbayev in the Central Asian country's next elections.
Opposition and human rights groups said the incident in Vienna fits a pattern of efforts by the Nazarbayev regime to muzzle rivals. This is especially troubling, they say, because Kazakhstan is to chair the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), an intergovernmental body devoted to security and democracy, in 2010. Foreign ministers from the 56-nation group meet Thursday and Friday in Finland.
Kazakhstan, situated between China and Russia, has blossomed into the region's biggest economy. Its strategic location, secular government and substantial mineral and energy reserves have prompted the United States to seek closer ties. But critics say that rigged elections, severe restrictions on the media and systemic corruption have hamstrung the country's transition to a democratic state.
Mr. Aliyev, 45, a businessman who has served as ambassador to Austria and the OSCE, was dismissed in May after criticizing Mr. Nazarbayev's move to amend the national constitution to enable him to be president for life.
Kazakh officials then issued an arrest warrant and extradition request, citing Mr. Aliyev's purported involvement in the January beatings and abductions of two bank officials in Kazakhstan — a charge Mr. Aliyev denies as politically motivated.
Austria has refused to extradite Mr. Aliyev, fearing that he would not be given a fair trial.
The Kazakh government nonetheless convicted Mr. Aliyev and Mr. Musayev in absentia, along with 14 others, in a closed military trial on charges of seeking to overthrow the state, sharing state secrets, running an organized-crime group and "abuse of power."
According to a recent report by Amnesty International, supporters and employees of Mr. Aliyev were arbitrarily detained and held "incommunicado in pre-charge and pre-trial detention facilities" where they were "tortured or otherwise ill-treated with the aim of extracting 'confessions' that they had participated in the alleged coup plot."
"I believe that we witnessed another display of Kafkaesque justice in the case of the secret trial against the group, which is indicative of President Nazarbayev's continued unwillingness to treat his political opponents in a civilized and fair manner," said Peter Zalmayev of the Eurasia Democracy Initiative, a nonprofit organization based in New York.
The Kazakh Embassy in Austria declined a request for comment. An official at the Kazakh Embassy in Washington said that the press spokesman was traveling and could not be reached.
Kazakh authorities have charged that Mr. Aliyev abducted two managers at Nurbank, a bank under his control plagued by financial irregularities, and then threatened to shoot them if they did not sign over assets.
Some observers have said that Mr. Aliyev turned vengeful after losing what they called ill-gotten media and banking assets, as well as his marriage to Mr. Nazarbayev's eldest daughter, Dariga Nazarbayeva, also an influential politician, which had ensured his place in the inner circle of power.
In a recent interview overseen by a bodyguard at a busy downtown cafe, Mr. Aliyev said he came from a system that was far from perfect, and that it was his nascent efforts to combat corruption and push for reforms that got him into trouble.

subset: commoncrawl


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Summer 2015 at The Crime Fiction Academy
Jonathan Santlofer: On the Short Story
Dates: July 13 - 16
Time: 10am - 1pm
Please note: There will be an additional panel from 7pm-8pm on Thursday, July 16
We are now offering a 10% tuition discount to members of the New York Chapter of Mystery Writers of America for our Spring 2015 session. Just email firstname.lastname@example.com with proof of membership to receive the discount. If you are part of another MWA chapter and will be in New York this spring, let us know and we can also provide the discount for you. Please note: when purchasing workshop with MWA discount, please use the nonmember price unless you are seperately a member of The Center for Fiction.
The Crime Fiction Academy made its debut in mid-February 2012. Students are taught by successful practitioners of the genre, and classes take place in The Center's eight-story building at 17 E. 47th Street in Manhattan. Every writer enrolled in CFA attends a 12-week writing workshop (divided up into two six-week sessions), plus master classes with experts in the field. All classes, workshops, and lectures take place in the evening. Students may enroll for one term, but commitment of at least a year is advised to take full advantage of the program. Anyone can enroll! Click here to find out more about the program.
We would like to congratulate CFA students Rhonda Gold and Jackie Freimor, whose stories "One Shoe, Purple" (Gold) and "Some Country" (Freimor) have been selected for Akashic's Mondays Are Murder series.
Congratulations to Crime Fiction Academy alum Michael Weinreb (left), whose story "The Ocean" has been selected for inclusion in Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine.
And hats off to Rich Zahradnik, whose novel Last Words will be published by Camel Press—along with three more in the series. Rich workshopped Last Words in the CFA.
"Crime Fiction Academy absolutely exceeded all expectations. Dedicated and enthusiastic instruction from accomplished novelists and up-close and personal contact with the top writers and industry professionals in the game. It was total immersion into the world of crime fiction writing–hosted in an amazing landmark building by The Center For Fiction."
— Jonas Paterno
"[CFA is] a wonderful workshop, the best I've ever participated in. [Jonathan Santlofer's] experience and perspective has been and will be invaluable ... It's as if I have a brand new tool to apply, one I should have used before but perhaps loved my book too much to do so."
— Vito Racanelli, whose story "Eyes" appears in The Literarian.
"It was such a pleasure, treat, honor and wonderful experience to have met [Jonathan Santlofer], worked with him and been in his class. He is a dedicated teacher and a warm, generous person."
— Michael Harvey
Watch videos from previous Master Class talks, given by authors such as Joyce Carol Oates, Lee Child, and Elmore Leonard.


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A variation on a carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD) system protocol for local area, packet, random access, broadcast networks is disclosed for effectively servicing both voice and data traffic. When the instant method is used, a mix of periodic voice traffic and aperiodic data traffic can be transmitted on a channel without the voice packets colliding. Also, an upper bound on the delay experienced by the periodic traffic can be established. In the instant method, aperiodic sources contend for a channel as in conventional CSMA/CD networks. However, unlike conventional protocols, periodic sources transmit a preempt field, responsive to which aperiodic sources terminate transmission. Also unlike conventional protocols, a periodic "time slot" may be delayed up to one packet transmission time when the network is busy transmitting aperiodic data. Additional information can be transmitted in an overflow field so that a receiver can supply periodic samples at regular intervals with the advantageous result of obviating discontinuities in a reconstructed analog speech waveform. Also unlike conventional CSMA/CD networks, the system capacity can be fully utilized by periodic sources. Still further, the instant method contemplates a system with no centralized control to assign "time slots" or to reallocate capacity between periodic and aperiodic sources. In addition, movable time slots allow timing discrepancies between periodic sources to be tolerated.
1. A method for controlling digital signals in a communications system, said system including a communications channel, a plurality of station sources, at least two of said sources being adapted to be coupled to said channel, said method including the steps of
receiving signals from said channel,
responsive to said received signals, detecting the busy/idle status of said channel,
responsive to said channel being detected as busy waiting for an idle channel and
at least one of said station sources is a station source of a first kind and at least one other of said station sources is a station source of a second kind, and
said method further comprises the steps of:
responsive to said channel being detected as idle, acquiring access to said channel;
responsive to acquiring said channel, transmitting a packet from a first source to a second source on said channel;
responsive to said packet being from a first source of said first kind, said transmitting step further including the steps of
including a preempt field in said packet, said preempt field comprising a delay signal, said delay signal lasting a predetermined time interval, and
continuing to transmit said packet without listening to said channel; and
responsive to said packet being from a first source of said second kind, said transmitting step further including the step of
listening to said channel while continuing to transmit said packet, said listening step further comprising the steps of
upon detecting a collision while listening to said channel, terminating any transmitting from said first source of said second kind within a time interval that is no more than the predetermined time interval of said preempt field delay signal, and
responsive to said terminating, waiting for said channel to become idle before retransmitting said packet.
2. The method defined in claim 1 further comprising the steps of:
upon acquiring access to said channel, transmitting all signals of said first kind which have accumulated since said transmitting source last acquired said channel, and
after transmitting all of said signals of said first kind, terminating said transmission by releasing access to said channel.
3. The method defined in claim 1 further comprising the step of:
at said source of said first kind, scheduling a next transmission from said source of said first kind to another source, said next transmission to begin a predetermined time Tp after terminating said continued transmission.
4. The method defined in claim 2 further comprising the step of:
at said source of said first kind, scheduling a next transmission from said source of said first kind to another source, said next transmission to begin a predetermined time Tp after terminating said continued transmission.
5. A communications system including a communications channel, a plurality of station sources, at least two of said sources being adapted to be coupled to said channel,
means for controlling digital signals through said system, said controlling means including
means for receiving signals from said channel,
means responsive to said received signals for detecting the busy/idle status of said channel,
means responsive to said channel being detected as busy for waiting for an idle channel and characterized in that
at least one of said station sources is a station source of a first kind and at least one of said station sources is a station source of a second kind, and
said system further comprises:
means responsive to said channel being detected as idle for acquiring access to said channel;
means responsive to acquiring said channel for transmitting a packet from a first source to a second source on said channel;
said transmitting means further including
means responsive to said packet being from a first source of said first kind for including a preempt field in said packet, said preempt field comprising a delay signal, said delay signal lasting a predetermined time interval,
means responsive to said packet being from a first source of said first kind for continuing to transmit said packet without listening to said channel, and
means responsive to said packet being from a first source of said second kind for listening to said chanel while continuing to transmit said packet, said listening means comprising
means responsive to detecting a collision while listening to said channel for terminating any transmission from said first source of said second kind within a time interval that is no more than the predetermined time interval of said preempt field delay signal, and
means responsive to said termination for waiting until said channel becomes idle before retransmitting said packet.
6. The system defined in claim 2 further comprising
means responsive to acquiring access to said channel for transmitting all signals of said first kind which have accumulated since said transmitting source last acquired said channel, and
means responsive to transmitting all of said signals of said first kind for terminating said transmission by releasing access to said channel.
7. The system defined in claim 2 further comprising
at said source of said first kind, means for scheduling a next transmission from said source of said first kind to another source, said next transmission to begin a predetermined time Tp after terminating said continued transmission.
8. The system defined in claim 6 further comprising
at said source of said first kind, means for scheduling a next transmission from said source of said first kind to another source, said next transmission to begin a predetermined time Tp after terminating said continued transmission.
This invention relates to communications systems and, more particularly, to a multiple access digital data communications system, apparatus, and method.
In the early days of the telephone art, use of the telephone was often confined to communications among users within a local geographic area. As a result and over the years, the economies related to accessing a communications system have lead to telephones in a local area usually being interconnected through a central controller, often called a local central office in the art.
As digital computers came upon the scene, another local community of use was discernible. Hence, a central controller is commonly employed for interconnecting various user terminals, or stations. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,851,104; entitled "Digital Communications System" and issued Nov. 26, 1974; discloses a time division, multiple access communications system which, under the control of a central terminal, allows an interconnection among a plurality of user terminals by way of a single communications signal channel.
As the digital computer art advanced, parallel advances in the semiconductor art have lead to smaller, relatively inexpensive computers. With the advent of such smaller computers, the technique of central control is being abandoned in favor of a distributed control technique. Also, because of the usually bursty nature of digital computer information, the recent trend has also been toward communications systems having a capability for handling packets of digital information. One such distributed control communications system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,063,220; entitled "Multipoint Data Communication System with Collision Detection" and issued Dec. 13, 1977. Such known systems are commonly called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Systems. Indeed, the '220 patent discloses a communications system in which, when a terminal or a station or a source is to start an intended packet transmission on a communications channel, a phase decoder listens to signals on the channel before transmitting (LBT). Upon detecting the presence of another transmission on the channel, the terminal delays the intended transmission until no other transmissions are sensed, i.e., it waits for an idle channel (WIC). When the intended transmission is started, the terminal thereafter listens to signals on the channel, i.e., it listens while transmitting (LWT). If an interference (or collision) is detected, the transmission is terminated and a random number generator is used to schedule a retry by selecting an interval of time at the completion of which a retransmission of the packet will take place. Unfortunately inown CSMA/CD systems do not effectively service both voice and data traffic. Usually, undesirable signal transmission delays may be introduced. Also, collisions being a problem, efforts are called for toward providing a communications system which mitigates the deleterious effects of collisions.
These and other problems are solved with the instant system, apparatus and method for controlling both digital voice traffic and digital data traffic in a communications system by taking into account periodicities typically present in voice traffic. By having a periodic source, such as a voice source, begin transmitting a packet after the periodic source has successfully acquired access to the channel and by having the voice packet include a preempt field, collisions are reduced. This fortuitously results in a decrease in the network delay. Channel contention is further reduced by having the periodic source transmit all of the voice traffic, that has been priorly accumulated, whenever it transmits and, still further, to schedule its next transmission a predetermined time Tp after the termination of its last successful transmission.
The invention should become fully apparent when taken in connection with the following detailed description and accompanying drawings in which:
FIG. 1 illustrates a prior art communications system including a plurality of stations, also called terminals or sources in the art, interconnected by a communications channel, which system is useful in describing the principles of the invention;
FIG. 2 illustrates a typical aperiodic data traffic packet format useful in describing the principles of the invention;
FIG. 3 illustrates a periodic voice traffic packet format useful in describing the principles of the invention; and
FIG. 4 includes a flow chart useful in describing the principles of the invention, which flow chart illustrates features of the instant invention and which flow chart can readily be embodied in the system illustrated in FIG. 1.
Broadly, the instant method includes a protocol for transmitting signals of a first kind, here called periodic signals, as well as signals of a second kind, here called aperiodic signals, on a random access broadcast system, such as the system illustrated in FIG. 1. Periodic information can be typified as that commonly encountered with voice or speech signals, e.g., as between telephone users. Such signals, which are usually analog signals, can be straightforwardly processed by an analog-to-digital converter at a station. It is usually important that such periodic signals be transmitted without suffering an unacceptably long delay. A long delay could cause a voice signal to arrive at its intended destination too late to be used. One advantage of the instant method over known protocols is that, with the instant method, the maximum delay before a periodic packet can be transmitted without a collision is the time elapsed during the transmitting of one aperiodic packet, which in turn does not exceed the time to transmit one periodic packet. On the other hand, aperiodic information can be typified as that commonly encountered with digital data signals, e.g., as between digital computers. Accordingly, the instant method can be used for controlling the transmission of data which does not occur periodically as well as the transmission of data which does occur periodically. For ease of description and not by way of limitation, in the instant description, the aperiodic information is herein also referred to as data traffic while the periodic information is also referred to as voice traffic. Further, aperiodic packets are assumed to be of variable length. Also, periodic packets are assumed to be of fixed length. Still further, an aperiodic packet is assumed to be of a length which does not exceed the length of a periodic packet.
Referring to the illustrative system structure shown in FIG. 1, which structure broadly parallels the structure disclosed in the aforecited U.S. Pat. No. 4,063,220, the teachings of which are herein incorporated by reference, bidirectional communications signal channel 10 is extended between terminators 20 and 30 and through each of a plurality of cascaded transmission couplers such as passive coupler 40-i. Bidirectional channel 10 may be embodied, for example, through a conventional high frequency coaxial or fiber optic cable. Each of terminators 20 and 30 may, for example, be a conventional impedance matching device for limiting reflections. Each of couplers 40-l through 40-N may, for example, be a conventional T-connector which is insertable in path 10 so that signals to and from each respective one of sources, or stations, 30-l through 30-N may be coupled to the communications link thereby formed. (Parenthetically, the words "station" and "source" and "destination" and "terminal" are used interchangeably herein.) In particular, on the one hand, coupler 40-i is for electrically coupling signals, representing, for example, packets of information, from communications channel 10 to station 30-i. In that manner, station 30-i may read (or receive) packets from communications channel 10. On the other hand, coupler 40-i is also for coupling signals representing, for example, packets of information from station 30-i on communications channel 10. In that manner, station 30-i may write (or transmit) packets on communications channel 10.
Station 30-i may include transceiver 111, interface stage 115, and, as a using device, station equipment 127. In turn, terminal equipment 127 could include equipment such as a common telephone coupled through analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters and functioning as a voice source for providing digitized voice samples and for reconstructing an analog speech waveform, respectively. Alternatively, terminal equipment 127 could include a digital computer for providing digital data traffic. Also alternatively equipment 127 could include a digital interface unit, for example, for interconnecting channel 10 with one or more other such channels, some of the other channels perhaps being geographically or electrically distant from the instant channel. Obviously, still other alternatives will occur to the skilled artworker.
As an aside, it is common in the art that, when the stations are electrically relatively close to each other, e.g., within about two miles of each other, such an arrangement is referred to as, among other things, a local communications system or network or as a local digital loop. Thus, in line with the structure illustrated in FIG. 1, a plurality of local networks may be interconnected for forming a still larger communications system.
As a further aside, it is well known that electrical signals, depending upon the electromagnetic transmission characteristics of the transmission medium, typically propagate on a communications channel at a speed in the range of 0.6 to 0.9 of the speed of light, which is estimated here to be about 186,000 miles per second. For ease of discussion, the estimated speed of light is here translated to an electromagnetic propagation speed of approximately one foot per nanosecond. Accordingly, it should be clear that channel 10 may be busy at one station, e.g., at station 30-i, only while a packet is electrically being received at, or transmitted from, the station; otherwise channel 10 is not busy, or is idle, at least as to station 30-i. Thus, channel 10 can be busy as to one station and not busy (or idle) as to another station.
Before more particularly describing the invention, some lexicon is further clarified.
Signals in a communications system may be categorized according to many, sometimes varied, criteria. One way of categorizing signals is as between signals of a first kind, which may be typified by, but not limited to, digitized analog speech signals, and signals of a second kind, which may be typified by, but not limited to, digital computer signals. Here, signals of the first kind are assumed to have some periodic or quasi-periodic characteristic while signals of the second kind are assumed to have some nonperiodic or aperiodic characteristic.
For brevity of discussion and not by way of limitation upon the instant invention, the first kind of signals are hereinafter usually referred to by words such as "voice signals" or "speech signals" or "periodic signals". Accordingly, such signals are transmitted from, or received at, a "periodic source". As an example, it is common to generate such signals by sampling speech signals at a 8,000 hertz rate and converting each analog sample to an eight bit digitized voice sample.
On the other hand, the second kind of signals are hereinafter usually referred to by such words as "data signals" or "aperiodic signals". Accordingly, such signals are transmitted from, or received at, an "aperiodic source".
It should also be borne in mind that a source can be both a periodic source and an aperiodic source and that the adjective applied to a source is only an indication of the function of the source at that instant in time.
In a communications system, transmission needs, in terms of capacity and in terms of delay, are usually different for digital voice signals (e.g., digitized analog speech) than for digital data signals, (e.g., digital computer-to-computer).
For example, digital voice traffic such as may be related to digitized telephone calls commonly involves transmitting a large number of bits. Using a thirty-two kilobit per second speech coder and transmitting only during active speech intervals, over four and a half megabits of digital voice traffic would be transmitted during a typical three minute telephone call. Also, digital voice traffic commonly involves relatively stringent delay requirements. For example, whereas the maximum delay allowed during a typical telephone call is in the order of a few hundred milliseconds, in a local network, the maximum delay could be expected to be significantly less than a few hundred milliseconds. Accordingly and because the participants (such as the calling and called parties) usually interact, it may be unacceptable for digital voice traffic to be accumulated over the entire time interval of the call and then to be transmitted as a large digital file transfer. Further, in a voice packet system, overhead bits can be transmitted in addition to the information bits, the latter representing the digitized voice samples. Hence, the more voice samples included in a packet, the higher the ratio of information bits to total bits and the higher the transmission efficiency of the channel. However, the more voice samples included in a packet, the greater the delay between the time a sample is generated and the time it is delivered to, for example, the receiving telephone. Accordingly, as a compromise in the balancing of the aforecited interests, voice packets including several tens of milliseconds of speech are assumed in the instant illustrative embodiment.
Also, for example, digital data traffic commonly involves a statistical distribution which is typically bimodal and which comprises short interactive messages as well as large file transfers. Commonly, traffic from digital data sources arrives sporadically, or aperiodically, at the channel. Thus, if a message is divided into data packets, a statistical variance in packet delay can usually be tolerated, providing the entire message delay is not excessive.
As to a discontinuity problem, the variance of the delay in a voice packet system could also be constrained to solve the following problem. A digital-to-analog converter, typically at a receiver, converts the digitized voice samples at a fixed rate for reconstructing the analog speech waveforms. If a packet of samples is delayed to the extent that previously transmitted samples are completely converted before the delayed packet arrives, the receiving listener would usually perceive a discontinuity in the speech. To solve that problem, if the maximum packet delay is constrained, the probability of the aforedescribed problem occurring can be reduced. Accordingly, the packet delay can be constrained by a technique in which the first packet of voice samples, which arrives at the receiver, is delayed and thereafter later packets are buffered until the later packets are needed. The delay of the first packet adds to the overall delay between the speaker and the listener and would normally be kept small. Alternatively, if the maximum delay is not constrained, the described technique could reduce, but not necessarily eliminate, the discontinuity problem.
As to a distortion problem, on the one hand, packets of voice samples that do not arrive in time at the destination, e.g., the delay requirements are not met, can normally be discarded. It can be argued that, if a small percentage of voice packets are discarded, the resultant distortion is tolerable. On the other hand, experimentation indicates that voice packets are generated in a generally periodical manner. Hence, if packets from voice sources were to collide, they would likely continue to collide on successive transmissions. Therefore, successive delays from the same voice source would tend to be correlated. Voice sources that do not contend with other voice sources for access to the channel may have a small average delay and a small variance of delay, while those that do contend with other voice sources may have a large average delay and a large variance of delay. If systems and networks are designed based upon an acceptable average level of "lost" (e.g., discarded) packets and the lost packets are concentrated among a small number of connections during a small period of time, rather than being distributed randomly, the resultant distortion may not be tolerable.
According to an aspect of the instant invention, instead of reducing the periodicities to achieve a reasonable level of lost packets, voice sample periodicities can be used to eliminate lost packets entirely. This is accomplished by the about to be described, variation on a carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD) transmission protocol or method.
The instant method contemplates transmitting data packets by conventional CSMA/CD techniques such as are disclosed in the aforesaid U.S. Pat. No. 4,063,220, but also contemplates transmitting voice packets by a new and different technique. Generally, according to the method, periodic sources do not detect collisions. In addition, periodic voice packets are formatted, as is later described, to mitigate the deleterious effects of a collision. Further, periodic voice packets are given a higher retransmission priority than are aperiodic data packets. Finally, the length of aperiodic data packets is constrained.
Advantageously, the instant method limits the delay of voice packets to the time for transmitting one data packet, which time, as will shortly be made more clear, does not exceed the time for transmitting one voice packet. Also advantageously, the instant method avoids collisions with a voice packet.
As a result of employing the principles of the instant invention, periodic sources using the instant protocol appear to operate on a channel as if a time slot of a time division multiplexed (TDM) signal had been assigned to each respective voice source. A difference between the instant channel and a standard TDM channel is that a station on the instant channel is not locked solidly into a time slot. Indeed, the time slot may be shifted slightly backward in time. While the backward shift occurs, as will hereinafter be described, voice samples that arrive during the shift are transmitted in an expanded packet data field, called an overflow field.
Another interesting advantage of the instant protocol is that a periodic source can gain access to a system even though the protocol appears to be unable to handle the additional capacity. The system does not fail, but tends to operate as a fully utilized TDM system, albeit with a slightly longer time slot.
Still another advantage of the instant protocol is that, with the time slot mobility, timing discrepancies can exist between periodic sources without time slots being overwritten, which further obviates collisions with a voice packet.
In preparation of describing more specifically the instant control protocol, FIG. 2 depicts the format of a well known, yet illustrative, aperiodic packet for communicating data traffic. For illustration, the data packet is assumed to include a plurality of fields, each field including one or more bits. Here, a data traffic packet may comprise two fields. For example, the packet may comprise an overhead field of HA bits and a data field of IA bits. As is common in the art, the overhead field may, in turn, include a preamble field for timing and synchronizing, a destination station address field for identifying a called station, a source station address field for identifying a calling station, a packet length field for identifying the number of information bits, a packet sequence number field for identifying where the packet fits in a message having a plurality of packets, an error control field for checking errors in the packet, and perhaps other field(s) for identifying other attribute(s). The data field is for inserting the "aperiodic information" to be transmitted, here shown as including a variable number IA of bits.
FIG. 3 depicts a format of an illustrative periodic packet for communicating voice traffic. In accord with the principles of the instant invention, and yet for purposes of illustration, the voice packet is also assumed to include a plurality of fields, each field also including one or more bits. Here, a voice traffic packet may comprise four fields. For example, the periodic packet may comprise a preempt field of Pp bits, an overhead field of Hp bits, a data field of Ip bits, and an overflow field of Op bits.
During the time interval of a preempt field, a periodic source would place a signal on the transmission media but would not send "useful information". The preempt interval would be, timewise, long enough for a transmitting aperiodic station source to detect a collision, stop transmitting its packet, and have the effects of the transmission removed from the system before the periodic source begins transmitting "useful information". The estimated time length of the preempt interval, τp, is approximately:
τp =2τt +τon +τI +τoff
where τt is the one way propagation delay in the medium, τon is the time required for the signal level to become detectable, τI is the time for an interfering signal to be detected, and τoff is time for a signal that is turned off to stop effecting a receiver. By way of example, the bit length of the preempt field in a three megabit per second, one kilometer channel system could be (Pp =)38 bits long.
The length of an overhead field for a periodic packet will typically be less than the length of an overhead field for an aperiodic packet. For example, the overhead field of an aperiodic packet may be (HA =)100 bits while the overhead field of a periodic packet may be (Hp =)48 bits. Reasons for the smaller periodic packet overhead field include the following:
(1) Since retransmitted packets can usually be expected to arrive too late to be useful, an error control field is not necessary for periodic sources. Also, it is known that a greater error rate can be tolerated in sampled voice traffic than can be tolerated with data traffic,
(2) Since periodic packets do not arrive out of sequence, a sequence number field is not necessary, and
(3) Since periodic packets are assumed to be fixed or deterministic in length, a packet length field is not necessary.
As to the data field, when a periodic source acquires access to the channel, it transmits in the data field all the data that has accumulated since a last transmission. The source schedules its next packet transmission to occur a predetermined time Tp seconds after the successful transmission of the current packet. If the channel is not busy (i.e., is idle) at the end of the Tp seconds, voice samples accumulated between transmissions will be inserted into the data field and then transmitted as a periodic packet. If the channel is busy at the end of the Tp seconds, the station waits for an idle channel (WIC) before transmitting the periodic packet. Samples that arrive during the (busy) waiting time can be inserted in the overflow field of the periodic packet and transmitted when the channel becomes idle. The size of the overflow field is determinable as a function of the maximum delay a periodic source can experience. According to the instant method or protocol, the maximum delay for a periodic source fortuitously will not exceed the time for one aperiodic packet transmission. In one system, where a periodic source may generate 8000 samples per second and where each sample may comprise four bits and where Tp is 30 milliseconds, a maximum of four samples could arrive during a packet transmission interval. Therefore, in that system, the overflow field comprises (Op =)16 bits. On the other hand, even when that are no overflow samples to be transmitted, the source can transmit a "don't care" condition, e.g., signal carrier, during the overflow time. Advantageously a periodic source takes no more time to transmit a packet when it is delayed, e.g., because the channel is busy, than it takes when it acquires access to the channel immediately.
As priorly mentioned, it may be noted that the first packet from a periodic source may be shorter than subsequent packets since the first packet need not include either a preempt field or an overhead field. However, it may also be noted that the same packet size could be maintained for the first packet as for all other periodic packets. This makes consistent the result that the scheduled time interval between the next packet from one source and a packet from another periodic source is at least one periodic packet transmission time, Xp seconds.
Now and referring to FIG. 4, the instant method or protocol is even more specifically described. At the same time, it should be clear that the instant protocol may be embodied in hardware or in software at each of stations 30-l through 30-N of FIG. 1 using well-known techniques when taken in conjunction with the instant description.
With the instant protocol, if a periodic source and an aperiodic source are waiting to use a busy channel, the periodic source is assumed to have a higher access priority and hence acquires the channel first. Also, on the one hand, all of the packets from an aperiodic source and, perhaps, the first packet from a periodic source can use aspects of a conventional carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD) protocol. On the other hand, a packet from a periodic source can use aspects of the instant protocol.
More particularly, before starting to transmit, the source, whether periodic or aperiodic, listens to the channel (LBT), refrains from transmitting if the channel is busy (B) and waits for an idle channel (WIC). If the channel is not busy (B), the source, whether periodic or aperiodic, begins to transmit.
While transmitting, a periodic source does not listen to the channel (TLWT=NO), rather it transmits (XMIT), in a fixed length packet, all of the voice samples that it has accumulated since its last transmission. The periodic source then schedules its next transmission to occur at a fixed time Tp seconds after its last successful transmission. For brevity only, in the instant illustrative embodiment, it is assumed that Tp is the same for all sources.
Alternatively, an aperiodic source listens to the channel (TLWT=YES) and, if a collision (C) with another source is detected, the source stops transmitting and thereafter waits for an idle channel (WIC); else, if no collision (C) is detected, the source continues to transmit. Accordingly, if the channel is busy (B) for either periodic or aperiodic source or if a collision (C) occurs for an aperiodic source, the respective source waits for an idle channel (WIC) and reschedules a transmission, i.e., tries again after the channel becomes idle (SRB or SRC).
From the foregoing and in accord with an aspect of the instant invention, a periodic source listens before transmitting (LBT) and defers transmission priority to any terminal that is then transmitting. Then, when an idle channel is detected, the periodic source begins transmitting. However, the periodic source does not listen (TLWT=NO) while transmitting but rather continues to transmit (XMIT) the entire periodic packet and does not terminate transmission prematurely. Notwithstanding, the instant protocol prevents packets from periodic sources from colliding. This fortuitous result obtains, in part, because there is a constraint on the packet size from aperiodic sources. Also, respecting a collision between periodic and aperiodic sources, the FIG. 3 packet structure for a periodic source is designed to allow an aperiodic source to detect a collision and terminate the aperiodic transmission during the preempt interval and before the periodic source begins transmitting "useful information", the useful information including, for example, the overhead field, the data field, and the overflow field of the voice packet.
As to still another advantage, as greater amounts of periodic traffic enter the system and because of a fixed length periodic packet, the system tends to resemble a time division multiplexed system. For example, a periodic source may acquire the channel and periodically use a "time slot" until either aperiodic traffic prevents access to the slot or another periodic source starts to transmit. In either event, and at that point in time, the periodic slot, which had been scheduled for the next periodic source, is shifted slightly backward in time. Additional data can be transmitted in the first delayed slot to compensate for the time shift.
Thus in summary, as to the rules for accessing the channel, it may be said that with the instant method:
The data traffic access rules are similar to those used in conventional random access broadcast networks such as that disclosed in the aforecited U.S. Pat. No. 4,063,220. The aperiodic access rules include:
(i) Listen before transmitting (LBT)
Before starting to transmit, listen to the channel. If the channel is busy, someone else is transmitting, accordingly, do not transmit. If the channel is not busy, also called "idle" herein, then transmit.
(ii) Listen while transmitting (LWT)
While transmitting (TLWT=YES), listen to signals on the channel. If the data become distorted, indicating that someone else is also transmitting, i.e., a collision, stop transmitting; otherwise, continue to transmit.
(iii) Retry strategy
If the channel is busy or if a collision occurs, wait for the channel to become idle, then schedule the next transmission attempt according to any of the standard (e.g., random) retry rules.
The voice access rules take into account the periodicity of the voice traffic. The rules are different from any known method. The rules establish an upper limit on the delay experienced by voice packets. The improved periodic access rules include:
(i) Listen before transmitting (LBT)
Before starting to transmit, listen to the channel. If the channel is busy, someone else is transmitting, accordingly, do not transmit. If the channel is not busy, then transmit.
(ii) Do Not Listen while transmitting
While transmitting (TLWT=NO), do not listen to signals on the channel. Rather, continue to transmit the entire periodic packet before releasing access to the channel. A preempt field will be used to alert and, responsive to which, permit any aperiodic data source which may collide with the intended periodic packet transmission to be turned off. Advantageously, voice packets will not collide.
(iii) Retry Strategy
If the channel is busy, schedule the next transmission attempt as an immediate retry.
(iv) Transmission
Transmit, in the data field of the periodic packet, all voice samples which arrive within Tp seconds of a last transmission. Before releasing access to the channel, transmit, in the overflow field of the packet, all samples which arrive during the time a periodic packet is delayed.
(v) Scheduling Next Packet
Schedule transmission of the next packet a predetermined time Tp seconds after the last successful periodic packet transmission.
The first packet in a voice transmission can have the same length as a normal voice packet, but follows the access rules of a data packet.
Delay can be encountered in a network when a channel is busy such that concurrently transmitted packets could or do collide. For example, a periodic source can be delayed when:
(1) The channel is busy transmitting an aperiodic packet;
(2) A collision with an aperiodic source occurs;
(3) The channel is busy transmitting a periodic packet; or
(4) A collision with a periodic source occurs.
In accord with the principles of the instant invention, only the first and third of these four conditions delay a periodic source. This obtains because, referring to FIG. 4, botn an aperiodic source and a periodic source listen to the channel before transmitting (LBT) and, responsive to a busy channel, the source waits for an idle channel (WIC). Further, the maximum delay experienced by a periodic source does not exceed Xp where Xp equals the time to transmit a periodic packet. Here, it is assumed that each and every periodic source has the same minimum intertransmission delay time Tp. The effect of timing inaccuracies is described hereinafter.
As to the second of the four delay conditions, firstly, when a periodic source and an aperiodic source collide, the aperiodic source detects the collision during the preempt interval of a packet from the periodic source and stops transmitting before the periodic source begins transmitting useful information. Therefore, a periodic source is not delayed by a collision with an aperiodic source.
Also as to the second delay condition, secondly, when a periodic source and an aperiodic source are waiting for an idle channel, the periodic source wins the race and gains access to the channel. This result obtains because the periodic source begins transmitting upon detecting the channel as idle. If the aperiodic source waits, it detects a busy channel and does not transmit. If an aperiodic source does not wait but rather begins transmitting, it detects a collision during the preempt interval of the periodic source packet and stops transmitting. Therefore, a periodic source can only be delayed by either a periodic source or an aperiodic source whose transmission is already in progress. This delay is at most one periodic packet transmission time.
As to the fourth delay condition, consider a plurality of k periodic packet sources. Now consider a first sequence of intended transmissions from the respective periodic sources on a channel, the sequence being defined so that a packet from source 30-i is scheduled for transmission before a packet from source 30-(i+1). Let
(a) ti,j represent the time that a transmission from source 30-i is scheduled to be received at destination 30-j. Hence, times t1,1, t2,2, . . . , Tk,k are also approximately the times the respective k sources are scheduled to transmit a packet (i.e., intrastation transmission time is assumed to be negligible),
(b) ti,j' represent the time that a transmission from source 30-i actually is received at source 30-j, and
(c) Di,j =ti,j' -ti,j represent the delay a packet encounters in being transmitted from source 30-i to destination (source) 30-j.
Now assume that the transmission from each periodic source lasts a time Xp seconds. That is, the packet transmission time required by a periodic source 30-i to transmit a fixed-length packet is Xp even though the packet is delayed and even though the packet may include waiting time voice samples in its overflow field. Therefore, as between one periodic source 30-i and another periodic source such as source 30-(i+1),
ti+1,i+1 -ti,i+1 ≧Xp (1)
which may also be written as
ti+1,i+1 ≧ti,i+1 +Xp (2)
Since media propagation time is usually independent of the delay, the delay is the same for each source. Hence, the notation Di,j =Di is used hereinafter.
Now, if Di equals zero, periodic source 30-i does not delay another periodic source such as source 30-(i+1). Further, as long as Di does not exceed Xp, the two periodic sources, i.e., sources 30-i and 30-(i+1), will not collide.
Also, it may be noted that a periodic source cannot be delayed by another periodic source which has not itself been delayed. Therefore, if a periodic source is delayed by another periodic source, the other periodic source must have been priorly delayed. Accordingly, the delay incurred by the first periodic source to be delayed does not exceed Xp.
In light of the above, a packet from periodic source 30-(i+1) is not delayed by periodic source 30-i. On the other hand, the (i+1)th periodic source may be delayed by an aperiodic source, responsive to which, a second sequence of intended but delayed transmissions from the respective periodic sources may be considered. Notwithstanding, the delay which source 30-(i+1) incurs will not exceed Xp and the periodic sources will not collide. This delay may propagate and effect a sequence of periodic sources. For example, in a general sequence of periodic sources, if
Di <Xp,
ti,i+1' <ti+1,i+1,
and, the ith and (i+1)th sources do not collide. Further, the transmission time required by the ith periodic source is Xp, even though it is delayed, and must transmit more samples. If,
ti,i+1 +Xp ≦ti+1,i+1,
then, the (i+1)th source is not delayed by the ith periodic source. This source may be delayed by an aperiodic source, and start a new sequence of delayed sources, but the delay it incurs will be less than Xp. If,
ti,i+1 +Xp >ti+1,i+1,
the delay encountered by a packet being transmitted from the (i+1)th source is
Di+1 t' i,i+1 -ti+1,i+1 +Xp. (3)
Since the (i+1)th periodic source is waiting for the channel, the delay cannot be increased by an aperiodic source. This is so because a periodic source has priority over an aperiodic source, which priority is embodied through the preempt field. The delay Di+1 can be written as
Di+1 =Di +ti,i+1 -ti+1,i+1 +Xp. (4)
Since, by rewriting equation (1) to a form
ti,i+1 -ti+1,i+1 +Xp ≦0 (5)
it is clear that Di+1 does not exceed Di. Therefore, the delay incurred by a sequence of periodic sources is a non-increasing function, and the maximum delay incurred by a periodic source does not exceed Xp, and periodic sources do not collide.
Thus in summary, as to voice packet collisions, it may be said, with the instant protocol, that:
(i) If a data packet accesses an idle channel, and its signal arrives at a voice station before the voice station starts transmitting, the voice station may be delayed from transmitting for at most one aperiodic data packet transmission time.
(ii) Assume a data station and a voice station begin transmitting at approximately the same time. A collision would occur in a conventional system. With the instant method, the data source detects the voice packet and removes the data packet from the channel before the pre-empt interval of the voice packet is complete. Therefore, the useful voice information is not distorted, and the voice packet is not delayed.
(iii) Assume both a data packet and a voice packet are waiting for a busy channel to become idle. After the channel becomes idle the voice source immediately begins transmitting while the data source starts transmitting some (perhaps random) time later. Even if the data packet begins transmission before it detects the voice packet, it will be turned off during the pre-empt interval.
(iv) The result of the foregoing is that a voice packet can be delayed by at most one aperiodic packet time interval.
(i) The next transmission from a voice source is scheduled Tp seconds after the channel is successfully accessed. Since two stations cannot successfully access the channel at the same time, their next transmissions will not interfere unless one of them is delayed.
(ii) If the preceding voice source is delayed by a data source, the delay will not exceed one aperiodic packet transmission time. Voice samples accumulated during the delay will be transmitted in an overflow field, which is transmitted, i.e., whether or not there is a delay. Therefore, the voice source will not be delayed by more than one aperiodic packet transmission time, and will not delay future voice sources by more than one aperiodic packet transmission time.
(iii) The minimum spacing between voice packets is a voice packet transmission time Xp. The maximum delay caused by a data packet collision is one data packet transmission time. The data packet transmission time does not exceed a voice packet transmission time. Therefore, there will never be two voice packets waiting to acquire a busy channel, and two voice packets will not collide.
(iv) The maximum voice packet delay is one data packet transmission time. This determines the overflow field size, i.e., the number of bits needed to transmit voice samples which arrive during a data packet transmission time.
Consider a system operating in a mode in which the channel capacity is almost completely used by periodic sources. Assume that a time gap remains between scheduled transmissions which gap is large enough for another source to begin transmitting but which gap is not large enough to transmit an entire periodic packet. Assume that another periodic source has access to the channel at this time. In such a situation, the system begins to operate without time gaps. The period of time between channel acquisitions increases, and some or all of the bits in the overflow field in every periodic packet are used. However, whenever a periodic source can acquire the channel, it can transmit its packet. For example, let a periodic source begin transmitting in a small time gap. The periodic source, which is delayed, is delayed for a time that does not exceed Xp. The source will transmit in its overflow field all voice samples accumulated during the delay. The source also schedules its next transmission to begin Tp seconds after it successfully completed its last transmission. Successive periodic sources are delayed by a time interval which is less than or equal to the time delay incurred by the preceding source. The original interfering source becomes another source in the sequence of interfering sources. It can be delayed by no more than the delay it originally caused and can delay the source following it by no more than it did originally. Since the delay is a non-increasing function and since it cannot go to zero for the over-utilized channel, it must stabilize at some positive time, ε, which is the same for all sources. The delay, ε, is equal to Xp minus the sum of the idle channel times for a period Tp before the overflow source entered the channel.
When the stable situation occurs, each periodic source transmits a packet every Tp +ε seconds. It transmits the samples which have arrived in this interval of time in the data and overflow fields of the transmitted packet. At the end of each transmission there would be a periodic source which has been waiting ε seconds. The waiting source acquires the channel before an aperiodic source as well as before the first packet from another periodic source. Until one of the sources terminates its transmission, at which point in time channel capacity becomes available, the system operates as a time division multiplexed system with a "time slot" period of Tp +ε seconds. No data is lost, and the slot delays do not grow indefinitely.
In a sampled communications system, it is common for the transmitter and receiver to be frequency synchronized so that samples are transmitted at the same rate at which they are generated. In broadcast networks, the synchronization can be achieved by sending a clock signal outside of the normal signal band or alternatively by using a modulation rule with a clock component. The former technique provides accurate timing, but requires that one station be responsible for sending the clock signal on the system. In the latter technique, there is no centralized control and every transmitting station is identical, but timing discrepancies may exist between the transmitters, particularly when very little data is being transmitted.
Timing discrepancies result in the periodic stations having different estimates of the interpacket interval Ti,p. For example, assume that the interpacket interval Ti,p for periodic source 30-i is within ε seconds of Tp, so that: Ti,p -Tp ≦ε. Let periodic sources 30-i and 30-(i+1) transmit at times ti,i+1 =t and ti+1,i+1 =t+Xp, respectively, so that there is no separation of the packets at source 30-(i+1). The next packets from these sources are scheduled at times ti,i+1 =t+Ti,p and ti+1,i+1 =t+Xp +Ti+1,p respectively. These two latter times may be separated by as little as Xp -2ε. If the first packet in this sequence is delayed by a packet from an aperiodic source, it may be delayed until ti,i+1' <t+Ti,p +Xa. With the constraint Xa ≦Xp, it is possible that both periodic sources will be waiting for the channel and collide. Such a collision can be prevented by constraining the length of an aperiodic packet to: Xa ≦Xp -2ε. With this constraint, the sequences of periodic sources do not collide, and the delay of an aperiodic source Xa is less than Xp.
Although the invention has been described and illustrated in detail, it is to be understood that the same is not by way of limitation. For example, the principle of the invention apply equally to alternatives. Hence the spirit and scope of the invention is limited only by the terms of the appended claims.
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Towards Decentralized Communities and Social Awareness Pierre Maret Université de Lyon (St Etienne) Laboratoire Hubert Curien CNRS UMR 5516 1 Who I am? Pierre Maret PhD in CS (1995) Ass. Prof. at INSA Lyon (1998-2007) Prof. at Univ of St Etienne (Univ. of Lyon) since 2008 Research background : DB, IS, electronic documents, knowledge management, knowledge modeling 2 Talk on: Towards Decentralized Communities and social Awareness 3 A Community ? What is it? A set of participants? A topic? A protocol for the exchange of messages? A data base for storing some information? Actually, what is/are the objectives? 4 Improve information exchanges Increase efficiency Create new opportunities for relevant exchanges Enable exchange of new types of information Deliver the right information, at the right moment, and to the right person 5 Domains addressed Knowledge modeling Information diffusion, sharing, retrieval Recommendation systems 6 Social Networks Sites Great success 4 types: Content Sharing (i.e. U-Tube) Social Notification (i.e. Facebook) Expertise Promotion (i.e. Wikipedia) Virtual life, games (i.e. Second life) Great tools for building communities 7 Social Networks Sites Regarding Content sharing and Social notification: People trust people they know Social network ↔ Decision making Decision making = to follow recommendations to imitate behavior to support in real-life activities 8 Social Networks Sites Social networks can be useful but SNS have some drawbacks 9 Some drawbacks of SNS Multiple registration Close world (no interoperability) Privacy issues No control on data deletion Towards a unique governmental secure SNS ? No Then what? 10 Need for an open approach An open approach for community- related information exchanges include interoperability avoid personal data dispersion Proposal: A community abstraction Decentralized + bottom-up approach 11 Towards a decentralized approach 1st step : Actors 2nd step : Communities 3rd step : Context 12 Towards a decentralized approach 1st step : Actors Actors : an abstraction to model any participant Person Personnel assistant (artifact) Autonomous system (artifact) An actor has Knowledge Behavior (decision abilities, actions) 13 Actors as SW agents 2 types of agents: Context agent Dedicated to sensors From raw data to information Personal agent Personal assistant. Pro-active (internal goal) Contains some user's knowledge Knowledge is "delivered to" and "gathered from" the environment Mobility scenario or in-office scenario 14 Personnel agent Role of a user assistant Piece of software Autonomous software with communication abilities Knowledge = abstraction of the owner's knowledge Decision abilities = actions (managed by the owner), related to the present knowledge 15 Actor abstraction { ki } knowledge { ki } knowledge Tulip is_a Flower { bi } behavior Red is_a Color Actor Actor Tulip has_property Red T1 instance_of Tulip { ki } knowledge { bi } behavior { bi } behavior Send message Receive message Extract Instances Actor Set Value Expressed using web semantic techniques : OWL 16 Making behavior exchangeable Knowledge (RDF/OWL ontologies) can be exchanged Behavior is generally hardcoded : not exchangeable A model for expressing agent's behavior in SWRL (expression of rules on OWL) Work of Julien Subercaze (PhD candidate) 17 Making behavior exchangeable Behavior as a finite state machine If (transition from State A to State B) then (execute list of actions) 18 Describing information Using Tags to describe agents information/knowledge Tag = Annotations, Meta-data Concerns any information/knowledge/document picture signal email, etc. 19 Tagging activity on personal agents Tagging activity Automated Semi-automated Manual Useful regarding information retrieval Several dimensions/processes for tags Location, environmental information, body information, thoughts, … 20 Tagging activity on personal agents Work of PhD candidate Johann Stan Main idea : the meaning of tag changes dynamically according to the user and circumstances. Circumstance : communities the user belongs to context 21 2nd step : Communities 1st Step : Actors Community : A set of actors with compatible communication abilities and shared values (common domain of interest) VKC = Virtual Knowledge Communities An abstraction for the exchange of information in- between actors 22 Features for communities Community-related knowledge of the agents List of (some) communities List of (some) agents Community-related domain knowledge (about the community topic) Community-related primitives Protocol: create, inform, request… Knowledge selection (extract from its knowledge) Knowledge evaluation and insertion (received through exchanges) 23 Features for communities Communities Knowledge Mappings 24 Agent communities Community protocol Create community (with a topic) Join, Leave Inform, request Specific role (any agents) Yellow page Knowledge = existing communities and topics 25 Example { ki } //joint communities { ki } C1 (on Car) Tulip is_a Flower A1 C2 (on Flower)(Owner) C1 is a Community C2 is a Community { ki } A3 //joint communities Tokyo is_a City C2 (on Flower) //joint communities A2 C1 (on Car) A3 has previously joined A1's community on Flowers. A3 wants to send some info to this community A2 needs more info about Japan. A2 is about to create a community on Japan 26 Communities and social network Memory of interactions builds my social network With who? The topic? The context? The environment? Carried out with tags Used to propose interaction facilities (prediction) 27 Communities and social network Example of annotations of interactions (manual) Automatic annotations: context, content analysis More about the context… 28 Step 3 : Context Context data: gathered from the environment Location Internal state Environment Activity (…) Situation = f(context data) SAUPO model: situation ↔ communication preferences 29 SAUPO model Situation ↔ Communication preferences 30 Agent's context User's current activity as context data Identifying the user's current activity to promote exchanges Event + Content analysis and filtering Target : more accurate solicitations Contextual Notification Framework 31 Agent's context Contextual Notification Framework (Work of Adrien Joly, PhD Candidate) Filtered ambient awareness Main idea : maintain cooperation in-between people while reducing overload Context model Context sniffer (with user acceptance) Matchmaking process (context + social network) and notification 32 Contextual Notification Framework 33 Conclusion Improving knowledge exchanges Used techniques Semantics modeling: ontologies, owl Context awareness Social networks Leveraged into several scenarios or projects Leading idea : bottom-up approach 34 Thank you for your attention 35
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The Boston Red Sox have used more starting pitchers than any team in the majors. Wade Miller is one they hope can become a consistent part of the rotation.
Coming off a decent season debut, Miller will try again for his first win with the Red Sox when they play the middle game of their weekend series with the Seattle Mariners.
Miller pitched in the second game of a doubleheader against Seattle on Sunday and departed after allowing a pair of runs and three hits over five innings. He did not receive a decision as the Mariners went on to win 6-4.
"I felt pretty comfortable out there," Miller said. "I'd be lying if I said I wasn't nervous a little bit last night and today, coming in with some butterflies and stuff. Once I got out there before the first inning in the bullpen, I calmed down and got to where I needed to be and everything felt good from the bullpen on in."
Miller missed most of 2004 with a right rotator cuff injury and started this season on the disabled list. Sunday's outing was his first since June 25, 2004.
The Red Sox, who are without injured starters Curt Schilling and David Wells, are expecting more from Miller as the season progresses.
"He's going to get stronger," Red Sox manager Terry Francona said. "He's going to go deeper in games, and that's exciting for our ballclub."
Miller will be opposed by Ryan Franklin for the second straight start. Franklin stopped a four-game losing streak by notching the victory on Sunday, allowing two runs and six hits over six innings.
The 32-year-old right-hander improved to 2-2 with a 4.82 ERA against Boston in five career appearances, including four starts. The Red Sox are batting .296 against Franklin.
Seattle ended a three-game losing streak with a 14-7 victory on Friday. Richie Sexson, Adrian Beltre and Raul Ibanez homered for the Mariners.
Manny Ramirez went 1-for-3 with an RBI for the Red Sox. He is batting .161 (5-for-31) over his last 11 games.
"I just don't think it's a subject that I need to be worrying about," Francona said of Ramirez's struggles. "I worry more about him staying healthy. If he's out there, we're going to be OK. I bet if you ask those other pitchers, they're not dying to face him."


text:
Art of Time Ensemble Presents CANTABILE: From Opera to Paolo Conte
Art of Time Ensemble, under the artistic direction of Andrew Burashko, will present Cantabile: An Evening of Italian Music, a special concert featuring the music of Italy from powerful and familiar opera arias by Verdi, Leoncavallo and Puccini to popular songs by Lucio Battisti, Paolo Conte and others. Cantabile: An Evening of Italian Music runs February 10-11 at Harbourfront Centre's Enwave Theatre.
Tenor Michael Ciufo and Juno Award-winning singer Dominic Mancuso are accompanied by a grand ensemble of some of Canada's finest classical and jazz musicians, conducted by Burashko who also performs at the piano on some of the pieces.
Michael Ciufo performs Opera Arias all in the original key including: Una Furtiva Lagrima by Donizette, De Miei Bollenti Spiriti by Verdi, E La Solita Storia by Cilea and Vesti La Giubba by Leoncavallo.
Dominic Mancuso performs Italian songs: L' Ultima Canzone by Tosti, Core 'Ngrato by Cardillo, Musica Proibita by Gastaldon and Occhi Di Fata by Denza.
Michael and Dominc will end the evening in a duet - Miserere by Zucchero.
The musicians are: Benjamin Bowman - Violin, Rachel Mercer - Cello, John Johnson - Saxophone, Andrew Downing - Bass, Doug Perry - Viola, Tony Zorzi - Guitar, Veronique Mathieu - Violin, and Davide Di Renzo - Drums.
Art of Time Ensemble recently performed I Send You This Cadmium Red for Canadian Stage.
The Art of Time Ensemble is one of Toronto's most innovative and artistically resonant music ensembles. The ensemble provides a unique performance experience that breaks down barriers between musical and other artistic disciplines. Art of Time Ensemble uses the vibrancy of classical music as a launching pad for an examination of contemporary artistic expression through all music and performance forms, the results appealing to a broad range of audiences. The 2011-2012 season sponsor is Invesco Trimark.
Art of Time Ensemble presents CANTABILE: AN EVENING OF ITALIAN MUSIC
From Opera to Paolo Conte
Friday February 10-Saturday February 11, 2012 at 8 PM
Enwave Theatre, 231 Queens Quay West
Tickets: $25-$59; Box Office: 416-973-4000
Information & Online Tickets: www.artoftimeensemble.com
About Author
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- Grammy Winner Kelly Clarkson Exclusively Premieres New Music from New Album on MTV, VH1 & CMT First
- CONSTELLATIONS' Jake Gyllenhaal and Ruth Wilson Set for THEATER TALK This Weekend


text:
Resources for "Memory Ordering in Modern Microprocessors, Part I"
Jun 28, 2005 By Paul E. McKenney
Resources for the print article.
Ghrachorloo, K. Memory consistency models for shared-memory multiprocessors. Tech. Rep. CSL-TR-95-685, Computer Systems Laboratory, Departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, December 1995. Available: www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/Compaq-DEC/WRL-95-9.pdf [Viewed: October 11, 2004].
"Ask The Wizard: Shared Memory, Threads, Interprocess Communication": h71000.www7.hp.com/wizard/wiz_2637.html [Viewed: June 23, 2004]
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text:
Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2014)
|Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace
|Vicarious Visions
|Game Boy Advance
|Release date(s)
|NA February 7, 2001
EU September 21, 2001
JP April 26, 2002[1]
|Single player
Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace is a Game Boy Advance game, released on September 19, 2001.[1] This game features Spider-Man pitted against a rogue's gallery including villains Rhino, Hammerhead, and Big Wheel, led by the Master of Illusion, Mysterio.
The game was released in Japan on April 26, 2002 as スパイダーマンミステリオの脅威 (Supaidāman Misuterio no Kyôi?, Spiderman Menace of Mysterio).[1]
The game has 7 stages, each featuring a boss at the end – Hammerhead (who appears at the end of two levels), Big Wheel, Electro, Rhino, Scorpion and Mysterio as the final boss. The player can choose between three stages to begin with, each opening a further level after completion and concluding the story for that part of the game with comic book-styled cutscenes. The game allows players to freely web swing, attack with different punches and kicks, and to shoot web at foes to capture or attack them whilst progressing through levels and avoiding obstacles such as razors and fire. The player can collect upgrades to enhance Spider-Man's strength, health and webbing, as well as "suits" that enhance and protect him from certain obstacles. The final upgrade is the Symbiote Suit, which slowly replenishes Spider-Man's health and web, and is obtained in the final level.
The game so far has a score of 80.38% from GameRankings[2] and 84 out of 100 from Metacritic.[3]
- ^ a b c "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace Release Information for Game Boy Advance". GameFAQs. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
- ^ a b "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace for Game Boy Advance". GameRankings. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ a b "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace Critic Reviews for Game Boy Advance". Metacritic. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Miller, Skyler. "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace - Review". Allgame. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace". Electronic Gaming Monthly: 158. October 2001.
- ^ Fitzloff, Jay (September 2001). "Spiderman: Mysterio's Menace". Game Informer (101). Archived from the original on 2005-02-27. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Iron Monkey (2001-09-24). "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace Review for Game Boy Advance on GamePro.com". GamePro. Archived from the original on 2005-03-13. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Provo, Frank (2001-10-10). "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace Review". GameSpot. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Osborne, Scott (2001-11-01). "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace (GBA)". GameSpy. Archived from the original on 2001-11-21. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Lafferty, Michael (2001-10-18). "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace Review - Game Boy Advance". GameZone. Archived from the original on 2008-01-12. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Harris, Craig (2001-09-27). "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace". IGN. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace". Nintendo Power 149. October 2001.
- ^ Metts, Jonathan (2001-10-18). "Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace Review". Nintendo World Report. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
External links[edit]
|This Marvel Comics–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
|This action game–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.


text:
Tag » cosmopolitan
Amber Rose: Social Media Made Me A "Feminist Monster"
BY Marissa Dubecky in Feminism on Jun 10, 2015
Cosmopolitan UK's Suffocating Magazine Cover Is Terrifying and Beautiful
BY Madison N Nunes in Feminism on Jan 16, 2015
Britney Spears Might Retire Soon #sadface
BY Ellyn Ruddick-Sunstein in Music on Dec 05, 2013
Can Porn Be Feminist? Tristan Taormino Says "Yes"
BY Shannon Iggy in Feminism on Nov 21, 2013
Cosmo: More Than Big Boobs & Multiple Orgasms?
BY Alanna Vagianos in Feminism on Sep 18, 2013
Cosmopolitan's Definitive Take On The Manti Te'o Scandal
BY Amy Zimmerman in General on Jan 18, 2013
How Helen Gurley Brown Became a "Militant Feminist" at Age 65
The Single Girl's Legacy: RIP Helen Gurley Brown
BY Intern Christina in General on Aug 14, 2012
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|The Film Society of Lincoln Center Presents I Found this Funny: The Comedy World of Judd Apatow (NYC)
Fri Jul 10 @ 4:30PM - 12:00AM
|Pitchfork Music Festival (CHI)
Fri Jul 17 @ 3:30PM - 12:00AM
|Pitchfork Music Festival (CHI)
Sat Jul 18 @ 3:30PM - 12:00AM


text: BIRD TALK: MIGRATORY BIRDS Bird TalkColumnsGreg Dunnemigratory birds By Greg Dunne December 17, 2013 (San Diego's East County) – Our County has many migratory birds. This week, I'm highlighting two of them: the Northern Shoveler Duck (although a few will stay year round) and a small song bird, the Townsend's Warbler, a winter visitor. The Northern Shoveler is primarily a winter visitor to the County, abundant this time of year at Santee Lakes, Lindo Lake and I've even spotted a few this year at Lake Murray. The Northern Shoveler is a medium sized duck with a very long bill that is wider at the tip than the base. It has a glossy dark green head similar to the Mallard Duck but the bill of the shoveler stands out from any other duck. Shovelers use this bill to filter out food from the water. Read more about BIRD TALK: MIGRATORY BIRDSLog in or register to post comments


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Isabel Marant Étoile
Striped Raglan
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Wool boucle raglan in tonal stripe weave with banded collar and concealed hook-and-eye front closure. Interior pockets. Available in Grey. Made in Poland. Wool/cotton/polyester/polyamide/alpaca/acrylic, cotton lining. Dry clean.
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text:
Originally written on Bush League Chronicle | Last updated 6/12/13
Washington Redskins running back Alfred Morris isn't too fond of the music genre the majority of his teammates enjoy listening to. That genre would be rap music.In fact, the 24-year-old even went as far as calling the lyrics in some rap songs "a lot of nonsense" during an interview with the Washington Post on Wednesday. He provided plenty of justification for his reasoning, as well."A lot of people just hear music, but they don't really listen," Morris said. "They hear the beats and stuff, but they don't listen to the words. If you listen to the words, they say some crazy stuff. I'm not going to listen to that. A lot of times they're just bragging anyway, like, 'I got this girl, that girl.' Or this much money they dropped on a car. It's a lot of nonsense.""They listen to it all the time in the locker room," he said. "I don't knock it. They've got some nice beats and stuff, but some stuff I'm like, really? They're gonna say that? I hate when they use the 'B word' towards women. Like Rick Ross in that one song, talking about putting something in a girl's drink and taking her home. That's not cool."You would be hard pressed to find anyone who doesn't agree that calling females the b-word is offensive and wrong. However, I'm sure Morris will likely face a little criticism for his remarks from avid rap supporters, though.The natural question to ask here is what exactly does Morris like to listen to, instead. Morris said Coldplay and The Fray are his favorite bands and added that Barry White and Marvin Gaye rank pretty highly on his preference list, too.Morris rushed for 1,613 yards and 13 touchdowns in 2012.The Redskins originally drafted him in the 6th round of the 2012 NFL Draft out of Florida Atlantic.Via Eye on Football
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DEFINITION of 'Marginal Land'
Arid and generally unhospitable land. Marginal land usually has little or no potential for profit, and often has poor soil or other undesirable characteristics. This land is often located at the edge of deserts or other desolate areas.
INVESTOPEDIA EXPLAINS 'Marginal Land'
Marginal land is usually fairly low in value. It is marked by its inability to produce crops of any kind or otherwise yield a profit. In the U.S. much of it can be found in the southwest, in such states as Nevada.
Real EstateLand plus anything on it, including buildings and natural resources.
Littoral LandLand that is located next to a pooled body of water. Littoral ...
CondominiumA large property complex that is divided into individual units ...
Property1. Anything over which a person or business has legal title. ...
Real Estate Investment GroupAn organization that builds or buys a group of properties and ...
Real Estate Limited Partnership ...A limited partnership entity organized to invest in real estate. ...
How much of the global economy is comprised of the real estate sector?The commercial and residential real estate industry generated an estimated $3 trillion in 2014, with some 35% of sector revenue ... Read Full Answer >>
What is the process for a building owner depreciating leasehold improvements in a ...As long as the building owner is the person or entity that provides leasehold improvements, then the owner can depreciate ... Read Full Answer >>
How can I invest in tax liens?An individual can invest in tax liens by identifying available liens and then participating in auctions where property tax ... Read Full Answer >>
What is the difference between a lien and an encumbrance?A lien represents a monetary claim levied against property to secure payment of an obligation of the property owner, while ... Read Full Answer >>
How do taxes impact Net Operating Income (NOI)?Net operating income (NOI) is a before-tax figure and does not take into account income taxes, loan payments, capital expenditures, ... Read Full Answer >>
What economic indicators should an investor in the real estate sector consider?Investors in the real estate sector must consider multiple economic indicators before they purchase real estate stocks. Investors ... Read Full Answer >>
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For your consideration is a darling vintage "Easter Greetings" postcard that displays a Rooster family. The design is very colorful with gold tone trim & highlights on the chicken, rooster & little chicks, and all on a light green background. There is a scenic countryside with cottage scene across the top, which is also highlighted in gold tone. It is marked on the back: Printed in Germany, 2323H, (SB in a circle within a square symbol). There is some writing on the back in pencil, a postmark with the year 1916 & a green one cent stamp. There is some lightly scuffed corners & the upper right corner is slightly missing. All hardly noticeable & only mentioned for accuracy! In very very good vintage condition. No stains noted! Approx.: 3 1/2"W X 5 1/2"L.
HAPPY 4TH OF JULY! Browse & Enjoy our shop filled with Many Vintage Collectibles To Choose From!
Many items on sale in our shop & more added periodically! Reasonable Offers Always Considered! Contact seller!