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SOIL M O I S T U R E T E N S I O N M E A S U R E M E N T S : THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION PAUL R . DAY University of California ABSTRACT The tension phenomenon described herein occurs in a wide variety of porous mate- rials, including sands, clays, agricultural soils and porous rocks. W h e n some of the water is removed from a water-saturated porous system, the residual water evidently remains physically interconnected, judging from the fact that water can be transmitted through the system at reduced water content by suction. The removal of water may result in contraction of the system, as in the case of clay, or in the entry of air, as in the case of sand. The liquid phase and the solid phase in contact with it comprise a closely linked force system. Equilibrium can be established between the system at reduced water content and a separate mass of water at reduced pressure through a porous membrane in contact with both. The equilibrium tension required in the external water phase is considered an attri- bute of the moist, porous, system itself. F r o m this point of view, the tension originates through the combined action of the internal forces of the system in a virtual displace- ment of water. It follows from this and from the principle of virtual work that the tension is numerically equal to the differential work done by the internal forces per unit volume of water absorbed. The movement of water, under tension, through porous systems represents a special class of flow phenomena in which tensiometers or equivalent devices are required for measuring the hydraulic potential. Flow patterns can be determined in much the same way as in systems characterized by positive hydrostatic pressures, but special attention must be paid to the Darcy coefficient (the capillary conductivity) which varies with the tension. The theoretical conditions for the equilibrium of water in the soil and for emergence from the soil have been developed in terms of the tension and certain applications have been indicated. The phenomenon referred to in the soil science literature as moisture tension has been recognized for almost forty years and has been used as a means of explaining the absorption and movement of water in the soil. It is closely related to osmotic pressure but its mechanism cannot in general be identified with the traditional mechanisms of osmotic pressure. Moisture tension has been observed in wet clay soils and in other finely divided porous systems contai,fing interstitial water, but the phenomenon is not confined to colloidal systems, since moist sand and moist porous rock, such as pumice, show similar effects. R E T E N T I O N OF W A T E R BY SOIL ON A SUCTION FILTER The following simple experiment serves to demonstrate the phenomenon. Figure 1 shows an apparatus consisting of a sintered glass filter funnel attached to a measuring pipette with a rubber tube. The lower filter cham- ber and the connecting tube contain water, free of air bubbles. The appara- $$7 558 ~OIL IV[oISTURE TENSION ~VIEASUREMENTS ~| iS00 0~,~.K t~ tJ F m u ~ 1 . - Suction filter apparatus. tus is tested to insure that air will not pass the filter plate when the measur- ing pipette is lowered to its full extent. A sample of soil is placed on the filter and the pipette is raised until the soil is flooded with water. A one-hole rubber stopper (R) is inserted to suppress evaporation of water. The pipette is lowered slowly, in successive small steps, and the amounts of water retained by the soil at different eleva- tions of the pipette are determined from the pipette readings after move- ment of water has ceased. Figure 2, curve ABC, shows the results for a sand whose particles are from 0.25 ram. to 0.50 ram. in diameter. The horizontal axis in Figure 2 represents the tension (in terms o f height o f water column) in the water caused by the difference in the heights of the water columns on the left and right sides of Figure 1. The sand remains saturated until a tension of approximately 10 era. is reached (point B). Between B and C, a certain amount of water passes from the sand into the filter chamber with each additional increase of ten- sion. In the given case the water content of the sand diminished from 29 percent at zero tension to 3 percent at 50 era. tension. Desorption curves can be determined by this procedure for many porous materials, including agricultural soils, clays, and porous rocks. Although water may be held by various different mechanisms in these widely divergent materials, there are certain general features of the measurements which apply to all such porous systems. These will be discussed below. P A U L R . DAY 559 30 O. TENSION, CM OF WATER COLUMN FIGURE 2 . - Relationship between water tension and water content for quartz sand, 0.50-0.25 ram. The water in the soil is obviously connected with the water on the outflow side of the filter plate because of the fact that water moves out of the soil when the pressure of the water is decreased by lowering the pipette. More- over, the various parts of the liquid phase of the soil must be interconnected and some of the water translocated within the soil under the influence of the altered pressure. When transfer of water ceases for a given applied tension, the system must be in a state of stable equilibrium. This can be verified experimentally by adding a small amount of water to the pipette by means of a medicine dropper, or by withdrawing a small volume of water by means of a small tube inserted in the pipette. In either case the level of the water returns approximately to its initial level in a short time. The restoration of initial conditions by the action of the forces of the system is a sensitive and gen- eral test for mechanical equilibrium. In general, water is held in the soil by a complicated system of forces whose joint action produces an apparent tension in the liquid phase, mani- fested by the amount of tension required in a contiguous liquid phase to maintain equilibrium with the soil-water system in its given state of moist- ness and structure. Thus, the tension is n o t merely an externally applied constraint, as in the above experiment, but is an intrinsic property of the system which depends upon the mutual affinity of the soil and water, and which indicates quantitatively the collective action of the internal forces in a differential or virtual displacement of water. RETENTION O F W A T E R BY C A P I L L A R I T Y The particular case shown in Figure 2 can be explained entirely from the principles of capillarity. T h e phenomenon was discussed by Versluys 560 SOIL MOISTURE TENSION MEASUREMENTS (1917) and was studied later in greater detail by Haines (1930). The pressure difference between the atmosphere and the liquid phase of the soil is equivalent to the pressure difference across the various curved air-water interfaces brought about by the retraction of the water into the interstices of the soil. Since the shrinkage of the sand is necessarily small, the with- drawal Of water is accompanied by the entry of air, starting at point B. At all points beyond B, each increment of tension causes a displacement of water by air at atmospheric pressure. The air is not confined to the periph- ery of the soil mass, but invades the interior spaces of the soil. The geometrical shape of the liquid phase adjusts to accommodate the volume of air which enters. Both liquid and gas phases become multipli- connected continuous phases, the liquid maintaining hydraulic contact with the liquid in the filter plate, and the air remaining at atmospheric pressure through its connection with the external air. The branch CDA of Figure 2 represents the re-entry of water induced by slowly raising the pipette from the lowest position reached in the de- sorption curve ABC. The separation of this curve from the branch ABC is a typical hysteresis effect, attributed by Haines to entrapping of air and to the altered configuration of the liquid phase in the reverse part of the cycle. The occurrence of hysteresis demonstrates that although the tension is a function of water content, it is affected by other additional factors. SOIL MOISTURE TENSIOMETERS In the apparatus described above for the demonstration of the moisture tension phenomenon, the tension was adjustable and therefore served as an independent variable, with water content the dependent variable. It is often necessary, as in experiments on water movement, to measure tension as a dependent variable. The soil moisture tensiometer is a device suitable for measuring tensions up to a value of nearly one atmosphere. A successful device of this kind was first demonstrated and interpreted theoretically by Willard Gardner and associates (1922). It consists of a water-filled porous cone or filter cylinder, attached to a manometer or vacuum gage, and embedded in the soil. Detailed descriptions of such devices and their opera- tion have been given by Richards (1949). The water content and tension are unaffected by the tensiometer in the zone of the soil in which it is placed, except for local changes of water con- tent resulting from exchange of water between tensiometer and soil during approach to equilibrium. Therefore the tensiometer serves as a means of determining soil moisture tension in both static and dynamic systems. MOISTURE EQUILIBRIA IN CLAY AT HIGH TENSIONS Tensions greater than one atmosphere cannot be measured satisfactorily by means of tensiometers. However, it is possible to establish soil moisture equilibria at high tensions by means of a device known as the pressure mere- PAUL R. D A y 561 brane apparatus (Richards, 1940). This method is similar to the filter funnel method except that a positive pressure of nitrogen gas is applied to the gas space above the saturated soil instead of a negative pressure to the liquid. Water passes through the membrane (cellophane) and emerges at atmospheric pressure. The water content of the soil is measured after out- flow ceases. The difference between the gas pressure on the soil and the water pressure on the outflow side of the membrane is generally referred to as the moisture tension, as in the simple filter funnel method. Richards (1949) carried his measurements to tensions of 100 atmos- pheres, and showed that displacement o f water occurs for each increment of tension throughout this range. Figure 3 shows his results for Chino clay, an agricultural soil. Childs and George (1948) studied the desorption of water from kaolinite by means of pressure membrane equipment. They found that until a tension of 4 atmospheres was reached the decrease of volume of the clay-water system was equal to the volume of water removed. Air began to enter the clay at this point, but at all tensions less than 4 atmospheres the system remained a 2-phase clay-water system. Similar results have been found for other clays. In sands, the increase of tension which accompanies a decreasing water content is a capillary phenomenon associated with the changing configura- tions of the water-air interfaces throughout the system. In saturated clay, the decrease of water content is associated with a volume contraction of the entire system. Evidently the water is held by different mechanisms in these two types of systems. The capillary mechanism has played a promi- nent part in the development of ideas pertaining to the retention and move- ment of water in soil. However, the above experiments with clay indicate that in general other mechanisms also play a part in the tension phenomenon. I eQ >- CHIN0 CLAY I.~ 4C . O 2c IQ o.oo~ o.ot o.,o ~.o ~o too SOIL MOISTURE TENSION- ATMOS. FI~u~ 3. ~ Soil moisture tension vs. moisture content, Chino clay (from Richards, 1949). 562 SOIL MOISTURE TENSION" MEASUREMENTS T H E O R E T I C A L I N T E R P R E T A T I O N OF SOIL MOISTURE T E N S I O N M E A S U R E M E N T S BASED UPON T H E P R I N C I P A L OF VIRTUAL W O R K Since several mechanisms may operate concurrently to produce moisture tension, a general treatment of the phenomenon is required which is inde- pendent of mechanism. Consider the hypothetical device shown in Figure 4. Let the pressure P of the piston be adjusted until the water absorptive forces are exactly counterbalanced and the system is in equilibrium. We know from the preceding results that the pressure P at equilibrium is gen- erally less than the atmospheric pressure PA acting on the exposed faces of the block. Let the pressure P be increased by an infinitesimal amount, and let a volume dV of water be drawn into the soil. Designate by dW the total amount of work done by the water absorptive forces. The amount of work done by the piston will be equal to PdV. When the water enters the soil, a volume dV of air will be displaced at atmospheric pressure, and an amount of work equal to PAdV will be done by the system against the pressure of the atmosphere. (This relationship is valid for soils which expand during absorption of water and also for 3-phase systems in which air is displaced by the entering water.) From the mechanical principal of virtual work, the total work done in a virtual displacement is equal to zero, so PdV-- PAdV + dW = 0. The work done by the absorptive forces per unit volume of water absorbed is therefore equal to dW dV'- (PA-P). Since the pressure difference ( P ~ - P ) represents the moisture tension, it is evident that the tension is a measure of the mechanical work available "/////////, Fmom~ 4. ~ Hypothetical device for relating soil moisture tension to available work. PAUL R. D A Y 563 from the forces of the system in the absorption process, for each unit vol- ume of water absorbed. The principle of virtual work has been used previously by Buckingham (1907) and by Israelsen (1927) for equilibrium of water in vertical soil columns. From the method of development, one can see that the above relationship is independent of the nature of the forces which hold the water in the soil. A measurement of tension does not in itself reveal the mechanism which gives rise to it. It may be caused by capillary effects (as in sand), by swell- ing or contractile forces (as in clay), and perhaps by other mechanisms. C A P I L L A R Y M O V E M E N T O F W A T E R IN T H E S O I L The movement of water under tension is usually referred to as "capillary flow." An understanding of capillary flow involves theoretical considera- tions beyond those already presented and brings out a second feature of the t e n s i o n - the part which it plays in the transmission of water through the soil. Consider a small element of volume within the liquid phase. In general, the pressure will be different on the different faces of this element, and the resultant force acting on the volume element will not be equal to zero. If the force per unit mass of water in the element due to pressure is designated by a vector Fp, we know from fluid mechanics that Fp= ---IvP P where p is the density of the fluid and v P is the pressure gradient. The magnitude of the downward force per unit mass of water due to gravity is equal to g. In vector notation, this force can be presented as Fs= - - Vgz, where z is the vertical coordinate, directed upwards, and gz is the gravita- tional potential. Combining the force due to pressure with the force due to gravity, we have the vector sum F= --1vP, vgz= --v(P+gz)= - vcI, , P P. where ~,= ( P + g z ) . The quantity ts usually referred to as the pres- -- P sure potential (or frequently, in the case of capillary flow, as the capillary potential). We shall designate 9 as the hydraulic potential, noting that it is equal to the sum of the pressure potential and gravitational potential. (This terminology is analogous to the practice in hydraulics of defining the hydraulic head as the sum of the pressure head and the gravity head.) The force F, called the driving force or motive force, causes water to 564 SOIL MOISTURE TENSION MEASUREMENTS move through the porous medium against the viscous shear forces, which are transferred from point to point transversely through the liquid to the solid. Consider the amount of work W done by the force F against viscous shear forces during the transfer of a unit mass of water from a point Q1 to a point Q2 in the soil: Q2 w= fP.dS, Q1 where dS is a line element in the direction of flow. If the soil is isotropic, the force F is collinear with the line element dS, and the work integral can be written in terms of the corresponding scalar magnitudes F and dS as follows: Q2 Q2 QI 01 Now W must be positive, because of the fact that energy is dissipated in viscous shear. Therefore, O1> r showing that the movement can occur only from points of higher to points of lower hydraulic potential. In capillary flow, where the pressure must be measured by means of tensiometers, the flow system can be analyzed on the basis of potential theory, in much the same way as in systems characterized by positive hydro- static pressures. For example, the seepage of water in soil often consists entirely of capil- lary flow. Day and Luthin (1954) have shown from potential theory, and have verified experimentally, that water moving through the soil from a furrow and into a gravel substratum remains under tension throughout, and that experimental study of the flow system requires the use of tensiom- eters. The tension, which originates physically in the water-absorptive forces of the solid-liquid system, plays a role in capillary flow identical to that of the hydrostatic pressure in positive pressure systems, except that by convention the algebraic sign of the tension is opposite to that of the pressure. APPLICATIONS OF SOIL MOISTURE TENSION MEASUREMENTS The moisture tension phenomenon has many practical implications which can be m o r e fully appreciated as a result of the theoretical developments which followed its discovery. Several examples will be given. Consider a region of the soil immediately above a water table. This re- gion remains moist due to its proximity to the water table, and contains water under tension, as one may readily verify by means of a tensiometer. PAUL R. DAY 565 If the water in this moist zone (commonly called the capillary fringe) is at rest, viscous shear forces in the fluid will be absent. Therefore F: --v(P+gz) :0, from which it follows that dP -~z = - o g , or dhT = 1, dz where hT represents the tension in terms of equivalent height of water column. Thus, the condition for ~quilibrium in the capillary fringe is that the tension wilt increase with height above the water table in accordance with the simple hydrostatic pressure law, each cm. increase in height being characterized by an added cm. of equivalent water tension. The same equation applies for equilibrium of water in the soil in the absence of a water table, as verified experimentally'by Richards (1950a). The condition for equilibrium holds for soils of all texture, uniform or stratified, and saturated or unsaturated with water, provided only that the liquid phase be hydraulically connected throughout. The condition for emergence of water in the liquid state from the soil may be deduced as follows : Let ~1 be the hydraulic potential at a point Q1 in the soil near an opening (e.g. an empty drain) and let cI,2be the potential at a nearby point Q2 in the opening, in a drop of liquid adhering to the soil. The general condition for flow is that cI,~>~2. Now, let P~ represent the pressure in the liquid phase in the soil, and P.~ the pressure in the external drop of liquid (at atmospheric pressure). Flow will occur from Q~ to Q, only if P1 + g z t > P~ +gz2. P P Since the two points are at approximately the same elevation, the require- ment for flow is then simply that P~>P~, where PI represents the pressure which one would observe in a tensiometer or piezometer located at point Qt in the soil, and P2 represents atmospheric pressure. Hence, if the water in the soil is under tension, no water can emerge. This is the so-called outflow law (Richards, 1950b), which has numerous applications in irriga- tion and drainage problems. For example, a drain will not operate if situ- ated in a region of the soil where the water is under tension. The water can flow around the drain, but not into it. The foregoing conclusions have been arrived at from general considera- tions and involve no assumptions as to the nature of the forces holding the water in the soil. Therefore they hold for soils of all textures, including clays, and do not depend exclusively upon the capillary mechanism of absorption. 566 SOIL MOISTURE TENSION 1V~EASUREMENTS The identification of the driving force with the hydraulic potential gradi- ent is of great importance in soil moisture dynamics. Darcy's law, com- monly employed in ground water flow, can be applied to capillary flow under the following conditions: that the hydraulic head be measured by means of tensiometers, or equivalent devices, and that the factor K in Darcy's equation be considered a variable but measurable quality of the soil. Darcy's equation may be written in vector form as follows, where v is a vector in the direction of flow whose magnitude is equal to the volume of flow per unit area per unit time : v= -Kvr It is known f r o m numerous studies that K (the capillary conductivity) decreases with increasing tension because of the decreasing water content. Recent studies by S. J. Richards and L. V. W e e k s (1953) have shown, in a soil of loam texture, that the soil is able to conduct water at a finite rate at a tension of 600 cm. of water, where the water content had been reduced to 9 percent, or about one-third of the water content at saturation. H o w - ever, the capillary conductivity value is very low at this tension. The varia- ble characteristic of K and its relationship to the tension must be taken into account in all capillary flow studies. REFERENCES Buckingham, E. (1907) Studies on the movement of soil moisture: U.S.D.A. Bur. Soils Bull., vol. 38. Childs, E. C., and George, N. C. (Collis-George) (1948) Soil geometry and soit.~ater equilibria: Discussions of the Faraday Society, vol. 3, pp. 78-85. Day, Paul R., and Luthin, James, N. (1954) Sand-model experiments on the dlstribu- tion o[ water-pressure under an unlined canal: Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., vol. 18, Part 2, pp. 133-136. Gardner, W., Israelsen, O. W., Edlefsen, N. E., and Clyde, H. S. (1922) The capillary potential Junction and its relation to irrlga~ion practice: Phys. Rev., vol. 20, p. 196. Haines, W. B. (1930) Studies in the physical properties o[ soil. V. The hysteresis effect in capillary properties and the modes o~ moisture associated therewith: Jour. Agric. Sei., vol. 20, pp. 97-116. Israelsen, O. W. (1927) The application of hydrodynamics to irrigation and drainage problems: Hilgardia, vol. 2, pp. 479-528. Richards, L. A. (1940) A pressure membrane apparatus [or soil solution: Soil Sei., vol. 51, pp. 377-386. Riehards, L. A. (1949) Methods o[ measuring soil moisture tension: Soil Sci., vol. 68, pp. 95-112. Riehards, L. A. (1950a) Experimental demomtration o[ the hydraulic criterion [or zero flow Of water in unsaturated soil: Int. Cong. of Soil Sci., Trans. Amsterdam, vol. I, pp. 66-68. Richards, L. A. (1950b) Laws of soil moisture: A.G.U. Trans., vol. 31, Part 5, pp. 750-756. Riehards, Sterling J., and Weeks, Leslie V. (1953) Capillary conductivity values from moisture yield and tendon mea,urements on soil columns: Soil Sei. Soe. Amer. Proc., vol. 17, Part 3, pp. 206-209. Versluys, J. (1917) Die kapillarittit der boden: Int. Mitt. f. Bodenktmde, vol. 7, pp. 117-140.
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About the Author
Lysa TerKeurst is vice-predident of The Proverbs 31 Ministry and co-host of the ministry's radio program. A feature writer for the ministry's newsletter, Lysa speaks at women's conferences and retreats. She and her husband Art live just outside of Charlotte, North Carolina with their three daughters Hope, Ashley, and Brooke.

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Orange Flavored Glazed Carrots
1 Oct 2010
|Fresh carrots
|1 1⁄2 Pound
|Brown sugar
|1⁄3 Cup (5.33 tbs) (packed)
|1⁄2 Teaspoon
|Orange peel
|1⁄2 Teaspoon, grated
|2 Tablespoon
Prepare and cook carrots, cut into lengthwise strips.
In large skillet, cook and stir brown sugar, salt, orange peel and butter until bubbly.
Add carrot strips; cook over low heat, stirring occasionally, about 5 minutes or until carrots are glazed and heated through.
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Orange Flavored Glazed Carrots Recipe


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2010-2011 Lineup Predictions and Speculation
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NYR Viper
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Location: PA
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Originally Posted by
Yet it is just as unrealistic as any lineup that does include Kovalchuk.
I have a question for you Inferno, and I'm not trying to mock you, just to have a discussion.
How do you think we could afford Kovalchuk and still have the funds to:
1) Sign other free agents?
2) Extend our own RFA's when their ELC's expire?
3) Have legit secondary scoring with him eating up all that cap space?
I wanted Kovalchuk for a little while too, but this is how I got over it. We have a great potential core of our team. We have some very talented centers (Stepan, Anisimov, Dubinsky, Christensen, and hopefully Johansen or Burmistrov), great RW's (Gaborik, Callahan, MZ Aasen, Prust), huge potential LW's (Kreider, Grachev, and hopefully Kabanov) and you know about all of our defensive depth.
When their contracts expire, how do you see one feasible way with even keeping
of them while having 10M+ tied up in a one dimensional player in Kovalchuk?
We simply cannot keep together the majority of our core with Kovalchuk eating up all that cap space.
Post #31 has a rough outline for next season. After that, Rozsival can be traded if need be to be replaced by McDonagh. That money could be used to give a raise to Anisimov, Dubinsky and Callahan if need be. After that season Drury comes off the books and there is another 7 million.
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