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A system, method and article of manufacture are provided for certifying contracts utilizing a network. Initially, a first and second contract is received utilizing a network. Each contract includes a plurality of terms. It is then certified that the terms of the second contract are consistent with the terms of the first contract.
1. A method for certifying contracts utilizing a network, comprising:
(a) receiving a first contract including a plurality of terms utilizing the network;
(b) receiving a second contract including a plurality of terms utilizing the network; and
(c) certifying that the terms of the second contract are consistent with the terms of the first contract wherein at least a portion of the terms of at least one of the contracts are obfuscated.
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9. A computer program embodied on a computer readable medium for certifying contracts utilizing a network, comprising:
(a) a code segment for receiving a first contract including a plurality of terms utilizing the network;
(b) a code segment for receiving a second contract including a plurality of terms utilizing the network; and
(c) a code segment for certifying that the terms of the second contract are consistent with the terms of the first contract wherein at least a portion of the terms of at least one of the contracts are obfuscated.
10. The computer program as recited in
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17. A system for certifying contracts utilizing a network, comprising:
(a) logic for receiving a first contract including a plurality of terms utilizing a network;
(b) logic for receiving a second contract including a plurality of terms utilizing the network; and
(c) logic for certifying that the terms of the second contract is consistent with the terms of the first contract wherein at least a portion of the terms of at least one of the contracts are obfuscated.
18. A computer-controlled method for obfuscating terms of a document, comprising:
(a) receiving the document including a plurality of terms;
(b) identifying at least one of the terms of the document;
(c) obfuscating the at least one identified term of the document; and
(d) providing the document with the at least one obfuscated term.
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23. A computer program embodied on a computer readable medium for obfuscating terms of a document, comprising:
(a) a code segment for receiving the document including a plurality of terms;
(b) a code segment for identifying at least one of the terms of the document; and
(c) a code segment for obfuscating the at least one identified term of the document.
24. The computer program as recited in
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28. A system for obfuscating terms of a document, comprising:
(a) logic for receiving the document including a plurality of terms;
(b) logic for identifying at least one of the terms of the document; and
(c) logic for obfuscating the at least one identified term of the document.
The present invention relates generally to cryptography and, more particularly, to digital transactions over a network involving contracts.
In recent years, a number of digital contract systems have been proposed to encourage the production, distribution, and sale of high-quality digital works over networks, such as the Internet. These systems allow rights, fees, and other terms and conditions to be associated with a given work. Combined with proposed secure software and hardware, digital contracts can be enforced to insure proper payment and rights management for digital works. Of course, there are many potential vulnerabilities at the software and hardware levels that an attacker could exploit to subvert a digital contract system. In particular, security problems can arise even when the system is assumed to protect content and enforce contracts as specified.
Systems to enforce digital contracts are already in place or may be available soon. For instance, examples of such systems are set forth by M. Stefik and A. Silverman, "The Bit And the Pendulum: Balancing the Interests of Stake-holders in Digital Publishing", The Computer Lawyer, Vol. 16, pp. 1-15, 1999; ContentGuard: Rights Protection from Xerox, http://www. contentguard.com/; Intertrust Digital Rights Management, http: //www. intertrust.com/; and The Secure Digital Music Initiative, http: //www. sdmi. org/ which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
In operation, these kinds of systems are capable of being used to support relatively simple business models. Such business models do not involve middlemen, who buy digital content from one or more providers, repackage or otherwise add value, and then resell to consumers or to other middlemen. It is expected that in the near future middlemen may be prevalent in the digital work business. Every middleman in a distribution chain produces a new contract to enforce a new set of terms and conditions. For long distribution chains, it may be unwieldy to carry along every contract that was created along the way. This would be undesirable from a practical business perspective as well. The seller has a strong incentive to conceal from the buyer earlier contracts along a chain. If a potential buyer gets to see earlier contracts, the buyer might be tempted to renegotiate the new contract at more favorable terms, or "disintermediate" the seller and negotiate independently with earlier sellers in the chain. There is a natural privacy requirement here that may be crucial for creating viable business niches.
There is a natural integrity requirement that is also fundamental. A middleman may wish to keep secret the favorable terms of earlier contracts in a distribution chain, but he may not be allowed to negotiate a new contract that violates his existing obligations. As a result of adding value to a digital work, a reseller is certainly entitled to be compensated by raising the fees associated with use of the content. Other terms associated with the earlier contract might be altered by a reseller as well. Expiration dates might be moved up, or hardware security requirements might be tightened, or payment options might shift (e.g., from flat rates to per-use fees). Any changes that are made in the new contract may in some sense be "faithful" to, or in other words, consistent with the original contract —existing payment obligations may not decrease, expiration dates may not move into the future, new rights cannot be granted, and so on.
These two requirements are in conflict with each other. Verifying that a new contract is faithful to an old contract seems to require that both contracts be inspected by the new buyer, but that would violate the privacy needs of the seller. There is thus a need for a cryptographic approach to balance distribution chain privacy and distribution chain integrity.
A system, method and article of manufacture are provided for certifying contracts utilizing a network. Initially, a first and second contract is received utilizing a network. Each contract includes a plurality of terms. It is then certified that the terms of the second contract are consistent with the terms of the first contract. This provides distribution chain integrity in accordance with one of the objectives of the present invention.
In one embodiment of the present invention, received with the contacts is proof that the terms of the second contract are consistent with, or "faithful" to the terms of the first contract. As such, the certification may be based on the proof. As an option, the proof may be generated by comparing the terms of the first and second contract.
In one embodiment of the present invention, received with the contracts is proof that the terms of the second contract are consistent with, or "faithful" to the terms of the first contract. As such, the certification may be based on the proof. As an option, the proof may be generated by comparing the terms of the first and second contract.
In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the first contract may be received with a certifier indicating that the terms of the first contract are consistent with terms of a previous contract. Optionally, at least a portion of the terms of at least one of the contracts is obfuscated, and the second contract may be sent with obfuscated terms utilizing the network. This provides distribution chain privacy in accordance with one of the objectives of the present invention.
In one aspect of the present invention, a system, method and article of manufacture may be provided for obfuscating terms of a document in order to provide distribution chain privacy. In operation, a document, i.e. contract, may be received including a plurality of terms. Once received, at least one of the terms of such document may be identified. As such, the identified term of the document may be obfuscated. This feature may be particularly beneficial when giving a party the document when one wants to retain some of the tenms thereof as confidential.
In one embodiment of the instant aspect, the contract may be received from a first party, and further sent to a second party with the at least one obfuscated term utilizing a network. As an option, the at least one term of the contract may be identified based on a list of terms.
In this way, the present invention demonstrates an extremely efficient solution to the problem of distribution chain security, and thus extend the realm of real-world settings for which zero-knowledge proof techniques are practical. These and other advantages of the present invention may become apparent upon reading the following detailed description and studying the various figures of the drawings.
The foregoing and other objects, aspects and advantages are better understood from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment of the invention with reference to the drawings, in which:
If resale and distribution of digital works is to be feasible, safeguards should be provided to ensure that existing obligations to rights holders of resold works are maintained. In the present description, various terms relating to this "faithfulness," or consistency, requirement will be set forth for an exemplary property rights language. The approach taken here applies to a large class of rights languages. The following terms embody concepts common to many property rights languages, and are used throughout this document.
Right —A right specified by a contract is a term or sequence of keywords in a contract, the presence of which in the contract allows a holder of the work to use it in a specified manner. For example, the right to print or to sell a copy of the work may be granted to a user. Furthermore, a right may have conditions, fees, and terms associated with it which may be satisfied in order to exercise the specified activity.
For example, the right to print the content may be associated with the requirement to pay a certain sum of money, along with the requirement that the work may be printed only using a trusted printer capable of embedding watermarks. Examples of rights include, but are not limited to printing, rendering, playing, copying, selling, and loaning the work, as well as including excerpts of the content in other works and embedding the content into other works. Specifications and terms may include, but are not limited to fee specifications, time specifications (such as release and expiration dates), hardware security requirements, and watermarking requirements.
Contract: A contract is a specification written in a property rights language, such as the Digital Property Rights Language, and specifies the rights granted to the holder of the digital work and the terms associated with exercising those permissions. In one embodiment, it is a sequence of string tokens conforming to the rights language syntax, stored as a file and linked to the corresponding work in a way that forbids modification by users. A number of well known methods may be used to accomplish this, including use of secure hardware or software, cryptographic techniques, or secure contract servers.
Author: The author of a digital work is the original creator and can specify (possibly in conjunction with a publisher) the initial contract to be associated with a work.
Reseller: A reseller, such as a publisher, distributor or other middleman is an entity intermediate in the chain of distribution. A reseller makes a work available after modifying it, bundling it with other content, or performing some other service with respect to the work or its distribution. In doing so the reseller typically replaces the contract associated with the work.
A preferred embodiment of a system in accordance with the present invention is preferably practiced in the context of a personal computer such as an IBM �compatible personal computer, Apple Macintosh computer or UNLX based workstation. A representative hardware environment is depicted in
The workstation shown in
The workstation typically has resident thereon an operating system such as the Microsoft Windows NT or Windows/95 Operating System (OS), the IBM OS/2 operating system, the MAC OS, or UNIX operating system. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the present invention may also be implemented on platforms and operating systems other than those mentioned. A preferred embodiment is written using JAVA, C, and the C++ language and utilizes object oriented programming methodology.
Ensuring Integrity
When a reseller wishes to change the rights or obligations associated with a work, it may be confirmed that these changes do not violate, or are consistent with the terms of the original contract. For example, legal obligations to pay existing royalties cannot be erased, and these amounts cannot be decreased, although perhaps the form of payment can be altered. When contract Cnew honors the terms of contract Cold, the present invention assumes that Cnew, is faithful to Cold, and this is denoted as Cnew≦C old.
Each rights language L gives rise to a particular set of contracts and a particular faithfulness relation. For most contract languages, the predicate Cold≦Cnew can be expressed using arithmetic expressions between the terms of Cold and Cnew.
A general condition that may hold is that if the new contract Cnew, grants a right R to a buyer or user of the work, then that right R must be granted in the original contract Cold. Furthermore, except for a number of predetermined terms, most terms associated with R in Cnew may match those in Cold exactly. Examples of such exceptions will now be set forth.
If contract Cold specifies that a right R expires on a date D, then the contract Cnew may specify that the right R expires on a date D′, where D′<D (D′ is at least as soon as D). Similarly, if D and D′ encode release dates (earliest possible date in which the right can be invoked), then it is required that D′>D.
In the simplest case, if contract Cold specifies that exercising a right R includes an obligation to pay party P an amount A, then the contract Cnew may include an obligation to pay party P an amount A′, where A′≧A, for exercising the same right R. Examples exist in which payment amounts are converted to and from metered rates, per-use fees, and flat fees, and between currencies.
In one embodiment of the present invention, a financial model is used in which a user pays the single fee A′ to the single entity P (such as a financial clearinghouse) when a right is executed. Then P is responsible for dividing A′ among deserving parties, resulting in the simple condition that A≦A′. Alternatives to this scenario are possible and result in different predicates. Additional information on such alternatives will be discussed later in further detail.
If contract Cold specifies that exercising a right R requires trusted hardware of a security level L, then contract Cnew may specify that exercising right R requires trusted hardware of security level L′ satisfying L′≧L.
Distribution Chain Privacy
A protocol will now be outlined that allows the details about old and new contracts to be kept secret, while still enabling a proof of the integrity of the system to be provided. The present invention is adapted for creating and verifying zero-knowledge proofs of predicates in a commitment scheme. This is accomplished by exploiting the fact that predicates of interest, that is, predicates expressing a faithfulness relation between contracts can be efficiently represented using existing zero-knowledge techniques.
During the remaining description regarding distribution chain privacy, various terms are employed which are defined below.
Commitment: A commitment can be thought of as a "sealed envelope" which cannot be opened without knowing the value inside the envelope. If c=commit (v) then it may be difficult or impossible to compute v directly from c. This is referred to as the hiding property of the commitment scheme. If v is revealed, however, it may be easy to verify that c=commit (v). Furthermore, it may be difficult or impossible to create a commitment for which two different values could be successfully revealed. This may be referred to as the binding property of the scheme. The commitment schemes described satisfy all of these conditions under suitable intractability assumptions.
Zero-Knowledge Proof: A zero-knowledge proof Z of a predicate P on values vl, . . . vn, is a message from aprover (usually a reseller) to a verifier (which for purposes of the present description will be the contract certification authority, although it could also be a user, publisher, author, another reseller, or any other party) intended to convey the validity of the predicate P without revealing the values vi. In one embodiment, the present invention may be focused on zero-knowledge proofs that have been made non-interactive using the Fiat-Shamir heuristic.
In practice, a verifier of the proof receives commit(vi), . . . , commit(vn) along with the proof Z. The verifier performs a computation to determine if the proof is valid, and may accept the proof (thus believing that P holds) with only an exponentially small probability of error if P in fact holds. The verifier may learn no information about the values Vi except that they satisfy the predicate P.
Of course, if the predicate P does not hold on the values Vi then there may be at most an exponentially small probability that the prover can create a proof that verifies correctly. Furthermore, in one embodiment, a proof for particular values Vi may not be manipulated in a way to allow it to verify for any other yalues vi≠vi.
Obfuscated Contract: An obfuscated contract is a contract in which some of the values have been replaced by commitments to those values. If C is a contract with values vl, . . . , vn that one wishes to obfuscate, obfuscated contract obs (C) may be produced by replacing each value vi with the commitment commit(vi). The obfuscation of contracts can be thought of as a commitment scheme for contracts.
In practice, only the handful of values corresponding to sensitive numeric or string fields may be replaced with commitments. Therefore, an obfuscated contract differs only very slightly in length and structure from its unobfuscated counterpart.
In one embodiment of the instant aspect, the contract may be received from a first party, and further sent to a second party with the at least one obfuscated term utilizing a network. As an option, the at least one term of the contract may be identified based on a list of terms.
Contract Certifier: The contract certifier is a corporate structure or a legal entity in charge of certifying newly-created contracts. The term "contract authorizer" may also be used. Typically, this certification is achieved using a digital signature, but may be accomplished using any number of methods. If a contract C or obfuscated contract obs(C) has been digitally signed by the contract certifier, it may be denoted by [C] or [obs(C)], respectively.
Ensuring Privacy
It is assumed that buyers (or their software) may accept only contracts which have been approved by the contract certifier. To maintain privacy, the contract certifier may see only obfuscated contracts, so only obfuscated contracts can be directly signed by the authority. Therefore, approval of a contract C is ascertained by providing the buyer or user with an obfuscated contract [obs(C)] that has been digitally signed by the certification authority, along with the same contract C with terms "in the clear." The software of the present invention checks that the contract C matches the obfuscated contract obs(C) (using the verification property of commitment schemes described above) and checks the digital signature on the obfuscated contract [obs(C)]. If these tests succeed, then based on the binding property of the commitment scheme, the user knows that the presented contract C uniquely matches the certified version [obs(C)].
If presented with a digital work by its author along with an obfuscated version obs(C) of the proposed contract C, the contract certifier checks that the obfuscated contract is well-formed (i.e., is syntactically valid in the rights language) and that the values supplied for each entry is within any system-wide bounds for the fields of the appropriate type that might be in place. Checking the latter condition may require zero-knowledge proofs for the boundedness of certain fields. If these conditions hold, the contract certifier digitally signs the obfuscated contract and returns [obs(C)] to the author.
In one embodiment of the present invention, received with the contacts is proof that the terms of the second contract are consistent with, or "faithful" to the terms of the first contract. As such, the certification may be based on the proof. As an option, the proof may be generated by comparing the terms of the first and second contract.
The first contract may involve an agreement between a first party and a second party. Further, the second contract may involve a subsequent agreement between the second party and a third party. Still yet, a certifier may be generated if it is certified that the terms of the second contract are consistent with the terms of the first contract. Thereafter, the second contract and the certifier may be sent to the third party.
The first contract may be received with a certifier indicating that the terms of the first contract are consistent with terms of a previous contract. Optionally, at least a portion of the terms of at least one of the contracts is obfuscated, and the second contract may be sent with obfuscated terms utilizing the network.
A reseller, like any other buyer in this system, obtains a digital work with a digitally signed, obfuscated contract [obs(C)] 600 and the corresponding (unsigned) contract C in the clear. To obtain certification for a new contract D on a digital work, it may convince the contract certifier 602 of the faithfulness of the new contract. To do this, the reseller creates obs(D) 606 and a zero-knowledge proof of faithfulness Z 608 establishing that D is faithful to C. It sends the contracts [obs(C)] 600 and obs(D) 606 and the zero-knowledge proof of faithfulness Z 608 to the contract certifier 602. If indeed D is faithful to C, then the proof Z 608 may verify correctly and the contract certifier 602 may return the digitally signed [obs(D)] 606 to the reseller to give to buyers or other entities in the chain of distribution.
It should be noted that once the proof of faithfulness 608 has been created and used to convince the contract certifier 602 of the faithfulness of the new contract, it is no longer needed. Only the new contract D and the new certified obfuscated contract [obs(D)] 606 are needed for the next step in the chain of distribution. This is an important optional optimization step in the present scheme.
Creating a Proof of Faithfulness
The manner in which the proof of faithfulness is constructed will now be set forth. The obfuscated contracts obs(C) and obs(D) consist of sequences of tokens in the rights language, some of which represent commitments to secret values. Because the reseller has access to C and D, it knows how to open each of these commitments. The aim is to prove that the values contained in matching commitments are in the proper relationships.
For example, the reseller might wish to provide a proof the predicate of P(α, β)≡αβ to show that the commitment in D containing the fee β opens to a value no less than the corresponding commitment in C containing α. In general, all predicates that may be shown are compositions of elementary predicates for equality (α=β), addition (α+β=γ), multiplication (αβ=γ), inequality (α≦β), and bit-value (αε{0,1}), or compositions and Boolean combinations of these predicates.
Fortunately, it is easy to efficiently generate short proofs of these predicates using the commitment scheme of Cramer-Damgard. For more information on how to implement equality, addition, multiplication, and bit-value proofs of constant size, reference may be made to R. Cramer and I. Daxng�rd, "Zero-Knowledge Proofs for Finite Field Arithmetic, or: Can Zero-Knowledge be for Free?", Proc. of CRYPTO '98, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 1462, pp. 424-441, Springer-Verlag (1998) which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
Choice of Commitment Scheme
The present invention employs generic zero-knowledge techniques which can indeed be quite efficient and practical when applied to the problem of distribution chain security. Optionally, the present invention may employ any of the commitment schemes set forth in the Cramer and I. Daxngard document set forth hereinabove.
In one embodiment, a scheme may be used that is based on the difficulty of the discrete logarithm problem in subgroups. In this scheme, the contract certifier chooses primes p, q such that q is a divisor of p−1, with p much larger than q. (It is typical to have p be 1024 bits in length and q be 160 bits in length.) Values g, hεZp are chosen such that g and h=gx generate the same subgroup of Zp, order q. The contract certifier keeps the value x secret and announces the values p, q, g and h publicly. These may be needed by the author and resellers to generate obfuscated contracts.
To generate a commitment to the value a, one computes c=gαhr mod p for a randomly-chosen value r. Using the above parameters this commitment may be 1024 bits in length. Commitments in this scheme enjoy unconditional hiding—even with unlimited computational power it is impossible for any party to determine the value a from c. Therefore, distribution chain privacy is complete. However, these commitments are conditionally binding—it is guaranteed that a party can open the commitment c to reveal only the value a only if the party has not obtained the value x. The buyer, then, may trust that the contract certifier's secret x has not been compromised by the seller to ensure distribution chain integrity.
The second commitment scheme is based on the difficulty of the Decision Diffie-Hellman problem in subgroups. In this scenario, the author generates the parameters p, q, g, h as above. A commitment to a value αεZq is expressed as the pair
Because the two schemes differ in the hiding and binding properties, the proper choice of commitment scheme depends on the security model being used. However, in most cases the first scheme is sufficient, and is preferred due to its —use of smaller commitments and more efficient proof generation and verification steps. To prevent against compromise of the contract verifier's secret m, this value can erased immediately after h=gx computed, as x is not needed for any protocols.
It should be noted that these commitment schemes use as additional input a random value r. To include this in the scheme, it is suggested for compactness that the random value r be determined by the output of a pseudorandom number generator or pseudorandom function. A seed R to this generator may be included in the unobfuscated contract; to generate the ith commitment ci, the reseller can compute the ith output ri from the PRNG seeded with r and compute Ci=commit(vi, ri). A buyer can confirm that the ith commitment matches a value in the clear by extracting R from the unobfuscated contract, computing ri, and checking ci=commit(vi, ri).
Choice of Zero-Knowledge Proofs
In one embodiment, the efficient zero-knowledge proof schemes of Cramer-DamgArd may be used. For both of the commitments schemes described above, they give efficient proofs for equality, arbitrary sums, pairwise products, and equality to zero or one. Actual proof sizes and running times for generation and verification will be set forth hereinafter in greater detail. Intuitively, much of the efficiency derives from the "homomorphic" properties of the underlying commitment schemes. For example, the product of two commitments is a commitment of the sum of the committed values. These schemes also use the standard Fiat-Shamir heuristic to make the proofs non-interactive. For more information regarding the Fiat-Shamir heuristic, reference may be had to A. Fiat and A. Shamir, "How to prove yourself—Practical solutions to identification and signature problems", Proc, of Crypto '86, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 263, pp. 186-194, Springer-Verlag (1986) which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
To create proofs for predicates involving, a new technique has been developed to improve on the efficiency of published schemes. For simplicity, the present description assumes use of the discrete-log-based commitment scheme described above, although the approach works for the other commitment scheme as well.
Suppose that it may be proved that α≦β for values α, βε(0,2′) and 2′<q/2. If γ=β−α, then it is known that γε(0,2′) if and only if α≦β. Thus the aim is to create an efficient zero-knowledge proof of this bound on γ. In fact, the proof may be the size of about log β commitments.
The present invention works with commitments α=commit(α, r)=gαhr and b=commit(β, s)=gβ hs for some random r, s εZq. The prover can compute the commitment c=commit(γ, r−s), and the verifier can compute this as c=a/b.
Let (γi) (t−1, i=0) be the binary representation of β−α=Σ(t−1, i=0) 2iγi. Choose random values r1 . . . , rt-1 and set r0=r−s−Σ(t−1, i=0)2iri. Then let Ci=commit(yi, ri)=gγi hri for all i=0, t−1.
If the verifier knows that the bound α, βε(0, 2t) holds, then it is sufficient to provide the commitments c0, . . . , ct-1 along with a proof that each ci is a bit. The verifier checks each ci bit proof and confirms that indeed bΠci=α.
If the verifier does not know that α and β is bounded, then a zero-knowledge proof that αΣ(0, 2t) and βε(0, 2 t) can be constructed in a similar way and may accompany the above proofs. However, it is usually the case that one of the values comes from an obfuscated contract that has already been certified, and therefore the certifier trusts that it is bounded. In that case, proof size may be optimized by leaving out the unnecessary proof.
More complicated arithmetic predicates can be expressed through the use of commitments to temporary values. For example, to provide a proof of P αβ+γδ, temporary commitments may be made to values ε, ζ and it may be shown that a β=ε, ε+γ=ζ, and ζ<δ. The proof of the predicate P then consists of the temporary commitments followed by proofs for each of the elementary arithmetic predicates. This composition is clearly zero-knowledge. Furthermore, predicates that are Boolean combinations of these predicates can be represented with little extra overhead using standard techniques.
Implementation and Timing Details
Using the discrete-log-based commitment scheme outlined above, the proof method outlined above produces fairly small proofs. For example, suppose contracts C and D each contain a sensitive field such as a time or a price. A typical size for a commitment is 1024 bits, or 128 bytes. This yields obfuscated contracts obs(C) and obs(D) with corresponding fields of size 128 bytes.
To prove that obfuscated commitments are in the correct relationship to yield a faithful contract, one or some, combination of the following primitive proofs may be used. One might need a proof that the values that two commitments encode are equal; using the parameters expressed above, this may require 148 bytes. A proof that the value encoded in a commitment is a bit uses 316 bytes. A proof that the value in a commitment is the product of two the values encoded in two other commitments may require 484 bytes. To generate a proof that a committed t-bit value is less than another committed t-bit value requires t additional commitments and t bit proofs; for the typical value of t=20 (the size of a field storing a date or a price), this would yield a proof size of about 9 kilobytes. An additional 9 kilobytes is needed for each operand to prove that it is a 1-bit value; however, usually only one such extra proof is required per inequality.
Suppose a contract has 15 sensitive fields. The obfuscated version of the contract may typically be 2-3K larger than the unobfuscated version. If five of these fields require equality proofs, five require multiplication proofs, and five represent 20-bit quantities requiring less-than proofs, the total "proof of faithfulness" may be approximately 85K. (About 80K of this is needed to store the less-than proofs, which clearly dominate the space requirements in this system.)
One embodiment of the present invention may be implemented in Java on a 450 MHz Intel Pentium III running Linux. Experimental results of such implementation are shown in Table 1.
Blackdown implementation of the Java 1.2 JDK. With p of size 1024 bits and q of size 160 in the discrete-log-based scheme, creating commitments of arbitrary 160-bit values takes approximately 50 milliseconds. Creating commitments to small values, which is typical in these contracts, takes approximately 25 milliseconds. Creating equality proofs takes approximately 25 milliseconds, while verifying equality proofs takes about 50 milliseconds. Additions do not need proofs since in the scheme a commitment to the sum of k committed values can be computed as the product of the k commitments. (So to prove α+β=γ, only one equality proof is needed.) Proving that a is either 0 or 1 requires 80 milliseconds, while verifying this proof takes about 100 milliseconds. Creating multiplication proofs requires about 130 milliseconds, while verifying multiplication proofs requires approximately 200 milliseconds. Creating and verifying "less than or equal to" proofs for 20-bit quantities each require about 1.8 seconds. These running times are dominated by the time needed to perform modular exponentiation of a 1024-bit base to a 160-bit exponent, which, using the Java large integer package, takes approximately 20-22 milliseconds.
Alternate Embodiments
One important area that deserves further study is how choices of fee payment schemes affect the resulting faithfulness predicates and zero-knowledge proofs. For instance, instead of listing a single fee and account number in the digital contract, one can maintain a list of fee-payee pairs. Then instead of routing funds from a user to a clearinghouse in a single transaction, the user is charged the sum of the fees and the software routes the shares of that sum individually to the clearinghouse on behalf of each payee (or the shares are sent to the payees directly.) While this allows the privacy of the reseller's profit margin to be maintained with respect to the contract certifier, this information is now unfortunately revealed to the buyer. In some cases this may be unacceptable.
Another scenario is one in which the total fee is listed in the digital contract and the last seller in the chain of distribution is listed as the recipient of those funds. In addition, however, a list of electronic addresses of other payees is maintained, with no information about the size of their shares given. When the right in question is exercised, the user's funds are routed to the last reseller and a notice is given to the remaining parties; these can either generate requests from these parties to the reseller to obtain their shares of the funds, or be logged for accounting purposes or later retrieval. In this scenario, although the number and identities of middlemen in the chain of distribution is revealed, the privacy of the profit margin is maintained from not only the contract certifier but the financial clearinghouse as well.
A more complicated but perhaps more complete solution would be to keep in the contract a list of account numbers and amounts encrypted in a clearinghouse's public key; although this would require additional overhead as zero-knowledge proofs involving encrypted values would need to be generated. These might be much larger if the encryption scheme is incompatible with the arithmetic relations for which efficient proofs are already available.
It may be desirable to allow resellers to lose money on individual transactions, e.g., by repackaging attractive offers as "loss-leaders." Some fee payment schemes can support this in the present approach, when combined with appropriate efficient zero-knowledge proofs of range-boundedness, sums, and less-than predicates.
The use of a contract certifier is just one example of a scenario which can take advantage of zero-knowledge proofs of faithfulness. Other scenarios are possible; in a scenario with no contract certifier, a reseller would append changes to work's original obfuscated contract along with a proof of faithfulness of these changes. The concatenation of obfuscated contracts, corresponding proofs of faithfulness, and (only) the final plaintext contract would be revealed to the buyer.
Although this scheme has the advantage that it does not need a third party to certify contracts, it suffers from very large contract sizes, since the contract grows substantially each time changes are made. The advantage of contract certification is that it allows one to "throw away" the proof of faithfulness; that optimization is not possible in this scenario. Furthermore, contract verification is time consuming, as the entire composition of changes needs to be verified. It is precisely these compositions that are optimized by the contract authorizer. Lastly, for this scheme to work it is necessary to use a commitment scheme with unconditional binding.
While various embodiments have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope of a preferred embodiment should not be limited by any of the above described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.
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Kevin Gates Shouts Out Lake City in "Khaza" [VIDEO]
Kevin Gates releases video "Khaza," one week after he drops video for "Pourin the Syrup." Watch it here.
Kevin Gates releases video "Khaza," one week after he drops video for "Pourin the Syrup." Watch it here.
Slim Thug releases another video from his "Hogg Life: The Beginning Album." Watch it here!
Louisiana rapper Boosie Badazz tells story of injustice in his latest video "Hands Up."
The Game and Dej Loaf team up to jack and armored truck in "Ryda" video.
One day after releasing a remix to "I Don't Get Tired," Kevin Gates releases a video for "Pourin' the Syrup." Watch the not safe for work video here.
Kevin Gates remixes his own song "I Don't Get Tired," and the man is spitting some fierce new bars.
The Marauder's release another exclusive remix, this time it's for Rihanna's 'BBHMM." Listen here!
New Haven, Connecticut rapper Haze Da Punter releases new music, plans visit to 107 Jamz. Read more!
Slim Thug gets pimped out and parties with friends in his latest video, 'Hogg Life.'
Cali-based duo Audio Push release their latest video for 'Quick Fast,' featuring Wale. Watch it here.
Kendrick Lamar drops his latest banger, 'The Blacker the Berry.'
Today in Tha Wire, Johnny Gill drops "Game Changer" and talks something new from New Edition, while Fabolous & Ludacris gear up to release their new projects.


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Member since Sep 2012
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Great advice on leaving no room for confusion with consistent vanity URLs. That is exactly what I do. "David Kimball" …
Interesting article. It's funny to think that we're almost already at the "era of incremental refinement." I'd say Windows Phone …
A shift in industry innovation? How about a suppression of industry innovation?


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Grid List
Ladies Leather Like CoatITEM: 8041 Our newest polyurethane water resistant coat features a 5 button front, 2 side slash pockets, shirt collar, and two decorative buttons on the sleeve to complete the look. Poly quilted satin lining with light polyfil for extra warmth. Super price saver! Imported.Learn More
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Ladies Leather Like JacketITEM: 8042 Introducing our water resistant polyurethane all-around jacket. Features include full front zipper, 6 antique brasstone button placket, detachable faux fur collar, two button outside flap pockets, one inside pocket and inside drawstring for a better fit. Diamond quilted polysatin lining with poly fill. Imported.Learn More
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Ladies Leather Swing CoatITEM: 1570 Ladies Leather Swing Coat. Notch Lapel, with 4 button front. Leather clean. Imported.Learn More
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Ladies Leather Tech GloveITEM: 9264 Until now, the latest gloves with special construction for manipulating your smartphone and smartpad in cold weather, only came in nylon or fabric. Now we bring you a genuine leather version. Lined in ThinsulateTM for extra warmth. Imported.Learn More
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Ladies Leather Walking CoatITEM: 5571 Leather walking coat. Our 4 button nappa leather walking coat will become your favorite. Classic and stylish, with quilted polysatin lining, with lite poly fill, inside leather trimmed pocket, and 2 on seam outside pockets. Perfect for all seasons. Imported. Leather clean.Learn More
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Ladies New Zealand Leather JacketITEM: 5031 This premium lambskin leather 5 button jacket will give you style and warmth 3 seasons of the year. Princess seaming, button cuffs, side waist tabs and shirt collar give you the look you want. Diamond quilted polysatin lining. A true value! Imported. Leather clean.Learn More
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Ladies Pleated Rouching JacketITEM: 8028 This sculpted jacket features pleated slimming ruching, and boasts an exaggerated fashion collar that can zip all the way up. This must-have polyurethane jacket is beautifully lightweight. With four pull strings, a snap placket over the zipper, two convenient outside slash pockets. Imported.Learn More
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Ladies Reversable Full Length Leather CoatITEM: 7007 You'll find warmth and comfort from the cold in this gorgeous heavy duty full-length 50" coat. Made of soft-as- lambskin leather, it also reverses to a soft and fun faux fur. Leather side out, the plush acrylic fur adds delicious detailing at the generous shawl collar, tuxedo front and at the cuffs. Two on-seam side slash outside pockets. Imported. Leather clean.Learn More
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Ladies Short and Sassy Faux Shearling JacketITEM: 8013 This sporty faux shearling jacket is tailored to your tastes, with a fun zip front convertible collar, warm, rich acrylic pile lining in the body and sleeves, and stylish adjustable roll cuffs. Two lower zip close pockets. A great value for cold winter days. Imported. Dry clean.Learn More
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Ladies Short Quilted Moto JacketITEM: 5042 Our model of this year's fashion editor's favorite is made of lustrous, top quality lambskin leather, featuring an asymmetrical design with quilted trim on the shoulders, side panels, and sleeves. Standup collar, racy zipper detailing on pockets and sleeves, a snap front placket, and adjustable buckles on the side make this jacket extraordinary. Poly twill lining. Imported. Leather clean.Learn More
Regular Price: $362.50
Special Price $145.00


text:
VIEWS: 7 PAGES: 3 CATEGORY: Government POSTED ON: 10/25/2009 Public Domain
6478 OMB No. 1545-0231 Form Credit for Alcohol Used as Fuel Department of the Treasury Attach to your return. 1998 Attachment Internal Revenue Service Sequence No. 83 Name(s) shown on return Identifying number (a) Type of Alcohol Fuel (b) (c) Number of Gallons Sold or Used Rate * Column (a) x Column (b) 1 Qualified ethanol fuel production (in gallons) 1 .10 2 Straight alcohol and alcohol mixtures: a 190 proof or greater (in gallons) 2a .54 b Less than 190 proof but at least 150 proof (in gallons) 2b .40 3 Add lines 1, 2a, and 2b in both columns 3 4 Other fuels blended with the alcohol on lines 2a and 2b 4 5a Total gallons of fuel. Add lines 3 and 4 (column (a)) 5a b Total gallons containing less than 5.7% of 190-proof alcohol or that are exempt from excise taxes (see instructions) 5b 6 Subtract line 5b from line 5a 6 7 Break down line 6 into the number of gallons of: a Aviation fuel for use in noncommercial aviation containing at least 10% alcohol 7a .134 b Gasohol (and other fuels) containing less than 85% alcohol (see instructions) 7b (see instructions) c Special motor fuel containing 85% or more alcohol (see instructions) 7c .0545 8 Add lines 7a through 7c, column (c) 8 9 Current year credit less excise tax benefit. Subtract line 8 from line 3. Include this amount in your income for 1998 9 10 Flow-through alcohol fuel credit(s) from a partnership, S corporation, estate, or trust (see instructions) 10 11 Total current year credit for alcohol used as fuel. Add lines 9 and 10 11 Only the rate for ethanol is shown. See instructions for lines 2 and 7 for rates for alcohol other than ethanol. * See Who Must File Form 3800 to find out if you complete the lines below or file Form 3800. 12 Regular tax before credits: ● Individuals. Enter amount from Form 1040, line 40 ● Corporations. Enter amount from Form 1120, Schedule J, line 3 (or Form 1120-A, Part I, line 1) 12 ● Other filers. Enter regular tax before credits from your return 13a Credit for child and dependent care expenses (Form 2441, line 9) 13a b Credit for the elderly or the disabled (Schedule R (Form 1040), line 20) 13b c Child tax credit (Form 1040, line 43) 13c d Education credits (Form 8863, line 18) 13d e Mortgage interest credit (Form 8396, line 11) 13e f Adoption credit (Form 8839, line 14) 13f g District of Columbia first-time homebuyer credit (Form 8859, line 11) 13g h Foreign tax credit 13h i Possessions tax credit (Form 5735, line 17 or 27) 13i j Credit for fuel from a nonconventional source 13j k Qualified electric vehicle credit (Form 8834, line 19) 13k l Add lines 13a through 13k 13l 14 Net regular tax. Subtract line 13l from line 12 14 15 Alternative minimum tax: ● Individuals. Enter amount from Form 6251, line 28 ● Corporations. Enter amount from Form 4626, line 15 15 ● Estates and trusts. Enter amount from Form 1041, Schedule I, line 39 16 Net income tax. Add lines 14 and 15 16 17 Tentative minimum tax (see instructions) 17 18 If line 14 is more than $25,000, enter 25% (.25) of the excess (see instructions) 18 19 Enter the greater of line 17 or line 18 19 20 Subtract line 19 from line 16. If zero or less, enter -0- 20 21 Credit for alcohol used as fuel allowed for current year. Enter the smaller of line 11 or line 20 here and on Form 1040, line 47; Form 1120, Schedule J, line 4d; Form 1120-A, Part I, line 2a; Form 1041, Schedule G, line 2c; or the applicable line of your return 21 For Paperwork Reduction Act Notice, see page 4. Cat. No. 13605J Form 6478 (1998) Form 6478 (1998) Page 3 General Instructions However, no credit is allowed for Note: We have shown in column (b) the alcohol used by the taxpayer as a fuel in rate for ethanol only. If you have a credit Section references are to the Internal a trade or business if that alcohol was for alcohol other than from ethanol, enter Revenue Code. sold in a retail sale described in 2 in column (b) the applicable rate shown above. in the instructions for lines 2a, 2b, and Purpose of Form Qualified ethanol fuel production. This 7a through 7c. Use Form 6478 to figure your credit for is ethanol produced by an eligible Skip lines 1 through 9 if you are alcohol used as fuel. This credit consists small ethanol producer (defined below) claiming only a credit that was allocated of the following: and during the tax year: to you from a flow-through entity (i.e., S 1. Alcohol mixture credit, 1. Is sold by the producer to another corporation, partnership, estate, or trust). 2. Alcohol credit, and person— S corporations, partnerships, estates, 3. Small ethanol producer credit. a. For use by the buyer in the buyer's and trusts. Figure the total credit on You may claim or elect not to claim trade or business to produce a qualified lines 1 through 11. Then, allocate the the alcohol fuel credit at any time within mixture (other than casual off-farm line 11 credit to each shareholder, the 3 years from the due date of your production), partner, and beneficiary in the same way return (determined without regard to that income and loss are divided. b. For use by the buyer as a fuel in a Electing large partnerships, include this extensions) on either an original or an trade or business, or amended return. credit in "general credits." c. Who sells the ethanol at retail to If the line 11 credit includes any small Definitions and Special another person and puts the ethanol in ethanol producer credit (line 1), you Rules the retail buyer's fuel tank; or must separately state to each Alcohol. Alcohol, for credit purposes, 2. Is used or sold by the producer for shareholder, partner (except a partner in includes ethanol and methanol but does any purpose described in 1 above. an electing large partnership), not include: Eligible small ethanol producer. This is beneficiary, etc., the number of gallons 1. Alcohol produced from petroleum, a person who, at all times during the tax on which the credit was figured, and the natural gas, or coal (including peat), or year, has a productive capacity for productive capacity for alcohol that you, alcohol of 30 million gallons or less. This the flow-through entity, have. State the 2. Alcohol of less than 150 proof. In productive capacity in terms of gallons. figuring the proof of any alcohol, includes alcohol made from petroleum, disregard any denaturants (additives that natural gas, coal, peat, and alcohol of Line 1. Enter the number of gallons of make the alcohol unfit for human less than 150 proof. ethanol that meet the conditions listed consumption). The volume of alcohol Diesel fuel. This is any liquid other than above under Qualified ethanol fuel includes any denaturant up to 5% of the gasoline that can be used as a fuel in a production. Do not enter more than 15 volume of the alcohol and denaturant diesel-powered highway vehicle. million gallons. Multiply by the rate of 10 combined. cents per gallon. Special motor fuel. This is any liquid However, methanol produced from other than gasoline that is suitable for Line 2. Enter on the appropriate line the methane gas formed in waste disposal use or is used in a motor vehicle or number of gallons sold or used. sites is not alcohol produced from motor boat. Line 2a. Enter the number of gallons of natural gas, and is included for credit Noncommercial aviation. This is the 190 proof or greater alcohol and multiply purposes. use of an aircraft other than in a by the rate. Alcohol mixture. The alcohol must be business of transporting persons or For alcohol other than from ethanol, used to make a qualified mixture. A property for pay. the rate is 60 cents per gallon. qualified mixture combines alcohol with Recapture of credit if not used as fuel. Line 2b. Enter the number of gallons of gasoline, diesel, or special motor fuel. You must pay the tax on each gallon of alcohol that is less than 190 proof but at The producer of the mixture either: the alcohol or the alcohol in the mixture least 150 proof and multiply by the rate. 1. Uses it as fuel, or at the applicable rate that you used to For alcohol other than from ethanol, 2. Sells it as fuel to another person. figure the credit if you claim any alcohol the rate is 45 cents per gallon. fuel credit and later you: The credit is available only to the Line 4. Enter the number of gallons of producer who blends the mixture. The 1. Separate the alcohol from the other fuels that you blended with the producer must use or sell the mixture in mixture, alcohol shown on lines 2a and 2b. Other a trade or business and the credit is 2. Use the mixture other than as a fuel, fuels include gasoline, diesel, and available only for the year the mixture is 3. Mix straight alcohol on which the special motor fuel. sold or used. The credit is not allowed credit was allowed for the retail sale, Line 5b. Enter the number of gallons for casual off-farm production of a included on line 5a that contain less qualified mixture. 4. Use the straight alcohol other than as a fuel, or than 5.7% of 190-proof alcohol or that Straight alcohol. The alcohol must not are exempt from excise taxes. The fuel be a mixture with gasoline, diesel, or 5. Do not use the fuel for the can be exempt because of specific special motor fuel (other than as a purposes described under Qualified exemption, credit, or refund provisions denaturant). The credit is for alcohol that ethanol fuel production above. other than the alcohol fuel credit. during the tax year is: Report the tax on Form 720, Quarterly Examples of fuels exempt from excise 1. Used by the taxpayer as a fuel in a Federal Excise Tax Return. tax include fuel that is: trade or business, or ● Used on a farm for farming purposes. Specific Instructions 2. Is sold by the taxpayer at retail to ● Supplied to military ships or aircraft or another person and put in the fuel tank Use lines 1 through 9 to figure any certain commercial ships or aircraft. of that person's vehicle. alcohol fuel credit from your own trade ● Used in off-highway business use. or business. Form 6478 (1998) Page 4 ● Used as fuel by a state, any political limitation for line 1 and the 30-million- Line 17. Although you may not owe subdivision of a state, or the District of gallon productive capacity limitation for alternative minimum tax (AMT), you Columbia. an eligible small ethanol producer. If you generally must still compute the ● Used as fuel by a nonprofit receive a small ethanol producer credit tentative minimum tax (TMT) to figure educational organization. from more than one entity, your credit your credit. For a small corporation may be limited. exempt from the AMT under section ● Used in an intercity, local, or school Line 11. For an estate or trust, the credit 55(e), enter zero. Otherwise, enter the bus. on line 11 is allocated between the TMT that was figured on the appropriate ● Used for certain helicopter uses. estate or trust and the beneficiaries in AMT form or schedule: Line 7. If you sold or used alcohol or an proportion to the income allocable to ● Individuals: Enter the amount from alcohol mixture as fuel, you may have each. In the margin to the right of line Form 6251, line 26. been entitled to an exemption, credit, 11, the estate or trust should enter its ● Corporations: Enter the amount from refund, or a reduced rate of excise tax. part of the total credit. Label it "1041 Form 4626, line 13. The alcohol fuel credit must be reduced PORTION" and use this amount in lines to take into account any of these 12 through 21 (or Form 3800) to figure ● Estates and trusts: Enter the amount benefits. the credit to claim on Form 1041. Also, from Form 1041, Schedule I, line 37. Line 7a. Enter under column (a) the enter and identify the beneficiaries' Line 18. See section 38(c)(3) for special number of gallons of fuel sold for use in share of the credit to the right of line 11, rules that apply to married couples filing or used in an aircraft in noncommercial and attach a schedule to Form 6478 separate returns, controlled corporate aviation that is alcohol or alcohol showing how the total credit was groups, regulated investment blended with aviation fuel other than divided. companies, real estate investment gasoline if you received an excise tax trusts, and estates and trusts. benefit because the mixture contained at Who Must File Form 3800 Line 21. If you cannot use part of the least 10% alcohol. If the alcohol did not credit because of the tax liability limit Complete Form 3800, General Business contain ethanol, the rate under column (line 20 is smaller than line 11), carry it Credit, instead of completing lines 12 (b) is 14 cents. back 1 year, then forward for 20 years. through 21 of Form 6478, to figure the Lines 7b and 7c. Use these lines for all tax liability limit for the credit if for this See the separate Instructions for Form other fuels (including gasohol) if you year you have: 3800 for details. received an excise tax benefit because ● More than one of the credits included the fuels contained alcohol. Paperwork Reduction Act Notice. We in the general business credit listed Line 7b. Enter under column (a) the below, ask for the information on this form to number of gallons of fuel that is a carry out the Internal Revenue laws of ● A carryback or carryforward of any of mixture containing less than 85% the United States. You are required to the credits, alcohol. give us the information. We need it to ● A credit from a passive activity, or ensure that you are complying with The rates are based on the percentage of alcohol in the mixture. ● General credits from an electing large these laws and to allow us to figure and partnership (Schedule K-1 (Form collect the right amount of tax. Rate 1065-B)). You are not required to provide the Other than The general business credit consists information requested on a form that is Percentage of alcohol in mixture Ethanol ethanol of the following credits: subject to the Paperwork Reduction Act At least 10% .054 .060 ● Investment (Form 3468), unless the form displays a valid OMB At least 7.7% but less than 10% .04158 .0462 control number. Books or records At least 5.7% but less than 7.7% .03078 .0342 ● Work opportunity (Form 5884), relating to a form or its instructions must ● Welfare-to-work (Form 8861), be retained as long as their contents Line 7c. Enter under column (a) the may become material in the number of gallons of special motor fuel ● Alcohol used as fuel (Form 6478), administration of any Internal Revenue that contain 85% or more alcohol. If the ● Research (Form 6765), law. Generally, tax returns and return alcohol did not contain ethanol, the rate ● Low-income housing (Form 8586), information are confidential, as required under column (b) is 6.05 cents. by section 6103. ● Enhanced oil recovery (Form 8830), Line 9. Include this amount in income, The time needed to complete and file ● Disabled access (Form 8826), under "Other income" on the applicable this form will vary depending on line of your income tax return, even if ● Renewable electricity production individual circumstances. The estimated you cannot use all the credit because of (Form 8835), average time is: the tax liability limitations. ● Indian employment (Form 8845), Recordkeeping 11 hr., 43 min. Line 10. Enter the amount of credit that ● Employer social security and Medicare Learning about the was allocated to you as a shareholder, taxes paid on certain employee tips law or the form 40 min. partner, or beneficiary. (Form 8846), Preparing the form 1 hr., 49 min. If your credit from a flow-through ● Orphan drug (Form 8820), entity includes the small ethanol Copying, assembling, and ● Contributions to selected community producer credit, the flow-through entity sending the form to the IRS 16 min. development corporations (Form 8847), must tell you the amount of the small and If you have comments concerning the producer credit included in the accuracy of these time estimates or flow-through credit, the number of ● Trans-Alaska pipeline liability fund. suggestions for making this form gallons for which the entity claimed the The empowerment zone employment simpler, we would be happy to hear from small ethanol producer credit, and the credit (Form 8844), while a component you. See the instructions for the tax productive capacity for alcohol. You as a of the general business credit, is figured return with which this form is filed. shareholder, partner, beneficiary, etc., separately on Form 8844 and is never are subject to the 15-million-gallon carried to Form 3800.
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Documentary - Lockerbie Bombing
This documentary goes in-depth when discussing the bombing of Pan-American Flight 103 on December 21, 1988 over Lockerbie, Scotland....
- published: 15 Jul 2013
- views: 17837
- author: The Dean
LONDON (AP) — A Scottish newspaper has published what it says are previously undisclosed files on the 1988 Pan Am bombing that the only suspect convicted in the case claims casts doubt on his involvement.The Sunday Herald newspaper posted...Daily Press 2012-03-25
The Independent
Like World News?
Coordinates: 55°07′12″N 3°21′25″W / 55.120°N 3.357°W
Lockerbie (Scottish Gaelic: Logarbaidh or Locarbaidh) is a town in the Dumfries and Galloway region of south-western Scotland. It lies approximately 75 miles (121 km) from Glasgow, and 20 miles (32 km) from the English border. It had a population of 4,009 at the 2001 census. The town came to international attention in December 1988 when the wreckage of Pan Am Flight 103 crashed there following a terrorist bomb attack aboard the flight.
Lockerbie apparently has existed since at least the days of Viking influence in this part of Scotland in the period around AD 900. The name means Lockard's Farm in Old Norse. The presence of the remains of a Roman camp a mile to the west of the town suggests its origins may be even earlier. Lockerbie first entered recorded history, as Lokardebi, in 1306.
Lockerbie's main period of growth started in 1730 when the landowners, the Johnstone family, made plots of land available along the line of the High Street, producing in effect a semi-planned settlement. By 1750 Lockerbie had become a significant town, and from the 1780s it was a staging post on the carriage route from Glasgow to London.


text:
Balloon Bass - Zoom H2
Balloon Bass - Zoom H2
Balloon Bass - Zoom H2
Wanted a drum with deep and soft vibrations, even with long tail and a clean spectra. I designed a small ...
Compressed sound of a fan makes for a great plane sound.
Balloon Bass - Zoom H2
short rhytm and drum bits. Good to have in your toolbox.
Balloon Bass - Zoom H2
A low pitched, lo-fi, very fat sounding drum kit perfect for funk, hip-hop or experimental compositions.
The sound of a small electric fan being switched on, running for a few moments and then switched off. You ...
Fan starting
War Drum inside of Wat Phanan Choeng Ayuttaya, Thailand the site was more beautiful than the sound even.
recordings of various rustling sounds with a stereo Audio Technica 853A
Toms and kicks recorded in stereo from a variety of kits.
Musical Bass vibrations making a window shake


text:
Riverbed (RVBD) announced a continued partnership with VMware (VMW), combining WAN Optimization and vCloudConnector solutions to enable cloud service providers to enhance their cloud computing offerings. Read More
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Unitas Global has deployed private managed hosting facilities within two Telx data centers, the companies said this week. Unitas Global, a leading managed infrastructure provider, is expanding to new markets to support customer demand in Dallas and Miami. Read More
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The rooms were not that great but acceptable. Hairs in my shower the first time. I stayed here two different nights. Both times the internet service was poor to non existent! My complaints resulted in a promise that my third stay in the next week would guarantee I was in a room near a router for internet service. Hey, thanks, but that doesn't make up for the two nights I didn't have it, or it was basically worthless!!!! Would have cancelled my last reservation, but it was non-refundable.
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Hydropower Overview
Hydropower is the world's largest source of renewable energy, accounting for a fifth of global electricity. Harnessing water responsibly can help take electricity access to millions of people, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia where lack of access to power is most acute. For example, sub-Saharan Africa has 400 gigawatts of undeveloped hydro potential—enough to quadruple the continent's existing installed capacity of 80 GW.
Stable and affordable electricity supply is also crucial for ending extreme poverty and driving economic growth.
While hydropower development offers great opportunities, it also comes with complex challenges and risks that vary significantly by the type, place, and scale of projects. Factors such as resettlement of communities, flooding of large areas of land, and significant changes to river ecosystems must be carefully considered while mitigating any risks. The World Bank Group is committed to helping its clients continuously improve the way they approach hydropower so as to better manage such risks and better share the benefits of this renewable resource.
Last Updated: Apr 10, 2015
Hydropower is not only a vital renewable energy resource, but for many countries, it is the only renewable energy source that has the potential to expand access to electricity to large populations.
When designed properly, hydropower projects can deliver benefits far beyond energy and water security. They often lead to investments in roads, social infrastructure, communications, and skills building to support local or regional economic development. They could also provide power generation for industrial, manufacturing and commercial operations that create jobs.
The World Bank Group is firmly committed to the responsible development of hydropower projects of all sizes and types— run of river, pumped storage, and reservoir—including off-grid projects meeting decentralized rural needs.
Sustainability: Hydropower projects entail significant economic, environmental, and social risks, which must be managed carefully at all stages. The Bank Group has developed safeguard policies used by many that address and reduce potentially adverse social and environmental impacts. The Bank Group also helps client governments strengthen their capacity to incorporate environmental and social dimensions in hydropower projects at an early stage. That typically includes consultations, benefit sharing, and inclusion of indigenous peoples.
We support the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol, an enhanced sustainability assessment tool, which provides a useful and comprehensive framework for hydropower developers to monitor and benchmark the performance of their projects. The private sector, governments, NGOs, and multilateral organizations (including the World Bank Group) came together to define the tool and we will continue to engage with the forum that governs the Protocol to encourage its use and improve the tool over time.
Financing: Over the period 2002–14, World Bank Group funding of more than $8.8 billion has contributed to the installation or restoration of 17 GW of hydropower. The World Bank typically acts as a "convener," bringing other financiers to the table. Over the last five years, World Bank financing covered around half of the costs of the projects it financed (55 percent), with the balance coming from other players, such as host country governments (19 percent), the private sector (15 percent) and other development banks (10 percent). The World Bank only supports hydropower projects of demonstrated economic viability. For all projects, the macroeconomic and fiscal effects and risks of its investments on the national economy of the country are carefully assessed.
Last Updated: Apr 10, 2015
Pakistan: IDA Credit and Guarantee Dasu Hydropower Project. By delivering 2160 MW of clean hydropower, this project will improve access to socio-economic services for local communities in Pakistan and boost the utility's capacity to prepare a pipeline of hydropower projects. The project, approved in May 2014, will benefit millions of consumers in Pakistan by easing the country's power crisis, reducing persistent blackouts and cutting the cost of power delivery. The total project cost is about $4.2 billion for the first stage, which consists of two phases and a total installed capacity of 1,080 MW in each phase.
Rwanda, Tanzania and Burundi: Regional Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project
This $469 million project aims to help people in the northeast region of Tanzania who are not currently connected to the grid, and customers of utilities in Burundi and Rwanda who will benefit from the incremental power generation. The project aims to do this by facilitating the expansion of 80 MW hydropower generation capacity and construction of transmission lines. It will also allow for greater power trade between Rwanda, Tanzania and Burundi. Power generation expected from the project, at an estimated cost of $ 0.062/kWh, is expected to dramatically reduce costs and replace thermal generation in the region, at the exceedingly high cost of about $ 0.25/KWh.
Last Updated: Apr 10, 2015


text: I have stayed at this hotel many time over the years. I have always found the staff to be friendly and ready to assist. It had been a while since my last stay, and was extremely pleased to experience the completely renovations. Tasteful and calming decor that adds to the peacefulness of this hotel. As this was a business trip,... More


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Brewers bullpen catcher eats 23 cheesesteaks in four-day Philly visit (pics)
The Philadelphia Phillies started a tradition at some point setting forth a challenge to other MLB teams in which the visitors are confronted with the gastrointestinal task of seeing how many cheesesteaks they can eat at Citizens Bank Park while in town. Whether it is over the period of one day, the duration of the...Read More The post Brewers bullpen catcher eats 23 cheesesteaks...
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Five Fightins honored as Eastern League All-Stars
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Projecting the 25-man roster beyond the trading deadline, the front office of the Philadelphia Phillies can envision Maikel Franco defending the hot corner and extinguishing a rally with an all-out effort. And they can anticipate a walk-off, upper-deck homer to ignite a winning streak and know a large crowd of cheering fans will become more common next April, May and June. Note...
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Mackanin hints Cesar Hernandez might remain Phillies' everyday second baseman
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Andy MacPhail named new president for the Philadelphia Phillies
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A Brief History of Time
Stephen Hawking, one of the most brilliant theoretical physicists in history, wrote the modern classic A Brief History of Time to help nonscientists understand the questions being asked by scientists today: Where did the universe come from? How and why did it begin? Will it come to an end, and if so, how? Hawking attempts to reveal these questions (and where we're looking for answers) using a minimum of technical jargon. Among the topics gracefully covered are gravity, black holes, the Big Bang, the nature of time, and physicists' search for a grand unifying theory. This is deep science; these concepts are so vast (or so tiny) as to cause vertigo while reading, and one can't help but marvel at Hawking's ability to synthesize this difficult subject for people not used to thinking about things like alternate dimensions. The journey is certainly worth taking, for, as Hawking says, the reward of understanding the universe may be a glimpse of "the mind of God."
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Loyalty Saver - Overview
An account that pays interest annually on the first business day in January each year.
- Minimum Balance - £2,000. If the balance on the account falls below the minimum balance, the nominal rate of 0.01% Gross/AER (variable) will apply.
- Maximum Balance - £1,000,000. Suitable for lump sum savings.
- Watch your money grow - make lodgements whenever you want or set up a monthly Standing Order to help to build your savings.
- Easy Access - your money is there when you need it, you can manage your account through our Anytime Internet & Telephone Banking* or in branch.
- Interest payment - interest is calculated daily and paid into your account each January.
Anyone over 18 can open a Loyalty Saver account, but you must be over 18 and resident in the UK to open the account online or over the phone.
*In order to access your funds and manage your account online or by telephone you have to register for Anytime Banking. If you don't want to register for Anytime Banking you can manage your account through our branch network. When you are making a transfer through Anytime Internet & Telephone Banking, the limits will be advised to you. You can contact us on our Anytime telephone service at 0345 7424 365 to see what options are available to you. Charges may apply to these options, please see our booklet A guide to personal accounts fees and interest (PDF file) for details. We will need to have your telephone number on file for some of these options so please ensure you provide this at account opening.
Gross is interest rate paid before the deduction of tax.
Annual Equivalent Rate (AER) illustrates what the interest rate would be if paid and compounded each year.


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Komercni Says Profit Fell 2 Percent on Lower Fees Income
May 7 (Bloomberg) -- Komercni Banka AS, the Czech unit of Societe Generale SA, said its first-quarter profit fell 2 percent on lower income from fees and higher provisions.
Net income for the three-month period dropped to 3.08 billion koruna ($156 million) from 3.15 billion koruna a year earlier, the Prague-based lender said in a statement today. Net interest income, its largest source of revenue, rose 0.4 percent to 5.28 billion koruna.
The lender had an "excellent" sales performance in the quarter to individual and small business customers, Chief Executive Officer Albert Le Dirac'h said in the statement. On the other hand, the "solid" pace of recovery of the Czech economy has not yet translated into faster growth in business lending and corporate clients remained "cautious" about their investment plans, he said.
Czech banks have been suffering from pressure on interest income because of low base rates and as 18 months of economic contraction stifled lending last year. Total lending volumes started to recover by the end of 2013 as the recession ended in the second quarter last year. Still, the economy pick up is taking longer than expected to translate itself into a loan demand.
Loan Volume Growth
Komercni revised total loan volume growth to 3 percent to 5 percent in 2014 on year, lower than previously expected range of 6 percent to 7 percent, Chief Administrative Officer Pavel Cejka told reporters today. The lender estimates loan demand to increase in the second half of this year and carry on to 2015, Cejka said.
Net creation for bad-loan provisions grew 10 percent to 518 million koruna in the first quarter, driven by a "few" cases in the corporate segment, the lender said.
Komercni fell 53 koruna, or 1.2 percent, to 4,567 koruna as of 12:07 p.m. in Prague.
Net fees and commissions income fell 2 percent to 1.7 billion koruna in the period, Komercni said.
The volume of loans to clients provided by the bank rose 2.7 percent to 484.9 billion koruna in the first quarter from a year ago, helped by mortgages and a "recovery" in consumer lending, the bank said.
To contact the reporter on this story: Lenka Ponikelska in Prague at firstname.lastname@example.com
To contact the editors responsible for this story: James M. Gomez at email@example.com Andrea Dudik, Elizabeth Konstantinova


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Is there a way I can add the items's category to products on the shop page? As standard they are displayed with thumb, title, price, cart - how can I add the product's category also as a link, just the same as the title (ideally directly under the title)?
I have copied the WC folder to my theme file and have been editing content-product.php but I cannot find a way to do it.
I hope someone can please help me!