text:
Resolution: standard / high
Figure 7.
The growth kinetics of hybridoma cells in serum-free medium supplemented with hTF or rhTF at 5 mg/L. The hTF and rhTF were compared at different degrees of iron saturation at 5 mg/L concentration. Apo, iron-free; Partial, partially iron saturated; Holo, iron saturated. Error bars denote the standard deviation of triplicate cultures.
Zhang et al. BMC Biotechnology 2012 12:92 doi:10.1186/1472-6750-12-92


text:
Loy Krathong Festival
Loy Krathong in Phuket on November 25, 2015
Thailand, is a spectacular place where magic and mystery can be found in many places. If you are here in November, this magic flourishes and there is one evening during the month that a truly mystical experience, can be had. On this particular night, on nearly every expanse of water, be it a river, lake or the ocean, you'll notice thousands of lights. Drifting across the water like fairy dreams. Gently flickering, dipping and dancing in the breeze as they go, making a spectacular sight.
This is Loi Krathong, Thailand's 'festival of lights'. Held yearly, on the evening of the twelfth lunar month, it is the time of year when the waters around the country become alive with candlelight and look not unlike massive fairy ballrooms. When staying in a coastal area, you can see these 'ballrooms' extending for miles out to sea. In fact, sailors, making their way towards the likes of Phuket, have reported seeing them close to the Similan Islands and beyond. See Event Calendar.
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A Festival Not to Be Missed
This festival, falls in the 'not to be missed' category and if you believe in luck, joining in, is a 'must do'. It's also one of those celebrations that children absolutely adore and will certainly be one of their fondest memories of their visit to this part of the world.
If you happen to be holidaying in Phuket, one of the more popular festival venues, when this enchanting festival occurs, you might just have a better chance of a luck filled future. Phuket's west coast beaches generally have an off-shore breeze blowing at this time of year, which will help give your wishes a boost. How good your fortune will be, is up to you and the tides or currents during the festivities. There is one simple way to ensure that at least a little of the festival's blessing comes your way, however.
How to Partake in the Festival
In the hours preceding sunset, you'll notice many makeshift stalls selling 'krathongs' along the streets of Phuket. Buy one…or better still, buy (or make) one, for each person in your holiday party. These flower covered min-floats, complete with candles and incense sticks, often resembling lotus flowers, are an essential part in promoting good fortune during the festival.
As the sun dips below the horizon and the full moon begins to hover in the night sky, take your krathong to the nearest beach, lake or similar watery area and release it with the outgoing tide or current. The belief being, that if the krathong floats away from you, the coming year will bring good fortune, if it floats back towards the shore, then perhaps your luck may not be quite as you had wished.
How to Ensuring Good Fortune Comes Your Way
On releasing the kratong, you can help your fortunes along a little by placing personal items on the floating platform. Some put nail clippings or strands of hair into the krathong, in the belief that the sins of the past year will be washed away; coins too are often placed inside as a way of making merit. For the romantic at heart and young couples, Loi Krathong is the time to make a wish for happiness together and success in love.
The Origins of Loy Krathong
A festival of quiet celebration, the origins of Loy Kratong are unclear, but it is believed that it started in Sukhothai, (north of Bangkok) one of the most powerful cities in Asia, around 800 years ago.
Made from the cellulose trunk of a banana tree, the idea behind the kratongs is to put all your misfortunes in a boat, and allow them to literally float away. ("Loy"- to float, and "krathong" - a leaf cup or bowl) Great care is taken to decorate the kratongs with flowers and banana leaves, leaving room for the candles and 3 sticks of incense.
Loy Krathong always falls on Thai school holidays, so during the day the whole family are often involved in making elaborately decorated Kratongs. Some coins, a lock of hair, or nail clipping are placed inside to represent the owner before the kratong is launched on a river, canal, or the sea, accompanied by a prayer.
It's believed the "boat" will carry your bad luck into the distance, and enable a better start to the following year. Loy Kratong is a big night for lovers. Couples who make a wish together on this day will enjoy long-lasting love, especially if their kratongs remain together on the water.
While Loy Kratong is not strictly a religious festival, some Thais believe that it pays homage to the water goddess, Mae Khongkha. Whatever the significance, it's a magical "not-to-be-missed" event.
Where to Enjoy Loy Krathong?
Loy Krathong is celebrated nationwide. In Phuket, major hotels usually host a special evening so that guests can join in.
Guests usually set the kratongs on the sea - a delightful scene as thousands of candlelit kratongs bob on the waves. In places like Patong, little boys will volunteer for a small fee to carry your kratong out a little further for a more auspicious start.
All of Phuket's major west coast beaches take part in Loy Kratong festivities, with a mix of locals and tourists. Nai Harn Lake and Patong Beach usually have the most activity with locals visiting beaches like Kata and Karon.
Two sites in Phuket Town: Saphan Hin Park and Suan Luang (King Rama IX) Park, are also popular places for locals to celebrate. Expect big crowds at both of these locations.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Best Sterling Knight Movies
List Criteria: Vote for your favorite
List of the best Sterling Knight movies, ranked best to worst with movie trailers when available. Sterling Knight's highest grossing movies have received a lot of accolades over the years, earning millions upon millions around the world. The order of these top Sterling Knight movies is decided by how many votes they receive, so only highly rated Sterling Knight movies will be at the top of the list. Sterling Knight has been in a lot of films, so people often debate each other over what the greatest Sterling Knight movie of all time is. If you and a friend are arguing about this then use this list of the most entertaining Sterling Knight films to end the squabble once and for all.
If you think the best Sterling Knight role isn't at the top, then upvote it so it has the chance to become number one. The greatest Sterling Knight performances didn't necessarily come from the best movies, but in most cases they go hand in hand.
A factual list, featuring films like Elle: A Modern Cinderella Tale and Starstruck.
"This list answers the questions, "What are the best Sterling Knight movies?" and "What are the greatest Sterling Knight roles of all time?"
- 1+ 41- 1
Starstruck Sterling Knight, Chelsea Kane, Danielle Campbell
- 2+ 20- 3
17 Again Michelle Trachtenberg, Zac Efron, Matthew Perry
- 3+ 17- 4
Elle: A Modern Cinderella Tale Sterling Knight, Kiely Williams, Thomas Calabro
- 4+ 8- 1
I Owe My Life to Corbin Bleu Sarah Hyland, Drake Bell, Sterling Knight
- 5+ 7- 1
Balls Out: Gary The Tennis Coach Randy Quaid, Leonor Varela, Seann William Scott
- 6+ 7- 1
Transit Diora Baird, Jim Caviezel, Sterling Knight
- 7+ 7- 1
Monster Heroes Sarah Hyland, Brian Austin Green, Sally Struthers
- 8+ 9- 3
Privileged Nikki Reed, Tatyana Ali, Sterling Knight


text:
Title hopefuls Manchester City crushed visitors Southampton 4-1 helped by a two-goal sucker punch moments before halftime to keep the pressure on Liverpool and Chelsea at the top of the Premier League on Saturday.
Goals from Samir Nasri and Edin Dzeko put the 2012 champions 3-1 ahead at the interval, after Yaya Toure had given City an early lead with a penalty, and substitute Stevan Jovetic extended the advantage nine minutes from time at the Etihad. Rickie Lambert briefly raised Southampton's hopes with a spot kick to make it 1-1 after 37 minutes but in the end the south coast side, who had England forward Jay Rodriguez carried off with a serious-looking knee injury, were well beaten.
The win took City up to second place with 70 points, one behind Liverpool who visit West Ham United on Sunday. Chelsea, with 69 points, can move past them both with a win at home to Stoke City later on Saturday. City have a match in hand on both of their fellow title chasers. However, the size of the defeat was harsh on eighth-placed Southampton who had looked threatening before conceding the two quick goals in first half added time.
Manchester United moved above Tottenham Hotspur into sixth place with a 4-0 win at Newcastle United, Juan Mata scoring twice and Javier Hernandez and Adnan Januzaj adding one each, although they lost Ashley Young with a hand injury. Mata, who last week got his first United goal since joining from Chelsea in January, scored with a delightful first half free kick before Shinji Kagawa and Hernandez set him up for his and United's second soon after the break.
The Mexico striker added a third before Mata set up Januzaj for the fourth as Alan Pardew's Newcastle side slumped to a second straight 4-0 loss with the win boosting United who visit Bayern Munich in the Champions League on Wednesday.
Southampton were on the back foot immediately at Manchester City when Jose Fonte brought down Bosnia striker Dzeko after three minutes, with Ivorian Toure converting his sixth penalty from six attempts this season for his 18th league goal overall.
Southampton suffered a major blow after 23 minutes, however, when Rodriguez landed awkwardly on his right leg after attempting to control a high ball, forcing him off in obvious distress. The Saints drew level through Lambert's penalty, his 11th league goal this season, after Jack Cork was felled just inside the area by defender Pablo Zabaleta in the 36th minute. The visitors looked like they would go into the break deservedly level but instead let their good work go to waste by allowing City to wrestle back control with two strikes.
First, Frenchman Nasri sidefooted home after being set up following a fine move involving Toure, …continued »


text:
Simple Living
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- If you simplified your life, what things would you get rid of or use less?
Genetically Modified Food
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- Do genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in your food concern you?
Seeing the Unseen
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- What would happen if you deliberately spoke to or smiled at people you might usually ignore- cashiers, the homeless, or someone of a different ethnicity?
Your Dream House
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- If you could design your dream house, what would it look like?
Eating Together
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- Does it matter who you eat with and how often you eat together?
The Ethics of Hunting
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- Hunting is a complex issue and can evoke emotional arguments. Is hunting moral? Can it be done in a respectful, humane way?
Bridging Differences
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- How do you resolve differences you have with family members and friends?
Your Unique Gifts
by Jing FongFeb 13, 2015
- We all have gifts worthy of sharing. What's your gift?
Deep in the Amazon, a Tiny Tribe Is Beating Big Oil
by David GoodmanFeb 12, 2015
- The people of Sarayaku are a leading force in 21st century indigenous resistance, engaging the western world politically, legally, and philosophically.
Portugal Cut Addiction Rates in Half by Connecting Drug Users With Communities Instead of Jailing Them
by Johann HariFeb 12, 2015
- Fifteen years ago, the Portuguese had one of the worst drug problems in Europe. So they decriminalized drugs, took money out of prisons, put it into holistic rehabilitation, and found that human connection is the antidote to addiction.
What Does It Take to Start a Worker Co-Op? A Practical Video Guide to Democratizing Our Economy
by Laura FlandersFeb 10, 2015
- A new film asks whether practicing workplace democracy would be easier if our media gave us as many visions of collaboration as they do of competition?
Musicians From Egypt to Rwanda Are Blending Musical Traditions and Building Unity to Protect the Nile River Basin
by Valerie SchloredtFeb 06, 2015
- The Nile Project is made up of musicians from different countries, musical genres, and traditions. Their purpose? To promote cooperation and cultural understanding as the diverse peoples of the Nile face threats from water scarcity and climate change.
What a Real-Life Rosie the Riveter Taught This Feminist Geek
by Lindsey WeedstonFeb 06, 2015
- Before meeting Geraldine, I'd assumed that most of the women from the 1940s were unaware of how capable they were. I was wrong.
A Brief History of Happiness: How America Lost Track of the Good Life—and Where to Find It Now
by Sarah van GelderFeb 05, 2015
- For decades, we've been taught that economic growth and buying more stuff will make us happy—while trashing the planet. The good news is, there's a better kind of happy: It starts with meaningful work, loving relationships, and a thriving natural world.
Sharing Music Builds Trust, Empathy, and Cooperation—Here Are Four Ways Science Proves It
by Jill SuttieFeb 04, 2015
- There is something about listening to music, or playing it with other people, that makes you feel connected to those around you. Even science says so.
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text:
Boston Magazine
The Monster Next Door
Beatrice Munyenyezi told her New Hampshire neighbors that she was refugee from the Rwandan genocide. Half of that was true.
The Ballad of Buddy
Buddy Cianci, former Providence mayor and convicted felon, is running for the city's top office. Again.
The Murders Before the Marathon
A triple homicide, the alleged involvement of a Boston Marathon bombing suspect, and those caught up in the FBI's ongoing investigation.
Losing Aaron
Aaron Swartz, MIT and a father's search for justice.
Naked Joe
In 1913, Joe Knowles became a media sensation after fleeing into the Maine woods wearing nothing but a jockstrap. Two months and one bear-clubbing incident later, the "Nature Man" returned to civilization as a hero. But was it all hoax?
Back to the Grind
A coffee maven—and Frappuccino inventor—attempts a comeback in the cafe business.
Pregnant Pause?
On drinking alcohol while pregnant.
Becoming a priest in Boston amidst a sex abuse scandal and church closings.
The Shocking Truth
The story of a device that delivers electric shocks to students at a school for special needs.
The Loved One
In the late 90s, an American man adopted a 5-year-old from the Ukraine. A decade later, one of the two would be accused of molesting young boys. The other would be charged with murder.
End Game
How Curt Schilling's video-game company went bust.


text:
The importance of Dr. Weyrich's work is evidenced through the publication of his research in many high-impact journals, his involvement in ASH and other prominent organizations, and his receipt of several prestigious awards. His research has been published more than 100 times and has appeared in top journals such as Blood, Cell, Circulation, the Journal of Clinical Investigation, the Journal of Experimental Medicine, the Journal of Immunology, the Journal of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, and Nature Genetics. Dr. Weyrich recently served as Chair of ASH's Scientific Committee on Platelets and currently serves on the American Heart Association's Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. Most recently, Dr. Weyrich was awarded the Investigator Recognition Award at the XXIII Congress of the International Society on Thrombosis and Hemostasis and received the Outstanding Membership award from The Children's Health Research Center at The University of Utah.
"ASH is pleased to honor Dr. Weyrich for innovative, paradigm-shifting work that has placed him at the forefront of redefining platelet function," said ASH President Janis L. Abkowitz, MD, of the University of Washington. "His outstanding studies have changed our understanding of the hemostatic functions of platelets, and more importantly, the role of platelets in inflammation, infection, and angiogenesis. We look forward to seeing how his work will continue to move the field of platelet biology forward."
|Contact: Kaitlin Bressler
American Society of Hematology


text:
From the Back Cover
Keys changes to this edition include
- more guidelines and practical strategies for supporting language development in young children
- expanded content on brain development, ESL/diversity, phonemic awareness, and interactive writing
Instructor Resources: Instructor's Manual and Test Bank, PowerPoint Slides
About the Author
Beverly Otto, Ph.D., an early childhood educator for over 25 years, is a professor in the Teacher Education Department at Northeastern Illinois University. She earned her doctorate at Northwestern University in Teaching and Learning Processes with a focus on emergent literacy. Dr. Otto teaches courses in language and literacy development for preservice and in-service teachers, along with research for classroom teachers. She also serves as advisor for the MAT: Language Arts-Elementary Education and MSI: Language Arts-Elementary programs. Her major professional goal is preparing teachers to support children's life-long learning through language and literacy development. Dr. Otto has also served as department chair as well as associate dean in the College of Education.
Dr. Otto is the author of Literacy Development in Early Childhood: Reflective Teaching for Birth to Age Eight , (© 2008 Pearson)and has also authored articles published in international, national and state professional journals. Her field-based research on emergent literacy has been presented at international, national, state, and local conferences. She has served as a consultant to early childhood centers, school districts, as well as the Illinois State Board of Education. --This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.


text:
An automated system adaptation technique for computer systems, networks and subsystems generally and, more particularly, for data storage systems. The invention programmatically designs, configures and manages a system, such as a data storage system. This is accomplished by performing a sequence of steps in an iterative loop, including analyzing the operation of the system under a workload, generating a new design based on the analysis and migrating the existing system to the new design. By systematically exploring a large design space and developing designs based on analyses of the workload, the invention generates designs that are improved in comparison to conventional design techniques. By programmatically repeating these tasks, the invention causes the system to converge to one that supports the workload without being over-provisioned.
1. A method for adaptation of a computer system, network or subsystem comprising developing a design for the system and performing an automated loop comprising implementing the design; analyzing operation of the design after said implementing; and modifying the design based on results of said analyzing.
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developing a design for the data storage system;
implementing the design;
forming a trace of storage system events;
forming workload characterization from the trace;
applying the workload characterization to models of components of the data storage system, wherein said applying indicates utilization of a component of the data storage system; and
modifying the design in response to the utilization indicated by said analyzing.
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The present invention relates to the field of design, configuration and maintenance of data storage systems and other types of computer systems, networks and subsystems. More particularly, the present invention relates to a programmatic technique for developing, configuring and maintaining such systems.
Due to the number and variety of components included in complex computer systems, networks and subsystems, and due to the large number of different ways in which their components may be configured and operated, they can be difficult to manage. Data storage systems are a particular example.
Disk arrays are a common building-block component of data storage systems. Enterprise-scale data storage systems can contain, for example, a hundred or more disk arrays. Typically, a disk array has one or more controllers, a plurality of hard disk drives and cache memory. The flow of data via buses and other communication channels among networked computer systems and the elements of the disk array is directed by the controllers. The cache memory is used for temporary data storage to reduce the number of disk accesses. Other elements of a disk array can include parity calculation engines, direct memory access (DMA) engines, bus bridges, communication adapters for buses and external networks, and so forth.
Large-scale computer data storage systems having many disk arrays are often difficult to design, configure and manage. The scale of these systems, numerous design and configurations choices, and lack of information about workload behaviors raise numerous challenges. And, while there is an increasing demand for larger data storage capacities, more predicable performance and faster deployment, there is a shortage of skilled administrators of such systems.
It is often difficult to predict the behavior of a storage system. This is due, in part, to the complexity of the system itself, the wide variety of workloads that may be placed on the system, and changes that can occur in the workloads. For example, a workload that requires accesses to disk locations that are generally sequential can be performed more efficiently than a workload that requires a significant amount of disk head repositioning to access random locations. Further, data flows can significantly affect each other, and, thus, the performance of the storage system. For example, if performed concurrently, two highly sequential data flows can result in significant disk head repositioning activity while switching between the flows.
Traditional techniques for storage system development, configuration and maintenance are largely ad hoc. As a result, large scale storage systems are time-consuming and expensive to implement. Typically, a system is initially designed and configured using estimations of current and future requirements for bandwidth and I/O operations per second (IOPS). These estimations are based on rules of thumb, intuitive knowledge of the applications to be served and measurements taken from existing storage systems.
Once the hardware is selected, there are numerous configuration options. Administrators are, again, guided by intuition and rules of thumb. In mapping applications to hardware devices, for example, the data is stored in accordance with RAID level 1 ("RAID" refers to Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks) if the related workload is I/O intensive; otherwise, RAID level 5 is used. Because many of the parameters are interdependent in non-intuitive ways, implementing such a system can be tedious and error-prone. Rarely will an initial configuration result in a satisfactory solution. Thus, once the storage system is operational, it is usually necessary to experiment with different hardware options and arrangements of the data. Of course, budgetary constraints play a large role in limiting the adminstrator's ability to purchase sufficient storage hardware and to experiment with a variety of configurations. As a result of these complexities, the implementations of large-scale storage systems are often behind schedule, over-budget and under-provisioned.
Therefore, what is needed is an improved technique for the configuration and management of complex computer systems, networks and subsystems that does not suffer from the aforementioned drawbacks. More particularly what is needed is such a technique for large-scale storage systems. It is to these ends that the present invention is directed.
The invention is an automated system adaptation technique for computer systems, networks and subsystems generally and, more particularly, for data storage systems. The invention programmatically designs, configures and manages a system, such as a data storage system. This is accomplished by automatically performing a sequence of steps in an iterative loop, including analyzing the operation of the system under a workload, generating a new design based on the analysis and migrating the existing system to the new design. By "automatically," what is meant is that the loop is performed substantially by computer hardware and/or software and can be implemented entirely in this manner. By systematically exploring a large design space and developing designs based on analyses of the workload, the invention generates designs that are improved in comparison to conventional design techniques. By programmatically repeating these tasks, the invention causes the system to converge to one that supports the workload without being over-provisioned.
In one aspect of the invention, a method for adaptation of a computer system, network or subsystem is provided. A design for the system is developed. An automated loop is performed that includes implementing the design; analyzing operation of the design after implementing it; and modifying the design based on results of the analysis. The system may be, for example, a data storage system, a CPU farm, a data caching system or a database system in which database indices are modified.
Models of components of the system may be formed and results of the analysis applied to the models, indicating the utilization of components of the system. Modifying the design may be performed in response to the utilization measures. These and other aspects are described in more detail herein.
The computer system 100 may function as a data storage system. Accordingly, the system 100 may store data generated by a number of networked clients systems (e.g., workstations) 112. The data may be stored, for example, in the data storage 106. One or more software programs 114 for implementing aspects of the present invention may be stored in the memory 104.
Assuming that the storage system 100 is being implemented from scratch, the process may begin in the design stage 202. For example, expected storage capacity requirements of the application software that is to operate on the client systems 112 or the host system 100 can be used as a starting point to determine the number of disk drives or other storage components to be included in the storage 106. An initial estimate may be made by a system administrator regarding bandwidth and other performance requirements that may need to be met. Further, an existing design of a storage system employed under similar circumstances may provide guidance (for the initial estimates).
The migration stage 204 generally includes implementing the design developed in the design stage 202. This may include, for example, obtaining (e.g., purchasing or allocating from an available pool) the actual devices identified in the design stage 202, configuring them as specified by the design stage 202 and moving the data to locations indicated by the design stage 202. The migration stage 204 may be divided into aspects: a first for planning the migration, and a second for executing the plan. The steps of configuring the devices and moving the data may be performed sequentially, concurrently or in an interleaved fashion.
The analysis stage 206 characterizes the behavior of the system 100 while operating under a workload. As used herein with respect to a data storage system, a "workload" is any set of I/O accesses (also referred to as "requests"). Determining the workload generally involves obtaining a trace, which is a record of disk I/O events, and then developing a workload characterization based on the trace. The characterization can be thought of as a summary of the trace and includes a number of parameter values (also referred to as "attributes") that are computed from the trace. These attributes can include, for example, average request sizes and the rates at which the requests are made. From the analysis stage 206, the loop 200 returns to the design stage 202.
The design stage 202 may include both a modeling aspect and a solver aspect. The modeling aspect applies the workload characterization obtained from the analysis stage 204 to performance models of components, such as disk arrays, of the system 100. As a result, the modeling aspect may determine how well the components are being utilized by the current design. For example, a particular disk array may be identified as underutilized based on a comparison of its actual workload (e.g., obtained from the workload characterization) to its capabilities (e.g., obtained from its model). Based on the utilization, the solver aspect of the design stage 202 modifies the design in an attempt to obtain more optimal utilization of the components of the system 100. This may include adding or removing components of the system 100 and reassigning data among the components of reconfiguring the components.
As a more particular example, assume that in the analysis stage 206, a parameter indicative of the I/O bandwidth utilized for a particular disk array is compued from the I/O trace. By applying this parameter to a model of the disk array in the design stage 202, it may be determined how well the disk array is utilized. The modeling aspect may then determine whether the disk array is overloaded or underutilized and by how much. For example, the parameter may be compared to a known maximum bandwidth for the disk array (e.g., determined experimentally or from manufacturer specifications). If the disk array is overloaded, another disk array may be added to the design to share the workload. Alternately, assuming it is determined that a particular disk array is overloaded and that another disk array is underutilized, the design stage 202 may then modify the design to balance the load between the two disk arrays.
The analysis stage 206 obtains a trace from the system 100 as it operates under a workload. The workload may be a real workload or a synthetic workload that is representative of an expected real workload. The trace is a record of I/O events which occur during a given time period. A software script which operates on the system 100 may generate the trace file by recording each I/O event which occurs for each storage device included in the system 100. Alternately, the trace may be collected at the disk arrays or storage area network (SAN), which would be useful in a system having multiple hosts. Thus, each time a disk is read from or written to, a record is added to the trace file. The record may include, for example, a device number, a block number, an indication as to whether the event was a read or write request, a request size and an indication of the time at which the event occurred. It is expected that generating the trace record will only marginally interfere with operation of the system 100 (e.g., occupying approximately 2% of processor 102 overhead). The quality of results of the process 200 will depend, in part, upon accurate collection of I/O events and, thus, skipping I/O events is preferably avoided.
The trace file may be generated in any known I/O trace file format. For example, the trace file may have a machine-specific or a machine-independent binary format or may be formatted as ASCII text.
The trace file is then processed into a workload characterization. The workload characterization is essentially a summary of the trace and, thus, it summarizes the behavior of the system 100 operating under the workload.
The analysis stage 206 includes several types of operations, shown as objects in the data flow 300 of the
Typically, each storage device or logical arrangement of physical storage of the system 100 has an associated data flow that includes the I/O operations directed to that particular device. Logical unit (LUs) as used herein, means a logical arrangement of physical storage which may include a fraction of a hard disk, multiple whole disks, an entire disk array, multiple disk arrays or anything in between. A logical volume (LV) is a logical arrangement of associated data that may be distributed among a plurality of physical storage devices. A logical unit or a logical volume may, for example, be assigned to a particular application served by the data storage system 100.
In order to perform their functions, objects of the analyzer stage 206 (
As shown in
The filter objects of the analysis stage 206 read a stream of trace records and output selected records from the stream based upon the operation specified for the filter. A filter may, for example, separate records based on whether they occur during a specified time period, whether they represent a read or a write request, the location or address to which the request is directed, a device number, a request size, a logical volume and so forth. It will be apparent that these or other criteria may be used by any of the multiplexers or filters.
In the exemplary embodiment of the data flow 300 of
Analyzer objects read records, analyze fields in the records and provide results of their analysis. The analysis typically includes forming a parameter value that characterizes or summarizes multiple trace records, such as through statistical methods. An analyzer may, for example, compute a statistical mean of request sizes or a mean time between requests. As another example, an analyzer may determine which percentage of requests fall into various request-size "bins." As still another example, an analyzer may compute a cumulative total of write operations to determine how much storage space is being consumed by a particular flow. The filters of data flow 300 separate the data records into flows based on information contained in the configuration record 306. For example, the configuration record 306 may indicate which blocks of specified physical devices are associated with a particular LU. In which case, the filter 308 may select records of the trace file 302 that are directed to those particular blocks to separate the flow for that particular LU from the other records in the trace file 302. For simplicity of illustration, the configuration record 306 is shown in
As shown in
It will be understood that the arrangement of objects and elements of
As mentioned, the design stage 202 generates a design for the storage system 100 and may include both a modeling aspect and a solver aspect. The modeling aspect applies the workload characterization 322 (
Forming an interpolation-based model of a system component, such as a disk array, involves developing one or more tables of values for the component which characterize its performance under various configurations and workloads. Once the component is modeled by the tables, the utilization (e.g., under the workload indicated by the analysis stage 206) needed by the solver aspect of the design stage 206 may be predicted by interpolation within the values found in the table. The resulting performance may then used by the solver aspect to improve the design. For a disk array, the input values can include various configuration parameters, such as RAID level, the number of disks in a RAID group and so forth. Other input values are representative of the workload, such as a summary of request patterns or streams, including request type (read or write), request size, sequentiality of requests, average queue length, and so forth. Resulting performance outputs of the table may, for example, provide a binary or yes/no indication, such as whether the component is overloaded or underutilized, and provide a value for performance parameters, such as request throughput or latency.
From a start state 402, program flow moves to a state 404, in which a component that is to be modeled is selected. For example, a sample disk array having a particular model number from a particular manufacturer and/or having a particular software version level may be selected to be modeled. Measurements are taken from a physical sample of this component, as explained in more detail herein. Accordingly, the selected component is treated as representative of a set of disk arrays, such as all those having the same manufacturer model number and software version. Measurements may be taken from multiple sample components to ensure that the measurements are representative. A table file 406 may be initialized for the component for storing the modeling data for the component. The table file 406 may be stored, for example, in the memory 104 of
Because a particular component is selected in the state 402, it will be apparent that the method of
From the state 404, program flow moves to a state 408, in which various input parameters may be selected. These may include configuration parameters (e.g., RAID level) and workload parameters (e.g., request size). The selected parameters may then be entered into the table file 406 for the component. For example, the input parameters may be values that will appear as headings for rows or columns in the table file 406. Note that tables formed for the component may have two, three, four or more dimensions depending upon the number of input parameters.
Program flow then moves to a state 410 in which the particular values may be selected for the parameters selected in the state 408. For example, if RAID level is selected as a configuration parameter in state 408, then RAID level 5 may be selected in the state 410. As another example, if sequentiality is selected in state 408 as a workload parameter, a real or synthetic workload having a particular value of the sequentiality may be selected for the component in the state 410.
From the state 410, program flow moves to a state 412, in which the values selected in the state 410 may be applied to the component and performance measurements may be taken from the component. For example, a value, such as the request throughput (e.g., the number of requests processed per second), may be measured under applied parameter values. As another example, a binary indication, such as whether the component is capable of satisfactory operation under the applied parameter values, may be determined. Results of measurements taken in the state 412 may be stored in appropriate locations of the table file 406.
From the state 412, a determination may be made as to whether the measurements should be repeated for different parameter values. Assuming so, then program flow returns to the states 408 and 410 where the values of the input parameters may be changed or different input parameters may be selected. For example, requests may be applied one after the other, as quickly as the component will handle them, or at a rate that is gradually increased until the component is no longer able to keep up, to determine a maximum request rate for the component. Then, a configuration parameter may be changed (e.g., RAID level 5 to RAID level 1) and the process repeated to determine the maximum request rate under different conditions. As a result, maximum request rate throughputs for the component under various operating conditions may be determined.
Once sufficient measurements are taken, program flow may terminate in a state 416. It may be desired to obtain arbitrary values that occur between measurement points, such as during the design stage 202 (
For some parameters, such as RAID level, number of disks in a RAID group, and so forth, it may be difficult to estimate values at intermediate measurements points. For example, measurements taken for RAID level 5 and for RAID level 1 will not generally be predictive of values for RAID level 3. Accordingly, a separate group of measurements may be created for each such parameter. Each such group may form a separate table for the component.
For estimating values between measurement points for other parameters, a number of computational techniques may be used. For example, assume it is desired to estimate an unknown value (p4) for a point p=(p1, p2, p3, p4) for a component where p1 represents request size, p2 represents sequentiality of requests, p3 represents request queue length and p4 represents request throughput. One technique for estimating a value at a target point p is to select the value of its nearest neighbor. For example, the Euclidean distance between the point p and other points in the table may be computed. Thus, by using known values for the target point p, such as the values of p1, p2, p3, the value of an unknown performance parameter, such as request throughput p4, may then be estimated to be equal to the measured value at the closest neighboring point to the point (p1, p2, p3).
Another technique for estimating a value at a target point is by choosing a set of nearby points, forming a line, a plane, or a hyperplane if there are more than three dimensions, through the nearby points, and using the line, plane or hyperplane to estimate an unknown value at a target point.
Assume that values of a first parameter are represented by the x-axis and values of a second parameter to be predicted are represented by the y-axis in
Further, to improve accuracy, the values of p may be restricted to ranges of values of measured points. For example, assuming measured queue length values all fall between 8 and 64 and that an estimated value for p3 would fall below 8 using an estimation technique. Accordingly, the estimated value may be set to 8. Similarly, if the estimated value for p3 would be greater than 64, then its value is set to 64. In the example of
As mentioned, rather than table-based models, analytical models may be employed for the modeling aspect of the design stage 202 (
Note that although some components may be physically inseparable (e.g., cache memory may be permanently installed in a controller), the process 600 can treat them as separate components, based on prior knowledge of how to best partition the system 100.
The component information may have been obtained previously and stored in a component database 606, in which case the obtaining step 604 preferably retrieves the information from the component database 606. If the information is obtained for the first time during the obtaining step 604, then it is preferably stored in the database 606 for subsequent use.
The process 600 determines (608) data flow paths between the components. Like component specifications, this interconnection information might be obtained from the vendor who built or sold the disk array, from inspection of the hardware, or from knowledge of how LUs are configured. A given system may have different sets of data flow paths for different LU configurations, as the LU configurations may change dynamically. Though not illustrated in
The process 600 next selects (610) which components should be modeled. Any element or part or subpart of the system 100 having sensible individual performance specifications and material relevance to the overall system performance characteristic of interest can be modeled or sub-modeled.
The structure of the model preferably resembles the structure of the system 100. Only those physical components of the system 100 that are material to the relevant performance characteristic(s) of the system 100 have an analog in the model. In other words, the model is "morphological" with respect to the system 100. However, the model structure and real system structure may differ in some respects. For example, as a guideline in performing the selecting step 610, one would typically utilize a separate component model (e.g., "analog") for each system 100 functional unit that stores, transforms, or transfers data in order to service accesses issued by host or client computers 112 on data in the array of disks. This guideline implies component models are employed for caches and disks, but not for power supplies or front panel lights.
The component models usually form a directed acyclic graph, meaning that any path starting at the top of the model ends after passing through a finite number of component models, when traveling in the direction of the data flow.
The selecting step 610 is preferably performed by a knowledgeable human. In extreme cases when a component model cannot be created (see discussion of step 612 below) or can be created only with great difficulty, then the selecting step 610 can omit that component from the model. This is a standard tradeoff between complexity and accuracy.
After the selecting step 610, the process 200 next creates (612) models for each component determined to be part of the overall model during the selecting step 610. An objective of the creating step 612 is to characterize each component model's constraint(s) and/or workload specification transformation characteristics. The sources of this information are various, including, for example, vendor/manufacturer specifications and measurements from performance experiments. If a similar component has been studied before, the same or similar experimental design may be reused to determine the characteristics of the component model.
Optionally, the creating step 612 may interface with the database 606 to retrieve the same or similar component models. If the same component model has been characterized before and stored in the database 606, the creating step 612 need only retrieve that model from the database 606. If a similar component model (e.g., within the same family of generic components) has been characterized before and stored in the database 606, then the creating step 612 can retrieve that model from the database 606 and modify it as necessary. If the result of the creating step 612 is a new component model, the creating step 612 preferably stores the component model in the database 606 for later use, unaltered or modified, as a whole component model or a sub-model of a component. A component model may be a composite of sub-models.
The database 606 (or something similar) enables model reusability. In the construction of networked systems using commercially available, off-the-shelf components, it is common to encounter the same or similar components in different arrays. Because of model reusability, the process 600 becomes increasingly more powerful and easier to use as it builds upon a growing database of known component models.
The creating step 612 characterizes each component model as a constraint(s) and/or workload specification transforms. A constraint is a limit, requirement or threshold representing a maximum, minimum or other capability of the component being modeled. A constraint may be embodied as a simple number, a formula or an algorithm for evaluation. Some constraints are relatively simple. For example, the constraint for a port/cable model is likely to be a maximum total bandwidth (e.g., less than 100 megabytes per second (MB/s)). Either the workload meets the 100 MB/s requirement or not. Often, many constraints are substantially more complex. For example, an individual disk drive is likely to comprise several constraining factors, each of which sets limits on quantities (e.g., read-write actuator movement including seek and settling time). During execution of the model, a component model with a constraint evaluates whether its input workload(s) violates its constraint(s).
Each model component, except the ones having no outgoing flow, can also potentially include a workload specification transform (more simply called just "transform" or "transformation" or "transformer"), meaning that the model component's output workload specification(s) is a split and/or modification of its input workload specification. Each component comprises at least one constraint and/or one or more transforms. A transform can be specified, for example, as a simple percentage value or a formulistic division. One example of a transform is in bus models, which model communication buses in part by a splitting workload transform in that the total data traffic carried on a bus is distributed among multiple disk drives. The distribution is determined by some protocol and/or statistical parameters. As another example, a cache memory may be modeled in part by a transform to capture the fact that the cache manipulates data flow. In the steady state, the cache services some percentage of a host computer's data accesses, while only the remaining data accesses are forwarded to the disk drives. As well as altering the volume of data traffic, the cache also alters certain other qualities of the data traffic. For example, the cache might pre-fetch extra data in blocks, in anticipation of sequential accesses by the host. If this behavior is significant to the particular aspect of the performance to be predicted, then the cache model should include this transform.
During execution of the model, a component model with a transformation operates upon its input workload specification to produce output workload specification(s), in accordance with the component model's transforms.
The process 600 next preferably validates (614), and if necessary, calibrates, each individual component model. The validating/calibrating step 614 is optional, though it is good practice and recommended to ensure accuracy. The validating/calibrating step 614 for a particular component model involves applying to the component model an input workload for which the (real) component's behavior is known or tractable. The component model then operates on the input workload. The component model's output workload and constraint evaluation results are then compared to the known results to determine the magnitude of mismatch. If the mismatch is too large, then the component model's parameters can be calibrated and/or its transforms can be altered in an attempt to decrease the mismatch.
After validating and calibrating individual component models, the process 600 preferably validates (616), and if necessary, calibrates the overall model. Like the validating/calibrating step 614, the validating/calibrating step 616 is optional, though it is good practice and recommended to ensure accuracy. The validating/calibrating step 616 can be performed similarly to the validating/calibrating step 614. A workload for which the overall system's performance is known is applied to the topmost component model(s) of the overall model, and the model operates on the workload. The model's predictions are then compared to the known results to determine the magnitude of the mismatch. If the mismatch is too large, then the model's parameters can be calibrated to decrease the mismatch.
The validating/calibrating steps 614 and 616 can be performed over a range of workloads by successively applying different workload specifications to the component or overall model. The workloads may be predicted to stress the model by various predetermined amounts (e.g., 100% utilization). The resulting performance predicted by the model can then be compared to empirical data for the real system to determine the accuracy of the prediction. Or, a first workload specification can be tested through the model. If the model passes the test, a second (usually greater or more demanding in some sense) workload specification can be run through the model. If this second workload specification passes, the workload specification can be made more demanding again and again, recursively, until the system reaches a saturation point, where it is no longer able to satisfy the workload. If the model reaches saturation at a point sufficiently near where analysis or empirical studies show saturation of the real system, then the model is satisfactory.
As mentioned, each component model is either a constraint, a transform or both (e.g., where constraints and transforms are interleaved). The constraints and transforms are preferably ordered in accordance with data flow paths of the overall system being modeled. To execute the model, the workload is specified (from the analysis stage 206 (
The above-described analytical modeling technique is disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/843,390, entitled "Method and Apparatus for Morphological Modeling of Complex Systems to Predict Performance," filed Apr. 30, 2001, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.
It will be apparent that modeling techniques could be used that differ from the table-based and analytical modeling techniques described above. It is expected, however, that the results of the loop process 200 will depend upon accuracy of the models. Overly optimistic performance models could result in the loop process 200 settling on a design that does not adequately support the workload. Conversely, overly pessimistic models could result in a design that is over-provisioned and, thus, more costly than necessary.
Based on the results of the modeling aspect, the solver aspect of the design stage 202 modifies the design. For example, based on utilization of the components of the system 100 indicated by the model, the solver aspect attempts to find a more optimal configuration.
The solver aspect of the design stage 202 assigns data stores to appropriately configured data storage devices. A data "store," as used herein, may be data storage space, such as a logically contiguous block of storage, striped data storage or concatenated data storage that is presented to an application (e.g., a software application). In practice, a store may be implemented as a logical volume (LV) into which data elements, such as files or a database, may be inserted, removed or manipulated. Each store may have a related stream or group of streams.
Each store and related stream(s) will generally have requirements, such as size or capacity, read/write bandwidth, read/write latency and availability. Because the stores are presented to applications, the requirements for the stores, such as capacity, number and other constraints, represent requirements of the storage system under design. These requirements can be derived from and/or altered by knowledge of the intended use of the storage system, such as from the nature and requirements of the specific applications it is intended to serve and from the results of the modeling aspect of the design stage 202 (
The device tree 700 may include a representation of all of the devices and sub-devices currently existing in the design, as well as devices and sub-devices that may possibly be added to the design. For example, devices may be added by creating new nodes in the tree 700. As explained in more detail herein, other possible modifications to the tree 700 may include, for example, changing the type of disk drive of a particular device, increasing or decreasing the capacity of a device or disk, changing a RAID level or purchasing additional cabinets to allow for more disks. More generally, the types of changes that may be performed are determined by the possible configurations for the design of the storage system.
The device tree 700 has its origin at a root node 722. Branches from the root 722 may extend to a next level down in the hierarchy. Relationships between adjacent levels in the hierarchy can be considered as parent-child relationships. Thus, the root 722 in
The nodes 724, 726 and 728 may each represent a device producer. A device producer may also be referred to as a "factory," which is a node in the tree 700 that is capable of creating new nodes as its children. The children 708–720 of the nodes 724, 726, and 728 may represent data storage devices, such as disk arrays. Accordingly, the nodes 724, 726 and 728 may each produce new devices as its children, as needed, during the storage system design and configuration process. While producer nodes need not actually manufacture new devices, they may, for example, represent the act of adding devices to the design for the storage system or purchasing new devices for the design.
The device factory 724 may, for example, produce a particular model of disk array such as the model designation "FC60" disk array available from Hewlett-Packard Company. Accordingly, the children 708 and 710 of the factory 724 may represent actual FC60 devices. Another child node 712 of the factory 724 may represent a "virtual" FC60 device. By "virtual" this means that the child 712 represents a particular FC60 disk array device that could possibly be added to the design, should the need arise, but that has not yet been added to the design. The ability to add devices to the tree 700 may be represented by factory nodes or by virtual nodes or by both. Further, in certain circumstances, requirements for the data storage system under design may include restrictions on the ability to add devices to the design, in which case, factories and virtual nodes may not be present in some or all of the branches in the device tree 700.
Data storage devices may contain or make available data storage capability referred to herein as LUs. A variety of different parameters, such as RAID level (e.g., levels 1 through 5), stripe size and number of disks used, may be associated with each LU. Further, the devices may have constraints and properties for associated LUs such as caching policies, pre-fetching policies, capacity, utilization parameters and limits on the number of disk drives that can be part of a device.
Accordingly, the storage devices 724–728 may have associated LUs 730–740. For example, LUs 730 and 732 may be associated with the device 708, while LU 732 may be associated with the device 710. Further, devices in the tree 700 may include sub-devices. For example, device 714 may be a disk array that includes multiple array controller processors (ACPs). For example, a pair of ACPs may be provided for fault tolerance or load balancing purposes. These may be represented in the device tree 700 of
Associated with some or all of the nodes of the device tree 700 may be attributes 746–760. For example, factory 724 may have associated attributes 746 while the device 708 may have associated attributes 752. The attributes 746–760 may represent various properties of the elements of the device tree 700 such as the price of a particular device, the capacity of an associated LU or the utilization of SCSI buses attached to a device. The attributes for a factory may, for example, specify the type of device produced by the factory or a maximum number of devices the factory is capable of producing. Some attributes, such as those related to a communication bus, may be shared by multiple devices in the device tree 700, such as where the multiple devices share the communication bus. As another example, an attribute may be a constraint on the permissible configuration of the associated device. For example, a particular disk array may have a minimum and a maximum number of drives. It will be apparent that other attributes may be specified, depending on the circumstances. It will also be apparent that attributes may be obtained from and/or altered by various sources, including results of the modeling aspect of the design stage 202 (
The attributes 746–760 in the tree 700 provide an interface to the device models for the solver software program. The solver uses the attributes of a node to determine whether the node may accommodate a particular data store. To accomplish this, the solver may compare the attributes of the node to the requirements of the store. In addition, where indicated, the solver may apply various functions to the attributes of a node so as to transform the node in some manner. For example, a function may be applied to a node that represents a physical data storage device or a node that represents a LU in order to modify the node to better accommodate a particular data store.
Available functions may be grouped into a number of classes. For example, the classes may include expansion functions and refinement functions. An expansion function may be one that expands the data storage capacity of a node. An example of one expansion function may be to use a drive that has more storage capacity and the same performance in a disk array represented by a node (e.g., node 708) in the tree 700, to increase storage capacity without increasing performance. Another example may be adding trays to a device for accommodating additional disks. Refinement functions may make changes to the performance of a node that increase some attributes while decreasing others. An example of a refinement function may be to replace one or a few large, slow disk drives with several smaller and faster disk drives. Another example may be to change RAID level 5 to RAID level 1 for a device or associated LU. While such a change would be expected to decrease capacity, it also would also be expected to increase the ability to handle small, random writes. These expansion and refinement functions may affect a single device, node or LU. Alternately, a function may concurrently affect multiple devices, nodes or LUs.
Another task of the solver is to assign stores (e.g., stores 702–706) to the devices (e.g., devices 708–720) and/or LUs (e.g., LUs 730–740) of the tree 700 based upon the requirements of the stores and upon the attributes of the devices and LUs in the tree 700. A possible assignment is one in which the requirements of the store are satisfied by the assigned device or LU and where the existence and configuration of the device or LU is consistent with stated goals (e.g., price and performance requirements) for the design of the data storage system.
Once an assignment or a transformation has been performed on a node, the solver then determines whether the new configuration of the node is improved in comparison to the configuration prior to the change or changes. If the new configuration is not improved, then the new configuration may be discarded. The solver may then backtrack to the prior configuration and try additional changes. However, if the new configuration is improved, then the new configuration may be adopted as the current configuration. Additional functions may then be applied to the adopted configuration with those that result in further improvement being adopted and those that do not being discarded. A record may be maintained of the various different configurations that have been tried to avoid unnecessarily re-trying the same or similar configuration.
The measure of whether a change to the device tree 700 represents an improvement over the prior configuration of the device tree 700 may be with reference to the stated goals or specifications of the data storage system under design. For example, if a goal is a low cost system, a change that reduces cost may be considered an improvement. However, if a change results in a modest cost savings and also a significant degradation in capacity or some other stated goal, then the change may not be considered an improvement. Improvements may also be measured against results of the modeling aspect of the design stage 202 (
As a more particular example of operation of the solver aspect, referring to
The store 702 may then be filtered down through the device tree 700 until it reaches a leaf (e.g., a device or LU node without children). This filtering may be accomplished by comparing the requirements of the store to the attributes encountered at each node along a branch within the tree 700. If the comparison indicates that the store is compatible, then the store may be passed along the branch until a compatible leaf is reached or it is determined that no compatible leaf exists on the branch. For example, the store 702 may be passed to the factory node 724 where attributes of the factory node 724 and/or its children 708 or 710 may be compared to the attributes of the store 702. If the comparison determines that one of the devices 708 or 710 is available and is compatible, then the store 702 may be passed to an appropriate one of the devices 708 or 710. Further comparisons of the requirements of the store 702 to attributes of the devices 708, 710 and/or LUs 730 and 732, respectively, may indicate that the store can be passed to one of the LUs 730 or 732.
Alternately, if no compatible node is found on the branch of the tree 700, then the search for an assignment for store 702 may backtrack up the tree 700 and one or more other branches tried in order to find a compatible node for the store. Further, an expansion or refinement function may be invoked at a node in order to modify the node into compatibility with the store. For example, if a capacity attribute of a node does not meet the capacity requirement of the store, an expansion function may be invoked at a device node to add capacity to the device as needed to accommodate the store 702. As another example, a factory node may add a device node to the design in order to accommodate the store. Thus, if a comparison at the factory 724 determines that neither device 708 or 710 is available for the store 702, but that a new device (e.g., a virtual device 712) can accommodate the store 702, then the device 712 may be added and the store 702 may be assigned to the device 712.
Once the store (e.g., the store 702) is added, one or more metrics may be obtained that are representative of how well the placement of the store meets the design goals for the system. Preferably, one metric is obtained for each stated design goal. For example, where a goal is to minimize the overall cost of the storage system, the metric may indicate the cost associated with the assignment. As another example, where access speed is a goal, the metric may indicate access times expected for the store as a result of the assignment. These metrics may then be stored for later comparisons.
A determination may also be made as to whether the store (e.g., store 102) placed in the device tree 700 was assigned for the first time or whether the assignment was a second (or subsequent) assignment of the store. This is to ensure that the store is placed in at least two different locations in the tree 700, if possible, so that its assignment can be optimized by choosing an assignment that best achieves the design goals for the system from among multiple possible assignments. Accordingly, if the store has been placed only once, then the store may be removed from the device tree 700, and re-inserted and filtered to a new location and metrics obtained for the new location.
Rather than placing the store in two different locations for comparison, the store may be assigned to the same location, but under different configurations. For example, a first assignment of a store may be to a device or LU configured to store the data in accordance with RAID level 1. A second assignment of the store may be to the same device or LU, but configured in accordance with RAID level 5. The solver may then compare metrics obtained for these two configurations.
Then, once at least two possible assignments have been made for the store and metrics obtained for each assignment, a comparison may be made between the metrics obtained for these two prior iterations to determine which best achieves the design goals for the system. Assignments which are not selected may be discarded.
A determination may be made as to whether another iteration should be performed. For example, this may result in locating a still-better assignment for the store. Assuming that another iteration is to be performed, the process repeats with the assignment of the store serving as a baseline for comparison to metrics obtained for a new assignment.
Once a store has been placed in the tree once, each additional assignment may be performed recursively in the manner described above. By starting the search for an appropriate location in the tree 700 for a next assignment at the same level of the tree as the previous assignment was found, a depth-first search or breadth search first may be performed. It will be apparent that other search techniques may be performed, such as simply re-inserting the store at the root 722 for each iteration. Further, any number of iterations may be performed. For example, a predetermined number (e.g., three or four) may be performed, or all possible assignments may be exhausted, before applying this process to a next store. Thus, assuming no additional iterations are to be performed for the store, a determination may be made as to whether all the stores 702–706 have been inserted into the tree 700 and assigned to a suitable device or LU.
Assuming not all of the stores have been assigned, a next store (e.g., the store 704) may be selected. For example, if the stores are to be inserted into the tree in a particular order (e.g., largest to smallest) then the next store in order may be selected. The next store may be inserted into the tree and the process of assigning the store to a position in the tree 700 may be performed.
Rather than assigning the stores to the tree 700, one-by-one, as described above, groups of stores or all of the stores may be inserted to the tree 700 together. At each node, comparisons may be made for each of the inserted stores to determine whether they are compatible or whether the node should be modified. One or more of the stores may be assigned to the node. Then, a next node may be selected and requirements of the remaining, unassigned stores compared to that next node. This process may continue recursively until all of the stores are assigned to the tree 700.
Assuming that it is determined that all of the stores have been assigned to the device tree 700 and the device tree 700 configured (using expansion or refinement functions) to accommodate each store, the data storage system may be ready to be implemented according to the present state of the device tree 700. In which case, the design process may terminate and the migration stage 204 takes over to implement the new design.
Once a design has been implemented, it may be desirable to repeat at least some portions of the above-described assignment and configuration process in order to determine whether a better solution may be achieved. For example, after the analysis stage 206 (
The above-described solver is disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/924,735, "Simultaneous Array Configuration and Store Assignment for a Data Storage System," filed Aug. 7, 2001, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. It will be apparent that a solver technique could be used that differs from the techniques described above.
Once a new design has been developed in the design stage, including for example, the type and number of components to be utilized, their configuration and the assignments of the data stores to the devices, the new design may be implemented by the migration stage 204 of
In a preferred embodiment, the migration stage 204 is performed automatically. For example, a number of devices may be physically and electrically connected to the system 100, but not allocated or assigned. For example, extra devices may exist as spares. When the design stage 202 develops a new design that requires additional devices, one or more of these unassigned devices may then be automatically assigned to perform an active role in the system 100, for example, by configuring the devices and allocating data to them. In another embodiment, or where appropriate unassigned devices are not available, adding and removing components and configuring the devices may be performed manually, such as by a system administrator. This task may be accomplished by the administrator simply placing the data storage system 100 (
When the adaptation process of the present invention is applied to a storage system (e.g., the storage system 100 of
Another technique for rearranging the data provides for rearrangement of data in logical volumes without having to completely reconstruct the logical volumes.
A planning aspect of the migration stage 204 includes computing a plan for moving data objects stored on the system 100 (
Input to the planning aspect of the migration stage 204 is an initial and final configuration of data objects on devices, and a description of the storage system. The initial configuration of data may be obtained from the prior design for the system 100. The final configuration of the data and the description of the data storage system 100 are essentially the new design for the system 100 obtained from the design stage 206.
An algorithm that may be used to automatically develop a migration plan includes steps of identifying stores which can already be moved to their final location and then adding those moves to the plan. Next, a store may be chosen and all of the stores occupying its target location may be moved to scratch space. Then, the process may be repeated (i.e. by adding to the plan a move of the chosen store to its final location and, then, choosing another store). Stores may be chosen generally in order of those that occupy a large space in relation to the size of stores that need to be moved to scratch space.
In addition, if all the data objects are all the same size, for example, by fragmenting them into fixed sized extents, other algorithms can be used. The initial and final states of the system can be converted into a directed multigraph of the form, G=(V, E) without self-loops, referred to as the "demand graph," which may be stored, for example, in the memory 104 (
Program flow begins is a start state 802 and moves to a state 804 in which, a graph G′ may be formed in which G′ is induced by the sendable edges in the demand graph G. An edge is sendable if there is free space at its destination.
Then, in a state 806, a maximum general matching may be computed on G′. In a state 808, all edges in the matching computed in the state 806 may be added to the plan for sending in a first step.
Next, in a state 810, all of the edges added to the plan in the state 808 may be removed from the demand graph. From the state 810, program flow moves to a state 812, in which a determination is made as to whether any edges remain in the graph. If so, then program flow returns to the state 804 to continue identifying when the data associated with each edge should be moved.
Finally once all of the edges have been removed from the demand graph, program flow terminates in a state 814. Then, the data objects may be moved according to the plan. This is explained in more detail herein with reference to
One or more logical volumes may be constructed among the devices 902 and 904. A first volume "A" may require four extents and may be striped across the devices 902 and 904 for performance reasons. Thus, a first portion A0 may be stored on extent 906 of device 902; a second portion A1 may be stored on extent 916 of device 904; a third portion A2 may be stored on extent 908 of device 902; and a fourth portion A3 may be stored on extent 918 of device 904. A second volume "B" may require three extents and may be allocated to the remaining extents of device 902. Thus, a first portion B0 may be stored on the extent 910; a second portion B1 may be stored on the extent 912; and a third portion B2 may be stored on the extent 914. While two logical volumes "A" and "B" are illustrated, it will be apparent that more or fewer logical volumes may be stored by the devices 902 and 904.
After the logical volumes (e.g., logical volumes A and B) have been set up, it may be desired to change their layout. For example, as a result of performance of the design step 202 (
Assume, for example, that the design step 202 determines that it would be preferable to stripe the portions B0, B1 and B2 of logical volume B across the devices 902 and 904. Thus, the portion B1 stored by extent 912 of device 902 may be migrated to the extent 920 of device 904. This may be accomplished by physically copying the portion B1 to the extent 920 and re-mapping the appropriate portion of the logical volume B to the storage locations of extent 920. This is shown in
The portion B2 may then be moved from the extent 914 to the extent 912, which was vacated by portion B1. This may be desired, for example, to consolidate the free space available in the device 902 into contiguous storage locations. This migration may be accomplished similarly to the migration of portion B1, described above. That is, by physically copying the portion B2 to the extent 912 and re-mapping the appropriate portion of the logical volume B to the storage locations of extent 912.
Accordingly, a technique implementing the migration step 204 for a logical volume has been described. This technique advantageously provides for the physical rearrangement of data in a logical volume without having to completely reconstruct the logical volume.
In accordance with another aspect of the migration stage 204 (
One or more "shadow" volumes may be instantiated in accordance with the new layout. A shadow volume is a representation of a possible layout of an existing logical volume. In other words, the shadow volume indicates how the data might be stored by the storage devices. The shadow volume may include, for example, representations of the location(s) and space requirements within the storage system for the data underlying the logical volume and a map that correlates logical addresses to physical storage locations within the data storage system. Unlike a mirror copy in which two copies of the data are physically maintained and, thus, can be read from and written to, a shadow volume does not actually contain the underlying data. As such, the shadow volume cannot generally be read from or written to and can encompass extents that are currently storing other data.
The system processor 102 (
Then, the data stored by the logical volumes may be migrated into the new layout. This may be accomplished by the system processor 102 controlling the data movement as indicated by the new layout. In addition, the system 100 may appropriately reconstruct the logical volumes, such as by re-mapping the logical addresses presented to applications running on the system 100 to the physical storage location to which the data has been moved.
In one embodiment, the system administrator may control the data migration, such as via a user interface provided by the system 100. For example, the system 100 may present the system administrator with a plan for migrating the data as a series of movements of data stored by the extents. The system administrator may then approve or modify the plan. Alternately, the plan may be automatically approved by the system 100 in response to analysis of the plan by the system 100.
The number of moves required to achieve the desired layout will depend upon the circumstances. As a specific example referring to
The above-described data migration technique is disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/954,104, "Logical Volume Data Migration," filed Sep. 17, 2001, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. It will be apparent that a migration technique could be used that differs from the techniques described above.
Specific techniques have been described for implementing each of the analysis stage 202, design stage 204 and migration aspects of the present invention. Once the migration stage 204 is complete, the analysis stage 206 may be repeated. Eventually, it is expected that a fairly optimal design will be achieved.
Thus, the loop process 200 can reduce capacity in the design where the design is initially over-provisioned. This occurs in the solver aspect of the design stage 202 since the assignment of stores to devices will likely result in devices to which no stores are assigned. Accordingly, the solver will drop those devices from the design.
In one embodiment, headroom is incorporated into the process 200. This means that once the design has converged, the devices of the system 100 operate at less than 100% utilization. Headroom may be explicitly provided in the solver aspect of the design stage 202 or may be incorporated into the component models. Thus, for example, assume that a target for utilization is 90%. If the workload increases, the utilization will increase above 90%. As a result, capacity will be added to the design in an attempt to maintain the target headroom. Conversely, if the workload is reduced, the utilization will fall below 90%. As a result, capacity may be removed from the design in an attempt to maintain the target headroom. Accordingly, the data storage system 100 may expand and/or contract with changes in the workload.
Under certain circumstances, it may be desired to set the headroom to a level that is above 100%. For example, the headroom may be set to 150%. As a result, the invention will tend to achieve a design in which the components are over-committed by an amount indicated by the headroom. This may be desired, for example, to reduce the cost of the storage system.
The time to converge to a design will generally depend upon how long each iteration takes and on how many loop iterations must be performed. It is expected that the time for each iteration will be dominated by running the applications (analysis stage 202) and implementing the new designs (migration stage 204). Application run times may, for example, require from several minutes to several hours. Implementing the design can also take from several minutes to several hours because it generally involves moving some fraction of the potentially sizable data stored by the system 100. Further, the number of loop iterations depends on the scale of the system 100 and on the degree of mismatch between the initial and final designs.
Once the design has converged, the process 200 may be halted since additional iterations would not be expected to improve the design. However, as the storage system 100 operates, changing demands may cause its performance to be reduced. Accordingly, the process 200 may be repeated to maintain good performance of the system 100.
In some cases, the storage system should meet certain constraints. For example, it may be desired to limit the cost of the system 100. Thus, the process 200 may be configured to produce a storage system that is limited in maximum price even though the resulting system may not meet the workload's performance requirements. This may be accomplished, for example, by assigning costs to the components of the design and constraining the solver aspect of the design stage 206 to incorporate them into the design such that their cumulative costs do not exceed a specified maximum cost. In other circumstances, the system administrator may wish to include excess resources to accommodate future growth in the workload or to provide headroom for unexpected peak loads.
Although an illustrative embodiment of the invention is described for a disk array storage system, those skilled in the art should recognize that the techniques described herein may be applied to other computer systems, networks or subsystems.
For example, the present invention may be applied to adaptation for a processor or CPU farm. In which case, the analysis stage may include analysis of each process which operates in the CPU farm. For example, process accounting software, the UNIX "ps" command or other tools may be used to gather data on CPU usage patterns. This may include recording, for example, the frequency with which the various processes occur, whether a process is operating-system specific and the CPU usage for each process.
For a CPU farm, the modeling aspect of the design stage 202 may include forming models of CPUs based on their performance benchmarks, such as the well-known "SPEC" benchmarks developed by Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation. For each CPU, the CPU utilizations may be additive. If the various CPUs operated at different processor speeds, then the CPU utilizations may be scaled, such as by a ratio of the SPEC performance of the CPUs, a ratio of CPUs clock speeds or some other property. Further, utilizations may be multiplied by a factor related to the frequency that a process occurs at a particular node (e.g., CPU) in the system.
For the solver aspect of the design stage 202 (
If a process fits on a node, this means that the CPU has the capacity to run the process. Otherwise the frequency for the process at that node may be reduced and the assignment tried again. If it again fails, or a minimal frequency is reached, a new node may be created. The solver stage 202 is completed once all processes have been assigned. Preferably, a condition is reached where the assigned frequency, potentially spread across several nodes for each process, is approximately equal to the frequency found in the analysis stage.
For the CPU farm, processes may be assigned to nodes in accordance with contents of an assignment table. Thus, the migration stage 204 may include modifying the contents of the table to reassign the processes to the nodes.
In accordance with another aspect, the invention may be applied to adaptation of a data caching system (e.g., a network or mesh of cache servers or memory devices, which may be in proximity to network users in order to reduce network traffic). For the analysis stage 206, the frequency of use and size of each object placed in the cache may be recorded. The means for accomplishing this will generally depend on the application which uses the caching system. For example, web caches typically maintain a log which can serve as the basis for determining the frequency of use and object sizes.
In the modeling aspect of the design stage 202, each cache node may be characterized, for example, by its storage capacity and transmission rate. This is to ensure that all objects assigned to the cache node fit into it and that it is able to transmit all of the objects in its cache when needed. More particularly, each object size may be multiplied by its transmission frequency. A sum of these values of each node should be less than the node's maximum transmission rate.
In the solver aspect of the design stage 202, for a given target cache hit rate (or backend access rate), objects may be assigned to the cache nodes in a device-tree data structure similar to that in
For the migration stage 206, the cache system may be modified to indicate where in the system each different object is to be located. The cache nodes may then be pre-located with the objects they will be serving or each cache node may load its objects on its own in accordance with the assignments indicated in the design stage 206.
In still another example, the present invention may be applied to adaptation of database indices in a database system. Database indices are used for more-readily accessing selected data stored in a database compared to scanning tables of the database for data that is not indexed. For the analysis stage 202, queries that are run through a database management system (DBMS) may be examined to count the number of times certain table scans are performed in order to determine how much an index for a particular column or group of columns would be used instead of the table scans. The number of updates made to each of the different columns may also be counted.
For the modeling aspect of the design stage 202, the time savings for doing index lookups instead of the table scans counted in the analysis stage may be compared to the time that would be required for doing updates of tables with indices. For the solver aspect, various different indices may be examined for possible addition to the database. Existing indices may be examined to determine whether they result in a net savings of time. A goal for the design stage 202 would generally be to develop the indices such that a good overall net savings of time is obtained. The cost of creating/destroying the different indices may be included in determining the amount of time that would be saved by a particular arrangement.
In the migration stage 204, the new indices indicated by the design stage 206 may be created and the old ones that are no longer included in the design may be removed.
While the foregoing has been with reference to particular embodiments of the invention, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes in these embodiments may be made without departing from the principles and spirit of the invention, the scope of which is defined by the following claims.
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