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|Helium atom
|An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) is in reality spherically symmetric, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one ångström, equal to 10−10 m or 100,000 fm.
The atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element. An atom has an electron cloud consisting of negatively charged electrons surrounding a dense nucleus. The nucleus contains positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. When the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of electrons, the atom is electrically neutral; otherwise it is an ion and has a net positive or negative charge. An atom is classified according to its number of protons and neutrons: the number of protons determines the chemical element and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of that element.
The name atom comes from the Greek ἄτομος/átomos, α-τεμνω, which means uncuttable, something that cannot be divided further. The concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter was first proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers. In the 17th and 18th centuries, chemists provided a physical basis for this idea by showing that certain substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, physicists discovered subatomic components and structure inside the atom, thereby demonstrating that the 'atom' was not indivisible. The principles of quantum mechanics were used to successfully model the atom.
Relative to everyday experience, atoms are minuscule objects with proportionately tiny masses that can only be observed individually using special instruments such as the scanning tunneling microscope. Over 99.9% of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus, with protons and neutrons having roughly equal mass. Each element has at least one isotope with unstable nuclei that can undergo radioactive decay. This can result in a transmutation that changes the number of protons or neutrons in a nucleus. Electrons occupy a set of stable energy levels, or orbitals, and can transition between these states by absorbing or emitting photons that match the energy differences between the levels. The electrons determine the chemical properties of an element, and strongly influence an atom's magnetic properties.
The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny quantities has been around for millennia, but these ideas were founded in abstract, philosophical reasoning rather than experimentation and empirical observation. The nature of atoms in philosophy varied considerably over time and between cultures and schools, and often had spiritual elements. Nevertheless, the basic idea of the atom was adopted by scientists thousands of years later because it elegantly explained new discoveries in the field of chemistry.
The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to ancient India in the 6th century BCE. The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs). The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systemized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term átomos (ἄτομος), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.
Further progress in the understanding of atoms did not occur until the science of chemistry began to develop. In 1661, natural philosopher Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist in which he argued that matter was composed of various combinations of different "corpuscules" or atoms, rather than the classical elements of air, earth, fire and water. In 1789 the term element was defined by the French nobleman and scientific researcher Antoine Lavoisier to mean basic substances that could not be further broken down by the methods of chemistry.
In 1803, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in a ratio of small whole numbers—the law of multiple proportions—and why certain gases dissolve better in water than others. He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms can join together to form chemical compounds.
Additional validation of particle theory (and by extension atomic theory) occurred in 1827 when botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically—a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". J. Desaulx suggested in 1877 that the phenomenon was caused by the thermal motion of water molecules, and in 1905 Albert Einstein produced the first mathematical analysis of the motion, thus confirming the hypothesis.
The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897, discovered the electron and its subatomic nature, which destroyed the concept of atoms as being indivisible units. Thomson believed that the electrons were distributed throughout the atom, with their charge balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive charge (the plum pudding model).
However, in 1909, researchers under the direction of physicist Ernest Rutherford bombarded a sheet of gold foil with helium ions and discovered that a small percentage were deflected through much larger angles than was predicted using Thomson's proposal. Rutherford interpreted the gold foil experiment as suggesting that the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass was concentrated in a nucleus at the center of the atom (the Rutherford model), with the electrons orbiting it like planets around a sun. Positively charged helium ions passing close to this dense nucleus would then be deflected away at much sharper angles.
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases, which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.
Meanwhile, in 1913, physicist Niels Bohr revised Rutherford's model by suggesting that the electrons were confined into clearly defined orbits, and could jump between these, but could not freely spiral inward or outward in intermediate states. An electron must absorb or emit specific amounts of energy to transition between these fixed orbits. When the light from a heated material is passed through a prism, it produced a multi-colored spectrum. The appearance of fixed lines in this spectrum was successfully explained by the orbital transitions.
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons. As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law, in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.
The Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom. When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially-shaped magnetic field, the beam was split based on the direction of an atom's angular momentum, or spin. As this direction is random, the beam could be expected to spread into a line. Instead, the beam was split into two parts, depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down.
In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger, using Louis de Broglie's 1924 proposal that particles behave to an extent like waves, developed a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms, rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe electrons is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at the same time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926. In this concept, for each measurement of a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa. Although this model was difficult to visualise, it was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to exist.
The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the exact mass of atoms to be measured. The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to demonstrate that isotopes had different masses. The mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the whole number rule. The explanation for these different atomic isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, a neutral-charged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus.
In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies. Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. Standard models of nuclear physics were developed that successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.
Around 1985, Steven Chu and co-workers at Bell Labs developed a technique for lowering the temperatures of atoms using lasers. In the same year, a team led by William D. Phillips managed to contain atoms of sodium in a magnetic trap. The combination of these two techniques and a method based on the Doppler effect, developed by Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and his group, allows small numbers of atoms to be cooled to several microkelvin. This allows the atoms to be studied with great precision, and later led to the discovery of Bose-Einstein condensation.
Historically, single atoms have been prohibitively small for scientific applications. Recently, devices have been constructed that use a single metal atom connected through organic ligands to construct a single electron transistor. Experiments have been carried out by trapping and slowing single atoms using laser cooling in a cavity to gain a better physical understanding of matter.
The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9.11 kg, with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.6726 kg, although this can be reduced by changes to the atomic binding energy. Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of electrons, or 1.6929 kg. Neutrons and protons have comparable dimensions—on the order of 2.5 m—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.
In the Standard Model of physics, both protons and neutrons are composed of elementary particles called quarks. The quark is a type of fermion, and is one of the two basic constituents of matter—the other being the lepton, of which the electron is an example. There are six types of quarks, each having a fractional electric charge of either +2/3 or −1/3. Protons are composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles. The quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is mediated by gluons. The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to fm, where A is the total number of nucleons. This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 105 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.
The neutron and the proton are different types of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical effect that prohibits identical fermions (such as multiple protons) from occupying the same quantum physical state at the same time. Thus every proton in the nucleus must occupy a different state, with its own energy level, and the same rule applies to all of the neutrons. (This prohibition does not apply to a proton and neutron occupying the same quantum state.)
A nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with roughly matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay. However, with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus, which modifies this trend. Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z = 20 (calcium); and as Z increases toward the heaviest nuclei, the ratio of neutrons per proton required for stability increases to about 1.5.
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. At the core of the Sun, protons require energies of 3–10 KeV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. In such processes that change the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom becomes an atom of a different chemical element.
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values is emitted as energy, as described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, E = mc2, where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is the binding energy of the nucleus.
The fusion of two nuclei that have lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the total binding energy begins to decrease. That means fusion processes with nuclei that have higher atomic numbers is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed in order for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at the exterior.
Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron will appear to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns will rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and they differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.
Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.
The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron (the electron binding energy) is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form, sometimes called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers from hydrogen with a single proton up to the 118-proton element ununoctium. All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive.
About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth, of which 269 (about 79%) are stable. Of the chemical elements, 80 have one or more stable isotopes. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes. As a rule, there is, for each atomic number (each element) only a handful of stable isotopes, the average being 3.4 stable isotopes per element which has any stable isotopes. Sixteen elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element tin).
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by presence of certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons which represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus. Of the 269 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: 2H, 6Li, 10B and 14N. Also, only four naturally-occurring, radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: 40K, 50V, 138La and 180mTa. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.
Because the large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons, the total number of these particles in an atom is called the mass number. The mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u), which is also called a Dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately 1.66 kg. Hydrogen-1, the lightest isotope of hydrogen and the atom with the lowest mass, has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u. An atom has a mass approximately equal to the mass number times the atomic mass unit. The heaviest stable atom is lead-208, with a mass of 207.9766521 u.
As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. The mole is defined such that one mole of any element will always have the same number of atoms (about 6.022). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element will have a mass of 0.001 kg, or 1 gram. Carbon, for example, has an atomic mass of 12 u, so a mole of carbon atoms weighs 0.012 kg.
Some examples will demonstrate the minuteness of the atom. A typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion (2) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of 2 kg contains about 10 sextillion atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm.
The most common forms of radioactive decay are:
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle, or result (through internal conversion) in production of high-speed electrons which are not beta rays, and high-energy photons which are not gamma rays.
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope will be present, and so forth.
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin ½ , or "spin-½". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.
The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most dominant contribution comes from spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.
In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.
The nucleus of an atom can also have a net spin. Normally these nuclei are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.
When an electron is bound to an atom, it has a potential energy that is inversely proportional to its distance from the nucleus. This is measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). In the quantum mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level. The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, while an electron at a higher energy level is in an excited state.
In order for an electron to transition between two different states, it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels. The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.
When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom will spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a different direction, which does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, will instead see a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.
Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin-orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron. When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines. The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.
If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon will then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons will be synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.
The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that will fill (or empty) their outer valence shells.
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. Within a state, a material can also exist in different phases. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond.
At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning-tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the Fermi level local density of states.
An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.
A more area-selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same element. Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth.
Isotopes such as lithium-6 are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation. This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected. Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei. Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the solar system. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating. Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions. Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth. Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust. Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.
The Earth contains approximately 1.33 atoms. In the planet's atmosphere, small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon and neon. The remaining 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals. This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. For unknown reasons, antimatter particles are rare in the universe, hence, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. However, antihydrogen, the antimatter counterpart of hydrogen, was first synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva in 1996.
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.


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Posted 06 January 2013 - 14:40
Posted 06 January 2013 - 14:46
Posted 06 January 2013 - 14:49
Disabling UAC in Windows 8 doesn't in fact fully disables UAC .
You need to set this key HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Policies\System\EnableLUA to 0 and reboot. Note that after this metro apps won't work anymore (they need this option set to 1).
Posted 06 January 2013 - 15:12
Strange behavior from Windows 8, did you by any chance run an upgrade from 7 to 8, or did a fresh clean install?
Running JRiver MediaCenter on my W8 laptop, no issues here with mp3's whatsoever.
I even still can see and upload music to my iPod Classic.
So... there must be something else going on there....
Posted 07 January 2013 - 09:44
EDIT: Just checked, Windows Explorer also won't let me edit the file information. I could in Windows 7.
Posted 07 January 2013 - 10:36
Posted 07 January 2013 - 11:21
Disabling UAC is not the correct solution (albeit, some here tend to think otherwise). Make sure that the folder containing your files has the correct permissions for your user account. This will need to be done every time you format. I tend to simply add the music folder (located on a different partition) to my library and that seems to automatically set the correct permissions + makes the folder searchable.


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- TPR at waistband tab.
- 20" Outseam.
- 86% Polyester, 14% Spandex Ultra Q4.


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Fitness classes start next week at the Simon Rec Center. There is a wide variety of classes to choose from. Most classes are held in the evening and have a modest fee.
For more information, check out the Fitness and Wellness page of the Simon Rec website or contact Glen Kemper at email@example.com or 977-3969.


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Compare new & used cars from 1997 to the present the easy way with our picture-based car comparison tool. We've removed the hardest part of comparing cars – which model is which? Nearly everyone looking to compare cars knows what the car looks like, but only a small percent of car shoppers can tell you the relevant model numbers and names!
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Good Property Pays $9.3M for Greenwich Village Townhouse Building
Real estate firm Good Property has purchased a townhouse building at 74 Washington Place in Greenwich Village for $9.3 million, The Commercial Observer has learned.
The 5,077-square-foot, five-story brownstone is located between Sixth Avenue and Washington Square Place, steps from Washington Square Park.
The property was sold in an all-cash transaction after being on the market for roughly two weeks, said Massey Knakal Partner James Nelson, who handled the transaction exclusively with Mitch Levine, a director of sales at the firm. Mr. Nelson called Good Property the "ideal purchaser" for the property. Read More


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Stand with the people of Brazil to Save the Amazon: Take action now!
Aboard of the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior, moored in Macapá, during a meeting promoted by Greenpeace, political leaders debated the need to have a law to stop deforestation in the Amazon. The law of popular initiative which goal is Zero Deforestation already reached 160,000 signatures. Senator João Capiberibe (center) signs the petition and Paulo Adario, Greenpeace Brazil Amazon Campaign Director sits on the right. 04/27/2012
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It's Independence Day in the USA and we wish all of our American readers a very happy Fourth of July! We hope that your day includes a fun picnic with family and friends, and ends with a splendid fireworks display. In keeping with the celebrations, we have a sitewide sale that offers a 20% discount on everything from exquisite animal garden statues to the best in indoor decor. Today is a fitting day to buy beautiful Americana items such as the Freedom's Pride American Eagle Wall Sculpture. Artist Samuel Lightfoot certainly captured the majesty and power of America's national bird with this high quality wall decor. With talons outstretched and wings spread wide, this realistic Bald Eagle looks as if it's going to take flight in your den. This wonderful sculpture is the perfect addition for the office, place of business, and VFW post.
Put the freedom and untamed nature of the wild west on display with the Bronco Busting Cowboy sculpture. This Basil Street Gallery item is inspired by bronze sculptures done by Frederick Remington and like his stunning works of art, the Bronco Busting Cowboy captures the essence of the western frontier with realistic, dramatic details. Complement it and pay homage to Native American cultures with the highly detailed and inspirational Eagle Dancer Sculpture.
Buy these beautiful indoor decor items, garden fairies, and anything else on our site until July 5th and get a 20% discount as part of our 4th of July Sale!
This sale cannot be combined with other offers.


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Bench Infant Girls Super Snuggly Sweatshirt
RRP £44.99 Now £10.99 You save £34.00
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Bench Infant Girls Super Snuggly in black. Snuggly zip through sweat with funnel neck. Two pockets to front. Embroidered logo to chest and on back of collar. Branded zip puller. 75% Cotton, 25% Polyester. Machine washable.
- Delivery info
- Standard Delivery £3.95 (3-5 working days)
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Some detailed information:
OS: Windows 7 Ultimate x64
CPU: Intel Core i3-2100 @ 3.1GHz
Motherboard: MSI H61M-P21 (B3)
RAM: Corsair ValueSelect 4GB DDR3 1333MHz
VGA: Sapphire AMD Radeon HD 7770 GHz Edition 1GB GDDR5
PSU: CoolerMaster eXtreme PowerPlus 550W
- WD 500GB 7200RPM 16MB cache (First partiotion: Windows; second partition: Only files)
- Seagate 320GB 7200RPM 8MB cache (Only files)
- Fujitsu 60GB 5400RPM 8MB cache (Ubuntu installed)
- 56 on boot
- 23 removed or delayed
- 10 can be removed but are necessary
- 46 can't be modified
I've already uninstalled what I don't need, cleared every system's garbage, uninstalled ghost drivers, removed or delayed apps from boot.
Could someone understand why this computer is taking from 1:40 to 2:30 (mm:ss) minutes to boot up?
I'd appreciate if someone tell me some other ideas for reducing boot time.
PS: I had a very lower computer configuration earlier, and it was booting VERY faster (from 30 to 60 seconds) than the actual one.


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Pronunciation: Séguret
Added on: 2010-02-05 Listened: 240 timesin: Les Plus Beaux Villages de France
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I was just having a think about how Vimes has progressed all these years and I was wondering what's next for him?
He has done close to everything I can imagine in DW.
So I thought...
Maybe Vimes could arrest a god? (alluded to in Snuff)
Or He could take over Death's duties...That would make him the embodiment of Justice...?
Any other thoughts?


text: Changing the color of the plates is almost completely useless. Nobody's going to turn a gold belt into a silver one, and any color other than gold or silver is fucking retarded. At least you can change the penny belts into golden belts, and the silver ECW belt to a gold one, so it's not totally pointless. Changing the strap color... eh, better than nothing. It's such a small thing but people liked it when Cody Rhodes brought in the white strap for the IC belt so that option is there at least.


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Long Island, New York
Jet leg is no joke; it's a reality. According to our friends at NASA, on average, for every hour of time zone you fly through, it takes as long as one day for your body to return to its normal rhythm. Be thankful you're not an astronaut. But still, that's trouble for globetrotting surfers, who routinely fly more than seven hours in a stretch (and sometimes more than twenty) to chase waves. Luckily, there're a few quick and easy ways to combat the vicious cycle known as jet lag before it starts. Dr. Tim Brown tells us how.
Every morning, when sunlight greets your eyes, your natural clock (with the help of your pineal gland), is reset and the cycle begins again. But when this cycle is broken, it can cause fatigue, irritability, and insomnia (a.k.a. jet lag).
Like many things in nature, jet lag is an individual thing. Some hardly feel it, and for others, it can turn into an ongoing problem as some folks' clocks are more sensitive and difficult to reset. Most people fall somewhere in between. Bottom line: travel taxes your body and adds stress to your overall health picture. Anything that minimizes that stress will benefit you short- and long-term.
Drinking alcohol and coffee can really dehydrate you when traveling-water is king here.
Be sensitive to what your body is telling you and give it what it wants! Prior to the journey and during (when safe), eat natural, unprocessed, fresh food-it's easier to digest and way better for your energy and recovery.
Take supplements, like a good multivitamin daily, and have extra support such as Emergen-C, antioxidant formula, Airborne, etc. Also, try melatonin, as it's one of the natural chemicals your body uses to set your internal clock.
Simple breathing can also supercharge your immune system and reduce travel stress: take ten breaths through your nose-four counts in, hold for seven counts, then exhale for eight for each breath.
Set your watch to the new destination's correct time right when you board the plane. From there, try to keep sleep patterns as close to normal as possible in the new time zone.
TAGS: Jet Lag, surfing


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Events Calendar
One Book One City - "Unbroken" Book Discussion
Monday, February 11, 2013, 07:00pm
Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand, is the City's 2013 One Book One City selection this February and a month of exciting free programs with a World War II theme is being planned at the Sierra Madre Public Library. Please join us at the library for the following free programs:
Contact 626-355-7186
Location Library
440 W. Sierra Madre Blvd. Sierra Madre, CA 91024


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Combine style and comfort on your business travels!
Enjoy effective relaxation in the comfortable atmosphere of our private Spa.
Come and stay at the Diplomat Hotel Prague and enjoy one day with your family in Prague's famous zoo.
Explore Prague with free entrance to more than 50 top attractions! This and much more is reserved for you in the Heart of Europe.
The CD Restaurant is famous for its delightful Czech and international cuisine with a special touch of purism.
Enjoy effective relaxation in the comfortable atmosphere of the wellness area with breathtaking view of the Prague Castle.
Check out the latest reviews and ratings from other guests. Your opinion is important to us.


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Over and over again last week, as he prepared to sign a scholarship to play football at the next level, Tyler Worley heard about how Faulkner University's gain would be Port St. Joe's loss.
And as coach after coach talked of his surprise and happiness to be present when Worley signed his letter of intent to the NAIA college located in Montgomery, AL, the foundation of that sentiment was clear.
Here, in Worley, was a young man who had matured in more ways than physical, who had cleared so many obstacles, who had worked his way behind that desk to sign on the dotted line with parents, coaches, teammates and classmates in attendance.
His high school position coach Kesley Colbert summed it up.
"As good a football player as he is, Tyler Worley is a better person," Colbert said.
Worley himself said he rarely gave playing college football much of a thought for most of his high school career.
His coaches, they said uniformly, didn't necessarily picture it either.
Worley was undersized, particularly for the line, standing little more than 5-foot-9, if that, and weighing 160 pounds soaking wet when he entered high school.
But, his coaches said, Worley had two things you couldn't teach: he didn't quit and he was coachable, learning and buying into the discipline and dedication needed to improve, his Pee Wee coach Chris Butts said.
Colbert said the freshman lineman on the scout team was hardly impressive, hardly a star in waiting, save for his attitude.
Colbert told a story of a young Worley making a play during practice during which he made up for any error of X's and O's by sheer enthusiasm, coming over to the sideline with a grin and asking how he'd done.
That love of the competition drove Worley and he improved.
As Colbert said, improving from "absolutely horrible" to "terrible" during his freshman year on the scout team.
But as he grew, Colbert added, the light bulb went off.
"It kind of transcends football, you see a young man grow up, you see a young man understand about team," Colbert said. "It's not just about football, but about believing in yourself and putting everything into it.
"I enjoyed working with Tyler because he never got discouraged. You could see him grow week to week, month to month. He became a football player. You see a young man grow up, you see a young man understand about team."
And Worley was also growing into his body. By National Signing Day last week he stood 6-2 and weighed 220 pounds, what Colbert called "the mainstay" of the Tiger Sharks line the past season.
Port St. Joe coach Chuck Gannon noted that in January 2012 Worley began to realize there was a horizon for his football career beyond high school.
He was one of eight players, Gannon said, to rededicate themselves to the weight room, showing up for every session as Gannon took the reins of the football program.
"Tyler bought in that he could play college football," said Port St. Joe assistant coach Tracy Browning.
Gannon added, "He did a tremendous, but he got better and as he did he started to believe in himself."
Then midway through his senior season a letter arrived in the mail for Worley.
The letter came from Faulkner University.
"They asked me to take a visit and I went up on Homecoming weekend," Worley said. "They had a nice facility and great coaches.
"I'm very excited. I never thought I'd get the chance to play college ball."
All the pieces fell into place and last week Worley, the scrappy kid who few envisioned playing college football just two years ago, was college bound.
Gannon said one of the advantages heading to Faulkner is that is fields a junior varsity team, allowing Worley a chance to become fully acclimated to college life and football for one year.
Worley said he was looking forward to a year on the junior varsity and said the goal now was to "just keep working hard in the weight room, get bigger and stronger."
"Faulkner is getting a good one and it is a great opportunity for him," Gannon said.


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Pro Wrestling Since 1997
Nov 5, 2011 - by Steve Gerweck
* Click here for Brooke's profile
* Click here for the diva of the day archives
Post Category: News
Tags: Former WWE diva, TNA Knockout
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McDavid Ankle X Brace
|Eligible for Free Shipping, No Minimum! (see promotion details)
|Members of The League get 5% back when you spend $100! (see promotion details)
Product Details
The McDavid Ankle X brace is so comfortable you won't know you have it on even after a full day of practice. The molded support features a pivot hinge for greater maneuverability and comfort, and the stretch sleeve provides compression support.
- Pivot hinge for greater maneuverability and comfort
- Lightweight comfortable design
- Stretch sleeve provides compression support
Product Recommendations
$29.99 - $39.99
Product Reviews
REVIEW SNAPSHOT®by PowerReviews
- Well built / quality (4)
Best Uses
- Reviewer Profile:
- Sports enthusiast (4)
Reviewed by 6 customers
Sort by
- Attractive Design
- Quality Construction
Best Uses
- Anytime
- Around Town
Comments about McDavid Ankle X Brace:
I used this product with a bad ankle and i've to say- it WORKS- Light weight & comfortable to wear.
- Attractive Design
- Quality Construction
- Strong rigid plastic
- Can restrict circulation
Best Uses
- Prevention of sprains
- Rehab
Comments about McDavid Ankle X Brace:
Like most people who go to the hospital for a sprain, I was given the stupid looking white aircast with the green air-filled cushions. This was very comfortable on crutches, but too restrictive to use when walking. The Ankle X is a good way to graduate to activity again. It allows me to run, ACTUALLY RUN, on my toes with hardly any pain or fear of landing wrong. Tight velcro and shoe lacing are key to stability, but the tighter you go, the more annoying the hard plastic shell becomes. So, it's best to just strap up as you would ski boots, etc. That is, snug and secure but not too tight. Also, the design is actually cool and athletic looking enough to feel comfortable sporting in with shorts. It looks more like an Underarmour style accessory than a medical device.
Best Uses
Comments about McDavid Ankle X Brace:
As a previous reviewer wrote, this brace was poorly designed because of the bottom of the brace. I returned mine due to the discomfort it caused my foot when jogging or just being on it for long periods of time. A brace that has a soft bottom with the sturdy side plates works much better in my opinion for both sport and daily use; you receive the great protection and comfort, and save about $15.
- Great Support
- Impossible to Roll Ankle
- Lightweight
- Quality Construction
- A bit bulky
Best Uses
- Any Sporting Event
- At The Game
Comments about McDavid Ankle X Brace:
OK so when i first ordered this I was a bit skeptical if it would do what it said it would because it's not a conventional brace. It comes in two pieces, a neoprene brace and the plastic shell. It was hard to put into my Kobe V's but fit into my Lebrons nicely and I don't even notice it's there. I had a high ankle sprain at the beginning of the football season that has been lingering and hasn't had time to heal and this makes my ankle almost feel like it used to.
- Quality Construction
Best Uses
- At The Game
Comments about McDavid Ankle X Brace:
This thing works great and keeps you off the sideline. I heated mine up in some hot water and put it on to help shape it to my ankle for a custom fit
Comments about McDavid Ankle X Brace:
This brace gets 3 stars due to the fact that the foot bed is bothersome. Good sturdy brace fits nice and smug but the bottom part hurts your heel after a couple hours, even with socks.


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Writing Center
At the USA Writing Center, students and others may receive help on any type of writing
task at any stage of the writing process from idea generation, development, and revision,
to grammar and editing strategies.The University Writing Center is an instructional
facility, not an editing service. Our writing consultants focus on teaching the writers,
rather than simply fixing the writing. Consulting sessions are held in the University
Writing Center (230 Alpha Hall East).
To make an appointment with a writing consultant, call the Writing Center (460-6480) or schedule your own appointment by clicking on the "Schedule" button in the menu on the left.


text:
Find the perfect hotel in Dublin using our hotel guide provided below. Search for the cheapest discounted hotel and motel rates in or near Dublin, CA for your personal leisure or group travel. Explore the most favored Dublin, California motel and hotel rooms. Browse the Dublin area hotels to find the perfect lodging! Please use the provided map of the Dublin hotels. Coordinating a group? Get Dublin Group Hotel DealsThe Dublin center is around the area of Downtown Dublin and 1 mile from Earl Anthony's Dublin Bowl.
Dublin Hotels, Motels & Accommodations
Next 20 Dublin Hotels > [1 - 20 of 50]
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Audio-Technica AT5045$1,399.005 stars
Drawmer 1973 FET Compressor$1,825.005 stars
MunroSonic Egg 150 Monitoring System$3,499.005 stars
Thermionic Culture The Rooster 2$3,399.005 stars
Sontronics Aria$1,199.005 stars
Eve Audio TS108 Subwoofer$1,050.005 stars
It seems odd to get excited about a subwoofer but the TS108 is an excellent, ...
Shure SRH1540$624.005 stars
Shure has produced truly premium headphones that make monitoring an easy pleasure.
Elysia xfilter 500$1,049.005 stars
An original modern slice of EQ for mixing and tracking with a serious amount of ...
Antelope Audio Orion 32$2,995.005 stars
Audeze LCD3 headphones$1,945.005 stars
A gloriously luxurious pair of headphones that ooze quality and refinement.
Thermionic Culture The Fat Bustard II Special Limited Edition$5,899.005 stars
Audio Technica AT5040$2,999.005 stars
The AT5040 is a polished performer in so many ways but that price tag - ...
Behringer X32 Digital Mixing Console$3,769.995 stars
Workflow and sound are amazing. For this money we'd go for the X32 over a ...
SPL Neos 24/2 Mixer$11,999.005 stars
Big, bold and expensive, but if you want the best, look no further.
Lynx HiLo$2,495.005 stars
sE Munro Egg 150 Monitors$2,999.005 stars
A fantastic product on all fronts, the Eggs let you hear the music not the ...
KRK Systems 12s Subwoofer5 stars
Blue Microphones Drum Kit Kit5 stars
TC-Helicon VoiceLive 2$945.005 stars
Neve Designs Portico 5042 Tape Emulator$2,039.005 stars
Adam Audio A7X Active Monitors$699.005 stars
One of the best monitors on the market. The A7X beats the original in almost ...
Kush Audio UBK Fatso$2,799.005 stars
Generic Audio Preceptor5 stars
Neve Portico II$3,495.005 stars
Telefunken Elektroakustik AR-51$2,195.005 stars
Thermionic Culture Little Bustard$2,699.005 stars
Arsenal Audio R24 Dual Channel EQ5 stars
Simplicity at its best – this is one sweet sounding EQ that audio will adore ...
B-Band Ukko Contact Drum Mics$129.995 stars
Focal Professional Twin6 Be$1,895.005 stars
These speakers would be hard to beat at any price. They do exactly what great ...


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Return to Toolbox Main.
Rate It
View Comments and Ratings
EPI Annex to Emergency Operations Plan
By Paula Anderson
This is a comprehensive approach to the EPI portion of an Emergency Operations Plan.
Epi Annex
By Dean BeLer
An excellent and stellar product; valuable reference on the creation of one's own detailed plan to include many excellent forms.
Epi Annex
By Amanda Bogard
Well organized, well written.


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Jose Bolanos has this NXT hack using a Wii remote control. The response from the controller is a bit slow, but it's still fascinating to watch.
More info is
Wii $250
Being able to pick up the red ball with a Wii-mote... priceless!
how do you get it to work because i would like 2 do that same thing.
Seriously, I would really like to be able to do that as well. How do you connect?
For those people asking how to do this...
First of... you will need to write your own program.. Of course.
The Wii remote is simple a Bluetooth device that can be connected to your computer via a dongle or built in bluetooth device.
The program it self will obtain the current accelerometer values X,Y,Z and then you convert these into output to the motors on the NXT.
So say for example the Wii remote moving on Y axis would turn on motor 1.
If anyone would like more information on this or an example program / code then feel free to contact us here at Mayhem Development.


text:
Top Searches:
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July 22, 2013
Links: Australian Glass and the Pacific Northwest at Museum of Glass
Wsu Master Gardeners of Pierce County at Master Gardener of Pierce County
The Shape of Things by Neil Labute at Dukesbay Theater
All events for today »
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Horror, Suspense/Thriller
A young coed goes to New England to write a paper on witchcraft. Her professor recommends that she spend her time in a small inn called the Raven's Inn. There, she notices some strange happenings. And, then she discovers she is marked for sacrifice.
Rated PG for some violence.
Visit the official site
Cast: Christopher Lee, Betta St. John, Dennis Lotis, Tom Naylor, Patricia Jessel
Produced by: Donald Taylor
Directed by: John Llewellyn Moxey
Written by: George Baxt, Milton Subotsky
Running time: 1hr 16min
Opens: Limted


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The Palestinian Authority
News about The Palestinian Authority, including commentary and archival articles published in The New York Times.
Chronology of Coverage
Jun. 17, 2015
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas reportedly tells party leaders that ineffective government he formed in 2014 after signing reconciliation pact with Hamas will resign within 24 hours; so-called consensus government is now headed by Prime Min Rami Hamdallah. MORE
May. 23, 2015
World Bank report finds Gaza's economy is near collapse due to 2014 war with Israel, border restrictions and dysfunctional government; cites conflict between Gaza's Hamas rulers and Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas as reason for delay in reconstruction efforts, and notes unemployment rate stands at 44 percent, world's highest level. MORE
May. 17, 2015
Pope Francis, during meeting at Vatican, calls Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas 'angel of peace'; Vatican reiterates hope that Palestinians and Israel will find lasting solution to regional conflict. MORE
May. 6, 2015
Palestinian Authority owes $430 million in electricity bills to Israel, and debt is at center of latest deterioration in relations with Israel; two sides cannot agree on how much energy is used, how bills should be calculated or how payments should be made. MORE
Apr. 19, 2015
Israel agrees to transfer some $470 million in tax revenue collected on behalf of Palestinians, resolving months-long dispute over issue; money was accrued since Israel suspended payments in response to Palestinian move to join the International Criminal Court. MORE
Apr. 7, 2015
Diplomatic conflicts between Israel and Palestinians endanger relative stability and peace West Bank has experienced in recent years; Palestinian Authority threatens to scale back its shared security responsibilities with Israeli military, but both sides appear to have interest in preventing outbreak of violence. MORE
Apr. 2, 2015
Palestinians join the International Criminal Court, making most significant and controversial step yet toward seeking statehood; Palestinian Authority hopes to use membership to increase international pressure on Israel and to hold it accountable for policies and actions that Palestinians charge are war crimes; stops short, however, of calling for immediate investigation of Israeli officials. MORE
Mar. 31, 2015
Palestinians are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas, highlighting divisions that could impede progress toward statehood. MORE
Mar. 28, 2015
Israeli Prime Min Benjamin Netanyahu, in attempt to ease tensions with Palestinians and United States, will release 90 days worth of tax revenues to Palestinian Authority; funds have collected since Israel began withholding them in response to Palestinian attempt to join International Criminal Court. MORE
Feb. 24, 2015
Manhattan jury finds Palestinian Authority and Palestinian Liberation Organization liable for their role in six terrorist attacks in Israel from 2002 to 2004 that killed and injured Americans; award of $218.5 million in damages is tripled under special terrorism law to $655.5 million, ending decade-long legal battle; Palestinian groups say they will appeal. MORE
Feb. 24, 2015
State-owned Israel Electric Corporation briefly reduces power to West Bank districts Nablus and Jenin in response to growing Palestinian debt, which is product of financial crisis caused by Israel's withholding of tax revenues after Palestinian Authority attempted to join International Criminal Court. MORE
Feb. 4, 2015
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas orders probe of Palestinian newspaper Al-Hayat al-Jadida for publishing cartoon some readers said was Prophet Muhammad. MORE
Jan. 21, 2015
Palestinian Authority pays its employees 60 percent of their salaries for December by taking out loans to cover for shortfall created by Israel's withholding of $127 million in tax revenue. MORE
Jan. 15, 2015
Competing checkpoints run by Palestinian Authority and militant group Hamas at border of Gaza and Israel have come to represent fragmentation among Palestinians and breakdown of reconciliation pact established in 2014; pact, signed in April, was intended to establish consensus government, but divisions have remained. MORE
Jan. 13, 2015
Pres Obama, in telephone call to Israeli Prime Min Benjamin Netanyahu, confirms that United States will register opposition to Palestinian Authority's attempt to join International Criminal Court. MORE
Jan. 4, 2015
Israel withholds tax revenue from Palestinian Authority in response to Palestinian attempts to join International Criminal Court, further escalating tensions between two sides. MORE
Jan. 1, 2015
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas requests that Authority join International Criminal Court, move that opens up possibility of war-crimes prosecutions of Israeli officials; request, condemned by American officials as excessive, follows failure of United Nations Security Council resolution demanding end to Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory by 2017. MORE
Jan. 1, 2015
Editorial criticizes Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas for political actions that may further dim any hopes of a two-state solution; contends Abbas's decisions to both force a losing vote on Palestinian statehood at United Nations Security Council and then to join International Criminal Court give Israeli hard-liners even more reason to reject new peace talks and could possibly push collapse of the authority itself. MORE
Dec. 16, 2014
News analysis; Sec of State John Kerry's visit to Rome and Paris highlights how United States is caught between European pressure to advance Middle East peace and Washington's traditional support for Israel; as European legislatures and Palestinian Authority draft resolutions calling for sovereignty, Kerry juggles meetings with Israeli Prime Min Benjamin Netanyahu, European foreign ministers and Palestinian negotiators. MORE
Dec. 11, 2014
Ziad Abu Ein, prominent Palestinian Authority official, dies after inhaling tear gas and being shoved and struck in chest by member of Israeli security forces during demonstration in West Bank village; episode threatens to grow into crisis between Israel and authority amid calls for halt in security coordination between two sides. MORE
Nov. 28, 2014
Israel's internal security agency Shin Bet says it has exposed an extensive Hamas military infrastructure in West Bank that was planning to carry out attacks on Israelis but offers no evidence; there is no immediate comment from Hamas leaders in Gaza or from officials in the Palestinian Authority, which dominates in the West Bank and, despite the formation of a unity government with Hamas, essentially remains its rival. MORE
Nov. 14, 2014
Secretary of State John Kerry is optimistic after meeting with leaders of Jordan, Israel and, separately, Pres Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority, that strife over volatile holy site in Old City of Jerusalem can be eased; site is revered by Muslims as the Noble Sanctuary, and by Jews as Temple Mount. MORE
Oct. 10, 2014
Palestinian Prime Min Rami Hamdallah convenes first meeting of cabinet in Gaza in move meant to signal more involvement of West Bank-based Palestinian Authority in running enclave after seven years of control by Hamas; display of Palestinian unity is largely intended to inspire confidence ahead of an international donors' conference for the reconstruction of Gaza. MORE
Sep. 26, 2014
Leaders of rival Palestinian factions Hamas and Fatah say they have agreed to resolve their differences and allow the Palestinian Authority to return to Gaza Strip so reconstruction can begin, but offer no specifics. MORE
Sep. 17, 2014
Temporary agreement is reached between Israel, Palestinian Authority and United Nations to allow Gaza to import materials for rebuilding. MORE
Sep. 12, 2014
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas says that he has reached a deal with Israel and the United Nations to allow imports of reconstruction materials into the Gaza Strip, apparently bypassing Hamas to fulfill key tenet of cease-fire agreement that halted hostilities on Aug 26; Palestinian leaders estimate reconstruction costs at $7 billion and have planned an international donor conference for October. MORE
Sep. 8, 2014
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas assails Hamas at meeting of Arab League, accusing it of running shadow government in Gaza; remarks call into question durability of unity pact between the two factions, and potentially complicate reconstruction of Gaza Strip. MORE
Sep. 3, 2014
Hanan Ashrawi, member of the Palestine Liberation Organization, says Palestinian Pres Mahmoud Abbas has decided to shelve already moribund American-sponsored peace talks and join International Criminal Court; Abbas intends to seek Security Council resolution that would demand end to Israeli occupation within three years. MORE
Aug. 26, 2014
Pres Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority plans to present initiative that would bypass American-brokered negotiations with Israel to produce Palestinian state; it will give Israel a deadline to withdraw from occupied Palestinian territories. MORE
Aug. 13, 2014
News analysis; Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas is emerging as major player in Egyptian-mediated talks to end latest war in Gaza, becoming potential linchpin for Israel, Egypt and Hamas as they seek lasting arrangements Palestinian region. MORE
Aug. 6, 2014
Hamas, preparing for peace talks with Israel, announces that it will keep its military wing separate from any new coalition government, and allow it to prepare for future conflicts; move could undermine negotiations, which aim to disarm Hamas and form new unity government, and could lead to new clashes with Israel. MORE
Aug. 6, 2014
Thomas L Friedman Op-Ed column contends war in Gaza has revealed significant changes in what is becoming more and more a religious conflict; holds only hope for Israel in stabilizing Gaza Strip is by empowering the Palestinian Authority to take over border control in Gaza, and making territorial concessions in West Bank; warns unless Israeli and Palestinian moderates collaborate, zealots will take over the region. MORE
Jun. 27, 2014
Reconciliation deal intended to end bitter schism between Hamas and Fatah faction that dominates Palestinian Authority faces financial dilemma; Palestinian Prime Min Rami Hamdallah says he does not have enough money to pay both workers hired by Hamas and those employed by Palestinian Authority. MORE
Jun. 23, 2014
Abduction of three Israeli teenagers in West Bank has significantly escalated tensions between Israeli and Palestinian leadership, raising fears of third intifada in West Bank and Gaza Strip; kidnapping has prompted Israel to unleash most intense West Bank crackdown in nearly a decade, claiming lives of four Palestinians; Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas has incurred unprecedented wrath for aiding in Israel's search for teenagers. MORE
Jun. 19, 2014
President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority denounces abduction of three Israeli teenagers and vows to help catch the kidnappers; pressure has mounted on him and has threatened to collapse his fraying reconciliation pact with the militant Islamic movement Hamas; Abbas makes it clear that the Palestinian Authority is assisting Israel in its search for the teenagers. MORE
Jun. 15, 2014
Search continues for three Israeli teenagers who went missing in the West Bank and are presumed to have been abducted by Palestinian militants; situation underscores the complexity of Israel's relations with the Palestinian Authority and the authority's deep differences with Hamas despite a recent reconciliation pact. MORE
Jun. 13, 2014
Palestinian Authority Prime Min Rami Hamdallah acknowledges that he still lacks authority in Hamas-dominated Gaza Strip, despite new government now in place; offers no plan for disarming militants, integrating security forces of both sides, or even getting Gaza's 1.7 million residents to start paying taxes and electricity bills. MORE
Jun. 7, 2014
Prayer summit meeting to be held by Pope Francis with presidents of Israel and the Palestinian Authority shows how Francis is trying to pursue his goals by positioning the Vatican as an independent, global diplomatic player. MORE
May. 28, 2014
Memo From Jerusalem; Pope Francis returns from successful three-day trip to the Holy Land having navigated one of the world's most complex political minefields with a deft touch; elicited promise from Israeli Pres Shimon Peres and Pres Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority to jointly attend peace prayer service at the Vatican, a symbolic but important gesture following collapse of peace talks one month earlier. MORE
May. 26, 2014
Pope Francis invites Israeli Pres Shimon Peres and Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas to join him at his Vatican apartment for prayer and summit meeting, inserting himself directly into effort to bring about peace in Middle East; invitation, issued during visit to Jerusalem, underscores Francis' intention to reassert Vatican's role as arbiter of international diplomacy. MORE
May. 17, 2014
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas meets in London with Tzipi Livni, Israel's justice minister; it is first known face-to-face talks between two sides since American-brokered peace negotiations collapsed in April. MORE
May. 13, 2014
Sec of State John Kerry plans to meet with Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas in London; it will be the first meeting between the two since Obama administration said in April that it was going to pause diplomatic efforts and reassess the Middle East peace process. MORE
May. 9, 2014
Group of 17 human rights organizations including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International urge Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas to join the International Criminal Court, move strongly opposed by Israel and the United States. MORE
Apr. 27, 2014
Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas issues formal statement calling the Holocaust 'the most heinous crime to have occurred against humanity in the modern era,' and expresses sympathy with victims' families; statement, which grew out of a meeting between Abbas and an American rabbi who promotes understanding between Muslims and Jews, is the first of such offering of condolences by Abbas. MORE
Apr. 23, 2014
Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas issues renewed warning that if American-sponsored Middle East peace talks fail, he may dissolve the authority and hand sole responsibility for the West Bank back to Israel; says Israel has, in any case, deprived him of any real power to govern the territory. MORE
Apr. 11, 2014
Israel, in response to Palestinian leadership's application to join 15 international conventions and treaties, will halt monthly transfer of tax revenues it collects on behalf of the Palestinian Authority and use the money to offset Palestinian debts to Israeli utility companies. MORE
Apr. 4, 2014
Israel says it will not go through with already delayed release of Palestinian prisoners and is considering further sanctions; decision is response to Palestinian Authority's push to join 15 international conventions and treaties; talks spiral into an impasse as each side accuses the other of bad faith and places impediments in the way of resolution. MORE
Apr. 2, 2014
Middle East peace talks verge on a breakdown after Palestinian Authority Pres Mahmoud Abbas defies the United States and Israel by taking concrete steps to join 15 international agencies; move signals an attempt to gain benefits of statehood outside the negotiations process; actions appear to catch American and Israeli officials by surprise, and prompts Sec of State John Kerry to cancel a planned return to the region. MORE
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Vatican Formally Recognizes Palestinian State by Signing Treaty
The Holy See has said it hopes the accord, the result of 15 years of negotiations, will lead to improved relations in the Middle East.
June 27, 2015, Saturday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Roman Catholic Church , Palestinians , Israel , Palestinian Authority
Palestinians and the International Criminal Court: What You Need to Know
Questions and answers on the jurisdiction of the court, why the Palestinians joined it and the expected political fallout.
June 25, 2015, Thursday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Palestinian Authority , International Criminal Court , Palestinians , Abbas, Mahmoud , Netanyahu, Benjamin , Hamas , United Nations , Gaza Strip , Israel , War Crimes, Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity
Netanyahu Rebuffs France on Restarting Mideast Talks
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel said the international efforts failed to address his country's security needs and other national interests.
June 22, 2015, Monday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Netanyahu, Benjamin , Palestinians , Israel , France , Fabius, Laurent , Palestinian Authority , International Relations
Gaza Welcomes Break From Strife and Reopening of Border With Egypt
First, Egypt opened its border crossing, suggesting a thaw in relations between the Egyptian government and Hamas, and then news emerged that Hamas had begun quiet negotiations with Israel to extend a truce.
June 21, 2015, Sunday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Hamas , Palestinians , Gaza Strip , Egypt , Israel , Palestinian Authority , International Relations
Palestinian Government Is Expected to Resign
President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority told leaders of his political party on Tuesday that the government would resign within 24 hours.
June 17, 2015, Wednesday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Palestinian Authority , Abbas, Mahmoud , Palestinians , Defense and Military Forces , Appointments and Executive Changes , Gaza Strip , West Bank , Palestine Liberation Organization
Arrests Overshadow Palestinians' Bid to Oust Israel From FIFA
A vote on the issue is scheduled for Friday, and both sides say they are struggling to get their messages across to other delegations.
May 29, 2015, Friday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Palestinians , Zurich (Switzerland) , West Bank , Soccer , Israeli Settlements , International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) , Palestinian Authority , Blatter, Sepp , Abbas, Mahmoud , Netanyahu, Benjamin , Gaza Strip , Israel
Netanyahu Wants Talks With Palestinians on Settlements, Officials Say
Prime Minister Netanyahu reportedly said he wants to negotiate over settlements in the occupied West Bank. Palestinian leaders rejected the idea as a ploy.
May 27, 2015, Wednesday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Israeli Settlements , Netanyahu, Benjamin , Israel , Palestinians , West Bank , Haaretz , Palestinian Authority
Gaza Strip Economy on 'Verge of Collapse,' World Bank Says
A report pointed to problems caused by the war with Israel last summer and border restrictions, and said unemployment was the highest in the world.
May 23, 2015, Saturday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Gaza Strip , Palestinians , Hamas , Abbas, Mahmoud , Palestinian Authority , World Bank , Economic Conditions and Trends
Vatican Seeks to Quiet Uproar Over Pope's 'Angel of Peace' Remark
The question of whether Pope Francis called President Mahmoud Abbas an "angel of peace" or actually said "may you be an angel of peace," has caused much political discord.
May 19, 2015, Tuesday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Francis , Roman Catholic Church , Abbas, Mahmoud , Palestinians , Israel , International Relations , Middle East , News and News Media , Palestinian Authority , Lombardi, Federico
Two Arab Nuns From Palestine Are Canonized by Pope Francis
Two 19th century nuns from Ottoman-ruled Palestine were made saints at a ceremony in St. Peter's Square on Sunday, just days after the Vatican recognized Palestinian statehood.
May 18, 2015, Monday
MORE ON PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY AND: Beatifications and Canonizations , International Relations , Jerusalem (Israel) , Palestinians , Nuns , Francis , Roman Catholic Church , Women and Girls , Israel , Palestinian Authority , Middle East , Religion and Belief
Challenges in Defining an Israeli-Palestinian Border
There are major hurdles in drawing borders between Israel and a future Palestine.
Netanyahu's History on Palestinian Statehood
On the eve of the recent Israeli election, the prime minister said that no Palestinian state would be created on his watch. Two days later, he began to backtrack.
Netanyahu and Abbas Condemn Attacks
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel and President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority denounced Palestinian attacks at a synagogue in West Jerusalem that killed four people.
Officials Discuss Violence in West Bank
The Israeli defense minister and the president of the Palestinian Authority discussed the escalating violence in the West Bank after Israeli forces fatally shot a Palestinian man on Tuesday.
Palestinian President Addresses U.N.
President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority spoke on Friday at the 69th session of the United Nations General Assembly.
U.S. Diplomacy in the Gaza Crisis
As the death toll rises in the latest round of Israeli-Palestinian fighting, a look at the Obama administration's strategy for reaching a cease-fire.
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Best Match: all were great
Best Promo: Ambrose!
Best Piece of Booking: Aries winning KOTR, Trish beating Kelly2
Best Debut: Kings of Wrestling! and Kana returning
Best Line(s) of Commentary: Bischoff: Who?
Any Piece of Booking You Didn't Like: Tyson winning the belt tonight- I saw it coming, especially after he had lost to Edge earlier. Don't get me wrong- Kidd/Shaz deserves it, just would have liked to been surprised about it. And no Tamina or Paige?
Any Matches and/or Promos That Could've Been Improved: More Ambrose please?
Any Other Positives: Everything was great about the show- promos and matches well writen
Any Other Constructive Criticism: Not sure
Overall Show Grade: A-


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Calendar of Events
Sep 11
NSW: Academic Success
Thursday, September 11th, 2014
1:30 – 2:30 pm / Skinner Memorial Chapel
Come listen to a panel of faculty from a range of disciplines. They will share their thoughts on academics, your first term, faculty expectations, study habits, office hours, and general strategies for thriving, not just surviving, at Carleton.
Sponsored by New Students 2014. Contact: Jessica VanZuilen, x4462
Students, Faculty, Staff, Alumni, Families, Prospective Students, New Students


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Register for fall 2012 THE 365. Non-theatre majors are welcome. Permission of the instructor is required. You take the course in this fall and have the field experience in Hawaii during Wintersession from Jan. 1-13, 2013.
During the fall course, non-majors and majors are certain to have a transformative experience building a theatre piece to be performed in Hawaii in January 2013. Highlights of the field experience include touring urban, rural and historical locations; conducting interviews; attending workshops with historians and theatre professionals; constructing playable characters; and performing on Oahu. The approximate cost for the Hawaiian portion (without Wintersession credit) is $3,000. For more information, email Assistant Professor J.J. Cobb at firstname.lastname@example.com
Register now, as seats are filling up!


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Petite Nursery Star Hooded Towel - Baby
Printed with a signature design, our soft Turkish cotton hooded towel reverses to lightweight cotton terry – an extra-gentle choice for baby's first bath.
- Cozy hood keeps wet heads warm
- 360 grams per square meter
- Sewn from 100% Turkish cotton
- Printed on one side; reverses to cotton terry
- Made in Turkey
- Machine wash cold with gentle detergent; tumble dry warm
- Avoid fabric softeners, dryer sheets, bleaching agents, household cleaning products, personal care products that contain peroxide, and laundry detergents containing harsh optical brighteners
- Oeko-Tex® Certified
- Star print with coordinating trim in petal, lilac, French blue, grey or silver mist
Petite Nursery Star Hooded Towel - Baby
- 29¼" sq.
Petite Nursery Star Hooded Towel - Baby
Celebrate someone special. Add an initial, name or date to personalize gifts, apparel, bedding, decorative accents and jewelry.
- Personalization is centered approximately 9" from bottom corner on backside of towel
- Size and shape of embroidery designs have been thoughtfully considered by our design team to best complement the product
- Monogrammed/Personalized items are considered custom order items and are non-cancellable, non-returnable and non-refundable
Petite Nursery Star Hooded Towel - Baby


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Program Expands to Develop Leaders in Ending Global Poverty
King Scholar Leadership Program founders Dottie and Bob King '57 have made a $21 million gift to more than double their investment in the scholarship program they established.Read More
King Scholar Leadership Program founders Dottie and Bob King '57 have made a $21 million gift to more than double their investment in the scholarship program they established.Read More
The Provost Office of Academic Initiatives has renewed the call for Faculty International Travel Grants. Three awards of up to $5,000 each will be made available each term to support Dartmouth faculty members engaged in active research activities that require international collaboration.Read More
The U.S. State Department has issued a Travel Warning for Nepal and recommends that non-essential travel be deferred. Travel waivers are required for all Dartmouth personnel contemplating travel to the region.Read More
The University of Tübingen, a member of the Matariki Network, is now offering Fellowships for Dartmouth Post-Docs and Ph.D. students. Research and teach for 6-12 months in Germany. Funds provided by Tübingen and by the Office of the Provost at Dartmouth.Read More
Twelve students in Charles Wheelan's Global Policy Leadership Practicum spent the fall term in Northern Ireland studying the region's political history. The group met with dozens of leaders and collaborated on an extensive final policy paper.Read More
Professor Ross Virginia, Director of the Dickey Center's Institute of Arctic Studies, was selected by the U.S. State Department as one of two distinguished scholar leaders of the newly established Fulbright Arctic Initiative.Read More
David Goodman, MD, MS, is an expert advisor on medical practice variation. His work is instrumental to an international study on 13 countries' health care systems. The study will be presented in Berlin, Germany in September.Read More
Nour Jaber, a 2014 graduate of the American University of Kuwait (AUK), has spent the past month on campus through the Dartmouth-AUK internship program.Read More
Associate Professor of Anthropology John Watanabe, who studies the Maya peoples of Guatemala and Mexico, has been traveling to a venue outside of his specialty area to shepherd Dartmouth undergraduates through the cultural landscape of New Zealand.Read More
During their time in India, students in the Global Policy Leadership Practicum met with Indian government officials and policy leaders and worked together to draft a task force report on Indian economic reform.Read More


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School of Humanities
Faculty Bio
Barbara Filippidis, PhD
Director, Honors Program; Professor of English
Phone: 512-448-8558
- PhD in English Literature at University of Houston, Houston, Texas, 1985
- MA in English Literature at University of Houston, Houston, Texas, 1974
- BA in English Literature at Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas, 1969
Why I Teach
I love working with students to help them develop their talents and knowledge. I enjoy hearing what students have to say and encourage them to develop their own voices. That's why most of my courses tend to be short lectures with a lot of discussion and interaction.
I have great hope as students learn to explore and appreciate literature. I want them to develop an understanding of the world and to expand their ability to imagine more equitable, fulfilling ways of living.