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The electron is a fundamental subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J.J. Thomson and his team of British physicists. These electrically-charged particles, together with the protons and neutrons that comprise atomic nuclei, make up atoms. Electron–electron interaction between atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding. Electrons also play an essential role in electricity and magnetism.
All electrons are identical particles that belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family. Each electron carries a negative elementary charge and participates in electromagnetic and weak interactions. It has a property of intrinsic angular momentum called spin, with a standardized value of . The mass of an electron is approximately of that of the proton, and it is believed to be a point particle with no apparent substructure. The properties of the electron are determined by its interaction with other particles.
As early as 1838–51, the British natural philosopher Richard Laming conceived the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electrical charges. Beginning in 1846, German physicist William Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law. After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, the Anglo-Irish physicist G. Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity." He was able to estimate the value of the charge e of a monovalent ion by means of Faraday's laws of electrolysis. However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity".
In 1894, Stoney coined the term electron to represent these elementary charges.
Progress in the study of electrons began to occur once a cathode ray tube was developed that had a high vacuum within its interior. Once he had accomplished this during the 1870s, English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes was able to show that the luminescence rays appearing within the tube carried energy and moved from the cathode to the anode. Further, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged. In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by what he termed 'radiant matter'. He suggested that this was a fourth state of matter, consisting of negatively charged molecules that were being projected with high velocity from the cathode.
The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes's experiments by placing metal plates in parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electrical potential between the plates. The resulting field deflected the rays toward the positive plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given level of current, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio of the ray components. However, this produced such an unexpectedly large value that little credence was given to his calculations at the time.
In 1896, British physicist J.J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson, performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier. Thomson made good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles, which he called "corpuscles," had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known (hydrogen). He also showed that their charge to mass ratio, e/m, was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal. The name electron was again proposed for these particles by the Irish physicist George F. Fitzgerald, and it has since gained universal acceptance.
While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles alpha and beta, based on their ability to penetrate matter. In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electrical field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays. This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.
The electron's charge was more carefully measured by American physicist Robert Millikan in his oil-drop experiment of 1909. This experiment used an electrical field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity. This device could measure the electrical charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team, using a clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis. However, oil drops, were more stable than water drops due to their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time.
Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a charged particle caused a condensation of water vapor. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber, allowing the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons, to be photographed. This and subsequent particle detectors allowed electrons to be studied individually, rather than in bulk as had been the case before.
By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge surrounded by lower mass electrons. In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with the energy determined by the angular momentum of the electron's orbits about the nucleus. The electrons could move between these states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons at specific frequencies. By means of these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the spectral lines of hydrogen that were formed when the gas is energized by heat or electricity. However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectrum of more complex atoms.
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons. As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law, in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.
In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained if each quantum energy state was described by a set of four parameters, as long as each state was inhabited by no more than a single electron. (This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle.) However, what physicists lacked was a physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two possible values. This was provided by the Dutch physicists Abraham Goudsmith and George Uhlenbeck when they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, could possess an intrinsic angular momentum. This property became known as spin, and it explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high resolution spectrograph; a phenomenon known as fine structure splitting.
The success of de Broglie's prediction led to the publication, by Erwin Schrödinger in 1926, of the wave equation that successfully describes how electron waves propagated. Rather than yielding a solution that determines the location of an electron over time, this wave equation gives the probability of finding an electron near a position. This approach became the theory of quantum mechanics, which provided an exact derivation to the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom. Once the electron spin and the interaction between multiple electrons is taken into consideration, the Schroedinger wave equation successfully predicted the configuration of electrons in atoms with higher atomic numbers than hydrogen. However, for atoms with multiple electrons, the exact solution to the wave equation is much more complicated, so approximations were often necessary.
In 1948, Richard Feynman proposed an alternative view of the electron's quantum mechanical behavior, known as the path integral formulation. He suggested that a particle simultaneously traversed every possible path to reach its destination. Thus, in the double-slit experiment, an electron passed through both of the slits, rather than choosing one or the other. Each of the possible paths could be assigned a value in such a manner that the averaged behavior matched the probabilities computed from the wave function. When an electron is detected following a particular path, the numerical contributions all of the other paths cancel themselves out. This formulation has proved crucial to the subsequent development of theoretical physics.
With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles. The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using magnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst. His first betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In 1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at GE. This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons, moving near the speed of light, through a magnetic field. With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy particle collider was ADONE, which began operations in 1968. This device accelerated electrons and positrons (the antiparticle of the electron) in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision (when compared to striking a static target). The Large Electron-Positron Collider at CERN, which was operational from 1989–2000, achieved energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics.
The electron belongs to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental particles. Electrons have lepton number 1, and have the lowest mass of any electrically charged lepton. In the Standard Model of particle physics, the electron is the first-generation charged lepton. It forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino; an uncharged, first generation lepton with little or no mass.
The electron is very similar to the two more massive particles of higher generations, the muon and the tau lepton, which are identical in charge, spin, and interaction, but differ in mass. All members of the lepton group belong to the family of fermions. This family includes all elementary particles with half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin . Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their lack of strong interaction.
The antiparticle of an electron is the positron, which has the same mass and spin as the electron but a positive rather than negative charge. The discoverer of the positron, Carl D. Anderson, proposed calling standard electrons negatrons, and using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants. This usage of the term "negatron" is still occasionally encountered today, and it may also be shortened to "negaton".
Electrons have an electric charge of −1.602 × 10−19 C, which is used as a standard unit of elementary charge for subatomic particles. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign. As the symbol e is used for the constant of electrical charge, the electron is commonly symbolized by e−, where the minus sign indicates the negative charge.
The electron is described as a fundamental or elementary particle. It has no known substructure. Hence, for convenience, it is usually defined or assumed to be a point charge with no spatial extent; a point particle. Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap shows the upper limit of the particle's radius is 10−22 m. The classical electron radius is 2.8179 m. This is the radius that is inferred from the electron's electric charge, by using the classical theory of electrodynamics alone, ignoring quantum mechanics.
Several elementary particles are known to spontaneously decay into different particles. An example is the muon, which decays into an electron and two neutrinos with a half life of 2.2 seconds. However, the electron is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds; an electron decaying into a neutrino and photon would mean that electrical charge is not conserved. The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is 4.6 years, with a 90% confidence interval.
Electrons are identical particles because they can not be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to their condition. That is, the probability distribution for an identical pair must remain unchanged after they switch positions. The wavefunction describing such an interaction can either remain the same following a particle swap or it change sign; mathematically, the square of −Ψ will have the same probability density as the function with a positive sign. The sign-changing case is called an antisymmetrical wavefunction and it is characteristic of all identical fermions, including electrons. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions.
In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the exact same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same energy state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, this causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.
While a electron-positron virtual pair is in existence, the coulomb force from the ambient electrical field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes the two charged virtual particles to physically separate for a brief period before merging back together, and during this period they behave like an electric dipole. The combined effect of many such pair creations is to partially shield the charge of the electron, a process called vacuum polarization. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge increases with decreasing distance from the electron. This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator.
A comparable shielding effect is seen for the mass of the electron. The equivalent rest energy consists of the mass-energy of the "bare" particle plus the energy of the surrounding electric field. In classical physics, the energy of the electric field is dependent upon the size of the charged object, which, for a dimensionless particle, results in an infinite energy. Instead, because of vacuum fluctuations, allowance must be made for an electron–positron pair appearing in the electric field and the positron annihilating the original electron; causing the virtual electron to become a real electron via the emitted photon. This interaction creates a negative energy imbalance that counteracts the radius-dependency of the electric field. The resulting total mass is referred to as the renormalized mass, because a technique called renormalization is used by physicists to relate the observed and bare mass of the electron.
The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum of spin as measured in units of ħ, and an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis. The concept of a dimensionless particle possessing properties that, in classical electromagnetism, normally require a physical size is unclear. A possible explanation lies in the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron. The continual creation and absorption of these photons causes the electron to move about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung). As photons possess angular momentum, this jittering of the electron causes a net precession, which, on average, results in a circulatory motion of the mass and charge. In atoms, this creation of virtual photons is also responsible for the Lamb shift that causes a small difference in electron energy for quantum states that, otherwise, ought to be identical.
The gyromagnetic ratio of an electron is the ratio of its magnetic moment to its angular momentum. Virtual particles and antiparticles provide a correction of just over 0.1% to the electron's gyromagnetic ratio, compared to the value of exactly 2 predicted by Paul Dirac's single-particle model. The extraordinarily precise agreement of this prediction with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of modern physics.
The Coulomb force between charged particles is mediated by photons, which are quanta of electromagnetic energy. However, an isolated electron that is not undergoing acceleration is unable to emit or absorb energy via a photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum (but no net energy) between two charged particles. It is this exchange of virtual photons that generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The deceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.
The outcome of an elastic collision between a photon and a solitary elecron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mc, which is known as the Compton wavelength. For a electron, it has a value of 2.43 m.
The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the fine structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of repulsion at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by α = (7.29720±0.00003), which is approximately equal to 1/137. This constant appears frequently in the physics of atoms and in the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. This magnetic field is related to the motion of one or more electrons (the "current") with respect to an observer by the Ampère-Maxwell law. As an example, it is this property of induction which supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor. The full electromagnetic effect from a moving charge can be derived mathematically using the Liénard-Wiechert potential, which includes special corrections for when the velocity is close to the speed of light; known as relativistic velocities.
When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that exerts an influence in a direction perpendicular to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius equal to the Gyroradius. The curving motion creates a centripetal force on the particle, and the resulting acceleration causes the electron to radiate energy. At relatively low velocities the energy emission in a magnetic field is called cyclotron radiation, while for electrons moving at relativistic velocities it is termed synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham-Lorentz-Dirac force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself.
In the theory of electroweak interaction, the electron forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a W boson and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, cancelling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can also undergo a neutral current interaction via a Z0 boson exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering.
When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two gamma-ray photons emitted at roughly 180° to each other. If the electron and positron had negligible momentum, each gamma ray will have an energy of 0.511 MeV. On the other hand, high-energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.
An electron can be bound to an atom by the attractive coulomb force generated by the nucleus. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. An orbital consists of a set of quantum states that have a particular energy, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. In order to escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy. This occurs with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron.
A bound electron gains a quantized angular momentum from its orbital state; this is analogous to the angular momentum of an orbit in classical mechanics. Because the electron is charged, this produces a magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of all its component orbital and spin magnetic moments. Because of the Pauli exclusion principle, pairs of electrons in an atom align their spins in opposite directions, resulting in different spin quantum numbers. Thus the magnetic moments of an atom's electrons cancel each other out, with the exception of the outermost electron. The nucleus also contributes a magnetic moment, but this is negligible compared to the effect from the electrons.
The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum electrodynamics. The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms. Within a molecule, these electrons move under the influence of the nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals.
A body has an electric charge when that object has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei. (For a single atom or molecule, the object is termed an ion.) When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than protons, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the phenomenon of triboelectricity.
Electrons moving freely in vacuum, space or certain media are free electrons. When free electrons move, there is a net flow of charge called an electric current. A current of electrons acquires the cumulative electromagnetic properties of the individual particles, so it generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a moving magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.
At a given temperature, each material has a level of electrical conductivity that measures the electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold. A material with metallic bonds has an electronic band structure that allows for delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas through the material. However, unlike an atmospheric gas (which follows the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of energies), the states of this cloud of electrons obeys Fermi–Dirac statistics; hence the reason for the electron's family name, fermions.
Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimetres per second. However, the speed at which a current at one point in the material causes a current in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed. This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material. In dielectric materials, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation.
In some superconductors, pairs of electrons move as Cooper pairs in which their motion is coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons. The distance of separation between Cooper pairs is roughly 100 nm.
The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor γ, which is a function of the velocity v of the particle compared to c. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with velocity v is:
where me is the electron mass. For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 GeV. This gives a value of 100,000 for γ, since the mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV/c2. The relativistic momentum of this electron is 100,000 times the classical momentum of an electron at the same speed.
Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by λe = h/p where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum. At energies of just a few electron volts this wavelength determines the size of atoms, while at thousands of electron volts this results in the Bragg angles for electron diffraction. (J. J. Thomson's son G. P. Thomson discovered this angle to be much smaller than one degree.) For the 51 GeV electron above, proper-velocity is approximately γc, making the wavelength of those electrons small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus.
The big bang theory is the accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the big bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion K and photons had mean energies over a million electron volts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons,
where γ is a photon, e+ is a positron and e- is an electron. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other, emitting photons of gamma rays with energies of 511 keV. An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and protons was maintained during this creation and destruction cycle. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.
For reasons that remain uncertain, there was a slight excess in the number of electrons over positrons; a problem known as baryon asymmetry. Hence a few electrons survived the annihilation process. This excess also matched the excess of protons over anti-protons, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe. The surviving protons and neutrons begin to undergo nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after a few hundred seconds, and any leftover neutrons thereafter underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,
where n is a neutron, p is a proton, e- is an electron and is an electron antineutrino. For the next million years, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei. Once atoms were formed, the universe became transparent to radiation and it continued to cool and expand.
The concentrations of mass in the universe allow stars to form. Within a star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the process of stellar evolution can also result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Some of these isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus. An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 (60Ni).
Electrons (and positrons) are also thought to be created at the event horizon of a black hole. According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, including radiation, from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius. However, it is believed that quantum mechanical effects may allow Hawking radiation to be emitted at this distance.
When pairs of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) are created just inside the event horizon, the random spacial distribution of these particles may permit one of them to appear on the exterior; a process called quantum tunneling. The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space. In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.
Cosmic rays are particles travelling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as 3.0 eV have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. This particle is a lepton which is produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of pions. Muons in turn can decay to form an electron or positron by means of the weak force. Thus, for the negatively charged pion ,
where is a muon, is a muon neutrino and is an electron antineutrino.
In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. More distant observation of electrons requires the detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung. Electron gas can also undergo plasma oscillation, which are waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected using radio telescopes.
The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This allows very precise measurements to be made of the particle properties. For example, in one instance the Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months. Measurements allowed the dimensionless g-factor of the electron to be measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.
The first video images of an electron were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. To capture this event, the scientists used extremely short flashes of light. To produce this light, newly developed technology for generating short pulses from intense laser light, called attosecond pulses, allowed the team at the university's Faculty of Engineering to capture the electron's motion for the first time.
"It takes about 150 attoseconds for an electron to circle the nucleus of an atom. An attosecond is related to a second as a second is related to the age of the universe," explained Johan Mauritsson, an assistant professor in atomic physics at the Faculty of Engineering, Lund University.
The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique uses the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space, a mathematical representation of periodic structures that can be used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material.
Electrons are also at the heart of cathode ray tubes, which are used extensively as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets. In a photomultiplier tube, one photon strikes the photocathode, initiating an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current.
Quantum effects of electrons are also used in the scanning tunneling microscope to study features on solid surfaces with lateral-resolution at the atomic scale (around 200 picometers) and vertical-resolutions much better than that. In such microscopes, the quantum tunneling is strongly dependent on tip-specimen separation, and, precise control of the separation (vertical sensitivity) is made possible with a piezoelectric scanner.


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HAI Hot Tunes MP3 Styling Iron is the 1st professional styling iron with an internal MP3 player. The high quality nano ceramic tourmaline -infused 1 inch plates leave hair shiny and smooth. Plus, it holds 2 hours of music to listen to your favorite tunes while you style.

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Media Contact:Faithe ColasCommunity Relations
Director414-302-4300 x2248414-531-6363 CellText
'GIVE' to 80888 to make a $10 DonationFollow us on Facebook
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Tinker the Horse to Rings Bells at the
Holiday Craft FairWauwatosa,
WI (November 15, 2012) Tinker the miniature horse will be ringing
bells this Saturday for The Salvation Army's Red Kettle Campaign.
think Tinker is always excited to do his share to help bring hope to
families in need," said Major Roger Ross, Salvation Army Milwaukee
County Commander."We train all summer and Tinker loves
ringing bells for The Salvation Army," said Carol Takacs, Tinker's
owner.Tinker will be ringing bells at the following locations:Sat. Nov.
Holiday Craft Fair 9:00-NoonWashington County Fair Grounds3000 County Hwy PVWest Bend, WISat. Dec.
1 &
nbsp; West Bend Pick 'n Save 11:00-1:30 p.m.
2518 W. Washington
West Bend, WISat. Dec.
Cabela's 10:00-Noon
1 Cabela Way
Richfield, WIChristmas
; West Bend Pick 'n Save
1629 S. Main
West Bend, WITo volunteer to ring bells for The Salvation Army visit www.SAmilwaukee.org or call 414-302-4300.
The Salvation Army:
The Salvation Army, an evangelical part of the universal Christian
church, has been supporting those in need in His name without discrimination
since 1865. Nearly 33 million Americans receive assistance from The Salvation
Army each year through the broadest array of social services that range from
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disabled, outreach to the elderly and ill, clothing and shelter to the homeless
and opportunities for underprivileged children. Nationally, approximately 84
cents of every dollar raised is used to support those services in nearly 9,000
communities nationwide. For more information, go to www.SAmilwaukee.org.


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Arctic Splash Water Table
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18 months & up. Children can explore glacier mountain complete with ice slide, tunnel, and dumping bucket! Features multi-level wells for water play. Fun squirt toys include polar bear, walrus, and penguin. Minor assembly required. 23"H x 32"W x 32"D.
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It's amazing to consider that Texas A&M went into the season in August not knowing who the starting quarterback was going to be.
At that time, nobody knew what Johnny Manziel could do.
Aggie head coach Kevin Sumlin decided to give Manziel a chance and that seemed to work out pretty well.
After winning the Heisman Trophy in December, Manziel had 516 yards of total offense with two rushing touchdowns and two passing touchdowns to lead Texas A&M to a 41-13 victory over Oklahoma in the Cotton Bowl Friday night.
There aren't many people, even those who pay attention to football just a little bit, who don't know Manziel now.
Manziel had 229 yards rushing on 17 carries and completed 22 of 34 pass attempts for 287 yards against the Sooners.
He set a Southeastern Conference regular season record with 4,600 total yards. He became the fourth Bowl Championship Series quarterback to have both 20 touchdowns passing and rushing.
That performance capped one of the greatest seasons for not only a freshman, but any player in SEC history.
If anyone had any doubts or questions about how the Aggies would fare in their first season in the league, Manziel made sure things kept moving in a positive direction.
Manziel helped the Texas A&M offense to 7,261 total yards with 633 of those coming in the Cotton Bowl.
"It's one of the teams I thought in the country that got better every week," Sumlin said.
The Aggies came to the rescue of the SEC in what has turned out to be a an up and down bowl season to this point.
Vanderbilt got the conference off on the right note on New Year's Eve by defeating North Carolina State 38-24 at the Music City Bowl, but LSU stumbled to Clemson 25-24 later in the day at the Chik-fil-A Bowl.
On New Year's Day, Mississippi State dropped a 34-20 decision to Northwestern, while Georgia and South Carolina struggled at times before pulling out victories in its bowl games. Georgia beat Nebraska 45-31 in the Outback Bowl, while South Carolina edged Michigan 33-28 in the Capital One Bowl. Those were three matchups between the SEC and Big 10 that turned out to be very competitive.
Louisville made Florida look very ordinary and beat the Gators 33-23 on Jan. 2, but the SEC has bounced back nicely so far this weekend with wins by Texas A&M 41-13 over Oklahoma in the Cotton Bowl and by Ole Miss 38-17 over Pittsburgh in the BBVA Compass Bowl on Saturday.
That gives the SEC a 5-3 record through eight bowl games, so the league is guaranteed to finish above .500.
Of course the big one for the SEC comes Monday night when Alabama goes for the conference's seventh-straight national championship against Notre Dame in the BCS National Championship Game.
If the Crimson Tide can pull that off, and they are favored to do so, that will be enough of a measuring stick to prove the SEC still rules.
Danny P. Smith is sports editor and columnist for the Starkville Daily News. The opinions in this column are his and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Daily News or its staff.View more articles in:


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More details
Fashionable and practical, this cute 6 piece outfit is made from soft cotton to keep him comfortable and happy. With a sweet Tiny Tatty Teddy print.
- Product Shape: Six piece set
- Set of 6 includes: 2 bodysuits, 1 sleepsuits, 1 bibs, 1 t-shirt, 1 pant
- Popper fastening
- Assorted prints
- Flat seams
- Baby safe toes
- Tiny baby is the equivalent to a baby weighing 6 pound 6 ounces
- Tatty Teddy
- Carte Blanche Greeting Ltd © 2005
Care and composition
- Composition
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Best of Boston
BEST Lingerie
French Dressing
The sheer variety of intimates from Aubade, Eberjey, Cosabella, Skin, and Hanky Panky (still the most comfy thongs around) that you'll discover at this pretty, boudoir-size boutique, discreetly located in the flat of Beacon Hill, would be enough to set… read more»
Forty Winks
Feeling sexy begins with what's underneath your clothes. Let this four-year-old Harvard Square outfitter help you build a beautiful foundation with its fine selection of intimates from Elle MacPherson, Chantelle, Claudette, Hanky Panky, and other luxe lines. In addition to… read more»
Forty Winks
Need we spell it out for you flashy underwear shopkeepers? They're called unmentionables for a reason. At Forty Winks, you select from the neatly and thoughtfully organized undies, demis, bralettes, pajamas, and swimwear, and attendants provide discreet guidance on fit… read more»
La Perla
The Italian scanties here are certain to up the ooh-la-la of your lingerie drawer. The internationally coveted line has been cherished since the '50s for its handmade lace and embroidered details, and at the Boylston Street location you'll find seductive… read more»
Forty Winks
We know they mean well, but we've had it up to here with overzealous lingerie consultants treating us like long-lost members of the Ta-Ta Sisterhood. Enter Forty Winks, a year-old Harvard Square spot that knows precisely when to offer help… read more»
When it comes to underthings, there are places for function (Macy's, Lord & Taylor) and places for fashion (Agent Provocateur). But Copley Place's Intimacy is both kinds of shops in one. Flattering, well-priced, practical lingerie and bra-fit swimwear (the biggest… read more»
Agent Provocateur
When we need support, we wade through the beige and white underthings at Intimacy and Nordstrom, where polite ladies wielding measuring tapes thoughtfully correct our ignorance in thinking we were a B cup. When we need lingerie, however (the kind… read more»
Oprah's a fan, and so are we. Here's why: Inside the luxuriously appointed dressing rooms at this lace and silk emporium, bra specialists give no-pressure, tape-measure-free assessments (get past the fact that they're handling your goodies, and you'll find their… read more»
French Dressing
Parisians have always been experts in intimate indulgences and alluring unmentionables. This petite spot brings both to notoriously reserved Beacon Hill. The elegant, playful shop—dressed up with overstuffed chairs and a sparkling chandelier—has an extensive inventory of both naughty and… read more»
Lingerie Studio
With a display that ranges from classy crêpe chemises to Bolivian-cotton robes to sheer but demure Simone Pérèle bras, Lingerie Studio is an overachiever in the realm of underthings. Reasonable prices and meticulous service (the staff is particularly fussy when… read more»
Lingerie Studio
Drop into this light-filled, low-key Newbury Street lingerie shop, and you'll find women sifting through the hangers with two hands, both arms full of merchandise. To be sure, it's difficult not to touch the smooth, fine cotton, and intricate lace… read more»


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Once in a while, I come across an immersive, beautiful piece of interactive storytelling in my browser. It uses the capabilities of the Internet to create an experience that cannot be created on any other medium.
But I don't see them often. They're mostly called an experiment. Interactive stories are being passed on to me by enthusiastic nerds who say that it 'demonstrates so well what technology X is capable off', without much attention for the story itself.


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Windows Phone Development MVPs Connect the Community
Thursday, April 25, 2013
As leaders in the technical community, Windows Phone Development MVPs often set the benchmark in the industry.
As Microsoft Windows Phones continue to grab attention around the world, the chances are you'll find a Windows Phone
MVP nearby. This is a highly active, close-knit community that seems to be everywhere at once. They're helping enhance how people use their phones and working with developers to help them make the most of the Windows Phone platform. The result is a richer, more enjoyable experience for Windows Phone devotees everywhere.
Last year alone, Windows Phone
MVPs shared their passion and technical expertise through their blogs and websites, reaching more than 2,600,000 people. In fact, Microsoft senior product marketing manager Desiree Lockwood (profiled in the Community Champs section of this site), estimates just 35 Windows Phone Development MVPs helped three million people last year.
Right now, Windows Phone
MVPs in Central and Eastern Europe and Italy rack up more than 20,000 blog visitors each month. Windows Phone
MVPs in China currently have more than 16,000 social media fans.
In addition to their far-reaching online presence, Windows Phone
MVPs are out in the community, speaking at conferences and delivering real-world answers, one-on-one. Last year they reached an estimated 23,700 conference attendees and hosted 24 training opportunities for an additional 19,000 attendees.
As leaders in the technical community, Windows Phone
MVPs often set the benchmark in the industry. This month, Windows Phone Development MVP
Rudy Huyn
won the
Windows Phone Next App Star contest
, beating out 9,000 other submissions with his
Wikipedia app
. And Windows Phone Development MVP
Atley Hunter
(featured in the MVP Spotlights section) is poised to reach the 200 app mark—on both Windows Phone and Windows 8!
Windows Phone Development MVP
Den Delimarsky
recently built a mobile app that takes advantage of a new feature released on Windows Phone 8 that allows third-party applications to change the device lockscreen image. It was a weekend project that turned into a
Coding4Fun project
when Microsoft Channel 9 technical evangelist Clint Rutkas teamed up with Den to highlight it.
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- Charity Spotlight: Tiger Touch
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- The Humane Society suggests some great humane backyard projects
- Explore the History of Wine with the Oregon Historical Society
- Food Trucks: Getting Grub on the Go
- Check out Some Unusual Classic Cars at the San Diego Automotive Museum
- Memorial Day: A Time to Remember and a Time to Help
- Charity Superheroes: They Make a Lot; They Give a Lot
- Charity Spotlight: Diakon Lutheran Social Ministries
- Get Happy: Give to Charity


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|For the best rates on T1, DS3 and OC3 Internet access from the very best Tier One carriers in Dept Navy Other Offices, Washington DC, look no further than QuoteMyT1.com. Our prices can't be beat; not even by going directly to the carrier. Use our easy to use online quote engine or call toll free 800-880-2001 and mention promo code 15398 to speak with one of our knowledgeable independent consultants. Our services are free and there is no obligation. Ask about VOIP telephone options that might be available for your business in Dept Navy Other Offices, Washington DC.
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As much as us hot rodders dig the sound of a lumpy-cam V-8 rifling though a set of open headers, after time it can become a bit much. Especially when the car belching out the eardrum-busting note is one you plan on driving on a regular basis, or for a long distance. The decibel battle between your 12-inch subs and your 3-inch header collectors will end up sounding like your favorite two metal bands rocking out at the same time…backwards—not good!
With that being said, it's also important to let it be known your ride means business. You certainly don't want your stroked mouse motor to sound like a wheezy rodent. Authority is the name of the game here. Besides, if your car looks aggressive, it needs to sound aggressive. It's just the way it is.
We called the folks at Flowmaster and told them what we were looking to achieve in the muffler department for our '71 Camaro Project car. The car will be driven hard, often, and on long distances, so we wanted to keep the exhaust resonance in the interior to a minimum, but we like the idea of announcing our arrival with an aggressive exterior note.
Another important issue is performance. Our '71 project car sports a pretty healthy small-block, but as conscious as we are about the sound; parasitic horsepower loss is also of concern. We didn't spend our precious dyno-time fine-tuning the engine just to give away valuable ponies through the tailpipe.
Flowmaster's American Thunder System #17149 for 1970-73 and Delta Flow 50 muffler was just the ticket for our second-gen project car. The Delta Flow 50 does a great job of eliminating interior resonance while still obtaining that Flowmaster sound outside the car. And the mig-welded 16-gauge aluminized steel promises durability even with everything we'll be throwing through it. Flowmaster is so confident, they include a a 10-year warranty for their stainless steel mufflers.
There are many benefits to using the American Thunder system including: reduced backpressure for improved acceleration, cooler underhood temperatures, and better fuel economy (we could all use that). The kit comes with all the necessary clamps, hangers and mounting hardware for ease of installation. Your muffler shop professional will love you for this alone, not to mention the detailed instructions that make for a quick installation.
We hauled the box of muffler pieces to Josh Gledhall over at Muffler Man in Placentia, CA for the install. He's an expert in the field and was able to take care of business in just a few hours. This guy's been bending and cutting pipe for quite a few years and even he commented on how simple the installation was. He was especially impressed with how tidy the mufflers tucked under the floors. And that's a good thing since this car will be sitting on the low. We prefer to keep our muffler scrapage to a minimum.
Follow along as The Muffler Man takes us through the install from beginning to end.


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This report provides the results for the Prepared Meals market in Germany from our unique, highly detailed study of consumers´ Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) consumption habits, and forms part of an overall series covering all CPG product markets.
Its coverage includes, but is not limited to, consumption behaviors, the extent to which consumer trends influence their consumption, the value of the market these trends influence, and brand and private label choices as well as retailer choices. Much of this information can also be analyzed by specific consumer groups, providing hard and fast data on consumers and markets at the product category level.
Introduction and Landscape
Marketers in the Prepared Meals market face a major challenge. Understanding market size and segmentation is valuable, but
Author:Mike Kinge-mailWeb: www.companiesandmarkets.comPhone: London: +44 (0) 203 086 8600


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Comprehensive Leadership for Senior-Level Executives
Advance your leadership skills to the next level
Senior executives know that while leadership is part art and part science, it is learned and developed over time.
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Fine-tune your leadership potential, including learning special tools to better align physicians, from seminar leader Tom A. Atchison, EdD, president and founder, Atchison Consulting LLC
Continuing Education Credit
In addition to the 12 ACHE Face-to-Face Education credits assigned to this seminar, ACHE is accredited by other organizations to provide continuing education credit. View complete information about these organizations.


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' A i « r * «• ' " «>m "* ^ a,V..!,',-»*a OtU<M N«wtp*p»r VllUpcpf FretpMl » rreeport Sctiool OUtricI .• Bakiwin School OUtrlct m FREEPORT MEMORIAL LIBFIARY -;^ . r . --^. . v.-»....,.;j.,. i» '.,- Sum ir.-. .,:»' v \ 1 . FREEFoar esaoHUL LteaAST "~ ~~ -i 1 kERRICK RD • • ' ;< • FRPT HV : 1 1 5 2 0 " T " 7^^ niEEPOBT. NEW YORK, AFBIl 1^1982 AUhXEAR. N o .^ h^. PMeE2S*PE»CbPY I I Freepoirf Munldparpovf. Ill Afthuof Resfni0uHfi<g. FKEEPORT - Anniul ippoinfments to manicipal posts And com-misskms wiQ be nude at the Village of Fteepott 't Organizatioii Meeting, scbedoled this ye*z tor ChSs icomiog Monday evesing,.i^nril 5..at_ . Village; HaO. The 8 pm meetingito which the pnblic is faivited,. alkws no public pattidpation. it also replaces the nsoal every Moaday night opcji legisla^-session of the ioani, whicfa will be held only if an ntgent matter arises^- The first Monday of the mboth public meeting will also be cancelled. The next public meeting win be-held Monday night. April 19, at 8 pm, following a-- 7:30 pm legislative sess&b. - Public participation — questions' and OMunents 6om resulents '-^ HOWO«60PPRT^^RC<WTW9UTjpNtloJlwlr.<»wwyn»tr.Or Ml) WK> Angle Cunin «:.. In Qlctur^ «t rtoftt) «r«* tiim fsaeiar'guMt* at ttt« Fraeport Chambk o( I Myor William H. Whha. - . . • )MtfllI•rY.^»"»^ie•pllnfl •" pl«qut/eioch from Auxiliary praaMant Wilnui Buchanan aa Stat* Aaaamblyman'Armand D'Ajnato wait* hia turn to praaant • apacial dutlon. (Othar pieturaa thia pao« •'Kf paga B; story thia paga.) -^S?l^^^'^^'M*Jr?*P'??V^~*^»f<**^- of the village's LegaLDepsitmeot from three part-time attorneys to* one full-time and one part-tioie attotiKy. Presently, the three part-time attorneys are Chief Attorney hfidiael Soksnoo and •D«^inty. Attorneys V. tbay Cacctatore and If^ Josq;ib ' Echrards.% has bera rnmonred thMgibrsrdswSIl>e^ipcintedto - Lowyert Conclude Argumenff in Mary Young's Heoring byJoanOatanay BAU>Wm • lawyer* for M b tbe Baldwin SdMd District and Maqr Yodsg, sccretanr to BaUiria SoperinteBdeot of Sdiocb, Cr. BoOaad Jooea, tsncladcd tbdr pretentaWM, eiamiftadoo and cmaa,eianuaa* tioQ of witness^ la • my4oo| sei^oa oa Thmsday. MattS^. TUa waa the aeceod day of Ibe beamg wUdi bad begun M Marth 17, tawience Seidi,. !egal counsel for the District, Intradoced suppleraeotal charges to the onj^nal accusatiocL, against Mrs. Young. The. odginal charge alleged that'Mr*. Ypong-bad breached coolideotiality by copy tng and mttlflg known iafwrna-—treated-aa tion contained bi a July 17, 1961 letter from one of the District's 'attoraeys, Eugene Ginsberg, .to. the Scboid Board. Thl* lafoma-nVtu reiencd to a uew state lausemaii,' Young's attorney, was (bat Mn. Youog did not breach coofidenlialliy. did not "copy" the tetter, and titat (be tetter did not contain ognfidentia] infonnatioa nor w u the letter ciQcifidcnHal jQLJfee, District. Nicolim Svroni In h Chainbef Fm FXEETOST • Claie to.400 people saw Firei^ott-bara Stepltes Ntcoiiiio sworn in ts prMdeat of the Freeport Chamber '«f Commerce Satnrdqr eveaing. March 27. Tbe aaaoal iastaUafioo - dfamer-daooe was held at SaMy Bay Yacht Oub.. NkoGno'a oiUh of oOoe was administered by vaiage Mayor WiDiaffl H. White and ^ ^ o ew president then accepted tbe gsrel mm oot-gohig pfesident Jo Coat, the Chamber's ilfsi femde top executive. Niodino, wbo with, bis btotfa« AI is a partner ta NicQfiao pubBci - At the yearly; Organhatioo' Meet|ng,.(be>[i9ar — widt (he . approval of tibe other feoi mem* beta of tiie Board of Trustees— appoints vatioos dCTWrtment beads, as weS as tbe diafapersons and members of tbe viOage. commissions, boards, counAtees and task force*. •' Amoog^ the-few changes exported this year is a consofida&ni i ? i ^ : •^v^ii- The recent'.'iaanbaiia^ - retire-raent of Sapextnteodent'Public yrori* Ed Ftefer.- wha win .be'• moving to Mortb -CawBnair hw also otaied a spot to be filled^ Ptefet's two posts. TnbUc Work* and Parks u d ' Becreatioo. are expected to be filled by David Ixnr^oy, who presendy is ^ ' Iiead'of ti>e viBage'a ie«»Uly. created Engineering Depattmeat." (Cont.onPaoa'4) I T ^ J . - ^ ',— At the beating'* first session on March 17, witnesses were sequestered so that they could not Cbastructioo graduate of H( veteran o( is a anda statute lequliiag. a ttcent appraisal fcr a sale ct-sdtool pTwerty. , - Tbe new charge* indiorted that there w u also a letter of July 13. 1961 6oca Ciadiefx-'to tbe DMrtet con-t a i ^ g substantia fte i^ame _inlDm*tio« and «ia»>lr»£YguBg_^^__^^ breaded - confideattality t^ YoungadflgfifedTToo^seeaedto makiag known tbe-cmdenU ef iodkate that Youag^adnotted to tiMt first time, 0ie tcstliiwny of Dr. Jones and Dr. Fb^rlSs Almenoif, Attittant Superintenj . dent for Personnei. both indicated that Mrs. Youngjiad sdndtted to "cojqriag" Oe . InlohBalion. nowevc*» tiiere were'diffetcJicea .- in what each said years with the' '{Cont.ORPad«20) SteamsPaifc Forms that letter to be* luubaBd. Wally.^ Young, wbo used tlie intormatioa in a petitioa.to tbe State COOP miSMoner of-Edacatioo- TUs petitioa was nplield by Com- .misuooer Cordoo Amhadi. and tbe reiereadsm anthotiring tlie .sale of CocSdge Scbool has been ' deciarediavaiid; *, . ^^mhaaHU&hie M Stanley A. copying tte letter. .' wbereas Ahnrnofr* testimooy sceaoed to indicate tbat Young adajMed that she )oited dow* soi6fe wotds£la Iier owa tfstiawny. Young said that sbe efiea>oMcd notes to iidp licr ' * H^ ^i?fT ccxtais issovma* tion. . At the sieceo4 beaxiag, s w e^ ^''- JCd».e«»Wfllf8)*'.' • , Cniiwi Patrol W FBEEFOBT • . Entbniis'ftn among tlie members of - tiie Steam Puk Civic Anodalioa is tumdng Ugh tor the fonaaiiaB of r Qyi&ui Patrol tor their area, fipirfned ttier: orgaajtrtintfa-piesident Fran SocAdn. CoQowing a recent meeting of the gtovp. At tbci meeting held .Wednesday cvetdng, Matdt 14, tbe members fa attendance-voted unaiteoDSly — s«7s SMIUUI—to form a OvWan VittU patterned after tbe ooe is meratiau dace October in the Bciipbboi^ nortit- ,w«st scetioBkafcthe/viOagei and as •• •V.>",(Cairrtlo«PK«2|l>'^.'.« •> ,- i. IT'S HIS GAVEL NOW. Fraaport Chambar of Commart* praskfani Sttplian Kloodno (r.) apcepta th« stval of fii* offk* from hi* immadUle pMt prasktoflt Jo Con*. NIcolina wa* Insiaiiad at tha Cftambar'a annual dlnnar-dane* h«kl Saturday night, March 27, at Salty Bay Yacht C<vb. Folkwlng tha admlnistertng of his otih of ff1)ce by ViUaga Mayor WlHlam H. WhHa, Nleollno mad* an aeeapianca^speech which outlined Fraeport'a past and present, assets «o<} draw ^ yertM^j)lctura of It* futiira. (Seataxtof speech, pagali.) ^
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|This is a Newspaper distributed locally within the Village of Freeport and Baldwin.
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|L & M Publications, Inc.
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|This is a Newspaper distributed locally within the Village of Freeport and Baldwin.
|Linda Toscano
|L & M Publications, Inc.
|Scanned by Imaging & Microfilm Access, Inc. (Bohemia, NY 11716)
|Freeport Memorial Library
|United States
|This digital image may be freely used for educational uses, as long as it is not altered in any way. No commercial reproduction or distribution of this image is permitted without written permission of the Freeport Memorial Library, 144 W. Merrick Road, Freeport, NY 11520 or email: firstname.lastname@example.com
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In the period leading up to the 500, the MacDonalds' lives had become almost as fast as the cars Dave drove. In the 17 months between the beginning of 1963 and the 1964 Indy race, he raced in 44 events.
The crash at Indy marked the first time the 500 had ever been stopped because of an accident. While race officials quickly concluded that there was no driver error, the race, its causes, and its repercussions are hotly debated to this day.
"After Indy, I was hurting so. I needed to change my life, so I moved a few miles away, but stayed close to my in-laws," says Sherry MacDonald. "From Indy on, I didn't follow racing. My interest in racing was basically one race driver."
It wouldn't be until the early 1990s, when Corvette fans started recovering and restoring old Corvette race cars, that MacDonald's all-too-short racing career began to get the attention it deserved.
"It's so gratifying to meet people who raced with Dave and hear how much they admired him, not only for his skill as a driver, but for being a really nice guy," Sherry adds. Today she is retired, but as busy as ever with volunteer projects and her large family.
Dave's Biggest Fan: Doug MacDonald
It's not easy growing up in the shadow of a big brother who happens to be a successful race-car driver. When Dave MacDonald started drag racing, Doug was still just an "in-the-way kid." And when he was finally old enough to go to the drags, the experience proved anti-climatic.
"I was too young to get into the pits, so I had to watch from the stands until it was Dave's turn to make a run," he says. "For a little kid, it was really boring. I just wanted to see my brother race."
From Doug's perspective, things were more interesting around the house when Dave was working on one of his cars, or when the guys came over to hang out and talk. "I just hung around on the edges, trying not to stay out of the way and understand what they were talking about."
One day, Dave asked Doug if he'd like to go to the road-race track. "We had to get up at 3 a.m. to load up the car and gear. It was a real adventure! My job was to watch the race car. It was a blast watching people gawk as we went down the road.
"Once, Dave passed a Corvette that was showing off. You should have seen the look on their faces when a Chevy station wagon towing a race car rocketed by them." [The MacDonalds' wagon had a supercharged 283 engine.]
When Doug was finally old enough to get into the pits, he discovered that it was difficult to see much of the racing from ground level. "A track official saw that I was bored and asked if I'd like to come up into the timing tower. It was the perfect place to watch, because I could see the entire course.
"The official said to me, 'I want you to watch your brother's car; he tends to crash in every corner. You tell me if he does, because that will help me watch the other cars.'
"Dave did spin out a lot, but never crashed. Later, I realized later that he was perfecting his drifting technique. Dave always felt that the spectators wanted to see exciting racing, and he loved giving them a good show. He really loved the NASCAR fans, because they went wild over his driving style. Our dad went to see Dave race when he could, but Mom didn't like it. She stayed home and worried."
MacDonald was a Corvette man first, but the offer from Carroll Shelby to drive Cobras was too good an opportunity to pass up. Team owner Jim Simpson remembers the day Shelby came to him and asked if he could hire Dave away.
"I knew it was best for Davey's career, so I let him go. I told Carroll that that kid was going to be the world's greatest racing driver, and you could put that in granite." (As we will see, that's exactly what happened many years later.)
When Dave started working for Shelby, Doug found that there were plenty of crewmen to take care of everything. "I was really in the way then. I met Mr. Shelby a few times, but he always seemed busy and was very gruff."
It was around this time that Dave began planning his future in motorsports. While working for Shelby, he was heavily involved in the design and construction of the King Cobra. That and experiencing the inside of a racing organization helped him envision a way forward, as Doug explains.
"Just before Indy, Dave told me that after the race, he wanted to start his own race-car company and build his own team cars, with me as his main driver." This was not an uncommon career path at the time. Shelby had been a champion driver, as had Roger Penske, Colin Chapman, and numerous others. Race cars were advancing at a feverish pace, and many drivers recognized that it wasn't wise to tempt fate for too long.
After the tragedy at Indy, Doug gathered all of the memorabilia he'd collected from his brother's racing career and burned it. "I wanted nothing to do with cars and didn't even drive for two-and-a-half years," he says. "Finally, my dad said, 'Let's go for a ride.' We drove out into Death Valley to a little place called Scotty's Castle. Dad pulled over and ordered me to drive. It was a very long walk back, so I reluctantly got behind the wheel. By the time we got out of the desert, it all came back to me, and I was feeling good about driving."
Dave had been friends with Bob Bondurant, who in 1968 opened the Bondurant High Performance Driving School. A few years later, Bondurant was surprised to see Doug registered at the school. "Why do you want to do this?" he asked. "Look what it cost your brother."


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By STEVEN NALLEY
Moderation has a bad reputation in politics today, and Aurelian Craiutu wants to change that.
To illustrate the extent to which politicians and political experts have decried moderation, Craiutu, a professor of political theory and the history of political thought at Indiana University, cited several quotations from political figures both old and current, from the left and right.
One came from conservative radio host Rush Limbaugh: "By definition, moderates can't be brave — they don't have opinions. Brave moderates? Great moderates in American history? Show me that book."
Craiutu came to Mississippi State University's McCool Hall atrium Wednesday as part of MSU's Institute for the Humanities Distinguished Lecture Series, giving a lecture entitled "In Praise of a Forgotten Virtue: Moderation in the 21st Century."
He also signed copies of his book, "A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748-1830." Craiutu's education began in Romania and France, culminating in a doctorate from Princeton University in 1999.
MSU assistant history professor William Hay said the Distinguished Lecture Series is intended to cross disciplinary boundaries and show both students and the community at large something they might not see elsewhere.
"(Craiutu) and I have met on a number of occasions at conferences, and when I saw his book out from Princeton University Press, I thought this would be very timely and interesting to our audience, so it would be a great contribution to the series that we run," Hay said. "It seemed like a good topic for a conversation after the election."
One of Craiutu's key points was that moderates may be open to compromise, and moderation may be fluid in the sense that a moderate position today might not be moderate in the future, but moderates do not necessarily lack political vision.
"(Moderation is) not being wishy-washy; it's not flip-flopping. (A moderate) may have strong convictions, but they must be tempered by a sense of responsibility," Craiutu said. "The moderate shuns the idea of government as being the chief agency in the pursuit of perfection. Above all, a moderate is aware that, in the words of Raymond Aron, 'Politics is never a conflict between good and evil, but always a choice between the preferable and the detestable.'"
Moderation should also not be confused with centrism, Craiutu said, because there are moderates in politics on both the left and right. He compared political moderation with trimming the sails of a boat, to a sailor using his own weight to counteract winds that would otherwise blow the boat off course.
Craiutu also said moderation is not necessarily the best choice for all people and all seasons.
"I am not sure whether moderation has any relevance when your house is being burned down, when the secret police is after you and the hangman is at your door," Craiutu said. "You don't respond to that with moderation."
Craiutu said this is his first time at MSU, and he was impressed with an audience at MSU that outsized the ones he sees at his own university. He said he enjoyed the question-and answer session at the end of the lecture.
"I would always welcome rebuttals and even challenges, so for me, this is really dialogue because I'm not sure that (moderation) is a virtue that can be rigorously analyzed," Craiutu said. "All I hope to do is to suggest to people that there is a history of discourse behind the concept, to enrich the debates rather than to condemn the moderates for something that they don't do or they don't have. (I'm) trying to suggest to people that this is a complex virtue."
Brian Shoup, an assistant professor of political science, said he attended graduate school at Indiana, so he has known Craiutu for the past 10 years and was glad to see him come to MSU.
"I think the biggest thing it's done is it's really provided a good avenue to showcase the strength of humanities at Mississippi State," Shoup said. "As a really well-respected political philosopher, Craiutu is very well-regarded as an analyst of French democratization and French political thought more broadly, and it's a really great opportunity for our students to see someone who's really at the cutting edge of contemporary political theory."


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Show off your kid in Pirates style with the Mesaflip Redux hat from New Era. This adjustable hat is reversible! It also features embroidered Pittsburgh graphics. Everyone will know which team you root for when they see your child rockin' this sweet Pirates cap.
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Roma Termini is Italy's largest station in size and traffic, and the second largest in Europe after the Gare de Paris Nord. It has been described as a "constantly expanding universe" because of the numerous evolutions through which, over the years, the building has come to be an exclusive location.


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Midwest Living Review
Located in a storefront across from Bankes Drug Store, the 1925 photography shop, darkroom and studio showcases three generations of Jeffcoat family photographers' work. Camera equipment and vintage promotional materials trace film photography's history before the days of digital. View the original darkroom and walk through the studio outfitted with the 1925 bellows Century No. 7 camera used by all the Jeffcoat family photographers. Temporary exhibits change three times a year. Portraits and event photographs are visual time capsules: Hometown hero President Eisenhower waves to crowds after disembarking from the Union Pacific train arriving in Abilene. Yearbook photos of fresh-faced teens with crew cuts and bobbed hairdos smile back from yellowed pages. Decades of Abilene family portraits show dad in a Nehru jacket, mom with Cat Woman glasses, brother with lamb-chop sideburns and sister donning hip-hugger bell bottoms. Admission is free. It's open Thursdays through Saturdays during the summer; during the rest of the year, it's open on Monday, Tuesday and by appointment.